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diff --git a/31950.txt b/31950.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d4f7145 --- /dev/null +++ b/31950.txt @@ -0,0 +1,16868 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 6, Slice 7, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 7 + "Columbus" to "Condottiere" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 11, 2010 [EBook #31950] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6 SL 7 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. When letters are subscripted, they are + preceded by an underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were originally printed in + superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x]. + +(5) [oo] stands for infinity; [int] for integral; [alpha], [beta], etc. + for greek letters. + +(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Article COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON: "In 1834 he was sworn a privy + councillor, and in 1852 he succeeded Wellington as constable of the + Tower and lord lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets." 'Wellington' + amended from 'Wellingtion'. + + Article COMMERCE: "But in the ancient records we see commerce + exposed to great risks, subject to constant pillage, hunted down in + peace and utterly extinguished in war." 'pillage' amended from + 'pilage'. + + Article COMPANY: "But they also contemplate the ultimate + controlling power as residing in the shareholders." 'contemplate' + amended from 'comtemplate'. + + Article COMPASS: "and if the magnetic variation and the disturbing + effects of the ship's iron are known, the desired angle between the + ship's course and the geographical meridian can be computed." + 'ship's' amended from 'ships's'. + + Article COMTE, AUGUSTE: "Comte began to fret under Saint-Simon's + pretensions to be his director. Saint-Simon, on the other hand, + perhaps began to feel uncomfortably conscious of the superiority + of his disciple." 'feel' from 'fell'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VI, SLICE VII + + Columbus to Condottiere + + + + +Articles in This Slice: + + + COLUMBUS (city of Georgia, U.S.A.) COMO (city of Italy) + COLUMBUS (city of Indiana, U.S.A.) COMO (lake of Italy) + COLUMBUS (city of Mississippi, U.S.A.) COMONFORT, IGNACIO + COLUMBUS (city of Ohio, U.S.A.) COMORIN, CAPE + COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS COMORO ISLANDS + COLUMN COMPANION + COLURE COMPANY + COLUTHUS COMPARATIVE ANATOMY + COLVILLE, JOHN COMPARETTI, DOMENICO + COLVIN, JOHN RUSSELL COMPASS + COLVIN, SIDNEY COMPASS PLANT + COLWYN BAY COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL + COLZA OIL COMPENSATION + COMA COMPIEGNE + COMA BERENICES COMPLEMENT + COMACCHIO COMPLUVIUM + COMANA (city of Cappadocia) COMPOSITAE + COMANA (city of Pontus) COMPOSITE ORDER + COMANCHES COMPOSITION + COMAYAGUA COMPOUND + COMB COMPOUND PIER + COMBACONUM COMPRADOR + COMBE, ANDREW COMPRESSION + COMBE, GEORGE COMPROMISE + COMBE, WILLIAM COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850 + COMBE (closed-in valley) COMPSA + COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON COMPTON, HENRY + COMBES, EMILE COMPTROLLER + COMBINATION COMPURGATION + COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS COMTE, AUGUSTE + COMBUSTION COMUS + COMEDY COMYN, JOHN + COMENIUS, JOHANN AMOS CONACRE + COMET CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON + COMET-SEEKER CONATION + COMILLA CONCA, SEBASTIANO + COMINES CONCARNEAU + COMITIA CONCEPCION (province of Chile) + COMITY CONCEPCION (city of Chile) + COMMA CONCEPCION (town of Paraguay) + COMMANDEER CONCEPT + COMMANDER CONCEPTUALISM + COMMANDERY CONCERT + COMMANDO CONCERTINA + COMMEMORATION CONCERTO + COMMENDATION CONCH + COMMENTARII CONCHOID + COMMENTRY CONCIERGE + COMMERCE (trade) CONCINI, CONCINO + COMMERCE (card-game) CONCLAVE + COMMERCIAL COURT CONCORD (Massachusetts, U.S.A) + COMMERCIAL LAW CONCORD (North Carolina, U.S.A.) + COMMERCIAL TREATIES CONCORD (New Hampshire, U.S.A.) + COMMERCY CONCORD, BOOK OF + COMMERS CONCORDANCE + COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE CONCORDAT + COMMISSARIAT CONCORDIA (Roman goddess) + COMMISSARY CONCORDIA (town of Venetia) + COMMISSION CONCRETE (solidity) + COMMISSIONAIRE CONCRETE (building material) + COMMISSIONER CONCRETION + COMMITMENT CONCUBINAGE + COMMITTEE CONDE, PRINCES OF + COMMODIANUS CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON + COMMODORE CONDE, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON + COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS CONDE (villages of France) + COMMON LAW CONDE, JOSE ANTONIO + COMMON LODGING-HOUSE CONDENSATION OF GASES + COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF CONDENSER + COMMONPLACE CONDER, CHARLES + COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE + COMMONS CONDITION + COMMONWEALTH CONDITIONAL FEE + COMMUNE CONDITIONAL LIMITATION + COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL CONDOM + COMMUNISM CONDOR + COMMUTATION CONDORCET, CARITAT + COMNENUS CONDOTTIERE + + + + +COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Muscogee county, Georgia, +U.S.A., on the E. bank and at the head of navigation of the +Chattahoochee river, about 100 m. S.S.W. of Atlanta. Pop. (1890) 17,303; +(1900) 17,614, of whom 7267 were negroes; (1910, census) 20,554. There +is also a considerable suburban population. Columbus is served by the +Southern, the Central of Georgia, and the Seaboard Air Line railways, +and three steamboat lines afford communication with Apalachicola, +Florida. The city has a public library. A fall in the river of 115 ft. +within a mile of the city furnishes a valuable water-power, which has +been utilized for public and private enterprises. The most important +industry is the manufacture of cotton goods; there are also cotton +compresses, iron works, flour and woollen mills, wood-working +establishments, &c. The value of the city's factory products increased +from $5,061,485 in 1900 to $7,079,702 in 1905, or 39.9%; of the total +value in 1905, $2,759,081, or 39%, was the value of the cotton goods +manufactured. There are many large factories just outside the city +limits. Columbus was one of the first cities in the United States to +maintain, at public expense, a system of trade schools. It has a large +wholesale and retail trade. The city was founded in 1827 and was +incorporated in 1828. In the latter year Mirabeau Buonaparte Lamar +(1798-1859) established here the Columbus _Independent_, a +State's-Rights newspaper. For the first twenty years the city's leading +industry was trade in cotton. As this trade was diverted by the railways +to Savannah, the water-power was developed and manufactories were +established. During the Civil War the city ranked next to Richmond in +the manufacture of supplies for the Confederate army. On the 16th of +April 1865 it was captured by a Union force under General James Harrison +Wilson (b. 1837); 1200 Confederates were taken prisoners; large +quantities of arms and stores were seized, and the principal +manufactories and much other property were destroyed. + + + + +COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Bartholomew county, Indiana, +U.S.A., situated on the E. fork of White river, a little S. of the +centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 6719; (1900) 8130, of whom 313 were +foreign-born and 224 were of negro descent (1910 census) 8813. In 1900 +the centre of population of the United States was 5 m. S.E. of Columbus. +The city is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and +the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis railways, and is connected +with Indianapolis and with Louisville, Ky., by an electric interurban +line. Columbus is situated in a fine farming region, and has extensive +tanneries, threshing-machine and traction and automobile engine works, +structural iron works, tool and machine shops, canneries and furniture +factories. In 1905 the value of the city's factory product was +$2,983,160, being 28.4% more than in 1900. The water-supply system and +electric-lighting plant are owned and operated by the city. + + + + +COLUMBUS, a city and the county-seat of Lowndes county, Mississippi, +U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Tombigbee river, at the head of steam +navigation, 150. m. S.E. of Memphis, Tennessee. Pop. (1890) 4559; (1900) +6484 (3366 negroes); (1910) 8988. It is served by the Mobile & Ohio and +the Southern railways, and by passenger and freight steamboat lines. It +has cotton and knitting mills, cotton-seed oil factories, machine shops, +and wagon, stove, plough and fertilizer factories; and is a market and +jobbing centre for a fertile agricultural region. It has a public +library, and is the seat of the Mississippi Industrial Institute and +College (1885) for women, the first state college for women--the +successor of the Columbus Female Institute (1848)--of Franklin Academy +(1821), and of the Union Academy (1873) for negroes. The site was first +settled about 1818; the city was incorporated in 1821, and in 1830 it +became the county-seat of the newly formed Lowndes county. During the +Civil War the legislature met here in 1863 and 1865, and in the former +year Governor Charles Clark (1810-1877) was inaugurated here. + + + + +COLUMBUS, a city, a port of entry, the capital of Ohio, U.S.A., and the +county-seat of Franklin county, at the confluence of the Scioto and +Olentangy rivers, near the geographical centre of the state, 120 m. N.E. +of Cincinnati, and 138 m. S.S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 88,150; +(1900) 125,560, of whom 12,328 were foreign-born and 8201 were negroes; +(1910) 181,511. Columbus is an important railway centre and is served by +the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis, the Pittsburg, +Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis (Pennsylvania system), the Baltimore & +Ohio, the Ohio Central, the Norfolk & Western, the Hocking Valley, and +the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus (Pennsylvania system) railways, and by +nine interurban electric lines. It occupies a land area of about 17 sq. +m., the principal portion being along the east side of the Scioto in the +midst of an extensive plain. High Street, the principal business +thoroughfare, is 100 ft. wide, and Broad Street, on which are many of +the finest residences, is 120 ft. wide, has four rows of trees, a +roadway for heavy vehicles in the middle, and a driveway for carriages +on either side. + +The principal building is the state capitol (completed in 1857) in a +square of ten acres at the intersection of High and Broad streets. It is +built in the simple Doric style, of grey limestone taken from a quarry +owned by the state, near the city; is 304 ft. long and 184 ft. wide, and +has a rotunda 158 ft. high, on the walls of which are the original +painting, by William Henry Powell (1823-1879), of O. H. Perry's victory +on Lake Erie, and portraits of most of the governors of Ohio. Other +prominent structures are the U.S. government and the judiciary +buildings, the latter connected with the capitol by a stone terrace, the +city hall, the county court house, the union station, the board of +trade, the soldiers' memorial hall (with a seating capacity of about +4500), and several office buildings. The city is a favourite +meeting-place for conventions. Among the state institutions in Columbus +are the university (see below), the penitentiary, a state hospital for +the insane, the state school for the blind, and the state institutions +for the education of the deaf and dumb and for feeble-minded youth. In +the capitol grounds are monuments to the memory of Ulysses S. Grant, +Rutherford B. Hayes, James A. Garfield, William T. Sherman, Philip H. +Sheridan, Salmon P. Chase, and Edwin M. Stanton, and a beautiful +memorial arch (with sculpture by H. A. M'Neil) to William McKinley. + +The city has several parks, including the Franklin of 90 acres, the +Goodale of 44 acres, and the Schiller of 24 acres, besides the +Olentangy, a well-equipped amusement resort on the banks of the river +from which it is named, the Indianola, another amusement resort, and the +United States military post and recruiting station, which occupies 80 +acres laid out like a park. The state fair grounds of 115 acres adjoin +the city, and there is also a beautiful cemetery of 220 acres. + +The Ohio State University (non-sectarian and co-educational), opened as +the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College in 1873, and reorganized +under its present name in 1878, is 3 m. north of the capitol. It +includes colleges of arts, philosophy and science, of education (for +teachers), of engineering, of law, of pharmacy, of agriculture and +domestic science, and of veterinary medicine. It occupies a campus of +110 acres, has an adjoining farm of 325 acres, and 18 buildings devoted +to instruction, 2 dormitories, and a library containing (1906) 67,709 +volumes, besides excellent museums of geology, zoology, botany and +archaeology and history, the last being owned jointly by the university +and by the state archaeological and historical society. In 1908 the +faculty numbered 175, and the students 2277. The institution owed its +origin to federal land grants; it is maintained by the state, the United +States, and by small fees paid by the students; tuition is free in all +colleges except the college of law. The government of the university is +vested in a board of trustees appointed by the governor of the state for +a term of seven years. The first president of the institution (from 1873 +to 1881) was the distinguished geologist, Edward Orton (1829-1899), who +was professor of geology from 1873 to 1899. + +Other institutions of learning are the Capital University and +Evangelical Lutheran Theological Seminary (Theological Seminary opened +in 1830; college opened as an academy in 1850), with buildings just east +of the city limits; Starling Ohio Medical College, a law school, a +dental school and an art institute. Besides the university library, +there is the Ohio state library occupying a room in the capitol and +containing in 1908 126,000 volumes, including a "travelling library" of +about 36,000 volumes, from which various organizations in different +parts of the state may borrow books; the law library of the supreme +court of Ohio, containing complete sets of English, Scottish, Irish, +Canadian, United States and state reports, statutes and digests; the +public school library of about 68,000 volumes, and the public library +(of about 55,000), which is housed in a marble and granite building +completed in 1906. + +Columbus is near the Ohio coal and iron-fields, and has an extensive +trade in coal, but its largest industrial interests are in manufactures, +among which the more important are foundry and machine-shop products +(1905 value, $6,259,579); boots and shoes (1905 value, $5,425,087, being +more than one-sixtieth of the total product value of the boot and shoe +industry in the United States, and being an increase from $359,000 in +1890); patent medicines and compounds (1905 value, $3,214,096); +carriages and wagons (1905 value, $2,197,960); malt liquors (1905 value, +$2,133,955); iron and steel; regalia and society emblems; steam-railway +cars, construction and repairing; and oleo-margarine. In 1905 the city's +factory products were valued at $40,435,531, an increase of 16.4% in +five years. Immediately outside the city limits in 1905 were various +large and important manufactories, including railway shops, foundries, +slaughter-houses, ice factories and brick-yards. In Columbus there is a +large market for imported horses. Several large quarries also are +adjacent to the city. + +The waterworks are owned by the municipality. In 1904-1905 the city +built on the Scioto river a concrete storage dam, having a capacity of +5,000,000,000 gallons, and in 1908 it completed the construction of +enormous works for filtering and softening the water-supply, and of +works for purifying the flow of sewage--the two costing nearly +$5,000,000. The filtering works include 6 lime saturators, 2 mixing or +softening tanks, 6 settling basins, 10 mechanical filters and 2 +clear-water reservoirs. A large municipal electric-lighting plant was +completed in 1908. + +The first permanent settlement within the present limits of the city was +established in 1797 on the west bank of the Scioto, was named +Franklinton, and in 1803 was made the county-seat. In 1810 four citizens +of Franklinton formed an association to secure the location of the +capital on the higher ground of the east bank; in 1812 they were +successful and the place was laid out while still a forest. Four years +later, when the legislature held its first session here, the settlement +was incorporated as the Borough of Columbus. In 1824 the county-seat was +removed here from Franklinton; in 1831 the Columbus branch of the Ohio +Canal was completed; in 1834 the borough was made a city; by the close +of the same decade the National Road extending from Wheeling to +Indianapolis and passing through Columbus was completed; in 1871 most of +Franklinton, which was never incorporated, was annexed, and several +other annexations followed. + + See J. H. Studer, _Columbus, Ohio; its History and Resources_ + (Columbus, 1873); A. E. Lee, _History of the City of Columbus, Ohio_ + (New York, 1892). + + + + +COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATUS, of Gades, writer on agriculture, +contemporary of Seneca the philosopher, flourished about the middle of +the 1st century A.D. His extant works treat, with great fulness and in a +diffuse but not inelegant style which well represents the silver age, of +the cultivation of all kinds of corn and garden vegetables, trees, +flowers, the vine, the olive and other fruits, and of the rearing of +cattle, birds, fishes and bees. They consist of the twelve books of the +_De re rustica_ (the tenth, which treats of gardening, being in dactylic +hexameters in imitation of Virgil), and of a book _De arboribus_, the +second book of an earlier and less elaborate work on the same subject. + + The best complete edition is by J. G. Schneider (1794). Of a new + edition by K. J. Lundstrom, the tenth book appeared in 1902 and _De + arboribus_ in 1897. There are English translations by R. Bradley + (1725), and anonymous (1745); and treatises, _De Columellae vita et + scriptis_, by V. Barberet (1887), and G. R. Becher (1897), a compact + dissertation with notes and references to authorities. + + + + +COLUMN (Lat. _columna_), in architecture, a vertical support consisting +of capital, shaft and base, used to carry a horizontal beam or an arch. +The earliest example in wood (2684 B.C.) was that found at Kahun in +Egypt by Professor Flinders Petrie, which was fluted and stood on a +raised base, and in stone the octagonal shafts of the early temple at +Deir-el-Bahri (c. 2850). In the tombs at Beni Hasan (2723 B.C.) are +columns of two kinds, the octagonal or polygonal shaft, and the reed or +lotus column, the horizontal section of which is a quatrefoil. This +became later the favourite type, but it was made circular on plan. In +all these examples the column rests on a stone base. (See also CAPITAL +and ORDER.) + +The column was employed in Assyria in small structures only, such as +pavilions or porticoes. In Persia the column, employed to carry timber +superstructures only, was very lofty, being sometimes 12 diameters high; +the shaft was fluted, the number of flutes varying from 30 to 52. + +The earliest example of the Greek column is that represented in the +temple fresco at Cnossus (c. 1600 B.C.), of which portions have been +found. The columns were in cypress wood raised on a stone base and +tapered downwards.[1] The same, though to a less degree, is found in the +stone semi-detached columns which flank the doorway of the Tomb of +Agamemnon at Mycenae; the shafts of these columns were carved with the +chevron design. + +The earliest Greek columns in stone as isolated features are those of +the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse (early 7th century B.C.) the shafts of +which were monoliths, but as a rule the Greek columns were all built of +drums, sometimes as many as ten or twelve. There was no base to the +Doric column, but the shafts were fluted, 20 flutes being the usual +number. In the Archaic Temple of Diana at Ephesus there were 52 flutes. +In the later examples of the Ionic order the shaft had 24 flutes. In the +Roman temples the shafts were very often monoliths. + +Columns were occasionally used as supports for figures or other +features. The Naxian column at Delphi of the Ionic order carried a +sphinx. The Romans employed columns in various ways: the Trajan and the +Antonine columns carried figures of the two emperors; the columna +rostrata (260 B.C.) in the Forum was decorated with the beaks of ships +and was a votive column, the miliaria column marked the centre of Rome +from which all distances were measured. In the same way the column in +the Place Vendome in Paris carries a statue of Napoleon I.; the monument +of the Fire of London, a finial with flames sculptured on it; the duke +of York's column (London), a statue of the duke of York. + +With the exception of the Cretan and Mycenaean, all the shafts of the +classic orders tapered from the bottom upwards, and about one-third up +the column had an increment, known as the _entasis_, to correct an +optical illusion which makes tapering shafts look concave; the +proportions of diameter to height varied with the order employed. Thus, +broadly speaking, a Roman Doric column will be eight, a Roman Ionic +nine, a Corinthian ten diameters in height. Except in rare cases, the +columns of the Romanesque and Gothic styles were of equal diameter at +top and bottom, and had no definite dimensions as regards diameter and +height. They were also grouped together round piers which are known as +clustered piers. When of exceptional size, as in Gloucester and Durham +cathedrals, Waltham Abbey and Tewkesbury, they are generally called +"pillars," which was apparently the medieval term for column. The word +_columna_, employed by Vitruvius, was introduced into England by the +Italian writers of the Revival. + +In the Renaissance period columns were frequently banded, the bands +being concentric with the column as in France, and occasionally richly +carved as in Philibert De L'Orme's work at the Tuileries. In England +Inigo Jones introduced similar features, but with square blocks +sometimes rusticated, a custom lately revived in England, but of which +there are few examples either in Italy or Spain. + +The word "column" is used, by analogy with architecture, for any upright +body or mass, in chemistry, anatomy, typography, &c. (R. P. S.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The tree-trunk used as a column was inverted to retain the sap; + hence the shape. + + + + +COLURE (from Gr. [Greek: kolos], shortened, and [Greek: oura], tail), in +astronomy, either of the two principal meridians of the celestial +sphere, one of which passes through the poles and the two solstices, the +other through the poles and the two equinoxes; hence designated as +_solstitial colure_ and _equinoxial colure_, respectively. + + + + +COLUTHUS, or COLLUTHUS, of Lycopolis in the Egyptian Thebaid, Greek epic +poet, flourished during the reign of Anastasius I. (491-518). According +to Suidas, he was the author of _Calydoniaca_ (probably an account of +the Calydonian boar hunt), _Persica_ (an account of the Persian wars), +and _Encomia_ (laudatory poems). These are all lost, but his poem in +some 400 hexameters on _The Rape of Helen_ ([Greek: Harpage Helenes]) is +still extant, having been discovered by Cardinal Bessarion in Calabria. +The poem is dull and tasteless, devoid of imagination, a poor imitation +of Homer, and has little to recommend it except its harmonious +versification, based upon the technical rules of Nonnus. It related the +history of Paris and Helen from the wedding of Peleus and Thetis down to +the elopement and arrival at Troy. + + The best editions are by Van Lennep (1747), G. F. Schafer (1825), E. + Abel (1880). + + + + +COLVILLE, JOHN (c. 1540-1605), Scottish divine and author, was the son +of Robert Colville of Cleish, in the county of Kinross. Educated at St +Andrews University, he became a Presbyterian minister, but occupied +himself chiefly with political intrigue, sending secret information to +the English government concerning Scottish affairs. He joined the party +of the earl of Gowrie, and took part in the Raid of Ruthven in 1582. In +1587 he for a short time occupied a seat on the judicial bench, and was +commissioner for Stirling in the Scottish parliament. In December 1591 +he was implicated in the earl of Bothwell's attack on Holyrood Palace, +and was outlawed with the earl. He retired abroad, and is said to have +joined the Roman Church. He died in Paris in 1605. Colville was the +author of several works, including an _Oratio Funebris_ on Queen +Elizabeth, and some political and religious controversial essays. He is +said to be the author also of _The Historie and Life of King James the +Sext_ (edited by T. Thompson for the Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh, 1825). + + Colville's _Original Letters_, 1582-1603, published by the Bannatyne + Club in 1858, contains a biographical memoir by the editor, David + Laing. + + + + +COLVIN, JOHN RUSSELL (1807-1857), lieutenant-governor of the North-West +Provinces of India during the mutiny of 1857, belonged to an +Anglo-Indian family of Scottish descent, and was born in Calcutta on the +29th of May 1807. Passing through Haileybury he entered the service of +the East India Company in 1826. In 1836 he became private secretary to +Lord Auckland, and his influence over the viceroy has been held partly +responsible for the first Afghan war of 1837; but it has since been +shown that Lord Auckland's policy was dictated by the secret committee +of the company at home. In 1853 Mr Colvin was appointed +lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces by Lord Dalhousie. On +the outbreak of the mutiny in 1857 he had with him at Agra only a weak +British regiment and a native battery, too small a force to make head +against the mutineers; and a proclamation which he issued to the natives +was censured at the time for its clemency, but it followed the same +lines as those adopted by Sir Henry Lawrence and subsequently followed +by Lord Canning. Exhausted by anxiety and misrepresentation he died on +the 9th of September, his death shortly preceding the fall of Delhi. + +His son, SIR AUCKLAND COLVIN (1838-1908), followed him in a +distinguished career in the same service, from 1858 to 1879. He was +comptroller-general in Egypt (1880 to 1882), and financial adviser to +the khedive (1883 to 1887), and from 1883 till 1892 was back again in +India, first as financial member of council, and then, from 1887, as +lieutenant-governor of the North-West Provinces and Oudh. He was created +K.C.M.G. in 1881, and K.C.S.I. in 1892, when he retired. He published +_The Making of Modern Egypt_ in 1906, and a biography of his father, in +the "Rulers of India" series, in 1895. He died at Surbiton on the 24th +of March 1908. + + + + +COLVIN, SIDNEY (1845- ), English literary and art critic, was born at +Norwood, London, on the 18th of June 1845. A scholar of Trinity College, +Cambridge, he became a fellow of his college in 1868. In 1873 he was +Slade professor of fine art, and was appointed in the next year to the +directorship of the Fitzwilliam Museum. In 1884 he removed to London on +his appointment as keeper of prints and drawings in the British Museum. +His chief publications are lives of Landor (1881) and Keats (1887), in +the English Men of Letters series; the Edinburgh edition of R. L. +Stevenson's works (1894-1897); editions of the letters of Keats (1887), +and of the _Vailima Letters_ (1899), which R. L. Stevenson chiefly +addressed to him; _A Florentine Picture-Chronicle_ (1898), and _Early +History of Engraving in England_ (1905). But in the field both of art +and of literature, Mr Colvin's fine taste, wide knowledge and high +ideals made his authority and influence extend far beyond his published +work. + + + + +COLWYN BAY, a watering-place of Denbighshire, N. Wales, on the Irish +Sea, 40-1/2 m. from Chester by the London & North-Western railway. Pop. of +urban district of Colwyn Bay and Colwyn (1901) 8689. Colwyn Bay has +become a favourite bathing-place, being near to, and cheaper than, the +fashionable Llandudno, and being a centre for picturesque excursions. +Near it is Llaneilian village, famous for its "cursing well" (St +Eilian's, perhaps Aelianus'). The stream Colwyn joins the Gwynnant. The +name Colwyn is that of lords of Ardudwy; a Lord Colwyn of Ardudwy, in +the 10th century, is believed to have repaired Harlech castle, and is +considered the founder of one of the fifteen tribes of North Wales. Nant +Colwyn is on the road from Carnarvon to Beddgelert, beyond Llyn y gader +(gadair), "chair pool," and what tourists have fancifully called Pitt's +head, a roadside rock resembling, or thought to resemble, the great +statesman's profile. Near this is Llyn y dywarchen (sod pool), with a +floating island. + + + + +COLZA OIL, a non-drying oil obtained from the seeds of _Brassica +campestris_, var. _oleifera_, a variety of the plant which produces +Swedish turnips. Colza is extensively cultivated in France, Belgium, +Holland and Germany; and, especially in the first-named country, the +expression of the oil is an important industry. In commerce colza is +classed with rape oil, to which both in source and properties it is very +closely allied. It is a comparatively inodorous oil of a yellow colour, +having a specific gravity varying from 0.912 to 0.920. The cake left +after expression of the oil is a valuable feeding substance for cattle. +Colza oil is extensively used as a lubricant for machinery, and for +burning in lamps. + + + + +COMA (Gr. [Greek: koma], from [Greek: koiman], to put to sleep), a deep +sleep; the term is, however, used in medicine to imply something more +than its Greek origin denotes, namely, a complete and prolonged loss of +consciousness from which a patient cannot be roused. There are various +degrees of coma: in the slighter forms the patient can be partially +roused only to relapse again into a state of insensibility; in the +deeper states, the patient cannot be roused at all, and such are met +with in apoplexy, already described. Coma may arise abruptly in a +patient who has presented no pre-existent indication of such a state +occurring. Such a condition is called _primary coma_, and may result +from the following causes:--(1) concussion, compression or laceration of +the brain from head injuries, especially fracture of the skull; (2) from +alcoholic and narcotic poisoning; (3) from cerebral haemorrhage, +embolism and thrombosis, such being the causes of apoplexy. _Secondary +coma_ may arise as a complication in the following diseases:--diabetes, +uraemia, general paralysis, meningitis, cerebral tumour and acute yellow +atrophy of the liver; in such diseases it is anticipated, for it is a +frequent cause of the fatal termination. The depth of insensibility to +stimulus is a measure of the gravity of the symptom; thus the +conjunctival reflex and even the spinal reflexes may be abolished, the +only sign of life being the respiration and heart-beat, the muscles of +the limbs being sometimes perfectly flaccid. A characteristic change in +the respiration, known as Cheyne-Stokes breathing occurs prior to death +in some cases; it indicates that the respiratory centre in the medulla +is becoming exhausted, and is stimulated to action only when the +venosity of the blood has increased sufficiently to excite it. The +breathing consequently loses its natural rhythm, and each successive +breath becomes deeper until a maximum is reached; it then diminishes in +depth by successive steps until it dies away completely. The condition +of apnoea, or cessation of breathing, follows, and as soon as the +venosity of the blood again affords sufficient stimulus, the signs of +air-hunger commence; this altered rhythm continues until the respiratory +centre becomes exhausted and death ensues. + +_Coma Vigil_ is a state of unconsciousness met with in the algide stage +of cholera and some other exhausting diseases. The patient's eyes remain +open, and he may be in a state of low muttering delirium; he is entirely +insensible to his surroundings, and neither knows nor can indicate his +wants. + +There is a distinct word "coma" (Gr. [Greek: kome], hair), which is used +in astronomy for the envelope of a comet, and in botany for a tuft. + + + + +COMA BERENICES ("BERENICE'S HAIR"), in astronomy, a constellation of the +northern hemisphere; it was first mentioned by Callimachus, and +Eratosthenes (3rd century B.C.), but is not included in the 48 asterisms +of Ptolemy. It is said to have been named by Conon, in order to console +Berenice, queen of Ptolemy Euergetes, for the loss of a lock of her +hair, which had been stolen from a temple to Venus. This constellation +is sometimes, but wrongly, attributed to Tycho Brahe. The most +interesting member of this group is _24 Comae_, a fine, wide double +star, consisting of an orange star of magnitude 5-1/2, and a blue star, +magnitude 7. + + + + +COMACCHIO, a town of Emilia, Italy, in the province of Ferrara, 30 m. +E.S.E. by road from the town of Ferrara, on the level of the sea, in the +centre of the lagoon of Valli di Comacchio, just N. of the present mouth +of the Reno. Pop. (1901) 7944 (town), 10,745 (commune). It is built on +no less than thirteen different islets, joined by bridges, and its +industries are the fishery, which belongs to the commune, and the +salt-works. The seaport of Magnavacca lies 4 m. to the east. Comacchio +appears as a city in the 6th century, and, owing to its position in the +centre of the lagoons, was an important fortress. It was included in the +"donation of Pippin"; it was taken by the Venetians in 854, but +afterwards came under the government of the archbishops of Ravenna; in +1299 it came under the dominion of the house of Este. In 1508 it became +Venetian, but in 1597 was claimed by Clement VIII. as a vacant fief. + + + + +COMANA, a city of Cappadocia [frequently called CHRYSE or AUREA, i.e. +the golden, to distinguish it from Comana in Pontus; mod. _Shahr_], +celebrated in ancient times as the place where the rites of M[=a]-Enyo, +a variety of the great west Asian Nature-goddess, were celebrated with +much solemnity. The service was carried on in a sumptuous temple with +great magnificence by many thousands of _hieroduli_ (temple-servants). +To defray expenses, large estates had been set apart, which yielded a +more than royal revenue. The city, a mere apanage of the temple, was +governed immediately by the chief priest, who was always a member of the +reigning Cappadocian family, and took rank next to the king. The number +of persons engaged in the service of the temple, even in Strabo's time, +was upwards of 6000, and among these, to judge by the names common on +local tombstones, were many of Persian race. Under Caracalla, Comana +became a Roman colony, and it received honours from later emperors down +to the official recognition of Christianity. The site lies at Shahr, a +village in the Anti-Taurus on the upper course of the Sarus (Sihun), +mainly Armenian, but surrounded by new settlements of Avshar Turkomans +and Circassians. The place has derived importance both in antiquity and +now from its position at the eastern end of the main pass of the western +Anti-Taurus range, the Kuru Chai, through which passed the road from +Caesarea-Mazaca (mod. _Kaisarieh_) to Melitene (Malatia), converted by +Septimius Severus into the chief military road to the eastern frontier +of the empire. The extant remains at Shahr include a theatre on the left +bank of the river, a fine Roman doorway and many inscriptions; but the +exact site of the great temple has not been satisfactorily identified. +There are many traces of Severus' road, including a bridge at Kemer, and +an immense number of milestones, some in their original positions, +others in cemeteries. + + See P. H. H. Massy in _Geog. Journ._ (Sept. 1905); E. Chantre, + _Mission en Cappadocie_ (1898). (D. G. H.) + + + + +COMANA (mod. _Gumenek_), an ancient city of Pontus, said to have been +colonized from Comana in Cappadocia. It stood on the river Iris (Tozanli +Su or Yeshil Irmak), and from its central position was a favourite +emporium of Armenian and other merchants. The moon-goddess was +worshipped in the city with a pomp and ceremony in all respects +analogous to those employed in the Cappadocian city. The slaves attached +to the temple alone numbered not less than 6000. St John Chrysostom died +there on the way to Constantinople from his exile at Cocysus in the +Anti-Taurus. Remains of Comana are still to be seen near a village +called Gumenek on the Tozanli Su, 7 m. from Tokat, but they are of the +slightest description. There is a mound; and a few inscriptions are +built into a bridge, which here spans the river, carrying the road from +Niksar to Tokat. (D. G. H.) + + + + +COMANCHES, a tribe of North American Indians of Shoshonean stock, so +called by the Spaniards, but known to the French as Padoucas, an +adaptation of their Sioux name, and among themselves _nimenim_ (people). +They number some 1400, attached to the Kiowa agency, Oklahoma. When +first met by Europeans, they occupied the regions between the upper +waters of the Brazos and Colorado on the one hand, and the Arkansas and +Missouri on the other. Until their final surrender in 1875 the Comanches +were the terror of the Mexican and Texan frontiers, and were always +famed for their bravery. They were brought to nominal submission in 1783 +by the Spanish general Anza, who killed thirty of their chiefs. During +the 19th century they were always raiding and fighting, but in 1867, to +the number of 2500, they agreed to go on a reservation. In 1872 a +portion of the tribe, the Quanhada or Staked Plain Comanches, had again +to be reduced by military measures. + + + + +COMAYAGUA, the capital of the department of Comayagua in central +Honduras, on the right bank of the river Ulua, and on the interoceanic +railway from Puerto Cortes to Fonseca Bay. Pop. (1900) about 8000. +Comayagua occupies part of a fertile valley, enclosed by mountain +ranges. Under Spanish rule it was a city of considerable size and +beauty, and in 1827 its inhabitants numbered more than 18,000. A fine +cathedral, dating from 1715, is the chief monument of its former +prosperity, for most of the handsome public buildings erected in the +colonial period have fallen into disrepair. The present city chiefly +consists of low adobe houses and cane huts, tenanted by Indians. The +university founded in 1678 has ceased to exist, but there is a school of +jurisprudence. In the neighbourhood are many ancient Indian ruins (see +CENTRAL AMERICA: _ARCHAEOLOGY_). + +Founded in 1540 by Alonzo Caceres, who had been instructed by the +Spanish government to find a site for a city midway between the two +oceans, Valladolid la Nueva, as the town was first named, soon became +the capital of Honduras. It received the privileges of a city in 1557, +and was made an episcopal see in 1561. Its decline dates from 1827, when +it was burned by revolutionaries; and in 1854 its population had +dwindled to 2000. It afterwards suffered through war and rebellion, +notably in 1872 and 1873, when it was besieged by the Guatemalans. In +1880 Tegucigalpa (q.v.), a city 37 m. east-south-east, superseded it as +the capital of Honduras. + + + + +COMB (a word common in various forms to Teut. languages, cf. Ger. +_Kamm_, the Indo-Europ. origin of which is seen in [Greek: gomphos], a +peg or pin, and Sanskrit, _gambhas_, a tooth), a toothed article of the +toilet used for cleaning and arranging the hair, and also for holding it +in place after it has been arranged; the word is also applied, from +resemblance in form or in use, to various appliances employed for +dressing wool and other fibrous substances, to the indented fleshy crest +of a cock, and to the ridged series of cells of wax filled with honey in +a beehive. Hair combs are of great antiquity, and specimens made of +wood, bone and horn have been found in Swiss lake-dwellings. Among the +Greeks and Romans they were made of boxwood, and in Egypt also of ivory. +For modern combs the same materials are used, together with others such +as tortoise-shell, metal, india-rubber and celluloid. There are two +chief methods of manufacture. A plate of the selected material is taken +of the size and thickness required for the comb, and on one side of it, +occasionally on both sides, a series of fine slits are cut with a +circular saw. This method involves the loss of the material cut out +between the teeth. The second method, known as "twinning" or "parting," +avoids this loss and is also more rapid. The plate of material is rather +wider than before, and is formed into two combs simultaneously, by the +aid of a twinning machine. Two pairs of chisels, the cutting edges of +which are as long as the teeth are required to be and are set at an +angle converging towards the sides of the plate, are brought down +alternately in such a way that the wedges removed from one comb form the +teeth of the other, and that when the cutting is complete the plate +presents the appearance of two combs with their teeth exactly +inosculating or dovetailing into each other. In india-rubber combs the +teeth are moulded to shape and the whole hardened by vulcanization. + + + + +COMBACONUM, or KUMBAKONAM, a city of British India, in the Tanjore +district of Madras, in the delta of the Cauvery, on the South Indian +railway, 194 m. from Madras. Pop. (1901) 59,623, showing an increase of +10% in the decade. It is a large town with wide and airy streets, and is +adorned with pagodas, gateways and other buildings of considerable +pretension. The great _gopuram_, or gate-pyramid, is one of the most +imposing buildings of the kind, rising in twelve stories to a height of +upwards of 100 ft., and ornamented with a profusion of figures of men +and animals formed in stucco. One of the water-tanks in the town is +popularly reputed to be filled with water admitted from the Ganges every +twelve years by a subterranean passage 1200 m. long; and it consequently +forms a centre of attraction for large numbers of devotees. The city is +historically interesting as the capital of the Chola race, one of the +oldest Hindu dynasties of which any traces remain, and from which the +whole coast of Coromandel, or more properly Cholamandal, derives its +name. It contains a government college. Brass and other metal wares, +silk and cotton cloth and sugar are among the manufactures. + + + + +COMBE, ANDREW (1797-1847), Scottish physiologist, was born in Edinburgh +on the 27th of October 1797, and was a younger brother of George Combe. +He served an apprenticeship in a surgery, and in 1817 passed at +Surgeons' Hall. He proceeded to Paris to complete his medical studies, +and whilst there he investigated phrenology on anatomical principles. He +became convinced of the truth of the new science, and, as he acquired +much skill in the dissection of the brain, he subsequently gave +additional interest to the lectures of his brother George, by his +practical demonstrations of the convolutions. He returned to Edinburgh +in 1819 with the intention of beginning practice; but being attacked by +the first symptoms of pulmonary disease, he was obliged to seek health +in the south of France and in Italy during the two following winters. He +began to practise in 1823, and by careful adherence to the laws of +health he was enabled to fulfil the duties of his profession for nine +years. During that period he assisted in editing the _Phrenological +Journal_ and contributed a number of articles to it, defended phrenology +before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, published his +_Observations on Mental Derangement_ (1831), and prepared the greater +portion of his _Principles of Physiology Applied to Health and +Education_, which was issued in 1834, and immediately obtained extensive +public favour. In 1836 he was appointed physician to Leopold I., king of +the Belgians, and removed to Brussels, but he speedily found the climate +unsuitable and returned to Edinburgh, where he resumed his practice. In +1836 he published his _Physiology of Digestion_, and in 1838 he was +appointed one of the physicians extraordinary to the queen in Scotland. +Two years later he completed his _Physiological and Moral Management of +Infancy_, which he believed to be his best work and it was his last. His +latter years were mostly occupied in seeking at various health resorts +some alleviation of his disease; he spent two winters in Madeira, and +tried a voyage to the United States, but was compelled to return within +a few weeks of the date of his landing at New York. He died at Gorgie, +near Edinburgh, on the 9th of August 1847. + + His biography, written by George Combe, was published in 1850. + + + + +COMBE, GEORGE (1788-1858), Scottish phrenologist, elder brother of the +above, was born in Edinburgh on the 21st of October 1788. After +attending Edinburgh high school and university he entered a lawyer's +office in 1804, and in 1812 began to practise on his own account. In +1815 the _Edinburgh Review_ contained an article on the system of +"craniology" of F. J. Gall and K. Spurzheim, which was denounced as "a +piece of thorough quackery from beginning to end." Combe laughed like +others at the absurdities of this so-called new theory of the brain, and +thought that it must be finally exploded after such an exposure; and +when Spurzheim delivered lectures in Edinburgh, in refutation of the +statements of his critic, Combe considered the subject unworthy of +serious attention. He was, however, invited to a friend's house where he +saw Spurzheim dissect the brain, and he was so far impressed by the +demonstration that he attended the second course of lectures. +Investigating the subject for himself, he became satisfied that the +fundamental principles of phrenology were true--namely "that the brain +is the organ of mind; that the brain is an aggregate of several parts, +each subserving a distinct mental faculty; and that the size of the +cerebral organ is, _caeteris paribus_, an index of power or energy of +function." In 1817 his first essay on phrenology was published in the +_Scots Magazine_; and a series of papers on the same subject appeared +soon afterwards in the _Literary and Statistical Magazine_; these were +collected and published in 1819 in book form as _Essays on Phrenology_, +which in later editions became _A System of Phrenology_. In 1820 he +helped to found the Phrenological Society, which in 1823 began to +publish a _Phrenological Journal_. By his lectures and writings he +attracted public attention to the subject on the continent of Europe and +in America, as well as at home; and a long discussion with Sir William +Hamilton in 1827-1828 excited general interest. + +His most popular work, _The Constitution of Man_, was published in 1828, +and in some quarters brought upon him denunciations as a materialist and +atheist. From that time he saw everything by the light of phrenology. He +gave time, labour and money to help forward the education of the poorer +classes; he established the first infant school in Edinburgh; and he +originated a series of evening lectures on chemistry, physiology, +history and moral philosophy. He studied the criminal classes, and tried +to solve the problem how to reform as well as to punish them; and he +strove to introduce into lunatic asylums a humane system of treatment. +In 1836 he offered himself as a candidate for the chair of logic at +Edinburgh, but was rejected in favour of Sir William Hamilton. In 1838 +he visited America and spent about two years lecturing on phrenology, +education and the treatment of the criminal classes. On his return in +1840 he published his _Moral Philosophy_, and in the following year his +_Notes on the United States of North America_. In 1842 he delivered, in +German, a course of twenty-two lectures on phrenology in the university +of Heidelberg, and he travelled much in Europe, inquiring into the +management of schools, prisons and asylums. The commercial crisis of +1855 elicited his remarkable pamphlet on _The Currency Question_ (1858). +The culmination of the religious thought and experience of his life is +contained in his work _On the Relation between Science and Religion_, +first publicly issued in 1857. He was engaged in revising the ninth +edition of the _Constitution of Man_ when he died at Moor Park, Farnham, +on the 14th of August 1858. He married in 1833 Cecilia Siddons, a +daughter of the great actress. + + + + +COMBE, WILLIAM (1741-1823), English writer, the creator of "Dr Syntax," +was born at Bristol in 1741. The circumstances of his birth and +parentage are somewhat doubtful, and it is questioned whether his father +was a rich Bristol merchant, or a certain William Alexander, a London +alderman, who died in 1762. He was educated at Eton, where he was +contemporary with Charles James Fox, the 2nd Baron Lyttelton and William +Beckford. Alexander bequeathed him some L2000--a little fortune that +soon disappeared in a course of splendid extravagance, which gained him +the nickname of Count Combe; and after a chequered career as private +soldier, cook and waiter, he finally settled in London (about 1771), as +a law student and bookseller's hack. In 1776 he made his first success +in London with _The Diaboliad_, a satire full of bitter personalities. +Four years afterwards (1780) his debts brought him into the King's +Bench; and much of his subsequent life was spent in prison. His spurious +_Letters of the Late Lord Lyttelton_[1] (1780) imposed on many of his +contemporaries, and a writer in the _Quarterly Review_, so late as 1851, +regarded these letters as authentic, basing upon them a claim that +Lyttelton was "Junius." An early acquaintance with Lawrence Sterne +resulted in his _Letters supposed to have been written by Yorick and +Eliza_ (1779). Periodical literature of all sorts--pamphlets, satires, +burlesques, "two thousand columns for the papers," "two hundred +biographies"--filled up the next years, and about 1789 Combe was +receiving L200 yearly from Pitt, as a pamphleteer. Six volumes of a +_Devil on Two Sticks in England_ won for him the title of "the English +le Sage"; in 1794-1796 he wrote the text for Boydell's _History of the +River Thames_; in 1803 he began to write for _The Times_. In 1809-1811 +he wrote for Ackermann's _Political Magazine_ the famous _Tour of Dr +Syntax in search of the Picturesque_ (descriptive and moralizing verse +of a somewhat doggerel type), which, owing greatly to Thomas +Rowlandson's designs, had an immense success. It was published +separately in 1812 and was followed by two similar _Tours_, "in search +of Consolation," and "in search of a Wife," the first Mrs Syntax having +died at the end of the first _Tour_. Then came _Six Poems_ in +illustration of drawings by Princess Elizabeth (1813), _The English +Dance of Death_ (1815-1816), _The Dance of Life_ (1816-1817), _The +Adventures of Johnny Quae Genus_ (1822)--all written for Rowlandson's +caricatures; together with _Histories_ of Oxford and Cambridge, and of +Westminster Abbey for Ackermann; _Picturesque Tours_ along the Rhine and +other rivers, _Histories of Madeira_, _Antiquities of York_, texts for +_Turner's Southern Coast Views_, and contributions innumerable to the +_Literary Repository_. In his later years, notwithstanding a by no means +unsullied character, Combe was courted for the sake of his charming +conversation and inexhaustible stock of anecdote. He died in London on +the 19th of June 1823. + + Brief obituary memoirs of Combe appeared in Ackermann's _Literary + Repository_ and in the _Gentleman's Magazine_ for August 1823; and in + May 1859 a list of his works, drawn up by his own hand, was printed in + the latter periodical. See also _Diary of H. Crabb Robinson_, _Notes + and Queries for 1869_. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Thomas, 2nd Baron Lyttelton (1744-1779), commonly known as the + "wicked Lord Lyttelton," was famous for his abilities and his + libertinism, also for the mystery attached to his death, of which it + was alleged he was warned in a dream three days before the event. + + + + +COMBE, or COOMB, a term particularly in use in south-western England for +a short closed-in valley, either on the side of a down or running up +from the sea. It appears in place-names as a termination, e.g. +Wiveliscombe, Ilfracombe, and as a prefix, e.g. Combemartin. The +etymology of the word is obscure, but "hollow" seems a common meaning to +similar forms in many languages. In English "combe" or "cumb" is an +obsolete word for a "hollow vessel," and the like meaning attached to +Teutonic forms _kumm_ and _kumme_. The Welsh _cwm_, in place-names, +means hollow or valley, with which may be compared _cum_ in many Scots +place-names. The Greek [Greek: kumbe] also means a hollow vessel, and +there is a French dialect word _combe_ meaning a little valley. + + + + +COMBERMERE, STAPLETON COTTON, 1ST VISCOUNT (1773-1865), British +field-marshal and colonel of the 1st Life Guards, was the second son of +Sir Robert Salusbury Cotton of Combermere Abbey, Cheshire, and was born +on the 14th of November 1773, at Llewenny Hall in Denbighshire. He was +educated at Westminster School, and when only sixteen obtained a second +lieutenancy in the 23rd regiment (Royal Welsh Fusiliers). A few years +afterwards (1793) he became by purchase captain in the 6th Dragoon +Guards, and he served in this regiment during the campaigns of the duke +of York in Flanders. While yet in his twentieth year, he joined the 25th +Light Dragoons (subsequently 22nd) as lieutenant-colonel, and, while in +attendance with his regiment on George III. at Weymouth, he became a +great favourite of the king. In 1796 he went with his regiment to India, +taking part _en route_ in the operations in Cape Colony (July-August +1796), and in 1799 served in the war with Tippoo Sahib, and at the +storming of Seringapatam. Soon after this, having become heir to the +family baronetcy, he was, at his father's desire, exchanged into a +regiment at home, the 16th Light Dragoons. He was stationed in Ireland +during Emmett's insurrection, became colonel in 1800, and major-general +five years later. From 1806 to 1814 he was M.P. for Newark. In 1808 he +was sent to the seat of war in Portugal, where he shortly rose to the +position of commander of Wellington's cavalry, and it was here that he +most displayed that courage and judgment which won for him his fame as a +cavalry officer. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1809, but continued +his military career. His share in the battle of Salamanca (22nd of July +1812) was especially marked, and he received the personal thanks of +Wellington. The day after, he was accidentally wounded. He was now a +lieutenant-general in the British army and a K.B., and on the conclusion +of peace (1814) was raised to the peerage under the style of Baron +Combermere. He was not present at Waterloo, the command, which he +expected, and bitterly regretted not receiving, having been given to +Lord Uxbridge. When the latter was wounded Cotton was sent for to take +over his command, and he remained in France until the reduction of the +allied army of occupation. In 1817 he was appointed governor of +Barbadoes and commander of the West Indian forces. From 1822 to 1825 he +commanded in Ireland. His career of active service was concluded in +India (1826), where he besieged and took Bhurtpore--a fort which +twenty-two years previously had defied the genius of Lake and was deemed +impregnable. For this service he was created Viscount Combermere. A long +period of peace and honour still remained to him at home. In 1834 he was +sworn a privy councillor, and in 1852 he succeeded Wellington as +constable of the Tower and lord lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets. In 1855 +he was made a field-marshal and G.C.B. He died at Clifton on the 21st of +February 1865. An equestrian statue in bronze, the work of Baron +Marochetti, was raised in his honour at Chester by the inhabitants of +Cheshire. Combermere was succeeded by his only son, Wellington Henry +(1818-1891), and the viscountcy is still held by his descendants. + + See Viscountess Combermere and Captain W. W. Knollys, _The Combermere + Correspondence_ (London, 1866). + + + + +COMBES, [JUSTIN LOUIS] EMILE (1835- ), French statesman, was born at +Roquecourbe in the department of the Tarn. He studied for the +priesthood, but abandoned the idea before ordination, and took the +diploma of doctor of letters (1860), then he studied medicine, taking +his degree in 1867, and setting up in practice at Pons in +Charente-Inferieure. In 1881 he presented himself as a political +candidate for Saintes, but was defeated. In 1885 he was elected to the +senate by the department of Charente-Inferieure. He sat in the +Democratic left, and was elected vice-president in 1893 and 1894. The +reports which he drew up upon educational questions drew attention to +him, and on the 3rd of November 1895 he entered the Bourgeois cabinet as +minister of public instruction, resigning with his colleagues on the +21st of April following. He actively supported the Waldeck-Rousseau +ministry, and upon its retirement in 1903 he was himself charged with +the formation of a cabinet. In this he took the portfolio of the +Interior, and the main energy of the government was devoted to the +struggle with clericalism. The parties of the Left in the chamber, +united upon this question in the _Bloc republicain_, supported Combes in +his application of the law of 1901 on the religious associations, and +voted the new bill on the congregations (1904), and under his guidance +France took the first definite steps toward the separation of church and +state. He was opposed with extreme violence by all the Conservative +parties, who regarded the secularization of the schools as a persecution +of religion. But his stubborn enforcement of the law won him the +applause of the people, who called him familiarly _le petit pere_. +Finally the defection of the Radical and Socialist groups induced him to +resign on the 17th of January 1905, although he had not met an adverse +vote in the Chamber. His policy was still carried on; and when the law +of the separation of church and state was passed, all the leaders of the +Radical parties entertained him at a noteworthy banquet in which they +openly recognized him as the real originator of the movement. + + + + +COMBINATION (Lat. _combinare_, to combine), a term meaning an +association or union of persons for the furtherance of a common object, +historically associated with agreements amongst workmen for the purpose +of raising their wages. Such a combination was for a long time expressly +prohibited by statute. See TRADE UNIONS; also CONSPIRACY and STRIKES AND +LOCK OUTS. + + + + +COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS. + + + Historical Introduction. + +The Combinatorial Analysis, as it was understood up to the end of the +18th century, was of limited scope and restricted application. P. +Nicholson, in his _Essays on the Combinatorial Analysis_, published in +1818, states that "the Combinatorial Analysis is a branch of mathematics +which teaches us to ascertain and exhibit all the possible ways in which +a given number of things may be associated and mixed together; so that +we may be certain that we have not missed any collection or arrangement +of these things that has not been enumerated." Writers on the subject +seemed to recognize fully that it was in need of cultivation, that it +was of much service in facilitating algebraical operations of all kinds, +and that it was the fundamental method of investigation in the theory of +Probabilities. Some idea of its scope may be gathered from a statement +of the parts of algebra to which it was commonly applied, viz., the +expansion of a multinomial, the product of two or more multinomials, the +quotient of one multinomial by another, the reversion and conversion of +series, the theory of indeterminate equations, &c. Some of the +elementary theorems and various particular problems appear in the works +of the earliest algebraists, but the true pioneer of modern researches +seems to have been Abraham Demoivre, who first published in _Phil. +Trans._ (1697) the law of the general coefficient in the expansion of +the series a + bx + cx^2 + dx^3 + ... raised to any power. (See also +_Miscellanea Analytica_, bk. iv. chap. ii. prob. iv.) His work on +Probabilities would naturally lead him to consider questions of this +nature. An important work at the time it was published was the _De +Partitione Numerorum_ of Leonhard Euler, in which the consideration of +the reciprocal of the product (1 - xz) (1 - x^2z) (1 - x^3z) ... +establishes a fundamental connexion between arithmetic and algebra, +arithmetical addition being made to depend upon algebraical +multiplication, and a close bond is secured between the theories of +discontinuous and continuous quantities. (Cf. Numbers, Partition of.) +The multiplication of the two powers x^a, x^b, viz. x^a + x^b = x^(a+b), +showed Euler that he could convert arithmetical addition into +algebraical multiplication, and in the paper referred to he gives the +complete formal solution of the main problems of the partition of +numbers. He did not obtain general expressions for the coefficients +which arose in the expansion of his generating functions, but he gave +the actual values to a high order of the coefficients which arise from +the generating functions corresponding to various conditions of +partitionment. Other writers who have contributed to the solution of +special problems are James Bernoulli, Ruggiero Guiseppe Boscovich, Karl +Friedrich Hindenburg (1741-1808), William Emerson (1701-1782), Robert +Woodhouse (1773-1827), Thomas Simpson and Peter Barlow. Problems of +combination were generally undertaken as they became necessary for the +advancement of some particular part of mathematical science: it was not +recognized that the theory of combinations is in reality a science by +itself, well worth studying for its own sake irrespective of +applications to other parts of analysis. There was a total absence of +orderly development, and until the first third of the 19th century had +passed, Euler's classical paper remained alike the chief result and the +only scientific method of combinatorial analysis. + +In 1846 Karl G. J. Jacobi studied the partitions of numbers by means of +certain identities involving infinite series that are met with in the +theory of elliptic functions. The method employed is essentially that of +Euler. Interest in England was aroused, in the first instance, by +Augustus De Morgan in 1846, who, in a letter to Henry Warburton, +suggested that combinatorial analysis stood in great need of +development, and alluded to the theory of partitions. Warburton, to some +extent under the guidance of De Morgan, prosecuted researches by the aid +of a new instrument, viz. the theory of finite differences. This was a +distinct advance, and he was able to obtain expressions for the +coefficients in partition series in some of the simplest cases (_Trans. +Camb. Phil. Soc._, 1849). This paper inspired a valuable paper by Sir +John Herschel (_Phil. Trans._ 1850), who, by introducing the idea and +notation of the circulating function, was able to present results in +advance of those of Warburton. The new idea involved a calculus of the +imaginary roots of unity. Shortly afterwards, in 1855, the subject was +attacked simultaneously by Arthur Cayley and James Joseph Sylvester, and +their combined efforts resulted in the practical solution of the problem +that we have to-day. The former added the idea of the prime circulator, +and the latter applied Cauchy's theory of residues to the subject, and +invented the arithmetical entity termed a denumerant. The next distinct +advance was made by Sylvester, Fabian Franklin, William Pitt Durfee and +others, about the year 1882 (_Amer. Journ. Math._ vol. v.) by the +employment of a graphical method. The results obtained were not only +valuable in themselves, but also threw considerable light upon the +theory of algebraic series. So far it will be seen that researches had +for their object the discussion of the partition of numbers. Other +branches of combinatorial analysis were, from any general point of view, +absolutely neglected. In 1888 P. A. MacMahon investigated the general +problem of distribution, of which the partition of a number is a +particular case. He introduced the method of symmetric functions and the +method of differential operators, applying both methods to the two +important subdivisions, the theory of composition and the theory of +partition. He introduced the notion of the separation of a partition, +and extended all the results so as to include multipartite as well as +unipartite numbers. He showed how to introduce zero and negative +numbers, unipartite and multipartite, into the general theory; he +extended Sylvester's graphical method to three dimensions; and finally, +1898, he invented the "Partition Analysis" and applied it to the +solution of novel questions in arithmetic and algebra. An important +paper by G. B. Mathews, which reduces the problem of compound partition +to that of simple partition, should also be noticed. This is the problem +which was known to Euler and his contemporaries as "The Problem of the +Virgins," or "the Rule of Ceres"; it is only now, nearly 200 years +later, that it has been solved. + + + Fundamental problem. + +The most important problem of combinatorial analysis is connected with +the distribution of objects into classes. A number n may be regarded as +enumerating n similar objects; it is then said to be unipartite. On the +other hand, if the objects be not all similar they cannot be effectively +enumerated by a single integer; we require a succession of integers. If +the objects be p in number of one kind, q of a second kind, r of a +third, &c., the enumeration is given by the succession pqr... which is +termed a multipartite number, and written, + + ______ + pqr..., + +where p + q + r + ... = n. If the order of magnitude of the numbers p, +q, r, ... is immaterial, it is usual to write them in descending order +of magnitude, and the succession may then be termed a partition of the +number n, and is written (pqr...). The succession of integers thus has a +twofold signification: (i.) as a multipartite number it may enumerate +objects of different kinds; (ii.) it may be viewed as a partitionment +into separate parts of a unipartite number. We may say either that the +objects are represented by the multipartite number + + ______ + pqr..., + +or that they are defined by the partition (pqr...) of the unipartite +number n. Similarly the classes into which they are distributed may be m +in number all similar; or they may be p1 of one kind, q1 of a second, r1 +of a third, &c., where p1 + q1 + r1 + ... = m. We may thus denote the +classes either by the multipartite numbers + + _________ + p1q1r1..., + +or by the partition (p1q1r1...) of the unipartite number m. The +distributions to be considered are such that any number of objects may +be in any one class subject to the restriction that no class is empty. +Two cases arise. If the order of the objects in a particular class is +immaterial, the class is termed a _parcel_; if the order is material, +the class is termed a _group_. The distribution into parcels is alone +considered here, and the main problem is the enumeration of the +distributions of objects defined by the partition (pqr...) of the number +n into parcels defined by the partition (p1q1r1...) of the number m. +(See "Symmetric Functions and the Theory of Distributions," _Proc. +London Mathematical Society_, vol. xix.) Three particular cases are of +great importance. Case I. is the "one-to-one distribution," in which the +number of parcels is equal to the number of objects, and one object is +distributed in each parcel. Case II. is that in which the parcels are +all different, being defined by the partition (1111...), conveniently +written (1^m); this is the theory of the compositions of unipartite and +multipartite numbers. Case III. is that in which the parcels are all +similar, being defined by the partition (m); this is the theory of the +partitions of unipartite and multipartite numbers. Previous to +discussing these in detail, it is necessary to describe the method of +symmetric functions which will be largely utilized. + + + The distribution function. + +Let [alpha], [beta], [gamma], ... be the roots of the equation + + x^n - a1x^(n-1) + a2x^(n-2) - ... = 0. + +The symmetric function [Sigma][alpha]^p[beta]^q[gamma]^r..., where p ++ q + r + ... = n is, in the partition notation, written (pqr...). Let + + A_[(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)] + +denote the number of ways of distributing the n objects defined by the +partition (pqr...) into the m parcels defined by the partition +(p1q1r1...). The expression + + [Sigma]A_[(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)].(pqr...), + +where the numbers p1, q1, r1 ... are fixed and assumed to be in +descending order of magnitude, the summation being for every partition +(pqr...) of the number n, is defined to be the distribution function of +the objects defined by (pqr...) into the parcels defined by (p1q1r1...). +It gives a complete enumeration of n objects of whatever species into +parcels of the given species. + + + Case I. + +1. _One-to-One Distribution. Parcels m in number (i.e. m = n)._--Let hs +be the homogeneous product-sum of degree s of the quantities [alpha], +[beta], [gamma], ... so that + + (1 - [alpha]x. 1 - [beta]x. 1 - [gamma]x. ...)^-1 = + 1 + h1x + h2x^2 + h3x^3 + ... + + h1 = [Sigma][alpha] = (1) + h2 = [Sigma][alpha]^2 + [Sigma][alpha][beta] = (2) + (1^2) + h3 = [Sigma][alpha]^3 + [Sigma][alpha]^2[beta] + + [Sigma][alpha][beta][gamma] = (3) + (21) + (1^3). + +Form the product h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1)... + +Any term in h_(p1) may be regarded as derived from p1 objects distributed +into p1 similar parcels, one object in each parcel, since the order of +occurrence of the letters [alpha], [beta], [gamma], ... in any term is +immaterial. Moreover, every selection of p1 letters from the letters in +[alpha]^p[beta]^q[gamma]^r ... will occur in some term of h_(p1), every +further selection of q1 letters will occur in some term of h_(q1), and so +on. Therefore in the product h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1) ... the term +[alpha]^p[beta]^q[gamma]^r ..., and therefore also the symmetric function +(pqr ...), will occur as many times as it is possible to distribute +objects defined by (pqr ...) into parcels defined by (p1q1r1 ...) one +object in each parcel. Hence + + [Sigma]A_[(pqr...), (p1q1r1...)].(pqr ...) = h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1).... + +This theorem is of algebraic importance; for consider the simple +particular case of the distribution of objects (43) into parcels (52), +and represent objects and parcels by small and capital letters +respectively. One distribution is shown by the scheme + + A A A A A B B + a a a a b b b + +wherein an object denoted by a small letter is placed in a parcel +denoted by the capital letter immediately above it. We may interchange +small and capital letters and derive from it a distribution of objects +(52) into parcels (43); viz.:-- + + A A A A B B B + a a a a a b b. + +The process is clearly of general application, and establishes a +one-to-one correspondence between the distribution of objects (pqr ...) +into parcels (p1q1r1 ...) and the distribution of objects (p1q1r1 ...) +into parcels (pqr ...). It is in fact, in Case I., an intuitive +observation that we may either consider an object placed in or attached +to a parcel, or a parcel placed in or attached to an object. +Analytically we have + +_Theorem._--"The coefficient of symmetric function (pqr ...) in the +development of the product h_(p1)h_(q1)h_(r1) ... is equal to the +coefficient of symmetric function (p1q1r1 ...) in the development of the +product h_p.h_q.h_r...." + +The problem of Case I. may be considered when the distributions are +subject to various restrictions. If the restriction be to the effect +that an aggregate of similar parcels is not to contain more than one +object of a kind, we have clearly to deal with the elementary symmetric +functions a1, a2, a3, ... or (1), (1^2), (1^3), ... in lieu of the +quantities h1, h2, h3, ... The distribution function has then the value +a_(p1)a_(q1)a_(r1)... or (1^p1) (1^q1) (1^r1) ..., and by interchange of +object and parcel we arrive at the well-known theorem of symmetry in +symmetric functions, which states that the coefficient of symmetric +function (pqr ...) in the development of the product ap1aq1ar1 ... in +a series of monomial symmetric functions, is equal to the coefficient of +the function (p1q1r1 ...) in the similar development of the product +a_p.a_q.a_r.... + +The general result of Case I. may be further analysed with important +consequences. + + Write X1 = (1)x1, + X2 = (2)x2 + (1^2)x1^2, + X3 = (3)x3 + (21)x2x1 + (1^3){x1}^3 + + . . . . . + + and generally + + X_s = [Sigma]([lambda][mu][nu] ...)x_[lambda]x_[mu]x_[nu] ... + +the summation being in regard to every partition of s. Consider the +result of the multiplication-- + + X_p1 X_q1 X_r1 ... = + [Sigma]P(x_s1)^[sigma]1 (x_s2)^[sigma]2 (x_s3)^[sigma]3 ... + +To determine the nature of the symmetric function P a few definitions +are necessary. + +_Definition I._--Of a number n take any partition +([lambda]1[lambda]2[lambda]3 ... [lambda]s) and separate it into +component partitions thus:-- + + ([lambda]1[lambda]2) ([lambda]3[lambda]4[lambda]5) ([lambda]6) ... + +in any manner. This may be termed a _separation_ of the partition, the +numbers occurring in the separation being identical with those which +occur in the partition. In the theory of symmetric functions the +separation denotes the product of symmetric functions-- + + [Sigma] [alpha]^[lambda]1 [beta]^[lambda]2 [Sigma][alpha]^[lambda]3 + [beta]^[lambda]4 [gamma]^[lambda]5 [Sigma][alpha]^[lambda]6 ... + +The portions ([lambda]1[lambda]2), ([lambda]3[lambda]4[lambda]5), +([lambda]6)... are termed _separates_, and if [lambda]1 + [lambda]2 = +p1, [lambda]3 + [lambda]4 + [lambda]5 = q1, [lambda]6 = r1... be in +descending order of magnitude, the usual arrangement, the separation is +said to have a _species_ denoted by the partition (p1q1r1...) of the +number n. + +_Definition II._--If in any distribution of n objects into n parcels +(one object in each parcel), we write down a number [xi], whenever we +observe [xi] similar objects in similar parcels we will obtain a +succession of numbers [xi]1, [xi]2, [xi]3, ..., where ([xi]1, [xi]2, +[xi]3 ...) is some partition of n. The distribution is then said to have +a _specification_ denoted by the partition ([xi]1[xi]2[xi]3...). + +Now it is clear that P consists of an aggregate of terms, each of which, +to a numerical factor _pres_, is a separation of the partition + + ( s1^{[sigma]1} s2^{[sigma]2} s3^{[sigma]3} ...) + +of species (p1q1r1...). Further, P is the distribution function of +objects into parcels denoted by (p1q1r1...), subject to the restriction +that the distributions have each of them the specification denoted by +the partition + + ( s1^{[sigma]1} s2^{[sigma]2} s3^{[sigma]3} ...). + +Employing a more general notation we may write + + X_p1^[pi]1 X_p2^[pi]2 X_p3^[pi]3 ... = + [Sigma]P x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ... + +and then P is the distribution function of objects into parcels + + (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...), + +the distributions being such as to have the specification + + (s1^[sigma]1 s2^[sigma]2 s3^[sigma]3 ...), + +Multiplying out P so as to exhibit it as a sum of monomials, we get a +result-- + + X_p1^[pi]1 X_p2^[pi]2 X_p3^[pi]3 ... = + [Sigma][Sigma][theta] ([lambda]1^l1 [lambda]2^l2 [lambda]3^l3) + x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ... + +indicating that for distributions of specification + + (s1^[sigma]1 s2^[sigma]2 s3^[sigma]3 ...) + +there are [theta] ways of distributing n objects denoted by + + ([lambda]1^l1 [lambda]2^l2 [lambda]3^l3 ...) + +amongst n parcels denoted by + + (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...), + +one object in each parcel. Now observe that as before we may interchange +parcel and object, and that this operation leaves the specification of +the distribution unchanged. Hence the number of distributions must be +the same, and if + + X_p1^[pi]1 X_p2^[pi]2 X_p3^[pi]3 ... = + = ... + [theta]([lambda]1^l1 [lambda]2^l2 [lambda]3^l3) + x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ... + ... + +then also + + X_[lambda]1^l1 X_[lambda]2^l2 X_[lambda]3^l3 ... = + = ... + [theta](p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3) + x_s1^[sigma]1 x_s2^[sigma]2 x_s3^[sigma]3 ... + ... + +This extensive theorem of algebraic reciprocity includes many known +theorems of symmetry in the theory of Symmetric Functions. + +The whole of the theory has been extended to include symmetric functions +symbolized by partitions which contain as well zero and negative parts. + + + Case II. + +2. _The Compositions of Multipartite Numbers. Parcels denoted by +(I^m)._--There are here no similarities between the parcels. + + Let ([pi]1 [pi]2 [pi]3) be a partition of m. + + (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3) a partition of n. + +Of the whole number of distributions of the n objects, there will be a +certain number such that n1 parcels each contain p1 objects, and in +general [pi]s parcels each contain ps objects, where s = 1, 2, 3, ... +Consider the product h_p1^[pi]1 h_p2^[pi]2 h_p3^[pi]3 ... which can be +permuted in m! / ([pi]1![pi]2![pi]3! ...) ways. For each of these ways +h_p1^[pi]1 h_p2^[pi]2 h_p3^[pi]3 ... will be a distribution function for +distributions of the specified type. Hence, regarding all the +permutations, the distribution function is + + m! + ------------------------ h_p1^[pi]1 h_p2^[pi]2 h_p3^[pi]3 ... + [pi]1! [pi]2! [pi]3! ... + +and regarding, as well, all the partitions of n into exactly m parts, +the desired distribution function is + + m! + [Sigma] ------------------------ h_p1^[pi]1 h_p2^[pi]2 h_p3^[pi]3 ... + [pi]1! [pi]2! [pi]3! ... + [ [Sigma]_[pi] = ([Sigma]_[pi])p = n ], + +that is, it is the coefficient of x^n in (h1x + h2x^2 + h3x^3 + ... )^m. +The value of A_{(p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...), (1^m)} is the +coefficient of (p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...)x^n in the development of +the above expression, and is easily shown to have the value + + /p1 + m - 1\^[pi]1 /p2 + m - 1\^[pi]2 /p3 + m - 1\^[pi]3 + \ p1 / \ p2 / \ p3 / ... + + - /m\ /p1 + m - 2\^[pi]1 /p2 + m - 2\^[pi]2 /p3 + m - 2\^[pi]3 + \1/ \ p1 / \ p2 / \ p3 / ... + + - /m\ /p1 + m - 3\^[pi]1 /p2 + m - 3\^[pi]2 /p3 + m - 3\^[pi]3 + \1/ \ p1 / \ p2 / \ p3 / ... + + - ... to m terms. + +Observe that when p1 = p2 = p3 = ... = [pi]1 = [pi]1 = [pi]1 ... = 1 +this expression reduces to the mth divided differences of 0^n. The +expression gives the compositions of the multipartite number + ______________________________ + p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ... + +into m parts. Summing the distribution function from m = 1 to w = [oo] +and putting x = 1, as we may without detriment, we find that the +totality of the compositions is given by + + h1 + h2 + h3 + ... + ---------------------- which may be given the form + 1 - h1 - h2 - h3 + ... + + a1 - a2 + a3 - ... + -------------------------. + 1 - 2(a1 - a2 + a3 - ...) + +Adding 1/2 we bring this to the still more convenient form + + 1 + 1/2 -------------------------. + 1 - 2(a1 - a2 + a3 - ...) + +Let F(p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3 ...) denote the total number of +compositions of the multipartite /{p1^[pi]1 p2^[pi]2 p3^[pi]3}.... +Then 1/2{1/1 - 2[alpha]} = 1/2 + [Sigma]F(p)[alpha]^p, and thence +F(p) = 2^(p-1). + + 1 + Again 1/2 --------------------------------------- = + 1 - 2([alpha] + [beta] - [alpha][beta]) + + = 1/2 + [Sigma]F(p)[alpha]^p1 [beta]^p2, + +and expanding the left-hand side we easily find + + + (p1 + p2)! (p1 + p2 - 1)! + F(p1p2) = 2^(p1+p2-1) ---------- - 2^(p1+p2-2) --------------------- + 0! p1! p2! 1!(p1 - 1)! (p2 - 1)! + + (p1 + p2 - 2)! + + 2^(p1+p2-3) --------------------- - .... + 2!(p1 - 2)! (p2 - 2)! + +We have found that the number of compositions of the multipartite +/(p1p2p3 ... ps) is equal to the coefficient of symmetric function +(p1p2p3...ps) _or_ of the single term [alpha]1^p1 [alpha]2^p2 +[alpha]3^p3 ... [alpha]s^ps in the development according to ascending +powers of the algebraic fraction + + 1 + 1/2 . ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. + 1 - 2([Sigma][a]1 - [Sigma][a]1 [a]2 + [Sigma][a]1 [a]2 [a]3) - ... + (-)^(s+1)[a]1 [a]2 [a]3...[a]s + +This result can be thrown into another suggestive form, for it can be +proved that this portion of the expanded fraction + + 1 + 1/2 . -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------, + {1 - t1(2[a]1 + [a]2 + ... + [a]3)} {1 - t2(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + [a]s)} ... {1 - t_s(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + 2[a]s)} + +which is composed entirely of powers of + + t1[alpha]1, t2[alpha]2, t3[alpha]3, ... t_s[alpha]_s + +has the expression + + 1 + 1/2 . -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------, + 1 - 2([Sigma]t1[a]1 - [Sigma]t1t2[a]1[a]2 + [Sigma]t1t2[a]1[a]2[a]3 - ... + (-)^(s+1) t1t2...t_s[a]1[a]2...[a]_s) + +and therefore the coefficient of [alpha]1^p1 [alpha]2^p2...[alpha]s^ps +in the latter fraction, when t1, t2, &c., are put equal to unity, is +equal to the coefficient of the same term in the product + + 1/2 (2[a]1 + [a]2 + ... + [a]s)^p1 (2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... +[a]s)^p2 ... (2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + 2[a]s)^ps. + +This result gives a direct connexion between the number of compositions +and the permutations of the letters in the product [alpha]1^p1 +[alpha]2^p2...[alpha]s^ps. Selecting any permutation, suppose that the +letter a_r occurs q_r times in the last p_r + p_(r+1) + ... + p_s places +of the permutation; the coefficient in question may be represented by +1/2[Sigma] 2^(q1+q2+...+qs), the summation being for every permutation, +and since q1 = p1 this may be written + + 2p1^(-1)[Sigma] 2^(q2+q3+...+qs). + +_Ex. Gr._--For the bipartite /22, p1 = p2 = 2, and we have the following +scheme:-- + + [a]1 [a]1 | [a]2 [a]2 q2 = 2 + [a]1 [a]2 | [a]1 [a]2 = 1 + [a]1 [a]2 | [a]2 [a]1 = 1 + [a]2 [a]1 | [a]1 [a]2 = 1 + [a]2 [a]1 | [a]2 [a]1 = 1 + [a]2 [a]2 | [a]1 [a]1 = 0 + +Hence F(22) = 2(2^2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2^0) = 26. + +We may regard the fraction + + 1 + -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------, + 1/2 . {1 - t1(2[a]1 + [a]2 + ... + [a]s)} {1 - t2(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + [a]s)} ... {1 - t_s(2[a]1 + 2[a]2 + ... + 2[a]s)} + +as a redundant generating function, the enumeration of the compositions +being given by the coefficient of + + (t1[alpha]1)^p1 (t2[alpha]2)^p2 ... (t_s[alpha]_s )^ps. + +The transformation of the pure generating function into a factorized +redundant form supplies the key to the solution of a large number of +questions in the theory of ordinary permutations, as will be seen later. + + + The theory of permutations. + +[The transformation of the last section involves a comprehensive theory +of Permutations, which it is convenient to discuss shortly here. + +If X1, X2, X3, ... Xn be linear functions given by the matricular +relation + + (X1, X2, X3, ... Xn) = (a11 a12 ... a1n)(x1, x2, ... xn) + |a21 a22 ... a2n| + | . . ... . | + | . . ... . | + |an1 an2 ... ann| + +that portion of the algebraic fraction, + + 1 + ---------------------------------, + (1 - s1X1)(1 - s2X2)...(1 - snXn) + +which is a function of the products s1x1, s2x2, s3x3, ... snxn only is + + 1 + -------------------------------------------------------- + |(1 - a11s1x1)(1 - a22s2x2)(1 - a33s3x3)(1 - ann.sn.xn)| + +where the denominator is in a symbolic form and denotes on expansion + + 1 - [Sigma]|a11|s1x1 + [Sigma]|a11a22|s1s2x1x2 - ... + (-)^n|a11a22a33...ann|s1s2 ... sn.x1x2...xn, + +where |a11|, |a11a22|, ... |a11a22,...ann| denote the several co-axial +minors of the determinant + + |a11a22...ann| + +of the matrix. (For the proof of this theorem see MacMahon, "A certain +Class of Generating Functions in the Theory of Numbers," _Phil. Trans. +R. S._ vol. clxxxv. A, 1894). It follows that the coefficient of + + x1^[xi]1 x2^[xi]2 ... xn^[xi]n + +in the product + + (a11x1 + a12x2 + ... + a1n.xn )^[xi]^1 (a21x1 + a22x2 + ... + + + a2n.xn)^[xi]^2...(an1x1 + an2x2 + ... + ann.xn)^[xi]n + +is equal to the coefficient of the same term in the expansion +ascending-wise of the fraction + + 1 + --------------------------------------------------------------------------. + 1 - [Sigma]|a11|x1 + [Sigma]|a11a22|x1x2 - ... + (-)^n|a11a22...|x1x2...xn + +If the elements of the determinant be all of them equal to unity, we +obtain the functions which enumerate the unrestricted permutations of +the letters in + + x1^[xi]1 x2^[xi]2 ... xn^[xi]n, + +viz. (x1 + x2 + ... - xn)^{[xi]1 + [xi]2 + ... + [xi]n} + + 1 +and ------------------------. + 1 - (x1 + x2 + ... + xn) + +Suppose that we wish to find the generating function for the enumeration +of those permutations of the letters in x1^[xi]1 x2^[xi]2...x3^[xi]n +which are such that no letter xs is in a position originally occupied by +an x3 for all values of s. This is a generalization of the "Probleme des +rencontres" or of "derangements." We have merely to put + + a11 = a22 = a33 = ... = ann = 0 + +and the remaining elements equal to unity. The generating product is + + (x2 + x3 + ... + xn)^[xi]1 (x1 + x3 + ... + xn)^[xi]2 ... + (x1 + x2 + ... + x_n-1)^[xi]n, + +and to obtain the condensed form we have to evaluate the co-axial minors +of the invertebrate determinant-- + + | 0 1 1 ... 1 | + | 1 0 1 ... 1 | + | 1 1 0 ... 1 | + | . . . ... . | + | 1 1 1 ... 0 | + +The minors of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd ... nth orders have respectively the +values + + 0 + -1 + +2 + ... + (-)^(n-1)(n - 1), + +therefore the generating function is + + 1 + --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------; + 1 - [Sigma]x1x2 - 2[Sigma]x1x2x3 - ... - s[Sigma]x1x2...x_s+1 - ... - (n - 1)x1x2...xn + +or writing + + (x - x1)(x - x2)...(x - xn) = x^n - a1x^(n-1) + a2x^(n-2) - ..., + +this is + + 1 + ------------------------------------- + 1 - a2 - 2a3 - 3a4 - ... - (n - 1)a_n + +Again, consider the general problem of "derangements." We have to find +the number of permutations such that exactly _m_ of the letters are in +places they originally occupied. We have the particular redundant +product + + (ax1 + x2 + ... + xn)^[xi]^1 (x1 + ax2 + ... + xn)^[xi]^2 ... + (x1 + x2 + ... + ax_n)^[xi]n, + +in which the sought number is the coefficient of +a^m x1^[xi]^1 x2^[xi]^2...xn^[xi]n. The true generating function is +derived from the determinant + + | a 1 1 1 . . . | + | 1 a 1 1 . . . | + | 1 1 a 1 . . . | + | 1 1 1 a . . . | + | . . . . | + | . . . . | + +and has the form + + 1 + ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. + 1 - a[Sigma]x1 + (a - 1)(a + 1)[Sigma]x1x2 - ... + (-)^n(a - 1)^(n-1)(a + n - 1)x1x2... xn + +It is clear that a large class of problems in permutations can be solved +in a similar manner, viz. by giving special values to the elements of +the determinant of the matrix. The redundant product leads uniquely to +the real generating function, but the latter has generally more than one +representation as a redundant product, in the cases in which it is +representable at all. For the existence of a redundant form, the +coefficients of x1, x2, ... x1x2 ... in the denominator of the real +generating function must satisfy 2^n - n^2 + n - 2 conditions, and +assuming this to be the case, a redundant form can be constructed which +involves n - 1 undetermined quantities. We are thus able to pass from +any particular redundant generating function to one equivalent to it, +but involving n - 1 undetermined quantities. Assuming these quantities +at pleasure we obtain a number of different algebraic products, each of +which may have its own meaning in arithmetic, and thus the number of +arithmetical correspondences obtainable is subject to no finite limit +(cf. MacMahon, _loc. cit._ pp. 125 et seq.)] + + + Case III. + +3. _The Theory of Partitions. Parcels defined by (m)._--When an ordinary +unipartite number n is broken up into other numbers, and the order of +occurrence of the numbers is immaterial, the collection of numbers is +termed a partition of the number n. It is usual to arrange the numbers +comprised in the collection, termed the parts of the partition, in +descending order of magnitude, and to indicate repetitions of the same +part by the use of exponents. Thus (32111), a partition of 8, is written +(321^3). Euler's pioneering work in the subject rests on the observation +that the algebraic multiplication + + x^a X x^b X x^c X ... = x^(a+b+c+...) + +is equivalent to the arithmetical addition of the exponents a, b, c, ... +He showed that the number of ways of composing n with p integers drawn +from the series a, b, c, ..., repeated or not, is equal to the +coefficient of [zeta]^p.x^n in the ascending expansion of the fraction + + 1 + ------------------------------------------------, + 1 - [zeta]x^a. 1 - [zeta]x^b. 1 - [zeta]x^c. ... + +which he termed the generating function of the partitions in question. + +If the partitions are to be composed of p, or fewer parts, it is merely +necessary to multiply this fraction by 1/(1 - [zeta]). Similarly, if the +parts are to be unrepeated, the generating function is the algebraic +product + + (1 + [zeta]x^a)(1 + [zeta]x^b)(1 + [zeta]x^c)...; + +if each part may occur at most twice, + + (1 + [zeta]x^a + [zeta]^2x^2a)(1 + [zeta]x^b + [zeta]^2x^2b) + (1 + [zeta]x^c + [zeta]^2x^2c)...; + +and generally if each part may occur at most k - 1 times it is + + 1 - [zeta]^k.x^ka 1 - [zeta]^k.x^kb 1 - [zeta]^k.x^kc + ----------------- . ----------------- . ----------------- . ... + 1 - [zeta]x^a 1 - [zeta]x^b 1 - [zeta]x^c + +It is thus easy to form generating functions for the partitions of +numbers into parts subject to various restrictions. If there be no +restriction in regard to the numbers of the parts, the generating +function is + + 1 + ------------------------------ + 1 - x^a. 1 - x^b. 1 - x^c. ... + +and the problems of finding the partitions of a number n, and of +determining their number, are the same as those of solving and +enumerating the solutions of the indeterminate equation in positive +integers + + ax + by + cz + ... = n. + +Euler considered also the question of enumerating the solutions of the +indeterminate simultaneous equation in positive integers + + ax + by + cz + ... = n + a'x + b'y + c'z + ... = n' + a"x + b"y + c"z + ... = n" + +which was called by him and those of his time the "Problem of the +Virgins." The enumeration is given by the coefficient of x^n.y^n'.z^n" ... +in the expansion of the fraction + + 1 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------- + (1 - x^a.y^b.z^c...)(1 - x^a'.y^b'.z^c'...)(1 - x^a".y^b".z^c"...) ... + +which enumerates the partitions of the multipartite number /nn'n"... +into the parts + + /abc..., /a'b'c'..., /a"b"c"..., ... + +Sylvester has determined an analytical expression for the coefficient of +x^n in the expansion of + + 1 + ------------------------------ + (1 - x^a)(1 - x^b)...(1 - x^i) + +To explain this we have two lemmas:-- + +_Lemma 1._--The coefficient of x^-1, i.e., after Cauchy, the residue in +the ascending expansion of (1 - e^x)^-i, is -1. For when i is unity, it +is obviously the case, and + + (1 - e^x)^-i-1 = (1 - e^x)^-i + e^x(1 - e^x)^-i-1 + + d 1 + = (1 - e^x)^-i + -- (1 - e^x)^-i.--. + dx i + + d 1 +Here the residue of -- (1 - e^x)^-i.-- is zero, and therefore the residue + dx i +of (1 - e^x)^-i is unchanged when i is increased by unity, and is +therefore always -1 for all values of i. + +_Lemma 2._--The constant term in any proper algebraical fraction +developed in ascending powers of its variable is the same as the +residue, with changed sign, of the sum of the fractions obtained by +substituting in the given fraction, in lieu of the variable, its +exponential multiplied in succession by each of its values (zero +excepted, if there be such), which makes the given fraction infinite. +For write the proper algebraical fraction + + c_{[lambda],[mu]} [gamma]_[lambda] + F(x) = [Sigma][Sigma]-------------------- + [Sigma]----------------. + (a_[mu] - x)[lambda] x^[lambda] + + c_{[lambda],[mu]} +The constant term is [Sigma][Sigma]-----------------. + a_[mu]^[lambda] + +Let a_[nu] be a value of x which makes the fraction infinite. The residue +of + + c_{[lambda],[mu]} [gamma]_[lambda] + [Sigma][Sigma][Sigma]------------------------------ + [Sigma]----------------------------- + (a_[mu] - a_[nu].e^x)^[lambda] a_[nu]^[lambda].e^{[lambda]x} + +is equal to the residue of + + c_{[lambda],[mu]} + [Sigma][Sigma][Sigma]------------------------------, + (a_[mu] - a_[nu].e^x)^[lambda] + +and when [nu] = [mu], the residue vanishes, so that we have to consider + + c_{[lambda],[mu]} + [Sigma][Sigma]----------------------------------, + a_[mu]^[lambda].(1 - e^x)^[lambda] + +and the residue of this is, by the first lemma, + + c_{[lambda],[mu]} + - [Sigma][Sigma]-----------------, + a_[mu]^[lambda] + +which proves the lemma. + + 1 f(x) +Take F(x) = --------------------------------- = ----, since the sought + x^n(1 - x^a)(1 - x^b)...(1 - x^l) x^n + +number is its constant term. + +Let [rho] be a root of unity which makes f(x) infinite when substituted +for x. The function of which we have to take the residue is + + [Sigma][rho]^-n.e^nx.f([rho]e^-x) + + [rho]^-n.e^nx + = [Sigma]------------------------------------------------------------. + (1 - [rho]^a.e^-ax)(1 - [rho]^b.e^-bx)...(1 - [rho]^l.e^-lx) + +We may divide the calculation up into sections by considering separately +that portion of the summation which involves the primitive qth roots of +unity, q being a divisor of one of the numbers a, b, ... l. Thus the qth +_wave_ is + + [rho]_q^-n.e^nx + [Sigma]------------------------------------------------------------------, + (1 - [rho]_q^a.e^-ax)(1 - [rho]_q^b.e^-bx)...(1 - [rho]_q^l.e^-lx) + +which, putting 1/[rho]_q for [rho]_q and [nu] = 1/2(a + b + ... + l), may +be written + + [rho]_q^[nu].e^[nu]x + [Sigma]------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------, + ([rho]_q^1/2a.e^1/2ax - [rho]_q^-1/2a.e^-1/2ax)([rho]_q^1/2b.e^1/2bx - [rho]_q^-1/2b.e^-1/2bx)...([rho]_q^1/2l.e^1/2lx - [rho]_q^-1/2l.e^-1/2lx) + +and the calculation in simple cases is practicable. + +Thus Sylvester finds for the coefficient of x^n in + + 1 + ----------------------- + 1 - x. 1 - x^2. 1 - x^3 + + [nu]^2 7 1 1 +the expression ------ - -- - --(-)[nu] + --([rho]_3^[nu] + [rho]_3^-[nu]), + 12 72 8 9 + +where [nu] = n + 3. + + + Sylvester's graphical method. + +Sylvester, Franklin, Durfee, G. S. Ely and others have evolved a +constructive theory of partitions, the object of which is the +contemplation of the partitions themselves, and the evolution of their +properties from a study of their inherent characters. It is concerned +for the most part with the partition of a number into parts drawn from +the natural series of numbers 1, 2, 3.... Any partition, say (521) of +the number 8, is represented by nodes placed in order at the points of a +rectangular lattice, + + o---o---o---o---o------ + | | | | | + | | | | | + o---o---+---+---+------ + | | | | | + | | | | | + o---+---+---+---+------ + | | | | | + | | | | | + | | | | | + +when the partition is given by the enumeration of the nodes by lines. If +we enumerate by columns we obtain another partition of 8, viz. (321^3), +which is termed the conjugate of the former. The fact or conjugacy was +first pointed out by Norman Macleod Ferrers. If the original partition +is one of a number n in i parts, of which the largest is j, the +conjugate is one into j parts, of which the largest is i, and we obtain +the theorem:--"The number of partitions of any number into [i parts]/[i +parts or fewer], and having the largest part [equal to j]/[equal or less +than j], remains the same when the numbers i and j are interchanged." + +The study of this representation on a lattice (termed by Sylvester the +"graph") yields many theorems similar to that just given, and, moreover, +throws considerable light upon the expansion of algebraic series. + +The theorem of reciprocity just established shows that the number of +partitions of n into; parts or fewer, is the same as the number of ways +of composing n with the integers 1, 2, 3, ... j. Hence we can + + 1 +expand ------------------------------------------- in ascending powers of + 1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax^2. 1 - ax^3...ad inf. + +a; for the coefficient of a^j.x^n in the expansion is the number of ways +of composing n with j or fewer parts, and this we have seen in the +coefficients of x^n in the ascending expansion of + + 1 + ------------------------. + 1 - x. 1 - x^2...1 - x^j + +Therefore + + 1 a a^2 + --------------------------- = 1 + ----- + -------------- + ... + 1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax^2.... 1 - x 1 - x. 1 - x^2 + + a^j + + ------------------------ + .... + 1 - x. 1 - x^2...1 - x^j + +The coefficient of a^j.x^n in the expansion of + + 1 + ------------------------------------- + 1 - a. 1 - ax. 1 - ax^2. ... 1 - ax^i + +denotes the number of ways of composing n with j or fewer parts, none of +which are greater than i. The expansion is known to be + + 1 - x^(j+1). 1 - x^(j+2). ... 1 - x^(j+i) + [Sigma]-----------------------------------------a^j. + 1 - x. 1 - x^2. ... 1 - x^i + +It has been established by the constructive method by F. Franklin +(_Amer. Jour. of Math._ v. 254), and shows that the generating function +for the partitions in question is + + 1 - x^(j+1). 1 - x^(j+2). ... 1 - x^(j+i) + -----------------------------------------, + 1 - x. 1 - x^2. ... 1 - x^i + +which, observe, is unaltered by interchange of i and j. + +Franklin has also similarly established the identity of Euler + + j=-[oo] + (1 - x)(1 - x^2)(1 - x^3)...ad inf. = [Sigma](-)jx^{1/2(3j^2+j)}, + j=+[oo] + +known as the "pentagonal number theorem," which on interpretation shows +that the number of ways of partitioning n into an even number of +unrepeated parts is equal to that into an uneven number, except when n +has the pentagonal form 1/2(3j^2 + j), j positive or negative, when the +difference between the numbers of the partitions is (-)^j. + + +----------+ + |. . . .| . . . . . + |. . . .| . . + |. . . .| . + |. . . .| + +----------+ + . . . + . . + . + . + . + +To illustrate an important dissection of the graph we will consider +those graphs which read the same by columns as by lines; these are +called self-conjugate. Such a graph may be obviously dissected into a +square, containing say [theta]^2 nodes, and into two graphs, one lateral +and one subjacent, the latter being the conjugate of the former. The +former graph is limited to contain not more than [theta] parts, but is +subject to no other condition. Hence the number of self-conjugate +partitions of n which are associated with a square of [theta]^2 nodes is +clearly equal to the number of partitions of 1/2(n = [theta]^2) into +[theta] or few parts, i.e. it is the coefficient of x^{1/2(n-[theta]^2)} +in + + 1 + -------------------------------------------, + 1 - x. 1 - x^2. 1 - x^3. ... 1 - x^[theta]. + + x^[theta]^2 +or of x^n in ---------------------------------------------. + 1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[theta] + +and the whole generating function is + + [theta]=[oo] x^[theta]^2 + 1 + [Sigma] ---------------------------------------------. + [theta]=1 1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[theta] + +Now the graph is also composed of [theta] angles of nodes, each angle +containing an uneven number of nodes; hence the partition is +transformable into one containing [theta] unequal uneven numbers. In the +case depicted this partition is (17, 9, 5, 1). Hence the number of the +partitions based upon a square of [theta]^2 nodes is the coefficient of +a^[theta].x^n in the product (1 + ax)(1 + ax^3)(1 + ax^5)...(1 + +ax^{2s-1}), and thence the coefficient of a^[theta] in this product is + + x^[theta]^2 + ---------------------------------------------, and we have the expansion + 1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[theta] + + (1 + ax)(1 + ax^3)(1 + ax^5)...ad inf. + + x x^4 x^9 + = 1 + ------- a + ---------------- a^2 + ----------------------- a^3 + ... + 1 - x^2 1 - x^2. 1 - x^4 1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. - x^6 + +Again, if we restrict the part magnitude to i, the largest angle of +nodes contains at most 2i - 1 nodes, and based upon a square of +[theta]^2 nodes we have partitions enumerated by the coefficient of +a^[theta].x^n in the product (1 + ax)(1 + ax^3)(1 + ax^5)...(1 + +ax^{2i-1}); moreover the same number enumerates the partition of 1/2(n - +[theta]^2) into [theta] or fewer parts, of which the largest part is +equal to or less than i -[theta], and is thus given by the coefficient +of x^{1/2(n-[theta]^2)} in the expansion of + + 1 - x^{i-[t]+1}. 1 - x^{i-[t]+2}. 1 - x^{i-[t]+3}. ... 1 - x^i + --------------------------------------------------------------, + 1 - x. 1 - x^2. 1 - x^3. ... 1 - x^[t] + ([t] = [theta]) +or of x^n in + + 1 - x^{2i-2[t]+2}. 1 - x^{2i-2[t]+4}. ... 1 - x^2i + -------------------------------------------------- x[t]^2; + 1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^[t] + +hence the expansion + + (1 + ax)(1 + ax^3)(1 + ax^5)...(1 + ax^{2i-1}) + + [t]=i 1 - x^{2i-2[t]+2}. 1 - x^{2i-2[t]+4}. ... 1 + x^2i + = 1 + [Sigma] -------------------------------------------------- x^[t]^2.a^[t]. + [t]=1 1 - x^2. 1 - x^4. 1 - x^6. ... 1 - x^2[t] + + + Extension to three dimensions. + +There is no difficulty in extending the graphical method to three +dimensions, and we have then a theory of a special kind of partition of +multipartite numbers. Of such kind is the partition + + _________ _________ _________ + (a1a2a3...), (b1b2b3...), (c1c2c3..., ...) + +of the multipartite number + _______________________________________________________________ + (a1 + b1 + c1 + ..., a2 + b2 + c2 + ..., a3 + b3 + c3 + ..., ...) + +if a1 >= a2 >= a3 >= ...; b1 >= b2 >= b3 >= ..., ... + a3 >= b3 >= c3 >= ..., + +for then the graphs of the parts /a1a2a3..., /b1b2b3..., ... are +superposable, and we have what we may term a _regular_ graph in three +dimensions. Thus the partition (/643, /632, /411) of the multipartite +/(16, 8, 6) leads to the graph + + 0+------------------------------------ x + | + | ((.)) ((.)) ((.)) ((.)) (.) (.) + | + | ((.)) (.) (.) . + | + | ((.)) (.) . + | + y + +and every such graph is readable in six ways, the axis of z being +perpendicular to the plane of the paper. + + _Ex. Gr._ + ___ ___ ___ + Plane parallel to xy, direction Ox reads (643,632,411) + ______ ______ ______ + " " xy, " Oy " (333211,332111,311100) + ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ + " " yz, " Oy " (333,331,321,211,110,110) + ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ + " " yz, " Oz " (333,322,321,310,200,200) + ______ ______ ______ + " " zx, " Oz " (333322,322100,321000) + ___ ___ ___ + " " zx, " Ox " (664,431,321) + +the partitions having reference to the multipartite numbers /16, 8, 6, +976422, /13, 11, 6, which are brought into relation through the medium +of the graph. The graph in question is more conveniently represented by +a numbered diagram, viz.-- + + 3 3 3 3 2 2 + 3 2 2 1 + 3 2 1 + +and then we may evidently regard it as a unipartite partition on the +points of a lattice, + + 0 +-----+-----+-----+-----+------- x + | | | | | + | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+------- + | | | | | + | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+------- + | | | | | + | | | | | + +-----+-----+-----+-----+------- + | | | | | + y + +the descending order of magnitude of part being maintained along _every_ +line of route which proceeds from the origin in the positive directions +of the axes. + +This brings in view the modern notion of a partition, which has +enormously enlarged the scope of the theory. We consider any number of +points _in plano_ or _in solido_ connected (or not) by lines in pairs in +any desired manner and fix upon any condition, such as is implied by the +symbols >=, >, =, <=, <>, as affecting any pair of points so connected. +Thus in ordinary unipartite partition we have to solve in integers such +a system as + + [a]1 >= [a]2 >= [a]3 >= ... [a]n + + [a]1 + [a]2 + [a]3 + ... + [a]n = n, + ([a] = [alpha]) + +the points being in a straight line. In the simplest example of the +three-dimensional graph we have to solve the system + + [a]1 >= [a]2 + v = [a]1 + [a]2 + [a]3 + [a]4 = n, + = v + [a]3 >= [a]4 + +and a system for the general lattice constructed upon the same +principle. The system has been discussed by MacMahon, _Phil. Trans._ +vol. clxxxvii. A, 1896, pp. 619-673, with the conclusion that if the +numbers of nodes along the axes of x, y, z be limited not to exceed the +numbers m, n, l respectively, then writing for brevity 1 - x^s = (s), +the generating function is given by the product of the factors + + +----------------------------------------------x + | + | (l + 1) (l + 2) (l + m) + | ------- . ------- ... ------- + | (1) (2) (m) + | + | (l + 2) (l + 3) (l + m + 1) + | ------- . ------- ... ----------- + | (2) (3) (m + 1) + | . . ... . + | . . ... . + | . . ... . + | (l + n) (l + n + 1) (l + m + n - 1) + | ------- . ----------- ... --------------- + | (n) (n + 1) (m + n - 1) + y + +one factor appearing at each point of the lattice. + +In general, partition problems present themselves which depend upon the +solution of a number of simultaneous relations in integers of the form + + [lambda]_1.[alpha]_1 + [lambda]_2.[alpha]_2 + + [lambda]_3.[alpha]_3 + ... >= 0, + +the coefficients [lambda] being given positive or negative integers, and +in some cases the generating function has been determined in a form +which exhibits the fundamental solutions of the problems from which all +other solutions are derivable by addition. (See MacMahon, _Phil. Trans._ +vol. cxcii. (1899), pp. 351-401; and _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._ vol. +xviii. (1899), pp. 12-34.) + + + Method of symmetric functions. + +The number of distributions of n objects (p1p2p3 ...) into parcels (m) +is the coefficient of b^m(p1p2p3 ...)x^n in the development of the +fraction + + 1 + ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- + (1 - b[alpha]x. 1 - b[beta]x. 1 - b[gamma]x ... ) + X (1 - b[alpha]^2x^2. 1 - b[alpha][beta]x^2. 1 - b[beta]^2x^2 ... ) + X (1 - b[alpha]^3x^3. 1 - b[alpha]^2[beta]x^3. 1 - b[alpha][beta][gamma]x^3 ...) + + . . . . . . + +and if we write the expansion of that portion which involves products of +the letters [alpha], [beta], [gamma], ... of degree r in the form + + 1 + h_r1.bx^r + h_r2.b^2x^2r + ..., + +we may write the development + + r=[oo] + [Pi] (1 + h_r1.bx^r + h_r2.b^2x^2r + ...), + r=1 + +and picking out the coefficient of b^m x^n we find + + [Sigma] h_[tau]1.h_[tau]2.h_[tau]3 ..., + t1 t2 t3 + +where [Sigma][tau] = m, [Sigma][tau]t = n. + +The quantities h are symmetric functions of the quantities [alpha], +[beta], [gamma], ... which in simple cases can be calculated without +difficulty, and then the distribution function can be formed. + +_Ex. Gr._--Required the enumeration of the partitions of all +multipartite numbers (p1p2p2 ...) into exactly two parts. We find + + h2^2 = h4 - h3h1 + (h2)^2 + + h3^2 = h6 - h5h1 + h4h2 + + h4^2 = h8 - h7h1 + h6h2 + h5h3 + (h4)^2, + +and paying attention to the fact that in the expression of h_r2 the term +(h_r)^2 is absent when r is uneven, the law is clear. The generating +function is + + h2x^2 + h2h1x^3 + (h4 + h2^2)x^4 + (h4h1 + h3h2)x^5 + (h6 + 2h4h2)x^6 + + (h6h1 + h6h2 + h4h3)x^7 + (h8 + 2h6h2 + h4^2)x8 + ... + +Taking h4 + h2^2 = h4 + {(2) + (1^2)}^2 + + = 2(4) + 3(31) + 4(2^2) + 5(21^2) + 7(1^4), + +the term 5(21^2) indicates that objects such as a, a, b, c can be +partitioned in five ways into two parts. These are a|a, b, c; b|a; a, c; +c|a, a, b; a, a|b, c; a, b|a, c. The function h_{r^s} has been studied. +(See MacMahon, _Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._ vol. xix.) Putting x equal to +unity, the function may be written (h2 + h4 + h6 + ...)(1 + h1 + h2 + h3 ++ h4 + ...), a convenient formula. + + + Method of differential operators. + +The method of differential operators, of wide application to problems of +combinatorial analysis, has for its leading idea the designing of a +function and of a differential operator, so that when the operator is +performed upon the function a number is reached which enumerates the +solutions of the given problem. Generally speaking, the problems +considered are such as are connected with lattices, or as it is possible +to connect with lattices. + + To take the simplest possible example, consider the problem of finding + the number of permutations of n different letters. The function is + here x^n, and the operator (d/dx)^n = [delta]_x^n, yielding + [delta]_x^n.x^n = n! the number which enumerates the permutations. In + fact-- + + [delta]_x.x^n = [delta]_x. x. x. x. x. x. ..., + + and differentiating we obtain a sum of n terms by striking out an x + from the product in all possible ways. Fixing upon any one of these + terms, say x. [x]. x. x. ..., we again operate with [delta]_x by + striking out an x in all possible ways, and one of the terms so + reached is x. [x]. x. [x]. x. .... Fixing upon this term, and again + operating and continuing the process, we finally arrive at one + solution of the problem, which (taking say n = 4) may be said to be in + correspondence with the operator diagram-- + ([x] = striken-out x) + + or say + +-------+-------+-------+-------+ +-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | [d]_x | | | | | 1 | | | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+ +-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | | | [d]_x | | | | | 1 | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+ +-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | | | [d]_x | | | | | 1 | | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+ +-------+-------+-------+-------+ + | [d]_x | | | | | 1 | | | | + +-------+-------+-------+-------+ +-------+-------+-------+-------+ + ([d] = [delta]) + + the number in each row of cempartments denoting an operation of + [delta]_x. Hence the permutation problem is equivalent to that of + placing n units in the compartments of a square lattice of order n in + such manner that each row and each column contains a single unit. + Observe that the method not only enumerates, but also gives a process + by which each solution is actually formed. The same problem is that of + placing n rooks upon a chess-board of n^2 compartments, so that no rook + can be captured by any other rook. + + Regarding these elementary remarks as introductory, we proceed to give + some typical examples of the method. Take a lattice of m columns and n + rows, and consider the problem of placing units in the compartments in + such wise that the sth column shall contain [lambda]_s units (s = 1, + 2, 3, ... m), and the tth row p1 units (t = l, 2, 3, ... n). + + Writing + + 1 + a1x + a2x^2 + ... + ... = (1 + a1x)(1 + a2x)(1 + a3x) ... + + 1 + and D_p = --([d]_[a]1 + [a]1[d]_[a]2 + [a]2[d]_[a]3 + ...)^p, + p! + ([d] = [delta], [a] = [alpha]) + + the multiplication being symbolic, so that D_p is an operator of order + p, the function is + + a_[lambda]1.a_[lambda]2.a_[lambda]3...a_[lambda]m, + + and the operator D_p1.D_p2.D_p3...D_pn. The number + D_p1.D_p2...D_pn.a_[lambda]1.a_[lambda]2.a_[lambda]3...a_[lambda]m + enumerates the solutions. For the mode of operation of D_p upon a + product reference must be made to the section on "Differential + Operators" in the article ALGEBRAIC FORMS. Writing + + a_[l]1.a_[l]2...a_[l]m = + ... + [Delta][Sigma][a]1^p1.[a]2^p2...[a]n^pn + ..., + + or, in partition notation, + + + (1^[l]1)(1^[l]2)...(1^[l]m) = ... + A(p1p2...pn) ... + + D_p1.D_p2...D_pn.(1^[l]1)(1^[l]2)...(1^[l]m) = A, + ([l] = [lambda]) + + and the law by which the operation is performed upon the product shows + that the solutions of the given problem are enumerated by the number + A, and that the process of operation actually represents each + solution. + + _Ex. Gr._--Take [lambda]1 = 3, [lambda]2 = 2, [lambda]4 = 1, + + p1 = 2, p2 = 2, p3 = 1, p4 = 1, + + D2^2D1^2.a3a2a1 = 8, + + and the process yields the eight diagrams:-- + + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + | 1 | 1 | | | 1 | 1 | | | | 1 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + | 1 | 1 | | | 1 | 1 | | | 1 | 1 | | | | 1 | 1 | + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + | 1 | | | | | | 1 | | 1 | | | | 1 | | | + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + | | | 1 | | 1 | | | | 1 | | | | 1 | | | + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | | 1 | 1 | | + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + | 1 | 1 | | | 1 | 1 | | | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + | 1 | | | | | 1 | | | 1 | | | | | 1 | | + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + | | 1 | | | 1 | | | | | 1 | | | 1 | | | + +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ +---+---+---+ + + viz. every solution of the problem. Observe that transposition of the + diagrams furnishes a proof of the simplest of the laws of symmetry in + the theory of symmetric functions. + + For the next example we have a similar problem, but no restriction is + placed upon the magnitude of the numbers which may appear in the + compartments. The function is now + h_[lambda]1.h_[lambda]2...h_[lambda]m, h_[lambda]m being the + homogeneous product sum of the quantities a, of order [lambda]. The + operator is as before + + D_p1.D_p2...D_pn, + + and the solutions are enumerated by + + D_p1.D_p2...D_pn.h_[lambda]1.h_[lambda]2...h_[lambda]m. + + Putting as before [lambda]1 = 2, [lambda]2 = 2, [lambda]1 = 1, p1 = 2, + P2 = 2, p3 = 1, p4 = 1, the reader will have no difficulty in + constructing the diagrams of the eighteen solutions. + + The next and last example of a multitude that might be given shows the + extraordinary power of the method by solving the famous problem of the + "Latin Square," which for hundreds of years had proved beyond the + powers of mathematicians. The problem consists in placing n letters a, + b, c, ... n in the compartments of a square lattice of n^2 + compartments, no compartment being empty, so that no letter occurs + twice either in the same row or in the same column. The function is + here + + {[Sigma][a]1^(2^n-1).[a]2^(2^n-2)...([a]_n-1)^2.[a]n}^n, + + and the operator D_n^{2^(n-1)}, the enumeration being given by + + D_n^{2^(n-1)}.{[Sigma][a]1^(2^n-1).[a]2^(2^n-2)...([a]_n-1)^2.[a]n}^n, + ([a] = [alpha]) + + See _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._ vol. xvi. pt. iv. pp. 262-290. + + AUTHORITIES.--P. A. MacMahon, "Combinatory Analysis: A Review of the + Present State of Knowledge," _Proc. Lond. Math. Soc._ vol. xxviii. + (London, 1897). Here will be found a bibliography of the Theory of + Partitions. Whitworth, _Choice and Chance_; Edouard Lucas, _Theorie + des nombres_ (Paris, 1891); Arthur Cayley, _Collected Mathematical + Papers_ (Cambridge, 1898), ii. 419; iii. 36, 37; iv. 166-170; v. + 62-65, 617; vii. 575; ix. 480-483; x. 16, 38, 611; xi. 61, 62, + 357-364, 589-591; xii. 217-219, 273-274; xiii. 47, 93-113, 269; + Sylvester, _Amer. Jour, of Math._ v. 119 251; MacMahon, _Proc. Lond. + Math. Soc._ xix. 228 et seq.; _Phil. Trans._ clxxxiv. 835-901; clxxxv. + 111-160; clxxxvii. 619-673; cxcii. 351-401; _Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc._ + xvi. 262-290. (P. A. M.) + + + + +COMBUSTION (from the Lat. _comburere_, to burn up), in chemistry, the +process of burning or, more scientifically, the oxidation of a +substance, generally with the production of flame and the evolution of +heat. The term is more customarily given to productions of flame such as +we have in the burning of oils, gas, fuel, &c., but it is conveniently +extended to other cases of oxidation, such as are met with when metals +are heated for a long time in air or oxygen. The term "spontaneous +combustion" is used when a substance smoulders or inflames apparently +without the intervention of any external heat or light; in such cases, +as, for example, in heaps of cotton-waste soaked in oil, the oxidation +has proceeded slowly, but steadily, for some time, until the heat +evolved has raised the mass to the temperature of ignition. + +The explanation of the phenomena of combustion was attempted at very +early times, and the early theories were generally bound up in the +explanation of the nature of fire or flame. The idea that some +extraneous substance is essential to the process is of ancient date; +Clement of Alexandria (c. 3rd century A.D.) held that some "air" was +necessary, and the same view was accepted during the middle ages, when +it had been also found that the products of combustion weighed more than +the original combustible, a fact which pointed to the conclusion that +some substance had combined with the combustible during the process. +This theory was supported by the French physician Jean Ray, who showed +also that in the cases of tin and lead there was a limit to the increase +in weight. Robert Boyle, who made many researches on the origin and +nature of fire, regarded the increase as due to the fixation of the +particles of fire. Ideas identical with the modern ones were expressed +by John Mayow in his _Tractatus quinque medico-physici_ (1674), but his +death in 1679 undoubtedly accounts for the neglect of his suggestions by +his contemporaries. Mayow perceived the similarity of the processes of +respiration and combustion, and showed that one constituent of the +atmosphere, which he termed _spiritus nitro-aereus_, was essential to +combustion and life, and that the second constituent, which he termed +_spiritus nitri acidi_, inhibited combustion and life. At the beginning +of the 18th century a new theory of combustion was promulgated by Georg +Ernst Stahl. This theory regarded combustibility as due to a principle +named phlogiston (from the Gr. [Greek: phlogistos], burnt), which was +present in all combustible bodies in an amount proportional to their +degree of combustibility; for instance, coal was regarded as practically +pure phlogiston. On this theory, all substances which could be burnt +were composed of phlogiston and some other substance, and the operation +of burning was simply equivalent to the liberation of the phlogiston. +The Stahlian theory, originally a theory of combustion, came to be a +general theory of chemical reactions, since it provided simple +explanations of the ordinary chemical processes (when regarded +qualitatively) and permitted generalizations which largely stimulated +its acceptance. Its inherent defect--that the products of combustion +were invariably heavier than the original substance instead of less as +the theory demanded--was ignored, and until late in the 18th century it +dominated chemical thought. Its overthrow was effected by Lavoisier, who +showed that combustion was simply an oxidation, the oxygen of the +atmosphere (which was isolated at about this time by K. W. Scheele and +J. Priestley) combining with the substance burnt. + + + + +COMEDY, the general term applied to a type of drama the chief object of +which, according to modern notions, is to amuse. It is contrasted on the +one hand with tragedy and on the other with farce, burlesque, &c. As +compared with tragedy it is distinguished by having a happy ending (this +being considered for a long time the essential difference), by quaint +situations, and by lightness of dialogue and character-drawing. As +compared with farce it abstains from crude and boisterous jesting, and +is marked by some subtlety of dialogue and plot. It is, however, +difficult to draw a hard and fast line of demarcation, there being a +distinct tendency to combine the characteristics of farce with those of +true comedy. This is perhaps more especially the case in the so-called +"musical comedy," which became popular in Great Britain and America in +the later 19th century, where true comedy is frequently subservient to +broad farce and spectacular effects. + +The word "comedy" is derived from the Gr. [Greek: komoidia], which is a +compound either of [Greek: komos] (revel) and [Greek: aoidos] (singer; +[Greek: aeidein], [Greek: aidein], to sing), or of [Greek: kome] +(village) and [Greek: aoidos]: it is possible that [Greek: komos] itself +is derived from [Greek: kome], and originally meant a village revel. The +word comes into modern usage through the Lat. _comoedia_ and Ital. +_commedia_. It has passed through various shades of meaning. In the +middle ages it meant simply a story with a happy ending. Thus some of +Chaucer's Tales are called comedies, and in this sense Dante used the +term in the title of his poem, _La Commedia_ (cf. his _Epistola_ X., in +which he speaks of the comic style as "loquutio vulgaris, in qua et +mulierculae communicant"; again "comoedia vero remisse et humiliter"; +"differt a tragoedia per hoc, quod t. in principio est admirabilis et +quieta, in fine sive exitu est foetida et horribilis"). Subsequently the +term is applied to mystery plays with a happy ending. The modern usage +combines this sense with that in which Renaissance scholars applied it +to the ancient comedies. + +The adjective "comic" (Gr. [Greek: komikos]), which strictly means that +which relates to comedy, is in modern usage generally confined to the +sense of "laughter-provoking": it is distinguished from "humorous" or +"witty" inasmuch as it is applied to an incident or remark which +provokes spontaneous laughter without a special mental effort. The +phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it, the comic, +have been carefully investigated by psychologists, in contrast with +other phenomena connected with the emotions. It is very generally agreed +that the predominating characteristics are incongruity or contrast in +the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. +It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential, +if not the essential, factor: thus Hobbes speaks of laughter as a +"sudden glory." Physiological explanations have been given by Kant, +Spencer and Darwin. Modern investigators have paid much attention to the +origin both of laughter and of smiling, babies being watched from +infancy and the date of their first smile being carefully recorded. For +an admirable analysis and account of the theories see James Sully, _On +Laughter_ (1902), who deals generally with the development of the "play +instinct" and its emotional expression. + + See DRAMA; also HUMOUR; CARICATURE; PLAY, &c. + + + + +COMENIUS (or KOMENSKY), JOHANN AMOS (1592-1671), a famous writer on +education, and the last bishop of the old church of the Moravian and +Bohemian Brethren, was born at Comna, or, according to another account, +at Niwnitz, in Moravia, of poor parents belonging to the sect of the +Moravian Brethren. Having studied at Herborn and Heidelberg, and +travelled in Holland and England, he became rector of a school at +Prerau, and after that pastor and rector of a school at Fulnek. In 1621 +the Spanish invasion and persecution of the Protestants robbed him of +all he possessed, and drove him into Poland. Soon after he was made +bishop of the church of the Brethren. He supported himself by teaching +Latin at Lissa, and it was here that he published his _Pansophiae +prodromus_ (1630), a work on education, and his _Janua linguarum +reserata_ (1631), the latter of which gained for him a widespread +reputation, being produced in twelve European languages, and also in +Arabic, Persian and Turkish. He subsequently published several other +works of a similar kind, as the _Eruditionis scholasticae janua_ and the +_Janua linguarum trilinguis_. His method of teaching languages, which he +seems to have been the first to adopt, consisted in giving, in parallel +columns, sentences conveying useful information, in the vernacular and +the languages intended to be taught (i.e. in Comenius's works, Latin and +sometimes Greek). In some of his books, as the _Orbis sensualium pictus_ +(1658), pictures are added; this work is, indeed, the first children's +picture-book. In 1638 Comenius was requested by the government of Sweden +to draw up a scheme for the management of the schools of that country; +and a few years after he was invited to join the commission that the +English parliament then intended to appoint, in order to reform the +system of education. He visited England in 1641, but the disturbed state +of politics prevented the appointment of the commission, and Comenius +passed over to Sweden in August 1642. The great Swedish minister, +Oxenstjerna, obtained for him a pension, and a commission to furnish a +plan for regulating the Swedish schools according to his own method. +Devoting himself to the elaboration of his scheme, Comenius settled +first at Elbing, and then at Lissa; but, at the burning of the latter +city by the Poles, he lost nearly all his manuscripts, and he finally +removed to Amsterdam, where he died in 1671. + +As an educationist, Comenius holds a prominent place in history. He was +disgusted at the pedantic teaching of his own day, and he insisted that +the teaching of words and things must go together. Languages should be +taught, like the mother tongue, by conversation on ordinary topics; +pictures, object lessons, should be used; teaching should go hand in +hand with a happy life. In his course he included singing, economy, +politics, world-history, geography, and the arts and handicrafts. He was +one of the first to advocate teaching science in schools. + +As a theologian, Comenius was greatly influenced by Boehme. In his +_Synopsis physicae ad lumen divinum reformatae_ he gives a physical +theory of his own, said to be taken from the book of Genesis. He was +also famous for his prophecies and the support he gave to visionaries. +In his _Lux in tenebris_ he published the visions of Kotterus, Dabricius +and Christina Poniatovia. Attempting to interpret the book of +Revelation, he promised the millennium in 1672, and guaranteed +miraculous assistance to those who would undertake the destruction of +the Pope and the house of Austria, even venturing to prophesy that +Cromwell, Gustavus Adolphus, and Rakoczy, prince of Transylvania, would +perform the task. He also wrote to Louis XIV., informing him that the +empire of the world should be his reward if he would overthrow the +enemies of God. + + Comenius also wrote against the Socinians, and published three + historical works--_Ratio disciplinae ordinisque in unitate fratrum + Bohemorum_, which was republished with remarks by Buddaeus, _Historia + persecutionum ecclesiae Bohemicae_ (1648), and _Martyrologium + Bohemicum_. See Raumer's _Geschichte der Padogogik_, and Carpzov's + _Religionsuntersuchung der bohmischen und mahrischen Bruder_. + + + + +COMET (Gr. [Greek: kometes], long-haired), in astronomy, one of a class +of seemingly nebulous bodies, moving under the influence of the sun's +attraction in very eccentric orbits. A comet is visible only in a small +arc of its orbit near perihelion, differing but slightly from the arc +of a parabola. An obvious but not sharp classification of comets is into +bright comets visible to the naked eye, and telescopic comets which can +be seen only with a telescope. The telescopic class is much the more +numerous of the two, only from 20 to 30 bright comets usually appearing +in any one century, while several telescopic comets, frequently 6 or 8, +are generally observed in the course of a year. + +A bright comet consists of (1) a star-like nucleus; (2) a nebulous haze, +called the _coma_, surrounding this nucleus, the latter fading into the +haze by insensible gradations; (3) a tail or luminous stream flowing +from the coma in a direction opposite to that of the sun. The nuclei and +comae of different comets exhibit few peculiarities to the unaided +vision except in respect to brightness; but the tails of comets differ +widely, both in brightness and in extent. They range from a barely +visible brush or feather of light to a phenomenon extending over a +considerable arc of the heavens, which, comparatively bright near the +head of the comet, becomes gradually fainter and more diffuse towards +its end, fading out by gradations so insensible that a precise length +cannot be assigned to it. When a telescopic comet is first discovered +the nucleus is frequently invisible, the object presenting the +appearance of a faint nebulous haze, scarcely distinguishable in aspect +from a nebula. When the nucleus appears it may at first be only a +comparatively faint condensation, and may or may not develop into a +point of light as the comet approaches the sun. A tail also is generally +not seen at great distances from the sun, but gradually develops as the +comet approaches perihelion, to fade away again as the comet recedes +from the sun. + +A few comets are known to revolve in orbits with a regular period, +while, in the case of others, no evidence is afforded by observation +that the orbit deviates from a parabola. Were the orbit a parabola or +hyperbola the comet would never return (see ORBIT). Periodicity may be +recognized in two ways: observations during the apparition may show that +the motion is in an elliptic and not in a parabolic orbit; or a comet +may have been observed at more than one return. In the latter case the +comet is recognized as distinctly periodic, and therefore a member of +the solar system. The shortest periods range between 3 and 10 years. The +majority of comets which have been observed are shown by observation to +be periodic; the period is usually very long, being sometimes measured +by centuries, but generally by thousands of years. It is conceivable +that a comet might revolve in a hyperbolic orbit. Although there are +several of these bodies observations on which indicate such an orbit, +the deviation from the parabolic form has not in any case been so well +marked as to be fully established. Circumstances lead to the +classification of newly appearing comets as _expected_ and _unexpected_. +An expected comet is a periodic one of which the return is looked for at +a determinate time and in a certain region of the heavens. When this is +not the case the comet is an unexpected one. + +_Physical Constitution of Comets._--The subject of the physical +constitution of these bodies is one as to the details of which much +uncertainty still exists. The considerations on which conclusions in +this field rest are very various, and can best be set forth by beginning +with what we may consider to be the best established facts. + +We must regard it as well established that comets are not, like planets +and satellites, permanent in mass, but are continuously losing minute +portions of the matter which belongs to them, through a progressive +dissipation--at least when they are in the neighbourhood of the sun. +When near perihelion the matter of a comet is seen to be undergoing a +process in the nature of evaporation, successive envelopes of vapour +rising from the nucleus to form the coma, and then gradually repelled +from the sun to form the tail. If this process went on indefinitely +every comet would, in the course of ages, be entirely dissipated. This +result has actually happened in the case of some known comets, the best +established example of which is that of Biela, in which the process of +disintegration was clearly followed. As the amount of matter lost by a +comet at any one return cannot be estimated, and may be very small, it +is impossible to set any limit to the period during which its life may +continue. It is still an unsettled question whether, in every case, the +evaporation will ultimately cease, leaving a residuum as permanent as +any other mass of matter. + +The next question in logical order is one of great difficulty. It is +whether the nucleus of a comet is an opaque solid body, a cluster of +such bodies, or a mass of particles of extreme tenuity. Some light is +thrown on this and other questions by the spectroscope. This instrument +shows in the spectrum of nearly every comet three bright bands, +recognized as those of hydrocarbons. The obvious conclusion is that the +light forming these bands is not reflected sunlight, but light radiated +by the gaseous hydrocarbons. Since a gas at so great a distance from the +sun cannot be heated to incandescence, the question arises how +incandescence is excited. The generalizations of recent years growing +out of the phenomena of radioactivity make it highly probable that the +source is to be found in some form of electrical excitation, produced by +electrons or other corpuscles thrown out by the sun. The resemblance of +the cometary spectrum to the spectrum of hydrocarbons in the Geissler +tube lends great plausibility to this view. It is remarkable that the +great comet of 1882 also showed the bright lines of sodium with such +intensity that they were observed in daylight by R. Copeland and W. O. +Lohse. In addition to these gaseous spectra, all but the fainter comets +show a continuous spectrum, crossed by the Fraunhofer lines, which is +doubtless due to reflected sunlight. It happens that, since the +spectroscope has been perfected, no comet of great brilliancy has been +favourably situated for observation. Until the opportunity is offered, +the conclusions to be derived from spectroscopic observation cannot be +further extended. + +PLATE I. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--COMET 1892, I. (SWIFT), 1892, APRIL 26. + By permission of Lick Observatory (E. E. Barnard)] + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--COMET C, 1908, NOV. 16d. 13h. 10m. + By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).] + +PLATE II. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--HALLEY'S COMET, 1910, APRIL 27. + By permission of Helwan Observatory, Egypt.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--HALLEY'S COMET, 1910, MAY 4. + By permission of Yerkes Observatory (E. E. Barnard).] + +In the telescope the nucleus of a bright comet appears as an opaque +mass, one or more seconds in diameter, the absolute dimensions comparing +with those of the satellites of the planets, sometimes, indeed, equal to +our moon. But the actual results of micrometric measures are found to +differ very widely. In the case of Donati's comet of 1858 the nucleus +seemed to grow smaller as perihelion was approached. This is evidently +due to the fact that the coma immediately around the nucleus was so +bright as apparently to form a part of it at considerable distances from +the sun. G. P. Bond estimated the diameter of the actual nucleus at 500 +m. That the nucleus is a body of appreciable mass seems to be made +probable by the fact that, except for the central attraction of such a +body, a comet would speedily be dissipated by the different attractions +of the sun on different parts of the mass, which would result in each +particle pursuing an orbit of its own. It follows that there must be a +mass sufficient to hold the parts of the comet, if not absolutely +together, at least in each other's immediate neighbourhood. How great a +central mass may be required for this is a subject not yet investigated. +It might be supposed that the amount of matter must be sufficient to +make the nucleus quite opaque. But two considerations based on +observations militate against this view. One is that an opaque body, +reflecting much sunlight, would show a brighter continuous spectrum than +has yet been found in any comet. Another and yet more remarkable +observation is on record which goes far to prove not only the tenuity, +but the transparency of a cometary nucleus. The great comet of 1882 made +a transit over the sun on the 17th of September, an occurrence unique in +the history of astronomy. But the fact of the transit escaped attention +except at the observatory of the Cape of Good Hope. Here the comet was +watched by W. H. Finlay and by W. L. Elkin as it approached the sun, and +was kept in sight until it came almost or quite in contact with the +sun's disk, when it disappeared. It should, if opaque, have appeared a +few minutes later, projected on the sun's disk; but not a trace of it +could be seen. The sun was approaching Table Mountain at the critical +moment, and its limb was undulating badly, making the detection of a +minute point difficult. The possibility of a very small opaque nucleus +is therefore still left open; yet the remarkable conclusion still holds, +that, immediately around a possible central nucleus, the matter of the +head of the comet was so rare as not to intercept any appreciable +fraction of the sun's light. This result seems also to show that, with +the possible exception of a very small central mass, what seems to +telescopic vision as a nucleus is really only the central portion of the +coma, which, as the distance from the centre increases, becomes less and +less dense by imperceptible gradations. + +Another fact tending towards this same conclusion is that after this +comet passed perihelion it showed several nuclei following each other. +Evidently the powerful attraction of the sun had separated the parts of +the apparent nucleus, which were following each other in nearly the same +orbit. As they could not have been completely brought together again, we +may suppose that in such cases the smaller nuclei were permanently +separated from the main body. In addition to this, the remarkable +similarity of the orbit of this comet to that of several others +indicates a group of bodies moving in nearly the same orbit. The other +members of the group were the great comets of 1843, 1880 and 1887. The +latter, though so bright as to be conspicuous to the naked eye, showed +no nucleus whatever. The closely related orbits of the four bodies are +also remarkable for approaching nearer the sun at perihelion than does +the orbit of any other known body. All of these comets pass through the +matter of the sun's corona with a velocity of more than 100 m. per +second without suffering any retardation. As it is beyond all reasonable +probability that several independent bodies should have moved in orbits +so nearly the same, the conclusion is that the comets were originally +portions of one mass, which gradually separated in the course of ages by +the powerful attraction of the sun as the collection successively passed +the perihelion. It may be remarked that observations on the comet of +1843 seemed to show a slight ellipticity of the orbit, corresponding to +a period of several centuries; but the deviation of all the orbits from +a parabola is too slight to be established by observations. The periods +of the comets are therefore unknown except that they must be counted by +centuries and possibly by thousands of years. + +Another fact which increases the complexity of the question is the +well-established connexion of comets with meteoric showers. The shower +of November 13-15, now known as the Leonids, which recurred for several +centuries at intervals of about one-third of a century, are undoubtedly +due to a stream of particles left behind by a comet observed in 1866. +The same is true of Biela's comet, the disintegrated particles of which +give rise to the Andromedids, and probably true also of the Perseids, or +August meteors, the orbits of which have a great similarity to a comet +seen in 1862. The general and well-established conclusion seems to be +that, in addition to the visible features of a comet, every such body is +followed in its orbit by a swarm of meteoric particles which must have +been gradually detached and separated from it. (See METEOR.) + +The source of the repulsive force by which the matter forming the tail +of a comet is driven away from the sun is another question that has not +yet been decisively answered. Two causes have been suggested, of which +one has only recently been brought to light. This is the repulsion of +the sun's rays, a form of action the probability of which was shown by +J. Clerk Maxwell in 1870, and which was experimentally established about +thirty years later. The intensity of this action on a particle is +proportional to the surface presented by the particle to the rays, and +therefore to the square of its diameter, while its mass, and therefore +its gravitation to the sun, are proportional to the cube of the +diameter. It follows that if the size and mass of a particle in space +are below a certain limit, the repulsion of the rays will exceed the +attraction of the sun, and the particle will be driven off into space. +But, in order that this repulsive force may act, the particles, however +minute they may be, must be opaque. Moreover, theory shows that there is +a lower as well as an upper limit to their magnitude, and that it is +only between certain definable limits of magnitude that the force acts. +Conceiving the particle to be of the density of water, and considering +its diameter as a diminishing variable, theory shows that the repulsion +will balance gravity when the diameter has reached 0.0015 of a +millimetre. As the diameter is reduced below this limit the ratio of +the repulsive to the attractive force increases, but soon reaches a +maximum, after which it diminishes down to a diameter of 0.00007 mm., +when the two actions are again balanced. Below this limit the light +speedily ceases to act. It follows that a purely gaseous body, such as +would emit a characteristic bright line spectrum, would not be subject +to the repulsion. We must therefore conclude that both the solid and +gaseous forms of matter are here at play, and this view is consonant +with the fact that the comet leaves behind it particles of meteoric +matter. + +Another possible cause is electrical repulsion. The probability of this +cause is suggested by recent discoveries in radioactivity and by the +fact that the sun undoubtedly sends forth electrical emanations which +may ionize the gaseous molecules rising from the nucleus, and lead to +their repulsion from the sun, thus resulting in the phenomena of the +tail. But well-established laws are not yet sufficiently developed to +lead to definite conclusions on this point, and the question whether +both causes are combined, and, if not, to which one the phenomena in +question are mainly due, must be left to the future. + +A curious circumstance, which may be explained by a duplex character of +the matter forming a cometary tail, is the great difference between the +visual and photographic aspect of these bodies. The soft, delicate, +feathery-like form which the comet with its tail presents to the eye is +wanting in a photograph, which shows principally a round head with an +irregularly formed tail much like the knotted stalk of a plant. It +follows that the light emitted by the central axis of the tail greatly +exceeds in actinic power the diffuse light around it. A careful +comparison of the form and intensity of the photographic and visual +tails may throw much light on the question of the constitution of these +bodies, but no good opportunity of making the comparison has been +afforded since the art of celestial photography has been brought to its +present state of perfection. + +The main conclusion to which the preceding facts and considerations +point is that the matter of a comet is partly solid and partly gaseous. +The gaseous form is shown conclusively by the spectroscope, but in view +of the extreme delicacy of the indications with this instrument no +quantitative estimate of the gas can be made. As there is no central +mass sufficient to hold together a continuous atmosphere of elastic gas +of any sort, it seems probable that the gaseous molecules are only those +rising from the coma, possibly by ordinary evaporation, but more +probably by the action of the ultra-violet and other rays of the sun +giving rise to an ionization of disconnected gaseous molecules. The +matter cannot be wholly gaseous because in this case there could be no +central force sufficient to keep the parts of the comet together. + +The facts also point to the conclusion that the solid matter of a comet +is formed of a swarm or cloud of small disconnected masses, probably +having much resemblance to the meteoric masses which are known to be +flying through the solar system and possibly of the same general kind as +these. The question whether there is any central solid of considerable +mass is still undecided; it can only be said that if so, it is probably +small relative to cosmic masses in general--more likely less than +greater than 100 m. in diameter. The light of the comet therefore +proceeds from two sources: one the incandescence of gases, the other the +sunlight reflected from the solid parts. No estimate can be formed of +the ratio between these two kinds of light until a bright comet shall be +spectroscopically observed during an entire apparition. + +_Origin and Orbits of Comets._--The great difference which we have +pointed out between comets and the permanent bodies of the solar system +naturally suggested the idea that these bodies do not belong to that +system at all, but are nebulous masses, scattered through the stellar +spaces, and brought one by one into the sphere of the sun's attraction. +The results of this view are easily shown to be incompatible with the +observed facts. The sun, carrying the whole solar system with it, is +moving through space with a speed of about 10 m. per second. If it +approached a comet nearly at rest the result would be a relative motion +of this amount which, as the comet came nearer, would be constantly +increased, and would result in the comet describing relative to the sun +a markedly hyperbolic orbit, deviating too widely from a parabola to +leave any doubt, even in the most extreme cases. Moreover, a large +majority of comets would then have their aphelia in the direction of the +sun's motion, and therefore their perihelia in the opposite direction. +Neither of these results corresponds to the fact. The conclusion is that +if we regard a comet as a body not belonging to the solar system, it is +at least a body which before its approach to the sun had the same motion +through the stellar spaces that the sun has. As this unity of motion +must have been maintained from the beginning, we may regard comets as +belonging to the solar system in the sense of not being visitors from +distant regions of space. + +The acceptance of this seemingly inevitable conclusion leads to another: +that no comet yet known moves in a really hyperbolic orbit, but that the +limit of eccentricity must be regarded as 1, or that of the parabola. It +is true that seeming evidence of hyperbolic eccentricity is sometimes +afforded by observations and regarded by some astronomers as sufficient. +The objections to the reality of the hyperbolic orbit are two: (1) A +comet moving in a decidedly hyperbolic orbit must have come from so +great a distance within a finite time, say a few millions of years, as +to have no relation to the sun, and must after its approach to the sun +return into space, never again to visit our system. In this case the +motion of the sun through space renders it almost infinitely improbable +that the orbit would have been so nearly a parabola as all such orbits +are actually found to be. (2) The apparent deviation from a very +elongated ellipse has never been in any case greater than might have +been the result of errors of observation on bodies of this class. + +This being granted, a luminous view of the causes which lead to the +observed orbits of comets is readily gained by imagining these bodies to +be formed of nebulous masses, which originally accompanied the sun in +its journey through space, but at distances, in most cases, vastly +greater than that of the farthest planet. Such a mass, when drawn +towards the sun, would move round it in a nearly parabolic orbit, +similar to the actual orbits of the great majority of comets. The period +might be measured by thousands, tens of thousands, or hundreds of +thousands of years, according to the distances of the comet in the +beginning; but instead of bodies extraneous to the system, we should +have bodies properly belonging to the system and making revolutions +around the sun. + +Were it not for the effect of planetary attraction long periods like +these would be the general rule, though not necessarily universal. But +at every return to perihelion the motion of a comet will be to some +extent either accelerated or retarded by the action of Jupiter or any +other planet in the neighbourhood of which it may pass. Commonly the +action will be so slight as to have little influence on the orbit and +the time of revolution. But should the comet chance to pass the orbit of +Jupiter just in front of the planet, its motion would be retarded and +the orbit would be changed into one of shorter period. Should it pass +behind the planet, its motion would be accelerated and its period +lengthened. In such cases the orbit might be changed to a hyperbola, and +then the comet would never return. It follows that there is a tendency +towards a gradual but constant diminution in the total number of comets. +If we call [Delta]e the amount by which the eccentricity of a cometary +orbit is less than unity, [Delta]e will be an extremely minute fraction +in the case of the original orbits. If we call [+-][delta] the change which +the eccentricity 1 - [Delta]e undergoes by the action of the planets +during the passage of the comet through our system, it will leave the +system with the eccentricity 1 - [Delta]e [+-] [delta]. The possibilities +are even whether [delta] shall be positive or negative. If negative, the +eccentricity will be diminished and the period shortened. If positive, +and greater than [Delta]e, the eccentricity 1 - [Delta]e + [delta] will +be greater than 1, and then the comet will be thrown into a hyperbolic +orbit and become for ever a wanderer through the stellar spaces. + +The nearer a comet passes to a planet, especially to Jupiter, the +greatest planet, the greater [delta] may be. If [delta] is a +considerable negative fraction, the eccentricity will be so reduced that +the comet will after the approach be one of short period. It follows +that, however long the period of a comet may be, there is a possibility +of its becoming one of short period if it approaches Jupiter. There have +been several cases of this during the past two centuries, the most +recent being that of Brooks's comet, 1889, V. Soon after its discovery +this body was found to have a period of only about seven years. The +question why it had not been observed at previous returns was settled +after the orbit had been determined by computing its motion in the past. +It was thus found that in October 1886 the comet had passed in the +immediate neighbourhood of Jupiter, the action of which had been such as +to change its orbit from one of long period to the short observed +period. A similar case was that of Lexel's comet, seen in 1770. +Originally moving in an unknown orbit, it encountered the planet +Jupiter, made two revolutions round the sun, in the second of which it +was observed, then again encountered the planet, to be thrown out of its +orbit into one which did not admit of determination. The comet was never +again found. + +A general conclusion which seems to follow from these conditions, and is +justified by observations, so far as the latter go, is that comets are +not to be regarded as permanent bodies like the planets, but that the +conglomerations of matter which compose them are undergoing a process of +gradual dissipation in space. This process is especially rapid in the +case of the fainter periodic comets. It was first strikingly brought out +in the case of Biela's comet. This object was discovered in 1772, was +observed to be periodic after several revolutions had been made, and was +observed with a fair degree of regularity at different returns until +1852. At the previous apparition it was found to have separated into two +masses, and in 1852 these masses were so widely separated that they +might be considered as forming two comets. Notwithstanding careful +search at times and places when the comet was due, no trace of it has +since been seen. An examination of the table of periodic comets given at +the end of this article will show that the same thing is probably true +of several other comets, especially Brorsen's and Tempel's, which have +each made several revolutions since last observed, and have been sought +for in vain. + +In view of the seemingly inevitable dissipation of comets in the course +of ages, and of the actually observed changes of their orbits by the +attraction of Jupiter, the question arises whether the orbits of all +comets of short period may not have been determined by the attraction of +the planets, especially of Jupiter. In this case the orbit would, for a +period of several centuries, have continued to nearly intersect that of +the planet. We find, as a matter of fact, that several periodic comets +either pass near Jupiter or have their aphelia in the neighbourhood of +the orbit of Jupiter. The approach, however, is not sufficiently close +to have led to the change unless in former times the proximity of the +orbits was much greater than it is now. As the orbits of all the bodies +of the solar system are subject to a slow secular change of their form +and position, this may only show that it must have been thousands of +years since the comet became one of short period. The two cases of most +difficulty are those of Halley's and Encke's comets. The orbit of the +former is so elongated and so inclined to the general plane of the +planetary orbits that its secular variation must be very slow indeed. +But it does not pass near the orbit of any planet except Venus; and even +here the proximity is far from being sufficient to have produced an +appreciable change in the period. The orbit of Encke's comet is entirely +within the orbit of Jupiter, and it also cannot have passed near enough +to a planet for thousands of years to have had its orbit changed by the +action in question. It therefore seems difficult to regard these two +comets as other than permanent members of the solar system. + +_Special Periodic Comets._--One of the most remarkable periodic comets +with which we are acquainted is that known to astronomers as Halley's. +Having perceived that the elements of the comet of 1682 were nearly the +same as those of two comets which had respectively appeared in 1531 and +1607, Edmund Halley concluded that all the three orbits belonged to the +same comet, of which the periodic time was about 76 years. After a rough +estimate of the perturbations it must sustain from the attraction of the +planets, he predicted its return for 1757,--a bold prediction at that +time, but justified by the event, for the comet again made its +appearance as was expected, though it did not pass through its +perihelion till the month of March 1759, the attraction of Jupiter and +Saturn having caused, as was computed by Clairault previously to its +return, a retardation of 618 days. This comet had been observed in 1066, +and the accounts which have been preserved represent it as having then +appeared to be four times the size of Venus, and to have shone with a +light equal to a fourth of that of the moon. History is silent +respecting it from that time till the year 1456, when it passed very +near to the earth: its tail then extended over 60 deg. of the heavens, +and had the form of a sabre. It returned to its perihelion in 1835, and +was well observed in almost every observatory. But its brightness was +far from comparing with the glorious accounts of its former apparitions. +That this should have been due to the process of dissipation does not +seem possible in so short a period; we must therefore consider either +that the earlier accounts are greatly exaggerated, or that the +brightness of the comet is subject to changes from some unknown cause. +Previous appearances of Halley's comet have been calculated by J. R. +Hind, and more recently by P. H. Cowell and A. C. D. Crommelin of +Greenwich, the latter having carried the comet back to 87 B.C. with +certainty, and to 240 B.C. with fair probability. It was detected by Max +Wolf at Heidelberg on plates exposed on Sept. 11, 1909, and subsequently +on a Greenwich plate of Sept. 9. + +The known comet of shortest period bears the name of J. F. Encke, the +astronomer who first investigated its orbit and showed its periodicity. +It was originally discovered in 1789, but its periodicity was not +recognized until 1818, after it had been observed at several returns. +This comet has given rise to a longer series of investigations than any +other, owing to Encke's result that the orbit was becoming smaller, and +the revolutions therefore accelerated, by some unknown cause, of which +the most plausible was a resisting medium surrounding the sun. As this +comet is almost the only one that passes within the orbit of Mercury, it +is quite possible that it alone would show the effect of such a medium. +Recent investigations of this subject have been made at the Pulkova +Observatory, first by F. E. von Asten and later by J. O. Backlund who, +in 1909, was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society +for his researches in this field. During some revolutions there was +evidence of a slight acceleration of the return, and during others there +was not. + +The following is a list (compiled in 1909) of comets which are well +established as periodic, through having been observed at one or more +returns. In addition to what has already been said of several comets in +this list the following remarks may be made. Tuttle's comet was first +seen by P. F. A. Mechain in 1790, but was not recognized as periodic +until found by Tuttle in 1858, when the resemblance of the two orbits +led to the conclusion of the identity of the bodies, the period of which +was soon made evident by continued observations. The comets of Pons and +Olbers are remarkable for having an almost equal period. But their +orbits are otherwise totally different, so that there does not seem to +be any connexion between them. Brorsen's comet seems also to be +completely dissipated, not having been seen since 1879. + + _List of Periodic Comets observed at more than one Return._ + + +------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+-----------+-----------+ + |Designation.| 1st Perih. | Last Perih. | Period|Least Dist.| Gr. Dist. | + | | Passage. | Passage obs. | Years.|Ast. Units.|Ast. Units.| + +------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+-----------+-----------+ + |Halley | 1456 June 8.2 | 1835 Nov. 15.9 | 75.9 | 0.58 | 35.42 | + |Biela | 1772 Feb. 16.7 | 1852 Sept. 23.4 | 6.67 | 0.98 | 6.18 | + |Encke | 1786 Jan. 30.9 | 1905 Jan. 11.4 | 3.29 | 0.34 | 4.08 | + |Tuttle | 1790 Jan. 30.9 | 1899 May 4.5 | 13.78 | 1.03 | 10.53 | + |Poris | 1812 Sept. 15.3 | 1884 Jan. 25.7 | 72.28 | 0.78 | 33.70 | + |Olbers | 1815 April 26.0 | 1887 Oct. 8.5 | 73.32 | 1.21 | 33.99 | + |Winnecke | 1819 July 18.9 | 1898 Mar. 20.4 | 5.67 | 0.77 | 5.55 | + |Faye | 1843 Oct. 17.1 | 1896 Mar. 19.3 | 7.50 | 1.69 | 5.93 | + |De Vico | 1844 Sept. 2.5 | 1894 Oct. 12.2 | 5.66 | 1.19 | 5.01 | + |Brorsen | 1846 Feb. 11.1 | 1879 Mar. 30.5 | 5.52 | 0.65 | 5.63 | + |D'Arrest | 1851 July 8.7 | 1897 May 21.7 | 6.56 | 1.17 | 5.71 | + |Tempel I. | 1867 May 23.9 | 1879 May 7.0 | 5.84 | 1.56 | 4.82 | + |Tempel-Swift| 1869 Nov. 18.8 | 1891 Nov. 15.0 | 5.51 | 1.06 | 5.16 | + |Tempel II. | 1873 June 25.2 | 1904 Nov. 10.5 | 5.28 | 1.34 | 4.66 | + |Wolf | 1884 Nov. 17.8 | 1898 July 4.6 | 6.80 | 1.59 | 5.57 | + |Finlay | 1886 Nov. 22.4 | 1893 July 12.2 | 6.64 | 0.99 | 6.17 | + |Brooks | 1889 Sept. 30.3 | 1903 Dec. 6.5 | 7.10 | 1.95 | 5.44 | + |Holmes | 1892 June 13.2 | 1899 April 28.1 | 6.89 | 2.14 | 4.50 | + +------------+-----------------+-----------------+-------+-----------+-----------+ + +There are also a number of cases in which a comet has been observed +through one apparition, and found to be apparently periodic, but which +was not seen to return at the end of its supposed period. In some of +these cases it seems likely that the comet passed near the planet +Jupiter and thus had its orbit entirely changed. It is possible that in +other cases the apparent periodicity is due to the unavoidable errors of +observation to which, owing to their diffused outline, the nuclei of +comets are liable. (S. N.) + + + + +COMET-SEEKER, a small telescope (q.v.) adapted especially to searching +for comets: commonly of short focal length and large aperture, in order +to secure the greatest brilliancy of light. + + + + +COMILLA, or KUMILLA, a town of British India, headquarters of Tippera +district in Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on the river Gumti, with +a station on the Assam-Bengal railway, 96 m. from the coast terminus at +Chittagong. Pop. (1901) 19,169. The town has many large tanks and an +English church, built in 1875. + + + + +COMINES, or COMMINES (Flem. _Komen_), a town of western Flanders, 13 m. +N.N.W. of Lille by rail. It is divided by the river Lys, leaving one +part on French (department of Nord), the other on Belgian territory +(province of West Flanders). Pop. of the French town 6359 (1906); of the +Belgian town, 6453 (1904). The former has a belfry of the 14th century, +restored in the 17th and 19th centuries, and remains of a chateau. +Comines carries on the spinning of flax, wool and cotton. + + + + +COMITIA, the name applied, always in technical and generally in popular +phraseology, to the most formal types of gathering of the sovereign +people in ancient Rome. It is the plural of _comitium_, the old +"meeting-place" (Lat. _cum_, together, _ire_, to go) on the north-west +of the Forum. The Romans had three words for describing gatherings of +the people. These were _concilium_, _comitia_ and _contio_. Of these +concilium had the most general significance. It could be applied to any +kind of meeting and is often used to describe assemblies in foreign +states. It was, therefore, a word that might be employed to denote an +organized gathering of a portion of the Roman people such as the plebs, +and in this sense is contrasted with _comitia_, which when used strictly +should signify an assembly of the whole people. Thus the Roman +draughtsman who wishes to express the idea "magistrates of any kind as +president of assemblies" writes "Magistratus queiquomque comitia +conciliumve habebit" (_Lex Latina tabulae Bantinae_, l. 5), and +formalism required that a magistrate who summoned only a portion of the +people to meet him should, in his summons, use the word _concilium_. +This view is expressed by Laelius Felix, a lawyer probably of the age of +Hadrian, when he writes "Is qui non universum populum, sed partem +aliquam adesse jubet, non comitia, sed concilium edicere debet" +(Gellius, _Noctes Atticae_, xv. 27). But popular phraseology did not +conform to this canon, and _comitia_, which gained in current Latin the +sense of "elections" was sometimes used of the assemblies of the plebs +(see the instances in Botsford, distinction between _Comitia_ and +_Concilium_, p. 23). The distinction between _comitia_ and _contio_ was +more clearly marked. Both were formal assemblies convened by a +magistrate; but while, in the case of the _comitia_, the magistrate's +purpose was to ask a question of the people and to elicit their binding +response, his object in summoning a _contio_ was merely to bring the +people together either for their instruction or for a declaration of his +will as expressed in an edict ("contionem habere est verba facere ad +populum sine ulla rogatione," Gell. op. cit. xiii. 6). The word comitia +merely means "meetings." + +The earliest _comitia_ was one organized on the basis of parishes +(_curiae_) and known in later times as the _comitia curiata_. The +_curia_ voted as a single unit and thus furnished the type for that +system of group-voting which runs through all the later organization of +the popular assemblies. This _comitia_ must originally have been +composed exclusively of patricians (q.v.); but there is reason to +believe that, at an early period of the Republic, it had, in imitation +of the centuriate organization, come to include plebeians (see CURIA). +The organization which gave rise to the _comitia centuriata_ was the +result of the earliest steps in the political emancipation of the plebs. +Three stages in this process may be conjectured. In the first place the +plebeians gained full rights of ownership and transfer, and could thus +become freeholders of the land which they occupied and of the +appurtenances of this land (_res mancipi_). This legal capacity rendered +them liable to military service as heavy-armed fighting men, and as such +they were enrolled in the military units called _centuriae_. When the +enrolment was completed the whole host (_exercitus_) was the best +organized and most representative gathering that Rome could show. It +therefore either usurped, or became gradually invested with voting +powers, and gained a range of power which for two centuries (508-287 +B.C.) made it the dominant assembly in the state. But its aristocratic +organization, based as this was on property qualifications which gave +the greatest voting power to the richest men, prevented it from being a +fitting channel for the expression of plebeian claims. Hence the plebs +adopted a new political organization of their own. The tribunate called +into existence a purely plebeian assembly, firstly, for the election of +plebeian magistrates; secondly, for jurisdiction in cases where these +magistrates had been injured; thirdly, for presenting petitions on +behalf of the plebs through the consuls to the _comitia centuriata_. +This right of petitioning developed into a power of legislation. The +stages of the process (marked by the Valerio-Horatian laws of 449 B.C., +the Publilian law of 339 B.C., and the Hortensian law of 287 B.C.) are +unknown; but it is probable that the two first of the laws progressively +weakened the discretionary power of senate and consuls in admitting such +petitions; and that the Hortensian law fully recognized the right of +resolutions of the plebs (_plebiscita_) to bind the whole community. The +plebeian assembly, which had perhaps originally met by _curiae_, was +organized on the basis of the territorial tribes in 471 B.C. This change +suggested a renewed organization of the whole people for comitial +purposes. The _comitia tributa populi_ was the result. This assembly +seems to have been already in existence at the epoch of the Twelve +Tables in 451 B.C., its electoral activity is perhaps attested in 447 +B.C., and it appears as a legislative body in 357 B.C. + +In spite of the formal differences of these four assemblies and the real +distinction springing from the fact that patricians were not members of +the plebeian bodies, the view which is appropriate to the developed +Roman constitution is that the people expressed its will equally through +all, although the mode of expression varied with the channel. This will +was in theory unlimited. It was restricted only by the conservatism of +the Roman, by the condition that the initiative must always be taken by +a magistrate, by the _de facto_ authority of the senate, and by the +magisterial veto which the senate often had at its command (see SENATE). +There were no limitations on the legislative powers of the _comitia_ +except such as they chose to respect or which they themselves created +and might repeal. They never during the Republican period lost the right +of criminal jurisdiction, in spite of the fact that so many spheres of +this jurisdiction had been assigned in perpetuity to standing +commissions (_quaestiones perpetuae_). This power of judging exercised +by the assemblies had in the main developed from the use of the right of +appeal (_provocatio_) against the judgments of the magistrates. But it +is probable that, in the developed procedure, where it was known that +the judgment pronounced might legally give rise to the appeal, the +magistrate pronounced no sentence, but brought the case at once before +the people. The case was then heard in four separate _contiones_. After +these hearings the _comitia_ gave its verdict. Finally, the people +elected to every magistracy with the exception of the occasional offices +of Dictator and Interrex. The distribution of these functions amongst +the various _comitia_, and the differences in their organization, were +as follows:-- + +The _comitia curiata_ had in the later Republic become a merely formal +assembly. Its main function was that of passing the _lex curiata_ which +was necessary for the ratification both of the _imperium_ of the higher +magistracies of the people, and of the _potestas_ of those of lower +rank. This assembly also met, under the name of the _comitia calata_ and +under the presidency of the pontifex maximus, for certain religious +acts. These were the inauguration of the rex sacrorum and the flamens, +and that abjuration of hereditary worship (_detestatio sacrorum_) which +was made by a man who passed from his clan (_gens_) either by an act of +adrogation (see ROMAN LAW and ADOPTION) or by transition from the +patrician to the plebeian order. For the purpose of passing the _lex +curiata_, and probably for its other purposes as well, this _comitia_ +was in Cicero's day represented by but thirty lictors (Cic. _de Lege +Agraria_, ii. 12, 31). + +The _comitia centuriata_ could be summoned and presided over only by the +magistrates with _imperium_. The consuls were its usual presidents for +elections and for legislation, but the praetors summoned it for purposes +of jurisdiction. It elected the magistrates with _imperium_ and the +censors, and alone had the power of declaring war. According to the +principle laid down in the Twelve Tables (Cicero, _de Legibus_, iii. 4. +11) capital cases were reserved for this assembly. It was not frequently +employed as a legislative body after the two assemblies of the tribes, +which were easier to summon and organize, had been recognized as +possessing sovereign rights. The internal structure of the _comitia +centuriata_ underwent a great change during the Republic--a change which +has been conjecturally attributed to the censorship of Flaminius in 220 +B.C. (Mommsen, _Staatsrecht_, iii. p. 270). In the early scheme, at a +time when a pecuniary valuation had replaced land and its appurtenances +(_res mancipi_) as the basis of qualification, five divisions +(_classes_) were recognized whose property was assessed respectively at +100,000, 75,000, 50,000, 25,000 and 11,000 (or 12,500) asses. The first +class contained 80 centuries; the second, third and fourth 20 each; the +fifth 30. Added to these were the 18 centuries of knights (see EQUITES). +The combined vote of the first class and the knights was thus +represented by 98 centuries; that of the whole of the other _classes_ +(including 4 or 5 centuries of professional corporations connected with +the army, such as the _fabri_ and 1 century of _proletarii_, i.e. of all +persons below the minimum census) was represented by 95 or 96 centuries. +Thus the upper classes in the community possessed more than half the +votes in the assembly. The newer scheme aimed at a greater equality of +voting power; but it has been differently interpreted. The +interpretation most usually accepted, which was first suggested by +Pantagathus, a 17th-century scholar, is based on the view that the five +_classes_ were distributed over the tribes in such a manner that there +were 2 centuries of each class in a single tribe. As the number of the +tribes was 35, the total number of centuries would be 350. To these we +must add 18 centuries of knights, 4 of _fabri_, &c., and 1 of +_proletarii_. Here the first class and the knights command but 88 votes +out of a total of 373. Mommsen's interpretation (_Staatsrecht_, iii. p. +275) was different. He allowed the 70 votes for the 70 centuries of the +first class, but thought that the 280 centuries of the other classes +were so combined as to form only 100 votes. The total votes in the +comitia would thus be 70 + 100 + 5 (_fabri_, &c.) + 18 (knights), i.e. +193, as in the earlier arrangement. In 88 B.C. a return was made to the +original and more aristocratic system by a law passed by the consuls +Sulla and Pompeius. At least this seems to be the meaning of Appian +(_Bellum Civile_, i. 59) when he says [Greek: esegounto ... tas +cheirotonias me kata phylas alla kata lochous ... gignesthai]. But this +change was not permanent as the more liberal system prevails in the +Ciceronian period. + +The _comitia tributa_ was in the later Republic the usual organ for laws +passed by the whole people. Its presidents were the magistrates of the +people, usually the consuls and praetors, and, for purposes of +jurisdiction, the curule aediles. It elected these aediles and other +lower magistrates of the people. Its jurisdiction was limited to +monetary penalties. + +The _concilium plebis_, although voting, like this last assembly, by +tribes, could be summoned and presided over only by plebeian +magistrates, and never included the patricians. Its utterances +(_plebiscita_) had the full force of law; it elected the tribunes of the +plebs and the plebeian aediles, and it pronounced judgment on the +penalties which they proposed. The right of this assembly to exercise +capital jurisdiction was questioned; but it possessed the undisputed +right of pronouncing outlawry (_aquae et ignis interdictio_) against any +one already in exile (Livy xxv. 4, and xxvi. 3). + +When the tenure of the religious colleges--formerly filled up by +co-optation--was submitted to popular election, a change effected by a +_lex Domitia_ of 104 B.C., a new type of _comitia_ was devised for this +purpose. The electoral body was composed of 17 tribes selected by lot +from the whole body of 35. + +There was a body of rules governing the _comitia_ which were concerned +with the time and place of meeting, the forms of promulgation and the +methods of voting. Valid meetings might be held on any of the 194 +"comitial" days of the year which were not market or festal days +(_nundinae, feriae_). The _comitia curiata_ and the two assemblies of +the tribes met within the walls, the former usually in the Comitium, the +latter in the Forum or on the Area Capitolii; but the elections at these +assemblies were in the later Republic held in the Campus Martius outside +the walls. The _comitia centuriata_ was by law compelled to meet outside +the city and its gathering place was usually the Campus. Promulgation +was required for the space of 3 _nundinae_ (i.e. 24 days) before a +matter was submitted to the people. The voting was preceded by a +_contio_ at which a limited debate was permitted by the magistrate. In +the assemblies of the _curiae_ and the tribes the voting of the groups +took place simultaneously, in that of the centuries in a fixed order. In +elections as well as in legislative acts an absolute majority was +required, and hence the candidate who gained a mere relative majority +was not returned. + +The _comitia_ survived the Republic. The last known act of comitial +legislation belongs to the reign of Nerva (A.D. 96-98). After the +essential elements in the election of magistrates had passed to the +senate in A.D. 14, the formal announcement of the successful candidates +(_renuntiatio_) still continued to be made to the popular assemblies. +Early in the 3rd century Dio Cassius still saw the _comitia centuriata_ +meeting with all its old solemnities (Dio Cassius lviii. 20). + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Mommsen, _Romisches Staatsrecht_, iii. p. 300 foll. + (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1887), and _Romische Forschungen_, Bd. i. (Berlin, + 1879); Soltau, _Entstehung und Zusammensetzung der altromischen + Volksversammlungen_, and _Die Gultigkeit der Plebiscite_ (Berlin, + 1884); Huschke, _Die Verfassung des Konigs Servius Tullius als + Grundlage zu einer romischen Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Heidelberg, + 1838); Borgeaud, _Le Plebiscite dans l'antiquite. Grece et Rome_ + (Geneva, 1838); Greenidge, _Roman Public Life_, p. 65 foll., 102, 238 + foll. and App. i. (1901); G. W. Botsford, _Roman Assemblies_ (1909). + (A. H. J. G.) + + + + +COMITY (from the Lat. _comitas_, courtesy, from _cemis_, friendly, +courteous), friendly or courteous behaviour; a term particularly used in +international law, in the phrase "comity of nations," for the courtesy +of nations towards each other. This has been held by some authorities to +be the basis for the recognition by courts of law of the judgments and +rules of law of foreign tribunals (see INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE). +"Comity of nations" is sometimes wrongly used, from a confusion with the +Latin _comes_, a companion, for the whole body or company of nations +practising such international courtesy. + + + + +COMMA (Gr. [Greek: komma], a thing stamped or cut off, from [Greek: +koptein], to strike), originally, in Greek rhetoric, a short clause, +something less than the "colon"; hence a mark (,), in punctuation, to +show the smallest break in the construction of a sentence. The mark is +also used to separate numerals, mathematical symbols and the like. +Inverted commas, or "quotation-marks," i.e. pairs of commas, the first +inverted, and the last upright, are placed at the beginning and end of a +sentence or word quoted, or of a word used in a technical or +conventional sense; single commas are similarly used for quotations +within quotations. The word is also applied to comma-shaped objects, +such as the "comma-bacillus," the causal agent in cholera. + + + + +COMMANDEER (from the South African Dutch _kommanderen_, to command), +properly, to compel the performance of military duty in the field, +especially of the military service of the Boer republics (see COMMANDO); +also to seize property for military purposes; hence used of any +peremptory seizure for other than military purposes. + + + + +COMMANDER, in the British navy, the title of the second grade of +captains. He commands a small vessel, or is second in command of a large +one. A staff commander is entrusted with the navigation of a large ship, +and ranks above a navigating lieutenant. Since 1838 the officer next in +rank to a captain in the U.S. navy has been called commander. + + + + +COMMANDERY (through the Fr. _commanderie_, from med. Lat. _commendaria_, +a trust or charge), a division of the landed property in Europe of the +Knights Hospitallers (see St John of Jerusalem). The property of the +order was divided into "priorates," subdivided into "bailiwicks," which +in turn were divided into "commanderies"; these were placed in charge of +a "commendator" or commander. The word is also applied to the emoluments +granted to a commander of a military order of knights. + + + + +COMMANDO, a Portuguese word meaning "command," adopted by the Boers in +South Africa through whom it has come into English use, for military and +semi-military expeditions against the natives. More particularly a +"commando" was the administrative and tactical unit of the forces of the +former Boer republics, "commandeered" under the law of the constitutions +which made military service obligatory on all males between the ages of +sixteen and sixty. Each "commando" was formed from the burghers of +military age of an electoral district. + + + + +COMMEMORATION, a general term for celebrating some past event. It is +also the name for the annual act, or _Encaenia_, the ceremonial closing +of the academic year at Oxford University. It consists of a Latin +oration in commemoration of benefactors and founders; of the recitation +of prize compositions in prose and verse, and the conferring of honorary +degrees upon English or foreign celebrities. The ceremony, which is +usually on the third Wednesday after Trinity Sunday, is held in the +Sheldonian Theatre, in Broad St., Oxford. "Commencement" is the term for +the equivalent ceremony at Cambridge, and this is also used in the case +of American universities. + + + + +COMMENDATION (from the Lat. _commendare_, to entrust to the charge of, +or to procure a favour for), approval, especially when expressed to one +person on behalf of another, a recommendation. The word is used in a +liturgical sense for an office commending the souls of the dying and +dead to the mercies of God. In feudal law the term is applied to the +practice of a freeman placing himself under the protection of a lord +(see FEUDALISM), and in ecclesiastical law to the granting of benefices +_in commendam_. A benefice was held _in commendam_ when granted either +temporarily until a vacancy was filled up, or to a layman, or, in case +of a monastery or abbey, to a secular cleric to enjoy the revenues and +privileges for life (see ABBOT), or to a bishop to hold together with +his see. An act of 1836 prohibited the holding of benefices _in +commendam_ in England. + + + + +COMMENTARII (Lat. = Gr. [Greek: hypomnemata]), notes to assist the +memory, memoranda. This original idea of the word gave rise to a variety +of meanings: notes and abstracts of speeches for the assistance of +orators; family memorials, the origin of many of the legends introduced +into early Roman history from a desire to glorify a particular family; +diaries of events occurring in their own circle kept by private +individuals,--the day-book, drawn up for Trimalchio in Petronius +(_Satyricon_, 53) by his _actuarius_ (a slave to whom the duty was +specially assigned) is quoted as an example; memoirs of events in which +they had taken part drawn up by public men,--such were the +"Commentaries" of Caesar on the Gallic and Civil wars, and of Cicero on +his consulship. Different departments of the imperial administration and +certain high functionaries kept records, which were under the charge of +an official known as a _commentariis_ (cf. _a secretis_, _ab +epistulis_). Municipal authorities also kept a register of their +official acts. + +The _Commentarii Principis_ were the register of the official acts of +the emperor. They contained the decisions, favourable or unfavourable, +in regard to certain citizens; accusations brought before him or ordered +by him; lists of persons in receipt of special privileges. These must be +distinguished from the _commentarii diurni_, a daily court-journal. At a +later period records called _ephemerides_ were kept by order of the +emperor; these were much used by the Scriptores Historiae Augustae (see +AUGUSTAN HISTORY). The _Commentarii Senatus_, only once mentioned +(Tacitus, _Annals_, xv. 74) are probably identical with the Acta Senatus +(q.v.). There were also Commentarii of the priestly colleges: (a) +_Pontificum_, collections of their decrees and responses for future +reference, to be distinguished from their _Annales_, which were +historical records, and from their _Acta_, minutes of their meetings; +(b) _Augurum_, similar collections of augural decrees and responses; (c) +_Decemvirorum_; (d) _Fratrum Arvalium_. Like the priests, the +magistrates also had similar notes, partly written by themselves, and +partly records of which they formed the subject. But practically nothing +is known of these _Commentarii Magistratuum_. Mention should also be +made of the _Commentarii Regum_, containing decrees concerning the +functions and privileges of the kings, and forming a record of the acts +of the king in his capacity of priest. They were drawn up in historical +times like the so-called _leges regiae_ (_jus Papirianum_), supposed to +contain the decrees and decisions of the Roman kings. + + See the exhaustive article by A. von Premerstein in Pauly-Wissowa, + _Realencyclopadie_ (1901); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Lit._ + (Eng. trans.), pp. 72, 77-79; and the concise account by H. Thedenat + in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites_. + + + + +COMMENTRY, a town of central France, in the department of Allier, 42 m. +S.W. of Moulins by the Orleans railway. Pop. (1906) 7581. Commentry +gives its name to a coalfield over 5000 acres in extent, and has +important foundries and forges. + + + + +COMMERCE (Lat. _commercium_, from _cum_, together, and _merx_, +merchandise), in its general acceptation, the international traffic in +goods, or what constitutes the foreign trade of all countries as +distinct from their domestic trade. + +In tracing the history of such dealings we may go back to the early +records found in the Hebrew Scriptures. Such a transaction as that of +Abraham, for example, weighing down "four hundred shekels of silver, +_current with the merchant_," for the field of Ephron, is suggestive of +a group of facts and ideas indicating an advanced condition of +commercial intercourse,--property in land, sale of land, arts of mining +and purifying metals, the use of silver of recognized purity as a common +medium of exchange, and merchandise an established profession, or +division of labour. That other passage in which we read of Joseph being +sold by his brethren for twenty pieces of silver to "a company of +Ishmaelites, coming from Gilead, with their camels bearing spicery and +balm and myrrh to Egypt," extends our vision still farther, and shows us +the populous and fertile Egypt in commercial relationship with Chaldaea, +and Arabians, foreign to both, as intermediaries in their traffic, +generations before the Hebrew commonwealth was founded. + +The first foreign merchants of whom we read, carrying goods and bags of +silver from one distant region to another, were the southern Arabs, +reputed descendants of Ishmael and Esau. The first notable navigators +and maritime carriers of goods were the Phoenicians. In the commerce of +the ante-Christian ages the Jews do not appear to have performed any +conspicuous part. Both the agricultural and the theocratic constitution +of their society were unfavourable to a vigorous prosecution of foreign +trade. In such traffic as they had with other nations they were served +on their eastern borders by Arabian merchants, and on the west and south +by the Phoenician shippers. The abundance of gold, silver and other +precious commodities gathered from distant parts, of which we read in +the days of greatest Hebrew prosperity, has more the character of spoils +of war and tributes of dependent states than the conquest by free +exchange of their domestic produce and manufacture. It was not until the +Jews were scattered by foreign invasions, and finally cast into the +world by the destruction of Jerusalem, that they began to develop those +commercial qualities for which they have since been famous. + + + Primary conditions of commerce. + +There are three conditions as essential to extensive international +traffic as diversity of natural resources, division of labour, +accumulation of stock, or any other primal element--(1) means of +transport, (2) freedom of labour and exchange, and (3) security; and in +all these conditions the ancient world was signally deficient. + +The great rivers, which became the first seats of population and empire, +must have been of much utility as channels of transport, and hence the +course of human power of which they are the geographical delineation, +and probably the idolatry with which they were sometimes honoured. Nor +were the ancient rulers insensible of the importance of opening roads +through their dominions, and establishing post and lines of +communication, which, though primarily for official and military +purposes, must have been useful to traffickers and to the general +population. But the free navigable area of great rivers is limited, and +when diversion of traffic had to be made to roads and tracks through +deserts, there remained the slow and costly carriage of beasts of +burden, by which only articles of small bulk and the rarest value could +be conveyed with any hope of profit. Corn, though of the first +necessity, could only be thus transported in famines, when beyond price +to those who were in want, and under this extreme pressure could only be +drawn from within a narrow sphere, and in quantity sufficient to the +sustenance of but a small number of people. The routes of ancient +commerce were thus interrupted and cut asunder by barriers of transport, +and the farther they were extended became the more impassable to any +considerable quantity or weight of commodities. As long as navigation +was confined to rivers and the shores of inland gulfs and seas, the +oceans were a _terra incognita_, contributing nothing to the facility or +security of transport from one part of the world to another, and leaving +even one populous part of Asia as unapproachable from another as if they +had been in different hemispheres. The various routes of trade from +Europe and north-western Asia to India, which have been often referred +to, are to be regarded more as speculations of future development than +as realities of ancient history. It is not improbable that the ancient +traffic of the Red Sea may have been extended along the shores of the +Arabian Sea to some parts of Hindustan, but that vessels braved the +Indian Ocean and passed round Cape Comorin into the Bay of Bengal, 2000 +or even 1000 years before mariners had learned to double the Cape of +Good Hope, is scarcely to be believed. The route by the Euxine and the +Caspian Sea has probably never in any age reached India. That by the +Euphrates and the Persian Gulf is shorter, and was besides the more +likely from passing through tracts of country which in the most remote +times were seats of great population. There may have been many merchants +who traded on all these various routes, but that commodities were passed +in bulk over great distances is inconceivable. It may be doubted whether +in the ante-Christian ages there was any heavy transport over even 500 +m., save for warlike or other purposes, which engaged the public +resources of imperial states, and in which the idea of commerce, as now +understood, is in a great measure lost. + +The advantage which absolute power gave to ancient nations in their +warlike enterprises, and in the execution of public works of more or +less utility, or of mere ostentation and monumental magnificence, was +dearly purchased by the sacrifice of individual freedom, the right to +labour, produce and exchange under the steady operation of natural +economic principles, which more than any other cause vitalizes the +individual and social energies, and multiplies the commercial resource +of communities. Commerce in all periods and countries has obtained a +certain freedom and hospitality from the fact that the foreign merchant +has something desirable to offer; but the action of trading is +reciprocal, and requires multitudes of producers and merchants, as free +agents, on both sides, searching out by patient experiment wants more +advantageously supplied by exchange than by direct production, before it +can attain either permanence or magnitude, or can become a vital element +of national life. The ancient polities offered much resistance to this +development, and in their absolute power over the liberty, industry and +property of the masses of their subjects raised barriers to the +extension of commerce scarcely less formidable than the want of means of +communication itself. The conditions of security under which foreign +trade can alone flourish equally exceeded the resources of ancient +civilization. Such roads as exist must be protected from robbers, the +rivers and seas from pirates; goods must have safe passage and safe +storage, must be held in a manner sacred in the territories through +which they pass, be insured against accidents, be respected even in the +madness of hostilities; the laws of nations must give a guarantee on +which traders can proceed in their operations with reasonable +confidence; and the governments, while protecting the commerce of their +subjects with foreigners as if it were their own enterprise, must in +their fiscal policy, and in all their acts, be endued with the highest +spirit of commercial honour. Every great breach of this security stops +the continuous circulation, which is the life of traffic and of the +industries to which it ministers. But in the ancient records we see +commerce exposed to great risks, subject to constant pillage, hunted +down in peace and utterly extinguished in war. Hence it became necessary +that foreign trade should itself be an armed force in the world; and +though the states of purely commercial origin soon fell into the same +arts and wiles as the powers to which they were opposed, yet their +history exhibits clearly enough the necessity out of which they arose. +Once organized, it was inevitable that they should meet intrigue with +intrigue, and force with force. The political empires, while but +imperfectly developing industry and traffic within their own +territories, had little sympathy with any means of prosperity from +without. Their sole policy was either to absorb under their own spirit +and conditions of rule, or to destroy, whatever was rich or great beyond +their borders. Nothing is more marked in the past history of the world +than this struggle of commerce to establish conditions of security and +means of communication with distant parts. When almost driven from the +land, it often found both on the sea; and often, when its success had +become brilliant and renowned, it perished under the assault of stronger +powers, only to rise again in new centres and to find new channels of +intercourse. + + + Carthage. + + Roman conquests. + + Palmyra. + +While Rome was giving laws and order to the half-civilized tribes of +Italy, Carthage, operating on a different base, and by other methods, +was opening trade with less accessible parts of Europe. The strength of +Rome was in her legions, that of Carthage in her ships; and her ships +could cover ground where the legions were powerless. Her mariners had +passed the mythical straits into the Atlantic, and established the port +of Cadiz. Within the Mediterranean itself they founded Carthagena and +Barcelona on the same Iberian peninsula, and ahead of the Roman legions +had depots and traders on the shores of Gaul. After the destruction of +Tyre, Carthage became the greatest power in the Mediterranean, and +inherited the trade of her Phoenician ancestors with Egypt, Greece and +Asia Minor, as well as her own settlements in Sicily and on the European +coasts. An antagonism between the great naval and the great military +power, whose interests crossed each other at so many points, was sure to +occur; and in the three Punic wars Carthage measured her strength with +that of Rome both on sea and on land with no unequal success. But a +commercial state impelled into a series of great wars has departed from +its own proper base; and in the year 146 B.C. Carthage was so totally +destroyed by the Romans that of the great city, more than 20 m. in +circumference, and containing at one period near a million of +inhabitants, only a few thousands were found within its ruined walls. In +the same year Corinth, one of the greatest of the Greek capitals and +seaports, was captured, plundered of vast wealth and given to the flames +by a Roman consul. Athens and her magnificent harbour of the Piraeus +fell into the same hands 60 years later. It may be presumed that trade +went on under the Roman conquests in some degree as before; but these +were grave events to occur within a brief period, and the spirit of the +seat of trade in every case having been broken, and its means and +resources more or less plundered and dissipated--in some cases, as in +that of Carthage, irreparably--the most necessary commerce could only +proceed with feeble and languid interest under the military, consular +and proconsular licence of Rome at that period. Tyre, the great seaport +of Palestine, having been destroyed by Alexander the Great, Palmyra, the +great inland centre of Syrian trade, was visited with a still more +complete annihilation by the Roman Emperor Aurelian within little more +than half a century after the capture and spoliation of Athens. The +walls were razed to their foundations; the population--men, women, +children and the rustics round the city--were all either massacred or +dispersed; and the queen Zenobia was carried captive to Rome. Palmyra +had for centuries, as a centre of commercial intercourse and transit, +been of great service to her neighbours, east and west. In the wars of +the Romans and Parthians she was respected by both as an asylum of +common interests which it would have been simple barbarity to invade or +injure; and when the Parthians were subdued, and Palmyra became a Roman +_annexe_, she continued to flourish as before. Her relations with Rome +were more than friendly; they became enthusiastic and heroic; and her +citizens having inflicted signal chastisement on the king of Persia for +the imprisonment of the emperor Valerian, the admiration of this conduct +at Rome was so great that their spirited leader Odaenathus, the husband +of Zenobia, was proclaimed Augustus, and became co-emperor with +Gallienus. It is obvious that the destruction of Palmyra must not only +have doomed Palestine, already bereft of her seaports, to greater +poverty and commercial isolation than had been known in long preceding +ages, but have also rendered it more difficult to Rome herself to hold +or turn to any profitable account her conquests in Asia; and, being an +example of the policy of Rome to the seats of trade over nearly the +whole ancient world, it may be said to contain in graphic characters a +presage of what came to be the actual event--the collapse and fall of +the Roman empire itself. + + + Venice. + +The repeated invasions of Italy by the Goths and Huns gave rise to a +seat of trade in the Adriatic, which was to sustain during more than a +thousand years a history of unusual splendour. The Veneti cultivated +fertile lands on the Po, and built several towns, of which Padua was the +chief. They appear from the earliest note of them in history to have +been both an agricultural and trading people; and they offered a rich +prey to the barbarian hordes when these broke through every barrier into +the plains of Italy. Thirty years before Attila razed the neighbouring +city of Aquileia, the consuls and senate of Padua, oppressed and +terrified by the prior ravages of Alaric, passed a decree for erecting +Rialto, the largest of the numerous islets at the mouth of the Po, into +a chief town and port, not more as a convenience to the islanders than +as a security for themselves and their goods. But every fresh incursion, +every new act of spoliation by the dreaded enemies, increased the flight +of the rich and the industrious to the islands, and thus gradually arose +the second Venice, whose glory was so greatly to exceed that of the +first. Approachable from the mainland only by boats, through river +passes easily defended by practised sailors against barbarians who had +never plied an oar, the Venetian refugees could look in peace on the +desolation which swept over Italy; their warehouses, their markets, +their treasures were safe from plunder; and stretching their hands over +the sea, they found in it fish and salt, and in the rich possessions of +trade and territory which it opened to them more than compensation for +the fat lands and inland towns which had long been their home. The +Venetians traded with Constantinople, Greece, Syria and Egypt. They +became lords of the Morea, and of Candia, Cyprus and other islands of +the Levant. The trade of Venice with India, though spoken of, was +probably never great. But the crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries +against the Saracens in Palestine extended her repute more widely east +and west, and increased both her naval and her commercial resources. It +is enough, indeed, to account for the grandeur of Venice that in course +of centuries, from the security of her position, the growth and energy +of her population, and the regularity of her government at a period when +these sources of prosperity were rare, she became the great emporium of +the Mediterranean--all that Carthage, Corinth and Athens had been in a +former age on a scene the most remarkable in the world for its fertility +and facilities of traffic,--and that as Italy and other parts of the +Western empire became again more settled her commerce found always a +wider range. The bridge built from the largest of the islands to the +opposite bank became the "Rialto," or famous exchange of Venice, whose +transactions reached farther, and assumed a more consolidated form, than +had been known before. There it was where the first public bank was +organized; that bills of exchange were first negotiated, and funded debt +became transferable; that finance became a science and book-keeping an +art. Nor must the effect of the example of Venice on other cities of +Italy be left out of account. Genoa, following her steps, rose into +great prosperity and power at the foot of the Maritime Alps, and became +her rival, and finally her enemy. Naples, Gaeta, Florence, many other +towns of Italy, and Rome herself, long after her fall, were encouraged +to struggle for the preservation of their municipal freedom, and to +foster trade, arts and navigation, by the brilliant success set before +them on the Adriatic; but Venice, from the early start she had made, and +her command of the sea, had the commercial pre-eminence. + + + The middle ages. + +The state of things which arose on the collapse of the Roman empire +presents two concurrent facts, deeply affecting the course of trade--(1) +the ancient seats of industry and civilization were undergoing constant +decay, while (2) the energetic races of Europe were rising into more +civilized forms and manifold vigour and copiousness of life. The fall of +the Eastern division of the empire prolonged the effect of the fall of +the Western empire; and the advance of the Saracens over Asia Minor, +Syria, Greece, Egypt, over Cyprus and other possessions of Venice in the +Mediterranean, over the richest provinces of Spain, and finally across +the Hellespont into the Danubian provinces of Europe, was a new +irruption of barbarians from another point of the compass, and revived +the calamities and disorders inflicted by the successive invasions of +Goths, Huns and other Northern tribes. For more than ten centuries the +naked power of the sword was vivid and terrible as flashes of lightning +over all the seats of commerce, whether of ancient or more modern +origin. The feudal system of Europe, in organizing the open country +under military leaders and defenders subordinated in possession and +service under a legal system to each other and to the sovereign power, +must have been well adapted to the necessity of the times in which it +spread so rapidly; but it would be impossible to say that the feudal +system was favourable to trade, or the extension of trade. The +commercial spirit in the feudal, as in preceding ages, had to find for +itself places of security, and it could only find them in towns, armed +with powers of self-regulation and defence, and prepared, like the +feudal barons themselves, to resist violence from whatever quarter it +might come. Rome, in her best days, had founded the municipal system, +and when this system was more than ever necessary as the bulwark of arts +and manufactures, its extension became an essential element of the whole +European civilization. Towns formed themselves into leagues for mutual +protection, and out of leagues not infrequently arose commercial +republics. The Hanseatic League, founded as early as 1241, gave the +first note of an increasing traffic between countries on the Baltic and +in northern Germany, which a century or two before were sunk in isolated +barbarism. From Lubeck and Hamburg, commanding the navigation of the +Elbe, it gradually spread over 85 towns, including Amsterdam, Cologne +and Frankfort in the south, and Danzig, Konigsberg and Riga in the +north. The last trace of this league, long of much service in protecting +trade, and as a means of political mediation, passed away in the +erection of the German empire (1870), but only from the same cause that +had brought about its gradual dissolution--the formation of powerful +and legal governments--which, while leaving to the free cities their +municipal rights, were well capable of protecting their mercantile +interests. The towns of Holland found lasting strength and security from +other causes. Their foundations were laid as literally in the sea as +those of Venice had been. They were not easily attacked whether by sea +or land, and if attacked had formidable means of defence. The Zuyder +Zee, which had been opened to the German Ocean in 1282, carried into the +docks and canals of Amsterdam the traffic of the ports of the Baltic, of +the English Channel and of the south of Europe, and what the seas did +for Amsterdam from without the Rhine and the Maese did for Dort and +Rotterdam from the interior. By the Union of Utrecht in 1579 Holland +became an independent republic, and for long after, as it had been for +some time before, was the greatest centre of maritime traffic in Europe. +The rise of the Dutch power in a low country, exposed to the most +destructive inundations, difficult to cultivate or even to inhabit, +affords a striking illustration of those conditions which in all times +have been found specially favourable to commercial development, and +which are not indistinctly reflected in the mercantile history of +England, preserved by its insular position from hostile invasions, and +capable by its fleets and arms to protect its goods on the seas and the +rights of its subjects in foreign lands. + +The progress of trade and productive arts in the middle ages, though not +rising to much international exchange, was very considerable both in +quality and extent. The republics of Italy, which had no claim to rival +Venice or Genoa in maritime power or traffic, developed a degree of art, +opulence and refinement commanding the admiration of modern times; and +if any historian of trans-Alpine Europe, when Venice had already +attained some greatness, could have seen it five hundred years +afterwards, the many strong towns of France, Germany and the Low +Countries, the great number of their artizans, the products of their +looms and anvils, and their various cunning workmanship, might have +added many a brilliant page to his annals. Two centuries before England +had discovered any manufacturing quality, or knew even how to utilize +her most valuable raw materials, and was importing goods from the +continent for the production of which she was soon to be found to have +special resources, the Flemings were selling their woollen and linen +fabrics, and the French their wines, silks and laces in all the richer +parts of the British Islands. The middle ages placed the barbarous +populations of Europe under a severe discipline, trained them in the +most varied branches of industry, and developed an amount of handicraft +and ingenuity which became a solid basis for the future. But trade was +too walled in, too much clad in armour, and too incessantly disturbed by +wars and tumults, and violations of common right and interest, to exert +its full influence over the general society, or even to realize its most +direct advantages. It wanted especially the freedom and mobility +essential to much international increase, and these it was now to +receive from a series of the most pregnant events. + + + Opening of a new era. + +The mariner's compass had become familiar in the European ports about +the beginning of the 14th century, and the seamen of Italy, Portugal, +France, Holland and England entered upon a more enlightened and +adventurous course of navigation. The Canary Islands were sighted by a +French vessel in 1330, and colonized in 1418 by the Portuguese, who two +years later landed on Madeira. In 1431 the Azores were discovered by a +shipmaster of Bruges. The Atlantic was being gradually explored. In +1486, Diaz, a Portuguese, steering his course almost unwittingly along +the coast of Africa, came upon the land's-end of that continent; and +eleven years afterwards Vasco da Gama, of the same nation, not only +doubled the Cape of Good Hope, but reached India. About the same period +Portuguese travellers penetrated to India by the old time-honoured way +of Suez; and a land which tradition and imagination had invested with +almost fabulous wealth and splendour was becoming more real to the +European world at the moment when the expedition of Vasco da Gama had +made an oceanic route to its shores distinctly visible. One can hardly +now realize the impression made by these discoveries in an age when the +minds of men were awakening out of a long sleep, when the printing press +was disseminating the ancient classical and sacred literature, and when +geography and astronomy were subjects of eager study in the seats both +of traffic and of learning. But their practical effect was seen in +swiftly-succeeding events. Before the end of the century Columbus had +thrice crossed the Atlantic, touched at San Salvador, discovered +Jamaica, Porto Rico and the Isthmus of Darien, and had seen the waters +of the Orinoco in South America. Meanwhile Cabot, sent out by England, +had discovered Newfoundland, planted the English flag on Labrador, Nova +Scotia and Virginia, and made known the existence of an expanse of land +now known as Canada. This tide of discovery by navigators flowed on +without intermission. But the opening of a maritime route to India and +the discovery of America, surprising as these events must have been at +the time, were slow in producing the results of which they were a sure +prognostic. The Portuguese established in Cochin the first European +factory in India a few years after Vasco da Gama's expedition, and other +maritime nations of Europe traced a similar course. But it was not till +1600 that the English East India Company was established, and the +opening of the first factory of the Company in India must be dated some +ten or eleven years later. So also it was one thing to discover the two +Americas, and another, in any real sense, to possess or colonize them, +or to bring their productions into the general traffic and use of the +world. Spain, following the stroke of the valiant oar of Columbus, found +in Mexico and Peru remarkable remains of an ancient though feeble +civilization, and a wealth of gold and silver mines, which to Europeans +of that period was fascinating from the rarity of the precious metals in +their own realms, and consequently gave to the Spanish colonizations and +conquests in South America an extraordinary but unsolid prosperity. The +value of the precious metals in Europe was found to fall as soon as they +began to be more widely distributed, a process in itself at that period +of no small tediousness; and it was discovered further, after a century +or two, that the production of gold and silver is limited like the +production of other commodities for which they exchange, and only +increased in quantity at a heavier cost, that is only reduced again by +greater art and science in the process of production. Many difficulties, +in short, had to be overcome, many wars to be waged, and many deplorable +errors to be committed, in turning the new advantages to account. But +given a maritime route to India and the discovery of a new world of +continent and islands in the richest tropical and sub-tropical +latitudes, it could not be difficult to foresee that the course of trade +was to be wholly changed as well as vastly extended. + + + Maritime route to India. + +The substantial advantage of the oceanic passage to India by the Cape of +Good Hope, as seen at the time, was to enable European trade with the +East to escape from the Moors, Algerines and Turks who now swarmed round +the shores of the Mediterranean, and waged a predatory war on ships and +cargoes which would have been a formidable obstacle even if traffic, +after running this danger, had not to be further lost, or filtered into +the smallest proportions, in the sands of the Isthmus, and among the +Arabs who commanded the navigation of the Red and Arabian Seas. Venice +had already begun to decline in her wars with the Turks, and could +inadequately protect her own trade in the Mediterranean. Armed vessels +sent out in strength from the Western ports often fared badly at the +hands of the pirates. European trade with India can scarcely be said, +indeed, to have yet come into existence. The maritime route was round +about, and it lay on the hitherto almost untrodden ocean, but the ocean +was a safer element than inland seas and deserts infested by the +lawlessness and ferocity of hostile tribes of men. In short, the +maritime route enabled European traders to see India for themselves, to +examine what were its products and its wants, and by what means a +profitable exchange on both sides could be established; and on this +basis of knowledge, ships could leave the ports of their owners in +Europe with a reasonable hope, via the Cape, of reaching the places to +which they were destined without transhipment or other intermediary +obstacle. This is the explanation to be given of the joy with which the +Cape of Good Hope route was received, as well as the immense influence +it exerted on the future course and extension of trade, and of the no +less apparent satisfaction with which it was to some extent discarded in +favour of the ancient line, via the Mediterranean, Isthmus of Suez and +the Red Sea. + + + Discovery of America. + +The maritime route to India was the discovery to the European nations of +a "new world" quite as much as the discovery of North and South America +and their central isthmus and islands. The one was the far, populous +Eastern world, heard of from time immemorial, but with which there had +been no patent lines of communication. The other was a vast and +comparatively unpeopled solitude, yet full of material resources, and +capable in a high degree of European colonization. America offered less +resistance to the action of Europe than India, China and Japan; but on +the other hand this new populous Eastern world held out much attraction +to trade. These two great terrestrial discoveries were contemporaneous; +and it would be difficult to name any conjuncture of material events +bearing with such importance on the history of the world. The Atlantic +Ocean was the medium of both; and the waves of the Atlantic beat into +all the bays and tidal rivers of western Europe. The centre of +commercial activity was thus physically changed; and the formative power +of trade over human affairs was seen in the subsequent phenomena--the +rise of great seaports on the Atlantic seaboard, and the ceaseless +activity of geographical exploration, manufactures, shipping and +emigration, of which they became the outlets. + + + Increase of trading settlements and colonies. + +The Portuguese are entitled to the first place in utilizing the new +sources of wealth and commerce. They obtained Macao as a settlement from +the Chinese as early as 1537, and their trading operations followed +close on the discoveries of their navigators on the coast of Africa, in +India and in the Indian Archipelago. Spain spread her dominion over +Central and South America, and forced the labour of the subject natives +into the gold and silver mines, which seemed in that age the chief prize +of her conquests. France introduced her trade in both the East and West +Indies, and was the first to colonize Canada and the Lower Mississippi. +The Dutch founded New York in 1621; and England, which in boldness of +naval and commercial enterprize had attained high rank in the reign of +Elizabeth, established the thirteen colonies which became the United +States, and otherwise had a full share in all the operations which were +transforming the state of the world. The original disposition of affairs +was destined to be much changed by the fortune of war; and success in +foreign trade and colonization, indeed, called into play other qualities +besides those of naval and military prowess. The products of so many new +countries--tissues, dyes, metals, articles of food, chemical +substances--greatly extended the range of European manufacture. But in +addition to the mercantile faculty of discovering how they were to be +exchanged and wrought into a profitable trade, their use in arts and +manufactures required skill, invention and aptitude for manufacturing +labour, and those again, in many cases, were found to depend on abundant +possession of natural materials, such as coal and iron. In old and +populous countries, like India and China, modern manufacture had to meet +and contend with ancient manufacture, and had at once to learn from and +improve economically on the established models, before an opening could +be made for its extension. In many parts of the New World there were +vast tracts of country, without population or with native races too wild +and savage to be reclaimed to habits of industry, whose resources could +only be developed by the introduction of colonies of Europeans; and +innumerable experiments disclosed great variety of qualification among +the European nations for the adventure, hardship and perseverance of +colonial life. There were countries which, whatever their fertility of +soil or favour of climate, produced nothing for which a market could be +found; and products such as the sugar-cane and the seed of the cotton +plant had to be carried from regions where they were indigenous to other +regions where they might be successfully cultivated, and the art of +planting had to pass through an ordeal of risk and speculation. There +were also countries where no European could labour; and the ominous +work of transporting African negroes as slaves into the colonies--begun +by Spain in the first decade of the 16th century, followed up by +Portugal, and introduced by England in 1562 into the West Indies, at a +later period into New England and the Southern States, and finally +domiciled by royal privilege of trade in the Thames and three or more +outports of the kingdom,--after being done on an elaborate scale, and +made the basis of an immense superstructure of labour, property and +mercantile interest over nearly three centuries, had, under a more just +and ennobling view of humanity, to be as elaborately undone at a future +time. + +These are some of the difficulties that had to be encountered in +utilizing the great maritime and geographical conquests of the new +epoch. But one cannot leave out of view the obstacles, arising from +other sources, to what might be expected to be the regular and easy +course of affairs. Commerce, though an undying and prevailing interest +of civilized countries, is but one of the forces acting on the policy of +states, and has often to yield the pace to other elements of national +life. It were needless to say what injury the great but vain and +purposeless wars of Louis XIV. of France inflicted in that country, or +how largely the fruitful and heroic energies of England were absorbed in +the civil wars between Charles and the Parliament, to what poverty +Scotland was reduced, or in what distraction and savagery Ireland was +kept by the same course of events. The grandeur of Spain in the +preceding century was due partly to the claim of her kings to be Holy +Roman emperors, in which imperial capacity they entailed intolerable +mischief on the Low Countries and on the commercial civilization of +Europe, and partly to their command of the gold and silver mines of +Mexico and Peru, in an eager lust of whose produce they brought cruel +calamities on a newly-discovered continent where there were many traces +of antique life, the records of which perished in their hands or under +their feet. These ephemeral causes of greatness removed, the hollowness +of the situation was exposed; and Spain, though rich in her own natural +resources, was found to be actually poor--poor in number of people, poor +in roads, in industrial art, and in all the primary conditions of +interior development. An examination of the foreign trade of Europe two +centuries after the opening of the maritime route to India and the +discovery of America would probably give more reason to be surprised at +the smallness than the magnitude of the use that had been made of these +events. + + + 19th century. + +By the beginning of the 19th century the world had been well explored. +Colonies had been planted on every coast; great nations had sprung up in +vast solitudes or in countries inhabited only by savage or decadent +races of men; the most haughty and exclusive of ancient nations had +opened their ports to foreign merchantmen; and all parts of the world +been brought into habitual commercial intercourse. The seas, subdued by +the progress of navigation to the service of man, had begun to yield +their own riches in great abundance and the whale, seal, herring, cod +and other fisheries, prosecuted with ample capital and hardy seamanship, +had become the source of no small traffic in themselves. The lists of +imports and exports and of the places from which they flowed to and from +the centres of trade, as they swelled in bulk from time to time, show +how busily and steadily the threads of commerce had been weaving +together the labour and interests of mankind, and extending a security +and bounty of existence unknown in former ages. The 19th century +witnessed an extension of the commercial relations of mankind of which +there was no parallel in previous history. The heavy debts and taxes, +and the currency complications in which the close of the Napoleonic wars +left the European nations, as well as the fall of prices which was the +necessary effect of the sudden closure of a vast war expenditure and +absorption of labour, had a crippling effect for many years on trading +energies. Yet even under such circumstances commerce is usually found, +on its well-established modern basis, to make steady progress from one +series of years to another. The powers of production had been greatly +increased by a brilliant development of mechanical arts and inventions. +The United States had grown into a commercial nation of the first rank. +The European colonies and settlements were being extended, and +assiduously cultivated, and were opening larger and more varied markets +for manufactures. In 1819 the first steamboat crossed the Atlantic from +New York to Liverpool, and a similar adventure was accomplished from +England to India in 1825--events in themselves the harbingers of a new +era in trade. China, after many efforts, was opened under treaty to an +intercourse with foreign nations which was soon to attain surprising +dimensions. These various causes supported the activity of commerce in +the first four decades; but the great movement which made the 19th +century so remarkable was chiefly disclosed in practical results from +about 1840. The outstanding characteristics of the 19th century were the +many remarkable inventions which so widened the field of commerce by the +discovery of new and improved methods of production, the highly +organized division of labour which tended to the same end, and, above +all, the powerful forces of steam navigation, railways and telegraphs. + +Commerce has thus acquired a security and extension, in all its most +essential conditions, of which it was void in any previous age. It can +hardly ever again exhibit that wandering course from route to route, and +from one solitary centre to another, which is so characteristic of its +ancient history, because it is established in every quarter of the +globe, and all the seas and ways are open to it on terms fair and equal +to every nation. Wherever there is population, industry, resource, art +and skill, there will be international trade. Commerce will have many +centres, and one may relatively rise or relatively fall; but such decay +and ruin as have smitten many once proud seats of wealth into dust +cannot again occur without such cataclysms of war, violence and disorder +as the growing civilization and reason of mankind, and the power of law, +right and common interest forbid us to anticipate. But the present +magnitude of commerce devolves serious work on all who are engaged in +it. If in the older times it was thought that a foreign merchant +required to be not only a good man of business, but even a statesman, it +is evident that all the higher faculties of the mercantile profession +must still more be called into request when imports and exports are +reckoned by hundreds instead of fives or tens of millions, when the +markets are so much larger and more numerous, the competition so much +more keen and varied, the problems to be solved in every course of +transaction so much more complex, the whole range of affairs to be +overseen so immensely widened. It is not a company of merchants, having +a monopoly, and doing whatever they please, whether right or wrong, that +now hold the commerce of the world in their hands, but large communities +of free merchants in all parts of the world, affiliated to manufacturers +and producers equally free, each under strong temptation to do what may +be wrong in the pursuit of his own interest, and the only security of +doing right being to follow steady lights of information and economic +science common to all. Easy transport of goods by land and sea, prompt +intelligence from every point of the compass, general prevalence of +mercantile law and safety, have all been accomplished; and the world is +opened to trade. But intellectual grasp of principles and details, and +the moral integrity which is the root of all commercial success, are +severely tested in this vaster sphere. + + See TRADE ORGANIZATION; ECONOMICS; COMMERCIAL TREATIES, and the + sections under the headings of countries. + + + + +COMMERCE, the name of a card-game. Any number can play with an ordinary +pack. There are several variations of the game, but the following is a +common one. Each player receives three cards, and three more are turned +up as a "pool." The first player may exchange one or two of his cards +for one or two of the exposed cards, putting his own, face upwards, in +their place. His object is to "make his hand" (see below), but if he +changes all three cards at once he cannot change again. The next player +can do likewise, and so on. Usually there are as many rounds as there +are players, and a fresh card is added to the pool at the beginning of +each. If a player passes once he cannot exchange afterwards. When the +rounds are finished the hands are shown, the holder of the best either +receiving a stake from all the others, or, supposing each has started +with three "lives," taking one life from the lowest. The hands, in order +of merit, are: (i.) _Tricon_--three similar cards, three aces ranking +above three kings, and so on. (ii.) _Sequence_--three cards of the same +suit in consecutive order; the highest sequence is the best. (iii.) +_Flush_--three cards of the same suit, the highest "point" wins, i.e. +the highest number of pips, ace counting eleven and court-cards ten. +(iv.) _Pair_--two similar cards, the highest pair winning. (v.) +_Point_--the largest number of pips winning, as in "flush," but there is +no restriction as to suit. Sometimes "pair" and "point" are not +recognized. A popular variation of Commerce is _Pounce Commerce_. In +this, if a player has already three similar cards, e.g. three nines, and +the fourth nine comes into the pool, he says "Pounce!" and takes it, +thus obtaining a hand of four, which is higher than any hand of three: +whenever a pounce occurs, a new card is turned up from the pack. + + + + +COMMERCIAL COURT, in England, a court presided over by a single judge of +the king's bench division, for the trial, as expeditiously as may be, of +commercial cases. By the Rules of the Supreme Court, Order xviii. a +(made in November 1893), a plaintiff was allowed to dispense with +pleadings altogether, provided that the indorsement of his writ of +summons contained a statement sufficient to give notice of his claim, or +of the relief or remedy required in the action, and stating that the +plaintiff intended to proceed to trial without pleadings. The judge +might, on the application of the defendant, order a statement of claim +to be delivered, or the action to proceed to trial without pleadings, +and if necessary particulars of the claim or defence to be delivered. +Out of this order grew the commercial court. It is not a distinct court +or division or branch of the High Court, and is not regulated by any +special rules of court made by the rule committee. It originated in a +notice issued by the judges of the queen's bench division, in February +1895 (see W.N., 2nd of March 1895), the provisions contained in which +represent only "a practice agreed on by the judges, who have the right +to deal by convention among themselves with this mode of disposing of +the business in their courts" (per Lord Esher in _Barry_ v. _Peruvian +Corporation_, 1896, 1 Q. B. p. 209). A separate list of causes of a +commercial character is made and assigned to a particular judge, charged +with commercial business, to whom all applications before the trial are +made. The 8th paragraph is as follows:-- + + Such judge may at any time after appearance and without pleadings make + such order as he thinks fit for the speedy determination, in + accordance with existing rules, of the questions really in controversy + between the parties. + +Practitioners before Sir George Jessel, at the rolls, in the years 1873 +to 1880, will be reminded of his mode of ascertaining the point in +controversy and bringing it to a speedy determination. Obviously the +scheme is only applicable to cases in which there is some single issue +of law or fact, or the case depends on the construction of some contract +or other instrument or section of an act of parliament, and such issue +or question is either agreed upon by the parties or at once +ascertainable by the judge. The success of the scheme also depends +largely on the personal qualities of the judge to whom the list is +assigned. Under the able guidance of Mr (afterwards Lord) Justice Mathew +(d. 1908), the commercial court became very successful in bringing cases +to a speedy and satisfactory determination without any technicality or +unnecessary expense. + + + + +COMMERCIAL LAW, a term used rather indefinitely to include those main +rules and principles which, with more or less minor differences, +characterize the commercial transactions and customs of most European +countries. It includes within its compass such titles as principal and +agent; carriage by land and sea; merchant shipping; guarantee; marine, +fire, life and accident insurance; bills of exchange, partnership, &c. + + + + +COMMERCIAL TREATIES. A commercial treaty is a contract between states +relative to trade. It is a bilateral act whereby definite arrangements +are entered into by each contracting party towards the other--not mere +concessions. As regards technical distinctions, an "agreement," an +"exchange of notes," or a "convention" properly applies to one specific +subject; whereas a "treaty" usually comprises several matters, whether +commercial or political. + +In ancient times foreign intercourse, trade and navigation were in many +instances regulated by international arrangements. The text is extant of +treaties of commerce and navigation concluded between Carthage and Rome +in 509 and 348 B.C. Aristotle mentions that nations were connected by +commercial treaties; and other classical writers advert to these +engagements. Under the Roman empire the matters thus dealt with became +regulated by law, or by usages sometimes styled laws. When the +territories of the empire were contracted, and the imperial authority +was weakened, some kind of international agreements again became +necessary. At Constantinople in the 10th century treaties cited by +Gibbon protected "the person, effects and privileges of the Russian +merchant"; and, in western Europe, intercourse, trade and navigation +were carried on, at first tacitly by usage derived from Roman times, or +under verbal permission given to merchants by the ruler to whose court +they resorted. Afterwards, security in these transactions was afforded +by means of formal documents, such as royal letters, charters, laws and +other instruments possessing the force of government measures. Instances +affecting English commercial relations are the letter of Charlemagne in +796, the Brabant Charter of 1305, and the Russian ukase of 1569. +Medieval treaties of truce or peace often contained a clause permitting +in general terms the renewal of personal and commercial communication as +it subsisted before the war. This custom is still followed. But these +medieval arrangements were precarious: they were often of temporary +duration, and were usually only effective during the lifetime of the +contracting sovereigns. + +Passing over trade agreements affecting the Eastern empire, the modern +commercial treaty system came into existence in the 12th century. Genoa, +Pisa and Venice were then well-organized communities, and were in keen +rivalry. Whenever their position in a foreign country was strong, a +trading centre was established, and few or no specific engagements were +made on their part. But in serious competition or difficulty another +course was adopted: a formal agreement was concluded for the better +security of their commerce and navigation. The arrangements of 1140 +between Venice and Sicily; the Genoese conventions of 1149 with +Valencia, of 1161 with Morocco, and of 1181 with the Balearic Islands; +the Pisan conventions of 1173 with Sultan Saladin, and of 1184 with the +Balearic Islands, were the earliest Western commercial treaties. Such +definite arrangements, although still of a personal character, were soon +perceived to be preferable to general provisions in a treaty of truce or +peace. They afforded also greater security than privileges enjoyed under +usage; or under grants of various kinds, whether local or royal. The +policy thus inaugurated was adopted gradually throughout Europe. The +first treaties relative to the trade of the Netherlands were between +Brabant and Holland in 1203, Holland and Utrecht in 1204, and Brabant +and Cologne in 1251. Early northern commercial treaties are those +between Riga and Smolensk 1229, and between Lubeck and Sweden 1269. The +first commercial relations between the Hanse Towns and foreign countries +were arrangements made by gilds of merchants, not by public authorities +as a governing body. For a long period the treaty system did not +entirely supersede conditions of intercourse between nations dependent +on permission. + +The earliest English commercial treaty is that with Norway in 1217. It +provides "ut mercatores et homines qui sunt de potestate vestra libere +et sine impedimento terram nostram adire possint, et homines et +mercatores nostri similiter vestram." These stipulations are in due +treaty form. The next early English treaties are:--with Flanders, 1274 +and 1314; Portugal, 1308, 1352 and 1386; Baltic Cities, 1319 and 1388; +Biscay and Castile, 1351; Burgundy, 1417 and 1496; France, 1471, 1497 +and 1510; Florence, 1490. The commercial treaty policy in England was +carried out systematically under Henry IV. and Henry VII. It was +continued under James I. to extend to Scotland English trading +privileges. The results attained in the 17th century were--regularity in +treaty arrangements; their durable instead of personal nature; the +conversion of permissive into perfect rights; questions as to contraband +and neutral trade stated in definite terms. Treaties were at first +limited to exclusive and distinct engagements between the contracting +states; each treaty differing more or less in its terms from other +similar compacts. Afterwards by extending to a third nation privileges +granted to particular countries, the _most favoured nation article_ +began to be framed, as a unilateral engagement by a particular state. +The Turkish capitulations afford the earliest instances; and the treaty +of 1641 between the Netherlands and Portugal contains the first European +formula. Cromwell continued the commercial treaty policy partly in order +to obtain a formal recognition of the commonwealth from foreign powers. +His treaty of 1654 with Sweden contains the first reciprocal "most +favoured nation clause":--Article IV. provides that the people, subjects +and inhabitants of either confederate "shall have and possess in the +countries, lands, dominions and kingdoms of the other as full and ample +privileges, and as many exemptions, immunities and liberties, as any +foreigner doth or shall possess in the dominions and kingdoms of the +said confederate." The government of the Restoration replaced and +enlarged the Protectorate arrangements by fresh agreements. The general +policy of the commonwealth was maintained, with further provisions on +behalf of colonial trade. In the new treaty of 1661 with Sweden the +privileges secured were those which "any foreigner whatsoever doth or +shall enjoy in the said dominions and kingdoms on both sides." + +In contemporary treaties France obtained from Spain (1659) that French +subjects should enjoy the same liberties as had been granted to the +English; and England obtained from Denmark (1661) that the English +should not pay more or greater customs than the people of the United +Provinces and other foreigners, the Swedes only excepted. The colonial +and navigation policy of the 17th century, and the proceedings of Louis +XIV., provoked animosities and retaliatory tariffs. During the War of +the Spanish Succession the Methuen Treaty of 1703 was concluded. +Portugal removed prohibitions against the importation of British +woollens; Great Britain engaged that Portuguese wines should pay +one-third less duty than the rate levied on French wines. At the peace +of Utrecht in 1713 political and commercial treaties were concluded. +England agreed to remove prohibitions on the importation of French +goods, and to grant most favoured nation treatment in relation to goods +and merchandise of the like nature from any other country in Europe; the +French general tariff of the 18th of September 1664, was to be again put +in force for English trade. The English provision was at variance with +the Methuen Treaty. A violent controversy arose as to the relative +importance in 1713 of Anglo-Portuguese or Anglo-French trade. In the end +the House of Commons, by a majority of 9, rejected the bill to give +effect to the commercial treaty of 1713; and trade with France remained +on an unsatisfactory footing until 1786. The other commercial treaties +of Utrecht were very complete in their provisions, equal to those of the +present time; and contained most favoured nation articles--England +secured in 1715 reduction of duties on woollens imported into the +Austrian Netherlands; and trading privileges in Spanish America. +Moderate import duties for woollens were obtained in Russia by the +commercial treaty of 1766. In the meanwhile the Bourbon family compact +of the 15th of August 1761 assured national treatment for the subjects +of France, Spain and the Two Sicilies, and for their trade in the +European territories of the other two states; and most favoured nation +treatment as regards any special terms granted to any foreign country. +The first commercial treaties concluded by the United States with +European countries contained most favoured nation clauses: this policy +has been continued by the United States, but the wording of the clause +has often varied. + +In 1786 France began to effect tariff reform by means of commercial +treaties. The first was with Great Britain, and it terminated the +long-continued tariff warfare. But the wars of the French Revolution +swept away these reforms, and brought about a renewal of hostile +tariffs. Prohibitions and differential duties were renewed, and +prevailed on the continent until the sixth decade of the 19th century. +In 1860 a government existed in France sufficiently strong and liberal +to revert to the policy of 1786. The bases of the Anglo-French treaty of +1860, beyond its most favoured nation provisions, were in France a +general transition from prohibition or high customs duties to a moderate +tariff; in the United Kingdom abandonment of all protective imposts, and +reduction of duties maintained for fiscal purposes to the lowest rates +compatible with these exigencies. Other European countries were obliged +to obtain for their trade the benefit of the conventional tariff thus +established in France, as an alternative to the high rates inscribed in +the general tariff. A series of commercial treaties was accordingly +concluded by different European states between 1861 and 1866, which +effected further reductions of customs duties in the several countries +that came within this treaty system. In 1871 the Republican government +sought to terminate the treaties of the empire. The British negotiators +nevertheless obtained the relinquishment of the attempt to levy +protective duties under the guise of compensation for imposts on raw +materials; the duration of the treaty of 1860 was prolonged; and +stipulations better worded than those before in force were agreed to for +shipping and most favoured nation treatment. In 1882, however, France +terminated her existing European tariff treaties. Belgium and some other +countries concluded fresh treaties, less liberal than those of the +system of 1860, yet much better than anterior arrangements. Great +Britain did not formally accept these higher duties; the treaty of the +28th of February 1882, with France, which secured most favoured nation +treatment in other matters, provided that customs duties should be +"henceforth regulated by the internal legislation of each of the two +states." In 1892 France also fell out of international tariff +arrangements; and adopted the system of double columns of customs +duties--one, of lower rates, to be applied to the goods of all nations +receiving most favoured treatment; and the other, of higher rates, for +countries not on this footing. Germany then took up the treaty tariff +policy; and between 1891 and 1894 concluded several commercial treaties. + +International trade in Europe in 1909 was regulated by a series of +tariffs which came into operation, mainly on the initiative of Germany +in 1906. Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, Rumania, +Russia, Servia and Switzerland, were parties to them. Their object and +effect was protectionist. The British policy then became one of +obtaining modifications to remedy disadvantages to British trade, as was +done in the case of Bulgaria and Rumania. An important series of +commercial arrangements had been concluded between 1884 and 1900 +respecting the territories and spheres of interest of European powers in +western, central and eastern Africa. In these regions exclusive +privileges were not claimed; most favoured nation treatment was +recognized, and there was a disposition to extend national treatment to +all Europeans and their trade. + +The Turkish _Capitulations_ (q.v.) are grants made by successive sultans +to Christian nations, conferring rights and privileges in favour of +their subjects resident or trading in the Ottoman dominions, following +the policy towards European states of the Eastern empire. In the first +instance capitulations were granted separately to each Christian state, +beginning with the Genoese in 1453, which entered into pacific relations +with Turkey. Afterwards new capitulations were obtained which summed up +in one document earlier concessions, and added to them in general terms +whatever had been conceded to one or more other states; a stipulation +which became a most favoured nation article. The English capitulations +date from 1569, and then secured the same treatment as the Venetians, +French, Poles and the subjects of the emperor of Germany; they were +revised in 1675, and as then settled were confirmed by treaties of +subsequent date "now and for ever." Capitulations signify that which is +arranged under distinct "headings"; the Turkish phrase is "ahid nameh," +whereas a treaty is "mouahede"--the latter does, and the former does +not, signify a reciprocal engagement. Thus, although the Turkish +capitulations are not in themselves treaties, yet by subsequent +confirmation they have acquired the force of commercial treaties of +perpetual duration as regards substance and principles, while details, +such as rates of customs duties, may, by mutual consent, be varied from +time to time. + +The _most favoured nation_ article already referred to concedes to the +state in the treaty with which it is concluded whatever advantages in +the matters comprised within its stipulations have been allowed to any +foreign or third state. It does not in itself directly confer any +particular rights, but sums up the whole of the rights in the matters +therein mentioned which have been or may be granted to foreign +countries. The value of the privileges under this article accordingly +varies with the conditions as to these rights in each state which +concedes this treatment. + + The article is drafted in different form: + + (1) That contracting states A. and B. agree to extend to each other + whatever rights and privileges they concede to countries C. and D., or + to C. and D. and any other country. The object in this instance is to + ensure specifically to B. and A. whatever advantages C. and D. may + possess. A recent instance is Article XI. of the treaty of May 10, + 1871, between France and Germany, which binds them respectively to + extend to each other whatever advantages they grant to Austria, + Belgium, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Russia and Switzerland. + + (2) The present general formula: A. and B. agree to extend to each + other whatever advantages they concede to any third country; and + engage that no other or higher duties shall be levied on the + importation into A. and B. respectively of goods the produce or + manufacture of B. and A. than are levied on the like goods the produce + or manufacture of any third country the most favoured in this respect. + There is a similar clause in regard to exportation. + + (3) The conditional or reciprocity formula, often used in the 18th and + in the early part of the 19th century, namely, that whenever A. and B. + make special concessions in return for corresponding concessions, B. + and A. respectively are either excluded from participation therein, or + must make some additional equivalent concession in order to + participate in those advantages. + + It may further be observed that the word "like" relates to the goods + themselves, to their material or quality, not to conditions of + manufacture, mode of conveyance or anything beyond the fact of their + precise description; small local facilities allowed to traffic between + conterminous land districts are not at variance with this article. + + A recent complete and concise English formula is that of Article 2 of + the treaty of commerce and navigation of the 31st of October 1905, + with Rumania. "The contracting parties agree that, in all matters + relating to commerce, navigation and industry, any privilege, favour + or immunity which either contracting party has actually granted, or + may hereafter grant, to the subjects or citizens of any other foreign + state, shall be extended immediately and unconditionally to the + subjects of the other; it being their intention that the commerce, + navigation and industry of each country shall be placed, in all + respects, on the footing of the most favoured nation." + +_Colonies._--The application of commercial treaties to colonies depends +upon the wording of each treaty. The earlier colonial policy of European +states was to subordinate colonial interests to those of the mother +country, to reserve colonial trade for the mother country, and to +abstain from engagements contrary to these general rules. France, +Portugal and Spain have adhered in principle to this policy. Germany and +Holland have been more liberal. The self-government enjoyed by the +larger British colonies has led since 1886 to the insertion of an +article in British commercial and other treaties whereby the assent of +each of these colonies, and likewise of India, is reserved before they +apply to each of these possessions. And further, the fact that certain +other British colonies are now within the sphere of commercial +intercourse controlled by the United States, has since 1891 induced the +British government to enter into special agreements on behalf of +colonies for whose products the United States is now the chief market. +As regards the most favoured nation article, it is to be remembered that +the mother country and colonies are not distinct--not foreign or +third--countries with respect to each other. The most favoured nation +article, therefore, does not preclude special arrangements between the +mother country and colonies, nor between colonies. + +_Termination._--Commercial treaties are usually concluded for a term of +years, and either lapse at the end of this period, or are terminable +then, or subsequently, if either state gives the required notice. When a +portion of a country establishes its independence, for example the +several American republics, according to present usage foreign trade is +placed on a uniform most favoured nation footing, and fresh treaties +are entered into to regulate the commercial relations of the new +communities. In the case of former Turkish provinces, the capitulations +remain in force in principle until they are replaced by new engagements. +If one state is absorbed into another, for instance Texas into the +United States, or when territory passes by conquest, for instance Alsace +to Germany, the commercial treaties of the new supreme government take +effect. In administered territories, as Cyprus and formerly Bosnia, and +in protected territories, it depends on the policy of the administering +power how far the previous fiscal system shall remain in force. When the +separate Italian states were united into the kingdom of Italy in 1861, +the commercial engagements of Sardinia superseded those of the other +states, but fresh treaties were concluded by the new kingdom to place +international relations on a regular footing. When the German empire was +established under the king of Prussia in 1871, the commercial +engagements of any state which were at variance with a Zollverein treaty +were superseded by that treaty. + +_Scope._--The scope of commercial treaties is well expressed by Calvo in +his work on international law. They provide for the importation, +exportation, transit, transhipment and bonding of merchandise; customs +tariffs; navigation charges; quarantine; the admission of vessels to +roadsteads, ports and docks; coasting trade; the admission of consuls +and their rights; fisheries; they determine the local position of the +subjects of each state in the other country in regard to residence, +property, payment of taxes or exemptions, and military service; +nationality; and a most favoured nation clause. They usually contain a +termination, and sometimes a colonial article. Some of the matters +enumerated by Calvo--consular privileges, fisheries and nationality--are +now frequently dealt with by separate conventions. Contraband and +neutral trade are not included as frequently as they were in the 18th +century. + +The preceding statement shows that commercial treaties afford to +foreigners, personally, legal rights, and relief from technical +disabilities: they afford security to trade and navigation, and regulate +other matters comprised in their provisions. In Europe the general +principles established by the series of treaties 1860-1866 hold good, +namely, the substitution of uniform rates of customs duties for +prohibitions or differential rates. The disadvantages urged are that +these treaties involve government interference and bargaining, whereas +each state should act independently as its interests require, that they +are opposed to free trade, and restrict the fiscal freedom of the +legislature. It may be observed that these objections imply some +confusion of ideas. All contracts may be designated bargains, and some +of the details of commercial treaties in Calvo's enumeration enter +directly into the functions of government; moreover, countries cannot +remain isolated. If two countries agree by simultaneous action to adopt +fixed rates of duty, this agreement is favourable to commerce, and it is +not apparent how it is contrary, even to free trade principles. +Moreover, security in business transactions, a very important +consideration, is provided. + +Our conclusions are-- + +(1) that under the varying jurisprudence of nations commercial treaties +are adopted by common consent; + +(2) that their provisions depend upon the general and fiscal policy of +each state; + +(3) that tariff arrangements, if judiciously settled, benefit trade; + +(4) that commercial treaties are now entered into by all states; and +that they are necessary under present conditions of commercial +intercourse between nations. (C. M. K.*) + + See the British parliamentary _Return_ (Cd. 4080) of all commercial + treaties between various countries in force on Jan. 1, 1908. + + + + +COMMERCY, a town of north-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Meuse, on the left bank of the Meuse, 26 m. E. of +Bar-le-Duc by rail. Pop. (1906) 5622. Commercy possesses a chateau of +the 17th century, now used as cavalry barracks, a Benedictine convent +occupied by a training-college for primary teachers, and a communal +college for boys. A statue of Dom Calmet, the historian, born in the +vicinity, stands in one of the squares. The industries include +iron-working and the manufacture of nails, boots and shoes, embroidery +and hosiery. The town has trade in cattle, grain and wood, and is well +known for its cakes (_madeleines_). Commercy dates back to the 9th +century, and at that time its lords were dependent on the bishop of +Metz. In 1544 it was besieged by Charles V. in person. For some time the +lordship was in the hands of Francois Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz, +who lived in the town for a number of years, and there composed his +memoirs. From him it was purchased by Charles IV., duke of Lorraine. In +1744 it became the residence of Stanislas, king of Poland, who spent a +great deal of care on the embellishment of the town, castle and +neighbourhood. + + + + +COMMERS (from Lat. _commercium_), the German term for the German +students' social gatherings held annually on occasions such as the +breaking-up of term and the anniversary of the university's founding. A +Commers consists of speeches and songs and the drinking of unlimited +quantities of beer. The arrangements are governed by officials +(_Chargierte_) elected by the students from among themselves. Strict +rules as to drinking exist, and the chairman after each speech calls for +what is called a salamander (_ad exercitium Salamandris bibite, +tergite_). All rise and having emptied their glasses hammer three times +on the table with them. On the death of a student, his memory is +honoured with a salamander, the glasses being broken to atoms at the +close. + + + + +COMMINES, PHILIPPE DE (c. 1445-c. 1511), French historian, called the +father of modern history, was born at the castle of Renescure, near +Hazebrouck in Flanders, a little earlier than 1447. He lost both father +and mother in his earliest years. In 1463 his godfather, Philip V., duke +of Burgundy, summoned him to his court, and soon after transferred him +to the household of his son, afterwards known as Charles the Bold. He +speedily acquired considerable influence over Charles, and in 1468 was +appointed chamberlain and councillor; consequently when in the same year +Louis XI. was entrapped at Peronne, Commines was able both to soften the +passion of Charles and to give useful advice to the king, whose life he +did much to save. Three years later he was charged with an embassy to +Louis, who gained him over to himself by many brilliant promises, and in +1472 he left Burgundy for the court of France. He was at once made +chamberlain and councillor; a pension of 6000 livres was bestowed on +him; he received the principality of Talmont, the confiscated property +of the Amboise family, over which the family of La Tremoille claimed to +have rights. The king arranged his marriage with Helene de Chambes, who +brought him the fine lordship of Argenton, and Commines took the name +d'Argenton from then (27th of January 1473). He was employed to carry +out the intrigues of Louis in Burgundy, and spent several months as +envoy in Italy. On his return he was received with the utmost favour, +and in 1479 obtained a decree confirming him in possession of his +principality. + +On the death of Louis in 1483 a suit was commenced against Commines by +the family of La Tremoille, and he was cast in heavy damages. He plotted +against the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and joined the party of the duke of +Orleans, afterwards Louis XII. Having attempted to carry off the king, +Charles VIII., and so free him from the tutelage of his sister, he was +arrested, and put in one of his old master's iron cages at Loches. In +1489 he was banished to one of his own estates for ten years, and made +to give bail to the amount of 10,000 crowns of gold for his good +behaviour. Recalled to the council in 1492, he strenuously opposed the +Italian expedition of Charles VIII., in which, however, he took part, +notably as representing the king in the negotiations which resulted in +the treaty of Vercelli. During the rest of his life, notwithstanding the +accession of Louis XII., whom he had served as duke of Orleans, he held +no position of importance; and his last days were disturbed by lawsuits. +He died at Argenton on the 18th of October, probably in 1511. His wife +Helene de Chambes survived him till 1532; their tomb is now in the +Louvre. + +The _Memoirs_, to which Commines owes his reputation as a statesman and +man of letters, were written during his latter years. The graphic style +of his narrative and above all the keenness of his insight into the +motives of his contemporaries, an insight undimmed by undue regard for +principles of right and wrong, make this work one of the great classics +of history. His portrait of Louis XI. remains unique, in that to such a +writer was given such a subject. Scott in _Quentin Durward_ gives an +interesting picture of Commines, from whom he largely draws. +Sainte-Beuve, after speaking of Commines as being in date the first +truly modern writer, and comparing him with Montaigne, says that his +history remains the definitive history of his time, and that from it all +political history took its rise. None of this applause is undeserved, +for the pages of Commines abound with excellences. He analyses motives +and pictures manners; he delineates men and describes events; his +reflections are pregnant with suggestiveness, his conclusions strong +with the logic of facts. + +The _Memoirs_ divided themselves into two parts, the first from the +reign of Louis XI., 1464-1483, the second on the Italian expedition and +the negotiations at Venice leading to the Vercelli treaty, 1494-1495. +The first part was written between 1489 and 1491, while Commines was at +the chateau of Dreux, the second from 1495 to 1498. Seven MSS. are +known, derived from a single holograph, and as this was undoubtedly +badly written, the copies were inaccurate; the best is that which +belonged to Anne de Polignac, niece of Commines, and it is the only one +containing books vii. and viii. + +The best edition of Commines is the one edited by B. de Mandrot and +published at Paris in 1901-1903. For this edition the author used a +manuscript hitherto unknown and more complete than the others, and in +his introduction he gives an account of the life of Commines. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The _Memoirs_ remained in MS. till 1524, when part of + them were printed by Galliot du Pre, the remainder first seeing light + in 1525. Subsequent editions were put forth by Denys Sauvage in 1552, + by Denys Godefroy in 1649, and by Lenglet Dufresnoy in 1747. Those of + Mademoiselle Dupont (1841-1848) and of M. de Chantelauze (1881) have + many merits, but the best was given by Bernard de Mandrot: _Memoirs de + Philippe de Commynes_, from the MS. of Anne de Polignac (1901). + Various translations of Commines into English have appeared, from that + of T. Danett in 1596 to that, based on the Dupont edition, which was + printed in Bohn's series in 1855. (C. B.*) + + + + +COMMISSARIAT, the department of an army charged with the provision of +supplies, both food and forage, for the troops. The supply of military +stores such as ammunition is not included in the duties of a +commissariat. In almost every army the duties of transport and supply +are performed by the same corps of departmental troops. + + + + +COMMISSARY (from Med. Lat. _commissarius_, one to whom a charge or trust +is committed), generally, a representative; e.g., the emperor's +representative who presided in his absence over the imperial diet; and +especially, an ecclesiastical official who exercises in special +circumstances the jurisdiction of a bishop (q.v.); in the Church of +England this jurisdiction is exercised in a Consistory Court (q.v.), +except in Canterbury, where the court of the diocesan as opposed to the +metropolitan jurisdiction of the archbishop is called a commissary +court, and the judge is the commissary general of the city and diocese +of Canterbury. When a see is vacant the jurisdiction is exercised by a +"special commissary" of the metropolitan. Commissary is also a general +military term for an official charged with the duties of supply, +transport and finance of an army. In the 17th and 18th centuries the +_commissaire des guerres_, or _Kriegskommissar_ was an important +official in continental armies, by whose agency the troops, in their +relation to the civil inhabitants, were placed upon semi-political +control. In French military law, _commissaires du gouvernement_ +represent the ministry of war on military tribunals, and more or less +correspond to the British judge-advocate (see COURT-MARTIAL). + + + + +COMMISSION (from Lat. _commissio_, _committere_), the action of +committing or entrusting any charge or duty to a person, and the charge +or trust thus committed, and so particularly an authority, or the +document embodying such authority, given to some person to act in a +particular capacity. The term is thus applied to the written authority +to command troops, which the sovereign or president, as the ultimate +commander-in-chief of the nation's armed forces, grants to persons +selected as officers, or to the similar authority issued to certain +qualified persons to act as justices of the peace. For the various +commissions of assize see ASSIZE. The word is also used of the order +issued to a naval officer to take the command of a ship of war, and when +manned, armed and fully equipped for active service she is said to be +"put in commission." + +In the law of evidence (q.v.) the presence of witnesses may, for certain +necessary causes, be dispensed with by the order of the court, and the +evidence be taken by a commissioner. Such evidence in England is said to +be "on commission" (see R.S.C. Order XXXVII.). Such causes may be +illness, the intention of the witness to leave the country before the +trial, residence out of the country or the like. Where the witness is +out of the jurisdiction of the court, and his place of residence is a +foreign country where objection is taken to the execution of a +commission, or is a British colony or India, "letters of request" for +the examination of the witness are issued, addressed to the head of the +tribunal in the foreign country, or to the secretary of state for the +colonies or for India. + +Where the functions of an office are transferred from an individual to a +body of persons, the body exercising these delegated functions is +generally known as a commission and the members as commissioners; thus +the office of lord high admiral of Great Britain is administered by a +permanent board, the lords of the admiralty. Such a delegation may be +also temporary, as where the authority under the great seal to give the +royal assent to legislation is issued to lords commissioners. Similarly +bodies of persons or single individuals may be specially charged with +carrying out particular duties; these may be permanent, such as the +Charity Commission or the Ecclesiastical and Church Estates Commission, +or may be temporary, such as various international bodies of inquiry, +like the commission which met in Paris in 1905 to inquire into the North +Sea incident (see DOGGER BANK), or such as the various commissions of +inquiry, royal, statutory or departmental, of which an account is given +below. + +A commission may be granted by one person to another to act as his +agent, and particularly in business; thus the term is applied to that +method of business in which goods are entrusted to an agent for sale, +the remuneration being a percentage on the sales. This percentage is +known as the "commission," and hence the word is extended to all +remuneration which is based on a percentage on the value of the work +done. The right of an agent to remuneration in the form of a +"commission" is always founded upon an express or implied contract +between himself and his principal. Such a contract may be implied from +custom or usage, from the conduct of the principal or from the +circumstances of the particular case. Such commissions are only payable +on transactions directly resulting from agency and may be payable though +the principal acquires no benefit. In order to claim remuneration an +agent must be legally qualified to act in the capacity in which he +claims remuneration. He cannot recover in respect of unlawful or +wagering transactions, or in cases of misconduct or breach of duty. + +_Secret Commissions._--The giving of a commission, in the sense of a +bribe or unlawful payment to an agent or employe in order to influence +him in relation to his principal's or employer's affairs, has grown to +considerable proportions in modern times; it has been rightly regarded +as a gross breach of trust upon the part of employes and agents, +inasmuch as it leads them to look to their own interests rather than to +those of their employers. In order to suppress this bribing of employes +the English legislature in 1906 passed the Prevention of Corruption Act, +which enacts that if an agent corruptly accepts or obtains for himself +or for any other person any gift or consideration as an inducement or +reward for doing or forbearing to do any act or business, or for showing +or forbearing to show favour or disfavour to any person in relation to +his principal's affairs, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanour and shall +be liable on conviction or indictment to imprisonment with or without +hard labour for a term not exceeding two years, or to a fine not +exceeding L500, or to both, or on summary conviction to imprisonment not +exceeding four months with or without hard labour or to a fine not +exceeding L50, or both. The act also applies the same punishment to any +person who corruptly gives or offers any gift or consideration to an +agent. Also if a person knowingly gives an agent, or if an agent +knowingly uses, any receipt, account or document with intent to mislead +the principal, they are guilty of a misdemeanour and liable to the +punishment already mentioned. For the purposes of the act +"consideration" includes valuable consideration of any kind, and "agent" +includes any person employed by or acting for another. No prosecution +can be instituted without the consent of the attorney-general, and every +information must be upon oath. + +Legislation to the same effect has been adopted in Australia. A federal +act was passed in 1905 dealing with secret commissions, and in the same +year both Victoria and Western Australia passed drastic measures to +prevent the giving or receiving corruptly of commissions. The Victorian +act applies to trustees, executors, administrators and liquidators as +well as to agents. Both the Victorian and the Western Australian acts +enact that gifts to the parent, wife, child, partner or employer of an +agent are to be deemed gifts to the agent unless the contrary is proved; +also that the custom of any trade or calling is not in itself a defence +to a prosecution. + +_Commissions of Inquiry_, i.e. commissions for the purpose of eliciting +information as to the operation of laws, or investigating particular +matters, social, educational, &c., are distinguished, according to the +terms of their appointment, as _royal_, _statutory_ and _departmental_. +A royal commission in England is appointed by the crown, and the +commissions usually issue from the office of the executive government +which they specially concern. The objects of the inquiry are carefully +defined in the warrant constituting the commission, which is termed the +"reference." The commissioners give their services gratuitously, but +where they involve any great degree of professional skill compensation +is allowed for time and labour. The expenses incurred are provided out +of money annually voted for the purpose. Unless expressly empowered by +act of parliament, a commission cannot compel the production of +documents or the giving of evidence, nor can it administer an oath. A +commission may hold its sittings in any part of the United Kingdom, or +may institute and conduct experiments for the purpose of testing the +utility of invention, &c. When the inquiry or any particular portion of +it is concluded, a report is presented to the crown through the home +department. All the commissioners, if unanimous, sign the report, but +those who are unable to agree with the majority can record their +dissent, and express their individual opinions, either in paragraphs +appended to the report or in separately signed memoranda. + +Statutory commissions are created by acts of parliament, and, with the +exception that they are liable to have their proceedings questioned in +parliament, have absolute powers within the limits of their prescribed +functions and subject to the provisions of the act defining the same. +Departmental commissions or committees are appointed either by a +treasury minute or by the authority of a secretary of state, for the +purpose of instituting inquiries into matters of official concern or +examining into proposed changes in administrative arrangements. They are +generally composed of two or more permanent officials of the department +concerned in the investigation, along with a subordinate member of the +administration. Reports of such committees are usually regarded as +confidential documents. + + A full account of the procedure in royal commissions will be found in + A. Todd's _Parliamentary Government in England_, vol. ii. + + + + +COMMISSIONAIRE, the designation of an attendant, messenger or +subordinate employe in hotels on the continent of Europe, whose chief +duty is to attend at railway stations, secure customers, take charge of +their luggage, carry out the necessary formalities with respect to it +and have it sent on to the hotel. They are also employed in Paris as +street messengers, light porters, &c. The Corps of Commissionaires, in +England, is an association of pensioned soldiers of trustworthy +character, founded in 1859 by Captain Sir Edward Walter, K.C.B. +(1823-1904). It was first started in a very small way, with the +intention of providing occupation for none but wounded soldiers. The +nucleus of the corps consisted of eight men, each of whom had lost a +limb. The demand, however, for neat, uniformed, trusty men, to perform +certain light duties, encouraged the founder to extend his idea, and the +corps developed into a large self-supporting organization. In 1906 there +were over 3000 members of the corps, more than 2000 of whom served in +London. Out-stations were established in various large towns of the +kingdom, and the corps extended its operations also to the colonies. + + + + +COMMISSIONER, in general an officer appointed to carry out some +particular work, or to discharge the duty of a particular office; one +who is a member of a commission (q.v.). In this sense the word is +applied to members of a permanently constituted department of the +administration, as civil service commissioners, commissioners of income +tax, commissioners in lunacy, &c. It is also the title given to the +heads of or important officials in various governmental departments, as +commissioner of customs. In some British possessions in Africa and the +Pacific the head of the government is styled high commissioner. In India +a commissioner is the chief administrative official of a division which +includes several districts. The office does not exist in Madras, where +the same duties are discharged by a board of revenue, but is found in +most of the other provinces. The commissioner comes midway between the +local government and the district officer. In the regulation provinces +the district officer is called a collector (q.v.), and in the +non-regulation provinces a deputy-commissioner. In the former he must +always be a member of the covenanted civil service, but in the latter he +may be a military officer. + +A chief commissioner is a high Indian official, governing a province +inferior in status to a lieutenant-governorship, but in direct +subordination to the governor-general in council. The provinces which +have chief commissioners are the Central Provinces and Berar, the +North-West Frontier Province and Coorg. The agent to the +governor-general of Baluchistan is also chief commissioner of British +Baluchistan, the agent to the governor-general of Rajputana is also +chief commissioner of the British district of Ajmere-Merwara, and there +is a chief commissioner of the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Several +provinces, such as the Punjab, Oudh, Burma and Assam, were administered +by chief commissioners before they were raised to the status of +lieutenant-governorships (see LIEUTENANT). + +A commissioner for oaths in England is a solicitor appointed by the lord +chancellor to administer oaths to persons making affidavits for the +purpose of any cause or matter. The Commissioner for Oaths Act 1889 +(with an amending act 1891), amending and consolidating various other +acts, regulates the appointment and powers of such commissioners. In +most large towns the minimum qualification for appointment is six years' +continuous practice, and the application must be supported by two +barristers, two solicitors and at least six neighbours of the applicant. +The charge made by commissioners for every oath, declaration, +affirmation or attestation upon honour is one shilling and sixpence; for +marking each exhibit (a document or other thing sworn to in an affidavit +and shown to a deponent when being sworn), one shilling. + + + + +COMMITMENT, in English law, a precept or warrant _in writing_, made and +issued by a court or judicial officer (including, in cases of treason, +the privy council or a secretary of state), directing the conveyance of +a person named or sufficiently described therein to a prison or other +legal place of custody, and his detention therein for a time specified, +or until the person to be detained has done a certain act specified in +the warrant, e.g. paid a fine imposed upon him on conviction. Its +character will be more easily grasped by reference to a form now in use +under statutory authority:-- + + In the county of A, Petty Sessional Division of B. + + To each and all of the constables of the county of A and the governor + of His Majesty's Prison at C. + + E. F. hereinafter called the defendant has this day been convicted + before the court of summary jurisdiction sitting at D. + + (Here the conviction and adjudication is stated.) + + You the said constables are hereby commanded to convey the defendant + to the said prison, and there deliver him to the governor thereof + together with this warrant: and you the governor of the said prison to + receive the defendant into your custody and keep him to hard labour + for the space of three calendar months. + + Dated Signature and seal of a justice of the peace. + +A commitment as now understood differs from "committal," which is the +decision of a court to send a person to prison, and not the document +containing the directions to executive and ministerial officers of the +law which are consequent on the decision. An interval must necessarily +elapse between the decision to commit and the making out of the warrant +of commitment, during which interval the detention in custody of the +person committed is undoubtedly legal. A commitment differs also from a +warrant of arrest (_mandat d'amener_), in that it is not made until +after the person to be detained has actually appeared, or has been +summoned, before the court which orders committal, to answer to some +charge. + +If not always, at any rate since 1679, a warrant of commitment has been +necessary to justify officers of the law in conveying a prisoner to gaol +and a gaoler in receiving and detaining him there. It is ordinarily +essential to a valid commitment that it should contain a specific +statement of the particular cause of the detention ordered. To this the +chief, if not the only exception, is in the case of commitments by order +of either House of Parliament (May, _Parl. Pr._, 11th ed., 63, 70, 90). +Commitments by justices of the peace must be under their hands and +seals. Commitments by a court of record if formally drawn up are under +the seal of the court. + +Every person in custody is entitled, under the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, +to receive within six hours of demand from the officer in whose custody +he is, a copy of any warrant of commitment under which he is detained, +and may challenge its legality by application for a writ of habeas +corpus. + +So far as concerns the acts of justices and tribunals of limited +jurisdiction, the stringency of the rules as to commitments is an +important aid to the liberty of the subject. + +In the case of superior courts no statutory forms of commitment exist, +and the same formalities are not so strictly enforced. Committal of a +person present in court for contempt of the court is enforced by his +immediate arrest by the tipstaff as soon as committal is ordered, and he +may be detained in prison on a memorandum of the clerk or registrar of +the court while a formal order is being drawn up. And in the case of +persons sentenced at assizes and quarter sessions the only written +authority for enforcement is a calendar of the prisoners tried, on which +the sentences are entered up, signed by the presiding judge. + +Commitments are usually made by courts of criminal jurisdiction in +respect of offences against the criminal law, but are also occasionally +made as a punishment for disobedience to the orders made in a civil +court, e.g. where a judgment debtor having means to pay refuses to +satisfy the judgment debt, or in cases where the person committed has +been guilty of a direct contempt of the court. + +The expenses of executing a warrant of commitment, so far as not paid by +the prisoner, are defrayed out of the parliamentary grants for the +maintenance of prisons. + + + + +COMMITTEE (from _committe_, an Anglo-Fr. past participle of _commettre_, +Lat. _committere_, to entrust; the modern Fr. equivalent _comite_ is +derived from the Eng.), a person or body of persons to whom something is +"committed" or entrusted. The term is used of a person or persons to +whom the charge of the body ("committee of the person") or of the +property and business affairs ("committee of the estate") of a lunatic +is committed by the court (see INSANITY). In this sense the English +usage is to pronounce the word _commi-ttee_. The more common meaning of +"committee" (pronounced _committ-y_) is that of a body of persons +elected or appointed to consider and deal with certain matters of +business, specially or generally referred to it. + + + + +COMMODIANUS, a Christian Latin poet, who flourished about A.D. 250. The +only ancient writers who mention him are Gennadius, presbyter of +Massilia (end of 5th century), in his _De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis_, +and Pope Gelasius in _De libris recipiendis et non recipiendis_, in +which his works are classed as _Apocryphi_, probably on account of +certain heterodox statements contained in them. Commodianus is supposed +to have been an African. As he himself tells us, he was originally a +heathen, but was converted to Christianity when advanced in years, and +felt called upon to instruct the ignorant in the truth. He was the +author of two extant Latin poems, _Instructiones_ and _Carmen +apologeticum_ (first published in 1852 by J. B. Pitra in the +_Spicilegium Solesmense_, from a MS. in the Middlehill collection, now +at Cheltenham, supposed to have been brought from the monastery of +Bobbio). The _Instructiones_ consist of 80 poems, each of which is an +acrostic (with the exception of 60, where the initial letters are in +alphabetical order). The initials of 80, read backwards, give +Commodianus Mendicus Christi. The _Apologeticum_, undoubtedly by +Commodianus, although the name of the author (as well as the title) is +absent from the MS., is free from the acrostic restriction. The first +part of the _Instructiones_ is addressed to the heathens and Jews, and +ridicules the divinities of classical mythology; the second contains +reflections on Antichrist, the end of the world, the Resurrection, and +advice to Christians, penitents and the clergy. In the _Apologeticum_ +all mankind are exhorted to repent, in view of the approaching end of +the world. The appearance of Antichrist, identified with Nero and the +Man from the East, is expected at an early date. Although they display +fiery dogmatic zeal, the poems cannot be considered quite orthodox. To +the classical scholar the metre alone is of interest. Although they are +professedly written in hexameters, the rules of quantity are sacrificed +to accent. The first four lines of the _Instructiones_ may be quoted by +way of illustration: + + "Praefatio nostra viam erranti demonstrat, + Respectumque bonum, cum venerit saeculi meta, + Aeternum fieri, quod discredunt inscia corda: + Ego similiter erravi tempore multo." + +These _versus politici_ (as they are called) show that the change was +already passing over Latin which resulted in the formation of the +Romance languages. The use of cases and genders, the construction of +verbs and prepositions, and the verbal forms exhibit striking +irregularities. The author, however, shows an acquaintance with Latin +poets--Horace, Virgil, Lucretius. + + The best edition of the text is by B. Dombart (Vienna, 1887), and a + good account of the poems will be found in M. Manitius, _Geschichte + der christlich-lateinischen Poesie_ (1891), with bibliography, to + which may be added G. Boissier, "Commodien," in the _Melanges Renier_ + (1887); H. Brewer, _Kommodian von Gaza_ (Paderborn, 1906); L. Vernier, + "La Versification latine populaire en Afrique," in _Revue de + philologie_, xv. (1891); and C. E. Freppel, _Commodien, Arnobe, + Lactance_ (1893). Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman Literature_ (Eng. + trans., 384), should also be consulted. + + + + +COMMODORE (a form of "commander"; in the 17th century the term +"commandore" is used), a temporary rank in the British navy for an +officer in command of a squadron. There are two kinds, one with and the +other without a captain below him in his ship, the first holding the +temporary rank, pay, &c., of a rear-admiral, the other that of captain. +It is also given as a courtesy title to the senior officer of a squadron +of more than three vessels. In the United States navy "commodore" was a +courtesy title given to captains who had been in command of a squadron. +In 1862 it was made a commissioned rank, but was abolished in 1899. The +name is given to the president of a yacht club, as of the Royal Yacht +Squadron, and to the senior captain of a fleet of merchant vessels. + + + + +COMMODUS, LUCIUS AELIUS AURELIUS (161-192), also called Marcus +Antoninus, emperor of Rome, son of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina, was +born at Lanuvium on the 31st of August 161. In spite of a careful +education he soon showed a fondness for low society and amusement. At +the age of fifteen he was associated by his father in the government. On +the death of Aurelius, whom he had accompanied in the war against the +Quadi and Marcomanni, he hastily concluded peace and hurried back to +Rome (180). The first years of his reign were uneventful, but in 183 be +was attacked by an assassin at the instigation of his sister Lucilla +and many members of the senate, which felt deeply insulted by the +contemptuous manner in which Commodus treated it. From this time he +became tyrannical. Many distinguished Romans were put to death as +implicated in the conspiracy, and others were executed for no reason at +all. The treasury was exhausted by lavish expenditure on gladiatorial +and wild beast combats and on the soldiery, and the property of the +wealthy was confiscated. At the same time Commodus, proud of his bodily +strength and dexterity, exhibited himself in the arena, slew wild +animals and fought with gladiators, and commanded that he should be +worshipped as the Roman Hercules. Plots against his life naturally began +to spring up. That of his favourite Perennis, praefect of the praetorian +guard, was discovered in time. The next danger was from the people, who +were infuriated by the dearth of corn. The mob repelled the praetorian +guard, but the execution of the hated minister Cleander quieted the +tumult. The attempt also of the daring highwayman Maternus to seize the +empire was betrayed; but at last Eclectus the emperor's chamberlain, +Laetus the praefect of the praetorians, and his mistress Marcia, finding +their names on the list of those doomed to death, united to destroy him. +He was poisoned, and then strangled by a wrestler named Narcissus, on +the 31st of December 192. During his reign unimportant wars were +successfully carried on by his generals Clodius Albinus, Pescennius +Niger and Ulpius Marcellus. The frontier of Dacia was successfully +defended against the Scythians and Sarmatians, and a tract of territory +reconquered in north Britain. In 1874 a statue of Commodus was dug up at +Rome, in which he is represented as Hercules--a lion's skin on his head, +a club in his right and the apples of the Hesperides in his left hand. + + See Aelius Lampridius, Herodian, and fragments in Dio Cassius; H. + Schiller, _Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit_; J. Zurcher, + "Commodus" (1868, in Budinger's _Untersuchungen zur romischen + Kaisergeschichte_, a criticism of Herodian's account); Pauly-Wissowa, + _Realencyclopadie_, ii. 2464 ff. (von Rohden); Heer, "Der historische + Wert des Vita Commodi" (_Philologus_, Supplementband ix.). + + + + +COMMON LAW, like "civil law," a phrase with many shades of meaning, and +probably best defined with reference to the various things to which it +is opposed. It is contrasted with statute law, as law not promulgated by +the sovereign body; with equity, as the law prevailing between man and +man, unless when the court of chancery assumed jurisdiction; and with +local or customary law, as the general law for the whole realm, +tolerating variations in certain districts and under certain conditions. +It is also sometimes contrasted with civil, or canon, or international +law, which are foreign systems recognized in certain special courts only +and within limits defined by the common law. As against all these +contrasted kinds of law, it may be described broadly as the universal +law of the realm, which applies wherever they have not been introduced, +and which is supposed to have a principle for every possible case. +Occasionally, it would appear to be used in a sense which would exclude +the law developed by at all events the more modern decisions of the +courts. + +Blackstone divides the civil law of England into _lex scripta_ or +statute law, and _lex non scripta_ or common law. The latter, he says, +consists of (1) general customs, which are the common law strictly so +called, (2) particular customs prevailing in certain districts, and (3) +laws used in particular courts. The first is the law by which +"proceedings and determinations in the king's ordinary courts of justice +are guided and directed." That the eldest son alone is heir to his +ancestor, that a deed is of no validity unless sealed and delivered, +that wills shall be construed more favourably and deeds more strictly, +are examples of common law doctrines, "not set down in any written +statute or ordinance, but depending on immemorial usage for their +support." The validity of these usages is to be determined by the +judges--"the depositaries of the law, the living oracles who must decide +in all cases of doubt, and who are bound by an oath to decide according +to the law of the land." Their judgments are preserved as records, and +"it is an established rule to abide by former precedents where the same +points come again in litigation." The extraordinary deference paid to +precedents is the source of the most striking peculiarities of the +English common law. There can be little doubt that it was the rigid +adherence of the common law courts to established precedent which caused +the rise of an independent tribunal administering justice on more +equitable principles--the tribunal of the chancellor, the court of +chancery. And the old common law courts--the king's bench, common pleas +and exchequer--were always, as compared with the court of chancery, +distinguished for a certain narrowness and technicality of reasoning. At +the same time the common law was never a fixed or rigid system. In the +application of old precedents to the changing circumstances of society, +and in the development of new principles to meet new cases, the common +law courts displayed an immense amount of subtlety and ingenuity, and a +great deal of sound sense. The continuity of the system was not less +remarkable than its elasticity. Two great defects of form long +disfigured the English law. One was the separation of common law and +equity. The Judicature Act of 1873 remedied this by merging the +jurisdiction of all the courts in one supreme court, and causing +equitable principles to prevail over those of the common law where they +differ. The other is the overwhelming mass of precedents in which the +law is embedded. This can only be removed by some well-conceived scheme +of the nature of a code or digest; to some extent this difficulty has +been overcome by such acts as the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, the +Partnership Act 1890 and the Sale of Goods Act 1893. + +The English common law may be described as a pre-eminently national +system. Based on Saxon customs, moulded by Norman lawyers, and jealous +of foreign systems, it is, as Bacon says, as mixed as the English +language and as truly national. And like the language, it has been taken +into other English-speaking countries, and is the foundation of the law +in the United States. + + + + +COMMON LODGING-HOUSE, "a house, or part of a house, where persons of the +poorer classes are received for gain, and in which they use one or more +rooms in common with the rest of the inmates, who are not members of one +family, whether for eating or sleeping" (_Langdon_ v. _Broadbent_, 1877, +37 L.T. 434; _Booth_ v. _Ferrett_, 1890, 25 Q.B.D. 87). There is no +statutory definition of the class of houses in England intended to be +included in the expression "common lodging-house," but the above +definition is very generally accepted as embracing those houses which, +under the Public Health and other Acts, must be registered and +inspected. The provisions of the Public Health Act 1875 are that every +urban and rural district council must keep registers showing the names +and residences of the keepers of all common lodging-houses in their +districts, the situation of every such house, and the number of lodgers +authorized by them to be received therein. They may require the keeper +to affix and keep undefaced and legible a notice with the words +"registered common lodging-house" in some conspicuous place on the +outside of the house, and may make by-laws fixing the number of lodgers, +for the separation of the sexes, for promoting cleanliness and +ventilation, for the giving of notices and the taking of precautions in +case of any infectious disease, and generally for the well ordering of +such houses. The keeper of a common lodging-house is required to +limewash the walls and ceilings twice a year--in April and October--and +to provide a proper water-supply. The whole of the house must be open at +all times to the inspection of any officer of a council. The county of +London (except the city) is under the Common Lodging Houses Acts 1851 +and 1853, with the Sanitary Act 1866 and the Sanitary Law Amendment Act +1874. The administration of these acts was, from 1851 to 1894, in the +hands of the chief commissioner of police, when it was transferred to +the London County Council. + + + + +COMMON ORDER, BOOK OF, sometimes called _The Order of Geneva_ or _Knox's +Liturgy_, a directory for public worship in the Reformed Church in +Scotland. In 1557 the Scottish Protestant lords in council enjoined the +use of the English Common Prayer, i.e. the Second Book of Edward VI. +Meanwhile, at Frankfort, among British Protestant refugees, a +controversy was going on between the upholders of the English liturgy +and the French Reformed Order of Worship respectively. By way of +compromise John Knox and other ministers drew up a new liturgy based +upon earlier Continental Reformed Services, which was not deemed +satisfactory, but which on his removal to Geneva he published in 1556 +for the use of the English congregations in that city. The Geneva book +made its way to Scotland, and was used here and there by Reformed +congregations. Knox's return in 1559 strengthened its position, and in +1562 the General Assembly enjoined the uniform use of it as the "Book of +Our Common Order" in "the administration of the Sacraments and +solemnization of marriages and burials of the dead." In 1564 a new and +enlarged edition was printed in Edinburgh, and the Assembly ordered that +"every Minister, exhorter and reader" should have a copy and use the +Order contained therein not only for marriage and the sacraments but +also "in Prayer," thus ousting the hitherto permissible use of the +Second Book of Edward VI. at ordinary service. "The rubrics as retained +from the Book of Geneva made provision for an extempore prayer before +the sermon, and allowed the minister some latitude in the other two +prayers. The forms for the special services were more strictly imposed, +but liberty was also given to vary some of the prayers in them. The +rubrics of the Scottish portion of the book are somewhat stricter, and, +indeed, one or two of the Geneva rubrics were made more absolute in the +Scottish emendations; but no doubt the 'Book of Common Order' is best +described as a discretionary liturgy." + +It will be convenient here to give the contents of the edition printed +by Andrew Hart at Edinburgh in 1611, and described (as was usually the +case) as _The Psalmes of David in Meeter, with the Prose, whereunto is +added Prayers commonly used in the Kirke, and private houses; with a +perpetuall Kalendar and all the Changes of the Moone that shall happen +for the space of Six Yeeres to come_. They are as follows:-- + +(i.) The Calendar; (ii.) The names of the Faires of Scotland; (iii.) The +Confession of Faith used at Geneva and received by the Church of +Scotland; (iv.-vii.) Concerning the election and duties of Ministers, +Elders and Deacons, and Superintendent; (viii.) An order of +Ecclesiastical Discipline; (ix.) The Order of Excommunication and of +Public Repentance; (x.) The Visitation of the Sick; (xi.) The Manner of +Burial; (xii.) The Order of Public Worship--Forms of Confession and +Prayer after Sermon; (xiii.) Other Public Prayers; (xiv.) The +Administration of the Lord's Supper; (xv.) The Form of Marriage; (xvi.) +The Order of Baptism; (xvii.) A Treatise on Fasting with the order +thereof; (xviii.) The Psalms of David; (xix.) Conclusions or Doxologies; +(xx.) Hymns--metrical versions of the Decalogue, Magnificat, Apostles' +Creed, &c.; (xxi.) Calvin's Catechism; (xxii. and xxiii.) Prayers for +Private Houses and Miscellaneous Prayers, e.g. for a man before he +begins his work. + +The Psalms and Catechism together occupy more than half the book. The +chapter on burial is significant. In place of the long office of the +Catholic Church we have simply this statement:--"The corpse is +reverently brought to the grave, accompanied with the Congregation, +without any further ceremonies: which being buried, the Minister (if he +be present and required) goeth to the Church, if it be not far off, and +maketh some comfortable exhortation to the people, touching death and +resurrection." This (with the exception of the bracketed words) was +taken over from the Book of Geneva. The Westminster Directory which +superseded the Book of Common Order also enjoins interment "without any +ceremony," such being stigmatized as "no way beneficial to the dead and +many ways hurtful to the living." Civil honours may, however, be +rendered. + +Revs. G. W. Sprott and Thomas Leishman, in the introduction to their +edition of the Book of Common Order, and of the Westminster Directory +published in 1868, collected a valuable series of notices as to the +actual usage of the former book for the period (1564-1645) during which +it was enjoined by ecclesiastical law. Where ministers were not +available suitable persons (often old priests, sometimes schoolmasters) +were selected as readers. Good contemporary accounts of Scottish worship +are those of W. Cowper (1568-1619), bishop of Galloway, in his _Seven +Days' Conference between a Catholic Christian and a Catholic Roman_ +(_c._ 1615), and Alexander Henderson in _The Government and Order of the +Church of Scotland_ (1641). There was doubtless a good deal of variety +at different times and in different localities. Early in the 17th +century under the twofold influence of the Dutch Church, with which the +Scottish clergy were in close connexion, and of James I.'s endeavours to +"justle out" a liturgy which gave the liberty of "conceiving" prayers, +ministers began in prayer to read less and extemporize more. + +Turning again to the legislative history, in 1567 the prayers were done +into Gaelic; in 1579 parliament ordered all gentlemen and yeomen holding +property of a certain value to possess copies. The assembly of 1601 +declined to alter any of the existing prayers but expressed a +willingness to admit new ones. Between 1606 and 1618 various attempts +were made under English and Episcopal influence, by assemblies +afterwards declared unlawful, to set aside the "Book of Common Order." +The efforts of James I., Charles I. and Archbishop Laud proved +fruitless; in 1637 the reading of Laud's draft of a new form of service +based on the English prayer book led to riots in Edinburgh and to +general discontent in the country. The General Assembly of Glasgow in +1638 abjured Laud's book and took its stand again by the Book of Common +Order, an act repeated by the assembly of 1639, which also demurred +against innovations proposed by the English separatists, who objected +altogether to liturgical forms, and in particular to the Lord's Prayer, +the _Gloria Patri_ and the minister kneeling for private devotion in the +pulpit. An Aberdeen printer named Raban was publicly censured for having +on his own authority shortened one of the prayers. The following years +witnessed a counter attempt to introduce the Scottish liturgy into +England, especially for those who in the southern kingdom were inclined +to Presbyterianism. This effort culminated in the Westminster Assembly +of divines which met in 1643, at which six commissioners from the Church +of Scotland were present, and joined in the task of drawing up a Common +Confession, Catechism and Directory for the three kingdoms. The +commissioners reported to the General Assembly of 1644 that this Common +Directory "is so begun ... that we could not think upon any particular +Directory for our own Kirk." The General Assembly of 1645 after careful +study approved the new order. An act of Assembly on the 3rd of February +and an act of parliament on the 6th of February ordered its use in every +church, and henceforth, though there was no act setting aside the "Book +of Common Order," the Westminster Directory was of primary authority. +The Directory was meant simply to make known "the general heads, the +sense and scope of the Prayers and other parts of Public Worship," and +if need be, "to give a help and furniture." The act of parliament +recognizing the Directory was annulled at the Restoration and the book +has never since been acknowledged by a civil authority in Scotland. But +General Assemblies have frequently recommended its use, and worship in +Presbyterian churches is largely conducted on the lines of the +Westminster Assembly's Directory. + +The modern _Book of Common Order_ or _Euchologion_ is a compilation +drawn from various sources and issued by the Church Service Society, an +organization which endeavours to promote liturgical usages within the +Established Church of Scotland. + + + + +COMMONPLACE, a translation of the Gr. [Greek: koivos topos], i.e. a +passage or argument appropriate to several cases; a "common-place book" +is a collection of such passages or quotations arranged for reference +under general heads either alphabetically or on some method of +classification. To such a book the name _adversaria_ was given, which is +an adaptation of the Latin _adversaria scripta_, notes written on one +side, the side opposite (_adversus_), of a paper or book. From its +original meaning the word came to be used as meaning something +hackneyed, a platitude or truism, and so, as an adjective, equivalent to +trivial or ordinary. It was first spelled as two words, then with a +hyphen, and so still in the sense of a "common-place book." + + + + +COMMON PLEAS, COURT OF, formerly one of the three English common law +courts at Westminster--the other two being the king's bench and +exchequer. The court of common pleas was an offshoot of the Curia Regis +or king's council. Previous to Magna Carta, the king's council, +especially that portion of it which was charged with the management of +judicial and revenue business, followed the king's person. This, as far +as private litigation was concerned, caused great inconvenience to the +unfortunate suitors whose plaints awaited the attention of the court, +for they had, of necessity, also to follow the king from place to place, +or lose the opportunity of having their causes tried. Accordingly, Magna +Carta enacted that common pleas (_communia placita_) or causes between +subject and subject, should be held in some fixed place and not follow +the court. This place was fixed at Westminster. The court was presided +over by a chief (_capitalis justiciarius de communi banco_) and four +puisne judges. The jurisdiction of the common pleas was, by the +Judicature Act 1873, vested in the king's bench division of the High +Court of Justice. + + + + +COMMONS,[1] + + + Early history. + +the term for the lands held in commonalty, a relic of the system on +which the lands of England were for the most part cultivated during the +middle ages. The country was divided into vills, or townships--often, +though not necessarily, or always, coterminous with the parish. In each +stood a cluster of houses, a village, in which dwelt the men of the +township, and around the village lay the arable fields and other lands, +which they worked as one common farm. Save for a few small inclosures +near the village--for gardens, orchards or paddocks for young stock--the +whole township was free from permanent fencing. The arable lands lay in +large tracts divided into compartments or fields, usually three in +number, to receive in constant rotation the triennial succession of +wheat (or rye), spring crops (such as barley, oats, beans or peas), and +fallow. Low-lying lands were used as meadows, and there were sometimes +pastures fed according to fixed rules. The poorest land of the township +was left waste--to supply feed for the cattle of the community, fuel, +wood for repairs, and any other commodity of a renewable or practically +inexhaustible character.[2] This waste land is the common of our own +days. + +It would seem likely that at one time there was no division, as between +individual inhabitants or householders, of any of the lands of the +township, but only of the products. But so far back as accurate +information extends the arable land is found to be parcelled out, each +householder owning strips in each field. These strips are always long +and narrow, and lie in sets parallel with one another. The plough for +cultivating the fields was maintained at the common expense of the +village, and the draught oxen were furnished by the householders. From +the time when the crop was carried till the next sowing, the field lay +open to the cattle of the whole vill, which also had the free run of the +fallow field throughout the year. But when two of the three fields were +under crops, and the meadows laid up for hay, it is obvious that the +cattle of the township required some other resort for pasturage. This +was supplied by the waste or common. Upon it the householder turned out +the oxen and horses which he contributed to the plough, and the cows and +sheep, which were useful in manuring the common fields,--in the words of +an old law case: "horses and oxen to plough the land, and cows and sheep +to compester it." Thus the use of the common by each householder was +naturally measured by the stock which he kept for the service of the +common fields; and when, at a later period, questions arose as to the +extent of the rights on the common, the necessary practice furnished the +rule, that the commoner could turn out as many head of cattle as he +could keep by means of the lands which were parcelled out to him,--the +rule of levancy and couchancy, which has come down to the present day. + + + Status of township. + +In the earliest post-conquest times the vill or township is found to be +associated with an over-lord. There has been much controversy on the +question, whether the vill originally owned its lands free from any +control, and was subsequently reduced to a state of subjection and to a +large extent deprived of its ownership, or whether its whole history has +been one of gradual emancipation, the ownership of the waste, or +common, now ascribed by the law to the lord being a remnant of his +ownership of all the lands of the vill. (See MANOR.) + +At whatever date the over-lord first appeared, and whatever may have +been the personal relations of the villagers to him from time to time +after his appearance, there can be hardly any doubt that the village +lands, whether arable, meadow or waste, were substantially the property +of the villagers for the purposes of use and enjoyment. They resorted +freely to the common for such purposes as were incident to their system +of agriculture, and regulated its use amongst themselves. The idea that +the common was the "lord's waste," and that he had the power to do what +he liked with it, subject to specific and limited qualifying rights in +others, was, there is little doubt, the creation of the Norman lawyers. + + + Statutes of Merton and Westminster the Second. + +One of the earliest assertions of the lord's proprietary interest in +waste lands is contained in the Statute of Merton, a statute which, it +is well to notice, was passed in one of the first assemblies of the +barons of England, before the commons of the realm were summoned to +parliament. This statute, which became law in the year 1235, provided +"that the great men of England (which had enfeoffed knights and their +freeholders of small tenements in their great manors)" might "make their +profit of their lands, wastes, woods and pastures," if they left +sufficient pasture for the service of the tenements they had granted. +Some fifty years later, another statute, that of Westminster the Second, +supplemented the Statute of Merton by enabling the lord of the soil to +inclose common lands, not only against his own tenants, but against +"neighbours" claiming pasture there. These two pieces of legislation +undoubtedly mark the growth of the doctrine which converted the +over-lord's territorial sway into property of the modern kind, and a +corresponding loosening of the hold of the rural townships on the wastes +of their neighbourhood. To what extent the two acts were used, it is +very difficult to say. We know, from later controversies, that they made +no very great change in the system on which the country was cultivated, +a system to which, as we have seen, commons were essential. In some +counties, indeed, inclosures had, by the Tudor period, made greater +progress than in others. T. Tusser, in his eulogium on inclosed farming, +cites Suffolk and Essex as inclosed counties by way of contrast to +Norfolk, Cambridgeshire and Leicestershire, where the open or "champion" +(champain) system prevailed. The Statutes of Merton and Westminster may +have had something to do with the progress of inclosed farming; but it +is probable that their chief operation lay in furnishing the lord of the +manor with a farm on the new system, side by side with the common +fields, or with a deer park. + + + The Black Death. + +The first event which really endangered the village system was the +coming of the Black Death. This scourge is said to have swept away half +the population of the country. The disappearance, by no means uncommon, +of a whole family gave the over-lord of the vill the opportunity of +appropriating, by way of escheat, the holding of the household in the +common fields. The land-holding population of the townships and the +persons interested in the commons were thus sensibly diminished. + +During the Wars of the Roses the small cultivator is thought to have +again made headway. But his diminished numbers, and the larger interest +which the lords had acquired in the lands of each vill, no doubt +facilitated the determined attack on the common-field system which +marked the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. + + + The Tudor agrarian revolution. + +This attack, which had for its chief object the conversion of arable +land into pasture for the sake of sheep-breeding, was the outcome of +many causes. It was no longer of importance to a territorial magnate to +possess a large body of followers pledged to his interests by their +connexion with the land. On the other hand, wool commanded a high price, +and the growth of towns and of foreign commerce supplied abundant +markets. At the same time the confiscation of the monastic possessions +introduced a race of new over-lords--not bound to their territories by +any family traditions, and also tended to spread the view that the +strong hand was its own justification. In order to keep large flocks +and send many bales of wool to market, each landowner strove to increase +his range of pasture, and with this view to convert the arable fields of +his vill into grass land. There is abundant evidence both from the +complaints of writers such as Latimer and Sir Thomas More, and from the +Statutes and royal commissions of the day, that large inclosures were +made at this time, and that the process was effected with much injustice +and accompanied by great hardship. "Where," says Bishop Latimer in one +of his courageous and vigorous denunciations of "inclosers and +rent-raisers," "there have been many householders and inhabitants, there +is now but a shepherd and his dog." In the full tide of this movement, +and despite Latimer's appeals, the Statutes of Merton and Westminster +the Second were confirmed and re-enacted. Both common fields and commons +no doubt disappeared in many places; and the country saw the first +notable instalment of inclosure. But from the evidence of later years it +is clear that a very large area of the country was still cultivated on +the common-field system for another couple of centuries. When inclosure +on any considerable scale again came into favour, it was effected on +quite different principles; and before describing what was essentially a +modern movement, it will be convenient to give a brief outline of the +principles of law applicable to commons at the present day. + + + Rights of common. + +_Law._--The distinguishing feature in law of common land is, that it is +land the soil of which belongs to one person, and from which certain +other persons take certain profits--for example, the bite of the grass +by the mouth of cattle, or gorse, bushes or heather for fuel or litter. +The right to take such a profit is a right of common; the right to feed +cattle on common land is a right of common of pasture; while the right +of cutting bushes, gorse or heather (more rarely of lopping trees) is +known as a right of common of _estovers_ (_estouviers_) or _botes_ +(respectively from the Norman-French _estouffer_, and the Saxon _botan_, +to furnish). Another right of common is that of _turbary_, or the right +to cut turf or peat for fuel. There are also rights of taking sand, +gravel or loam for the repair and maintenance of land. The persons who +enjoy any of these rights are called commoners. + +From the sketch of the common-field system of agriculture which has been +given, we shall readily infer that a large proportion of the commons of +the country, and of the peculiarities of the law relating to commons, +are traceable to that system. Thus, common rights are mostly attached +to, or enjoyed with, certain lands or houses. A right of common of +pasture usually consists of the right to turn out as many cattle as the +farm or other private land of the commoner can support in winter; for, +as we have seen, the enjoyment of the common, in the village system, +belonged to the householders of the village, and was necessarily +measured by their holdings in the common fields. The cattle thus +commonable are said to be _levant_ and _couchant_, i.e. uprising and +down-lying on the land. But it has now been decided that they need not +in fact be so kept. At the present day a commoner may turn out any +cattle belonging to him, wherever they are kept, provided they do not +exceed in number the head of cattle which can be supported by the stored +summer produce of the land in respect of which the right is claimed, +together with any winter herbage it produces. The animals which a +commoner may usually turn out are those which were employed in the +village system--horses, oxen, cows and sheep. These animals are termed +commonable animals. A right may be claimed for other animals, such as +donkeys, pigs and geese; but they are termed non-commonable, and the +right can only be established on proof of special usage. A right of +pasture attached to land in the way we have described is said to be +_appendant_ or _appurtenant_ to such land. Common of pasture appendant +to land can only be claimed for commonable cattle; and it is held to +have been originally attached only to arable land, though in claiming +the right no proof that the land was originally arable is necessary. +This species of common right is, in fact, the direct survival of the use +by the village householder of the common of the township; while common +of pasture appurtenant represents rights which grew up between +neighbouring townships, or, in later times, by direct grant from the +owner of the soil of the common to some other landowner, or (in the case +of copyholders) by local custom. + +The characteristic of connexion with house or land also marks other +rights of common. Thus a right of taking gorse or bushes, or of lopping +wood for fuel, called _fire-bote_, is limited to the taking of such fuel +as may be necessary for the hearths of a particular house, and no more +may be taken than is thus required. The same condition applies to common +of _turbary_, which in its more usual form authorizes the commoner to +cut the heather, which grows thickly upon poor soils, with the roots and +adhering earth, to a depth of about 9 in. Similarly, wood taken for the +repairs of buildings (_house-bote_), or of hedges (_hedge-bote_ or +_hey-bote_), must be limited in quantity to the requirements of the +house, farm buildings and hedges of the particular property to which the +right is attached. And heather taken for litter cannot be taken in +larger quantities than is necessary for manuring the lands in respect of +which the right is enjoyed. It is illegal to take the wood or heather +from the common, and to sell it to any one who has not himself a right +to take it. So, also, a right of digging sand, gravel, clay or loam is +usually appurtenant to land, and must be exercised with reference to the +repair of the roads, or the improvement of the soil, of the particular +property to which the right is attached. + +We have already alluded to the fact that, in Norman and later days, +every vill or township was associated with some over-lord,--some one +responsible to the crown, either directly or through other superior +lords, for the holding of the land and the performance of certain duties +of defence and military support. To this lord the law has assigned the +ownership of the soil of the common of the vill; and the common has for +many centuries been styled the waste of the manor. The trees and bushes +on the common belong to the lord, subject to any rights of lopping or +cutting which the commoners may possess. The ground, sand and subsoil +are his, and even the grass, though the commoners have the right to take +it by the mouths of their cattle. To the over-lord, also, was assigned a +seignory over all the other lands of the vill; and the vill came to be +termed his manor. At the present day it is the manorial system which +must be invoked in most cases as the foundation of the curiously +conflicting rights which co-exist on a common. (See MANOR.) + + + Manorial commons. + +Within the bounds of a manor, speaking generally, there are three +classes of persons possessing an interest in the land, viz.:-- + +(a) Persons holding land freely of the manor, or freehold tenants. + +(b) Persons holding land of the manor by copy of court roll, or copyhold +tenants. + +(c) Persons holding from the lord of the manor, by lease or agreement, +or from year to year, land which was originally demesne, or which was +once freehold or copyhold and has come into the lord's hands by escheat +or forfeiture. + +Amongst the first two classes we usually find the majority of the +commoners on the wastes or commons of the manor. To every freehold +tenant belongs a right of common of pasture on the commons, such right +being "appendant" to the land which he holds freely of the manor. This +right differs from most other rights of common in the characteristic +that actual exercise of the right need not be proved. When once it is +shown that certain land is held freely of the manor, it follows of +necessity that a right of common of pasture for commonable cattle +attaches to the land, and therefore belongs to its owner, and may be +exercised by its occupant. "Common appendant," said the Elizabethan +judges, "is of common right, and commences by operation of law and in +favour of tillage." + +Now this is exactly what we saw to be the case with reference to the use +of the common of the vill by the householder cultivating the arable +fields. The use was a necessity, not depending upon the habits of this +or that householder; it was a use for commonable cattle only, and was +connected with the tillage of the arable lands. It seems almost +necessarily to follow that the freehold tenants of the manor are the +representatives of the householders of the vill. However this may be, it +is amongst the freehold tenants of the manor that we must first look for +commoners on the waste of the manor. + +Owing, however, to the light character of the services rendered by the +freeholders, the connexion of their lands with the manor is often +difficult to prove. Copyhold tenure, on the other hand, cannot be lost +sight of; and in many manors copyholders are numerous, or were, till +quite recently. Copyholders almost invariably possess a right of common +on the waste of the manor; and when (as is usual) they exist side by +side with freeholders, their rights are generally of the same character. +They do not, however, exist as of common right, without proof of usage, +but by the custom of the manor. Custom has been defined by a great judge +(Sir George Jessel, M.R., in _Hammerton_ v. _Honey_) as local law. Thus, +while the freehold tenants enjoy their rights by the general law of the +land, the copyholders have a similar enjoyment by the local law of the +manor. This, again, is what one might expect from the ancient +constitution of a village community. The copyholders, being originally +serfs, had no rights at law; but as they had a share in the tillage of +the land, and gradually became possessed of strips in the common fields, +or of other plots on which they were settled by the lord, they were +admitted by way of indulgence to the use of the common; and the practice +hardened into a custom. As might be expected, there is more variety in +the details of the rights they exercise. They may claim common for +cattle which are not commonable, if the custom extends to such cattle; +and their claim is not necessarily connected with arable land. + +In the present day large numbers of copyhold tenements have been +enfranchised, i.e. converted into freehold. The effect of this step is +to sever all connexion between the land enfranchised and the manor of +which it was previously held. Technically, therefore, the common rights +previously enjoyed in respect of the land would be gone. When, however, +there is no indication of any intention to extinguish such rights, the +courts protect the copyholders in their continued enjoyment; and when an +enfranchisement is effected under the statutes passed in modern years, +the rights are expressly preserved. The commoners on a manorial common +then will be, prima facie, the freeholders and copyholders of the manor, +and the persons who own lands which were copyhold of the manor but have +been enfranchised. + +The occupants of lands belonging to the lord of the manor, though they +usually turn out their cattle on the common, do so by virtue of the +lord's ownership of the soil of the common, and can, as a rule, make no +claim to any right of common as against the lord, even though the +practice of turning out may have obtained in respect of particular lands +for a long series of years. When, however, lands have been sold by the +lord of the manor, although no right of common attached by law to such +lands in the lord's hands, their owners may subsequently enjoy such a +right, if it appears from the language of the deeds of conveyance, and +all the surrounding circumstances, that there was an intention that the +use of the common should be enjoyed by the purchaser. The rules on this +point are very technical; it is sufficient here to indicate that lands +bought from a lord of a manor are not necessarily destitute of common +rights. + + + Rights of common not connected with manorial system. + +So far we have considered common rights as they have arisen out of the +manorial system, and out of the still older system of village +communities. There may, however, be rights of common quite unconnected +with the manorial system. Such rights may be proved either by producing +a specific grant from the owner of the manor or by long usage. It is +seldom that an actual grant is produced, although it would seem likely +that such grants were not uncommon at one time. But a claim founded on +actual user is by no means unusual. Such a claim may be based (a) on +immemorial usage, i.e. usage for which no commencement later than the +coronation of Richard I. (1189) can be shown, (b) on a presumed modern +grant which has been lost, or (c) (in some cases) on the Prescription +Act 1832. There are special rules applicable to each kind of claim. + +A right of common not connected with the manorial system may be, and +usually is, attached to land; it may be measured, like a manorial right, +by levancy and couchancy, or it may be limited to a fixed number of +animals. Rights of the latter character seem to have been not uncommon +in the middle ages. In one of his sermons against inclosure, Bishop +Latimer tells us his father "had walk (i.e. right of common) for 100 +sheep." This may have been a right in gross, but was more probably +attached to the "farm of L3 or L4 by year at the uttermost" which his +father held. A right of common appurtenant may be sold separately, and +enjoyed by a purchaser independently of the tenement to which it was +originally appurtenant. It then becomes a right of common in gross. + +A right of common in gross is a right enjoyed irrespective of the +ownership or occupancy of any lands. It may exist by express grant, or +by user implying a modern lost grant, or by immemorial usage. It must be +limited to a certain number of cattle, unless the right is claimed by +actual grant. Such rights seldom arise in connexion with commons in the +ordinary sense, but are a frequent incident of regulated or stinted +pastures; the right is then generally known as a cattle-gate or +beast-gate. + +There may be rights over a common which exclude the owner of the soil +from all enjoyment of some particular product of the common. Thus a +person, or a class of persons, may be entitled to the whole of the corn, +grass, underwood, or sweepage, (i.e. everything which falls to the sweep +of the scythe) of a tract of land, without possessing any ownership in +the land itself, or in the trees or mines. Such a right is known as a +right of sole vesture. + +A more limited right of the same character is a right of sole +pasturage--the exclusive right to take everything growing on the land in +question by the mouths of cattle, but not in any other way. Either of +these rights may exist throughout the whole year, or during part only. A +right of sole common pasturage and herbage was given to a certain class +of commoners in Ashdown Forest on the partition of the forest at the end +of the 18th century. + + + Rights in common fields. + +We have seen that the common arable fields and common meadows of a vill +were thrown open to the stock of the community between harvest and +seed-time. There is still to be found, here and there, a group of arable +common fields, and occasionally a piece of grass land with many of the +characteristics of a common, which turns out to be a common field or +meadow. The Hackney Marshes and the other so-called commons of Hackney +are really common fields or common meadows, and along the valley of the +Lea a constant succession of such meadows is met with. They are still +owned in parcels marked by metes; the owners have the right to grow a +crop of hay between Lady day and Lammas day; and from Lammas to March +the lands are subject to the depasturage of stock. In the case of some +common fields and meadows the right of feed during the open time belongs +exclusively to the owners; in others to a larger class, such as the +owners and occupiers of all lands within the bounds of the parish. +Anciently, as we have seen, the two classes would be identical. In some +places newcomers not owning strips in the fields were admitted to the +right of turn out; in others, not. Hence the distinction. Similar +divergences of practice will be found to exist in Switzerland at the +present day; _nieder-gelassene_, or newcomers, are in some communes +admitted to all rights, while, in others, privileges are reserved to the +_burger_, or old inhabitant householders. + + + Rights in royal forests. + +Some of the largest tracts of waste land to be found in England are the +waste or commonable lands of royal forests or chases. The thickets and +pastures of Epping Forest, now happily preserved for London under the +guardianship of the city corporation, and the noble woods and +far-stretching heaths of the New Forest, will be called to mind. Cannock +Chase, unhappily inclosed according to law, though for the most part +still lying waste, Dartmoor, and Ashdown Forest in Sussex, are other +instances; and the list might be greatly lengthened. Space will not +permit of any description of the forest system; it is enough, in this +connexion, to say that the common rights in a forest were usually +enjoyed by the owners and occupiers of land within its bounds (the class +may differ in exact definition, but is substantially equivalent to this) +without reference to manorial considerations. Epping Forest was saved by +the proof of this right. It is often said that the right was given, or +confirmed, to the inhabitants in consideration of the burden of +supporting the deer for the pleasure of the king or of the owner of the +chase. It seems more probable that the forest law prevented the growth +of the manorial system, and with it those rules which have tended to +restrict the class of persons entitled to enjoy the waste lands of the +district. + + + Prevention of inclosure. + +We have seen that in the case of each kind of common there is a division +of interest. The soil belongs to one person; other persons are entitled +to take certain products of the soil. This division of interest +preserves the common as an open space. The commoners cannot inclose, +because the land does not belong to them. The owner of the soil cannot +inclose, because inclosure is inconsistent with the enjoyment of the +commoners' rights. At a very early date it was held that the right of a +commoner proceeded out of every part of the common, so that the owner of +the soil could not set aside part for the commoner and inclose the rest. +The Statutes of Merton and Westminster the Second were passed to get +over this difficulty. But under these statutes the burden of proving +that sufficient pasture was left was thrown upon the owner of the soil; +such proof can very seldom be given. Moreover, the statutes have never +enabled an inclosure to be made against commoners entitled to _estovers_ +or _turbary_. It seems clear that the statutes had become obsolete in +the time of Edward VI., or they would not have been re-enacted. And we +know that the zealous advocates of inclosure in the 18th century +considered them worthless for their purposes. Practically it may be +taken that, save where the owner of the soil of a common acquires all +the lands in the township (generally coterminous with the parish) with +which the common is connected, an inclosure cannot legally be effected +by him. And even in the latter case it may be that rights of common are +enjoyed in respect of lands outside the parish, and that such rights +prevent an inclosure. + + + The modern Inclosure Act. + +_Modern Inclosure._--When, therefore, the common-field system began to +fall out of gear, and the increase of population brought about a demand +for an increased production of corn, it was felt to be necessary to +resort to parliament for power to effect inclosure. The legislation +which ensued was based on two principles. One was that all persons +interested in the open land to be dealt with should receive a +proportionate equivalent in inclosed land; the other, that inclosure +should not be prevented by the opposition, or the inability to act, of a +small minority. Assuming that inclosure was desirable, no more equitable +course could have been adopted, though in details particular acts may +have been objectionable. The first act was passed in 1709; but the +precedent was followed but slowly, and not till the middle of the 18th +century did the annual number of acts attain double figures. The +high-water mark was reached in the period from 1765 to 1785, when on an +average forty-seven acts were passed every year. From some cause, +possibly the very considerable expense attending upon the obtaining of +an act, the numbers then began slightly to fall off. In the year 1793 a +board of agriculture, apparently similar in character to the chambers of +commerce of our own day, was established. Sir John Sinclair was its +president, and Arthur Young, the well-known agricultural reformer, was +its secretary. Owing to the efforts of this body, and of a select +committee appointed by the House of Commons on Sinclair's motion, the +first General Inclosure Act was passed in 1801. This act would at the +present day be called an Inclosure Clauses Act. It contained a number of +provisions applicable to inclosures, which could be incorporated by +reference, in a private bill. By this means, it was hoped, the length +and complexity, and consequently the expense, of inclosure bills would +be greatly diminished. Under the stimulus thus applied inclosure +proceeded apace. In the year 1801 no less than 119 acts were passed, and +the total area inclosed probably exceeded 300,000 acres. Three +inclosures in the Lincolnshire Fens account for over 53,000 acres. As +before, the movement after a time spent its force, the annual average of +acts falling to about twelve in the decade 1830-1840. Another +parliamentary committee then sat to consider how inclosure might be +promoted; and the result was the Inclosure Act 1845, which, though much +amended by subsequent legislation, still stands on the statute-book. The +chief feature of that act was the appointment of a permanent commission +to make in each case all the inquiries previously made (no doubt +capriciously and imperfectly) by committees of the two Houses. The +commission, on being satisfied of the propriety of an inclosure was to +draw up a provisional order prescribing the general conditions on which +it was to be carried out, and this order was to be submitted to +parliament by the government of the day for confirmation. It is believed +that these inclosure orders afford the first example of the provisional +order system of legislation, which has attained such large proportions. + +Again inclosure moved forward, and between 1845 and 1869 (when it +received a sudden check) 600,000 acres passed through the hands of the +inclosure commission. Taking the whole period of about a century and a +half, when parliamentary inclosure was in favour, and making an estimate +of acreage where the acts do not give it, the result may be thus +summarized:-- + + Acres. + From 1709 to 1797 2,744,926 + " 1801 to 1842 1,307,964 + " 1845 to 1869 618,000 + Add for Forests inclosed under Special Acts 100,000 + --------- + 4,770,890 + +The total area of England being 37,000,000 acres, we shall probably not +be far wrong in concluding that about one acre in every seven was +inclosed during the period in question. During the first period, the +lands inclosed consisted mainly of common arable fields; during the +second, many great tracts of moor and fen were reduced to severalty +ownership. In the third period, inclosure probably related chiefly to +the ordinary manorial common; and it seems likely that, on the whole, +England would have gained, had inclosure stopped in 1845. + + + Open Space movement. + +As a fact it stopped in 1869. Before the inclosure commission had been +in existence twenty years the feeling of the nation towards commons +began to change. The rapid growth of towns, and especially of London, +and the awakening sense of the importance of protecting the public +health, brought about an appreciation of the value of commons as open +spaces. Naturally, the metropolis saw the birth of this sentiment. An +attempted inclosure in 1864 of the commons at Epsom and Wimbledon +aroused strong opposition; and a select committee of the House of +Commons was appointed to consider how the London commons could best be +preserved. The Metropolitan Board of Works, then in the vigour of youth, +though eager to become the open-space authority for London, could make +no better suggestion than that all persons interested in the commons +should be bought out, that the board should defray the expense by +selling parts for building, and should make parks of what was left. Had +this advice been followed, London would probably have lost two-thirds of +the open space which she now enjoys. Fortunately a small knot of men, +who afterwards formed the Commons Preservation Society, took a broader +and wiser view. Chief amongst them were the late Philip Lawrence, who +acted as solicitor to the Wimbledon opposition, and subsequently +organized the Commons Preservation Society, George Shaw-Lefevre, +chairman of that society since its foundation, the late John Locke, and +the late Lord Mount Temple (then Mr W. F. Cowper). They urged that the +conflict of legal interests, which is the special characteristic of a +common, might be trusted to preserve it as an open space, and that all +that parliament could usefully do, was to restrict parliamentary +inclosure, and to pass a measure of police for the protection of commons +as open spaces. The select committee adopted this view. On their report, +was passed the Metropolitan Commons Act 1866, which prohibited any +further parliamentary inclosures within the metropolitan police area, +and provided means by which a common could be put under local +management. The lords of the manors in which the London commons lay felt +that their opportunity of making a rich harvest out of land, valuable +for building, though otherwise worthless, was slipping away; and a +battle royal ensued. Inclosures were commenced, and the Statute of +Merton prayed in aid. The public retorted by legal proceedings taken in +the names of commoners. These proceedings--which culminated in the +mammoth suit as to Epping Forest, with the corporation of London as +plaintiffs and fourteen lords of manors as defendants--were uniformly +successful; and London commons were saved. By degrees the manorial +lords, seeing that they could not hope to do better, parted with their +interest for a small sum to some local authority; and a large area of +the common land, not only in the county of London, but in the suburbs, +is now in the hands of the representatives of the ratepayers, and is +definitely appropriated to the recreation of the public. + + + Amendment of Statue of Merton. + +Moreover, the Commons Preservation Society was able to base, upon the +uniform success of the commoners in the law courts, a plea for the +amendment of the law. The Statute of Merton, we have seen, purports to +enable the lord of the soil to inclose a common, if he leaves sufficient +pasture for the commoners. This statute was constantly vouched in the +litigation about London commons; but in no single instance was an +inclosure justified by virtue of its provisions. It thus remained a trap +to lords of manors, and a source of controversy and expense. In the year +1893 Lord Thring, at the instance of the Commons Preservation Society, +carried through parliament the Commons Law Amendment Act, which provided +that in future no inclosure under the Statute of Merton should be valid, +unless made with the consent of the Board of Agriculture, which was to +consider the expediency of the inclosure from a public point of view. + + + Rural commons. + +The movement to preserve commons as open spaces soon spread to the rural +districts. Under the Inclosure Act of 1845 provision was made for the +allotment of a part of the land to be inclosed for field gardens for the +labouring poor, and for recreation. But those who were interested in +effecting an inclosure often convinced the inclosure commissioners that +for some reason such allotments would be useless. To such an extent did +the reservation of such allotments become discredited that, in 1869, the +commission proposed to parliament the inclosure of 13,000 acres, with +the reservation of only one acre for recreation, and none at all for +field gardens. This proposal attracted the attention of Henry Fawcett, +who, after much inquiry and consideration, came to the conclusion that +inclosures were, speaking generally, doing more harm than good to the +agricultural labourer, and that, under such conditions as the +commissioners were prescribing, they constituted a serious evil. With +characteristic intrepidity he opposed the annual inclosure bill (which +had come to be considered a mere form) and moved for a committee on the +whole subject. The ultimate result was the passing, seven years later, +of the Commons Act 1876. This measure, introduced by a Conservative +government, laid down the principle that an inclosure should not be +allowed unless distinctly shown to be for the benefit, not merely of +private persons, but of the neighbourhood generally and the public. It +imposed many checks upon the process, and following the course already +adopted in the case of metropolitan commons, offered an alternative +method of making commons more useful to the nation, viz. their +management and regulation as open spaces. The effect of this legislation +and of the changed attitude of the House of Commons towards inclosure +has been almost to stop that process, except in the case of common +fields or extensive mountain wastes. + + + Regulation. + +We have alluded to the regulation of commons as open spaces. The primary +object of this process is to bring a common under the jurisdiction of +some constituted authority, which may make by-laws, enforceable in a +summary way before the magistrates of the district, for its protection, +and may appoint watchers or keepers to preserve order and prevent wanton +mischief. There are several means of attaining this object. Commons +within the metropolitan police district--the Greater London of the +registrar-general--are in this respect in a position by themselves. +Under the Metropolitan Commons Acts, schemes for their local management +may be made by the Board of Agriculture (in which the inclosure +commission is now merged) without the consent either of the owner of the +soil or the commoners--who, however, are entitled to compensation if +they can show that they are injuriously affected. Outside the +metropolitan police district a provisional order for regulation may be +made under the Commons Act 1876, with the consent of the owner of the +soil and of persons representing two-thirds in value of all the +interests in the common. And under an act passed in 1899 the council of +any urban or rural district may, with the approval of the Board of +Agriculture and without recourse to parliament, make a scheme for the +management of any common within its district, provided no notice of +dissent is served on the board by the lord of the manor or by persons +representing one-third in value of such interests in the common as are +affected by the scheme. There is yet another way of protecting a common. +A parish council may, by agreement, acquire an interest in it, and may +make by-laws for its regulation under the Local Government Act 1894. The +acts of 1894 and 1899 undoubtedly proceed on right lines. For, with the +growth of efficient local government, commons naturally fall to be +protected and improved by the authority of the district. + + + Statistics. + +It remains to say a word as to the extent of common land still remaining +open in England and Wales. In 1843 it was estimated that there were +still 10,000,000 acres of common land and common-field land. In 1874 +another return made by the inclosure commission made a guess of +2,632,772. These two returns were made from the same materials, viz. the +tithe commutation awards. As less than 700,000 acres had been inclosed +in the intervening period, it is obvious that the two estimates are +mutually destructive. In July 1875 another version was given in the +Return of Landowners (generally known as the Modern Domesday Book), +compiled from the valuation lists made for the purposes of rating. This +return put the commons of the country (not including common fields) at +1,542,648 acres. It is impossible to view any of these returns as +accurate. Those compiled from the tithe commutation awards are based +largely on estimates, since there are many parishes where the tithes had +not been commuted. On the other hand, the valuation lists do not show +waste and unoccupied land (which is not rated), and consequently the +information as to such lands in the Return of Landowners was based on +any materials which might happen to be at the disposal of the clerk of +the guardians. All we can say, therefore, is that the acreage of the +remaining common land of the country is probably somewhere between +1,500,000 and 2,000,000 acres. It is most capriciously distributed. In +the Midlands there is very little to be found, while in a county of poor +soil, like Surrey, nearly every parish has its common, and there are +large tracts of heath and moor. In 1866, returns were made to parliament +by the overseers of the poor of the commons within 15 and within 25 m. +of Charing Cross. The acreage within the larger area was put at 38,450 +acres, and within the smaller at 13,301; but owing to the difference of +opinion which sometimes prevails upon the question, whether land is +common or not, and the carelessness of some parish authorities as to the +accuracy of their returns, even these figures cannot be taken as more +than approximately correct. The metropolitan police district, within +which the Metropolitan Commons Acts are in force, approaches in extent +to a circle of 15 miles' radius. Within this district nearly 12,000 +acres of common land have been put under local management, either by +means of the Commons Acts or under special legislation. London is +fortunate in having secured so much recreation ground on its borders. +But when the enormous population of the capital and its rapid growth and +expansion are considered, the conclusion is inevitable, that not one +acre of common land within an easy railway journey of the metropolis can +be spared. + + AUTHORITIES.--Marshall, _Elementary and Practical Treatise on Landed + Property_ (London, 1804); F. W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and Beyond_ + (Cambridge, 1897); _Borough and Township_ (Cambridge, 1898); F. + Seebohm, _The English Village Community_ (London, 1883); Williams, + Joshua, _Rights of Common_ (London, 1880); C. I. Elton, _A Treatise on + Commons and Waste Lands_ (1868); T. E. Scrutton, _On Commons and + Common Fields_ (1887); H. R. Woolrych, _Rights of Common_ (1850); G. + Shaw-Lefevre, _English Commons and Forests_ (London, 1894); Sir W. + Hunter, _The Preservation of Open Spaces_ (London, 1896); "The + Movements for the Inclosure and Preservation of Open Lands," _Journal + of the Royal Statistical Society_, vol. lx. part ii. (June 1897); + _Returns to House of Commons_ (1843), No. 325; (1870), No. 326; + (1874), No. 85; _Return of Landowners_ (1875); _Annual Reports of + Inclosure Commission and Board of Agriculture_; Revised Statutes and + Statutes at large. (R. H.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] For the commons (_communitates_) in a socio-political sense see + REPRESENTATION and PARLIAMENT. + + [2] There is an entry on the court rolls of the manor of Wimbledon of + the division amongst the inhabitants of the vill of the crab-apples + growing on the common. + + + + +COMMONWEALTH, a term generally synonymous with commonweal, i.e. public +welfare, but more particularly signifying a form of government in which +the general public have a direct voice. "The Commonwealth" is used in a +special sense to denote the period in English history between the +execution of Charles I. in 1649 and the Restoration in 1660. +Commonwealth is also the official designation in America of the states +of Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Kentucky. The Commonwealth +of Australia is the title of the federation of Australian colonies +carried out in 1900. + + + + +COMMUNE (Med. Lat. _communia_, Lat. _communis_, common), in its most +general sense, a group of persons acting together for purposes of +self-government, especially in towns. (See BOROUGH, and COMMUNE, +MEDIEVAL, below.) "Commune" (Fr. _commune_, Ital. _comune_, Ger. +_Gemeinde_, &c.) is now the term generally applied to the smallest +administrative division in many European countries. (See the sections +dealing with the administration of these countries under their several +headings.) "The Commune" is the name given to the period of the history +of Paris from March 18 to May 28, 1871, during which the commune of +Paris attempted to set up its authority against the National Assembly at +Versailles. It was a political movement, intended to replace the +centralized national organization by one based on a federation of +communes. Hence the "communists" were also called "federalists." It had +nothing to do with the social theories of Communism (q.v.). (See FRANCE: +_HISTORY_.) + + + + +COMMUNE, MEDIEVAL. Under this head it is proposed to give a short +account of the rise and development of towns in central and western +continental Europe since the downfall of the Roman Empire. All these, +including also the British towns (for which, however, see BOROUGH), may +be said to have formed one unity, inasmuch as all arose under similar +conditions, economic, legal and political, irrespective of local +peculiarities. Kindred economic conditions prevailed in all the former +provinces of the Western empire, while new law concepts were everywhere +introduced by the Germanic invaders. It is largely for the latter reason +that it seems advisable to begin with an account of the German towns, +the term German to correspond to the limits of the old kingdom of +Germany, comprising the present empire, German Austria, German +Switzerland, Holland and a large portion of Belgium. In their +development the problem, as it were, worked out least tainted by foreign +interference, showing at the same time a rich variety in detail; and it +may also be said that their constitutional and economic history has been +more thoroughly investigated than any other. + +Like the others, the German towns should be considered from three points +of view, viz. as jurisdictional units, as self-administrative units and +as economic units. One of the chief distinguishing features of early as +opposed to modern town-life is that each town formed a jurisdictional +district distinct from the country around. Another trait, more in +accordance with the conditions of to-day, is that local self-government +was more fully developed and strongly marked in the towns than without. +And, thirdly, each town in economic matters followed a policy as +independent as possible of that of any other town or of the country in +general. The problem is, how this state of things arose. + +From this point of view the German towns may be divided into two main +classes: those that gradually resuscitated on the ruins of former Roman +cities in the Rhine and Danube countries, and those that were newly +founded at a later date in the interior.[1] Foremost in importance among +the former stand the episcopal cities. Most of these had never been +entirely destroyed during the Germanic invasion. Roman civic +institutions perished; but probably parts of the population survived, +and small Christian congregations with their bishops in most cases seem +to have weathered all storms. Much of the city walls presumably remained +standing, and within them German communities soon settled. + +In the 10th century it became the policy of the German emperors to hand +over to the bishops full jurisdictional and administrative powers within +their cities. The bishop henceforward directly or indirectly appointed +all officers for the town's government. The chief of these was usually +the _advocatus_ or _Vogt_, some neighbouring noble who served as the +proctor of the church in all secular affairs. It was his business to +preside three times a year over the chief law-court, the so-called +_echte_ or _ungebotene Ding_, under the cognizance of which fell all +cases relating to real property, personal freedom, bloodshed and +robbery. For the rest of the legal business and as president of the +ordinary court he appointed a _Schultheiss_, _centenarius_ or +_causidicus_. Other officers were the _Burggraf_[2] or _praefectus_ for +military matters, including the preservation of the town's defences, +walls, moat, bridges and streets, to whom also appertained some +jurisdiction over the craft-gilds in matters relating to their crafts; +further the customs-officer or _teleonarius_ and the mint-master or +_monetae magister_. It was not, however, the fact of their being placed +under the bishop that constituted these towns as separate jurisdictional +units. The chief feature rather is the existence within their walls of a +special law, distinct in important points from that of the country at +large. The towns enjoyed a special peace, as it was called, i.e. +breaches of the peace were more severely punished if committed in a town +than elsewhere. Besides, the inhabitants might be sued before the town +court only, and to fugitives from the country who had taken refuge in +the town belonged a similar privilege. This special legal status +probably arose from the towns being considered in the first place as the +king's fortresses[3] or burgs (see BOROUGH), and, therefore, as +participating in the special peace enjoyed by the king's palace. Hence +the terms "burgh," "borough" in English, _baurgs_ in Gothic, the +earliest Germanic designations for a town; "burgher," "burgess" for its +inhabitants. What struck the townless early Germans most about the Roman +towns was their mighty walls. Hence they applied to all fortified +habitations the term in use for their own primitive fortifications; the +walls remained with them the main feature distinguishing a town from a +village; and the fact of the town being a fortified place, likewise +necessitated the special provisions mentioned for maintaining the peace. + +The new towns in the interior of Germany were founded on land belonging +to the founder, some ecclesiastical or lay lord, and frequently +adjoining the cathedral close of one of the new sees or the lord's +castle, and they were laid out according to a regular plan. The most +important feature was the market-square, often surrounded by arcades +with stalls for the sale of the principal commodities, and with a number +of straight streets leading thence to the city gates.[4] As for the +fortifications, some time naturally passed before they were completed. +Furthermore, the governmental machinery would be less complex than in +the older towns. The legal peculiarities distinguishing town and +country, on the other hand, may be said to have been conferred on the +new towns in a more clearly defined form from the beginning. + +An important difference lay in the mode of settlement. There is evidence +that in the quondam Roman towns the German newcomers settled much as in +a village, i.e. each full member of the community had a certain portion +of arable land allotted to him and a share in the common. Their pursuits +would at first be mainly agricultural. The new towns, on the other hand, +general economic conditions having meanwhile begun to undergo a marked +change, were founded with the intention of establishing centres of +trade. Periodical markets, weekly or annual, had preceded them, which +already enjoyed the special protection of the king's ban, acts of +violence against traders visiting them or on their way towards them +being subject to special punishment. The new towns may be regarded as +markets made permanent. The settlers invited were merchants (_mercatores +personati_) and handicraftsmen. The land now allotted to each member of +the community was just large enough for a house and yard, stabling and +perhaps a small garden (50 by 100 ft. at Freiburg, 60 by 100 ft. at +Bern). These building plots were given as free property or, more +frequently, at a merely nominal rent (_Wurtzins_) with the right of free +disposal, the only obligation being that of building a house. All that +might be required besides would be a common for the pasture of the +burgesses' cattle. + +The example thus set was readily followed in the older towns. The +necessary land was placed at the disposal of new settlers, either by the +members of the older agricultural community, or by the various churches. +The immigrants were of widely differing status, many being serfs who +came either with or without their lords' permission. The necessity of +putting a stop to belated prosecutions on this account in the town court +led to the acceptance of the rule that nobody who had lived in a town +undisturbed for the term of a year and a day could any longer be claimed +by a lord as his serf. But even those who had migrated into a town with +their lords' consent could not very well for long continue in serfdom. +When, on the other hand, certain bishops attempted to treat all +new-comers to their city as serfs, the emperor Henry V. in charters for +Spires and Worms proclaimed that in these towns all serf-like conditions +should cease. This ruling found expression in the famous saying: +_Stadtluft macht frei_, "town-air renders free." As may be imagined, +this led to a rapid increase in population, mainly during the 11th to +13th centuries. There would be no difficulty for the immigrants to find +a dwelling, or to make a living, since most of them would be versed in +one or other of the crafts in practice among villagers. + +The most important further step in the history of the towns was the +establishment of an organ of self-government, the town-council (_Rat_, +_consilium_, its members, _Ratmanner_, _consules_, less frequently +_consiliarii_), with one, two or more burgomasters (_Burgermeister_, +_magistri civium_, _proconsules_) at its head. (It was only after the +Renaissance that the town-council came to be styled _senate_, and the +burgomasters in Latin documents, _consules_.) As _units of local +government_ the towns must be considered as originally placed on the +same legal basis as the villages, viz. as having the right of taking +care of all common interests below the cognizance of the public courts +or of those of their lord.[5] In the towns, however, this right was +strengthened at an early date by the _jus negotiale_. At least as early +as the beginning of the 11th century, but probably long before that +date, mercantile communities claimed the right, confirmed by the +emperors, of settling mercantile disputes according to a law of their +own, to the horror of certain conservative-minded clerics.[6] +Furthermore, in the rapidly developing towns, opportunities for the +exercise of self-administrative functions constantly increased. The new +self-governing body soon began to legislate in matters of local +government, imposing fines for the breach of its by-laws. Thus it +assumed a jurisdiction, partly concurrent with that of the lord, which +it further extended to breaches of the peace. And, finally, it raised +funds by means of an excise-duty, _Ungeld_ (cf. the English _malatolta_) +or _Accise_, _Zeise_. In the older and larger towns it soon went beyond +what the bishops thought proper to tolerate; conflicts ensued; and in +the 13th century several bishops obtained decrees in the imperial court, +either to suppress the _Rat_ altogether, or to make it subject to their +nomination, and more particularly to abolish the _Ungeld_, as +detrimental to episcopal finances. In the long run, however, these +attempts proved of little avail. + +Meanwhile the tendency towards self-government spread even to the lower +ranks of town society, resulting in the establishment of craft-gilds. +From a very early period there is reason to believe merchants among +themselves formed gilds for social and religious purposes, and for the +furtherance of their economic interests. These gilds would, where they +existed, no doubt also influence the management of town affairs; but +nowhere has the _Rat_, as used to be thought, developed out of a gild, +nor has the latter anywhere in Germany played a part at all similar in +importance to that of the English gild merchant, the only exception +being for a time the _Richerzeche_, or Gild of the Rich of Cologne, from +early times by far the largest, the richest, and the most important +trading centre among German cities, and therefore provided with an +administration more complex, and in some respects more primitive, than +any other. On the other hand, the most important commodities offered for +sale in the market had been subject to official examination already in +Carolingian times. Bakers', butchers', shoemakers' stalls were grouped +together in the market-place to facilitate control, and with the same +object in view a master was appointed for each craft as its responsible +representative. By and by these crafts or "offices" claimed the right of +electing their master and of assisting him in examining the goods, and +even of framing by-laws regulating the quality of the wares and the +process of their manufacture. The bishops at first resented these +attempts at self-management, as they had done in the case of the town +council, and imperial legislation in their interests was obtained. But +each craft at the same time formed a society for social, beneficial and +religious purposes, and, as these were entirely in accordance with the +wishes of the clerical authorities, the other powers could not in the +long run be withheld, including that of forcing all followers of any +craft to join the gild (_Zunftzwang_). Thus the official inspection of +markets, community of interests on the part of the craftsmen, and +co-operation for social and religious ends, worked together in the +formation of craft-gilds. It is not suggested that in each individual +town the rise of the gilds was preceded by an organization of crafts on +the part of the lord and his officers; but it is maintained that as a +general thing voluntary organization could hardly have proceeded on such +orderly lines as on the whole it did, unless the framework had in the +first instance been laid down by the authorities: much as in modern +times the working together in factories has practically been an +indispensable preliminary to the formation of trade unions. Much less +would the principle of forced entrance have found such ready acceptance +both on the part of the authorities and on that of the men, unless it +had previously been in full practice and recognition under the system of +official market-control. The different names for the societies, viz. +_fraternitas_, _Bruderschaft_, _officium_, _Amt_, _condictum_, _Zunft_, +_unio_, _Innung_, do not signify different kinds of societies, but only +different aspects of the same thing. The word _Gilde_ alone forms an +exception, inasmuch as, generally speaking, it was used by merchant +gilds only.[7] + +From an early date the towns, more particularly the older episcopal +cities, took a part in imperial politics. Legally the bishops were in +their cities mere representatives of the imperial government. This fact +found formal expression mainly in two ways. The _Vogt_, although +appointed by the bishop, received the "ban," i.e. the power of having +justice executed, which he passed on to the lesser officers, from the +king or emperor direct. Secondly, whenever the emperor held a _curia +generalis_ (or general assembly, or diet) in one of the episcopal +cities, and for a week before and after, all jurisdictional and +administrative power reverted to him and his immediate officers. The +citizens on their part clung to this connexion and made use of it +whenever their independence was threatened by their bishops, who +strongly inclined to consider themselves lords of their cathedral +cities, much as if these had been built on church-lands. As early as +1073, therefore, we find the citizens of Worms successfully rising +against their bishop in order to provide the emperor Henry IV. with a +refuge against the rebellious princes. Those of Cologne made a similar +attempt in 1074. But a second class of imperial cities (_Reichsstadte_), +much more numerous than the former, consisted of those founded on +demesne-land belonging either to the Empire or to one of the families +who rose to imperial rank. This class was largely reinforced, when after +the extinction of the royal house of Hohenstaufen in the 13th century, a +great number of towns founded by them on their demesne successfully +claimed immediate subjection to the crown. About this time, during the +interregnum, a federation of more than a hundred towns was formed, +beginning on the Rhine, but spreading as far as Bremen in the north, +Zurich in the south, and Regensburg in the east, with the object of +helping to preserve the peace. After the death of King William in 1256, +they resolved to recognize no king unless unanimously elected. This +league was joined by a powerful group of princes and nobles and found +recognition by the prince-electors of the Empire; but for want of +leadership it did not stand the test, when Richard of Cornwall and +Alphonso of Castile were elected rival kings in 1257.[8] In the +following centuries the imperial cities in south Germany, where most of +them were situated, repeatedly formed leagues to protect their interests +against the power of the princes and the nobles, and destructive wars +were waged; but no great political issue found solution, the relative +position of the parties after each war remaining much what it had been +before. On the part of the towns this was mainly due to lack of +leadership and of unity of purpose. At the time of the Reformation the +imperial towns, like most of the others, stood forward as champions of +the new cause and did valuable service in upholding and defending it. +After that, however, their political part was played out, mainly because +they proved unable to keep up with modern conditions of warfare. It +should be stated that seven among the episcopal cities, viz. Cologne, +Mainz, Worms, Spires, Strassburg, Basel and Regensburg, claimed a +privileged position as "Free Cities," but neither is the ground for this +claim clearly established, nor its nature well defined. The general +obligations of the imperial cities towards the Empire were the payment +of an annual fixed tax and the furnishing of a number of armed men for +imperial wars, and from these the above-named towns claimed some measure +of exemption. Some of the imperial cities lost their independence at an +early date, as unredeemed pledges to some prince who had advanced money +to the emperor. Others seceded as members of the Swiss Confederation. +But a considerable number survived until the reorganization of the +Empire in 1803. At the peace in 1815, however, only four were spared, +namely, Frankfort, Bremen, Hamburg and Lubeck, these being practically +the only ones still in a sufficiently flourishing and economically +independent position to warrant such preferential treatment. But finally +Frankfort, having chosen the wrong side in the war of 1866, was annexed +by Prussia, and only the three seaboard towns remain as full members of +the new confederate Empire under the style of _Freie und Hansestadte_. +But until modern times most of the larger _Landstadte_ or mesne-towns +for all intents and purposes were as independent under their lords as +the imperial cities were under the emperor. They even followed a foreign +policy of their own, concluded treaties with foreign powers or made war +upon them. Nearly all the _Hanseatic towns_ belonged to this category. +With others like Bremen, Hamburg and Magdeburg, it was long in the +balance which class they belonged to. All towns of any importance, +however, were for a considerable time far ahead of the principalities in +administration. It was largely this fact that gave them power. When, +therefore, from about the 15th century the princely territories came to +be better organized, much of the _raison d'etre_ for the exceptional +position held by the towns disappeared. The towns from an early date +made it their policy to suppress the exercise of all handicrafts in the +open country. On the other hand, they sought an increase of power by +extending rights of citizenship to numerous individual inhabitants of +the neighbouring villages (_Pfalburger_, a term not satisfactorily +explained). By this and other means, e.g. the purchase of estates by +citizens, many towns gradually acquired a considerable territory. These +tendencies both princes and lesser nobles naturally tried to thwart, and +the mediate towns or _Landstadte_ were finally brought to stricter +subjection, at least in the greater principalities such as Austria and +Brandenburg. Besides, the less favourably situated towns suffered +through the concentration of trade in the hands of their more fortunate +sisters. But the economic decay and consequent loss of political +influence among both imperial and territorial towns must be chiefly +ascribed to inner causes. + +Certain leading political economists, notably K. Bucher (_Die +Bevolkerung von Frankfurt a. M. im 14ten und 15ten Jahrhundert_, i., +Tubingen, 1886; _Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft_, 5th ed., Tubingen, +1906), and, in a modified form, W. Sombart (_Der moderne Kapitalismus_, +2 vols., Leipzig, 1902), have propounded the doctrine of one gradual +progression from an agricultural state to modern capitalistic +conditions. This theory, however, is nothing less than an outrage on +history. As a matter of fact, as far as modern Europe is concerned, +there has twice been a progression, separated by a period of +retrogression, and it is to the latter that Bucher's picture of the +agricultural and strictly protectionist town (the _geschlossene +Stadtwirtschaft_) of the 14th and 15th centuries belongs, while +Sombart's notion of an entire absence of a spirit of capitalistic +enterprise before the middle of the 15th century in Europe north of the +Alps, or the 14th century in Italy, is absolutely fantastic.[9] The +period of the rise of cities till well on in the 13th century was +naturally a period of expansion and of a considerable amount of freedom +of trade. It was only afterwards that a protectionist spirit gained the +upper hand, and each town made it its policy to restrict as far as +possible the trade of strangers. In this revolution the rise of the +lower strata of the population to power played an important part. + +The craft-gilds had remained subordinate to the _Rat_, but by-and-by +they claimed a share in the government of the towns. Originally any +inhabitant holding a certain measure of land, freehold or subject to the +mere nominal ground-rent above-mentioned, was a full citizen +independently of his calling, the clergy and the lord's retainers and +servants of whatever rank, who claimed exemption from scot and lot, to +use the English formula, alone excepted. The majority of the artisans, +however, were not in this happy position. Moreover, the town council, +instead of being freely elected, filled up vacancies in its ranks by +co-optation, with the result that all power became vested in a limited +number of rich families. Against this state of things the crafts +rebelled, alleging mismanagement, malversation and the withholding of +justice. During the 14th and 15th centuries revolutions and +counter-revolutions, sometimes accompanied by considerable slaughter, +were frequent, and a great variety of more democratic constitutions were +tried. Zurich, however, is the only German place where a kind of +_tyrannis_, so frequent in Italy, came to be for a while established. On +the whole it must be said that in those towns where the democratic party +gained the upper hand an unruly policy abroad and a narrow-minded +protection at home resulted. An inclination to hasty measures of war and +an unwillingness to observe treaties among the democratic towns of +Swabia were largely responsible for the disasters of the war of the +Swabian League in the 14th century. At home, whereas at first markets +had been free and open to any comer, a more and more protective policy +set in, traders from other towns being subjected more and more to +vexatious restrictions. It was also made increasingly difficult to +obtain membership in the craft-gilds, high admission fees and so-called +masterpieces being made a condition. Finally, the number of members +became fixed, and none but members' sons and sons-in-law, or members' +widows' husbands were received. The first result was the formation of a +numerous proletariate of life-long assistants and of men and women +forcibly excluded from following any honest trade; and the second +consequence, the economic ruin of the town to the exclusive advantage of +a limited number. From the end of the 15th century population in many +towns decreased, and not only most of the smaller ones, but even some +once important centres of trade, sank to the level almost of villages. +Those cities, on the other hand, where the mercantile community remained +in power, like Nuremberg and the seaboard towns, on the whole followed a +more enlightened policy, although even they could not quite keep clear +of the ever-growing protective tendencies of the time. Many even of the +richer towns, notably Nuremberg, ran into debt irretrievably, owing +partly to an exorbitant expenditure on magnificent public buildings and +extensive fortifications, calculated to resist modern instruments of +destruction, partly to a faulty administration of the public debt. From +the 13th century the towns had issued ("sold," as it was called) +annuities, either for life or for perpetuity in ever-increasing number, +until it was at last found impossible to raise the funds necessary to +pay them. + +One of the principal achievements of the towns lay in the field of +_legislation_. Their law was founded originally on the general national +(or provincial) law, on custom, and on special privilege. New +foundations were regularly provided by their lord with a charter +embodying the most important points of the special law of the town in +question. This miniature code would thenceforth be developed by means of +statutes passed by the town council. The codification of the law of +Augsburg in 1276 already fills a moderate volume in print (ed. by +Christian Meyer, Augsburg, 1872). Later foundations were frequently +referred by their founders to the nearest existing town of importance, +though that might belong to a different lord. Afterwards, if a question +in law arose which the court of a younger town found itself unable to +answer, the court next senior in affiliation was referred to, which in +turn would apply to the court above, until at last that of the original +mother town was reached, whose decision was final. This system was +chiefly developed in the colonial east, where most towns were affiliated +directly or indirectly either to Lubeck or to Magdeburg; but it was by +no means unknown in the home country. A number of collections of such +judgments (_Schoffenspruche_) have been published. It is also worth +mentioning that it was usual to read the police by-laws of a town at +regular intervals to the assembled citizens in a morning-speech +(_Morgenspraehe_).[10] + +To turn to _Italy_, the country for so many centuries in close political +connexion with Germany, the foremost thing to be noted is that here the +towns grew to even greater independence, many of them in the end +acknowledging no overlord whatever after the yoke of the German kings +had been shaken off. On the other hand, nearly all of them in the long +run fell under the sway of some local tyrant-dynasty. + +From Roman times the country had remained thickly studded with towns, +each being the seat of a bishop. From this arose their most important +peculiarity. For it was largely due to an identification of dioceses and +municipal territories that the nobles of the surrounding country took up +their headquarters in the cities, either voluntarily or because forced +to do so by the citizens, who made it their policy thus to turn possible +opponents into partisans and defenders. In Germany, on the other hand, +nobles and knights were carefully shut out so long as the town's +independence was at stake, the members of a princely garrison being +required to take up their abode in the citadel, separated from the town +proper by a wall. Only in the comparatively few cathedral cities this +rule does not obtain. It will be seen that, in consequence of this, +municipal life in Italy was from the first more complex, the main +constituent parts of the population being the _capitani_, or greater +nobles, the _valvassori_, or lesser nobles (knights) and the people +(_popolo_). Furthermore, the bishops being in most cases the exponents +of the imperial power, the struggle for freedom from the latter ended in +a radical riddance from all temporal episcopal government as well. +Foremost in this struggle stood the cities of Lombardy, most of which +all through the barbarian invasions had kept their walls in repair and +maintained some importance as economic centres, and whose _popolo_ +largely consisted of merchants of some standing. As early as the 8th +century the laws of the Langobard King Aistulf distinguished three +classes of merchants (_negotiantes_), among whom the _majores et +potentes_ were required to keep themselves provided with horse, lance, +shield and a cuirass. The valley of the Po formed the main artery of +trade between western Europe and the East, Milan being besides the point +of convergence for all Alpine passes west of the Brenner (the St +Gotthard, however, was not made accessible until early in the 13th +century). Lombard merchants soon spread all over western Europe, a chief +source of their ever-increasing wealth being their employment as bankers +of the papal see. + +The struggle against the bishops, in which a clamour for a reform of +clerical life and a striving for local self-government were strangely +interwoven, had raged for a couple of generations when King Henry V., +great patron of municipal freedom as he was, legalized by a series of +charters the _status quo_ (Cremona, 1114, Mantua, 1116). But under his +weak successors the independence of the cities reached such a pitch as +to be manifestly intolerable to an energetic monarch like Frederick I. +Besides, the more powerful among them would subdue or destroy their +weaker neighbours, and two parties were formed, one headed by Milan, the +other by Cremona. Como and Lodi complained of the violence used to them +by the former city. Therefore in 1158 a commission was appointed +embracing four Roman legists as representatives of the emperor, as well +as those of fourteen towns, to examine into the imperial and municipal +rights. The claims of the imperial government, jurisdictional and other, +were acknowledged, only such rights of self-government being admitted as +could be shown to be grounded on imperial charters. But when it came to +carrying into effect these Roncaglian decrees, a general rising +resulted. Milan was besieged by the emperor and destroyed in 1162 in +accordance with the verdict of her rivals. Nevertheless, after a defeat +at Legnano in 1176, Frederick was forced to renounce all pretensions to +interference with the government of the cities, merely retaining an +overlordship that was not much more than formal (peace of Constance in +1183). All through this war the towns had been supported by Pope +Alexander III. Similarly under Frederick II. the renewal of the struggle +between emperor and pope dovetailed with a fresh outbreak of the war +with the cities, who feared lest an imperial triumph over the church +would likewise threaten their independence. The emperor's death finally +decided the issue in their favour. + +Constitutionally, municipal freedom was based on the formation of a +commune headed by elected consuls, usually to the number of twelve, +representing the three orders of _capitani_, _valvassori_ and _popolo_. +Frequently, however, the number actually wielding power was much more +restricted, and their position altogether may rather be likened to that +of their Roman predecessors than to that of their German contemporaries. +In all important matters they asked the advice and support of "wise +men," _sapientes, discretiores, prudentes_, as a body called the +_credenza_, while the popular assembly (_parlamentum, concio, consilium +generale_) was the true sovereign. The consuls with the assistance of +_judices_ also presided in the law-courts; but besides the consuls of +the commune there were _consules de placitis_ specially appointed for +jurisdictional purposes. + +In spite of these multifarious safeguards, however, family factions +early destroyed the fabric of liberty, especially as, just as there was +an imperial, or Ghibelline, and a papal, or Guelph party among the +cities as a whole, thus also within each town each faction would allege +adherence to and claim support by one or other of the great +world-powers. To get out of the dilemma of party-government, resort was +thereupon had to the appointment as chief magistrate of a _podesta_ from +among the nobles or knights of a different part of the country not mixed +up with the local feuds. But the end was in most cases the establishment +of the despotism of some leading family, such as the Visconti at Milan, +the Gonzaga at Mantua, the della Scala in Verona and the Carrara in +Padua. + +In Tuscany, the historic role of the cities, with the exception of Pisa, +begins at a later date, largely owing to the overlordship of the +powerful margraves of the house of Canossa and their successors, who +here represented the emperor. Pisa, however, together with Genoa, all +through the 11th century distinguished itself by war waged in the +western Mediterranean and its isles against the Saracens. Both cities, +along with Venice, but especially the Genoese, also did excellent +service in reducing the Syrian coast towns still in the hands of the +Turks in the reigns of Kings Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. of Jerusalem, +while more particularly Pisa with great constancy placed her fleet at +the disposal of the Hohenstaufen emperors for warfare with Sicily. + +Meanwhile communes with consuls at their head were formed in Tuscany +much as elsewhere. On the other hand the Tuscan cities managed to +prolong the reign of liberty to a much later epoch, no _podesta_ ever +quite succeeding here in his attempts to establish the rule of his +dynasty. Even when in the second half of the 15th century the Medici in +Florence attained to power, the form at least of a republic was still +maintained, and not till 1531 did one of them, supported by Charles V., +assume the ducal title. + +Long before the last stage, the rule of _signori_, was reached, however, +the commune as originally constituted had everywhere undergone radical +changes. As early as the 13th century the lower orders among the +inhabitants formed an organization under officers of their own, side by +side with that of the commune, which was controlled by the great and the +rich; e.g. at Florence the people in 1250 rose against the turbulent +nobles and chose a _capitano del popolo_ with twelve _anziani_, two from +each of the six city-wards (_sestieri_), as his council. The _popolo_ +itself was divided into twenty armed companies, each under a +_gonfaloniere_. But later the _arti_ (craft-gilds), some of whom, +however, can be shown to have existed under consuls of their own as +early as 1203, attained supreme importance, and in 1282 the government +was placed in the hands of their _priori_, under the name of the +_signoria_. The Guelph nobles were at first admitted to a share in the +government, on condition of their entering a gild, but in 1293 even this +privilege was withdrawn. The _ordinamenti della giustizia_ of that year +robbed the nobility of all political power. The lesser or lower _arti_, +on the other hand, were conceded a full share in it, and a _gonfaloniere +della giustizia_ was placed at the head of the militia. In the 14th +century twelve _buoni uomini_ representing the wards (_sestieri_) were +superadded, all these dignitaries holding office for two months only. +And besides all these, there existed three competing chief justices and +commanders of the forces called in from abroad and holding office for +six months, viz. the _podesta_, the _capitano del popolo_, and the +_esecutore della giustizia_. In spite of all this complicated machinery +of checks and balances, revolution followed upon revolution, nor could +an occasional reign of terror be prevented like that of the Signore +Gauthier de Brienne, duke of Athens (1342-1343). It was not till after a +rising of the lowest order of all, the industrial labourers, had been +suppressed in 1378 (_tumulto dei Ciompi_, the wool-combers), that +quieter times ensued under the wise leadership, first of the Albizzi and +finally of the Medici. + +The history of the other Tuscan towns was equally tumultuous, all of +them save Lucca, after many fitful changes finally passing under the +sway of Florence, or the grand-duchy of Tuscany, as the state was now +called. Pisa, one time the mightiest, had been crushed between its +inland neighbour and its maritime rival Genoa (battle of Meloria, 1282). + +Apart in its constitutional development from all other towns in Italy, +and it might be added, in Europe, stands Venice. Almost alone among +Italian cities its origin does not go back to Roman times. It was not +till the invasions of Hun and Langobard that fugitives from the Venetian +mainland took refuge among the poor fishermen on the small islands in +the lagoons and on the _lido_--the narrow stretch of coast-line which +separates the lagoons from the Adriatic--some at Grado, some at +Malamocco, others on Rialto. A number of small communities was formed +under elected tribunes, acknowledging as their sovereign the emperor at +Constantinople. Treaties of commerce were concluded with the Langobard +kings, thus assuring a market for the sale of imports from the East and +for the purchase of agricultural produce. Just before or after A.D. 700 +the young republic seems to have thrown off the rule of the Byzantine +_dux Histriae et Venetiae_ and elected a duke (_doge_) of its own, in +whom was vested the executive power, the right to convoke the popular +assembly (_concio_) and appoint tribunes and justices. Political unity +was thus established, but it was not till after another century of civil +war that Rialto was definitely chosen the seat of government and thus +the foundation of the present city laid. After a number of attempts to +establish a hereditary dukedom, Duke Domenico Flabianico in 1032 passed +a law providing that no duke was to appoint his successor or procure him +to be elected during his own lifetime. Besides this two councils were +appointed without whose consent nothing of importance was to be done. +After the murder by the people of Duke Vitale Michiel in 1172, who had +suffered naval defeat, it was deemed necessary to introduce a stricter +constitutional order. According to the orthodox account, some details of +which have, however, recently been impugned,[11] the irregular popular +meeting was replaced by a great council of from 450 to 480 members +elected annually by special appointed electors in equal proportion from +each of the six wards. One of the functions of this body was to appoint +most of the state officials or their electors. There was also an +executive council of six, one from each ward. Besides these, the duke, +who was henceforward elected by a body of eleven electors from among the +aristocracy, would invite persons of prominence (the _pregadi_) in order +to secure their assent and co-operation, whenever a measure of +importance was to be placed before the great council. Only under +extraordinary circumstances the _concio_ was still to be called. The +tenure of the duke's office was for life. The general tendency of +constitutional development in Venice henceforward ran in an exactly +opposite direction to that of all other Italian cities towards a growing +restriction of popular rights, until in 1296 the great council was for +all future time closed to all but the descendants of a limited number of +noble families, whose names were in that year entered in the Golden +Book. It still remained to appoint a board to superintend the executive +power. These were the _avvogadori di commune_, and, since Tiepolo's +conspiracy in 1310, the _Consiglio dei Dieci_, the Council of Ten, which +controlled the whole of the state, and out of which there developed in +the 16th century the state inquisition. + +While in all prominent Italian cities the leading classes of the +community were largely made up of merchants, in Venice the nobility was +entirely commercial. The marked steadiness in the evolution of the +Venetian constitution is no doubt largely due to this fact. Elsewhere +the presence of large numbers of turbulent country nobles furnished the +first germ for the unending dissensions which ruined such promising +beginnings. In Venice, on the contrary, its businesslike habits of mind +led the ruling class to make what concessions might seem needful, while +both the masses and the head of the state were kept in due subjection to +the laws. Too much stability, however, finally changed into stagnation, +and decay followed. The foreign policy of Venice was likewise mainly +dictated by commercial motives, the chief objectives being commercial +privilege in the Byzantine empire and in the Frankish states in the +East, domination of the Adriatic, occupation of a sufficient hinterland +on the _terra firma_, non-sufferance of the rivalry of Genoa, and, +finally, maintenance of trade-supremacy in the eastern Mediterranean +through a series of alternating wars and treaties with Turkey, the +lasting monument of which was the destruction of the Parthenon in 1685 +by a Venetian bomb. At last the proud republic surrendered to Napoleon +without a stroke. + +The cities of southern Italy do not here call for special attention. +Several of them developed a certain amount of independence and free +institutions, and took an important part in trade with the East, notably +so Amalfi. But after incorporation in the Norman kingdom all individual +history for them came to an end. + +Rome, finally, derived its importance from being the capital of the +popes and from its proud past. From time to time spasmodic attempts were +made to revive the forms of the ancient republic, as under Arnold of +Brescia in the 12th and by Niccolo di Rienzo in the 14th century; but +there was no body of stalwart, self-reliant citizens to support such +measures: nothing but turbulent nobles on the one hand and a rabble on +the other. + +In no country is there such a clear grouping of the towns on +geographical lines as in _France_, these geographical lines, of course, +having in the first instance been drawn by historical causes. Another +feature is the extent to which, in the unruly times preceding the civic +movement, serfdom had spread among the inhabitants even of the towns +throughout the greater part of the country, and the application of +feudal ideas to town government. In some other respects the constitution +of the cities in the south of France, as will be seen, has more in +common with that of the Italian communes, and that of the northern +French towns with those of Germany, than the constitutions of the +various groups of French towns have among each other. + +In the group of the _villes consulaires_, comprising all important towns +in the south, the executive was, as in Italy, in the hands of a body of +_consules_, whose number in most cases rose to twelve. They were elected +for the term of one year and re-eligible only after an interval, and +they were supported by a municipal council (_commune consilium, +consilium magnum_ or _secretum_ or _generale_, or _colloquium_) and a +general assembly (_parlamentum, concio, commune consilium, commune, +universitas civium_), which, however, as a rule was far from comprising +the whole body of citizens. Another feature which these southern towns +had in common with their Italian neighbours was the prominent part +played by the native nobility. The relations with the clergy were +generally of a more friendly character than in the north, and in some +cases the bishop or archbishop even retained a considerable influence in +the management of the town's affairs. Dissensions among the citizens, or +between the nobles and the bourgeois, frequently ended in the adoption +of a _podestat_. And in several cities of the Languedoc, each of the two +classes composing the population retained its separate laws and customs. +It is matter of dispute whether vestiges of Roman institutions had +survived in these parts down to the time when the new constitutions +sprang into being; but all investigators are pretty well agreed that in +no case did such remnants prove of any practical importance. Roman law, +however, was never quite superseded by Germanic law, as appears from the +_statuts municipaux_. In the improvement and expansion of these statutes +a remarkable activity was displayed by means of an annual _correctio +statutorum_ carried out by specially appointed _statutores_. In the +north, on the other hand, the _carta communiae_, forming as it were the +basis of the commune's existence, seems to have been considered almost +as something sacred and unchangeable. + +The constitutional history of the communes in northern France in a +number of points widely differed from that of these _villes +consulaires_. First of all the movement for their establishment in most +cases was to a far greater degree of a revolutionary character. These +revolutions were in the first place directed against the bishops; but +the position both of the higher clergy and of the nobility was here of a +nature distinctly more hostile to the aspirations of the citizens than +it was in the south. As a result the clergy and the nobles were excluded +from all membership of the commune, except inasmuch as that those +residing in the town might be required to swear not to conspire against +it. The commune (_communia, communa, communio, communitas, conjuratio, +confoederatio_) was formed by an oath of mutual help (_sacramentum, +juramentum communiae_). The members were described as _jurati_ (also +_burgenses, vicini, amici_), although in some communes that term was +reserved for the members of the governing body. None but men of free and +legitimate birth, and free from debt and contagious or incurable disease +were received. The members of the governing body were styled _jures_ +(_jurati_), _pairs_ (_pares_) or _echevins_ (_scabini_). The last was, +however, as in Germany, more properly the title of the jurors in the +court of justice, which in many cases remained in the hands of the lord. +In some cases the town council developed out of this body; but in the +larger cities, like Rouen, several councils worked and all these names +were employed side by side. The number of the members of the governing +body proper varies from twelve to a hundred, and its functions were both +judicial and administrative. There was also known an arrangement +corresponding to the German _alte und sitzende Rat_, viz. of retired +members who could be called in to lend assistance on important +occasions. The most striking distinction, however, as against the +_villes consulaires_ was the elevation of the president of the body to +the position of _maire_ or _mayeur_ (sometimes also called _prevot_, +_praepositus_). As elsewhere, at first none but the civic aristocracy +were admitted to take part in the management of the town's affairs; but +from the end of the 13th century a share had to be conceded to +representatives of the crafts. Dissatisfaction, however, was not easily +allayed; the lower orders applied for the intervention of the king; and +that effectively put an end to political freedom. This tendency of +calling in state help marks a most striking difference as against the +policy followed by the German towns, where all classes appear to have +been always far too jealous of local independence. The result for the +nation was in the one case despotism, equality and order, in the other +individual liberty and an inability to move as a whole. At an earlier +stage the king had frequently come to the assistance of the communes in +their struggle with their lords. By-and-by the king's confirmation came +to be considered necessary for their lawful existence. This proved a +powerful lever for the extension of the king's authority. It may seem +strange that in France the towns never had recourse to those interurban +leagues which played so important a part in Italian and in German +history. + +These two varieties, the _communes_ and the _villes consulaires_ +together form the group of _villes libres_. As opposed to these stand +the _villes franches_, also called _villes prevotales_ after the chief +officer, _villes de bourgeoisie_ or _villes soumises_. They make up by +far the majority of French towns, comprising all those situated in the +centre of the kingdom, and also a large number in the north and the +south. They are called _villes franches_ on account of their possessing +a franchise, a charter limiting the services due by the citizens to +their lord, but political status they had little or none. According to +the varying extent of the liberties conceded them, there may be +distinguished towns governed by an elective body and more or less fully +authorized to exercise jurisdiction; towns possessing some sort of +municipal organization, but no rights of jurisdiction, except that of +simple police; and, thirdly, those governed entirely by seignorial +officers. To this last class belong some of the most important cities in +France, wherever the king had power enough to withhold liberties deemed +dangerous and unnecessary. On the other hand, towns of the first +category often come close to the _villes libres_. A strict line of +demarcation, however, remains in the mutual oath which forms the basis +of the civic community in both varieties of the latter, and in the fact +that the _ville libre_ stands to its lord in the relation of vassal and +not in that of an immediate possession. But however _completement +assujettie_ Paris might be, its organization, naturally, was immensely +more complex than that of hundreds of smaller places which, formally, +might stand in an identical relationship to their lords. Like other +_villes franches_ under the king, Paris was governed by a _prevot_ +(provost), but certain functions of self-government for the city were +delegated to the company of the _marchands de l'eau, mercatores aquae_, +also called _mercatores ansati_, that is, the gild of merchants whose +business lay down the river Seine, in other words, a body naturally +exclusive, not, however, to the citizens as such. At their head stood a +_prevot des marchands_ and four _eschevins de la marchandise_. Other +_prud'hommes_ were occasionally called in, and from 1296 _prevot_ and +_echevins_, appointed twenty-four councillors to form with themselves a +_parloir aux bourgeois_. The crafts of Paris were organized in +_metiers_, whose masters were appointed, some by the _prevot de Paris_, +and some by certain great officers of the court. In the tax rolls of +A.D. 1292 to 1300 no fewer than 448 names of crafts occur, while the +_Livre des metiers_ written in 1268 by Etienne de Boileau, then _prevot +de Paris_, enumerates 101 organized bodies of tradesmen or women and +artisans. Among the duties of these bodies, as elsewhere, was the _guet_ +or night-watch, which necessitated a military organization under +_quartiniers, cinquantainiers_ and _dixainiers_. This gave them a +certain power. But both their revolutions, under the _prevot des +marchands_, Etienne Marcel, after the battle of Maupertuis, and again in +1382, were extremely short-lived, and the only tangible result was a +stricter subjection to the king and his officers. + +An exceptional position among the cities of France is taken up by those +of _Flanders_, more particularly the three "Great Towns," Bruges, Ghent +and Ypres, whose population was Flemish, i.e. German. They sprang up at +the foot of the count's castles and rose in close conjunction with his +power. On the accession of a new house they made their power felt as +early as 1128. Afterwards the counts of the house of Dampierre fell into +financial dependence on the burghers, and therefore allied themselves +with the rising artisans, led by the weavers. These, however, proved far +more unruly, bloody conflicts ensued, and for a considerable period the +three great cities ruled the whole of Flanders with a high hand. Their +influence in the foreign relations of the country was likewise great, it +being in their interest to keep up friendly relations with England, on +whose wool the flourishing state of the staple industry of Flanders +depended. It is a remarkable fact that the historical position taken up +by these cities, which politically belonged to France, is much more akin +to the part played by the German towns, whereas Cambrai, whose +population was French, is the only city politically situated in Germany, +where a commune came to be established. + +In the _Spanish peninsula_, the chief importance of the numerous small +towns lay in the part they played as fortresses during the unceasing +wars with the Moors. The kings therefore extended special privileges +(_fueros_) to the inhabitants, and they were even at an early date +admitted to representation in the Cortes (parliament). Of greater +individual importance than all the rest was Barcelona. Already in 1068 +Count Berengarius gave the city a special law (_usatici_) based on its +ancient usages, and from the 14th century its commercial code (_libro +del consolat del mar_) became influential all over southern Europe. + +The constitutions of the _Scandinavian_ towns were largely modelled on +those of Germany, but the towns never attained anything like the same +independence. Their dependence on the royal government most strongly +comes out in the fact of their being uniformly regulated by royal law in +each of the three kingdoms. In Sweden particularly, German merchants by +law took an equal share in the government of the towns. In Denmark their +influence was also great, and only in Norway did they remain in the +position of foreigners in spite of their famous settlement at Bergen. +The details, as well as those of the German settlement at Wisby and on +the east coast of the Baltic, belong rather to the history of the +Hanseatic League (q.v.). Denmark appears to be the only one of the three +kingdoms where gilds at an early date played a part of importance. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only book dealing with the subject in general, viz. + K. D. Hullmann, _Stadtewesen des Mittelalters_ (4 vols., Bonn, + 1826-1828), is quite antiquated. For Germany it is best to consult + Richard Schroder, _Lehrbruch der deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (5th ed., + Leipzig, 1907), SS 51 and 56, where a bibliography as complete as need + be is given, both of monographs dealing with various aspects of the + question, and of works on the history of individual towns. The latter + alone covers two large octavo pages of small print. As a sort of + complement to Schroder's chapters may be considered, F. Keutgen, + _Urkunden zur stadtischen Verfassungsgeschichte_ (Berlin, 1901 = + _Ausgewahlte Urkunden zur deutschen Verfassungsgeschichte_, by G. von + Below and F. Keutgen, vol. i.), a collection of 437 select charters + and other documents, with a very full index. The great work of G. L. + von Maurer, _Geschichte der Stadteverfassung von Deutschland_ (4 thick + vols., Erlangen, 1869-1871), contains an enormous mass of information + not always treated quite so critically as the present age requires. + There is an excellent succinct account for general readers by Georg + von Below, "Das altere deutsche Stadtewesen und Burgertum," + _Monographien zur Weltgeschichte_, vol. vi. (Bielefeld and Leipzig, + 1898, illustrated). A number of the most important recent monographs + have been mentioned above. As fpr Italy, the most valuable general + work for the early times is still Carl Hegel, _Geschichte der + Stadteverfassung von Italien seit der Zeit der romischen Herrschaft + bis zum Ausgang des zwolften Jahrhunderts_ (2 small vols., Leipzig, + 1847, price second-hand, M. 40), in which it was for the first time + fully proved that there is no connexion between Roman and modern + municipal constitutions. For the period from the 13th century it will + perhaps be best to consult W. Assmann, _Geschichte des Mittelalters_, + 3rd ed., by L. Viereck, dritte Abteilung, _Die letzten beiden + Jahrhunderts des Mittelalters: Deutschland, die Schweiz, und Italien_, + by R. Fischer, R. Scheppig and L. Viereck (Brunswick, 1906). In this + volume, pp. 679-943 contain an excellent account of the various + Italian states and cities during that period, with a full bibliography + for each. Among recent critical contributions to the history of + individual towns, the following works deserve to be specially + mentioned: Robert Davidsohn, _Geschichte von Florenz_ (Berlin, + 1896-1908); down to the beginning of the 14th century; the same, + _Forschungen zur Geschichte von Florenz_ (vols. i.-iv., Berlin, + 1896-1908); Heinrich Kretschmayr, _Geschichte von Venedig_ (vol. i., + Gotha, 1905, to 1205). For France, there are the works by Achille + Luchaire, _Les Communes francaises a l'epoque des Capetiens directs_ + (Paris, 1890), and Paul Viollet, "Les Communes francaises au moyen + age," _Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres_, + tome xxxvi. (Paris, 1900). There are, of course, also accounts in the + great works on French institutions by Flach, Glasson, Viollet, + Luchaire, but perhaps the one in Luchaire's _Manuel des institutions + francaises, periode des Capetiens directs_ (Paris, 1892) deserves + special recommendation. Another valuable account for France north of + the Loire is that contained in the great work by Karl Hegel, _Stadte + und Gilden der germanischen Volker im Mittelaller_ (2 vols., Leipzig, + 1891; see _English Historical Review_, viii. 120-127). Of course, + there are also numerous monographs, among which the following may be + mentioned: Edouard Bonvalot, _Le Tiers Etat d'apres la charte de + Beaumont et ses filiales_ (Paris, 1884); and A. Giry, _Les + Etablissements de Rouen_ (2 vols., Paris, 1883-1885); also a + collection of documents by Gustave Fagniez, _Documents relatifs a + l'histoire de l'industrie et du commerce en France_ (2 vols., Paris, + 1898, 1900). Some valuable works on the commercial history of southern + Europe should still be mentioned, such as W. Heyd, _Geschichte des + Levantehandels im Mittelalter_ (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1879; French + edition by Furcy Raynaud, 2 vols., Paris, 1885 seq., improved by the + author), recognized as a standard work; Adolf Schaube, + _Handelsgeschichte der romanischen Volker des Mittelmeergebietes bis + zum Ende der Kreuzzuge_ (Munich and Berlin, 1906); Aloys Schulte, + _Geschichte des mittelalterlichen Handels und Verkehrs zwischen + Westdeutschland und Italien mit Ausschluss Venedigs_ (2 vols., + Leipzig, 1900); L. Goldschmidt, _Universalgesdiichte des + Handelsrechts_ (vol. i., Stuttgart, 1891). As for the Scandinavian + towns, the best guide is perhaps the book by K. Hegel, _Stadte und + Gilden der germanischen Volker_, already mentioned; but see also + Dietrich Schafer, "Der Stand der Geschichtswissenschaft im + skandinavischen Norden," _Internationale Wochenschrift_, November 16, + 1907. (F. K.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] As to the former, see S. Rietschel, _Die Civitas auf deutschem + Boden bis zum Ausgange der Karolingerzeit_ (Leipzig, 1894); and, for + the newly founded towns, the same author, _Markt und Stadt in ihrem + rechtlichen Verhaltnis_ (Leipzig, 1897). + + [2] About the _Burggraf_, see S. Rietschel, _Das Burggrafenamt und die + hohe Gerichtsbarkeit in den deutschen Bischofsstadten wahrend des + fruheren Mittelalters_ (Leipzig, 1905). + + [3] As to the towns as fortresses, see also F. Keutgen, + _Untersuchungen uber den Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung_ + (Leipzig, 1895); and "Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung" + (_Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum_, &c, N.F. vol. v.). + + [4] See S. Rietschel, _Markt und Stadt_, and J. Fritz, _Deutsche + Stadtanlagen_ (Strassburg, 1894). + + [5] G. von Below, _Die Entstehung der deutschen Stadtgemeinde_ + (Dusseldorf, 1889); and _Der Ursprung der deutschen Stadtverfassung_ + (Dusseldorf, 1892). + + [6] F. Keutgen, _Urkunden zur stadtischen Verfassungsgeschichte_, No. + 74 and No. 75 (Berlin, 1901). + + [7] F. Keutgen, _Amter und Zunfte_ (Jena, 1903). + + [8] J. Weizsacker, _Der rheinische Bund_ (Tubingen, 1879). + + [9] G. v. Below, _Der Untergang der mittelalterlichen Stadtwirtschaft; + Uber Theorien der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Volker_; F. + Keutgen, "Hansische Handelsgesellschaften, vornehmlich des 14ten + Jahrhunderts," in _Vierteljahrsschrift fur Sozial- und + Wirtschaftsgeschichte_, vol. iv. (1906). + + [10] On this whole subject see Richard Schroder, _Lehrbuch der + deutschen Rechtsgeschichte_ (5th ed., Leipzig, 1907), S 56, "Die + Stadtrechte." Also Charles Gross, _The Gild Merchant_ (Oxford, 1890), + vol. i. Appendix E, "Affiliation of Medieval Boroughs." + + [11] H. Kretschmayr, _Geschichte von Venedig_, vol. i. (Gotha, 1905). + + + + +COMMUNISM, the name loosely given to schemes of social organizations +depending on the abolition of private property and its absorption into +the property of a community as such. It is a form of what is now +generally called socialism (q.v.), the terminology of which has varied a +good deal according to time and place; but the expression "communism" +may be conveniently used, as opposed to "socialism" in its wider +political sense, or to the political and municipal varieties known as +"collectivism," "state socialism," &c., in order to indicate more +particularly the historical schemes propounded or put into practice for +establishing certain ideally arranged communities composed of +individuals living and working on the basis of holding their property in +common. It has nothing, of course, to do with the Paris Commune, +overthrown in May 1871, which was a political and not an economic +movement. Communistic schemes have been advocated in almost every age +and country, and have to be distinguished from mere anarchism or from +the selfish desire to transfer other people's property into one's own +pockets. The opinion that a communist is merely a man who has no +property to lose, and therefore advocates a redistribution of wealth, is +contrary to the established facts as to those who have historically +supported the theory of communism. The Corn-law Rhymer's lines on this +subject are amusing, but only apply to the baser sort:-- + + "What is a Communist! One that hath yearnings + For equal division of unequal earnings. + Idler or bungler, or both, he is willing + To fork out his penny and pocket your shilling." + +This is the communist of hostile criticism--a criticism, no doubt, +ultimately based on certain fundamental facts in human nature, which +have usually wrecked communistic schemes of a purely altruistic type in +conception. But the great communists, like Plato, More, Saint-Simon, +Robert Owen, were the very reverse of selfish or idle in their aims; and +communism as a force in the historical evolution of economic and social +opinion must be regarded on its ideal side, and not merely in its +lapses, however natural the latter may be in operation, owing to the +defects of human character. As a theory it has inspired not only some of +the finest characters in history, but also much of the gradual evolution +of economic organization--especially in the case of co-operation (q.v.); +and its opportunities have naturally varied according to the state of +social organization in particular countries. The communism of the early +Christians, for instance, was rather a voluntary sharing of private +property than any abnegation of property as such. The Essenes and the +Therapeutae, however, in Palestine, had a stricter form of communism, +and the former required the surrender of individual property; and in the +middle ages various religious sects, followed by the monastic orders, +were based on the communistic principle. + +Communistic schemes have found advocates in almost every age and in many +different countries. The one thing that is shared by all communists, +whether speculative or practical, is deep dissatisfaction with the +economic conditions by which they are surrounded. In Plato's _Republic_ +the dissatisfaction is not limited to merely economic conditions. In his +examination of the body politic there is hardly any part which he can +pronounce to be healthy. He would alter the life of the citizens of his +state from the very moment of birth. Children are to be taken away from +their parents and nurtured under the supervision of the state. The old +nursery tales, "the blasphemous nonsense with which mothers fool the +manhood out of their children," are to be suppressed. Dramatic and +imitative poetry are not to be allowed. Education, marriage, the number +of births, the occupations of the citizens are to be controlled by the +guardians or heads of the state. The most perfect equality of conditions +and careers is to be preserved; the women are to have similar training +with the men, no careers and no ambition are to be forbidden to them; +the inequalities and rivalries between rich and poor are to cease, +because all will be provided for by the state. Other cities are divided +against themselves. "Any ordinary city, however small, is in fact two +cities, one the city of the poor, the other of the rich, at war with one +another" (_Republic_, bk. iv. p. 249, Jowett's translation). But this +ideal state is to be a perfect unit; although the citizens are divided +into classes according to their capacity and ability, there is none of +the exclusiveness of birth, and no inequality is to break the accord +which binds all the citizens, both male and female, together into one +harmonious whole. The marvellous comprehensiveness of the scheme for the +government of this ideal state makes it belong as much to the modern as +to the ancient world. Many of the social problems to which Plato draws +attention are yet unsolved, and some are in process of solution in the +direction indicated by him. He is not appalled by the immensity of the +task which he has sketched out for himself and his followers. He admits +that there are difficulties to be overcome, but he says in a sort of +parenthesis, "Nothing great is easy." He refuses to be satisfied with +half measures and patchwork reforms. "Enough, my friend! but what is +enough while anything remains wanting?" These sentences indicate the +spirit in which philosophical as distinguished from practical communists +from the time of Plato till to-day have undertaken to reconstruct human +society. + +Sir Thomas More's _Utopia_ has very many of the characteristics of _The +Republic_. There is in it the same wonderful power of shaking off the +prejudices of the place and time in which it was written. The government +of Utopia is described as founded on popular election; community of +goods prevailed, the magistrates distributed the instruments of +production among the inhabitants, and the wealth resulting from their +industry was shared by all. The use of money and all outward ostentation +of wealth were forbidden. All meals were taken in common, and they were +rendered attractive by the accompaniment of sweet strains of music, +while the air was filled by the scent of the most delicate perfumes. +More's ideal state differs in one important respect from Plato's. There +was no community of wives in Utopia. The sacredness of the family +relation and fidelity to the marriage contract were recognized by More +as indispensable to the well-being of modern society. Plato, +notwithstanding all the extraordinary originality with which he +advocated the emancipation of women, was not able to free himself from +the theory and practice of regarding the wife as part and parcel of the +property of her husband. The fact, therefore, that he advocated +community of property led him also to advocate community of wives. He +speaks of "the _possession and use_ of women and children," and proceeds +to show how this possession and use must be regulated in his ideal +state. Monogamy was to him mere exclusive possession on the part of one +man of a piece of property which ought to be for the benefit of the +public. The circumstance that he could not think of wives otherwise than +as the property of their husbands only makes it the more remarkable that +he claimed for women absolute equality of training and careers. The +circumstance that communists have so frequently wrecked their projects +by attacking marriage and advocating promiscuous intercourse between the +sexes may probably be traced to the notion which regards a wife as being +a mere item among the goods and chattels of her husband. It is not +difficult to find evidence of the survival of this ancient habit of +mind. "I will be master of what is mine own," says Petruchio. "She is my +goods, my chattels." + +The Perfectionists of Oneida, on the other hand, held that there was "no +intrinsic difference between property in persons and property in things; +and that the same spirit which abolished exclusiveness in regard to +money would abolish, if circumstances allowed full scope to it, +exclusiveness in regard to women and children" (Nordhoff's _Communistic +Societies of the United States_). It is this notion of a wife as +property that is responsible for the wild opinions communists have often +held in favour of a community of wives and the break-up of family +relations. If they could shake off this notion and take hold of the +conception of marriage as a contract, there is no reason why their views +on the community of property should lead them to think that this +contract should not include mutual fidelity and remain in force during +the life of the contracting parties. It was probably not this conception +of the marriage relation so much as the influence of Christianity which +led More to discountenance community of wives in Utopia. It is strange +that the same influence did not make him include the absence of slavery +as one of the characteristics of his ideal state. On the contrary, +however, we find in Utopia the anomaly of slavery existing side by side +with institutions which otherwise embody the most absolute personal, +political and religious freedom. The presence of slaves in Utopia is +made use of to get rid of one of the practical difficulties of +communism, viz. the performance of disagreeable work. In a society where +one man is as good as another, and the means of subsistence are +guaranteed to all alike, it is easy to imagine that it would be +difficult to ensure the performance of the more laborious, dangerous and +offensive kinds of labour. In Utopia, therefore, we are expressly told +that "all the uneasy and sordid services" are performed by slaves. The +institution of slavery was also made supplementary to the criminal +system of Utopia, as the slaves were for the most part men who had been +convicted of crime; slavery for life was made a substitute for capital +punishment. + +In many respects, however, More's views on the labour question were +vastly in advance of his own time. He repeats the indignant protest of +the _Republic_ that existing society is a warfare between rich and poor. +"The rich," he says, "desire every means by which they may in the first +place secure to themselves what they have amassed by wrong, and then +take to their own use and profit, at the lowest possible price, the work +and labour of the poor. And so soon as the rich decide on adopting these +devices in the name of the public, then they become law." One might +imagine these words had been quoted from the programme of The +International (q.v.), so completely is their tone in sympathy with the +hardships of the poor in all ages. More shared to the full the keen +sympathy with the hopeless misery of the poor which has been the strong +motive power of nearly all speculative communism. The life of the poor +as he saw it was so wretched that he said, "Even a beast's life seems +enviable!" Besides community of goods and equality of conditions, More +advocated other means of ameliorating the condition of the people. +Although the hours of labour were limited to six a day there was no +scarcity, for in Utopia every one worked; there was no idle class, no +idle individual even. The importance of this from an economic point of +view is insisted on by More in a passage remarkable for the importance +which he attaches to the industrial condition of women. "And this you +will easily apprehend," he says, "if you consider how great a part of +all other nations is quite idle. First, women generally do little, who +are the half of mankind." Translated into modern language his proposals +comprise universal compulsory education, a reduction of the hours of +labour to six a day, the most modern principles of sanitary reform, a +complete revision of criminal legislation, and the most absolute +religious toleration. The romantic form which Sir Thomas More gave to +his dream of a new social order found many imitators. The _Utopia_ may +be regarded as the prototype of Campanella's _City of the Sun_, +Harrington's _Oceana_, Bacon's _Nova Atlantis_, Defoe's _Essay on +Projects_, Fenelon's _Voyage dans l'Ile des Plaisirs_, and other works +of minor importance. + +All communists have made a great point of the importance of universal +education. All ideal communes have been provided by their authors with a +perfect machinery for securing the education of every child. One of the +first things done in every attempt to carry communistic theories into +practice has been to establish a good school and guarantee education to +every child. The first impulse to national education in the 19th century +probably sprang from the very marked success of Robert Owen's schools in +connexion with the cotton mills at New Lanark. Compulsory education, +free trade, and law reform, the various movements connected with the +improvement of the condition of women, have found their earliest +advocates among theoretical and practical communists. The communists +denounce the evils of the present state of society; the hopeless poverty +of the poor, side by side with the self-regarding luxury of the rich, +seems to them to cry aloud to Heaven for the creation of a new social +organization. They proclaim the necessity of sweeping away the +institution of private property, and insist that this great revolution, +accompanied by universal education, free trade, a perfect administration +of justice, and a due limitation of the numbers of the community, would +put an end to half the self-made distress of humanity. + +The various communistic experiments in America are the most interesting +in modern times, opportunities being naturally greater there for such +deviations from the normal forms of regulations as compared with the +closely organized states of Europe, and particularly in the means of +obtaining land cheaply for social settlements with peculiar views. They +have been classified by Morris Hillquit (_History of Socialism in the +United States_, 1903) as (1) sectarian, (2) Owenite, (3) Fourieristic, +(4) Icarian. + +1. The oldest of the sectarian group was the society of the Shakers +(q.v.), whose first settlement at Watervliet was founded in 1776. The +Harmony Society or Rappist Community was introduced into Pennsylvania by +George Rapp (1770-1847) from Wurttemberg in 1804, and in 1815 they moved +to a settlement (New Harmony) in Indiana, returning to Pennsylvania +again in 1824, and founding the village of Economy, from which they were +also known as Economites. Emigrants from Wurttemberg also founded the +community of Zoar in Ohio in 1817, being incorporated in 1832 as the +Society of Separatists of Zoar; it was dissolved in 1898. The Amana +(q.v.) community, the strongest of all American communistic societies, +originated in Germany in the early part of the 18th century as "the True +Inspiration Society," and some 600 members removed to America in +1842-1844. The Bethel (Missouri) and Aurora (Oregon) sister communities +were founded by Dr Keil (1812-1877) in 1844 and 1856 respectively, and +were dissolved in 1880 and 1881. The Oneida Community (q.v.), created by +John Humphrey Noyes (1811-1886), the author of a famous _History of +American Socialisms_ (1870), was established in 1848 as a settlement for +the Society of Perfectionists. All these bodies had a religious basis, +and were formed with the object of enjoying the free exercise of their +beliefs, and though communistic in character they had no political or +strictly economic doctrine to propagate. + +2. The Owenite communities rose under the influence of Robert Owen's +work at New Lanark, and his propaganda in America from 1824 onwards, the +principal being New Harmony (acquired from the Rappists in 1825); Yellow +Springs, near Cincinnati, 1824; Nashoba, Tennessee, 1825; Haverstraw, +New York, 1826; its short-lived successors, Coxsackie, New York, and the +Kendal Community, Canton, Ohio, 1826. All these had more or less short +existences, and were founded on Owen's theories of labour and economics. + +3. The Fourierist communities similarly were due to the Utopian +teachings of the Frenchman Charles Fourier (q.v.), introduced into +America by his disciple Albert Brisbane (1809-1890), author of _The +Social Destiny of Man_ (1840), who was efficiently helped by Horace +Greeley, George Ripley and others. The North American Phalanx, in New +Jersey, was started in 1843 and lasted till 1855. Brook Farm (q.v.) was +started as a Fourierist Phalanx in 1844, after three years' independent +career, and became the centre of Fourierist propaganda, lasting till +1847. The Wisconsin Phalanx, or Ceresco, was organized in 1844, and +lasted till 1850. In Pennsylvania seven communities were established +between 1843 and 1845, the chief of which were the Sylvania Association, +the Peace Union Settlement, the Social Reform Unity, and the Leraysville +Phalanx. In New York state the chief were the Clarkson Phalanx, the +Sodus Bay Phalanx, the Bloomfield Association, and the Ontario Union. In +Ohio the principal were the Trumbull Phalanx, the Ohio Phalanx, the +Clermont Phalanx, the Integral Phalanx, and the Columbian Phalanx; and +of the remainder the Alphadelphia Phalanx, in Michigan, was the +best-known. It is pointed out by Morris Hillquit that while only two +Fourierist Phalanxes were established in France, over forty were started +in the United States. + +4. The Icarian communities were due to the communistic teachings of +another Frenchman, Etienne Cabet (q.v.) (1788-1856), the name being +derived from his social romance, _Voyage en Icarie_ (1840), sketching +the advantages of an imaginary country called Icaria, with a +co-operative system, and criticizing the existing social organization. +It was his idea, in fact, of a Utopia. Robert Owen advised him to +establish his followers, already numerous, in Texas, and thither about +1500 went in 1848. But disappointment resulted, and their numbers +dwindled to less than 500 in 1849; some 280 went to Nauvoo, Illinois; +after a schism in 1856 some formed a new colony (1858) at Cheltenham, +near St Louis; others went to Iowa, others to California. The last +branch was dissolved in 1895. + + See also the articles SOCIALISM; OWEN; SAINT-SIMON; FOURIER, &c.; and + the bibliography to SOCIALISM. The whole subject is admirably covered + in Morris Hillquit's work, referred to above; and see also Noyes's + _History of American Socialisms_ (1870); Charles Nordhoff's + _Communistic Societies of the United States_ (1875); and W. A. Hinds's + _American Communities_ (1878; 2nd edition, 1902), a very complete + account. + + + + +COMMUTATION (from Lat. _commutare_, to change), a process of exchanging +one thing for another, particularly of one method of payment for +another, such as payment in money for payment in kind or by service, or +of payment of a lump sum for periodical payments; for various kinds of +such substitution see ANNUITY; COPYHOLD and TITHES. The word is also +used similarly of the substitution of a lesser sentence on a criminal +for a greater. In electrical engineering, the word is applied to the +reversal of the course of an electric current, the contrivance for so +doing being known as a "commutator" (see DYNAMO). In America, a +"commutation ticket" on a railway is one which allows a person to travel +at a lower rate over a particular route for a certain time or for a +certain number of times; the person holding such a ticket is known as a +"commuter." + + + + +COMNENUS, the name of a Byzantine family which from 1081 to 1185 +occupied the throne of Constantinople. It claimed a Roman origin, but +its earliest representatives appear as landed proprietors in the +district of Castamon (mod. _Kastamuni_) in Paphlagonia. Its first member +known in Byzantine history is Manuel Eroticus Comnenus, an able general +who rendered great services to Basil II. (976-1025) in the East. At his +death he left his two sons Isaac and John in the care of Basil, who gave +them a careful education and advanced them to high official positions. +The increasing unpopularity of the Macedonian dynasty culminated in a +revolt of the nobles and the soldiery of Asia against its feeble +representative Michael VI. Stratioticus, who abdicated after a brief +resistance. Isaac was declared emperor, and crowned in St Sophia on the +2nd of September 1057. For the rulers of this dynasty see ROMAN EMPIRE, +LATER, and separate articles. + +With Andronicus I. (1183-1185) the rule of the Comneni proper at +Constantinople came to an end. A younger line of the original house, +after the establishment of the Latins at Constantinople in 1204, secured +possession of a fragment of the empire in Asia Minor, and founded the +empire of Trebizond (q.v.), which lasted till 1461, when David Comnenus, +the last emperor, was deposed by Mahommed II. + + For a general account of the family and its alleged survivors see + article "Komnenen," by G. F. Hertzberg, in Ersch and Gruber's + _Allgemeine Encyklopadie_, and an anonymous monograph, _Precis + historique de la maison imperiale des Comnenes_ (Amsterdam, 1784); + and, for the history of the period, the works referred to under ROMAN + EMPIRE, LATER. + + + + +COMO (anc. _Comum_), a city and episcopal see of Lombardy, Italy, the +capital of the province of Como, situated at the S. end of the W. branch +of the Lake of Como, 30 m. by rail N. by W. of Milan. Pop. (1881) +25,560; (1905) 34,272 (town), 41,124 (commune). The city lies in a +valley enclosed by mountains, the slopes of which command fine views of +the lake. The old town, which preserves its rectangular plan from Roman +times, is enclosed by walls, with towers constructed in the 12th +century. The cathedral, built entirely of marble, occupies the site of +an earlier church, and was begun in 1396, from which period the nave +dates: the facade belongs to 1457-1486, while the east of the exterior +was altered into the Renaissance style, and richly decorated with +sculptures by Tommaso Rodari in 1487-1526. The dome is an unsuitable +addition of 1731 by the Sicilian architect Filippo Juvara (1685-1735), +and its baroque decorations spoil the effect of the fine Gothic +interior. It contains some good pictures and fine tapestries. In the +same line as the facade of the cathedral are the Broletto (in black and +white marble), dating from 1215, the seat of the original rulers of the +commune, and the massive clock-tower. The Romanesque church of S. +Abondio outside the town was founded in 1013 and consecrated in 1095; it +has two fine campanili, placed at the ends of the aisles close to the +apse. It occupies the site of the 5th-century church of SS. Peter and +Paul. Near it is the Romanesque church of S. Carpoforo. Above it is the +ruined castle of Baradello. The churches of S. Giacomo (1095-1117) and +S. Fedele (12th century), both in the town, are also Romanesque, and the +apses have external galleries. The Palazzo Giovio contains the Museo +Civico. Como is a considerable tourist resort, and the steamboat traffic +on the lake is largely for travellers. A climate station is established +on the hill of Brunate (2350 ft.) above the town to the E., reached by a +funicular railway. The Milanese possess many villas here. Como is an +industrial town, having large silk factories and other industries (see +LOMBARDY). It is connected with Milan by two lines of railway, one via +Monza (the main line, which goes on to Chiasso--Swiss frontier--and the +St Gotthard), the other via Saronno and also with Lecco and Varese. + +Of the Roman Comum little remains above ground; a portion of its S.E. +wall was discovered and may be seen in the garden of the Liceo Volta, 88 +ft. within the later walls: later fortifications (but previous to 1127), +largely constructed with Roman inscribed sepulchral urns and other +fragments, had been superimposed on it. Thermae have also been +discovered (see V. Barelli in _Notizie degli scavi_, 1880, 333; 1881, +333; 1882, 285). The inscriptions, on the other hand, are numerous, and +give an idea of its importance. The statements as to the tribe which +originally possessed it are various. It belonged to Gallia Cisalpina, +and first came into contact with Rome in 196 B.C., when M. Claudius +Marcellus conquered the Insubres and the Comenses. In 89 B.C., having +suffered damage from the Raetians, it was restored by Cn. Pompeius +Strabo, and given Latin rights with the rest of Gallia Transpadana. +Shortly after this 3000 colonists seem to have been sent there; 5000 +were certainly sent by Caesar in 59 B.C., and the place received the +name Novum Comum. It appears in the imperial period as a _municipium_, +and is generally spoken of as Comum simply. The place was prosperous; it +had an important iron industry; and the banks of the lake were, as now, +dotted with villas. It was also important as the starting-point for the +journey across the lake in connexion with the Splugen and Septimer +passes (see CHIAVENNA). It was the birthplace of both the elder and the +younger Pliny, the latter of whom founded baths and a library here and +gave money for the support of orphan children. There was a _praefectus +classis Comensis_ under the late empire, and it was regarded as a strong +fortress. See Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, Suppl. +Heft i. (Stuttgart, 1903), 326. + +Como suffered considerably from the early barbarian invasions, many of +the inhabitants taking refuge on the Isola Comacina off Sala, but +recovered in Lombard times. It was from that period that the _magistri +Comacini_ formed a privileged corporation of architects and sculptors, +who were employed in other parts of Italy also, until, at the end of the +11th century, individuals began to come more to the front (G. T. +Rivoira, _Origini del l'architettura Lombarda_, Rome, 1901, i. 127 f.). +Como then became subject to the archbishops of Milan, but gained its +freedom towards the end of the 11th century. At the beginning of the +12th century war broke out between Como and Milan, and after a ten +years' war Como was taken and its fortifications dismantled in 1127. In +1154, however, it took advantage of the arrival of Barbarossa, and +remained faithful to him throughout the whole war of the Lombard League. +After frequent struggles with Milan, it fell under the power of the +Visconti in 1335. In 1535, like the rest of Lombardy, it fell under +Spanish dominion, and in 1714 under Austrian. Thenceforth it shared the +fortunes of Milan, becoming in the Napoleonic period the chief town of +the department of the Lario. Its silk industry and its position at the +entrance to the Alpine passes gave it some importance even then. It bore +a considerable part in the national risings of 1848-1859 against +Austrian rule. (T. As.) + + + + +COMO, Lake of (the _Lacus Larius_ of the Romans, and so sometimes called +Lario to the present day, though in the 4th century it is already termed +_Lacus Comacinus_), one of the most celebrated lakes in Lombardy, +Northern Italy. It lies due N. of Milan and is formed by the Adda that +flows through the Valtelline to the north end of the lake (here falls in +the Maira or Mera, coming from the Val Bregaglia) and flows out of it at +its south-eastern extremity, on the way to join the Po. Its area is 55-1/2 +sq. m., it is about 43 m. from end to end (about 30-1/2 m. from the north +end of Bellagio), it is from 1 to 2-1/2 m. in breadth, its surface is 653 +ft. above the sea, and its greatest depth is 1365 ft. A railway line now +runs along its eastern shore from Colico to Lecco (24-1/2 m.), while on its +western shore Menaggio is reached by a steam tramway from Porlezza on +the Lake of Lugano (8 m.). Colico, at the northern extremity, is by rail +17 m. from Chiavenna and 42 m. from Tirano, while at its southern end +Como (on the St Gotthard line) is 32 m. from Milan, and Lecco about the +same distance. The lake fills a remarkable depression which has been +cut through the limestone ranges that enclose it, and once doubtless +extended as far as Chiavenna, the Lake of Mezzola being a surviving +witness of its ancient bed. Towards the south the promontory of Bellagio +divides the lake into two arms. That to the south-east ends at Lecco and +is the true outlet, for the south-western arm, ending at Como, is an +enclosed bay. During the morning the _Tivano_ wind blows from the north, +while in the afternoon the _Breva_ wind blows from the south. But, like +other Alpine lakes, the Lake of Como is exposed to sudden violent +storms. Its beauties have been sung by Virgil and Claudian, while the +two Plinys are among the celebrities associated with the lake. The +shores are bordered by splendid villas, while perhaps the most lovely +spot on it is Bellagio, built in an unrivalled position. Among the other +villages that line the lake, the best-known are Varenna (E.) and +Menaggio (W.), nearly opposite one another, while Cadenabbia (W.) faces +Bellagio. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +COMONFORT, IGNACIO (1812-1863), a Mexican soldier and politician, who, +after occupying a variety of civil and military posts, was in December +1855 made provisional president by Alvarez, and from December 1857 was +for a few weeks constitutional president. (See MEXICO.) + + + + +COMORIN, CAPE, a headland in the state of Travancore, forming the +extreme southern point of the peninsula of India. It is situated in 8 +deg. 4' 20" N., 77 deg. 35' 35" E., and is the terminating point of the +western Ghats. The village of Comorin, with the temple of Kanniyambal, +the "virgin goddess," on the coast at the apex of the headland, is a +frequented place of pilgrimage. + + + + +COMORO ISLANDS, a group of volcanic islands belonging to France, in the +Indian Ocean, at the northern entrance of the Mozambique Channel midway +between Madagascar and the African continent. The following table of the +area and population of the four largest islands gives one of the sets of +figures offered by various authorities:-- + + +-------------------+-------------+--------------+ + | | Area sq. m. | Population. | + +-------------------+-------------+--------------+ + | Great Comor | 385 | 50,000 | + | Anjuan or Johanna | 145 | 12,000 | + | Mayotte | 140 | 11,000 | + | Moheli | 90 | 9,000 | + | +-------------+--------------+ + | Total | 760 | 82,000 | + +-------------------+-------------+--------------+ + +There are besides a large number of islets of coral formation. +Particulars of the four islands named follow. + +1. Great Comoro, or Angazia, the largest and most westerly, has a length +of about 38 m., with a width of about 12 m. Near its southern extremity +it rises into a fine dome-shaped volcanic mountain, Kartola (Karthala), +which is over 8500 ft. high, and is visible for more than 100 m. Up to +about 6000 ft. it is clothed with dense vegetation. Eruptions are +recorded for the years 1830, 1855 and 1858; and another eruption +occurred in 1904. In the north the ground rises gradually to a plateau +some 2000 ft. above the sea; from this plateau many regularly shaped +truncated cones rise another 2000 ft. The centre of the island consists +of a desert field of lava streams, about 1600 ft. high. The chief towns +are Maroni (pop. about 2000), Itzanda and Mitsamuli; the first, situated +at the head of a bay in 11 deg. 40' S., being the seat of the French +administrator. + +2. Anjuan, or Johanna, next in size, lies E. by S. of Comoro. It is some +30 m. long by 20 at its greatest breadth. The land rises in a succession +of richly wooded heights till it culminates in a central peak, upwards +of 5000 ft. above the sea, in 12 deg. 14' S., 44 deg. 27' E. The former +capital, Mossamondu, on the N.W. coast, is substantially built of stone, +surrounded by a wall, and commanded by a dilapidated citadel; it is the +residence of the sultan and of the French administrator. There is a +small but safe anchorage at Pomony, on the S. side, formerly used as a +coal depot by ships of the British navy. + +3. Mayotte, about 21 m. long by 6 or 7 m. broad, is surrounded by an +extensive and dangerous coral reef. The principal heights on its +extremely irregular surface are: Mavegani Mountain, which rises in two +peaks to a maximum of 2164 ft., and Uchongin, 2100 ft. The French +headquarters are on the islet of Zaudzi, which lies within the reef in +12 deg. 46' S., 45 deg. 20' E. There are substantial government +buildings and store-houses. On the mainland opposite Zaudzi is Msapere, +the chief centre of trade. Mayotte was devastated in 1898 by a cyclone +of great severity. + +4. Moheli or Mohilla lies S. of and between Anjuan and Grand Comoro. It +is 15 m. long and 7 or 8 m. at its maximum breadth. Unlike the other +three it has no peaks, but rises gradually to a central ridge about 1900 +ft. in height. Fomboni (pop. about 2000) in the N.W. and Numa Choa in +the S.W. are the chief towns. + +All the islands possess a very fertile soil; there are forests of +coco-nut palms, and among the products are rice, maize, sweet-potatoes, +yams, coffee, cotton, vanilla and various tropical fruits, the papaw +tree being abundant. The fauna is allied to that of Madagascar rather +than to the mainland of Africa; it includes some land birds and a +species of lemur peculiar to the islands. Large numbers of cattle and +sheep, the former similar to the small species at Aden, are reared as +well as, in Great Comoro, the zebra. Turtles are caught in abundance +along the coasts, and form an article of export. The climate is in +general warm, but not torrid nor unsuitable for Europeans. The dry +season lasts from May to the end of October, the rest of the year being +rainy. The natives are of mixed Malagasy, Negro and Arab blood. The +majority are Mahommedans. The European inhabitants, mostly French, +number about 600. There are some 200 British Indians, traders, in the +islands. The external trade of the islands has developed since the +annexation of Madagascar to France, and is of the value of about +L100,000 a year. Sugar refineries, distilleries of rum, and sawmills are +worked in Mayotte by French settlers. Cane sugar and vanilla are the +chief exports. The islands are regularly visited by vessels of the +Messageries Maritimes fleet, and a coaling station for the French navy +has been established. + +The islands were first visited by Europeans in the 16th century; they +are marked on the map of Diego Ribero made in 1527. At that time, and +for long afterwards, the dominant influence in, and the civilization of, +the islands was Arab. According to tradition the islands were first +peopled by Arab voyagers driven thither by tempests. The petty sultans +who exercised authority were notorious slave traders. A Sakalava chief +who had been driven from Madagascar by the Hovas took refuge in Mayotte +_c._ 1830, and, with the aid of the sultan of Johanna, conquered the +island, which for a century had been given over to civil war. French +naval officers having reported on the strategic value of Mayotte, +Admiral de Hell, governor of Reunion, sent an officer there in 1841, and +a treaty was negotiated ceding the island to France. Possession was +taken in 1843, the sultan of Johanna renouncing his claims in the same +year. In 1886 the sultans of the other three islands were placed under +French protection, France fearing that otherwise the islands would be +taken by Germany. The French experienced some difficulty with the +natives, but by 1892 had established their position. The islands, as +regulated by the decree of the 9th of April 1908, are under the supreme +authority of the governor-general of Madagascar. The local +administration is in the hands of an official who himself governs +Mayotte but is represented in the other islands by administrators. On +the council which assists the governor are two nominated native +notables. In 1910 the sultan of Great Comoro ceded his sovereign rights +to France. In Anjuan the native government is continued under French +supervision. The budgets of the four islands in 1904 came to some +L30,000, that of Mayotte being about half the total. The chief sources +of revenue are poll and house taxes, and, in Mayotte, a land tax. + +The _Iles Glorieuses_, three islets 160 m. N.E. of Mayotte, with a +population of some 20 souls engaged in the collection of guano and the +capture of turtles, were in 1892 annexed to France and placed under the +control of the administrator of Mayotte. + + See _Notice sur Mayotte et les Comores_, by Emile Vienne, one of the + memoirs on the French colonies prepared for the Paris Exhibition of + 1900; _Le Sultanat d'Anjouan_, by Jules Repiquet (Paris, 1901), a + systematic account of the geography, ethnology and history of Johanna; + _Les colonies francaises_ (Paris, 1900), vol. ii. pp. 179-197, in + which the story of the archipelago is set forth by various writers; an + account of the islands by A. Voeltzkow in the _Zeitschrift_ of the + Berlin Geog. Soc. (No. 9, 1906), and _Carte des Iles Comores_, by A. + Meunier (Paris, 1904). + + + + +COMPANION (through the O. Fr. _compaignon_ or _compagnon_, from the Late +Lat. _companio_,--_cum_, with, and _panis_, bread,--one who shares meals +with another; the word has been wrongly derived from the Late Lat. +_compagnus_, one of the same _pagus_ or district), a mess-mate or +"comrade" (a term which itself has a similar origin, meaning one who +shares the same _camera_ or room). "Companion" is particularly used of +soldiers, as in the expression "companion in arms," and so is the title +of the lowest rank in a military or other order of knighthood; the word +is also used of a person who lives with another in a paid position for +the sake of company, and is looked on rather as a friend than a servant; +and of a pair or match, as of pictures and the like. Similar in ultimate +origin but directly adapted from the Fr. _chambre de la compagne_, and +Ital. _camera della compagna_, the storeroom for provisions on board +ship, is the use of "companion" for the framed windows over a hatchway +on the deck of a ship, and also for the hooded entrance-stairs to the +captain's cabin. + + + + +COMPANY, one of a number of words like "partnership," "union," "gild," +"society," "corporation," denoting--each with its special shade of +meaning--the association of individuals in pursuit of some common +object. The taking of meals together was, as the word signifies (_cum_, +with, _panis_, bread,) a characteristic of the early company. Gild had a +similar meaning: but this characteristic, though it survives in the +Livery company (see LIVERY COMPANIES), has in modern times disappeared. +The word "company" is now monopolized--in British usage--by two great +classes of companies--(1) the joint stock company, constituted under the +Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, which consolidated the various acts +from 1862 to 1907, and (2) the "public company," constituted under a +special act to carry on some work of public utility, such as a railway, +docks, gasworks or waterworks, and regulated by the Companies Clauses +Acts 1845 and 1863. + + +1. _Joint Stock Companies._ + +The joint stock company may be defined as an association of persons +incorporated to promote by joint contributions to a common stock the +carrying on of some commercial enterprise. Associations formed not for +"the acquisition of gain" but to promote art, science, religion, charity +or some other useful or philanthropic object, though they may be +constituted under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, seldom call +themselves companies, but adopt some name more appropriate to express +their objects, such as society, club, institute, college or chamber. The +joint stock company has had a long history which can only be briefly +sketched here. The name of "joint stock company" is--or was--used to +distinguish such a company from the "regulated company," which did not +trade on a joint stock but was in the nature of a trade gild, the +members of which had a monopoly of foreign trade with particular +countries or places (see Adam Smith, _Wealth of Nations_, bk. v. ch. i. +pt. iii.). + +The earliest kind of joint stock company is the chartered (see CHARTERED +COMPANIES). The grant of a charter is one of the exclusive privileges of +the crown, and the crown has from time to time exercised it in +furtherance of trading enterprise. Examples of such grants are the +Merchant Adventurers of England, chartered by Richard II. (1390); the +East India Co., chartered by Queen Elizabeth (1600); the Bank of +England, chartered by William and Mary (1694); the Hudson's Bay Co.; the +Royal African Co.; the notorious South Sea Co.; and in later times the +New Zealand Co., the North Borneo Co., and the Royal Niger Co. Chartered +companies had, however, several disadvantages. A charter was not easily +obtainable. It was costly. The members could not be made personally +liable for the debts of the company: and once created--though only for +defined objects--such a company was invested with entire independence +and could not be kept to the conditions imposed by the grant, which was +against public policy. A new form of commercial association was wanted, +free from these defects, and it was found in the common law +company--the lineal ancestor of the modern trading company. The common +law company was not an incorporated association: it was simply a great +partnership with transferable shares. Companies of this kind multiplied +rapidly towards the close of the 17th century and the beginning of the +18th century, but they were regarded with strong disfavour by the law, +for reasons not very intelligible to modern notions; the chief of these +reasons being that such companies purported to act as corporate bodies, +raised transferable stock, used charters for purposes not warranted by +the grant, and were--or were supposed to be--dangerous and mischievous, +tending (in the words of the preamble of the Bubble Act) to "the common +grievance, prejudice and inconvenience of His Majesty's subjects or +great numbers of them in trade, commerce or other lawful affairs." They +were too often--and this no doubt was the real ground of the prejudice +against them--utilized by unprincipled persons to promote fantastic and +often fraudulent schemes. Matthew Green, in his poem "The Spleen," notes +how + + "Wrecks appear each day, + And yet fresh fools are cast away." + +The result was that by the act (6 Geo. I. c. 18) commonly known as the +Bubble Act (1719) such companies were declared to be common nuisances +and indictable as such. But the act, though it remained on the statute +book for more than one hundred years and was not formally repealed till +1825, proved quite ineffectual to check the growth of joint stock +enterprise, and the legislature, finding that such companies had to be +tolerated, adopted the wiser course of regulating what it could not +repress. One great inconvenience of these common law trading companies +arose from their being unincorporated. They were formed of large +fluctuating bodies of individuals, and a person dealing with them did +not know with whom he was contracting or whom he was to sue. This evil +the legislature sought to rectify by empowering the crown to grant to +companies by letters patent without incorporation the privilege of suing +and being sued by a public officer. Ten years afterwards--in 1844--a +more important line of policy was adopted, and all companies with some +exceptions were enabled to obtain a certificate of incorporation without +applying for a charter or special act. The act of 1862 carried this +policy one step farther by prohibiting all associations of more than +twenty persons from carrying on business without registering under the +act. These were all useful amendments, but they were amendments of form +rather than substance. The real vitality of joint stock enterprise lies +in the co-operative principle, and the natural growth and expansion of +this fruitful principle was checked until the middle of the 19th century +by the notorious risks attaching to unlimited liability. In the case of +an ordinary partnership, though their liability is unlimited (or was +until the Limited Partnerships Act 1907), the partners can generally +tell what risks they are incurring. Not so the shareholders of a +company. They delegate the management of their business to a board of +directors, and they may easily find themselves committed by the fraud or +folly of its members to engagements which in the days of unlimited +liability meant ruin. Failures like those of Overend and Gurney, and of +the Glasgow Bank, caused widespread misery and alarm. It was not until +limited liability had been grafted on the stock of the co-operative +system that the real potency of the principle of industrial co-operation +became apparent. We owe the adoption of the limited liability principle +to the clear-sightedness of Lord Sherbrooke--then Mr Robert Lowe--and to +the vigorous advocacy of Lord Bramwell. We owe it to Lord Bramwell also +that the principle was made a feasible one. The practical difficulty was +how to bring home to persons dealing with the company notice that the +liability of the shareholders was limited. Lord Bramwell solved the +problem by a happy suggestion--"write it on my tombstone," he said +humorously to a friend. This was that the company should add to its name +the word "Limited "--paint it up on its premises, and use it on all +invoices, bills, promissory notes and other documents. The proposal was +adopted by the Legislature and has worked successfully. While limited +companies have been multiplying at the rate of over 4000 a year, the +unlimited company has become practically an extinct species. The growth +of limited companies is, indeed, one of the most striking phenomena of +our day. Their number may be estimated at quite 40,000. Their paid-up +capital amounts to the stupendous sum of L1,850,000,000 and, what is +even more significant, as the 1st Viscount Goschen remarks in his +_Essays and Addresses_, is that "the number of shareholders has grown in +a much greater ratio than the colossal growth of the aggregate capital. +The profits and risks of nearly every kind of business have been spread +from year to year over fresh thousands of individuals, and the middle +class with moderate incomes are more and more participating in that +accumulation of wealth from business of every description which formerly +built up the fortunes of individual traders or of bankers or of single +families." + +It is with the limited company then--the company limited by shares--as +the normal type and incomparably the most important, that this article +mainly deals. + +_Companies Limited by Shares._--The Companies Act 1862, was intended to +constitute a comprehensive code of law applicable to joint stock trading +companies for the whole of the United Kingdom. Recognizing the mischief +above alluded to--of trading concerns being carried on by large and +fluctuating bodies, the act begins by declaring that no company, +association or partnership, consisting of more than twenty persons, or +ten in the case of banking, shall be formed after the commencement of +the act for the purpose of carrying on any business which has for its +object the acquisition of gain by the company, association or +partnership, or by the individual members thereof, unless it is +registered as a company under the act, or is formed in pursuance of some +other act of parliament or of letters patent, or is a company engaged in +working mines within and subject to the jurisdiction of the Stannaries. +Broadly speaking, the meaning of the act is that all commercial +undertakings, as distinguished from literary or charitable associations, +shall be registered. "Business" has a more extensive signification than +"trade." Having thus cleared the ground the act goes on to provide in +what manner a company may be formed under the act. The machinery is +simple, and is described as follows:-- + +"Any seven or more persons associated for any lawful purpose may, by +subscribing their names to a memorandum of association and otherwise +complying with the requisitions of this act in respect of registration, +form an incorporated company with or without limited liability" (S 6). +It is not necessary that the subscribers should be traders nor will the +fact that six of the subscribers are mere dummies, clerks or nominees of +the seventh affect the validity of the company; so the House of Lords +decided in _Salomon_ v. _Salomon & Co._, 1897, A. C. 22. + + + Memorandum of Association. + +The document to be subscribed--the Memorandum of +Association--corresponds, in the case of companies formed under the +Companies Act 1862, to the charter or deed of settlement in the case of +other companies. The form of it is given in the schedule to the act, and +varies slightly according as the company is limited by shares or +guarantee, or is unlimited. (See the 3rd schedule to the Consolidation +Act 1908, forms A, B, C, D.) It is required to state, in the case of a +company limited by shares, the five following matters:-- + +1. The name of the proposed company, with the addition of the word +"limited" as the last word in such name. + +2. The part of the United Kingdom, whether England, Scotland or Ireland, +in which the registered office of the company is proposed to be situate. + +3. The objects for which the proposed company is to be established. + +4. A declaration that the liability of the members is limited. + +5. The amount of capital with which the company proposes to be +registered, divided into shares of a certain fixed amount. + +No subscriber of the memorandum is to take less than one share, and each +subscriber is to write opposite his name the number of shares he takes. + +These five matters the legislature has deemed of such intrinsic +importance that it has required them to be set out in the company's +Memorandum of Association. They are the essential conditions of +incorporation, and as such they must not only be stated, but the policy +of the legislature has made them with certain exceptions unalterable. + +The most important of these five conditions is the third, and its +importance consists in this, that the objects defined in the memorandum +circumscribe the sphere of the company's activities. This principle, +which is one of public policy and convenience, and is known as the +"_ultra vires_ doctrine," carries with it important consequences, +because every act done or contract made by a company _ultra vires_, i.e. +in excess of its powers, is absolutely null and void. The policy, too, +is a sound one. Shareholders contribute their money on the faith that it +is to be employed in prosecuting certain objects, and it would be a +violation of good faith if the company, i.e. the majority of +shareholders, were to be allowed to divert it to something quite +different. So strict is the rule that not even the consent of every +individual shareholder can give validity to an _ultra vires_ act. + + + Articles of Association. + +The articles of association are the regulations for internal management +of the company--the terms of the partnership agreed upon by the +shareholders among themselves. A model or specimen set of articles known +as Table A was given by the Companies Act 1862, and is appended in a +revised form to the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908. When a company +is to be registered the memorandum of association accompanied by a copy +of the articles is taken to the office of the registrar of joint stock +companies at Somerset House, together with the following documents:-- + +1. A list of persons who have consented to be directors of the company +(fee stamp 5s.). + +2. A statutory declaration by a solicitor of the High Court engaged in +the formation of the company, or by a person named in the articles of +association as a director or secretary of the company, that the +requisitions of the act in respect of registration and of matters +precedent and incidental thereto have been complied with (fee stamp +5s.). + +3. A statement as to the nominal share capital (stamped with an _ad +valorem_ duty of 5s. per L100). + +4. If no prospectus is to be issued, a company must now (Companies Act +1907, s. 1; Consolidation Act 1908, s. 82) in lieu thereof file with the +registrar a statement, in the form prescribed by the 1st schedule to the +act, of all the material facts relating to the company. Till this has +been done the company cannot allot any shares or debentures. + +If these documents are in order the registrar registers the company and +issues a certificate of incorporation (see Companies (Consolidation) Act +1908, sect. 82); on registration, the memorandum and articles of +association become public documents, and any person may inspect them on +payment of a fee of one shilling. This has important consequences, +because every person dealing with the company is presumed to be +acquainted with its constitution, and to have read its memorandum and +articles. The articles also, upon registration, bind the company and its +members to the same extent as if each member had subscribed his name and +affixed his seal to them. + +The total cost of registering a company with a capital of L1000 is about +L7; L10,000 about L34; L100,000 about L280. + + + Capital. + +The capital which is required to be stated in the memorandum of +association, and which represents the amount which the company is +empowered to issue, is what is known as the nominal capital. This +nominal capital must be distinguished from the subscribed capital. +Subscribed capital is the aggregate amount agreed to be paid by those +who have taken shares in the company. Under the Companies Act 1900, +Companies Act 1908, s. 85, a "minimum subscription" may be fixed by the +articles, and if it is the directors cannot go to allotment on less: if +it is not, then the whole of the capital offered for subscription must +be subscribed. A company may increase its capital, consolidate it, +subdivide it into shares of smaller amount and convert paid-up shares +into stock. It may also, with the sanction of the court, otherwise +reorganize its capital (Companies Act 1907, s. 39; Companies +(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 45), and for this purpose modify its +Memorandum of Association; but a limited company cannot reduce its +capital either by direct or indirect means without the sanction of the +court. The inviolability of the capital is a condition of +incorporation--the price of the privilege of trading with limited +liability, and by no subterfuge will a company be allowed to evade this +cardinal rule of policy, either by paying dividends out of capital, or +buying its own shares, or returning money to shareholders. But the +prohibition against reduction means that the capital must not be reduced +by the voluntary act of the company, not that a company's capital must +be kept intact. It is embarked in the company's business, and it must +run the risks of such business. If part of it is lost there is no +obligation on the company to replace it and to cease paying dividends +until such lost capital is repaid. The company may in such a case write +off the lost capital and go on trading with the reduced amount. But for +this purpose the sanction of the court must be obtained by petition. + + + Shares. + +A share is an aliquot part of a company's nominal capital. The amount +may be anything from 1s. to L1000. The tendency of late years has been +to keep the denomination low, and so to appeal to a wider public. Shares +of L100, or even L10, are now the exception. The most common amount is +either L1 or L5. Shares are of various kinds--ordinary, preference, +deferred, founders' and management. Into what classes of shares the +original capital of the company shall be divided, what shall be the +amount of each class, and their respective rights, privileges and +priorities, are matters for the consideration of the promoters of the +company, and must depend on its special circumstances and requirements. + +A company may issue preference shares even if there is no mention of +them in the Memorandum of Association, and any preference or special +privilege so given to a class of shares cannot be interfered with on any +reorganization of capital except by a resolution passed by a majority of +shareholders of that class representing three-fourths of the capital of +that class (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 45). The preference +given may be as to dividends only, or as to dividends and capital. The +dividend, again, may be payable out of the year's profits only, or it +may be cumulative, that is, a deficiency in one year is to be made good +out of the profits of subsequent years. Prima facie, a preferential +dividend is cumulative. For issuing preference shares the question for +the directors is, what must be offered to attract investors. Preference +shareholders are given by the Companies Act 1907, s. 23; Companies +(Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 114, the right to inspect balance sheets. +Founders' shares--which originated with private companies--are shares +which usually take the whole or half the profits after payment of a +dividend of 7 or 10% to the ordinary shareholders. They are much less in +favour than they used to be. + + + Promoters and promotion. + +The machinery of company formation is generally set in motion by a +person known as a promoter. This is a term of business, not law. It +means, to use Chief Justice Cockburn's words, a person "who undertakes +to form a company with reference to a given project and to set it going, +and who takes the necessary steps to accomplish that purpose." Whether +what a person has done towards this end constitutes him a promoter or +not, is a question of fact; but once an affirmative conclusion is +reached, equity clothes such promoter with a fiduciary relation towards +the company which he has been instrumental in creating. This doctrine is +now well established, and its good sense is apparent when once the +position of the promoter towards the company is understood. +Promoters--to use Lord Cairns's language in _Erlanger_ v. _New Sombrero +Phosphate Co._, 3 A. C. 1236--"have in their hands the creation and +moulding of the company. They have the power of defining how and when +and in what shape and under what supervision it shall start into +existence and begin to act as a trading corporation." Such a control +over the destinies of the company involves correlative obligations +towards it, and one of these obligations is that the promoter must not +take advantage of the company's helplessness. A promoter may sell his +property to the company, but he must first see that the company is +furnished with an independent board of directors to protect its +interests and he must make full and fair disclosure of his interest in +order that the company may determine whether it will or will not +authorize its trustee or agent (for such the promoter in equity is) to +make a profit out of the sale. It is not a sufficient disclosure in such +a case for the promoter merely to refer in the prospectus to a contract +which, if read by the shareholders, would inform them of his interest. +They are under no obligation to inquire. It is for the promoter to bring +home notice, not constructive but actual, to the shareholders. + +When a company is promoted for acquiring property--to work a mine or +patent, for instance, or carry on a going business--the usual course is +for the promoter to frame a draft agreement for the sale of the property +to the company or to a trustee on its behalf. The memorandum and +articles of the intended company are then prepared, and an article is +inserted authorizing or requiring the directors to adopt the draft +agreement for sale. In pursuance of this authority the directors at the +first meeting after incorporation take the draft agreement into +consideration; and if they approve, adopt it. Where they do so in the +exercise of an honest and independent judgment, no exception can be +taken to the transaction; but where the directors happen to be nominees +of the promoter, perhaps qualified by him and acting in his interest, +the situation is obviously open to grave abuse. It is not too much, +indeed, to say that the fastening of an onerous or improvident contract +on a company at its start, by interested promoters acting in collusion +with the directors, has been the principal cause of the scandals +associated with company promotion. + +Concurrently with the adoption of the contract for the acquisition of +the property which is the company's _raison d'etre_, the directors have +to consider how they will best get the company's capital subscribed. +Down to the passing of the Companies Act 1900 the usual mode of doing +this was to issue a prospectus inviting the public to subscribe for +shares. After the act of 1900 the prospectus fell into general disuse. +In the year 1903, out of a total of 3596 companies which registered, +only 358 issued a prospectus, the directors preferring, it would seem, +to place the share capital through the medium of brokers, financial +agents and other intermediaries rather than run the risk of incurring, +personally, liability under the stringent provisions for disclosure +contained in the act (s. 10). Of late the prospectus has, however, +returned into favour. Under the act of 1907, incorporated in the +Consolidation Act 1908 (s. 82), a company, if it does not issue a +prospectus, must file a statement of all the material facts relating to +the company. + + + Prospectus. + +A prospectus is an invitation to the public to take shares on the faith +of the statements therein contained, and is thus the basis of the +agreement to take the shares; there therefore rests on those who are +responsible for its issue an obligation to act with the most perfect +good faith--_uberrima fides_--and this obligation has been repeatedly +emphasized by judges of the highest eminence. (See the observations of +Kindersley, V.C., in _New Brunswick Railway Co._ v. _Muggeridge_, 1860, +1 Dr. & Sm. 383, and of Lord Herschell in _Derry_ v. _Peek_, 1889, 14 A. +C. 376.) Directors must be perfectly candid with the public; they must +not only state what they do state with strict and scrupulous accuracy, +but they must not omit any fact which, if disclosed, would falsify the +statements made. This is the general obligation of directors when +issuing a prospectus; but on this general obligation the legislature has +engrafted special requirements. By the Companies Act 1867, it required +the dates and names of the parties to any contract entered into by the +company or its promoters or directors before the issue of the +prospectus, to be disclosed in the prospectus; otherwise the prospectus +was to be deemed fraudulent. This enactment was repealed by the +Companies Act 1900, but only in favour of more stringent provisions +incorporated in the Consolidation Act of 1908. Now, not only is every +prospectus to be signed and filed with the registrar of Joint Stock +Companies before it can be issued, but the prospectus must set forth a +long and elaborate series of particulars about the company--the +contents of the Memorandum of Association, with the names of the +signatories, the share qualification (if any) of the directors, the +minimum subscription on which the directors may proceed to allotment, +the shares and debentures issued otherwise than for cash, the names and +addresses of the vendors, the amount paid for underwriting the company, +the amount of preliminary expenses, of promotion money (if any), and the +interest (if any) of every director in the promotion or in property to +be acquired by the company. Neglect of this statutory duty of disclosure +will expose directors to personal liability. For false or fraudulent +statements--as distinguished from non-disclosure--in a prospectus +directors are liable in an action of deceit or under the Directors' +Liability Act 1890, now incorporated in the act of 1908. This act was +passed to meet the decision of the House of Lords in _Peek_ v. _Derry_ +(12 A. C. 337), that a director could not be made liable in an action of +deceit for an untrue statement in a prospectus, unless the plaintiff +could prove that the director had made the untrue statement +fraudulently. The Directors' Liability Act enacted in substance that +when once a prospectus is proved to contain a material statement of fact +which is untrue, the persons responsible for the prospectus are to be +liable to pay compensation to any one who has subscribed on the faith of +the prospectus, unless they can prove that they had reasonable ground to +believe, and did in fact believe, the statement to be true. Actions +under this act have been rare, but their rarity may be due to the act +having had the effect of making directors more careful in their +statements. + + + Allotment of shares. + +Before the passing of the Companies Act 1900, it was a matter for +directors' discretion on what subscription they should go to allotment. +They often did so on a scandalously inadequate subscription. To remedy +this abuse the Companies Act 1900 (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, +s. 85) provided that no allotment of any share capital offered to the +public for subscription is to be made unless the amount fixed by the +memorandum and articles of association and named in the prospectus as +"the minimum subscription" upon which the directors may proceed to +allotment has been subscribed and the application moneys--which must not +be less than 5% of the nominal amount of the share--paid to and received +by the company. If no minimum is fixed the whole amount of the share +capital offered for subscription must have been subscribed before the +directors can go to allotment. The "minimum subscription" is to be +reckoned exclusively of any amount payable otherwise than in cash. If +these conditions are not complied with within forty days the application +moneys must be returned. Any "waiver clause" or contract to waive +compliance with the section is to be void. + +An allotment of shares made in contravention of these provisions is +irregular and voidable at the option of the applicant for shares within +one month after the first or statutory meeting of the company (Companies +(Consolidation) Act, s. 86). Even when a company has got what under the +name of the "minimum subscription" the directors deem enough capital for +its enterprise, it cannot now commence business or make any binding +contract or exercise any borrowing powers until it has obtained a +certificate entitling it to commence business (Companies (Consolidation) +Act 1908, s. 87). To obtain this certificate the company must have +fulfilled certain statutory conditions, which are briefly these:-- + + (a) The company must have allotted shares to the amount of not less + than the "minimum subscription." + + (b) Every director must have paid up his shares in the same proportion + as the other members of the company. + + (c) A statutory declaration, made by the secretary of the company or + one of the directors, must have been filed with the registrar of joint + stock companies, that these conditions have been complied with. + +These conditions fulfilled, the company gets its certificate and starts +on its business career, carrying on its business through the agency of +directors, as to whose powers and duties see DIRECTORS. + + + Meetings. + +The Companies Act as consolidated in the act of 1908, and the +regulations under them, treat the directors of a company as the persons +in whom the management of the company's affairs is vested. But they also +contemplate the ultimate controlling power as residing in the +shareholders. A controlling power of this kind can only assert itself +through general meetings; and that it may have proper opportunities of +doing so, every company is required to hold a general meeting, commonly +called the statutory meeting, within--as fixed by the Companies Act +1900--three months from the date at which it is entitled to commence +business. This first statutory meeting acquired new significance under +the Companies Act of 1900 and marks an important stage in the early +history of a company. Seven days before it takes place the directors are +required to send round to the members a certified report informing them +of the general state of the company's affairs--the number of shares +allotted, cash received for them, and names and addresses of the +members, the amount of preliminary expenses, the particulars of any +contract to be submitted to the meeting, &c. Furnished with this report +the members come to the meeting in a position to discuss and exercise an +intelligent judgment upon the state and prospects of the company. +Besides the statutory meeting a company must hold one general meeting at +least in every calendar year, and not more than fifteen months after the +holding of the last preceding general meeting (Companies (Consolidation) +Act 1908, s. 64). This annual general meeting is usually called the +ordinary general meeting. Other meetings are extraordinary general +meetings. Notices convening a general meeting must inform the +shareholders of the particular business to be transacted; otherwise any +resolutions passed at the meeting will be invalidated. Voting is +generally regulated by the articles. Sometimes a vote is given to a +shareholder for every share held by him, but more often a scale is +adopted; for instance, one vote is given for every share up to ten, with +an additional vote for every five shares beyond the first ten shares up +to one hundred, and an additional vote for every ten shares beyond the +first hundred. In default of any regulations, every member has one vote +only. Sometimes preference shareholders are given no vote at all. A poll +may be demanded on any special resolution by three persons unless the +articles require five (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 69). + + + Agreement for shares. + +A contract to take shares is like any other contract. It is constituted +by offer, acceptance and communication of the acceptance to the offerer. +The offer in the case of shares is usually in the form of an application +in writing to the company, made in response to a prospectus, requesting +the company to allot the applicant a certain number of shares in the +undertaking on the terms of the prospectus, and agreeing to accept the +shares, or any smaller number, which may be allotted to the applicant. +An allottee is under the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 86, +entitled to rescind his contract where the allotment is irregular, e.g. +where the minimum subscription has not been obtained. When an +application is accepted the shares are allotted, and a letter of +allotment is posted to the applicant. Allotment is the usual, but not +the only, evidence of acceptance. As soon as the letter of allotment is +posted the contract is complete, even though the letter never reaches +the applicant. An application for shares can be withdrawn at any time +before acceptance. As soon as the contract is complete, it is the duty +of the company to enter the shareholder's name in the register of +members, and to issue to him a certificate under the seal of the +company, evidencing his title to the shares. + + + Register of members. + +The register of members plays an important part in the scheme of the +company system, under the Companies Act 1862. The principle of limited +liability having been once adopted by the legislature, justice required +not only that such limitation of liability should be brought home by +every possible means to persons dealing with the company, but also that +such persons should know as far as possible what was the limited capital +which was the sole fund available to satisfy their claims--what amount +had been called up, what remained uncalled, who were the persons to pay, +and in what amounts. These data might materially assist a person +dealing with the company in determining, whether he would give it credit +or not; in any case they are matters which the public had a right to +know. The legislature, recognizing this, has exacted as a condition of +the privilege of trading with limited liability that the company shall +keep a register with those particulars in it, which shall be accessible +to the public at all reasonable times. In order that this register may +be accurate, and correspond with the true liability of membership for +the time being, the court is empowered under the Companies Act 1862, and +the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. 32, to rectify it in a +summary way, on application by motion, by ordering the name of a person +to be entered on or removed therefrom. This power can be exercised by +the court, whether the dispute as to membership is one between the +company and an alleged member, or between one alleged member and +another, but the machinery of the section is not meant to be used to try +claims to rescind agreements to take shares. The proper proceeding in +such cases is by action. + + + Payment for shares. + +The same policy of guarding against an abuse of limited liability is +evinced in the Companies Act 1862, which required that shares in the +case of a limited company should be paid for in full. The legislature +has allowed such companies to trade with limited liability, but the +price of the privilege is that the limited capital to which alone the +creditors can look shall at least be a reality. It is therefore _ultra +vires_ for a limited company to issue its shares at a discount; but +there was nothing in the Companies Act 1862 which required that the +shares of a limited company, though they must be paid up in full, must +be paid up in cash. They might be paid "in meal or in malt," and it +accordingly became common for shares to be allotted in payment for +furniture, plate, advertisements or services. The result was that the +consideration was often illusory, shares being issued to be paid for in +some commodity which had no certain criterion of value. To remedy this +evil the legislature enacted in the Companies Act 1867, s. 25, that +every share in any company should be held subject to the payment of the +whole amount thereof in cash, unless otherwise determined by a contract +in writing filed with the registrar of joint stock companies at or +before the issue of the shares. This section not infrequently caused +hardship where shares had been honestly paid for in the equivalent of +cash, but owing to inadvertence no contract had been filed; and it was +repealed by the Companies Act 1900, and the old law restored. In +reverting to the earlier law, and allowing shares to be paid for in any +adequate consideration, the legislature has, however, exacted a +safeguard. It has required the company to file with the registrar of +joint stock companies a return stating, in the case of shares allotted +in whole or in part for a consideration other than cash, the number of +the shares so allotted, and the nature of the consideration--property, +services, &c.--for which they have been allotted. + +Though every share carries with it the liability to pay up the full +amount in cash or its equivalent, the liability is only to pay when and +if the directors call for it to be paid up. A call must fix the time and +place for payment, otherwise it is bad. + + + Rescission of agreement. + +When a person takes shares from a company on the faith of a prospectus +containing any false or fraudulent representations of fact material to +the contract, he is entitled to rescind the contract. The company cannot +keep a contract obtained by the misrepresentation or fraud of its +agents. This is an elementary principle of law. The misrepresentation, +for purposes of rescission, need not be fraudulent; it is sufficient +that it is false in fact: fraud or recklessness of assertion will give +the shareholder a further remedy by action of deceit, or under the +Directors' Liability Act 1890 (see _supra_); but, to entitle a +shareholder to rescind, he must show that he took the shares on the +faith or partly on the faith of the false representation: if not, it was +innocuous. A shareholder claiming to rescind must do so promptly. It is +too late to commence proceedings after a winding-up has begun. + + + + Transfer of shares. + +The shares or other interest of any member in a company are personal +estate and may be transferred in the manner provided by the regulations +of the company. As Lord Blackburn said, one of the chief objects when +joint stock companies were established was that the shares should be +capable of being easily transferred; but though every shareholder has a +prima facie right to transfer his shares, this right is subject to the +regulations of the company, and the company may and usually does by its +regulations require that a transfer shall receive the approval of the +board of directors before being registered,--the object being to secure +the company against having an insolvent or undesirable shareholder (the +nominee perhaps of a rival company) substituted for a solvent and +acceptable one. This power of the directors to refuse a transfer must +not, however, be exercised arbitrarily or capriciously. If it were, it +would amount to a confiscation of the shares. Directors, for instance, +cannot veto a transfer because they disapprove of the purpose for which +it is being made (e.g. to multiply votes), if there is no objection to +the transferee. + + + Blank transfers. + +It is a common and convenient practice to deposit share or stock +certificates with bankers and others to secure an advance. When this is +done the share or stock certificate is usually accompanied by a blank +transfer--that is, a transfer executed by the shareholder borrower, but +with a blank left for the name of the transferee. The handing over by +the borrower of such blank transfer signed by him is an implied +authority to the banker, or other pledgee, if the loan is not paid, to +fill in the blank with his name and get himself registered as the owner. + + + Dividends. + +A company can only pay dividends out of profits--which have been defined +as the "earnings of a concern after deducting the expenses of earning +them." To pay dividends out of capital is not only _ultra vires_ but +illegal, as constituting a return of capital to shareholders. Before +paying dividends, directors must take reasonable care to secure the +preparation of proper balance-sheets and estimates, and must exercise +their judgment as business men on the balance-sheets and estimates +submitted to them. If they fail to do this, and pay dividends out of +capital, they will not be held excused, unless the court should think +that they ought to be under the new discretion given to the court by ss. +32-34 of the Companies Act 1907 (Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, s. +279). The onus is on them to show that the dividends have been paid out +of profits. The court as a rule does not interfere with the discretion +of directors in the matter of paying dividends, unless they are doing +something _ultra vires_. + + + Auditors. + +By the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, ss. 112, 113, incorporating +provisions of the act of 1900 (ss. 21-23), as amended by the act of 1907 +(s. 19), the legislature has made strict provisions for the appointment +and remuneration of auditors by a company, and has defined their rights +and duties. Prior to the act of 1900 audit clauses, except in the case +of banking companies, were left to the articles of association and were +not matter of statutory obligation. + + + Private companies. + +The "private company" may best be described as an incorporated +partnership. The term is statutorily defined--for the first time--by s. +37 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 121 of the Consolidating Act of 1908). +Individual traders and trading firms have in recent years become much +more alive to the advantages offered by incorporation. They have +discovered that incorporation gives them the protection of limited +liability; that it prevents dislocation of a business by the death, +bankruptcy or lunacy of any of its members; that it enables a trader to +distribute among the members of his family interests in his business on +his decease through the medium of shares; that it facilitates borrowing +on debentures or debenture stock, and with a view to secure these +advantages thousands of traders have converted their businesses into +limited companies. To so large an extent has this been done that private +companies now form one-third of the whole number of companies +registered. + +A private company does not appeal to the public to subscribe its +capital, but in the main features of its constitution a private company +differs little from a public one. It is only in one or two particulars +that special provisions are requisite. It is generally desired for +instance: (1) to keep all the shares among the members--the partners or +the family--and not to let them get into the hands of the public; and +(2) to give the principal shareholders, the original partners, a +paramount control over the management. For this purpose it is usual to +provide specially in the articles that no share shall be transferred to +a stranger so long as any member is willing to purchase it at a fair +value; that a member desirous of transferring his shares shall give +notice to the company; that the company shall offer the shares to the +other members; that if within a certain period the company finds a +purchaser the shares shall be transferred to him, and that in case of +dispute the value shall be settled by arbitration or shall be such a sum +as the auditor certifies to be in his opinion the fair value. So in +regard to the management it is common to provide that the owner or +owners of the business shall be entitled to hold office as directors for +a term of years or for life, provided he or they continue to hold a +certain number of shares; or an owner is empowered to authorize his +executors or trustees whilst holding a certain number of shares to +appoint directors. Directors holding office on these special terms are +described as "governing" or "permanent" or "life" directors. This union +of interest and management in the same persons gives a private company +an unquestionable advantage over a public company. + +The so-called "one-man company" is merely a variety of the private +company. The fact that a company is formed by one man, with the aid of +six dummy subscribers, is not in itself (as was at one time supposed) a +fraud on the policy of the Companies Act, but it is occasionally used +for the purpose of committing a fraud, as where an insolvent trader +turns himself into a limited company in order to evade bankruptcy; and +it is to an abuse of this kind that the term "one-man company" owes its +opprobrious signification. + +_Companies Limited by Guarantee._--The second class of limited companies +are those limited by guarantee, as distinguished from those limited by +shares. In the company limited by guarantee each member agrees, in the +event of a winding-up, to contribute a certain amount to the +assets,--L5, L1 or 10s.--whatever may be the amount of the guarantee. +The peculiarity of this form of company is that the interests of the +members of a guarantee company are not expressed in any terms of nominal +money value like the shares of other companies, a form of constitution +designed, as stated by Lord Thring, the draftsman of the Companies Act +1862, to give a superior elasticity to the company. The property of the +company simply belongs to the company in certain fractional amounts. +This makes it convenient for clubs, syndicates and other associations +which do not require the interest of members to be expressed in terms of +cash. + +_Companies not for Gain._--Associations formed to promote commerce, art, +science, religion, charity or any other useful object may, with the +sanction of the Board of Trade, register under the Companies Act 1862, +with limited liability, but without the addition of the word "Limited," +upon proving to the board that it is the intention of the association to +apply the profits or income of the association in promoting its objects, +and not in payment of dividends to members (C.A. 1867, s. 23). This +licence was made revocable by s. 42 of the Companies Act 1907 +(Consolidation Act of 1908, ss. 19, 20). In lieu of the word "Company," +the association may adopt as part of its name some such title as +chamber, club, college, guild, institute or society. The power given by +this section has proved very useful, and many kinds of associations have +availed themselves of it, such as medical institutes, law societies, +nursing homes, chambers of commerce, clubs, high schools, +archaeological, horticultural and philosophical societies. The guarantee +form (see _supra_) is well adapted for associations of this kind +intended as they usually are to be supported by annual subscriptions. No +such association can hold more than two acres of land without the +licence of the Board of Trade. + +_Cost-Book Mining Companies._--These are in substance mining +partnerships. They derive their name from the fact of the partnership +agreement, the expenses and receipts of the mine, the names of the +shareholders, and any transfers of shares being entered in a +"cost-book." The affairs of the company are managed by an agent known as +a "purser," who from time to time makes calls on the members for the +expenses of working. A cost-book company is not bound to register under +the Companies Act 1862, but it may do so. + + + Winding-up. + + Voluntary. + +A company once incorporated under the Companies Act 1862 cannot be put +an end to except through the machinery of a winding-up, though the name +of a company which is commercially defunct may be struck off the +register of joint stock companies by the registrar (s. 242 of the +Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908, incorporating s. 7 of the act of +1880, as amended by s. 26 of the act of 1900). Winding-up is of two +kinds: (1) voluntary winding-up, either purely voluntary or carried on +under the supervision of the court; and (2) winding-up by the court. Of +these voluntary winding-up is by far the more common. Of the companies +that come to an end 90% are so wound up; and this is in accordance with +the policy of the legislature, evinced throughout the Companies Acts, +that shareholders should manage their own affairs--winding-up being one +of such affairs. A voluntary winding-up is carried out by the +shareholders passing a special resolution requiring the company to be +wound up voluntarily, or an extraordinary resolution (now defined by s. +182 of the Companies (Consolidation) Act 1908) to the effect that it has +been proved to the shareholders' satisfaction that the company cannot, +by reason of its liabilities, continue its business, and that it is +advisable to wind it up (C.A. 1862, s. 129). The resolution is generally +accompanied by the appointment of a liquidator. In a purely voluntary +winding-up there is a power given by s. 138 for the company or any +contributory to apply to the court in any matter arising in the +winding-up, but seemingly by an oversight of the legislature the same +right was not given to creditors. This was rectified by the Companies +Act 1900, s. 25. Section 27 of the Companies Act 1907 (s. 188 of the +Consolidation Act 1908) further provides for the liquidator under a +voluntary winding-up summoning a meeting of creditors to determine on +the choice of a liquidator. A creditor may also in a proper case obtain +an order for continuing the voluntary winding-up under the supervision +of the court. Such an order has the advantage of operating as a stay of +any actions or executions pending against the company. Except in these +respects, the winding-up remains a voluntary one. The court does not +actively intervene unless set in motion; but it requires the liquidator +to bring his accounts into chambers every quarter, so that it may be +informed how the liquidation is proceeding. When the affairs of the +company are fully wound up, the liquidator calls a meeting, lays his +accounts before the shareholders, and the company is dissolved by +operation of law three months after the date of the meeting (C.A. 1862, +ss. 142, 143). + + + By the court. + +Irrespective of voluntary winding-up, the legislature has defined +certain events in which a company formed under the Companies Act 1862 +may be wound up by the court. These events are: (1) when the company has +passed a resolution requiring the company to be wound up by the court; +(2) when the company does not commence its business within a year or +suspends it for a year; (3) when the members are reduced to less than +seven; (4) when the company is unable to pay its debts, and (5) whenever +the court is of opinion that it is just and equitable that the company +should be wound up (C.A. 1862, s. 79; s. 129 of the Consolidation Act +1908). A petition for the purpose may be presented either by a creditor, +a contributory or the company itself. Where the petition is presented by +a creditor who cannot obtain payment of his debt, a winding-up order is +_ex debito justitiae_ as against the company or shareholders, but not as +against the wishes of a majority of creditors. A winding-up order is not +to be refused because the company's assets are over mortgaged (Companies +Act 1907, s. 29; s. 141 of Consolidation Act 1908). + +The procedure on the making of a winding-up order is now governed by ss. +7, 8, 9 of the Winding-up Act 1890. The official receiver, as +liquidator pro tem., requires a statement of the affairs of the company +verified by the directors, and on it reports to the court as to the +causes of the company's failure and whether further inquiry is +desirable. If he further reports that in his opinion fraud has been +committed in the promotion or formation of the company by a particular +person, the court may order such person to be publicly examined. + +A liquidator's duty is to protect, collect, realize and distribute the +company's assets in due course of administration; and for this purpose +he advertises for creditors, makes calls on contributories, sues +debtors, takes misfeasance proceedings, if necessary, against directors +or promoters, and carries on the company's business--supposing the +goodwill to be an asset of value--with a view to selling it as a going +concern. He may be assisted, like a trustee in bankruptcy, by a +committee of inspection, composed of creditors and contributories. + +When the affairs of the company have been completely wound up the court +is, by s. 111 of the Companies Act 1862 (s. 127 of the act of 1908), to +make an order that the company be dissolved from the date of such order, +and the company is dissolved accordingly. A company which has been +dissolved may, where necessary, on petition to the court be reinstated +on the register (Companies Act 1880, s. 1). + + + Reconstruction. + +A large number of companies now wind up only to reconstruct. The reasons +for a reconstruction are generally either to raise fresh capital, or to +get rid of onerous preference shares, or to enlarge the scope of the +company's objects, which is otherwise impracticable owing to the +unalterability of the Memorandum of Association. Reconstructions are +carried out in one of three ways: (1) by sale and transfer of the +company's undertaking and assets to a new company, under a power to sell +contained in the company's memorandum of association, or (2) by sale and +transfer under s. 161 of the Companies Act 1862; or (3) by a scheme of +arrangement, sanctioned by the court, under the Joint Stock Companies +Arrangements Act 1870, as amended by the Companies Act 1907, s. 38 (C.A. +1908, s. 192). + +The first of these modes is now the most in favour. + + + Wrongs by a company. + +A company, though a mere legal abstraction, without mind or will, may, +it is now well settled, be liable in damages for malicious prosecution, +for nuisance, for fraud, for negligence, for trespass. The sense of the +thing is that the "company" is a _nomen collectivum_ for the members. It +is they who have put the directors there to carry on their business and +they must be answerable, collectively, for what is done negligently, +fraudulently or maliciously by their agents. + + +_2. Public Companies._ + +Besides trading companies there is another large class, exceeding in +their number even trading companies, which for shortness may be called +public companies, that is to say, companies constituted by special act +of parliament for the purpose of constructing and carrying on +undertakings of public utility, such as railways, canals, harbours, +docks, waterworks, gasworks, bridges, ferries, tramways, drainage, +fisheries or hospitals. The objects of such companies nearly always +involve an interference with the rights of private persons, often +necessitate the commission of a public nuisance, and require therefore +the sanction of the legislature. For this purpose a special act has to +be obtained. A private bill to authorize the undertaking is introduced +before one or other of the Houses of Parliament, considered in +committee, and either passed or rejected like a public bill. These +parliamentary (private bill) committees are tribunals acknowledging +certain rules of policy, taking evidence from witnesses and hearing +arguments from professional advocates. In many of these special acts, +dealing as they do with a similar subject matter, similar provisions are +required, and to avoid repetition and secure uniformity the legislature +has passed certain general acts--codes of law for particular subject +matters frequently recurring--which can be incorporated by reference in +any special act with the necessary modifications. Thus the Companies +Clauses Acts 1845, 1863 and 1869 supply the general powers and +provisions which are commonly inserted in the constitution of such +public company, regulating the distribution of capital, the transfer of +shares, payment of calls, borrowing and general meetings. The Lands +Clauses Consolidation Act 1845 supplies the machinery for the compulsory +taking of land incident to most undertakings of a public character. The +Railway Clauses Consolidation Act, the Waterworks Clauses Acts 1847 and +1863, the Gasworks Clauses Act 1847, and the Electric Lighting (Clauses) +Act 1899 are other codes of law designed for incorporation in special +acts creating companies for the construction of railways or the supply +of water, gas or electric light. A distinguishing feature of these +companies is that, being sanctioned by the legislature for undertakings +of public utility, the policy of the law will not allow them to be +broken up or destroyed by creditors. It gives creditors only a +charge--by a receiver--on the earnings of the undertaking--the "fruit of +the tree." + + +_3. British Companies Abroad._ + +The status of British companies trading abroad, so far as Germany, +France, Belgium, Greece, Italy and Spain are concerned, is expressly +recognized in a series of conventions entered into between those +countries and Great Britain. The value of the convention with France has +been much impaired by the interpretation put upon the words of it by the +court of cassation in _La Construction Lim_. According to this case the +nationality of a company depends not on its place of origin but on where +it has its centre of affairs, its principal establishment. The result is +that a company registered in Britain under the Companies Acts may be +transmuted by a French court into a French company in direct violation +of the convention. The convention with Germany, which is in similar +terms to that with France, has also been narrowed by judicial +construction. The "power of exercising all their rights" given by the +convention to British companies has been construed to mean that a +British company will be recognized as a corporate body in Germany, but +it does not follow from the terms of the convention that any British +company may as a matter of course establish a branch and carry on +business within the German empire. It must still get permission to +trade, permission to hold land. It must register itself in the communal +register. It must pay stamp duties. + +Foreign companies may found an affiliated company or have a branch +establishment in Italy, provided they publish their memorandum and +articles and the names of their directors. Where no convention exists +the status of an immigrant corporation depends upon international +comity, which allows foreign corporations, as it does foreign persons, +to sue, to make contracts and hold real estate, in the same way as +domestic corporations or citizens; provided the stranger corporation +does not offend against the policy of the state in which it seeks to +trade. + +There is, however, a growing practice now for states to impose by +express legislation conditions on foreign corporations coming to do +business within their territory. These conditions are mainly directed to +securing that the immigrant corporation shall make known its +constitution and shall be amenable to the jurisdiction of the courts of +the country where it trades. Thus, by the law of Western Australia--to +take a typical instance,--a foreign company is not to commence or carry +on business until it empowers some person to act as its attorney to sue +and be sued and has an office or place of business within the state, to +be approved of by the registrar, where all legal proceedings may be +served. New Zealand, Manitoba and many other states have adopted similar +precautions; and by the Companies Act 1907, s. 35; C.A. 1908, s. 274 +foreign companies having a place of business within the United Kingdom +are required to file with the registrar of joint stock companies a copy +of the company's charter or memorandum and articles, a list of +directors, and the names and addresses of one or more persons authorized +to accept service of process. Special conditions of a more stringent +nature are often imposed in the case of particular classes of companies +of a quasi-public character, such as banking companies, building +societies or insurance companies. Regulations of this kind are +perfectly legitimate and necessary. They are in truth only an +application of the law of vagrancy to corporations, and have their +analogy in the restrictions now generally imposed by states on the +immigration of aliens. + + +_4. Company Law outside the United Kingdom._ + +_Australia._--Company law in Australia and in New Zealand follows very +closely the lines of company legislation in the United Kingdom. + +In New South Wales the law is consolidated by Act No. 40 of 1899, +amended 1900 and 1906. In Victoria the law is contained in the Acts Nos. +1074 of 1890 and 355 of 1896; in Queensland in a series of Acts--No. 4 +of 1863, No. 18 of 1899, No. 10 of 1891, No. 24 of 1892, No. 3 of 1893, +No. 19 of 1894 and No. 21 of 1896; in South Australia in No. 56 of 1892, +amended by No. 576 of 1893; in Tasmania by Nos. 22 of 1869, 19 of 1895 +and 3 of 1896; in Western Australia by No. 8 of 1893, amended 1897 and +1898. + +In New Zealand the law was consolidated in 1903. + +_Canada._--The act governing joint stock companies in Canada is the +Companies Act 1902, amended 1904. It empowers the secretary of state by +letters patent to grant a charter to any number of persons not less than +five for any objects other than railway or telegraph lines, banking or +insurance. + +Applicants must file an application--analogous to the British memorandum +of association--showing certain particulars--the purposes of +incorporation, the place of business, the amount of the capital stock, +the number of shares and the amount of each, the names and addresses of +the applicants, the amount of stock taken by each and the amount and +mode of payment. Other provisions may also be embodied. A company cannot +commence business until 10% of its authorized capital has been +subscribed and paid for. The word "limited" as part of the company's +name is--as in the case of British companies--to be conspicuously +exhibited and used in all documents. The directors are not to be less +than three or more than fifteen, and must be holders of stock. Directors +are jointly and severally liable to the clerks, labourers and servants +of the company for six months' wages. Borrowing powers may be taken by a +vote of holders of two-thirds in value of the subscribed stock of the +company. + +_South Africa._--In Cape Colony the law is contained in No. 25 of 1892, +amended 1895 and 1906; it follows English law. + +In Natal the law is contained in Nos. 10 of 1864, 18 of 1865, 19 of 1893 +and 3 of 1896. + +In the Orange Free State in Law Ch. 100 and Nos. 2 and 4 of 1892. + +For the Transvaal see Nos. 5 of 1874, 6 of 1874, 1 of 1894 and 30 of +1904. + +In Rhodesia companies are regulated by the Companies Ordinance 1895--a +combination of the Cape Companies Act 1892, and the British Companies +Acts 1862-1890. + +_France._--There are two kinds of limited liability companies in +France--the _societe en commandite_ and the _societe anonyme_. The +_societe en commandite_ corresponds in some respects to the British +private company or limited partnership, but with this difference, that +in the _societe en commandite_ the managing partner is under unlimited +liability of creditors; the sleeping partner's liability is limited to +the amount of his capital. The French equivalent of the English ordinary +joint stock company is the _societe anonyme_. The minimum number of +subscribers necessary to form such a company is (as in the case of a +British trading company) seven, but, unlike a British company, the +_societe anonyme_ is not legally constituted unless the whole capital is +subscribed and one-fourth of each share paid up. Another precaution +unknown to British practice is that assets, not in money, brought into a +company are subject to verification of value by a general meeting. The +minimum nominal value of shares, where the company's capital is less +than 200,000 fcs., is 25 fcs.; where the capital is more than 200,000 +fcs., 100 fcs. The _societe_ is governed by articles which appoint the +directors, and there is one general meeting held every year. A _societe +anonyme_ may, since 1902, issue preference shares. The doctrine that a +corporation never dies has no place in French law. A _societe anonyme_ +may come to an end. + +_Germany._--In Germany the class of companies most nearly corresponding +to English companies limited by shares are "share companies" +(_Aktiengesellschaften_) and "commandite companies" with a share capital +(_Kommanditgesellschaften auf Aktien_). Since 1892 a new form of +association has come into existence known by the name of partnership +with limited liability (_Gesellschaften mit beschrankter Haftung_), +which has largely superseded the commandite company. + +[Sidenote: The "share company."] + +In forming this paid-up company certain preliminary steps have to be +taken before registration:-- + + 1. The articles must be agreed on; + + 2. A managing board and a board of supervision must be appointed; + + 3. The whole of the share capital must be allotted and 25%, at least, + must be paid up in coin or legal tender notes; + + 4. Reports on the formation of the company must be made by certain + persons; and + + 5. Certain documents must be filed in the registry. + +In all cases where shares are issued for any consideration, not being +payment in full in cash, or in which contracts for the purchase of +property have been entered into, the promoters must sign a declaration +in which they must state on what grounds the prices agreed to be given +for such property appear to be justified. In the great majority of cases +shares are issued in certificates to bearer. The amount of such a +share--to bearer--must as a general rule be not less than L50, but +registered shares of L10 may be issued. Balance sheets have to be +published periodically. + + + Limited partnerships. + +Partnerships with limited liability may be formed by two or more +members. The articles of partnership must be signed by all the members, +and must contain particulars as to the amount of the capital and of the +individual shares. If the liability on any shares is not to be satisfied +in cash this also must be stated. The capital of a limited partnership +must amount to L1000. Shares must be registered. Insolvent companies in +Germany are subject to the bankruptcy law in the same manner as natural +persons. + +For further information see a memorandum on German companies printed in +the appendix to the _Report of Lord Davey's Committee on the Amendment +of Company Law_, pp. 13-26. + +_Italy._--Commercial companies in Italy are of three kinds:--(1) General +partnerships, in which the members are liable for all debts incurred; +(2) companies in _accomodita_, in which some members are liable to an +unlimited extent and others within certain limits; (3) joint stock +companies, in which the liability is limited to the capital of the +company and no member is liable beyond the amount of his holding. None +of these companies needs authority from the government for its +constitution; all that is needed is a written agreement brought before +the public in the ways indicated in the code (Art. 90 et seq.). In joint +stock companies the trustees (directors) must give security. They are +appointed by a general meeting for a period not exceeding four years +(Art. 124). The company is not constituted until the whole of its +capital is subscribed, and until three-tenths of the capital at least +has been actually paid up. When a company's capital is diminished by +one-third, the trustees must call the members together and consult as to +what is to be done. + +An ordinary meeting is held once at least every year. Shares may not be +made payable "to bearer" until fully paid up (Art. 166). A company may +issue debentures if this is agreed to by a certain majority (Art. 172). +One-twentieth, at least, of the dividends of the company must be added +to the reserve fund, until this has become equal to one-fifth of the +company's capital (Art. 182). Three or five assessors--members or +non-members--keep watch over the way in which the company is carried on. + +_United States._--In the United States the right to create corporations +is a sovereign right, and as such is exercisable by the several states +of the Union. The law of private corporations must therefore be sought +in some fifty collections or groups of statutory and case-made rules. +These collections or groups of rules differ in many cases essentially +from each other. The acts regulating business corporations generally +provide that the persons proposing to form a corporation shall sign and +acknowledge an instrument called the articles of association, setting +forth the name of the corporation, the object for which it is to be +formed, the principal place of business, the amount of its capital +stock, and the number of shares into which it is to be divided, and the +duration of its corporate existence. These articles are filed in the +office of the secretary of state or in designated courts of record, and +a certificate is then issued reciting that the provisions of the act +have been complied with, and thereupon the incorporators are vested with +corporate existence and the general powers incident thereto. This +certificate is the charter of the corporation. The power to make bylaws +is usually vested in the stockholders, but it may be conferred by the +certificate on the directors. Stockholders remain liable until their +subscriptions are fully paid. Nothing but money is considered payment of +capital stock except where property is purchased. Directors must usually +be stockholders. + +The right of a state to forfeit a corporation's charter for misuser or +non-user of its franchises is an implied term of the grant of +incorporation. Corporations are liable for every wrong they commit, and +in such cases cannot set up by way of protection the doctrine of _ultra +vires_. + + See for authorities _Commentaries on the Law of Private Corporations_, + by Seymour D. Thompson, LL.D., 6 vols.; Beach on _Corporations_, and + the _American Encyclopaedia of Law_. (E. MA.) + + + + +COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, a term employed to designate the study of the +structure of man as compared with that of lower animals, and sometimes +the study of lower animals in contra-distinction to human anatomy; the +term is now falling into desuetude, and lingers practically only in the +titles of books or in the designation of university chairs. The change +in terminology is chiefly the result of modern conceptions of zoology. +From the point of view of structure, man is one of the animals; all +investigations into anatomical structure must be comparative, and in +this work the subject is so treated throughout. See ANATOMY and ZOOLOGY. + + + + +COMPARETTI, DOMENICO (1835- ), Italian scholar, was born at Rome on the +27th of June 1835. He studied at the university of Rome, took his degree +in 1855 in natural science and mathematics, and entered his uncle's +pharmacy as assistant. His scanty leisure was, however, given to study. +He learned Greek by himself, and gained facility in the modern language +by conversing with the Greek students at the university. In spite of all +disadvantages, he not only mastered the language, but became one of the +chief classical scholars of Italy. In 1857 he published, in the +_Rheinisches Museum_, a translation of some recently discovered +fragments of Hypereides, with a dissertation on that orator. This was +followed by a notice of the annalist Granius Licinianus, and one on the +oration of Hypereides on the Lamian War. In 1859 he was appointed +professor of Greek at Pisa on the recommendation of the duke of +Sermoneta. A few years later he was called to a similar post at +Florence, remaining emeritus professor at Pisa also. He subsequently +took up his residence in Rome as lecturer on Greek antiquities and +greatly interested himself in the Forum excavations. He was a member of +the governing bodies of the academies of Milan, Venice, Naples and +Turin. The list of his writings is long and varied. Of his works in +classical literature, the best known are an edition of the _Euxenippus_ +of Hypereides, and monographs on Pindar and Sappho. He also edited the +great inscription which contains a collection of the municipal laws of +Gortyn in Crete, discovered on the site of the ancient city. In the +_Kalewala and the Traditional Poetry of the Finns_ (English translation +by I. M. Anderton, 1898) he discusses the national epic of Finland and +its heroic songs, with a view to solving the problem whether an epic +could be composed by the interweaving of such national songs. He comes +to a negative conclusion, and applies this reasoning to the Homeric +problem. He treats this question again in a treatise on the so-called +Peisistratean edition of Homer (_La Commissione omerica di Pisistrato_, +1881). His _Researches concerning the Book of Sindib[=a]d_ have been +translated in the _Proceedings_ of the Folk-Lore Society. His _Vergil +in the Middle Ages_ (translated into English by E. F. Benecke, 1895) +traces the strange vicissitudes by which the great Augustan poet became +successively grammatical fetich, Christian prophet and wizard. Together +with Professor Alessandro d'Ancona, Comparetti edited a collection of +Italian national songs and stories (9 vols., Turin, 1870-1891), many of +which had been collected and written down by himself for the first time. + + + + +COMPASS (Fr. _compas_, ultimately from Lat. _cum_, with, and _passus_, +step), a term of which the evolution of the various meanings is obscure; +the general sense is "measure" or "measurement," and the word is used +thus in various derived meanings--area, boundary, circuit. It is also +more particularly applied to a mathematical instrument ("pair of +compasses") for measuring or for describing a circle, and to the +mariner's compass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Compass Card.] + +The mariner's compass, with which this article is concerned, is an +instrument by means of which the directive force of that great magnet, +the Earth, upon a freely-suspended needle, is utilized for a purpose +essential to navigation. The needle is so mounted that it only moves +freely in the horizontal plane, and therefore the horizontal component +of the earth's force alone directs it. The direction assumed by the +needle is not generally towards the geographical north, but diverges +towards the east or west of it, making a horizontal angle with the true +meridian, called the magnetic variation or declination; amongst mariners +this angle is known as the variation of the compass. In the usual +navigable waters of the world the variation alters from 30 deg. to the +east to 45 deg. to the west of the geographical meridian, being westerly +in the Atlantic and Indian oceans, easterly in the Pacific. The vertical +plane passing through the longitudinal axis of such a needle is known as +the magnetic meridian. Following the first chart of lines of equal +variation compiled by Edmund Halley in 1700, charts of similar type have +been published from time to time embodying recent observations and +corrected for the secular change, thus providing seamen with values of +the variation accurate to about 30' of arc. Possessing these data, it is +easy to ascertain by observation the effects of the iron in a ship in +disturbing the compass, and it will be found for the most part in every +vessel that the needle is deflected from the magnetic meridian by a +horizontal angle called the deviation of the compass; in some directions +of the ship's head adding to the known variation of the place, in other +directions subtracting from it. Local magnetic disturbance of the needle +due to magnetic rocks is observed on land in all parts of the world, and +in certain places extends to the land under the sea, affecting the +compasses on board the ships passing over it. The general direction of +these disturbances in the northern hemisphere is an attraction of the +north-seeking end of the needle; in the southern hemisphere, its +repulsion. The approaches to Cossack, North Australia; Cape St Francis, +Labrador; the coasts of Madagascar and Iceland, are remarkable for such +disturbance of the compass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Admiralty Compass (Frame and Needles).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Thomson's (Lord Kelvin's) Compass (Frame and +Needles).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Section of Thomson's Compass Bowl. C, aluminium +cap with sapphire centre; N, N', needles; P, pivot stem with pivot.] + +The compass as we know it is the result of the necessities of +navigation, which have increased from century to century. It consists of +five principal parts--the card, the needles, the bowl, a jewelled cap +and the pivot. The card or "fly," formerly made of cardboard, now +consists of a disk either of mica covered with paper or of paper alone, +but in all cases the card is divided into points and degrees as shown in +fig. 1. The outer margin is divided into degrees with 0 deg. at north +and south, and 90 deg. at east and west; the 32 points with half and +quarter points are seen immediately within the degrees. The north point +is marked with _fleur de lis_, and the principal points, N.E., E., S.E., +&c., with their respective names, whilst the intermediate points in the +figure have also their names engraved for present information. The arc +contained between any two points is 11 deg. 15'. The mica card is +generally mounted on a brass framework, F F, with a brass cap, C, fitted +with a sapphire centre and carrying four magnetized needles, N, N, N, N, +as in fig. 2. The more modern form of card consists of a broad ring of +paper marked with degrees and points, as in fig. 1, attached to a frame +like that in fig. 3, where an outer aluminium ring, A A, is connected by +32 radial silk threads to a central disk of aluminium, in the centre of +which is a round hole designed to receive an aluminium cap with a highly +polished sapphire centre worked to the form of an open cone. To direct +the card eight short light needles, N N, are suspended by silk threads +from the outer ring. The magnetic axis of any system of needles must +exactly coincide with the axis passing through the north and south +points of the card. Single needles are never used, two being the least +number, and these so arranged that the moment of inertia about every +diameter of the card shall be the same. The combination of card, needles +and cap is generally termed "the card"; on the continent of Europe it is +called the "rose." The section of a compass bowl in fig. 4 shows the +mounting of a Thomson card on its pivot, which in common with the pivots +of most other compasses is made of brass, tipped with osmium-iridium, +which although very hard can be sharply pointed and does not corrode. +Fig. 4 shows the general arrangement of mounting all compass cards in +the bowl. In fig. 5 another form of compass called a liquid or spirit +compass is shown partly in section. The card nearly floats in a bowl +filled with distilled water, to which 35% of alcohol is added to prevent +freezing; the bowl is hermetically sealed with pure india-rubber, and a +corrugated expansion chamber is attached to the bottom to allow for the +expansion and contraction of the liquid. The card is a mica disk, either +painted as in fig. 1, or covered with linen upon which the degrees and +points are printed, the needles being enclosed in brass. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Liquid Compass. + + A, Bowl, partly in section. N, Hole for filling, with screw plug. + B, Expansion chamber. O, O, Magnetic needles. + D, The glass. P, Buoyant chamber. + G, Gimbal ring. Q, Iridium pivot. + L, Nut to expand chamber when R, Sapphire cap. + filling bowl. S, Mica card.] + M, Screw connector. + +Great steadiness of card under severe shocks and vibrations, combined +with a minimum of friction in the cap and pivot, is obtained with this +compass. All compasses are fitted with a gimbal ring to keep the bowl +and card level under every circumstance of a ship's motion in a seaway, +the ring being connected with the binnacle or pedestal by means of +journals or knife edges. On the inside of every compass bowl a vertical +black line is drawn, called the "lubber's point," and it is imperative +that when the compass is placed in the binnacle the line joining the +pivot and the lubber's point be parallel to the keel of the vessel. +Thus, when a degree on the card is observed opposite the lubber's point, +the angle between the direction in which the ship is steering and the +north point of the compass or course is at once seen; and if the +magnetic variation and the disturbing effects of the ship's iron are +known, the desired angle between the ship's course and the geographical +meridian can be computed. In every ship a position is selected for the +navigating or standard compass as free from neighbouring iron as +possible, and by this compass all courses are shaped and bearings taken. +It is also provided with an azimuth circle or mirror and a shadow pin or +style placed in the centre of the glass cover, by either of which the +variable angle between the compass north and true north, called the +"total error," or variation and deviation combined, can be observed. The +binnacles or pedestals for compasses are generally constructed of wood +about 45 in. high, and fitted to receive and alter at pleasure the +several magnet and soft iron correctors. They are also fitted with +different forms of suspension in which the compass is mounted to obviate +the mechanical disturbance of the card caused by the vibration of the +hull in ships driven by powerful engines. + +The effects of the iron and steel used in the construction of ships upon +the compass occupied the attention of the ablest physicists of the 19th +century, with results which enable navigators to conduct their ships +with perfect safety. The hull of an iron or steel ship is a magnet, and +the distribution of its magnetism depends upon the direction of the +ship's head when building, this result being produced by induction from +the earth's magnetism, developed and impressed by the hammering of the +plates and frames during the process of building. The disturbance of the +compass by the magnetism of the hull is generally modified, sometimes +favourably, more often unfavourably, by the magnetized fittings of the +ship, such as masts, conning towers, deck houses, engines and boilers. +Thus in every ship the compass needle is more or less subject to +deviation differing in amount and direction for every azimuth of the +ship's head. This was first demonstrated by Commander Matthew Flinders +by experiments made in H.M.S. "Investigator" in 1800-1803, and in 1810 +led that officer to introduce the practice of placing the ship's head on +each point of the compass, and noting the amount of deviation whether to +the east or west of the magnetic north, a process which is in full +exercise at the present day, and is called "swinging ship." When +speaking of the magnetic properties of iron it is usual to adopt the +terms "soft" and "hard." Soft iron is iron which becomes instantly +magnetized by induction when exposed to any magnetic force, but has no +power of retaining its magnetism. Hard iron is less susceptible of being +magnetized, but when once magnetized it retains its magnetism +permanently. The term "iron" used in these pages includes the "steel" +now commonly employed in shipbuilding. If an iron ship be swung when +upright for deviation, and the mean horizontal and vertical magnetic +forces at the compass positions be also observed in different parts of +the world, mathematical analysis shows that the deviations are caused +partly by the permanent magnetism of hard iron, partly by the transient +induced magnetism of soft iron both horizontal and vertical, and in a +lesser degree by iron which is neither magnetically hard nor soft, but +which becomes magnetized in the same manner as hard iron, though it +gradually loses its magnetism on change of conditions, as, for example, +in the case of a ship, repaired and hammered in dock, steaming in an +opposite direction at sea. This latter cause of deviation is called +sub-permanent magnetism. The horizontal directive force on the needle on +board is nearly always less than on land, sometimes much less, whilst in +armour-plated ships it ranges from .8 to .2 when the directive force on +land = 1.0. If the ship be inclined to starboard or to port additional +deviation will be observed, reaching a maximum on north and south +points, decreasing to zero on the east and west points. Each ship has +its own magnetic character, but there are certain conditions which are +common to vessels of the same type. + +Instead of observing the deviation solely for the purposes of correcting +the indications of the compass when disturbed by the iron of the ship, +the practice is to subject all deviations to mathematical analysis with +a view to their mechanical correction. The whole of the deviations when +the ship is upright may be expressed nearly by five co-efficients, A, B, +C, D, E. Of these A is a deviation constant in amount for every +direction of the ship's head. B has reference to horizontal forces +acting in a longitudinal direction in the ship, and caused partly by the +permanent magnetism of hard iron, partly by vertical induction in +vertical soft iron either before or abaft the compass. C has reference +to forces acting in a transverse direction, and caused by hard iron. D +is due to transient induction in horizontal soft iron, the direction of +which passes continuously under or over the compass. E is due to +transient induction in horizontal soft iron unsymmetrically placed with +regard to the compass. When data of this character have been obtained +the compass deviations may be mechanically corrected to within +1 deg.--always adhering to the principal that "like cures like." Thus the +part of B caused by the permanent magnetism of hard iron must be +corrected by permanent magnets horizontally placed in a fore and aft +direction; the other part caused by vertical soft iron by means of bars +of vertical soft iron, called Flinders bars, before or abaft the +compass. C is compensated by permanent magnets athwart-ships and +horizontal; D by masses of soft iron on both sides of the compass, and +generally in the form of cast-iron spheres, with their centres in the +same horizontal plane as the needles; E is usually too small to require +correction; A is fortunately rarely of any value, as it cannot be +corrected. The deviation observed when the ship inclines to either side +is due--(1) to hard iron acting vertically upwards or downwards; (2) to +vertical soft iron immediately below the compass; (3) to vertical +induction in horizontal soft iron when inclined. To compensate (1) +vertical magnets are used; (3) is partly corrected by the soft iron +correctors of D; (2) and the remaining part of (3) cannot be +conveniently corrected for more than one geographical position at a +time. Although a compass may thus be made practically correct for a +given time and place, the magnetism of the ship is liable to changes on +changing her geographical position, and especially so when steaming at +right angles or nearly so to the magnetic meridian, for then +sub-permanent magnetism is developed in the hull. Some vessels are more +liable to become sub-permanently magnetized than others, and as no +corrector has been found for this source of deviation the navigator must +determine its amount by observation. Hence, however carefully a compass +may be placed and subsequently compensated, the mariner has no safety +without constantly observing the bearings of the sun, stars or distant +terrestrial objects, to ascertain its deviation. The results of these +observations are entered in a compass journal for future reference when +fog or darkness prevails. + +Every compass and corrector supplied to the ships of the British navy is +previously examined in detail at the Compass Observatory established by +the admiralty at Deptford. A trained observer acting under the +superintendent of compasses is charged with this important work. The +superintendent, who is a naval officer, has to investigate the magnetic +character of the ships, to point out the most suitable positions for the +compasses when a ship is designed, and subsequently to keep himself +informed of their behaviour from the time of the ship's first trial. A +museum containing compasses of various types invented during the 19th +century is attached to the Compass Observatory at Deptford. + + The mariner's compass during the early part of the 19th century was + still a very imperfect instrument, although numerous inventors had + tried to improve it. In 1837 the Admiralty Compass Committee was + appointed to make a scientific investigation of the subject, and + propose a form of compass suitable alike for azimuth and steering + purposes. The committee reported in July 1840, and after minor + improvements by the makers the admiralty compass, the card of which is + shown in figs. 1 and 2, was adopted by the government. Until 1876, + when Sir William Thomson introduced his patent compass, this compass + was not only the regulation compass of the British navy, but was + largely used in other countries in the same or a modified form. The + introduction of powerful engines causing serious vibration to compass + cards of the admiralty type, coupled with the prevailing desire for + larger cards, the deviation of which could also be more conveniently + compensated, led to the gradual introduction of the Thomson compass. + Several important points were gained in the latter: the quadrantal + deviation could be finally corrected for all latitudes; frictional + error at the cap and pivot was reduced to a minimum, the average + weight of the card being 200 grains; the long free vibrational period + of the card was found to be favourable to its steadiness when the + vessel was rolling. The first liquid compass used in England was + invented by Francis Crow, of Faversham, in 1813. It is said that the + idea of a liquid compass was suggested to Crow by the experience of + the captain of a coasting vessel whose compass card was oscillating + wildly until a sea broke on board filling the compass bowl, when the + card became steady. Subsequent improvements were made by E. J. Dent, + and especially by E. S. Ritchie, of Boston, Massachusetts. In 1888 the + form of liquid compass (fig. 5) now solely used in torpedo boats and + torpedo boat destroyers was introduced. It has also proved to be the + most trustworthy compass under the shock of heavy gun fire at present + available. The deflector is an instrument designed to enable an + observer to reduce the deviations of the compass to an amount not + exceeding 2 deg. during fogs, or at any time when bearings of distant + objects are not available. It is certain that if the directive forces + on the north, east, south and west points of a compass are equal, + there can be no deviation. With the deflector any inequality in the + directive force can be detected, and hence the power of equalizing the + forces by the usual soft iron and magnet correctors. Several kinds of + deflector have been invented, that of Lord Kelvin (Sir William + Thomson) being the simplest, but Dr Waghorn's is also very effective. + The use of the deflector is generally confined to experts. + + _The Magnetism of Ships._--In 1814 Flinders first showed (see + Flinders's _Voyage_, vol. ii. appx. ii.) that the abnormal values of + the variation observed in the wood-built ships of his day was due to + deviation of the compass caused by the iron in the ship; that the + deviation was zero when the ship's head was near the north and south + points; that it attained its maximum on the east and west points, and + varied as the sine of the azimuth of the ship's head reckoned from the + zero points. He also described a method of correcting deviation by + means of a bar of vertical iron so placed as to correct the deviation + nearly in all latitudes. This bar, now known as a "Flinders bar," is + still in general use. In 1820 Dr T. Young (see Brande's _Quarterly + Journal_, 1820) investigated mathematically the magnetism of ships. In + 1824 Professor Peter Barlow (1776-1862) introduced his correcting + plate of _soft_ iron. Trials in certain ships showed that their + magnetism consisted partly of hard iron, and the use of the plate was + abandoned. In 1835 Captain E. J. Johnson, R.N., showed from + experiments in the iron steamship "Garry Owen" that the vessel acted + on an external compass as a magnet. In 1838 Sir G. B. Airy + magnetically examined the iron steamship "Rainbow" at Deptford, and + from his mathematical investigations (see _Phil. Trans._, 1839) + deduced his method of correcting the compass by permanent magnets and + soft iron, giving practical rules for the same in 1840. Airy's and + Flinders's correctors form the basis of all compass correctors to this + day. In 1838 S. D. Poisson published his _Memoir on the Deviations of + the Compass caused by the Iron in a Vessel_. In this he gave equations + resulting from the hypothesis that the magnetism of a ship is partly + due to the permanent magnetism of hard iron and partly to the + transient induced magnetism of soft iron; that the latter is + proportional to the intensity of the inducing force, and that the + length of the needle is infinitesimally small compared to the distance + of the surrounding iron. From Poisson's equations Archibald Smith + deduced the formulae given in the _Admiralty Manual for Deviations of + the Compass_ (1st ed., 1862), a work which has formed the basis of + numerous other manuals since published in Great Britain and other + countries. In view of the serious difficulties connected with the + inclining of every ship, Smith's formulae for ascertaining and + providing for the correction of the heeling error with the ship + upright continue to be of great value to safe navigation. In 1855 the + Liverpool Compass Committee began its work of investigating the + magnetism of ships of the mercantile marine, resulting in three + reports to the Board of Trade, all of great value, the last being + presented in 1861. + + See also MAGNETISM, and NAVIGATION; articles on Magnetism of Ships and + Deviations of the Compass, _Phil. Trans._, 1839-1883, _Journal United + Service Inst._, 1859-1889, _Trans. Inst. Nav. Archit._, + 1860-1861-1862, _Report of Brit. Assoc._, 1862, _London Quarterly + Rev._, 1865; also _Admiralty Manual_, edit. 1862-1863-1869-1893-1900; + and Towson's _Practical Information on Deviations of the Compass_ + (1886). (E. W. C.) + + +_History of the Mariner's Compass._ + +The discovery that a lodestone, or a piece of iron which has been +touched by a lodestone, will direct itself to point in a north and south +position, and the application of that discovery to direct the navigation +of ships, have been attributed to various origins. The Chinese, the +Arabs, the Greeks, the Etruscans, the Finns and the Italians have all +been claimed as originators of the compass. There is now little doubt +that the claim formerly advanced in favour of the Chinese is +ill-founded. In Chinese history we are told how, in the sixty-fourth +year of the reign of Hwang-ti (2634 B.C.), the emperor Hiuan-yuan, or +Hwang-ti, attacked one Tchi-yeou, on the plains of Tchou-lou, and +finding his army embarrassed by a thick fog raised by the enemy, +constructed a chariot (Tchi-nan) for indicating the south, so as to +distinguish the four cardinal points, and was thus enabled to pursue +Tchi-yeou, and take him prisoner. (Julius Klaproth, _Lettre a M. le +Baron Humboldt sur l'invention de la boussole_, Paris, 1834. See also +Mailla, _Histoire generale de la Chine_, tom. i. p. 316, Paris, 1777.) +But, as other versions of the story show, this account is purely +mythical. For the south-pointing chariots are recorded to have been +first devised by the emperor Hian-tsoung (A.D. 806-820); and there is no +evidence that they contained any magnet. There is no genuine record of a +Chinese marine compass before A.D. 1297, as Klaproth admits. No +sea-going ships were built in China before 139 B.C. The earliest +allusion to the power of the lodestone in Chinese literature occurs in a +Chinese dictionary, finished in A.D. 121, where the lodestone is defined +as "a stone with which an attraction can be given to a needle," but this +knowledge is no more than that existing in Europe at least five hundred +years before. Nor is there any nautical significance in a passage which +occurs in the Chinese encyclopaedia, _Poei-wen-yun-fou_, in which it is +stated that under the Tsin dynasty, or between A.D. 265 and 419, "there +were ships indicating the south." + +The Chinese, Sir J. F. Davis informs us, once navigated as far as India, +but their most distant voyages at present extend not farther than Java +and the Malay Islands to the south (_The Chinese_, vol. iii. p. 14, +London, 1844). According to an Arabic manuscript, a translation of which +was published by Eusebius Renaudot (Paris, 1718), they traded in ships +to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in the 9th century. Sir G. L. Staunton, +in vol. i. of his _Embassy to China_ (London, 1797), after referring to +the early acquaintance of the Chinese with the property of the magnet to +point southwards, remarks (p. 445), "The nature and the cause of the +qualities of the magnet have at all times been subjects of contemplation +among the Chinese. The Chinese name for the compass is _ting-nan-ching_, +or needle pointing to the south; and a distinguishing mark is fixed on +the magnet's southern pole, as in European compasses upon the northern +one." "The sphere of Chinese navigation," he tells us (p. 447), "is too +limited to have afforded experience and observation for forming any +system of laws supposed to govern the variation of the needle.... The +Chinese had soon occasion to perceive how much more essential the +perfection of the compass was to the superior navigators of Europe than +to themselves, as the commanders of the 'Lion' and 'Hindostan,' trusting +to that instrument, stood out directly from the land into the sea." The +number of points of the compass, according to the Chinese, is +twenty-four, which are reckoned from the south pole; the form also of +the instrument they employ is different from that familiar to Europeans. +The needle is peculiarly poised, with its point of suspension a little +below its centre of gravity, and is exceedingly sensitive; it is seldom +more than an inch in length, and is less than a line in thickness. "It +may be urged," writes Mr T. S. Davies, "that the different manner of +constructing the needle amongst the Chinese and European navigators +shows the independence of the Chinese of us, as theirs is the worse +method, and had they copied from us, they would have used the better +one" (Thomson's _British Annual_, 1837, p. 291). On the other hand, it +has been contended that a knowledge of the mariner's compass was +communicated by them directly or indirectly to the early Arabs, and +through the latter was introduced into Europe. Sismondi has remarked +(_Literature of Europe_, vol. i.) that it is peculiarly characteristic +of all the pretended discoveries of the middle ages that when the +historians mention them for the first time they treat them as things in +general use. Gunpowder, the compass, the Arabic numerals and paper, are +nowhere spoken of as discoveries, and yet they must have wrought a total +change in war, in navigation, in science, and in education. G. +Tiraboschi (_Storia della letteratura italiana_, tom. iv. lib. ii. p. +204, et seq., ed. 2., 1788), in support of the conjecture that the +compass was introduced into Europe by the Arabs, adduces their +superiority in scientific learning and their early skill in navigation. +He quotes a passage on the polarity of the lodestone from a treatise +translated by Albertus Magnus, attributed by the latter to Aristotle, +but apparently only an Arabic compilation from the works of various +philosophers. As the terms _Zoron_ and _Aphron_, used there to signify +the south and north poles, are neither Latin nor Greek, Tiraboschi +suggests that they may be of Arabian origin, and that the whole passage +concerning the lodestone may have been added to the original treatise by +the Arabian translators. + +Dr W. Robertson asserts (_Historical Disquisition concerning Ancient +India_, p. 227) that the Arabs, Turks and Persians have no original name +for the compass, it being called by them _Bossola_, the Italian name, +which shows that the thing signified is foreign to them as well as the +word. The Rev. G. P. Badger has, however, pointed out (_Travels of +Ludovico di Varthema_, trans. J. W. Jones, ed. G. P. Badger, Hakluyt +Soc, 1863, note, pp. 31 and 32) that the name of Bushla or Busba, from +the Italian _Bussola_, though common among Arab sailors in the +Mediterranean, is very seldom used in the Eastern seas,--_Dairah_ and +_Beit el-Ibrah_ (the Circle, or House of the Needle) being the ordinary +appellatives in the Red Sea, whilst in the Persian Gulf +_Kiblah-n[=a]meh_ is in more general use. Robertson quotes Sir J. +Chardin as boldly asserting "that the Asiatics are beholden to us for +this wonderful instrument, which they had from Europe a long time before +the Portuguese conquests. For, first, their compasses are exactly like +ours, and they buy them of Europeans as much as they can, scarce daring +to meddle with their needles themselves. Secondly, it is certain that +the old navigators only coasted it along, which I impute to their want +of this instrument to guide and instruct them in the middle of the +ocean.... I have nothing but argument to offer touching this matter, +having never met with any person in Persia or the Indies to inform me +when the compass was first known among them, though I made inquiry of +the most learned men in both countries. I have sailed from the Indies to +Persia in Indian ships, when no European has been aboard but myself. The +pilots were all Indians, and they used the forestaff and quadrant for +their observations. These instruments they have from us, and made by our +artists, and they do not in the least vary from ours, except that the +characters are Arabic. The Arabs are the most skilful navigators of all +the Asiatics or Africans; but neither they nor the Indians make use of +charts, and they do not much want them; some they have, but they are +copied from ours, for they are altogether ignorant of perspective." The +observations of Chardin, who flourished between 1643 and 1713, cannot be +said to receive support from the testimony of some earlier authorities. +That the Arabs must have been acquainted with the compass, and with the +construction and use of charts, at a period nearly two centuries +previous to Chardin's first voyage to the East, may be gathered from the +description given by Barros of a map of all the coast of India, shown to +Vasco da Gama by a Moor of Guzerat (about the 15th of July 1498), in +which the bearings were laid down "after the manner of the Moors," or +"with meridians and parallels very small (or close together), without +other bearings of the compass; because, as the squares of these +meridians and parallels were very small, the coast was laid down by +these two bearings of N. and S., and E. and W., with great certainty, +without that multiplication of bearings of the points of the compass +usual in our maps, which serves as the root of the others." Further, we +learn from Osorio that the Arabs at the time of Gama "were instructed in +so many of the arts of navigation, that they did not yield much to the +Portuguese mariners in the science and practice of maritime matters." +(See _The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama_, Hakluyt Soc, 1869; note to +chap. xv. by the Hon. H. E. J. Stanley, p. 138.) Also the Arabs that +navigated the Red Sea at the same period are shown by Varthema to have +used the mariner's chart and compass (_Travels_, p. 31). + +Again, it appears that compasses of a primitive description, which can +hardly be supposed to have been brought from Europe, were employed in +the East Indies certainly as early as several years previous to the +close of the 16th century. In William Barlowe's _Navigator's Supply_, +published in 1597, we read:--"Some fewe yeeres since, it so fell out +that I had severall conferences with two East Indians which were brought +into England by master Candish [Thomas Cavendish], and had learned our +language: The one of them was of Mamillia [Manila] in the Isle of Luzon, +the other of Miaco in Japan. I questioned with them concerning their +shipping and manner of sayling. They described all things farre +different from ours, and shewed, that in steade of our Compas, they use +a magneticall needle of sixe ynches long, and longer, upon a pinne in a +dish of white _China_ earth filled with water; In the bottome whereof +they have two crosse lines, for the foure principall windes; the rest of +the divisions being reserved to the skill of their Pilots." Bailak +Kibdjaki, also, an Arabian writer, shows in his _Merchant's Treasure_, a +work given to the world in 1282, that the magnetized needle, floated on +water by means of a splinter of wood or a reed, was employed on the +Syrian seas at the time of his voyage from Tripoli to Alexandria (1242), +and adds:--"They say that the captains who navigate the Indian seas use, +instead of the needle and splinter, a sort of fish made out of hollow +iron, which, when thrown into the water, swims upon the surface, and +points out the north and south with its head and tail" (Klaproth, +_Lettre_, p. 57). E. Wiedemann, in _Erlangen Sitzungsberichte_ (1904, p. +330), translates the phrase given above as splinter of wood, by the term +wooden cross. Furthermore, although the sailors in the Indian vessels in +which Niccola de' Conti traversed the Indian seas in 1420 are stated to +have had no compass, still, on board the ship in which Varthema, less +than a century later, sailed from Borneo to Java, both the mariner's +chart and compass were used; it has been questioned, however, whether in +this case the compass was of Eastern manufacture (_Travels of +Varthema_, Introd. xciv, and p. 249). We have already seen that the +Chinese as late as the end of the 18th century made voyages with +compasses on which but little reliance could be placed; and it may +perhaps be assumed that the compasses early used in the East were mostly +too imperfect to be of much assistance to navigators, and were therefore +often dispensed with on customary routes. The Arab traders in the Levant +certainly used a floating compass, as did the Italians before the +introduction of the pivoted needle; the magnetized piece of iron being +floated upon a small raft of cork or reeds in a bowl of water. The +Italian name of _calamita_, which still persists, for the magnet, and +which literally signifies a frog, is doubtless derived from this +practice. + +The simple water-compass is said to have been used by the Coreans so +late as the middle of the 18th century; and Dr T. Smith, writing in the +_Philosophical Transactions_ for 1683-1684, says of the Turks (p. 439), +"They have no genius for Sea-voyages, and consequently are very raw and +unexperienced in the art of Navigation, scarce venturing to sail out of +sight of land. I speak of the natural _Turks_, who trade either into the +_black Sea_ or some part of the _Morea_, or between _Constantinople_ and +_Alexandria_, and not of the Pyrats of _Barbary_, who are for the most +part Renegado's, and learnt their skill in Christendom. ... The Turkish +compass consists but of 8 points, the four Cardinal and the four +Collateral." That the value of the compass was thus, even in the latter +part of the 17th century, so imperfectly recognized in the East may +serve to explain how in earlier times that instrument, long after the +first discovery of its properties, may have been generally neglected by +navigators. + +The Arabic geographer, Edrisi, who lived about 1100, is said by Boucher +to give an account, though in a confused manner, of the polarity of the +magnet (Hallam, _Mid. Ages_, vol. iii. chap. 9, part 2); but the +earliest definite mention as yet known of the use of the mariner's +compass in the middle ages occurs in a treatise entitled _De +utensilibus_, written by Alexander Neckam in the 12th century. He speaks +there of a needle carried on board ship which, being placed on a pivot, +and allowed to take its own position of repose, shows mariners their +course when the polar star is hidden. In another work, _De naturis +rerum_, lib. ii. c. 89, he writes,--"Mariners at sea, when, through +cloudy weather in the day which hides the sun, or through the darkness +of the night, they lose the knowledge of the quarter of the world to +which they are sailing, touch a needle with the magnet, which will turn +round till, on its motion ceasing, its point will be directed towards +the north" (W. Chappell, _Nature_, No. 346, June 15, 1876). The +magnetical needle, and its suspension on a stick or straw in water, are +clearly described in _La Bible Guiot_, a poem probably of the 13th +century, by Guiot de Provins, wherein we are told that through the +magnet (_la manette_ or _l'amaniere_), an ugly brown stone to which iron +turns of its own accord, mariners possess an art that cannot fail them. +A needle touched by it, and floated by a stick on water, turns its point +towards the pole-star, and a light being placed near the needle on dark +nights, the proper course is known (_Hist. litteraire de la France_, +tom. ix. p. 199; Barbazan, _Fabliaux_, tom. ii. p. 328). Cardinal +Jacques de Vitry, bishop of Acon in Palestine, in his _History_ (cap. +89), written about the year 1218, speaks of the magnetic needle as "most +necessary for such as sail the sea";[1] and another French crusader, his +contemporary, Vincent de Beauvais, states that the adamant (lodestone) +is found in Arabia, and mentions a method of using a needle magnetized +by it which is similar to that described by Kibdjaki. In 1248 Hugo de +Bercy notes a change in the construction of compasses, which are now +supported on two floats in a glass cup. From quotations given by Antonio +Capmany (_Questiones Criticas_) from the _De contemplatione_ of Raimon +Lull, of the date 1272, it appears that the latter was well acquainted +with the use of the magnet at sea;[2] and before the middle of the 13th +century Gauthier d'Espinois alludes to its polarity, as if generally +known, in the lines:-- + + "Tous autresi comme l'aimant decoit [detourne] + L'aiguillette par force de vertu, + A ma dame tor le mont [monde] retenue + Qui sa beaute connoit et apercoit." + +Guido Guinizzelli, a poet of the same period, writes:--"In those parts +under the north are the mountains of lodestone, which give the virtue to +the air of attracting iron; but because it [the lodestone] is far off, +[it] wishes to have the help of a similar stone to make it [the virtue] +work, and to direct the needle towards the star."[3] Brunetto Latini +also makes reference to the compass in his encyclopaedia _Livres dou +tresor_, composed about 1260 (Livre i. pt. ii. ch. cxx.):--"Por ce +nagent li marinier a l'enseigne des estoiles qui i sont, que il apelent +tramontaines, et les gens qui sont en Europe et es parties deca nagent a +la tramontaine de septentrion, et li autre nagent a cele de midi. Et qui +n'en set la verite, praigne une pierre d'aimant, et troverez que ele a +ij faces: l'une qui gist vers l'une tramontaine, et l'autre gist vers +l'autre. Et a chascune des ij faces la pointe d'une aguille vers cele +tramontaine a cui cele face gist. Et por ce seroient li marinier deceu +se il ne se preissent garde" (p. 147, Paris edition, 1863). Dante +(_Paradiso_, xii. 28-30) mentions the pointing of the magnetic needle +toward the pole star. In Scandinavian records there is a reference to +the nautical use of the magnet in the _Hauksbok_, the last edition of +the _Landnamabok_ (Book of the Colonization of Iceland):--"Floki, son of +Vilgerd, instituted a great sacrifice, and consecrated three ravens +which should show him the way (to Iceland); for at that time no men +sailing the high seas had lodestones up in northern lands." + +Haukr Erlendsson, who wrote this paragraph about 1300, died in 1334; his +edition was founded on material in two earlier works, that of Styrmir +Karason (who died 1245), which is lost, and that of Hurla Thordson (died +1284) which has no such paragraph. All that is certain is a knowledge of +the nautical use of the magnet at the end of the 13th century. From T. +Torfaeus we learn that the compass, fitted into a box, was already in +use among the Norwegians about the middle of the 13th century (_Hist. +rer. Norvegicarum_, iv. c. 4, p. 345, Hafniae, 1711); and it is probable +that the use of the magnet at sea was known in Scotland at or shortly +subsequent to that time, though King Robert, in crossing from Arran to +Carrick in 1306, as Barbour writing in 1375 informs us, "na nedill had +na stane," but steered by a fire on the shore. Roger Bacon (_Opus majus_ +and _Opus minus_, 1266-1267) was acquainted with the properties of the +lodestone, and wrote that if set so that it can turn freely (swimming on +water) it points toward the poles; but he stated that this was not due +to the pole-star, but to the influence of the northern region of the +heavens. + +The earliest unquestionable description of a pivoted compass is that +contained in the remarkable _Epistola de magnete_ of Petrus Peregrinus +de Maricourt, written at Lucera in 1269 to Sigerus de Foncaucourt. +(First printed edition Augsburg, 1558. See also Bertelli in +Boncompagni's _Bollettino di bibliografia_, t. i., or S. P. Thompson in +_Proc. British Academy_, vol. ii.) Of this work twenty-eight MSS. exist; +seven of them being at Oxford. The first part of the epistle deals +generally with magnetic attractions and repulsions, with the polarity of +the stone, and with the supposed influence of the poles of the heavens +upon the poles of the stone. In the second part Peregrinus describes +first an improved floating compass with fiducial line, a circle +graduated with 90 degrees to each quadrant, and provided with movable +sights for taking bearings. He then describes a new compass with a +needle thrust through a pivoted axis, placed in a box with transparent +cover, cross index of brass or silver, divided circle, and an external +"rule" or alhidade provided with a pair of sights. In the Leiden MS. of +this work, which for long was erroneously ascribed to one Peter Adsiger, +is a spurious passage, long believed to mention the variation of the +compass. + +Prior to this clear description of a pivoted compass by Peregrinus in +1269, the Italian sailors had used the floating magnet, probably +introduced into this region of the Mediterranean by traders belonging to +the port of Amalfi, as commemorated in the line of the poet Panormita:-- + + "Prima dedit nautis usum magnetis Amalphis." + +This opinion is supported by the historian Flavius Blondus in his +_Italia illustrata_, written about 1450, who adds that its certain +origin is unknown. In 1511 Baptista Pio in his _Commentary_ repeats the +opinion as to the invention of the use of the magnet at Amalfi as +related by Flavius. Gyraldus, writing in 1540 (_Libellus de re +nautica_), misunderstanding this reference, declared that this +observation of the direction of the magnet to the poles had been handed +down as discovered "by a certain Flavius." From this passage arose a +legend, which took shape only in the 17th century, that the compass was +invented in the year 1302 by a person to whom was given the fictitious +name of Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi. + +From the above it will have been evident that, as Barlowe remarks +concerning the compass, "the lame tale of one Flavius at Amelphus, in +the kingdome of Naples, for to have devised it, is of very slender +probabilitie"; and as regards the assertion of Dr Gilbert, of Colchester +(_De magnete_, p. 4, 1600), that Marco Polo introduced the compass into +Italy from the East in 1260,[4] we need only quote the words of Sir H. +Yule (_Book of Marco Polo_):--"Respecting the mariner's compass and +gunpowder, I shall say nothing, as no one now, I believe, imagines Marco +to have had anything to do with their introduction." + +When, and by whom, the compass card was added is a matter of conjecture. +Certainly the _Rosa Ventorum_, or _Wind-rose_, is far older than the +compass itself; and the naming of the eight principal "winds" goes back +to the Temple of the Winds in Athens built by Andronicus Cyrrhestes. The +earliest known wind-roses on the _portulani_ or sailing charts of the +Mediterranean pilots have almost invariably the eight principal points +marked with the initials of the principal winds, Tramontano, Greco, +Levante, Scirocco, Ostro, Africo (or Libeccio), Ponente and Maestro, or +with a cross instead of L, to mark the east point. The north point, +indicated in some of the oldest compass cards with a broad arrow-head or +a spear, as well as with a T for Tramontano, gradually developed by a +combination of these, about 1492, into a _fleur de lis_, still +universal. The cross at the east continued even in British compasses +till about 1700. Wind-roses with these characteristics are found in +Venetian and Genoese charts of early 14th century, and are depicted +similarly by the Spanish navigators. The naming of the intermediate +subdivisions making up the thirty-two points or rhumbs of the compass +card is probably due to Flemish navigators; but they were recognized +even in the time of Chaucer, who in 1391 wrote, "Now is thin Orisonte +departed in xxiiii partiez by thi azymutz, in significacion of xxiiii +partiez of the world: al be it so that ship men rikne thilke partiez in +xxxii" (_Treatise on the Astrolabe_, ed. Skeat, Early English Text Soc., +London, 1872). The mounting of the card upon the needle or "flie," so as +to turn with it, is probably of Amalphian origin. Da Buti, the Dante +commentator, in 1380 says the sailors use a compass at the middle of +which is pivoted a wheel of light paper to turn on its pivot, on which +wheel the needle is fixed and the star (wind-rose) painted. The placing +of the card at the bottom of the box, fixed, below the needle, was +practised by the compass-makers of Nuremberg in the 16th century, and by +Stevinus of Bruges about 1600. The gimbals or rings for suspension +hinged at right-angles to one another, have been erroneously attributed +to Cardan, the proper term being _cardine_, that is hinged or pivoted. +The earliest description of them is about 1604. The term _binnacle_, +originally _bittacle_, is a corruption of the Portuguese abitacolo, to +denote the housing enclosing the compass, probably originating with the +Portuguese navigators. + +The improvement of the compass has been but a slow process. _The Libel +of English Policie_, a poem of the first half of the 15th century, says +with reference to Iceland (chap. x.)-- + + "Out of Bristowe, and costes many one, + Men haue practised by nedle and by stone + Thider wardes within a litle while." + + Hakluyt, _Principal Navigations_, p. 201 (London, 1599). + +From this it would seem that the compasses used at that time by English +mariners were of a very primitive description. Barlowe, in his treatise +_Magnetical Advertisements_, printed in 1616 (p. 66), complains that +"the Compasse needle, being the most admirable and usefull instrument of +the whole world, is both amongst ours and other nations for the most +part, so bungerly and absurdly contrived, as nothing more." The form he +recommends for the needle is that of "a true circle, having his Axis +going out beyond the circle, at each end narrow and narrower, unto a +reasonable sharpe point, and being pure steele as the circle it selfe +is, having in the middest a convenient receptacle to place the capitell +in." In 1750 Dr Gowan Knight found that the needles of merchant-ships +were made of two pieces of steel bent in the middle and united in the +shape of a rhombus, and proposed to substitute straight steel bars of +small breadth, suspended edgewise and hardened throughout. He also +showed that the Chinese mode of suspending the needle conduces most to +sensibility. In 1820 Peter Barlow reported to the Admiralty that half +the compasses in the British Navy were mere lumber and ought to be +destroyed. He introduced a pattern having four or five parallel straight +strips of magnetized steel fixed under a card, a form which remained the +standard admiralty type until the introduction of the modern Thomson +(Kelvin) compass in 1876. (F. H. B.; S. P. T.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Adamas in India reperitur ... Ferrum occulta quadam natura ad se + trahit. Acus ferrea postquam adamantem contigerit, ad stellam + septentrionalem ... semper convertitur, unde valde necessarius est + navigantibus in mari. + + [2] Sicut acus per naturam vertitur ad septentrionem dum sit tacta a + magnete.--Sicut acus nautica dirigit marinarios in sua navigatione. + + [3] Ginguene, _Hist. lit. de l'Italie_, t. i. p. 413. + + [4] "According to all the texts he returned to Venice in 1295 or, as + is more probable, in 1296."--Yule. + + + + +COMPASS PLANT, a native of the North American prairies, which takes its +name from the position assumed by the leaves. These turn their edges to +north and south, thus avoiding the excessive mid-day heat, while getting +the full benefit of the morning and evening rays. The plant is known +botanically as _Silphium laciniatum_, and belongs to the natural order +Compositae. Another member of the same order, _Lactuca Scariola_, which +has been regarded as the origin of the cultivated lettuce (_L. sativa_), +behaves in the same way when growing in dry exposed places; it is a +native of Europe and northern Asia which has got introduced into North +America. + + + + +COMPAYRE, JULES GABRIEL (1843- ), French educationalist, was born at +Albi. He entered the Ecole Normale Superieure in 1862 and became +professor of philosophy. In 1876 he was appointed professor in the +Faculty of Letters of Toulouse, and upon the creation of the Ecole +normale d'institutrices at Fontenay aux Roses he became teacher of +pedagogy (1880). From 1881 to 1889 he was deputy for Lavaur in the +chamber, and took an active part in the discussions on public education. +Defeated at the elections of 1889, he was appointed rector of the +academy of Poitiers in 1890, and five years later to the academy of +Lyons. His principal publications are his _Histoire critique des +doctrines de l'education en France_ (1879); _Elements d'education +civique_ (1881), a work placed on the index at Rome, but very widely +read in the primary schools of France; _Cours de pedagogie theorique et +pratique_ (1885, 13th ed., 1897); _The Intellectual and Moral +Development of the Child_, in English (2 vols., New York, 1896-1902); +and a series of monographs on _Les Grands Educateurs_. + + + + +COMPENSATION (from Lat. _compensare_, to weigh one thing against +another), a term applied in English law to a number of different forms +of legal reparation; e.g. under the Forfeiture Act 1870 (s. 4), for loss +of property caused by felony, or--under the Riot (Damages) Act 1886--to +persons whose property has been stolen, destroyed or injured by rioters +(see RIOT). It is due, under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1906, +for agricultural improvements (see LANDLORD AND TENANT; cf. also +Allotments and Small Holdings), and under the Workmen's Compensation Act +1906 to workmen, in respect of accidents in the course of their +employment (see EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY); and under the Licensing Act 1904, +to the payments to be made on the extinction of licences to sell +intoxicants. The term "Compensation water" is used to describe the +water given from a reservoir in compensation for water abstracted from a +stream, under statutory powers, in connexion with public works (see +WATER SUPPLY). As to the use of the word "compensation" in horology, see +CLOCK; WATCH. + +Compensation, in its most familiar sense, is however a _nomen juris_ for +the reparation or satisfaction made to the owners of property which is +taken by the state or by local authorities or by the promoters of +parliamentary undertakings, under statutory authority, for public +purposes. There are two main legal theories on which such appropriation +of private property is justified. The American may be taken as a +representative illustration of the one, and the English of the other. +Though not included in the definition of "eminent domain," the necessity +for compensation is recognized as incidental to that power. (See Eminent +Domain, under which the American law of compensation, and the closely +allied doctrine of _expropriation pour cause d'utilite_ publique of +French law, and the law of other continental countries, are discussed.) +The rule of English constitutional law, on the other hand, is that the +property of the citizen cannot be seized for purposes which are really +"public" without a fair pecuniary equivalent being given to him; and, as +the money for such compensation must come from parliament, the practical +result is that the seizure can only be effected under legislative +authority. An action for illegal interference with the property of the +subject is not maintainable against officials of the crown or government +sued in their official capacity or as an official body. But crown +officials may be sued in their individual capacity for such +interference, even if they acted with the authority of the government +(cp. _Raleigh_ v. _Goschen_ [1898], 1 Ch. 73). + +_Law of England._--Down to 1845 every act authorizing the purchase of +lands had, in addition to a number of common form clauses, a variety of +special clauses framed with a view to meeting the particular +circumstances with which it dealt. In 1845, however, a statute based on +the recommendations of a select committee, appointed in the preceding +year, was passed; the object being to diminish the bulk of the special +acts, and to introduce uniformity into private bill legislation by +classifying the common form clauses, embodying them in general statutes, +and facilitating their incorporation into the special statutes by +reference. The statute by which this change was initiated was the Lands +Clauses Consolidation Act 1845; and the policy has been continued by a +series of later statutes which, together with the act of 1845, are now +grouped under the generic title of the Lands Clauses Acts. + +The public purposes for which lands are taken are threefold. Certain +public departments, such as the war office and the admiralty, may +acquire lands for national purposes (see the Defence Acts 1842 to 1873; +and the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1860, s. 7). Local authorities +are enabled to exercise similar powers for an enormous variety of +municipal purposes, e.g. the housing of the working classes, the +improvement of towns, and elementary and secondary education. Lastly, +the promoters of public undertakings of a commercial character, such as +railways and harbours, carry on their operations under statutes in which +the provisions of the Lands Clauses Acts are incorporated. + +Lands may be taken under the Lands Clauses Acts either by agreement or +compulsorily. The first step in the proceedings is a "notice to treat," +or intimation by the promoters of their readiness to purchase the land, +coupled with a demand for particulars as to the estate and the interests +in it. The landowner on whom the notice is served may meet it by +agreeing to sell, and the terms may then be settled by consent of the +parties themselves, or by arbitration, if they decide to have recourse +to that mode of adjusting the difficulty. If the property claimed is a +house, or other building or manufactory, the owner has a statutory right +to require the promoters by a counternotice to take the whole, even +although a part would serve their purpose. This rule, however, is, in +modern acts, often modified by special clauses. On receipt of the +counter-notice the promoters must either assent to the requirement +contained in it, or abandon their notice to treat. On the other hand, +if the landowner fails within twenty-one days after receipt of the +notice to treat to give the particulars which it requires, the promoters +may proceed to exercise their compulsory powers and to obtain assessment +of the compensation to be paid. As a general rule, it is a condition +precedent to the exercise of these powers by a company that the capital +of the undertaking should be fully subscribed. Compensation, under the +Lands Clauses Acts, is assessed in four different modes:--(1) by +justices, where the claim does not exceed L50, or a claimant who has no +greater interest than that of a tenant for a year, or from year to year, +is required to give up possession before the expiration of his tenancy; +(2) by arbitration (a) when the claim exceeds L50, and the claimant +desires arbitration, and the interest is not a yearly tenancy, (b) when +the amount has been ascertained by a surveyor, and the claimant is +dissatisfied, (c) when superfluous lands are to be sold, and the parties +entitled to pre-emption and the promoters cannot agree as to the price. +(Lands become "superfluous" if taken compulsorily on an erroneous +estimate of the area needed, or if part only was needed and the owner +compelled the promoters under the power above mentioned to take the +whole, or in cases of abandonment); (3) by a jury, when the claim +exceeds L50, and (a) the claimant does not signify his desire for +arbitration, or no award has been made within the prescribed time, or +(b) the claimant applies in writing for trial by jury; (4) by surveyors, +nominated by justices, where the owner is under disability, or does not +appear at the appointed time, or the claim is in respect of commonable +rights, and a committee has not been appointed to treat with the +promoters. + +Promoters are not allowed without the consent of the owner to enter upon +lands which are the subject of proceedings under the Lands Clauses Acts, +except for the purpose of making a survey, unless they have executed a +statutory bond and made a deposit, at the Law Courts Branch of the Bank +of England, as security for the performance of the conditions of the +bond. + +_Measure of Value._--(1) Where land is taken, the basis on which +compensation is assessed is the commercial value of the land to the +owner at the date of the notice to treat. Potential value may be taken +into account, and also good-will of the property in a business. This +rule, however, excludes any consideration of the principle of +"betterment." (2) Where land, although not taken, is "injuriously +affected" by the works of the promoters, compensation is payable for +loss or damage resulting from any act, legalized by the promoters' +statutory powers, which would otherwise have been actionable, or caused +by the execution (not the use) of the works authorized by the +undertaking. + +The following examples of how land may be "injuriously affected," so as +to give a right to compensation under the acts, may be given:--narrowing +or obstructing a highway which is the nearest access to the lands in +question; interference with a right of way; substantial interference +with ancient lights; noise of children outside a board school. + +_Scotland and Ireland._--The Lands Clauses Act 1845 extends to Ireland. +There is a Scots enactment similar in character (Lands Clauses +[Scotland] Act 1845). The principles and practice of the law of +compensation are substantially the same throughout the United Kingdom. + +_India and the British Colonies._--Legislation analogous to the Lands +Clauses Acts is in force in India (Land Acquisition Act 1894 [Act I of +1894]) and in most of the colonies (see western Australia, Lands +Resumption Act 1894 [58 Vict. No. 33], Victoria, Lands Compensation Act +1890 [54 Vict. No. 1109]; New Zealand, Public Works Act 1894 [58 Vict. +No. 42]; Ontario [Revised Stats. 1897, c. 37]). + + AUTHORITIES.--_English Law_: Balfour Browne and Allan, _Compensation_ + (2nd ed., London, 1903); Cripps, _Compensation_ (5th edition, London, + 1905); Hudson, _Compensation_ (London, 1906); Boyle and Waghorn, + _Compensation_ (London, 1903); Lloyd, _Compensation_ (6th ed. by + Brooks, London, 1895); Clifford, _Private Bill Legislation_, London, + 1885 (vol. i.), 1887 (vol. ii.) _Scots Law_: Deas, _Law of Railways in + Scotland_ (ed. by Ferguson; Edinburgh, 1897); Rankine, _Law of + Landownership_ (3rd ed., 1891). (A. W. R.) + + + + +COMPIEGNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Oise, 52 m. N.N.E. of Paris on the Northern railway +between Paris and St Quentin. Pop. (1906) 14,052. The town, which is a +favourite summer resort, stands on the north-west border of the forest +of Compiegne and on the left bank of the Oise, less than 1 m. below its +confluence with the Aisne. The river is crossed by a bridge built in the +reign of Louis XV. The Rue Solferino, a continuation of the bridge +ending at the Place de l'Hotel de Ville, is the busy street of the town; +elsewhere, except on market days, the streets are quiet. The hotel de +ville, with a graceful facade surmounted by a lofty belfry, is in the +late Gothic style of the early 16th century and was completed in modern +times. Of the churches, St Antoine (13th and 16th centuries) with some +fine Renaissance stained glass, and St Jacques (13th and 15th +centuries), need alone be mentioned. The remains of the ancient abbey of +St Corneille are used as a military storehouse. Compiegne, from a very +early period until 1870, was the occasional residence of the French +kings. Its palace, one of the most magnificent structures of its kind, +was erected, chiefly by Louis XV. and Louis XVI., on the site of a +chateau of King Charles V. of France. It now serves as an art museum. It +has two facades, one overlooking the Place du Palais and the town, the +other, more imposing, facing towards a fine park and the forest, which +is chiefly of oak and beech and covers over 36,000 acres. Compiegne is +the seat of a subprefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a communal college, library and hospital. The industries +comprise boat-building, rope-making, steam-sawing, distilling and the +manufacture of chocolate, machinery and sacks and coarse coverings, and +at Margny, a suburb, there are manufactures of chemicals and felt hats. +Asparagus is cultivated in the environs. There is considerable trade in +timber and coal, chiefly river-borne. + +Compiegne, or as it is called in the Latin chronicles, Compendium, seems +originally to have been a hunting-lodge of the early Frankish kings. It +was enriched by Charles the Bald with two castles, and a Benedictine +abbey dedicated to Saint Corneille, the monks of which retained down to +the 18th century the privilege of acting for three days as lords of +Compiegne, with full power to release prisoners, condemn the guilty, and +even inflict sentence of death. It was in Compiegne that King Louis I. +the Debonair was deposed in 833; and at the siege of the town in 1430 +Joan of Arc was taken prisoner by the English. A monument to her faces +the hotel de ville. In 1624 the town gave its name to a treaty of +alliance concluded by Richelieu with the Dutch; and it was in the palace +that Louis XV. gave welcome to Marie Antoinette, that Napoleon I. +received Marie Louise of Austria, that Louis XVIII. entertained the +emperor Alexander of Russia, and that Leopold I., king of the Belgians, +was married to the princess Louise. In 1814 Compiegne offered a stubborn +resistance to the Prussian troops. Under Napoleon III. it was the annual +resort of the court during the hunting season. From 1870 to 1871 it was +one of the headquarters of the German army. + + + + +COMPLEMENT (Lat. _complementum_, from _complere_, to fill up), that +which fills up or completes anything, e.g. the number of men necessary +to man a ship. In geometry, the complement of an angle is the difference +between the angle and a right angle; the complements of a parallelogram +are formed by drawing parallel to adjacent sides of a parallelogram two +lines intersecting on a diagonal; four parallelograms are thus formed, +and the two not about the diagonal of the original parallelogram are the +complements of the parallelogram. In analysis, a complementary function +is a partial solution to a differential equation (q.v.); complementary +operators are reciprocal or inverse operators, i.e. two operations A and +B are complementary when both operating on the same figure or function +leave it unchanged. A "complementary colour" is one which produces white +when mixed with another (see COLOUR). In Spanish the word _cumplimento_ +was used in a particular sense of the fulfilment of the duties of polite +behaviour and courtesy, and it came through the French and Italian forms +into use in English, with a change in spelling to "compliment," with the +sense of an act of politeness, especially of a polite expression of +praise, or of social regard and greetings. The word "comply," meaning +to act in accordance with wishes, orders or conditions, is also derived +from the same origin, but in sense is connected with "ply" or "pliant," +from Lat. _plicare_, to bend, with the idea of subserviently yielding to +the wishes of another. + + + + +COMPLUVIUM (from Lat. _compluere_, to flow together, i.e. in reference +to the rain being collected and falling through), in architecture, the +Latin term for the open space left in the roof of the atrium of a Roman +house for lighting it and the rooms round (see CAVAEDIUM). + + + + +COMPOSITAE, the name given to the largest natural order of flowering +plants, containing about one-tenth of the whole number and characterized +by the crowding of the flowers into heads. The order is cosmopolitan, +and the plants show considerable variety in habit. The great majority, +including most British representatives, are herbaceous, but in the +warmer parts of the world shrubs and arborescent forms also occur; the +latter are characteristic of the flora of oceanic islands. In herbaceous +plants the leaves are often arranged in a rosette on a much shortened +stem, as in dandelion, daisy and others; when the stem is elongated the +leaves are generally alternate. The root is generally thickened, +sometimes, as in dahlia, tuberous; root and stem contain oil passages, +or, as in lettuce and dandelion, a milky white latex. The flowers are +crowded in heads (_capitula_) which are surrounded by an involucre of +green bracts,--these protect the head of flowers in the bud stage, +performing the usual function of a calyx. The enlarged top of the axis, +the receptacle, is flat, convex or conical, and the flowers open in +centripetal succession. In many cases, as in the sunflower or daisy, the +outer or ray-florets are larger and more conspicuous than the inner, or +disk-florets; in other cases, as in dandelion, the florets are all +alike. Ray-florets when present are usually pistillate, but neuter in +some genera (as _Centaurea_); the disk-florets are hermaphrodite. The +flower is epigynous; the calyx is sometimes absent, or is represented by +a rim on the top of the ovary, or takes the form of hairs or bristles +which enlarge in the fruiting stage to form the pappus by means of which +the seed is dispersed. The corolla, of five united petals, is regular +and tubular in shape as in the disk-florets, or irregular when it is +either strap-shaped (ligulate), as in the ray-florets of daisy, &c., or +all the florets of dandelion, or more rarely two-lipped. The five +stamens are attached to the interior of the corolla-tube; the filaments +are free; the anthers are joined (syngenesious) to form a tube round the +single style, which ends in a pair of stigmas. The inferior ovary +contains one ovule (attached to the base of the chamber), and ripens to +form a dry one-seeded fruit; the seed is filled with the straight +embryo. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. + + 1. Flower head of Marigold. 3. Head of fruits, nat. size. + 2. Same in vertical section. 4. A single fruit.] + +The flower-heads are an admirable example of an adaptation for +pollination by aid of insects. The crowding of the flowers in heads +ensures the pollination of a large number as the result of a single +insect visit. Honey is secreted at the base of the style, and is +protected from rain or dew and the visits of short-lipped insects by the +corolla-tube, the length of which is correlated with the length of +proboscis of the visiting insect. When the flower opens, the two stigmas +are pressed together below the tube formed by the anthers, the latter +split on the inside, and the pollen fills the tube; the style gradually +lengthens and carries the pollen out of the anther tube, and finally the +stigmas spread and expose their receptive surface which has hitherto +been hidden, the two being pressed together. Thus the life history of +the flower falls into two stages, an earlier or male and a later or +female. This favours cross-pollination as compared with +self-pollination. In many cases there is a third stage, as in dandelion, +where the stigmas finally curl back so that they touch any pollen grains +which have been left on the style, thus ensuring self-pollination if +cross-pollination has not been effected. + +The devices for distribution of the fruit are very varied. Frequently +there is a hairy or silky pappus forming a tuft of hairs, as in thistle +or coltsfoot, or a parachute-like structure as in dandelion; these +render the fruit sufficiently light to be carried by the wind. In +_Bidens_ the pappus consists of two or more stiff-barbed bristles which +cause the fruit to cling to the coats of animals. Occasionally, as in +sunflower or daisy, the fruits bear no special appendage and remain on +the head until jerked off. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Flowering shoot of Cornflower. 1. Disk-floret in +vertical section.] + +Compositae are generally considered to represent the most highly +developed order of flowering plants. By the massing of the flowers in +heads great economy is effected in the material required for one flower, +as conspicuousness is ensured by the association; economy of time on the +part of the pollinating insect is also effected, as a large number of +flowers are visited at one time. The floral mechanism is both simple and +effective, favouring cross-pollination, but ensuring self-pollination +should that fail. The means of seed-distribution are also very +effective. + +A few members of the order are of economic value, e.g. _Lactuca_ +(lettuce; q.v.), _Cichorium_ (chicory; q.v.), _Cynara_ (artichoke and +cardoon; q.v.), _Helianthus_ (Jerusalem artichoke). Many are cultivated +as garden or greenhouse plants, such as _Solidago_ (golden rod), +_Ageratum_, Aster (q.v.) (Michaelmas daisy), _Helichrysum_ +(everlasting), _Zinnia, Rudbeckia, Helianthus_ (sunflower), _Coreopsis_, +Dahlia (q.v.), _Tagetes_ (French and African marigold), _Gaillardia, +Achillea_ (yarrow), _Chrysanthemum, Pyrethrum_ (feverfew; now generally +included under _Chrysanthemum_), _Tanacetum_ (tansy), _Arnica, +Doronicum, Cineraria Calendula_ (common marigold) (fig. 1), _Echinops_ +(globe thistle), _Centaurea_ (cornflower) (fig. 2). Some are of +medicinal value, such as _Anthemis_ (chamomile), _Artemisia_ (wormwood), +_Tussilago_ (coltsfoot), _Arnica_. Insect powder is prepared from +species of _Pyrethrum_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Groundsel (_Senecio vulgaris_). + + 1. Disk-floret. 3. Ray-floret. + 2. Same cut vertically. 4. Fruit with pappus.] + +The order is divided into two suborders:--_Tubuliflorae_, characterized +by absence of latex, and the florets of the disk being not ligulate, and +_Liguliflorae_, characterized by presence of latex and all the florets +being ligulate. The first suborder contains the majority of the genera, +and is divided into a number of tribes, characterized by the form of the +anthers and styles, the presence or absence of scales on the receptacle, +and the similarity or otherwise of the florets of one and the same head. +The order is well represented in Britain, in which forty-two genera are +native. These include some of the commonest weeds, such as dandelion +(_Taraxacum Dens-leonis_), daisy (_Bellis perennis_), groundsel (fig. 3) +(_Senecio vulgaris_) and ragwort (_S. Jacobaea_); coltsfoot (_Tussilago +Farfara_) is one of the earliest plants to flower, and other genera are +_Chrysanthemum_ (ox-eye daisy and corn-marigold), _Arctium_ (burdock), +_Centaurea_ (knapweed and cornflower), _Carduus_ and _Cnicus_ +(thistles), _Hieracium_ (hawkweed), _Sonchus_ (sow-thistle), _Achillea_ +(yarrow, or milfoil, and sneezewort), _Eupatorium_ (hemp-agrimony), +_Gnaphalium_ (cudweed), _Erigeron_ (fleabane), _Solidago_ (golden-rod), +_Anthemis_ (may-weed and chamomile), _Cichorium_ (chicory), _Lapsana_ +(nipplewort), _Crepis_ (hawk's-beard), _Hypochaeris_ (cat's-ear), and +_Tragopogon_ (goat's-beard). + + + + +COMPOSITE ORDER, in architecture, a compound of the Ionic and Corinthian +orders (see ORDER), the chief characteristic of which is found in the +capital (q.v.), where a double row of acanthus leaves, similar to those +carved round the Corinthian capital, has been added under the Ionic +volutes. The richer decoration of the Ionic capital had already been +employed in those of the Erechtheum, where the necking was carved with +the palmette or honeysuckle. Similar decorated Ionic capitals were found +in the forum of Trajan. The earliest example of the Composite capital is +found in the arch of Titus at Rome. The entablature was borrowed from +that of the Corinthian order. + + + + +COMPOSITION (Lat. _compositio_, from _componere_, to put together), the +action of putting together and combining, and the product of such +action. There are many applications of the word. In philology it is used +of the putting together of two distinct words to form a single word; and +in grammar, of the combination of words into sentences, and sentences +into periods, and then applied to the result of such combination, and to +the art of producing a work in prose or verse, or to the work itself. In +music "composition" is used both of the art of combining musical sounds +in accordance with the rules of musical form, and, more generally, of +the whole art of creation or invention. The name "composer" is thus +particularly applied to the musical creator in general. In the other +fine arts the word is more strictly used of the balanced arrangement of +the parts of a picture, of a piece of sculpture or a building, so that +they should form one harmonious whole. The word also means an agreement +or an adjustment of differences between two or more parties, and is thus +the best general term to describe the agreement, often called by the +equivalent German word "Ausgleich," between Austria and Hungary in 1867. +A more particular use is the legal one, for an agreement by which a +creditor agrees to take from his debtor a sum less than his debt in +satisfaction of the whole (see BANKRUPTCY). In logic "composition" is +the name given to a fallacy of equivocation, where what is true +distributively of each member of a class is inferred to be true of the +whole class collectively. The fallacy of "division" is the converse of +this, where what is true of a term used collectively is inferred to be +true of its several parts. A common source of these errors in reasoning +is the confusion between the collective and distributive meanings of the +word "all." Composition, often shortened to "compo," is the name given +to many materials compounded of more than one substance, and is used in +various trades and manufactures, as in building, for a mixture, such as +stucco, cement and plaster, for covering walls, &c., often made to +represent stone or marble; a similar moulded compound is employed to +represent carved wood. + + + + +COMPOUND (from Lat. _componere_, to combine or put together), a +combination of various elements, substances or ingredients, so as to +form one composite whole. A "chemical compound" is a substance which can +be resolved into simple constituents, as opposed to an element which +cannot be so resolved (see CHEMISTRY); a word is said to be a "compound" +when it is made up of different words or parts of different words. The +term is also used in an adjectival form with many applications; a +"compound engine" is one where the expansion of the steam is effected in +two or more stages (see STEAM-ENGINE); in zoology, the "compound eye" +possessed by insects and crustacea is one which is made up of several +_ocelli_ or simple eyes, set together so that the whole has the +appearance of being faceted (see EYE); in botany, the "compound leaf" +has two or more separate blades on a common leaf-stalk; in surgery, in a +"compound fracture" the skin is broken as well as the bone, and there is +a communication between the two. There are many mathematical and +arithmetical uses of the term, particularly of those forms of addition, +multiplication, division and subtraction which deal with quantities of +more than one denomination. Compound interest is interest paid upon +interest, the accumulation of interest forming, as it were, a secondary +principal. The verb "to compound" is used of the arrangement or +settlement of differences, and especially of an agreement made to accept +or to pay part of a debt in full discharge of the whole, and thus of the +arrangement made by an insolvent debtor with his creditors (see +BANKRUPTCY); similarly of the substitution of one payment for annual or +other periodic payments,--thus subscriptions, university or other dues, +&c., may be "compounded"; a particular instance of this is the system of +"compounding" for rates, where the occupier of premises pays an +increased rent, and the owner makes himself responsible for the payment +of the rates. The householder who thus compounds with the owner of the +premises he occupies is known as a "compound householder." The payment +of poor rate forming part of the qualification necessary for the +parliamentary franchise in the United Kingdom, various statutes, leading +up to the Compound Householders Act 1851, have enabled such occupiers to +claim to be placed on the rate. In law, to compound a felony is to agree +with the felon not to prosecute him for his crime, in return for +valuable consideration, or, in the case of a theft, on return of the +goods stolen. Such an agreement is a misdemeanour and is punishable with +fine and imprisonment. + +The name "compounders" was given during the reign of William III. of +England to the members of a Jacobite faction, who were prepared to +restore James II. to the throne, on the condition of an amnesty and an +undertaking to preserve the constitution. Until 1853, in the university +of Oxford, those possessing private incomes of a certain amount paid +special dues for their degrees, and were known as Grand and Petty +Compounders. + +The corruption "compound" (from the Malay _kampung_ or _kampong_, a +quarter of a village) is the name applied to the enclosed ground, +whether garden or waste, which surrounds an Anglo-Indian house. In India +the European quarter, as a rule, is separate from the native quarter, +and consists of a number of single houses, each standing in a compound, +sometimes many acres in extent. + + + + +COMPOUND PIER, the architectural term given to a clustered column or +pier which consists of a centre mass or newel, to which engaged or +semi-detached shafts have been attached, in order to perform, or to +suggest the performance of, certain definite structural objects, such as +to carry arches of additional orders, or to support the transverse or +diagonal ribs of a vault, or the tie beam of an important roof. In these +cases, though performing different functions, the drums of the pier are +often cut out of one stone. There are, however, cases where the shafts +are detached from the pier and coupled to it by armulets at regular +heights, as in the Early English period. + + + + +COMPRADOR (a Portuguese word used in the East, derived from the Lat. +_comparare_, to procure), originally a native servant in European +households in the East, but now the name given to the native managers in +European business houses in China, and also to native contractors +supplying ships in the Philippines and elsewhere in the East. + + + + +COMPRESSION, in astronomy, the deviation of a heavenly body from the +spherical form, called also the "ellipticity." It is numerically +expressed by the ratio of the differences of the axes to the major axis +of the spheroid. The compression or "flattening" of the earth is about +1/298, which means that the ratio of the equatorial to the polar axis is +298:297 (see Earth, Figure of the). In engineering the term is applied +to the arrangement by which the exhaust valve of a steam-engine is made +to close, shutting a portion of the exhaust steam in the cylinder, +before the stroke of the piston is quite complete. This steam being +compressed as the stroke is completed, a cushion is formed against which +the piston does work while its velocity is being rapidly reduced, and +thus the stresses in the mechanism due to the inertia of the +reciprocating parts are lessened. This compression, moreover, obviates +the shock which would otherwise be caused by the admission of the fresh +steam for the return stroke. In internal combustion engines it is a +necessary condition of economy to compress the explosive mixture before +it is ignited: in the Otto cycle, for instance, the second stroke of the +piston effects the compression of the charge which has been drawn into +the cylinder by the first forward stroke. + + + + +COMPROMISE (pronounced _compr[)o]mize_; through Fr. from Lat. +_compromittere_), a term, meaning strictly a joint agreement, which has +come to signify such a settlement as involves a mutual adjustment, with +a surrender of part of each party's claim. From the element of danger +involved has arisen an invidious sense of the word, imputing discredit, +so that being "compromised" commonly means injured in reputation. + + + + +COMPROMISE MEASURES OF 1850, in American history, a series of measures +the object of which was the settlement of five questions in dispute +between the pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the United States. +Three of these questions grew out of the annexation of Texas and the +acquisition of western territory as a result of the Mexican War. The +settlers who had flocked to California after the discovery of gold in +1848 adopted an anti-slavery state constitution on the 13th of October +1849, and applied for admission into the Union. In the second place it +was necessary to form a territorial government for the remainder of the +territory acquired from Mexico, including that now occupied by Nevada +and Utah, and parts of Wyoming, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. The +fundamental issue was in regard to the admission of slavery into, or the +exclusion of slavery from, this region. Thirdly, there was a dispute +over the western boundary of Texas. Should the Rio Grande be the line of +division north of Mexico, or should an arbitrary boundary be established +farther to the eastward; in other words, should a considerable part of +the new territory be certainly opened to slavery as a part of Texas, or +possibly closed to it as a part of the organized territorial section? +Underlying all of these issues was of course the great moral and +political problem as to whether slavery was to be confined to the +south-eastern section of the country or be permitted to spread to the +Pacific. The two questions not growing out of the Mexican War were in +regard to the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia, +and the passage of a new fugitive slave law. + +Congress met on the 3rd of December 1849. Neither faction was strong +enough in both houses to carry out its own programme, and it seemed for +a time that nothing would be done. On the 29th of January 1850 Henry +Clay presented the famous resolution which constituted the basis of the +ultimate compromise. His idea was to combine the more conservative +elements of both sections in favour of a settlement which would concede +the Southern view on two questions, the Northern view on two, and +balance the fifth. Daniel Webster supported the plan in his great speech +of the 7th of March, although in doing so he alienated many of his +former admirers. Opposed to the conservatives were the extremists of the +North, led by William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase, and those of the +South, led by Jefferson Davis. Most of the measures were rejected and +the whole plan seemed likely to fail, when the situation was changed by +the death of President Taylor and the accession of Millard Fillmore on +the 9th of July 1850. The influence of the administration was now thrown +in favour of the compromise. Under a tacit understanding of the +moderates to vote together, five separate bills were passed, and were +signed by the president between 9th and 20th September 1850. California +was admitted as a free state, and the slave trade was abolished in the +District of Columbia; these were concessions to the North. New Mexico +(then including the present Arizona) and Utah were organized without any +prohibition of slavery (each being left free to decide for or against, +on admission to statehood), and a rigid fugitive slave law was enacted; +these were concessions to the South. Texas (q.v.) was compelled to give +up much of the western land to which it had a good claim, and received +in return $10,000,000. + +This legislation had several important results. It helped to postpone +secession and Civil War for a decade, during which time the North-West +was growing more wealthy and more populous, and was being brought into +closer relations with the North-East. It divided the Whigs into "Cotton +Whigs" and "Conscience Whigs," and in time led to the downfall of the +party. In the third place, the rejection of the Wilmot Proviso and the +acceptance (as regards New Mexico and Utah) of "Squatter Sovereignty" +meant the adoption of a new principle in dealing with slavery in the +territories, which, although it did not apply to the same territory, was +antagonistic to the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The sequel was the +repeal of the Missouri Compromise in the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. +Fourthly, the enforcement of the fugitive slave law aroused a feeling of +bitterness in the North which helped eventually to bring on the war, and +helped to make it, when it came, quite as much an anti-slavery crusade +as a struggle for the preservation of the Union. Finally, although Clay +for his support of the compromises and Seward and Chase for their +opposition have gained in reputation, Webster has been selected as the +special target for hostile criticism. The Compromise Measures are +sometimes spoken of collectively as the Omnibus Bill, owing to their +having been grouped originally--when first reported (May 8) to the +Senate--into one bill. + + The best account of the above Compromises is to be found in J. F. + Rhodes, _History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850_, + vol. i. (New York, 1896). (W. R. S.*) + + + + +COMPSA (mod. _Conza_), an ancient city of the Hirpini, near the sources +of the Aufidus, on the boundary of Lucania and not far from that of +Apulia, on a ridge 1998 ft. above sea-level. It was betrayed to Hannibal +in 216 B.C. after the defeat of Cannae, but recaptured two years later. +It was probably occupied by Sulla in 89 B.C., and was the scene of the +death of T. Annius Milo in 48 B.C. Most authorities (cf. Hulsen in +Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, Stuttgart, 1901, iv. 797) refer Caes. +_Bell. civ._ iii. 22, and Plin. _Hist. Nat._ ii. 147, to this place, +supposing the MSS. to be corrupt. The usual identification of the site +of Milo's death with Cassano on the Gulf of Taranto must therefore be +rejected. In imperial times, as inscriptions show, it was a +_municipium_, but it lay far from any of the main high-roads. There are +no important ancient remains. + + + + +COMPTON, HENRY (1632-1713), English divine, was the sixth and youngest +son of the second earl of Northampton. He was educated at Queen's +College, Oxford, and then travelled in Europe. After the restoration of +Charles II. he became cornet in a regiment of horse, but soon quitted +the army for the church. After a further period of study at Cambridge +and again at Oxford, he held various livings. He was made bishop of +Oxford in 1674, and in the following year was translated to the see of +London. He was also appointed a member of the Privy Council, and +entrusted with the education of the two princesses--Mary and Anne. He +showed a liberality most unusual at the time to Protestant dissenters, +whom he wished to reunite with the established church. He held several +conferences on the subject with the clergy of his diocese; and in the +hope of influencing candid minds by means of the opinions of unbiassed +foreigners, he obtained letters treating of the question (since printed +at the end of Stillingfleet's _Unreasonableness of Separation_) from Le +Moyne; professor of divinity at Leiden, and the famous French Protestant +divine, Jean Claude. But to Roman Catholicism he was strongly opposed. +On the accession of James II. he consequently lost his seat in the +council and his deanery in the Chapel Royal; and for his firmness in +refusing to suspend John Sharp, rector of St Giles's-in-the-Fields, +whose anti-papal writings had rendered him obnoxious to the king, he was +himself suspended. At the Revolution Compton embraced the cause of +William and Mary; he performed the ceremony of their coronation; his old +position was restored to him; and among other appointments, he was +chosen as one of the commissioners for revising the liturgy. During the +reign of Anne he remained a member of the privy council, and was one of +the commissioners appointed to arrange the terms of the union of England +and Scotland; but, to his bitter disappointment, his claims to the +primacy were twice passed over. He died at Fulham on the 7th of July +1713. He had conspicuous defects both in spirit and intellect, but was +benevolent and philanthropic. He was a successful botanist. He +published, besides several theological works, _A Translation from the +Italian of the Life of Donna Olympia Maladichini, who governed the +Church during the time of Pope Innocent X., which was from the year 1644 +to 1655_ (1667), and _A Translation from the French of the Jesuits' +Intrigues_ (1669). + + + + +COMPTROLLER, the title of an official whose business primarily was to +examine and take charge of accounts, hence to direct or control, e.g. +the English comptroller of the household, comptroller and +auditor-general (head of the exchequer and audit department), +comptroller-general of patents, &c., comptroller-general (head of the +national debt office). On the other hand, the word is frequently spelt +_controller_, as in controller of the navy, controller or head of the +stationery office. The word is used in the same sense in the United +States, as comptroller of the treasury, an official who examines +accounts and signs drafts, and comptroller of the currency, who +administers the law relating to the national banks. + + + + +COMPURGATION (from Lat. _compurgare_, to purify completely), a mode of +procedure formerly employed in ecclesiastical courts, and derived from +the canon law (_compurgatio canonica_), by which a clerk who was accused +of crime was required to make answers on the oath of himself and a +certain number of other clerks (compurgators) who would swear to his +character or innocence. The term is more especially applied to a +somewhat similar procedure, the old Teutonic or Anglo-Saxon mode of +trial by oath-taking or oath-helping (see JURY). + + + + +COMTE, AUGUSTE [ISIDORE AUGUSTE MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER] (1798-1857), +French Positive philosopher, was born on the 19th of January 1798 at +Montpellier, where his father was a receiver-general of taxes for the +district. He was sent for his earliest instruction to the school of the +town, and in 1814 was admitted to the Ecole Polytechnique. His youth +was marked by a constant willingness to rebel against merely official +authority; to genuine excellence, whether moral or intellectual, he was +always ready to pay unbounded deference. That strenuous application +which was one of his most remarkable gifts in manhood showed itself in +his youth, and his application was backed or inspired by superior +intelligence and aptness. After he had been two years at the Ecole +Polytechnique he took a foremost part in a mutinous demonstration +against one of the masters; the school was broken up, and Comte like the +other scholars was sent home. To the great dissatisfaction of his +parents, he resolved to return to Paris (1816), and to earn his living +there by giving lessons in mathematics. Benjamin Franklin was the +youth's idol at this moment. "I seek to imitate the modern Socrates," he +wrote to a school friend, "not in talents, but in way of living. You +know that at five-and-twenty he formed the design of becoming perfectly +wise and that he fulfilled his design. I have dared to undertake the +same thing, though I am not yet twenty." Though Comte's character and +aims were as far removed as possible from Franklin's type, neither +Franklin nor any man that ever lived could surpass him in the heroic +tenacity with which, in the face of a thousand obstacles, he pursued his +own ideal of a vocation. + +For a moment circumstances led him to think of seeking a career in +America, but a friend who preceded him thither warned him of the purely +practical spirit that prevailed in the new country. "If Lagrange were to +come to the United States, he could only earn his livelihood by turning +land surveyor." So Comte remained in Paris, living as he best could on +something less than L80 a year, and hoping, when he took the trouble to +break his meditations upon greater things by hopes about himself, that +he might by and by obtain an appointment as mathematical master in a +school. A friend procured him a situation as tutor in the house of +Casimir Perier. The salary was good, but the duties were too +miscellaneous, and what was still worse, there was an end of the +delicious liberty of the garret. After a short experience of three weeks +Comte returned to neediness and contentment. He was not altogether +without the young man's appetite for pleasure; yet when he was only +nineteen we find him wondering, amid the gaieties of the carnival of +1817, how a gavotte or a minuet could make people forget that thirty +thousand human beings around them had barely a morsel to eat. + +Towards 1818 Comte became associated as friend and disciple with +Saint-Simon, who was destined to exercise a very decisive influence upon +the turn of his speculation. In after years he so far forgot himself as +to write of Saint-Simon as a depraved quack, and to deplore his +connexion with him as purely mischievous. While the connexion lasted he +thought very differently. Saint-Simon is described as the most estimable +and lovable of men, and the most delightful in his relations; he is the +worthiest of philosophers. Even at the very moment when Comte was +congratulating himself on having thrown off the yoke, he honestly admits +that Saint-Simon's influence has been of powerful service in his +philosophic education. "I certainly," he writes to his most intimate +friend, "am under great personal obligations to Saint-Simon; that is to +say, he helped in a powerful degree to launch me in the philosophical +direction that I have now definitely marked out for myself, and that I +shall follow without looking back for the rest of my life." Even if +there were no such unmistakable expressions as these, the most cursory +glance into Saint-Simon's writings is enough to reveal the thread of +connexion between the ingenious visionary and the systematic thinker. We +see the debt, and we also see that when it is stated at the highest +possible, nothing has really been taken either from Comte's claims as a +powerful original thinker, or from his immeasurable pre-eminence over +Saint-Simon in intellectual grasp and vigour and coherence. As high a +degree of originality may be shown in transformation as in invention, as +Moliere and Shakespeare have proved in the region of dramatic art. In +philosophy the conditions are not different. _Il faut prendre son bien +ou on le trouve._ + +It is no detriment to Comte's fame that some of the ideas which he +recombined and incorporated in a great philosophic structure had their +origin in ideas that were produced almost at random in the incessant +fermentation of Saint-Simon's brain. Comte is in no true sense a +follower of Saint-Simon, but it was undoubtedly Saint-Simon who launched +him, to take Comte's own word, by suggesting the two starting-points of +what grew into the Comtist system--first, that political phenomena are +as capable of being grouped under laws as other phenomena; and second, +that the true destination of philosophy must be social, and the true +object of the thinker must be the reorganization of the moral, religious +and political systems. We can readily see what an impulse these +far-reaching conceptions would give to Comte's meditations. There were +conceptions of less importance than these, in which it is impossible not +to feel that it was Saint-Simon's wrong or imperfect idea that put his +young admirer on the track to a right and perfected idea. The subject is +not worthy of further discussion. That Comte would have performed some +great intellectual achievement, if Saint-Simon had never been born, is +certain. It is hardly less certain that the great achievement which he +did actually perform was originally set in motion by Saint-Simon's +conversation, though it was afterwards directly filiated with the +fertile speculations of A. R. J. Turgot and Condorcet. Comte thought +almost as meanly of Plato as he did of Saint-Simon, and he considered +Aristotle the prince of all true thinkers; yet their vital difference +about Ideas did not prevent Aristotle from calling Plato master. + +After six years the differences between the old and the young +philosopher grew too marked for friendship. Comte began to fret under +Saint-Simon's pretensions to be his director. Saint-Simon, on the other +hand, perhaps began to feel uncomfortably conscious of the superiority +of his disciple. The occasion of the breach between them (1824) was an +attempt on Saint-Simon's part to print a production of Comte's as if it +were in some sort connected with Saint-Simon's schemes of social +reorganization. Not only was the breach not repaired, but long +afterwards Comte, as we have said, with painful ungraciousness took to +calling the encourager of his youth by very hard names. + + + Marriage. + +In 1825 Comte married a Mdlle Caroline Massin. His marriage was one of +those of which "magnanimity owes no account to prudence," and it did not +turn out prosperously. His family were strongly Catholic and royalist, +and they were outraged by his refusal to have the marriage performed +other than civilly. They consented, however, to receive his wife, and +the pair went on a visit to Montpellier. Madame Comte conceived a +dislike to the circle she found there, and this was the too early +beginning of disputes which lasted for the remainder of their union. In +the year of his marriage we find Comte writing to the most intimate of +his correspondents:--"I have nothing left but to concentrate my whole +moral existence in my intellectual work, a precious but inadequate +compensation; and so I must give up, if not the most dazzling, still the +sweetest part of my happiness." He tried to find pupils to board with +him, but only one pupil came, and he was soon sent away for lack of +companions. "I would rather spend an evening," wrote the needy +enthusiast, "in solving a difficult question, than in running after some +empty-headed and consequential millionaire in search of a pupil." A +little money was earned by an occasional article in _Le Producteur_, in +which he began to expound the philosophic ideas that were now maturing +in his mind. He announced a course of lectures (1826), which it was +hoped would bring money as well as fame, and which were to be the first +dogmatic exposition of the Positive Philosophy. A friend had said to +him, "You talk too freely, your ideas are getting abroad, and other +people use them without giving you the credit; put your ownership on +record." The lectures attracted hearers so eminent as Humboldt the +cosmologist, Poinsot the geometer and Blainville the physiologist. + + + Serious illness. + +Unhappily, after the third lecture of the course, Comte had a severe +attack of cerebral derangement, brought on by intense and prolonged +meditation, acting on a system that was already irritated by the chagrin +of domestic discomfort. He did not recover his health for more than a +year, and as soon as convalescence set in he was seized by so profound +a melancholy at the disaster which had thus overtaken him, that he threw +himself into the Seine. Fortunately he was rescued, and the shock did +not stay his return to mental soundness. One incident of this painful +episode is worth mentioning. Lamennais, then in the height of his +Catholic exaltation, persuaded Comte's mother to insist on her son being +married with the religious ceremony, and as the younger Madame Comte +apparently did not resist, the rite was duly performed, in spite of the +fact that Comte was at the time raving mad. Philosophic assailants of +Comtism have not always resisted the temptation to recall the +circumstance that its founder was once out of his mind. As has been +justly said, if Newton once suffered a cerebral attack without +forfeiting our veneration for the _Principia_, Comte may have suffered +in the same way, and still not have forfeited our respect for Positive +Philosophy and Positive Polity. + + + Official work. + +In 1828 the lectures were renewed, and in 1830 was published the first +volume of the _Course of Positive Philosophy_. The sketch and ground +plan of this great undertaking had appeared in 1826. The sixth and last +volume was published in 1842. The twelve years covering the publication +of the first of Comte's two elaborate works were years of indefatigable +toil, and they were the only portion of his life in which he enjoyed a +certain measure, and that a very modest measure, of material prosperity. +In 1833 he was appointed examiner of the boys who in the various +provincial schools aspired to enter the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris. +This and two other engagements as a teacher of mathematics secured him +an income of some L400 a year. He made M. Guizot, then Louis Philippe's +minister, the important proposal to establish a chair of general history +of the sciences. If there are four chairs, he argued, devoted to the +history of philosophy, that is to say, the minute study of all sorts of +dreams and aberrations through the ages, surely there ought to be at +least one to explain the formation and progress of our real knowledge? +This wise suggestion, still unfulfilled, was at first welcomed, +according to Comte's own account, by Guizot's philosophic instinct, and +then repulsed by his "metaphysical rancour." + +Meanwhile Comte did his official work conscientiously, sorely as he +grudged the time which it took from the execution of the great object of +his thoughts. "I hardly know if even to you," he writes to his wife, "I +dare disclose the sweet and softened feeling that comes over me when I +find a young man whose examination is thoroughly satisfactory. Yes, +though you may smile, the emotion would easily stir me to tears if I +were not carefully on my guard." Such sympathy with youthful hope, in +union with industry and intelligence, shows that Comte's dry and austere +manner veiled the fires of a generous social emotion. It was this which +made him add to his labours the burden of delivering every year from +1831 to 1848 a course of gratuitous lectures on astronomy for a popular +audience. The social feeling that inspired this disinterested act showed +itself in other ways. He suffered imprisonment rather than serve in the +national guard; his position was that though he would not take arms +against the new monarchy of July, yet being a republican he would take +no oath to defend it. The only amusement that Comte permitted himself +was a visit to the opera. In his youth he had been a playgoer, but he +shortly came to the conclusion that tragedy is a stilted and bombastic +art, and after a time comedy interested him no more than tragedy. For +the opera he had a genuine passion, which he gratified as often as he +could, until his means became too narrow to afford even that single +relaxation. + +Of his manner and personal appearance we have the following account from +one who was his pupil:--"Daily as the clock struck eight on the horologe +of the Luxembourg, while the ringing hammer on the bell was yet audible, +the door of my room opened, and there entered a man, short, rather +stout, almost what one might call sleek, freshly shaven, without vestige +of whisker or moustache. He was invariably dressed in a suit of the most +spotless black, as if going to a dinner party; his white neck-cloth was +fresh from the laundress's hands, and his hat shining like a racer's +coat. He advanced to the arm-chair prepared for him in the centre of the +writing-table, laid his hat on the left-hand corner; his snuff-box was +deposited on the same side beside the quire of paper placed in readiness +for his use, and dipping the pen twice into the ink-bottle, then +bringing it to within an inch of his nose to make sure it was properly +filled, he broke silence: 'We have said that the chord AB,' &c. For +three-quarters of an hour he continued his demonstration, making short +notes as he went on, to guide the listener in repeating the problem +alone; then, taking up another cahier which lay beside him, he went over +the written repetition of the former lesson. He explained, corrected or +commented till the clock struck nine; then, with the little finger of +the right hand brushing from his coat and waistcoat the shower of +superfluous snuff which had fallen on them, he pocketed his snuff-box, +and resuming his hat, he as silently as when he came in made his exit by +the door which I rushed to open for him." + + + Completion of "Positive Philosophy." + +In 1842, as we have said, the last volume of the _Positive Philosophy_ +was given to the public. Instead of that contentment which we like to +picture as the reward of twelve years of meritorious toil devoted to the +erection of a high philosophic edifice, Comte found himself in the midst +of a very sea of small troubles, of that uncompensated kind that harass +without elevating, and waste a man's spirit without softening or +enlarging it. First, the jar of temperament between Comte and his wife +had become so unbearable that they separated (1842). We know too little +of the facts to allot blame to either of them. In spite of one or two +disadvantageous facts in her career, Madame Comte seems to have +uniformly comported herself towards her husband with an honourable +solicitude for his well-being. Comte made her an annual allowance, and +for some years after the separation they corresponded on friendly terms. +Next in the list of the vexations was a lawsuit with his publisher. The +publisher had inserted in the sixth volume a protest against a certain +footnote, in which Comte had used some hard words about Arago. Comte +threw himself into the suit with an energy worthy of Voltaire and won +it. Third, and worst of all, he had prefixed a preface to the sixth +volume, in which he went out of his way to rouse the enmity of the men +on whom depended his annual re-election to the post of examiner for the +Polytechnic school. The result was that he lost the appointment, and +with it one-half of his very modest income. This was the occasion of an +episode, which is of more than merely personal interest. + + + J. S. Mill. + +Before 1842 Comte had been in correspondence with J. S. Mill, who had +been greatly impressed by Comte's philosophic ideas; Mill admits that +his own _System of Logic_ owes many valuable thoughts to Comte, and +that, in the portion of that work which treats of the logic of the moral +sciences, a radical improvement in the conceptions of logical method was +derived from the _Positive Philosophy_. Their correspondence, which was +full and copious, turned principally upon the two great questions of the +equality between men and women, and of the expediency and constitution +of a sacerdotal or spiritual order. When Comte found himself straitened, +he confided the entire circumstances to Mill. As might be supposed by +those who know the affectionate anxiety with which Mill regarded the +welfare of any one whom he believed to be doing good work in the world, +he at once took pains to have Comte's loss of income made up to him, +until Comte should have had time to repair that loss by his own +endeavour. Mill persuaded Grote, Molesworth, and Raikes Currie to +advance the sum of L240. At the end of the year (1845) Comte had taken +no steps to enable himself to dispense with the aid of the three +Englishmen. Mill applied to them again, but with the exception of Grote, +who sent a small sum, they gave Comte to understand that they expected +him to earn his own living. Mill had suggested to Comte that he should +write articles for the English periodicals, and expressed his own +willingness to translate any such articles from the French. Comte at +first fell in with the plan, but he speedily surprised and disconcerted +Mill by boldly taking up the position of "high moral magistrate," and +accusing the three defaulting contributors of a scandalous falling away +from righteousness and a high mind. Mill was chilled by these +pretensions; and the correspondence came to an end. There is something +to be said for both sides. Comte, regarding himself as the promoter of a +great scheme for the benefit of humanity, might reasonably look for the +support of his friends in the fulfilment of his designs. But Mill and +the others were fully justified in not aiding the propagation of a +doctrine in which they might not wholly concur. Comte's subsequent +attitude of censorious condemnation put him entirely in the wrong. + +From 1845 to 1848 Comte lived as best he could, as well as made his wife +her allowance, on an income of L200 a year. His little account books of +income and outlay, with every item entered down to a few hours before +his death, are accurate and neat enough to have satisfied an ancient +Roman householder. In 1848, through no fault of his own, his salary was +reduced to L80. Littre and others, with Comte's approval, published an +appeal for subscriptions, and on the money thus contributed Comte +subsisted for the remaining nine years of his life. By 1852 the subsidy +produced as much as L200 a year. It is worth noticing that Mill was one +of the subscribers, and that Littre continued his assistance after he +had been driven from Comte's society by his high pontifical airs. We are +sorry not to be able to record any similar trait of magnanimity on +Comte's part. His character, admirable as it is for firmness, for +intensity, for inexorable will, for iron devotion to what he thought the +service of mankind, yet offers few of those softening qualities that +make us love good men and pity bad ones. + + + Literary method. + +It is best to think of him only as the intellectual worker, pursuing in +uncomforted obscurity the laborious and absorbing task to which he had +given up his whole life. His singularly conscientious fashion of +elaborating his ideas made the mental strain more intense than even so +exhausting a work as the abstract exposition of the principles of +positive science need have been. He did not write down a word until he +had first composed the whole matter in his mind. When he had thoroughly +meditated every sentence, he sat down to write, and then, such was the +grip of his memory, the exact order of his thoughts came back to him as +if without an effort, and he wrote down precisely what he had intended +to write, without the aid of a note or a memorandum, and without check +or pause. For example, he began and completed in about six weeks a +chapter in the _Positive Philosophy_ (vol. v. ch. 55) which would fill +forty pages of this Encyclopaedia. When we reflect that the chapter is +not narrative, but an abstract exposition of the guiding principles of +the movements of several centuries, with many threads of complex thought +running along side by side all through the speculation, then the +circumstances under which it was reduced to literary form are really +astonishing. It is hardly possible, however, to share the admiration +expressed by some of Comte's disciples for his style. We are not so +unreasonable as to blame him for failing to make his pages picturesque +or thrilling; we do not want sunsets and stars and roses and ecstasy; +but there is a certain standard for the most serious and abstract +subjects. When compared with such philosophic writing as Hume's, +Diderot's, Berkeley's, then Comte's manner is heavy, laboured, +monotonous, without relief and without light. There is now and then an +energetic phrase, but as a whole the vocabulary is jejune; the sentences +are overloaded; the pitch is flat. A scrupulous insistence on making his +meaning clear led to an iteration of certain adjectives and adverbs, +which at length deadened the effect beyond the endurance of all but the +most resolute students. Only the interest of the matter prevents one +from thinking of Rivarol's ill-natured remark upon Condorcet, that he +wrote with opium on a page of lead. The general effect is impressive, +not by any virtues of style, for we do not discern one, but by reason of +the magnitude and importance of the undertaking, and the visible +conscientiousness and the grasp with which it is executed. It is by +sheer strength of thought, by the vigorous perspicacity with which he +strikes the lines of cleavage of his subject, that he makes his way +into the mind of the reader; in the presence of gifts of this power we +need not quarrel with an ungainly style. + + + Hygiene cerebrale. + +Comte pursued one practice which ought to be mentioned in connexion with +his personal history, the practice of what he style _hygiene cerebrale_. +After he had acquired what he considered to be a sufficient stock of +material, and this happened before he had completed the _Positive +Philosophy_, he abstained from reading newspapers, reviews, scientific +transactions and everything else, except two or three poets (notably +Dante) and the _Imitatio Christi_. It is true that his friends kept him +informed of what was going on in the scientific world. Still this +partial divorce of himself from the record of the social and scientific +activity of his time, though it may save a thinker from the deplorable +evils of dispersion, moral and intellectual, accounts in no small +measure for the exaggerated egoism, and the absence of all feeling for +reality, which marked Comte's later days. + + + Madame de Vaux. + +In 1845 Comte made the acquaintance of Madame Clotilde de Vaux, a lady +whose husband had been sent to the galleys for life. Very little is +known about her qualities. She wrote a little piece which Comte rated so +preposterously as to talk about George Sand in the same sentence; it is +in truth a flimsy performance, though it contains one or two gracious +thoughts. There is true beauty in the saying--"_It is unworthy of a +noble nature to diffuse its pain._" Madame de Vaux's letters speak well +for her good sense and good feeling, and it would have been better for +Comte's later work if she had survived to exert a wholesome restraint on +his exaltation. Their friendship had only lasted a year when she died +(1846), but the period was long enough to give her memory a supreme +ascendancy in Comte's mind. Condillac, Joubert, Mill and other eminent +men have shown what the intellectual ascendancy of a woman can be. Comte +was as inconsolable after Madame de Vaux's death as D'Alembert after the +death of Mademoiselle L'Espinasse. Every Wednesday afternoon he made a +reverential pilgrimage to her tomb, and three times every day he invoked +her memory in words of passionate expansion. His disciples believe that +in time the world will reverence Comte's sentiment about Clotilde de +Vaux, as it reveres Dante's adoration of Beatrice--a parallel that Comte +himself was the first to hit upon. Yet we cannot help feeling that it is +a grotesque and unseemly anachronism to apply in grave prose, addressed +to the whole world, those terms of saint and angel which are touching +and in their place amid the trouble and passion of the great mystic +poet. Whatever other gifts Comte may have had--and he had many of the +rarest kind,--poetic imagination was not among them, any more than +poetic or emotional expression was among them. His was one of those +natures whose faculty of deep feeling is unhappily doomed to be +inarticulate, and to pass away without the magic power of transmitting +itself. + + + Positive Polity. + +Comte lost no time, after the completion of his _Course of Positive +Philosophy_, in proceeding with the _System of Positive Polity_, for +which the earlier work was designed to be a foundation. The first volume +was published in 1851, and the fourth and last in 1854. In 1848, when +the political air was charged with stimulating elements, he founded the +Positive Society, with the expectation that it might grow into a reunion +as powerful over the new revolution as the Jacobin Club had been in the +revolution of 1789. The hope was not fulfilled, but a certain number of +philosophic disciples gathered round Comte, and eventually formed +themselves, under the guidance of the new ideas of the latter half of +his life, into a kind of church, for whose use was drawn up the +_Positivist Calendar_ (1849), in which the names of those who had +advanced civilization replaced the titles of the saints. Gutenberg and +Shakespeare were among the patrons of the thirteen months in this +calendar. In the years 1849, 1850 and 1851 Comte gave three courses of +lectures at the Palais Royal. They were gratuitous and popular, and in +them he boldly advanced the whole of his doctrine, as well as the direct +and immediate pretensions of himself and his system. The third course +ended in the following uncompromising terms--"In the name of the Past +and of the Future, the servants of Humanity--both its philosophical and +its practical servants--come forward to claim as their due the general +direction of this world. Their object is to constitute at length a real +Providence in all departments,--moral, intellectual and material. +Consequently they exclude once for all from political supremacy all the +different servants of God--Catholic, Protestant or Deist--as being at +once behindhand and a cause of disturbance." A few weeks after this +invitation, a very different person stepped forward to constitute +himself a real Providence. + +In 1852 Comte published the _Catechism of Positivism_. In the preface to +it he took occasion to express his approval of Louis Napoleon's _coup +d'etat_ of the 2nd of December,--"a fortunate crisis which has set aside +the parliamentary system and instituted a dictatorial republic." +Whatever we may think of the political sagacity of such a judgment, it +is due to Comte to say that he did not expect to see his dictatorial +republic transformed into a dynastic empire, and, next, that he did +expect from the Man of December freedom of the press and of public +meeting. His later hero was the emperor Nicholas, "the only statesman in +Christendom,"--as unlucky a judgment as that which placed Dr Francia in +the Comtist Calendar. + + + Death. + +In 1857 he was attacked by cancer, and died peaceably on the 5th of +September of that year. The anniversary is celebrated by ceremonial +gatherings of his French and English followers, who then commemorate the +name and the services of the founder of their religion. By his will he +appointed thirteen executors who were to preserve his rooms at 10 rue +Monsieur-le-Prince as the headquarters of the new religion of Humanity. + + + Comte's philosophic consistency. + + Early writing. + +In proceeding to give an Outline of Comte's system, we shall consider +the _Positive Polity_ as the more or less legitimate sequel of the +_Positive Philosophy_, notwithstanding the deep gulf which so eminent a +critic as J. S. Mill insisted upon fixing between the earlier and the +later work. There may be, as we think there is, the greatest difference +in their value, and the temper is not the same, nor the method. But the +two are quite capable of being regarded, and for the purposes of an +account of Comte's career ought to be regarded, as an integral whole. +His letters when he was a young man of one-and-twenty, and before he had +published a word, show how strongly present the social motive was in his +mind, and in what little account he should hold his scientific works, if +he did not perpetually think of their utility for the species. "I feel," +he wrote, "that such scientific reputation as I might acquire would give +more value, more weight, more useful influence to my political sermons." +In 1822 he published a _Plan of the Scientific Works necessary to +reorganize Society_. In this he points out that modern society is +passing through a great crisis, due to the conflict of two opposing +movements,--the first, a disorganizing movement owing to the break-up of +old institutions and beliefs; the second, a movement towards a definite +social state, in which all means of human prosperity will receive their +most complete development and most direct application. How is this +crisis to be dealt with? What are the undertakings necessary in order to +pass successfully through it towards an organic state? The answer to +this is that there are two series of works. The first is theoretic or +spiritual, aiming at the development of a new principle of co-ordinating +social relations, and the formation of the system of general ideas which +are destined to guide society. The second work is practical or temporal; +it settles the distribution of power, and the institutions that are most +conformable to the spirit of the system which has previously been +thought out in the course of the theoretic work. As the practical work +depends on the conclusions of the theoretical, the latter must obviously +come first in order of execution. + +In 1826 this was pushed farther in a most remarkable piece called +_Considerations on the Spiritual Power_--the main object of which is to +demonstrate the necessity of instituting a spiritual power, distinct +from the temporal power and independent of it. In examining the +conditions of a spiritual power proper for modern times, he indicates in +so many terms the presence in his mind of a direct analogy between his +proposed spiritual power and the functions of the Catholic clergy at the +time of its greatest vigour and most complete independence,--that is to +say, from about the middle of the 11th century until towards the end of +the 13th. He refers to de Maistre's memorable book, _Du Pape_, as the +most profound, accurate and methodical account of the old spiritual +organization, and starts from that as the model to be adapted to the +changed intellectual and social conditions of the modern time. In the +_Positive Philosophy_, again (vol. v. p. 344), he distinctly says that +Catholicism, reconstituted as a system on new intellectual foundations, +would finally preside over the spiritual reorganization of modern +society. Much else could be quoted to the same effect. If unity of +career, then, means that Comte, from the beginning designed the +institution of a spiritual power, and the systematic reorganization of +life, it is difficult to deny him whatever credit that unity may be +worth, and the credit is perhaps not particularly great. Even the +readaptation of the Catholic system to a scientific doctrine was plainly +in his mind thirty years before the final execution of the _Positive +Polity_, though it is difficult to believe that he foresaw the religious +mysticism in which the task was to land him. A great analysis was to +precede a great synthesis, but it was the synthesis on which Comte's +vision was centred from the first. Let us first sketch the nature of the +analysis. Society is to be reorganized on the base of knowledge. What is +the sum and significance of knowledge? That is the question which +Comte's first master-work professes to answer. + + + Law of the Three States. + +The _Positive Philosophy_ opens with the statement of a certain law of +which Comte was the discoverer, and which has always been treated both +by disciples and dissidents as the key to his system. This is the Law of +the Three States. It is as follows. Each of our leading conceptions, +each branch of our knowledge, passes successively through three +different phases; there are three different ways in which the human mind +explains phenomena, each way following the other in order. These three +stages are the Theological, the Metaphysical and the Positive. +Knowledge, or a branch of knowledge, is in the Theological state, when +it supposes the phenomena under consideration to be due to immediate +volition, either in the object or in some supernatural being. In the +Metaphysical state, for volition is substituted abstract force residing +in the object, yet existing independently of the object; the phenomena +are viewed as if apart from the bodies manifesting them; and the +properties of each substance have attributed to them an existence +distinct from that substance. In the Positive state, inherent volition +or external volition and inherent force or abstraction personified have +both disappeared from men's minds, and the explanation of a phenomenon +means a reference of it, by way of succession or resemblance, to some +other phenomenon,--means the establishment of a relation between the +given fact and some more general fact. In the Theological and +Metaphysical state men seek a cause or an essence; in the Positive they +are content with a law. To borrow an illustration from an able English +disciple of Comte:--"Take the phenomenon of the sleep produced by opium. +The Arabs are content to attribute it to the 'will of God.' Moliere's +medical student accounts for it by a _soporific principle_ contained in +the opium. The modern physiologist knows that he cannot account for it +at all. He can simply observe, analyse and experiment upon the phenomena +attending the action of the drug, and classify it with other agents +analogous in character."--(_Dr Bridges._) + +The first and greatest aim of the Positive Philosophy is to advance the +study of society into the third of the three stages,--to remove social +phenomena from the sphere of theological and metaphysical conceptions, +and to introduce among them the same scientific observation of their +laws which has given us physics, chemistry, physiology. Social physics +will consist of the conditions and relations of the facts of society, +and will have two departments,--one, statical, containing the laws of +order; the other dynamical, containing the laws of progress. While +men's minds were in the theological state, political events, for +example, were explained by the will of the gods, and political authority +based on divine right. In the metaphysical state of mind, then, to +retain our instance, political authority was based on the sovereignty of +the people, and social facts were explained by the figment of a falling +away from a state of nature. When the positive method has been finally +extended to society, as it has been to chemistry and physiology, these +social facts will be resolved, as their ultimate analysis, into +relations with one another, and instead of seeking causes in the old +sense of the word, men will only examine the conditions of social +existence. When that stage has been reached, not merely the greater +part, but the whole, of our knowledge will be impressed with one +character, the character, namely, of positivity or scientificalness; and +all our conceptions in every part of knowledge will be thoroughly +homogeneous. The gains of such a change are enormous. The new +philosophical unity will now in its turn regenerate all the elements +that went to its own formation. The mind will pursue knowledge without +the wasteful jar and friction of conflicting methods and mutually +hostile conceptions; education will be regenerated; and society will +reorganize itself on the only possible solid base--a homogeneous +philosophy. + + + Classification of sciences. + +The _Positive Philosophy_ has another object besides the demonstration +of the necessity and propriety of a science of society. This object is +to show the sciences as branches from a single trunk,--is to give to +science the ensemble or spirit or generality hitherto confined to +philosophy, and to give to philosophy the rigour and solidity of +science. Comte's special object is a study of social physics, a science +that before his advent was still to be formed; his second object is a +review of the methods and leading generalities of all the positive +sciences already formed, so that we may know both what system of inquiry +to follow in our new science, and also where the new science will stand +in relation to other knowledge. + +The first step in this direction is to arrange scientific method and +positive knowledge in order, and this brings us to another cardinal +element in the Comtist system, the classification of the sciences. In +the front of the inquiry lies one main division, that, namely, between +speculative and practical knowledge. With the latter we have no concern. +Speculative or theoretic knowledge is divided into abstract and +concrete. The former is concerned with the laws that regulate phenomena +in all conceivable cases: the latter is concerned with the application +of these laws. Concrete science relates to objects or beings; abstract +science to events. The former is particular or descriptive; the latter +is general. Thus, physiology is an abstract science; but zoology is +concrete. Chemistry is abstract; mineralogy is concrete. It is the +method and knowledge of the abstract sciences that the Positive +Philosophy has to reorganize in a great whole. + +Comte's principle of classification is that the dependence and order of +scientific study follows the dependence of the phenomena. Thus, as has +been said, it represents both the objective dependence of the phenomena +and the subjective dependence of our means of knowing them. The more +particular and complex phenomena depend upon the simpler and more +general. The latter are the more easy to study. Therefore science will +begin with those attributes of objects which are most general, and pass +on gradually to other attributes that are combined in greater +complexity. Thus, too, each science rests on the truths of the sciences +that precede it, while it adds to them the truths by which it is itself +constituted. Comte's series or hierarchy is arranged as follows:--(1) +Mathematics (that is, number, geometry, and mechanics), (2) Astronomy, +(3) Physics, (4) Chemistry, (5) Biology, (6) Sociology. Each of the +members of this series is one degree more special than the member before +it, and depends upon the facts of all the members preceding it, and +cannot be fully understood without them. It follows that the crowning +science of the hierarchy, dealing with the phenomena of human society, +will remain longest under the influence of theological dogmas and +abstract figments, and will be the last to pass into the positive stage. +You cannot discover the relations of the facts of human society without +reference to the conditions of animal life; you cannot understand the +conditions of animal life without the laws of chemistry; and so with the +rest. + + + The double key of positive philosophy. + +This arrangement of the sciences, and the Law of the Three States, are +together explanatory of the course of human thought and knowledge. They +are thus the double key of Comte's systematization of the philosophy of +all the sciences from mathematics to physiology, and his analysis of +social evolution, which is the base of sociology. Each science +contributes its philosophy. The co-ordination of all these partial +philosophies produces the general Positive Philosophy. "Thousands had +cultivated science, and with splendid success; not one had conceived the +philosophy which the sciences when organized would naturally evolve. A +few had seen the necessity of extending the scientific method to all +inquiries, but no one had seen how this was to be effected.... The +Positive Philosophy is novel as a philosophy, not as a collection of +truths never before suspected. Its novelty is the organization of +existing elements. Its very principle implies the absorption of all that +great thinkers had achieved; while incorporating their results it +extended their methods.... What tradition brought was the results; what +Comte brought was the organization of these results. He always claimed +to be the founder of the Positive Philosophy. That he had every right to +such a title is demonstrable to all who distinguish between the positive +sciences and the philosophy which co-ordinated the truths and methods of +these sciences into a doctrine."--_G. H. Lewes._ + + + Criticism on Comte's classification. + +Comte's classification of the sciences has been subjected to a vigorous +criticism by Herbert Spencer. Spencer's two chief points are these:--(1) +He denies that the principle of the development of the sciences is the +principle of decreasing generality; he asserts that there are as many +examples of the advent of a science being determined by increasing +generality as by increasing speciality. (2) He holds that any grouping +of the sciences in a succession gives a radically wrong idea of their +genesis and their interdependence; no true filiation exists; no science +develops itself in isolation; no one is independent, either logically or +historically. Littre, by far the most eminent of the scientific +followers of Comte, concedes a certain force to Spencer's objections, +and makes certain secondary modifications in the hierarchy in +consequence, while still cherishing his faith in the Comtist theory of +the sciences. J. S. Mill, while admitting the objections as good, if +Comte's arrangement pretended to be the only one possible, still holds +the arrangement as tenable for the purpose with which it was devised. G. +H. Lewes asserts against Spencer that the arrangement in a series is +necessary, on grounds similar to those which require that the various +truths constituting a science should be systematically co-ordinated +although in nature the phenomena are intermingled. + +The first three volumes of the _Positive Philosophy_ contain an +exposition of the partial philosophies of the five sciences that precede +sociology in the hierarchy. Their value has usually been placed very low +by the special followers of the sciences concerned; they say that the +knowledge is second-hand, is not coherent, and is too confidently taken +for final. The Comtist replies that the task is philosophic; and is not +to be judged by the minute accuracies of science. In these three volumes +Comte took the sciences roughly as he found them. His eminence as a man +of science must be measured by his only original work in that +department,--the construction, namely, of the new science of society. +This work is accomplished in the last three volumes of the _Positive +Philosophy_, and the second and third volumes of the _Positive Polity_. +The Comtist maintains that even if these five volumes together fail in +laying down correctly and finally the lines of the new science, still +they are the first solution of a great problem hitherto unattempted. +"Modern biology has got beyond Aristotle's conception; but in the +construction of the biological science, not even the most +unphilosophical biologist would fail to recognize the value of +Aristotle's attempt. So for sociology. Subsequent sociologists may have +conceivably to remodel the whole science, yet not the less will they +recognize the merit of the first work which has facilitated their +labours."--_Congreve._ + + + Sociological conceptions. + + Method. + +We shall now briefly describe Comte's principal conceptions in +sociology, his position in respect to which is held by himself, and by +others, to raise him to the level of Descartes or Leibnitz. Of course +the first step was to approach the phenomena of human character and +social existence with the expectation of finding them as reducible to +general laws as the other phenomena of the universe, and with the hope +of exploring these laws by the same instruments of observation and +verification as had done such triumphant work in the case of the latter. +Comte separates the collective facts of society and history from the +individual phenomena of biology; then he withdraws these collective +facts from the region of external volition, and places them in the +region of law. The facts of history must be explained, not by +providential interventions, but by referring them to conditions inherent +in the successive stages of social existence. This conception makes a +science of society possible. What is the method? It comprises, besides +observation and experiment (which is, in fact, only the observation of +abnormal social states), a certain peculiarity of verification. We begin +by deducing every well-known historical situation from the series of its +antecedents. Thus we acquire a body of empirical generalizations as to +social phenomena, and then we connect the generalizations with the +positive theory of human nature. A sociological demonstration lies in +the establishment of an accordance between the conclusions of historical +analysis and the preparatory conceptions of biological theory. As Mill +puts it:--"If a sociological theory, collected from historical evidence, +contradicts the established general laws of human nature; if (to use M. +Comte's instances) it implies, in the mass of mankind, any very decided +natural bent, either in a good or in a bad direction; if it supposes +that the reason, in average human beings, predominates over the desires, +or the disinterested desires over the personal,--we may know that +history has been misinterpreted, and that the theory is false. On the +other hand, if laws of social phenomena, empirically generalized from +history, can, when once suggested, be affiliated to the known laws of +human nature; if the direction actually taken by the developments and +changes of human society, can be seen to be such as the properties of +man and of his dwelling-place made antecedently probable, the empirical +generalizations are raised into positive laws, and sociology becomes a +science." The result of this method, is an exhibition of the events of +human experience in co-ordinated series that manifest their own +graduated connexion. + +Next, as all investigation proceeds from that which is known best to +that which is unknown or less well known, and as, in social states, it +is the collective phenomenon that is more easy of access to the observer +than its parts, therefore we must consider and pursue all the elements +of a given social state together and in common. The social organization +must be viewed and explored as a whole. There is a nexus between each +leading group of social phenomena and other leading groups; if there is +a change in one of them, that change is accompanied by a corresponding +modification of all the rest. "Not only must political institutions and +social manners, on the one hand, and manners and ideas, on the other, be +always mutually connected; but further, this consolidated whole must be +always connected by its nature with the corresponding state of the +integral development of humanity, considered in all its aspects of +intellectual, moral and physical activity."--_Comte._ + + + Decisive Importance of Intellectual development. + +Is there any one element which communicates the decisive impulse to all +the rest,--any predominating agency in the course of social evolution? +The answer is that all the other parts of social existence are +associated with, and drawn along by, the contemporary condition of +intellectual development. The Reason is the superior and preponderant +element which settles the direction in which all the other faculties +shall expand. "It is only through the more and more marked influence of +the reason over the general conduct of man and of society, that the +gradual march of our race has attained that regularity and persevering +continuity which distinguish it so radically from the desultory and +barren expansion of even the highest animal orders, which share, and +with enhanced strength, the appetites, the passions, and even the +primary sentiments of man." The history of intellectual development, +therefore, is the key to social evolution, and the key to the history of +intellectual development is the Law of the Three States. + +Among other central thoughts in Comte's explanation of history are +these:--The displacement of theological by positive conceptions has been +accompanied by a gradual rise of an industrial regime out of the +military regime;--the great permanent contribution of Catholicism was +the separation which it set up between the temporal and the spiritual +powers;--the progress of the race consists in the increasing +preponderance of the distinctively human elements over the animal +elements;--the absolute tendency of ordinary social theories will be +replaced by an unfailing adherence to the relative point of view, and +from this it follows that the social state, regarded as a whole, has +been as perfect in each period as the co-existing condition of humanity +and its environment would allow. + +The elaboration of these ideas in relation to the history of the +civilization of the most advanced portion of the human race occupies two +of the volumes of the _Positive Philosophy_, and has been accepted by +very different schools as a masterpiece of rich, luminous, and +far-reaching suggestion. Whatever additions it may receive, and whatever +corrections it may require, this analysis of social evolution will +continue to be regarded as one of the great achievements of human +intellect. + + + Social dynamics in the Positive Polity. + +The third volume of the _Positive Polity_ treats of social dynamics, and +takes us again over the ground of historic evolution. It abounds with +remarks of extraordinary fertility and comprehensiveness; but it is +often arbitrary; and its views of the past are strained into coherence +with the statical views of the preceding volume. As it was composed in +rather less than six months, and as the author honestly warns us that he +has given all his attention to a more profound co-ordination, instead of +working out the special explanations more fully, as he had promised, we +need not be surprised if the result is disappointing to those who had +mastered the corresponding portion of the _Positive Philosophy_. Comte +explains the difference between his two works. In the first his "chief +object was to discover and demonstrate the laws of progress, and to +exhibit in one unbroken sequence the collective destinies of mankind, +till then invariably regarded as a series of events wholly beyond the +reach of explanation, and almost depending on arbitrary will. The +present work, on the contrary, is addressed to those who are already +sufficiently convinced of the certain existence of social laws, and +desire only to have them reduced to a true and conclusive system." + + + The Positivist system. + + The Religion of humanity. + +The main principles of the Comtian system are derived from the _Positive +Polity_ and from two other works,--the _Positivist Catechism: a Summary +Exposition of the Universal Religion, in Twelve Dialogues between a +Woman and a Priest of Humanity_; and, second, _The Subjective Synthesis_ +(1856), which is the first and only volume of a work upon mathematics +announced at the end of the _Positive Philosophy_. The system for which +the _Positive Philosophy_ is alleged to have been the scientific +preparation contains a Polity and a Religion; a complete arrangement of +life in all its aspects, giving a wider sphere to Intellect, Energy and +Feeling than could be found in any of the previous organic +types,--Greek, Roman or Catholic-feudal. Comte's immense superiority +over such prae-Revolutionary utopians as the Abbe Saint Pierre, no less +than over the group of post-revolutionary Utopians, is especially +visible in this firm grasp of the cardinal truth that the improvement of +the social organism can only be effected by a moral development, and +never by any changes in mere political mechanism, or any violences in +the way of an artificial redistribution of wealth. A moral +transformation must precede any real advance. The aim, both in public +and private life, is to secure to the utmost possible extent the +victory of the social feeling over self-love, or Altruism over +Egoism.[1] This is the key to the regeneration of social existence, as +it is the key to that unity of individual life which makes all our +energies converge freely and without wasteful friction towards a common +end. What are the instruments for securing the preponderance of +Altruism? Clearly they must work from the strongest element in human +nature, and this element is Feeling or the Heart. Under the Catholic +system the supremacy of Feeling was abused, and the Intellect was made +its slave. Then followed a revolt of Intellect against Sentiment. The +business of the new system will be to bring back the Intellect into a +condition, not of slavery, but of willing ministry to the Feelings. The +subordination never was, and never will be, effected except by means of +a religion, and a religion, to be final, must include a harmonious +synthesis of all our conceptions of the external order of the universe. +The characteristic basis of a religion is the existence of a Power +without us, so superior to ourselves as to command the complete +submission of our whole life. This basis is to be found in the Positive +stage, in Humanity, past, present and to come, conceived as the Great +Being. + + "A deeper study of the great universal order reveals to us at length + the ruling power within it of the true Great Being, whose destiny it + is to bring that order continually to perfection by constantly + conforming to its laws, and which thus best represents to us that + system as a whole. This undeniable Providence, the supreme dispenser + of our destinies, becomes in the natural course the common centre of + our affections, our thoughts, and our actions. Although this Great + Being evidently exceeds the utmost strength of any, even of any + collective, human force, its necessary constitution and its peculiar + function endow it with the truest sympathy towards all its servants. + The least amongst us can and ought constantly to aspire to maintain + and even to improve this Being. This natural object of all our + activity, both public and private, determines the true general + character of the rest of our existence, whether in feeling or in + thought; which must be devoted to love, and to know, in order rightly + to serve, our Providence, by a wise use of all the means which it + furnishes to us. Reciprocally this continued service, whilst + strengthening our true unity, renders us at once both happier and + better." + + + Remarks on the religion. + +The exaltation of Humanity into the throne occupied by the Supreme Being +under monotheistic systems made all the rest of Comte's construction +easy enough. Utility remains the test of every institution, impulse, +act; his fabric becomes substantially an arch of utilitarian +propositions, with an artificial Great Being inserted at the top to keep +them in their place. The Comtist system is utilitarianism crowned by a +fantastic decoration. Translated into the plainest English, the position +is as follows: "Society can only be regenerated by the greater +subordination of politics to morals, by the moralization of capital, by +the renovation of the family, by a higher conception of marriage and so +on. These ends can only be reached by a heartier development of the +sympathetic instincts. The sympathetic instincts can only be developed +by the Religion of Humanity." Looking at the problem in this way, even a +moralist who does not expect theology to be the instrument of social +revival, might still ask whether the sympathetic instincts will not +necessarily be already developed to their highest point, before people +will be persuaded to accept the religion, which is at the bottom hardly +more than sympathy under a more imposing name. However that may be, the +whole battle--into which we shall not enter--as to the legitimateness of +Comtism as a religion turns upon this erection of Humanity into a Being. +The various hypotheses, dogmas, proposals, as to the family, to capital, +&c., are merely propositions measurable by considerations of utility and +a balance of expediencies. Many of these proposals are of the highest +interest, and many of them are actually available; but there does not +seem to be one of them of an available kind, which could not equally +well be approached from other sides, and even incorporated in some +radically antagonistic system. Adoption, for example, as a practice for +improving the happiness of families and the welfare of society, is +capable of being weighed, and can in truth only be weighed, by +utilitarian considerations, and has been commended by men to whom the +Comtist religion is naught. The singularity of Comte's construction, and +the test by which it must be tried, is the transfer of the worship and +discipline of Catholicism to a system in which "the conception of God is +superseded" by the abstract idea of Humanity, conceived as a kind of +Personality. + +And when all is said, the invention does not help us. We have still to +settle what _is_ for the good of Humanity, and we can only do that in +the old-fashioned way. There is no guidance in the conception. No +effective unity can follow from it, because you can only find out the +right and wrong of a given course by summing up the advantages and +disadvantages, and striking a balance, and there is nothing in the +Religion of Humanity to force two men to find the balance on the same +side. The Comtists are no better off than other utilitarians in judging +policy, events, conduct. + + + The worship and discipline. + +The particularities of the worship, its minute and truly ingenious +re-adaptations of sacraments, prayers, reverent signs, down even to the +invocation of a New Trinity, need not detain us. They are said, though +it is not easy to believe, to have been elaborated by way of Utopia. If +so, no Utopia has ever yet been presented in a style so little +calculated to stir the imagination, to warm the feelings, to soothe the +insurgency of the reason. It is a mistake to present a great body of +hypotheses--if Comte meant them for hypotheses--in the most dogmatic and +peremptory form to which language can lend itself. And there is no more +extraordinary thing in the history of opinion than the perversity with +which Comte has succeeded in clothing a philosophic doctrine, so +intrinsically conciliatory as his, in a shape that excites so little +sympathy and gives so much provocation. An enemy defined Comtism as +Catholicism _minus_ Christianity, to which an able champion retorted by +calling it Catholicism _plus_ Science. Comte's Utopia has pleased the +followers of the Catholic, just as little as those of the scientific, +spirit. + + + The priesthood. + +The elaborate and minute systematization of life, proper to the religion +of Humanity, is to be directed by a priesthood. The priests are to +possess neither wealth nor material power; they are not to command, but +to counsel; their authority is to rest on persuasion, not on force. When +religion has become positive, and society industrial, then the influence +of the church upon the state becomes really free and independent, which +was not the case in the middle ages. The power of the priesthood rests +upon special knowledge of man and nature; but to this intellectual +eminence must also be added moral power and a certain greatness of +character, without which force of intellect and completeness of +attainment will not receive the confidence they ought to inspire. The +functions of the priesthood are of this kind:--To exercise a systematic +direction over education; to hold a consultative influence over all the +important acts of actual life, public and private; to arbitrate in cases +of practical conflict; to preach sermons recalling those principles of +generality and universal harmony which our special activities dispose us +to ignore; to order the due classification of society; to perform the +various ceremonies appointed by the founder of the religion. The +authority of the priesthood is to rest wholly on voluntary adhesion, and +there is to be perfect freedom of speech and discussion. This provision +hardly consists with Comte's congratulations to the tsar Nicholas on the +"wise vigilance" with which he kept watch over the importation of +Western books. + + + Women. + +From his earliest manhood Comte had been powerfully impressed by the +necessity of elevating the condition of women. (See remarkable passage +in his letters to M. Valat, pp. 84-87.) His friendship with Madame de +Vaux had deepened the impression, and in the reconstructed society women +are to play a highly important part. They are to be carefully excluded +from public action, but they are to do many more important things than +things political. To fit them for their functions, they are to be raised +above material cares, and they are to be thoroughly educated. The +family, which is so important an element of the Comtist scheme of +things, exists to carry the influence of woman over man to the highest +point of cultivation. Through affection she purifies the activity of +man. "Superior in power of affection, more able to keep both the +intellectual and the active powers in continual subordination to +feeling, women are formed as the natural intermediaries between Humanity +and man. The Great Being confides specially to them its moral +Providence, maintaining through them the direct and constant cultivation +of universal affection, in the midst of all the distractions of thought +or action, which are for ever withdrawing men from its influence.... +Beside the uniform influence of every woman on every man, to attach him +to Humanity, such is the importance and the difficulty of this ministry +that each of us should be placed under the special guidance of one of +these angels, to answer for him, as it were, to the Great Being. This +moral guardianship may assume three types,--the mother, the wife and the +daughter; each having several modifications, as shown in the concluding +volume. Together they form the three simple modes of solidarity, or +unity with contemporaries,--obedience, union and protection--as well as +the three degrees of continuity between ages, by uniting us with the +past, the present and the future. In accordance with my theory of the +brain, each corresponds with one of our three altruistic +instincts--veneration, attachment and benevolence." + + + Conclusion. + +How the positive method of observation and verification of real facts +has landed us in this, and much else of the same kind, is extremely hard +to guess. Seriously to examine an encyclopaedic system, that touches +life, society and knowledge at every point, is evidently beyond the +compass of such an article as this. There is in every chapter a whole +group of speculative suggestions, each of which would need a long +chapter to itself to elaborate or to discuss. There is at least one +biological speculation of astounding audacity, that could be examined in +nothing less than a treatise. Perhaps we have said enough to show that +after performing a great and real service to thought Comte almost +sacrificed his claims to gratitude by the invention of a system that, as +such, and independently of detached suggestions, is markedly retrograde. +But the world will take what is available in Comte, while forgetting +that in his work which is as irrational in one way as Hegel is in +another. + + See also the article POSITIVISM. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Works, Editions and Translations: Cours de philosophie + positive_ (6 vols., Paris, 1830-1842; 2nd ed. with preface by E. + Littre, Paris, 1864; 5th ed., 1893-1894; Eng. trans. Harriet + Martineau, 2 vols., London, 1853; 3 vols. London and New York, 1896); + _Discours sur l'esprit positif_ (Paris, 1844; Eng. trans. with + explanation E. S. Beesley, 1905); _Ordre et progres_ (ib. 1848); + _Discours sur l'ensemble de positivisme_ (1848, Eng. trans. J. H. + Bridges, London, 1852); _Systeme de politique positive, ou Traite de + sociologie_ (4 vols., Paris, 1852-1854; ed. 1898; Eng. trans. with + analysis and explanatory summary by Bridges, F. Harrison, E. S. + Beesley and others, 1875-1879); _Catechisme positiviste_ (Paris, 1852; + 3rd ed., 1890; Eng. trans. R. Congreve, Lond. 1858, 3rd ed., 1891); + _Appel aux Conservateurs_ (Paris, 1855 and 1898); _Synthese + subjective_ (1856 and 1878); _Essai de philos. mathematique_ (Paris, + 1878); P. Descours and H. Gordon Jones, _Fundamental Principles of + Positive Philos._ (trans. 1905), with biog. preface by E. S. Beesley. + The Letters of Comte have been published as follows:--the letters to + M. Valat and J. S. Mill, in _La Critique philosophique_ (1877); + correspondence with Mde. de Vaux (ib., 1884); _Correspondance inedite + d'Aug. Comte_ (1903 foll.); _Lettres inedites de J. S. Mill a Aug. + Comte publ. avec les responses de Comte_ (1899). + + _Criticism._--J. S. Mill, _Auguste Comte and Positivism_; J. H. + Bridges' reply to Mill, _The Unity of Comte's Life and Doctrines_ + (1866); Herbert Spencer's essay on the _Genesis of Science_ and + pamphlet on _The Classification of the Sciences_; Huxley's "Scientific + Aspects of Positivism," in his _Lay Sermons_; R. Congreve, _Essays + Political, Social and Religious_ (1874); J. Fiske, _Outlines of Cosmic + Philosophy_ (1874); G. H. Lewes, _History of Philosophy_, vol. ii.; + Edward Caird, _The Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte_ (Glasgow, + 1885); Hermann Gruber, _Aug. Comte der Begrunder des Positivismus. + Sein Leben und seine Lehre_ (Freiburg, 1889) and _Der Positivismus vom + Tode Aug. Comtes bis auf unsere Tage, 1857-1891_ (Freib. 1891); L. + Levy-Bruhl, _La Philosophie d'Aug. Comte_ (Paris, 1900); H. D. Hutton, + _Comte's Theory of Man's Future_ (1877), _Comte, the Man and the + Founder_ (1891), _Comte's Life and Work_ (1892); E. de Roberty, _Aug. + Comte et Herbert Spencer_ (Paris, 1894); J. Watson, _Comte, Mill and + Spencer. An outline of Philos._ (1895 and 1899); Millet, _La + Souverainete d'apres Aug. Comte_ (1905); L. de Montesquieu Fezensac, + _Le Systeme politique d'Aug. Comte_ (1907); G. Dumas, _Psychologie de + deux Messies positivistes_ (1905). (J. Mo.; X.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] For Comte's place in the history of ethical theory see ETHICS. + + + + +COMUS (from [Greek: komos], revel, or a company of revellers), in the +later mythology of the Greeks, the god of festive mirth. In classic +mythology the personification does not exist; but Comus appears in the +[Greek: Eikones], or _Descriptions of Pictures_, of Philostratus, a +writer of the 3rd century A.D. as a winged youth, slumbering in a +standing attitude, his legs crossed, his countenance flushed with wine, +his head--which is sunk upon his breast--crowned with dewy flowers, his +left hand feebly grasping a hunting spear, his right an inverted torch. +Ben Jonson introduces Comus, in his masque entitled _Pleasure reconciled +to Virtue_ (1619), as the portly jovial patron of good cheer, "First +father of sauce and deviser of jelly." In the _Comus, sive Phagesiposia +Cimmeria; Somnium_ (1608, and at Oxford, 1634), a moral allegory by a +Dutch author, Hendrik van der Putten, or Erycius Puteanus, the +conception is more nearly akin to Milton's, and Comus is a being whose +enticements are more disguised and delicate than those of Jonson's +deity. But Milton's Comus is a creation of his own. His story is one + + "Which never yet was heard in tale or song + From old or modern bard, in hall or bower." + +Born from the loves of Bacchus and Circe, he is "much like his father, +but his mother more"--a sorcerer, like her, who gives to travellers a +magic draught that changes their human face into the "brutal form of +some wild beast," and, hiding from them their own foul disfigurement, +makes them forget all the pure ties of life, "to roll with pleasure in a +sensual sty." + + + + +COMYN, JOHN (d. c. 1300), Scottish baron, was a son of John Comyn (d. +1274), justiciar of Galloway, who was a nephew of the constable of +Scotland, Alexander Comyn, earl of Buchan (d. 1289), and of the powerful +and wealthy Walter Comyn, earl of Mentieth (d. 1258). With his uncle the +earl of Buchan, the elder Comyn took a prominent part in the affairs of +Scotland during the latter part of the 13th century, and he had +interests and estates in England as well as in his native land. He +fought for Henry III. at Northampton and at Lewes, and was afterwards +imprisoned for a short time in London. The younger Comyn, who had +inherited the lordship of Badenoch from his great-uncle the earl of +Mentieth, was appointed one of the guardians of Scotland in 1286, and +shared in the negotiations between Edward I. and the Scots in 1289 and +1290. When Margaret, the Maid of Norway, died in 1290, Comyn was one of +the claimants for the Scottish throne, but he did not press his +candidature, and like the other Comyns urged the claim of John de +Baliol. After supporting Baliol in his rising against Edward I., Comyn +submitted to the English king in 1296; he was sent to reside in England, +but returned to Scotland shortly before his death. + +Comyn's son, JOHN COMYN (d. 1306), called the "red Comyn," is more +famous. Like his father he assisted Baliol in his rising against Edward +I., and he was for some time a hostage in England. Having been made +guardian of Scotland after the battle of Falkirk in 1298 he led the +resistance to the English king for about five years, and then early in +1304 made an honourable surrender. Comyn is chiefly known for his +memorable quarrel with Robert the Bruce. The origin of the dispute is +uncertain. Doubtless the two regarded each other as rivals; Comyn may +have refused to join in the insurrection planned by Bruce. At all events +the pair met at Dumfries in January 1306; during a heated altercation +charges of treachery were made, and Comyn was stabbed to death either by +Bruce or by his followers. + +Another member of the Comyn family who took an active part in Scottish +affairs during these troubled times is JOHN COMYN, earl of Buchan (d. c. +1313). This earl, a son of Earl Alexander, was constable of Scotland, +and was first an ally and then an enemy of Robert the Bruce. + + + + +CONACRE (a corruption of corn-acre), in Ireland, a system of letting +land, mostly in small patches, and usually for the growth of potatoes as +a kind of return instead of wages. It is now practically obsolete. + + + + +CONANT, THOMAS JEFFERSON (1802-1891), American Biblical scholar, was +born at Brandon, Vermont, on the 13th of December 1802. Graduating at +Middlebury College in 1823, he became tutor in the Columbian University +(now George Washington University) from 1825 to 1827, professor of +Greek, Latin and German at Waterville College (now Colby College) from +1827 to 1833, professor of biblical literature and criticism in Hamilton +(New York) Theological Institute from 1835 to 1851, and professor of +Hebrew and of Biblical exegesis in Rochester Theological Seminary from +1851 to 1857. From 1857 to 1875 he was employed by the American Bible +Union on the revision of the New Testament (1871). He married in 1830 +Hannah O'Brien Chaplin (1809-1865), who was herself the author of _The +Earnest Man_, a biography of Adoniram Judson (1855), and of _The History +of the English Bible_ (1859), besides being her husband's able assistant +in his Hebrew studies. He died in Brooklyn, New York, on the 30th of +April 1891. Conant was the foremost Hebrew scholar of his time in +America. His treatise, _The Meaning and Use of "Baptizein" +Philologically and Historically Investigated_ (1860), an "appendix to +the revised version of the Gospel by Matthew," is a valuable summary of +the evidence for Baptist doctrine. He translated and edited Gesenius's +_Hebrew Grammar_ (1839; 1877), and published revised versions with notes +of _Job_ (1856), _Genesis_ (1868), _Psalms_ (1871), _Proverbs_ (1872), +_Isaiah_ i.-xiii. 22 (1874), and _Historical Books of the Old Testament, +Joshua to II. Kings_ (1884). + + + + +CONATION (from Lat. _conari_, to attempt, strive), a psychological term, +originally chosen by Sir William Hamilton (_Lectures on Metaphysics_, +pp. 127 foll.), used generally of an attitude of mind involving a +tendency to take _action_, e.g. when one decides to remove an object +which is causing a painful sensation, or to try to interrupt an +unpleasant train of thought. This use of the word tends to lay emphasis +on the mind as self-determined in relation to external objects. Another +less common use of the word is to describe the pleasant or painful +sensations which accompany muscular activity; the _conative_ phenomena, +thus regarded, are psychic changes brought about by external causes. + +The chief difficulty in connexion with Conation is that of +distinguishing it from Feeling, a term of very vague significance both +in technical and in common usage. Thus the German psychologist F. +Brentano holds that no real distinction can be made. He argues that the +mental process from sorrow or dissatisfaction, through hope for a change +and courage to act, up to the voluntary determination which issues in +action, is a single homogeneous whole (_Psychologie_, pp. 308-309). The +mere fact, however, that the series is continuous is no ground for not +distinguishing its parts; if it were so, it would be impossible to +distinguish by separate names the various colours in the solar spectrum, +or indeed perception from conception. A more material objection, +moreover, is that, in point of fact, the feeling of pleasure or pain +roused by a given stimulus is specifically different from, and indeed +may not be followed by, the determination to modify or remove it. +Pleasure and pain, i.e. hedonic sensation _per se_, are essentially +distinct from appetition and aversion; the pleasures of hearing music or +enjoying sunshine are not in general accompanied by any volitional +activity. It is true that painful sensations are generally accompanied +by definite aversion or a tendency to take action, but the cases of +positive pleasure are amply sufficient to support a distinction. +Therefore, though in ordinary language such phrases as "feeling +aversion" are quite legitimate, accurate psychology compels us to +confine "feeling" to states of consciousness in which no conative +activity is present, i.e. to the psychic phenomena of pleasure or pain +considered in and by themselves. The study of such phenomena is +specifically described as Hedonics (Gr. [Greek: hedone], pleasure) or +Algedonics (Gr. [Greek: algedon], pain); the latter term was coined by +H. R. Marshall (in _Pain, Pleasure and Aesthetics_, 1894), but has not +been generally used. + +The problem of conation is closely related to that of Attention (q.v.), +which indeed, regarded as active consciousness, implies conation (G. T. +Ladd, _Psychology_, 1894, p. 213). Thus, whenever the mind deliberately +focusses itself upon a particular object, there is implied a psychic +effort (for the relation between Attention and Conation, see G. F. +Stout, _Analytic Psychology_, book i. chap. vi.). All conscious action, +and in a less degree even unconscious or reflex action, implies +attention; when the mind "attends" to any given external object, the +organ through the medium of which information regarding that object is +conveyed to the mind is set in motion. (See PSYCHOLOGY.) + + + + +CONCA, SEBASTIANO (1679-1764), Italian painter of the Florentine school, +was born at Gaeta, and studied at Naples under Francesco Solimena. In +1706, along with his brother Giovanni, who acted as his assistant, he +settled at Rome, where for several years he worked in chalk only, to +improve his drawing. He was patronized by the Cardinal Ottoboni, who +introduced him to Clement XI.; and a Jeremiah painted in the church of +St John Lateran was rewarded by the pope with knighthood and by the +cardinal with a diamond cross. His fame grew quickly, and he received +the patronage of most of the crowned heads of Europe. He painted till +near the day of his death, and left behind him an immense number of +pictures, mostly of a brilliant and showy kind, which are distributed +among the churches of Italy. Of these the Probatica, or Pool of Siloam, +in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala, at Siena, is considered the +finest. + + + + +CONCARNEAU, a fishing port of western France in the department of +Finistere, 14 m. by road S.E. of Quimper. Pop. (1906) 7887. The town +occupies a picturesque situation on an inlet opening into the Bay of La +Foret. The old portion stands on an island, and is surrounded by +ramparts, parts of which are believed to date from the 14th century. It +is an important centre of the sardine, mackerel and lobster fisheries. +Sardine-preserving, boat-building and the manufacture of sardine-boxes +are carried on. + + + + +CONCEPCION, a province of southern Chile, lying between the provinces of +Maule and Nuble on the N. and Bio-Bio on the S., and extending from the +Pacific to the Argentine boundary. Its outline is very irregular, the +Itata river forming its northern boundary, and the Bio-Bio and one of +its tributaries a part of its southern boundary. Area (estimated) 3252 +sq. m.; pop. (1895) 188,190. Concepcion is the most important province +of southern Chile because of its advantageous commercial position, +fertility and productive industries. Its coast is indented by two large +well-sheltered bays, Talcahuano and Arauco, the former having the ports +of Talcahuano, Penco and El Tome, and the latter Coronel and Lota. Its +railway communications are good, and the Bio-Bio, which crosses its S.W. +corner, has 100 m. of navigable channel. The province produces wheat and +manufactures flour for export; its wines are reputed the best in Chile, +cattle are bred in large numbers, wool is produced, and considerable +timber is shipped. Near the coast are extensive deposits of coal, which +is shipped from Lota and Coronel, the former being the site of the most +productive coal-mine in South America. The climate is mild and the +rainfall is abundant. Large copper-smelting and glass works have been +established at Lota because of its coal resources. The valley of the +Itata is largely devoted to vine cultivation, and the port of this +district, El Tome, is noted for its wine vaults and trade. It also +possesses a small woollen factory. The principal towns are on the coast +and had in 1895 the following populations: Talcahuano, 10,431; Lota, +9797 (largely operatives in the mines and smelting works); Coronel, +4575; and El Tome, 3977. + + + + +CONCEPCION, a city of southern Chile, capital of a province and +department of the same name, on the right bank of the Bio-Bio river, 7 +m. above its mouth, and 355 m. S.S.W. of Santiago by rail. Pop. (1895) +39,837; (1902, estimated) 49,351. It is the commercial centre of a rich +agricultural region, but because of obstructions at the mouth of the +Bio-Bio its trade passes in great part through the port of Talcahuano, 8 +m. distant by rail. The small port of Penco, situated on the same bay +and 10 m. distant by rail, also receives a part of the trade because of +official restrictions at Talcahuano. Concepcion is one of the southern +termini of the Chilean central railway, by which it is connected with +Santiago to the N., with Valdivia and Puerto Montt to the S., and with +the port of Talcahuano. Another line extends southward through the +Chilean coal-producing districts to Curanilhue, crossing the Bio-Bio by +a steel viaduct 6000 ft. long on 62 skeleton piers; and a short line of +10 m. runs northward to Penco. The Bio-Bio is navigable above the city +for 100 m. and considerable traffic comes through this channel. The +districts tributary to Concepcion produce wheat, wine, wool, cattle, +coal and timber, and among the industrial establishments of the city are +flour mills, furniture and carriage factories, distilleries and +breweries. The city is built on a level plain but little above the +sea-level, and is laid out in regular squares with broad streets. It is +an episcopal see with a cathedral and several fine churches, and is the +seat of a court of appeal. The city was founded by Pedro de Valdivia in +1550, and received the singular title of "La Concepcion del Nuevo +Extremo." It was located on the bay of Talcahuano where the town of +Penco now stands, about 9 m. from its present site, but was destroyed by +earthquakes in 1570, 1730 and 1751, and was then (1755) removed to the +margin of the Bio-Bio. In 1835 it was again laid in ruins, a graphic +description of which is given by Charles Darwin in _The Voyage of H.M.S. +Beagle_. The city was twice burned by the Araucanians during their long +struggle against the Spanish colonists. + + + + +CONCEPCION, or VILLA CONCEPCION, the principal town and a river port of +northern Paraguay, on the Paraguay river, 138 m. (234 m. by river) N. of +Asuncion, and about 345 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1895, estimate) +10,000, largely Indians and mestizos. It is an important commercial +centre, and a port of call for the river steamers trading with the +Brazilian town of Corumba, Matto Grosso. It is the principal point for +the exportation of Paraguay tea, or "yerba mate" (_Ilex paraguayensis_). +The town has a street railway and telephone service, a national college, +a public school, a market, and some important commercial establishments. +The neighbouring country is sparsely settled and produces little except +forest products. Across the river, in the Paraguayan Chaco, is an +English missionary station, whose territory extends inland among the +Indians for many miles. + + + + +CONCEPT[1] (Lat. _conceptus_, a thought, from _concipere_, to take +together, combine in thought; Ger. _Begriff_), in philosophy, a term +applied to a general idea derived from and considered apart from the +particulars observed by the senses. The mental process by which this +idea is obtained is called abstraction (q.v.). By the comparison, for +instance, of a number of boats, the mind abstracts a certain common +quality or qualities in virtue of which the mind affirms the general +idea of "boat." Thus the connotation of the term "boat," being the sum +of those qualities in respect of which all boats are regarded as alike, +whatever their individual peculiarities may be, is described as a +"concept." The psychic process by which a concept is affirmed is called +"Conception," a term which is often loosely used in a concrete sense for +"Concept" itself. It is also used even more loosely as synonymous in the +widest sense with "idea," "notion." Strictly, however, it is contrasted +with "perception," and implies the mental reconstruction and combination +of sense-given data. Thus when one carries one's thoughts back to a +series of events, one constructs a psychic whole made up of parts which +take definite shape and character by their mutual interrelations. This +process is called _conceptual synthesis_, the possibility of which is a +_sine qua non_ for the exchange of information by speech and writing. It +should be noticed that this (very common) psychological interpretation +of "conception" differs from the metaphysical or general philosophical +definition given above, in so far as it includes mental presentations in +which the universal is not specifically distinguished from the +particulars. Some psychologists prefer to restrict the term to the +narrower use which excludes all mental states in which particulars are +cognized, even though the universal be present also. + +In biology conception is the coalescence of the male and female +generative elements, producing pregnancy. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The word "conceit" in its various senses ("idea," "plan," "fancy," + "imagination," and, by modern extension, an overweening sense of one's + own value) is likewise derived ultimately from the Latin _concipere_. + It appears to have been formed directly from the English derivative + "conceive" on the analogy of "deceit" from "deceive." According to the + _New English Dictionary_ there is no intermediate form in Old French. + + + + +CONCEPTUALISM (from "Concept"), in philosophy, a term applied by modern +writers to a scholastic theory of the nature of universals, to +distinguish it from the two extremes of Nominalism and Realism. The +scholastic philosophers took up the old Greek problem as to the nature +of true reality--whether the general idea or the particular object is +more truly real. Between Realism which asserts that the _genus_ is more +real than the _species_, and that particulars have no reality, and +Nominalism according to which _genus_ and _species_ are merely names +(_nomina, flatus vocis_), Conceptualism takes a mean position. The +conceptualist holds that universals have a real existence, but only in +the mind, as the concepts which unite the individual things: e.g. there +is in the mind a general notion or idea of boats, by reference to which +the mind can decide whether a given object is, or is not, a boat. On the +one hand "boat" is something more than a mere sound with a purely +arbitrary conventional significance; on the other it has, apart from +particular things to which it applies, no reality; its reality is purely +abstract or conceptual. This theory was enunciated by Abelard in +opposition to Roscellinus (nominalist) and William of Champeaux +(realist). He held that it is only by becoming a predicate that the +class-notion or general term acquires reality. Thus similarity +(_conformitas_) is observed to exist between a number of objects in +respect of a particular quality or qualities. This quality becomes real +as a mental concept when it is predicated of all the objects possessing +it ("quod de pluribus natum est praedicari"). Hence Abelard's theory is +alternatively known as Sermonism (_sermo_, "predicate"). His statement +of this position oscillates markedly, inclining sometimes towards the +nominalist, sometimes towards the realist statement, using the arguments +of the one against the other. Hence he is described by some as a +realist, by others as a nominalist. When he comes to explain that +objective similarity in things which is represented by the class-concept +or general term, he adopts the theological Platonic view that the ideas +which are the archetypes of the qualities exist in the mind of God. They +are, therefore, _ante rem, in re_ and _post rem_, or, as Avicenna stated +it, _universalia ante multiplicitatem, in multiplicitate, post +multiplicitatem_. (See LOGIC, METAPHYSICS.) + + + + +CONCERT (through the French from Lat. CON-, with, and _certare_, to +strive), a term meaning, in general, co-operation, agreement or union; +the more specific usages being, in music, for a public performance by +instrumentalists, vocalists or both combined, and in diplomacy, for an +understanding or agreement for common action between two or more states, +whether defined by treaty or not. The term "Concert of Europe" has been +commonly applied, since the congress of Vienna (1814-1815), to the +European powers consulting or acting together in questions of common +interest. (See ALLIANCE and EUROPE: _HISTORY_.) + + + + +CONCERTINA, or MELODION (Fr. _concertina_, Ger. _Ziehharmonica_ or +_Bandoneon_), a wind instrument of the seraphine family with free reeds, +forming a link in the evolution of the harmonium from the mouth organ, +intermediate links being the cheng and the accordion. The concertina +consists of two hexagonal or rectangular keyboards connected by a long +expansible bellows of many folds similar to that of the accordion. The +keyboards are furnished with rows of knobs, which, on being pressed down +by the fingers, open valves admitting the air compressed by the bellows +to the free reeds, which are thus set in vibration. These free reeds +consist of narrow tongues of brass riveted by one end to the inside +surface of the keyboard, and having their free ends slightly bent, some +outwards, some inwards, the former actuated by suction when the bellows +are expanded, the latter by compression. The pitch of the note depends +upon the length and thickness of the reeds, reduction of the length +tending to sharpen the pitch of the note, while reduction of the +thickness lowers it. The bellows being unprovided with a valve can only +draw in and emit the air through the reed valves. In order to produce +the sound, the concertina is held horizontally between the hands, the +bellows being by turns compressed and expanded. The English concertina, +invented and patented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1829, the year of the +reputed invention of the accordion (q.v.), is constructed with a double +action, the same note being produced on compressing and expanding the +bellows, whereas in the German concertina or accordion two different +notes are given out. Concertinas are made in complete families--treble, +tenor, bass and double bass, having a combined total range of nearly +seven octaves. The compass is as follows:-- + +[Illustration: Treble concertina, double action] + +[Illustration: Tenor concertina, single action] + +[Illustration: Bass concertina, single action] + +[Illustration: Double bass concertina, single action] + +The timbre of the concertina is penetrating but soft, and capable of the +most delicate gradations of tone. This quality is due to a law of +acoustics governing the vibration of free reeds by means of which +_fortes_ and _pianos_ are obtained by varying the pressure of the wind, +as is also the case with the double reed or the single or beating reed, +while the pressure of the reed with the lips combined with greater +pressure of wind produces the harmonic overtones which are not given out +by free reeds. The English concertina possesses one peculiarity which +renders it unsuitable for playing with instruments tuned according to +the law of equal temperament, such as the pianoforte, harmonium or +melodion, i.e. it has enharmonic intervals between G# and A# and between +D[flat] and E[flat]. The German concertina is not constructed according +to this system; its compass extends down to C or even B[flat], but it is +not provided with double action. It is possible on the English +concertina to play diatonic and chromatic passages or arpeggios in +legato or staccato style with rapidity, shakes single and double in +thirds; it is also possible to play in parts as on the pianoforte or +organ and to produce very rich chords. Concertos were written for +concertina with orchestra by Molique and Regondi, a sonata with piano by +Molique, while Tschaikowsky scored in his second orchestral suite for +four accordions. + +The aeola, constructed by the representatives of the original firm of +Wheatstone, is a still more artistically developed concertina, having +among other improvements steel reeds instead of brass, which increase +the purity and delicacy of the timbre. + + See also ACCORDION; CHENG; HARMONIUM; Free-Reed Vibrator. (K. S.) + + + + +CONCERTO (Lat. _concertus_, from _certare_, to strive, also confused +with _concentus_), in music, a term which appears as early as the +beginning of the 17th century, at first as a title of no very definite +meaning, but which early acquired a sense justified by its etymology and +became applied chiefly to compositions in which unequal instrumental or +vocal forces are brought into opposition. + +Although by Bach's time the concerto as a polyphonic instrumental form +was thoroughly established, the term frequently appears in the autograph +title-pages of his church cantatas, even when the cantata contains no +instrumental prelude. Indeed, so entirely does the actual concerto form, +as Bach understands it, depend upon the opposition of masses of tone +unequal in volume with a compensating inequality in power of commanding +attention, that Bach is able to rewrite an instrumental movement as a +chorus without the least incongruity of style. A splendid example of +this is the first chorus of a university festival cantata, _Vereinigte +Zwietracht der wechselnden Saiten_, the very title of which ("united +contest of turn-about strings") is a perfect definition of the earlier +form of _concerto grosso_, in which the chief mass of the orchestra was +opposed, not to a mere solo instrument, but to a small group called the +_concertino_, or else the whole work was for a large orchestral mass in +which tutti passages alternate with passages in which the whole +orchestra is dispersed in every possible kind of grouping. But the +special significance of this particular chorus is that it is arranged +from the second movement of the first Brandenburg concerto; and that +while the orchestral material is unaltered except for transposition of +key, enlargement of force and substitution of trumpets and drums for the +original horns, the whole chorus part has been evolved from the solo +part for a kit violin (_violino piccolo_). This admirably illustrates +Bach's grasp of the true idea of a concerto, namely, that whatever the +relations may be between the forces in respect of volume or sound, the +whole treatment of the form must depend upon the healthy relation of +function between that force which commands more and that which commands +less attention. _Ceteris paribus_ the individual, suitably placed, will +command more attention than the crowd, whether in real life, drama or +instrumental music. And in music the human voice, with human words, will +thrust any orchestral force into the background, the moment it can make +itself heard at all. Hence it is not surprising that the earlier +concerto forms should show the closest affinity (not only in general +aesthetic principle, but in many technical details) with the form of the +vocal aria, as matured by Alessandro Scarlatti. And the treatment of the +orchestra is, _mutatis mutandis_, exactly the same in both. The +orchestra is entrusted with a highly pregnant and short summary of the +main contents of the movement, and the solo, or the groups corresponding +thereto, will either take up this material or first introduce new themes +to be combined with it, and, in short, enter into relations with the +orchestra very like those between the actors and the chorus in Greek +drama. If the aria before Mozart may be regarded as a single large +melody expanded by the device of the ritornello so as to give full +expression to the power of a singer against an instrumental +accompaniment, so the polyphonic concerto form may be regarded as an +expansion of the aria form to a scale worthy of the larger and purely +instrumental forces employed, and so rendered capable of absorbing large +polyphonic and other types of structure incompatible with the lyric idea +of the aria. The _da capo_ form, by which the aria had attained its full +dimensions through the addition of a second strain in foreign keys +followed by the original strain _da capo_, was absorbed by the +polyphonic concerto on an enormous scale, both in first movements and +finales (see Bach's Klavier concerto in E, Violin concerto in E, first +movement), while for slow movements the _ground bass_ (see VARIATIONS), +diversified by changes of key (Klavier concerto in D minor), the more +melodic types of binary form, sometimes with the repeats ornamentally +varied or inverted (Concerto for 3 klaviers in D minor, Concerto for +klavier, flute and violin in A minor), and in finales the _rondo_ form +(Violin concerto in E major, Klavier concerto in F minor) and the binary +form (3rd Brandenburg concerto) may be found. + +When conceptions of musical form changed and the modern sonata style +arose, the peculiar conditions of the concerto gave rise to problems the +difficulty of which only the highest classical intellects could +appreciate or solve. The number and contrast of the themes necessary to +work out a first movement of a sonata are far too great to be contained +within the single musical sentence of Bach's and Handel's ritornello, +even when it is as long as the thirty bars of Bach's Italian concerto (a +work in which every essential of the polyphonic concerto is reproduced +on the harpsichord by means of the contrasts between its full register +on the lower of its two keyboards and its solo stops on both). Bach's +sons had taken shrewd steps in forming the new style; and Mozart, as a +boy, modelled himself closely on Johann Christian Bach, and by the time +he was twenty was able to write concerto ritornellos that gave the +orchestra admirable opportunity for asserting its character and resource +in the statement in charmingly epigrammatic style of some five or six +sharply contrasted themes, afterwards to be worked out with additions by +the solo with the orchestra's co-operation and intervention. As the +scale of the works increases the problem becomes very difficult, because +the alternation between solo and tutti easily produces a sectional type +of structure incompatible with the high degree of organization required +in first movements; yet frequent alternation is evidently necessary, as +the orchestral solo is audible only above a very subdued orchestral +accompaniment, and it would be highly inartistic to use the orchestra +for no other purpose. Hence in the classical concerto the ritornello is +never abandoned, in spite of the enormous dimensions to which the sonata +style expanded it. And though from the time of Mendelssohn onwards most +composers have seemed to regard it as a conventional impediment easily +abandoned, it may be doubted whether any modern concerto, except the +four magnificent examples of Brahms, and Dr Joachim's Hungarian +concerto, possesses first movements in which the orchestra seems to +enjoy breathing space. And certainly in the classical concerto the entry +of the solo instrument, after the long opening tutti, is always dramatic +in direct proportion to its delay. The great danger in handling so long +an orchestral prelude is that the work may for some minutes be +indistinguishable from a symphony and thus the entry of the solo may be +unexpected without being inevitable. This is especially the case if the +composer has treated his opening tutti like the exposition of a sonata +movement, and made a deliberate transition from his first group of +themes to a second group in a complementary key, even if the transition +is only temporary, as in Beethoven's C minor concerto. Mozart keeps his +whole tutti in the tonic, relieved only by his mastery of sudden +subsidiary modulation; and so perfect is his marshalling of his +resources that in his hands a tutti a hundred bars long passes by with +the effect of a splendid pageant, of which the meaning is evidently +about to be revealed by the solo. After the C minor concerto, Beethoven +grasped the true function of the opening tutti and enlarged it to his +new purposes. With an interesting experiment of Mozart's before him, he, +in his G major concerto, _Op. 53_, allowed the solo player to state the +opening theme, making the orchestra enter _pianissimo_ in a foreign key, +a wonderful incident which has led to the absurd statement that he +"abolished the opening tutti," and that Mendelssohn in so doing has +"followed his example." In this concerto he also gave considerable +variety of key to the opening tutti by the use of an important theme +which executes a considerable series of modulations, an entirely +different thing from a deliberate modulation from material in one key to +material in another. His fifth and last pianoforte concerto, in E flat, +commonly called the "Emperor," begins with a rhapsodical introduction of +extreme brilliance for the solo player, followed by a tutti of unusual +length which is confined to the tonic major and minor with a strictness +explained by the gorgeous modulations with which the solo subsequently +treats the second subject. In this concerto Beethoven also dispenses +with the only really conventional feature of the form, namely, the +_cadenza_, a custom elaborated from the operatic aria, in which the +singer was allowed to extemporize a flourish on a pause near the end. A +similar pause was made in the final ritornello of a concerto, and the +soloist was supposed to extemporize what should be equivalent to a +symphonic coda, with results which could not but be deplorable unless +the player (or cadenza writer) were either the composer himself, or +capable of entering into his intentions, like Joachim, who has written +the finest extant cadenza of classical violin concertos. + +Brahms's first concerto in D minor, _Op. 15_, was the result of an +immense amount of work, and, though on a mass of material originally +intended for a symphony, was nevertheless so perfectly assimilated into +the true concerto form that in his next essay, the violin concerto, _Op. +77_, he had no more to learn, and was free to make true innovations. He +succeeds in presenting the contrasts even of remote keys so immediately +that they are serviceable in the opening tutti and give the form a wider +range in definitely functional key than any other instrumental music. +Thus in the opening tutti of the D minor concerto the second subject is +announced in B flat minor. In the B flat pianoforte concerto, _Op. 83_, +it appears in D minor, and in the double concerto, _Op. 102_, for violin +and violoncello in A minor it appears in F major. In none of these cases +is it in the key in which the solo develops it, and it is reached with +a directness sharply contrasted with the symphonic deliberation with +which it is approached in the solo. In the violin concerto, _Op. 77_, +Brahms develops a counterplot in the opposition between solo and +orchestra, inasmuch as after the solo has worked out its second subject +the orchestra bursts in, not with the opening ritornello, but with its +own version of the material with which the solo originally entered. In +other words we have now not only the development by the solo of material +stated by the orchestra but also a counter-development by the orchestra +of material stated by the solo. This concerto is, on the other hand, +remarkable as being the last in which a blank space is left for a +cadenza, Brahms having in his friend Joachim a kindred spirit worthy of +such trust. In the pianoforte concerto in B flat, and in the double +concerto,[1] _Op. 102_, the idea of an introductory statement in which +the solo takes part before the opening tutti is carried out on a large +scale, and in the double concerto both first and second subjects are +thus suggested. It is unnecessary to speak of the other movements of +concerto form, as the sectional structure that so easily results from +the opposition between solo and orchestra is not of great disadvantage +to slow movements and finales, which accordingly do not show important +differences from the ordinary types of symphonic and chamber music. The +scherzo, on the other hand, is normally of too small a range of contrast +for successful adaptation to concerto form, and the solitary great +example of its use is the second movement of Brahms's B flat pianoforte +concerto. + +Nothing is more easy to handle with inartistic or pseudo-classic +effectiveness than the opposition between a brilliant solo player and an +orchestra; and, as the inevitable tendency of even the most artistic +concerto has been to exhaust the resources of the solo instrument in the +increased difficulty of making a proper contrast between solo and +orchestra, so the technical difficulty of concertos has steadily +increased until even in classical times it was so great that the +orthodox definition of a concerto is that it is "an instrumental +composition designed to show the skill of an executant, and one which is +almost invariably accompanied by orchestra." This idea is in flat +violation of the whole history and aesthetics of the form, which can +never be understood by means of a study of averages. In art the average +is always false, and the individual organization of the greatest +classical works is the only sound basis for generalizations, historic or +aesthetic. (D. F. T.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Double and triple concertos are concertos with two or three solo + players. A concerto for several solo players is called a concertante. + + + + +CONCH (Lat. _concha_, Gr. [Greek: konche]), a shell, particularly one of +a mollusc; hence the term "conchology," the science which deals with +such shells, more used formerly when molluscs were studied and +classified according to the shell formation; the word is chiefly now +used for the collection of shells (see MOLLUSCA, and such articles as +GASTROPODA, MALACOSTRACA, &c.). Large spiral conchs have been from early +times used as a form of trumpet, emitting a very loud sound. They are +used in the West Indies and the South Sea Islands. The Tritons of +ancient mythology are represented as blowing such "wreathed horns." In +anatomy, the term _concha_ or "conch" is used of the external ear, or of +the hollowed central part leading to the meatus; and, in architecture, +it is sometimes given to the half dome over the semicircular apse of the +basilica. In late Roman work at Baalbek and Palmyra and in Renaissance +buildings shells are frequently carved in the heads of circular niches. +A low class of the negro or other inhabitants of the Bahamas and the +Florida Keys are sometimes called "Conches" or "Conks" from the +shell-fish which form their staple food. + + + + +CONCHOID (Gr. [Greek: konche], shell, and [Greek: eidos], form), a plane +curve invented by the Greek mathematician Nicomedes, who devised a +mechanical construction for it and applied it to the problem of the +duplication of the cube, the construction of two mean proportionals +between two given quantities, and possibly to the trisection of an angle +as in the 8th lemma of Archimedes. Proclus grants Nicomedes the credit +of this last application, but it is disputed by Pappus, who claims that +his own discovery was original. The conchoid has been employed by later +mathematicians, notably Sir Isaac Newton, in the construction of various +cubic curves. + +[Illustration] + +The conchoid is generated as follows:--Let O be a fixed point and BC a +fixed straight line; draw any line through O intersecting BC in P and +take on the line PO two points X, X', such that PX = PX' = a constant +quantity. Then the locus of X and X' is the conchoid. The conchoid is +also the locus of any point on a rod which is constrained to move so +that it always passes through a fixed point, while a fixed point on the +rod travels along a straight line. To obtain the equation to the curve, +draw AO perpendicular to BC, and let AO = a; let the constant quantity +PX = PX' = b. Then taking O as pole and a line through O parallel to BC +as the initial line, the polar equation is r = a cosec [theta] [+-] b, +the upper sign referring to the branch more distant from O. The +cartesian equation with A as origin and BC as axis of x is x^2y^2 = (a + +y)^2 (b^2 -y^2). Both branches belong to the same curve and are included +in this equation. Three forms of the curve have to be distinguished +according to the ratio of a to b. If a be less than b, there will be a +node at O and a loop below the initial point (curve 1 in the figure); if +a equals b there will be a cusp at O (curve 2); if a be greater than b +the curve will not pass through O, but from the cartesian equation it is +obvious that O is a conjugate point (curve 3). The curve is symmetrical +about the axis of y and has the axis of x for its asymptote. + + + + +CONCIERGE (a French word of unknown origin; the Latinized form was +_concergius_ or _concergerius_), originally the guardian of a house or +castle, in the middle ages a court official who was the custodian of a +royal palace. In Paris, when the _Palais de la Cite_ ceased about 1360 +to be a royal residence and became the seat of the courts of justice, +the _Conciergerie_ was turned into a prison. In modern usage a +"concierge" is a hall-porter or janitor. + + + + +CONCINI, CONCINO (d. 1617), COUNT DELLA PENNA, MARSHAL D'ANCRE, Italian +adventurer, minister of King Louis XIII. of France, was a native of +Florence. He came to France in the train of Marie de' Medici, and +married the queen's lady-in-waiting, Leonora Dori, known as Galigai. The +credit which his wife enjoyed with the queen, his wit, cleverness and +boldness made his fortune. In 1610 he had purchased the marquisate of +Ancre and the position of first gentleman-in-waiting. Then he obtained +successively the governments of Amiens and of Normandy, and in 1614 the +baton of marshal. From then first minister of the realm, he abandoned +the policy of Henry IV., compromised his wise legislation, allowed the +treasury to be pillaged, and drew upon himself the hatred of all +classes. The nobles were bitterly hostile to him, particularly Conde, +with whom he negotiated the treaty of Loudun in 1616, and whom he had +arrested in September 1616. This was done on the advice of Richelieu, +whose introduction into politics was favoured by Concini. But Louis +XIII., incited by his favourite Charles d'Albert, due de Luynes, was +tired of Concini's tutelage. The baron de Vitry received in the king's +name the order to imprison him. Apprehended on the bridge of the Louvre, +Concini was killed by the guards on the 24th of April 1617. Leonora was +accused of sorcery and sent to the stake in the same year. + + In 1767 appeared at Brescia a _De Concini vita_, by D. Sandellius. On + the role of Concini see the _Histoire de France_, published under the + direction of E. Lavisse, vol. vi. (1905), by Mariejol. + + + + +CONCLAVE (Lat. _conclave_, from _cum_, together, and _clavis_, a key), +strictly a room, or set of rooms, locked with a key; in this sense the +word is now obsolete in English, though the _New English Dictionary_ +gives an example of its use so late as 1753. Its present loose +application to any private or close assembly, especially ecclesiastical, +is derived from its technical application to the assembly of cardinals +met for the election of the pope, with which this article is concerned. + +Conclave is the name applied to that system of strict seclusion to which +the electors of the pope have been and are submitted, formerly as a +matter of necessity, and subsequently as the result of a legislative +enactment; hence the word has come to be used of the electoral assembly +of the cardinals. This system goes back only as far as the 12th century. + +_Election of the Popes in Antiquity._--The very earliest episcopal +nominations, at Rome as elsewhere, seem without doubt to have been made +by the direct choice of the founders of the apostolic Christian +communities. But this exceptional method was replaced at an early date +by that of election. At Rome the method of election was the same as in +other towns: the Roman clergy and people and the neighbouring bishops +each took part in it in their several capacities. The people would +signify their approbation or disapprobation of the candidates more or +less tumultuously, while the clergy were, strictly speaking, the +electoral body, met to elect for themselves a new head, and the bishops +acted as presidents of the assembly and judges of the election. The +choice had to meet with general consent; but we can well imagine that in +an assembly of such size, in which the candidates were acclaimed rather +than elected by counting votes, the various functions were not very +distinct, and that persons of importance, whether clerical or lay, were +bound to influence the elections, and sometimes decisively. Moreover, +this form of election lent itself to cabals; and these frequently gave +rise to quarrels, sometimes involving bloodshed and schisms, i.e. the +election of antipopes, as they were later called. Such was the case at +the elections of Cornelius (251), Damasus (366), Boniface (418), +Symmachus (498), Boniface II. (530) and others. The remedy for this +abuse was found in having recourse, more or less freely, to the support +of the civil power. The emperor Honorius upheld Boniface against his +competitor Eulalius, at the same time laying down that cases of +contested election should henceforth be decided by a fresh election; but +this would have been a dangerous method and was consequently never +applied. Theodoric upheld Symmachus against Laurentius because he had +been elected first and by a greater majority. The accepted fact soon +became law, and John II. recognized (532) the right of the Ostrogothic +court of Ravenna to ratify the pontifical elections. Justinian succeeded +to this right together with the kingdom which he had destroyed; he +demanded, together with the payment of a tribute of 3000 golden +_solidi_, that the candidate elected should not receive the episcopal +consecration till he had obtained the confirmation of the emperor. Hence +arose long vacancies of the See, indiscreet interference in the +elections by the imperial officials, and sometimes cases of simony and +venality. This bondage became lighter in the 7th century, owing rather +to the weakening of the imperial power than to any resistance on the +part of the popes. + +_9th to 12th Centuries._--From the emperors of the East the power +naturally passed to those of the West, and it was exercised after 824 by +the descendants of Charlemagne, who claimed that the election should not +proceed until the arrival of their envoys. But this did not last long; +at the end of the 9th century, Rome, torn by factions, witnessed the +scandal of the posthumous condemnation of Formosus. This deplorable +state of affairs lasted almost without interruption till the middle of +the 11th century. When the emperors were at Rome, they presided over the +elections; when they were away, the rival factions of the barons, the +Crescentii and the Alberici especially, struggled for the spiritual +power as they did for the temporal. During this period were seen cases +of popes imposed by a faction rather than elected, and then, at the +mercy of sedition, deposed, poisoned and thrown into prison, sometimes +to be restored by force of arms. + + + Election reserved to the cardinals. + +The influence of the Ottos (962-1002) was a lesser evil; that of the +emperor Otto III. was even beneficial, in that it led to the election of +Gerbert (Silvester II., in 999). But this was only a temporary check in +the process of decadence, and in 1146 Clement II., the successor of the +worthless Benedict IX., admitted that henceforth not only the +consecration but even the _election_ of the Roman pontiffs could only +take place in presence of the emperor. In fact, after the death of +Clement II. the delegates of the Roman clergy did actually go to Polden +to ask Henry III. to give them a pope, and similar steps were taken +after the death of Damasus II., who reigned only twenty days. +Fortunately on this occasion Henry III. appointed, just before his +death, a man of high character, his cousin Bruno, bishop of Toul, who +presented himself in Rome in company with Hildebrand. From this time +began the reform. Hildebrand had the elections of Victor II. (1055), +Stephen IX. (1057), and Nicholas II. (1058) carried out according to the +canonical form, including the imperial ratification. The celebrated bull +_In nomine Domini_ of the 13th of April 1059 determined the electoral +procedure; it is curious to observe how, out of respect for tradition, +it preserves all the former factors in the election though their scope +is modified: "In the first place, the cardinal bishops shall carefully +consider the election together, then they shall consult with the +cardinal clergy, and afterwards the rest of the clergy and the people +shall by giving their assent confirm the new election." The election, +then, is reserved to the members of the higher clergy, to the cardinals, +among whom the cardinal bishops have the preponderating position. The +consent of the rest of the clergy and the people is now only a +formality. The same was the case of the imperial intervention, in +consequence of the phrase: "Saving the honour and respect due to our +dear son Henry (Henry IV.), according to the concession we have made to +him, and equally to his successors, who shall receive this right +personally from the Apostolic See." Thus the emperor has no rights save +those he has received as a concession from the Holy See. Gregory VII., +it is true, notified his election to the emperor; but as he set up a +series of five antipopes, none of Gregory's successors asked any more +for the imperial sanction. Further, by this bull, the emperors would +have to deal with the _fait accompli_; for it provided that, in the +event of disturbances aroused by mischievous persons at Rome preventing +the election from being carried out there freely and without bias, the +cardinal bishops, together with a small number of the clergy and of the +laity, should be empowered to go and hold the election where they should +think fit; that should difficulties of any sort prevent the enthronement +of the new pope, the pope elect would be empowered immediately to act as +if he were actually pope. This legislation was definitely accepted by +the emperor by the concordat of Worms (1119). + +A limited electoral body lends itself to more minute legislation than a +larger body; the college for electing the pope, thus reduced so as to +consist in practice of the cardinals only, was subjected as time went on +to laws of increasing severity. Two points of great importance were +established by Alexander III. at the Lateran Council of 1179. The +constitution _Licet de vitanda discordia_ makes all the cardinals +equally electors, and no longer mentions the lower clergy or the people; +it also requires a majority of two-thirds of the votes to decide an +election. This latter provision, which still holds good, made imperial +antipopes henceforth impossible. + + + The conclave. + +Abuses nevertheless arose. An electoral college too small in numbers, +which no higher power has the right of forcing to haste, can prolong +disagreements and draw out the course of the election for a long time. +It is this period during which we actually find the Holy See left vacant +most frequently for long spaces of time. The longest of these, however, +gave an opportunity for reform and the remedy was found in the conclave, +i.e. in the forced and rigid seclusion of the electors. As a matter of +fact, this method had previously been used, but in a mitigated form: in +1216, on the death of Innocent III., the people of Perugia had shut up +the cardinals; and in 1241 the Roman magistrates had confined them +within the "Septizonium"; they took two months, however, to perform the +election. Celestine IV. died after eighteen days, and this time, in +spite of the seclusion of the cardinals, there was an interregnum of +twenty months. After the death of Clement IV. in 1268, the cardinals, of +whom seventeen were gathered together at Viterbo, allowed two years to +pass without coming to an agreement; the magistrates of Viterbo again +had recourse to the method of seclusion: they shut up the electors in +the episcopal palace, blocking up all outlets; and since the election +still delayed, the people removed the roof of the palace and allowed +nothing but bread and water to be sent in. Under the pressure of famine +and of this strict confinement, the cardinals finally agreed, on the 1st +of September 1271, to elect Gregory X., after an interregnum of two +years, nine months and two days. + + + Laws made by Gregory X. + +Taught by experience, the new pope considered what steps could be taken +to prevent the recurrence of such abuses; in 1274, at the council of +Lyons, he promulgated the constitution _Ubi periculum_, the substance of +which was as follows: At the death of the pope, the cardinals who were +present are to await their absent colleagues for ten days; they are then +to meet in one of the papal palaces in a closed conclave; none of them +is to have to wait on him more than one servant, or two at most if he +were ill; in the conclave they are to lead a life in common, not even +having separate cells; they are to have no communication with the outer +world, under pain of excommunication for any who should attempt to +communicate with them; food is to be supplied to the cardinals through a +window which would be under watch; after three days, their meals are to +consist of a single dish only; and after five days, of bread and water, +with a little wine. During the conclave the cardinals are to receive no +ecclesiastical revenue. No account is to be taken of those who are +absent or have left the conclave. Finally, the election is to be the +sole business of the conclave, and the magistrates of the town where it +was held are called upon to see that these provisions be observed. +Adrian V. and John XX. were weak enough to suspend the constitution _Ubi +periculum_; but the abuses at once reappeared; the Holy See was again +vacant for long periods; this further proof was therefore decisive, and +Celestine V., who was elected after a vacancy of more than two years, +took care, before abdicating the pontificate, to revive the constitution +of Gregory X., which was inserted in the Decretals (lib. i. tit. vi., +_de election._ cap. 3). + + + Julius II. + +Since then the laws relating to the conclave have been observed, even +during the great schism; the only exception was the election of Martin +V., which was performed by the cardinals of the three obediences, to +which the council of Constance added five prelates of each of the six +nations represented in that assembly. The same was the case up to the +16th century. At this period the Italian republics, later Spain, and +finally the other powers, took an intimate interest in the choice of the +holder of what was a considerable political power; and each brought more +or less honest means to bear, sometimes that of simony. It was against +simony that Julius II. directed the bull _Cum tam divino_ (1503), which +directed that simoniacal election of the pope should be declared null; +that any one could attack it; that men should withdraw themselves from +the obedience of a pope thus elected; that simoniacal agreements should +be invalid; that the guilty cardinals should be excommunicate till their +death, and that the rest should proceed immediately to a new election. +The purpose of this measure was good, but the proposed remedy extremely +dangerous; it was fortunately never applied. Similarly, Paul IV. +endeavoured by severe punishments to check the intriguing and plotting +for the election of a new pope while his predecessor was still living; +but the bull _Cum secundum_ (1558) was of no effect. + + + Pius IV. + + Gregory XV. + +Pius IV. undertook the task of reforming and completing the legislation +of the conclave. The bull _In eligendis_ (of October 1st, 1562), signed +by all the cardinals, is a model of precision and wisdom. In addition to +the points already stated, we may add the following: that every day +there was to be a scrutiny, i.e. a solemn voting by specially prepared +voting papers (concealing the name of the voter, and to be opened only +in case of an election being made at that scrutiny), and that this was +to be followed by the "accessit," i.e. a second voting, in which the +cardinals might transfer their suffrages to those who had obtained the +greatest number of votes in the first. Except in case of urgent matters, +the election was to form the whole business of the conclave. The cells +were to be assigned by lot. The functionaries of the conclave were to be +elected by the secret vote of the Sacred College. The most stringent +measures were to be taken to ensure seclusion. The bull _Aeterni Patris_ +of Gregory XV. (15th of November 1621) is a collection of minute +regulations. In it is the rule compelling each cardinal, before giving +his vote, to take the oath that he will elect him whom he shall judge to +be the most worthy; it also makes rules for the forms of voting and of +the voting papers, for the counting, the scrutiny, and in fact all the +processes of the election. A second bull, _Decet Romanum Pontificem_, of +the 12th of March 1622, fixed the ceremonial of the conclave with such +minuteness that it has not been changed since. + +All previous legislation concerning the conclave was codified and +renewed by Pius X.'s bull, _Vacante Sede Apostolico_ (Dec. 25, 1904), +which abrogates the earlier texts, except Leo XIII.'s constitution +_Praedecessores Nostri_ (May 24, 1882), authorizing occasional +derogations in circumstances of difficulty, e.g. the death of a pope +away from Rome or an attempt to interfere with the liberty of the Sacred +College. The bull of Pius X. is rather a codification than a reform, the +principal change being the abolition of the scrutiny of accession and +the substitution of a second ordinary scrutiny during the same session. + +On some occasions exceptional circumstances have given rise to +transitory measures. In 1797 and 1798 Pius VI. authorized the cardinals +to act contrary to such of the laws concerning the conclave as a +majority of them should decide not to observe, as being impossible in +practice. Similarly Pius IX., by means of various acts which remained +secret up till 1892, had taken the most minute precautions in order to +secure a free and rapid election, and to avoid all interference on the +part of the secular powers. We know that the conclaves in which Leo +XIII. and Pius X. were elected enjoyed the most complete liberty, and +the hypothetical measures foreseen by Pius IX. were not applied. + + + The conclave at Rome. + +Until after the Great Schism the conclaves were held in various towns +outside of Rome; but since then they have all been held in Rome, with +the single exception of the conclave of Venice (1800), and in most cases +in the Vatican. + + + Modern procedure. + +There was no place permanently established for the purpose, but +removable wooden cells were installed in the various apartments of the +palace, grouped around the Sistine chapel, in which the scrutinies took +place. The arrangements prepared in the Quirinal in 1823 did duty only +three times, and for the most recent conclaves it was necessary to +arrange an inner enclosure within the vast but irregular palace of the +Vatican. Each cardinal is accompanied by a clerk or secretary, known for +this reason as a conclavist, and by one servant only. With the officials +of the conclave, this makes about two hundred and fifty persons who +enter the conclave and have no further communication with the outer +world save by means of turning-boxes. Since 1870 the solemn ceremonies +of earlier times have naturally not been seen; for instance the +procession which used to celebrate the entry into conclave; or the daily +arrival in procession of the clergy and the brotherhoods to enquire at +the "rota" (turning-box) of the auditors of the Rota: "Habemusne +Pontificem?" and their return accompanied by the chanting of the "_Veni +Creator_"; or the "Marshal of the Holy Roman Church and perpetual +guardian of the conclave" visiting the churches in state. But a crowd +still collects morning and evening in the great square of St Peter's, +towards the time of the completion of the vote, to look for the smoke +which rises from the burning of the voting-papers after each session; +when the election has not been effected, a little straw is burnt with +the papers, and the column of smoke then apprises the spectators that +they have still no pope. Within the conclave, the cardinals, alone in +the common hall, usually the Sistine chapel, proceed morning and evening +to their double vote, the direct vote and the "accessit." Sometimes +these sessions have been very numerous; for example, in 1740, Benedict +XIV. was only elected after 255 scrutinies; on other occasions, however, +and notably in the case of the last few popes, a well-defined majority +has soon been evident, and there have been but few scrutinies. Each vote +is immediately counted by three scrutators, appointed in rotation, the +most minute precautions being taken to ensure that the voting shall be +secret and sincere. When one cardinal has at last obtained two-thirds of +the votes, the dean of the cardinals formally asks him whether he +accepts his election, and what name he wishes to assume. As soon as he +has accepted, the first "obedience" or "adoration" takes place, and +immediately after the first cardinal deacon goes to the _Loggia_ of St +Peter's and announces the great news to the assembled people. The +conclave is dissolved; on the following day take place the two other +"obediences," and the election is officially announced to the various +governments. If the pope be not a bishop (Gregory XVI. was not), he is +then consecrated; and finally, a few days after his election, takes +place the coronation, from which the pontificate is officially dated. +The pope then receives the tiara with the triple crown, the sign of his +supreme spiritual authority. The ceremony of the coronation goes back to +the 9th century, and the tiara, in the form of a high conical cap, is +equally ancient (see TIARA). + + + The right of veto. + +In conclusion, a few words should be said with regard to the right of +_veto_. In the 16th and 17th centuries the character of the conclaves +was determined by the influence of what were then known as the +"factions," i.e. the formation of the cardinals into groups according to +their nationality or their relations with one of the Catholic courts of +Spain, France or the Empire, or again according as they favoured the +political policy of the late pope or his predecessor. These groups +upheld or opposed certain candidates. The Catholic courts naturally +entrusted the cardinals "of the crown," i.e. those of their nation, with +the mission of removing, as far as lay in their power, candidates who +were distasteful to their party; the various governments could even make +public their desire to exclude certain candidates. But they soon claimed +an actual right of formal and direct exclusion, which should be notified +in the conclave in their name by a cardinal charged with this mission, +and should have a decisive effect; this is what has been called the +right of veto. We cannot say precisely at what time during the 16th +century this transformation of the practice into a right, tacitly +accepted by the Sacred College, took place; it was doubtless felt to be +less dangerous formally to recognize the right of the three sovereigns +each to object to one candidate, than to face the inconvenience of +objections, such as were formulated on several occasions by Philip II., +which, though less legal in form, might apply to an indefinite number of +candidates. The fact remains, however, that it was a right based on +custom, and was not supported by any text or written concession; but the +diplomatic right was straightforward and definite, and was better than +the intrigues of former days. During the 19th century Austria exercised, +or tried to exercise, the right of veto at all the conclaves, except +that which elected Leo XIII. (1878); it did so again at the conclave of +1903. On the 2nd of August Cardinal Rampolla had received twenty-nine +votes, when Cardinal Kolzielsko Puzina, bishop of Cracow, declared that +the Austrian government opposed the election of Cardinal Rampolla; the +Sacred College considered that it ought to yield, and on the 4th of +August elected Cardinal Sarto, who took the name of Pius X. By the bull +_Commissum Nobis_ (January 20, 1904), Pius X. suppressed all right of +"veto" or "exclusion" on the part of the secular governments, and +forbade, under pain of excommunication reserved to the future pope, any +cardinal or conclavist to accept from his government the charge of +proposing a "veto," or to exhibit it to the conclave under any form. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The best and most complete work is Lucius Lector, _Le + Conclave, origine, histoire, organisation, legislation ancienne et + moderne_ (Paris, 1894). See also Ferraris, _Prompta Bibliotheca, s. v. + Papa_, art. i.; Moroni, _Dizionario di erudizione + storico-ecclesiastica, s. v. Conclave, Conclavisti, Cella, Elezione, + Esclusiva_; Bouix, _De Curia Romana_, part i. c. x.; _De Papa_, part + vii. (Paris, 1859, 1870); Barbier de Montault, _Le Conclave_ (Paris, + 1878). On the conclave of Leo XIII., R. de Cesare, _Conclave di Leone + XIII._ (Rome, 1888). On the conclave of Pius X.: an eye-witness (Card. + Mathieu), _Les Derniers Jours de Leon XIII et le conclave_ (Paris, + 1904). See further, for the right of veto: Phillips, _Kirchenrecht_, + t. v. p. 138; Sagmuller, _Die Papstwahlen und die Staate_ (Tubingen, + 1890); _Die Papstwahlbullen und das staatliche Recht des Exclusive_ + (Tubingen, 1892); Wahrmund, _Ausschliessungsrecht der katholischen + Staaten_ (Vienna, 1888). (A. Bo.*) + + + + +CONCORD, a township of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., about 20 +m. N.W. of Boston. Pop. (1900) 5652; (1910, U.S. census) 6421. Area 25 +sq. m. It is traversed by the Boston & Maine railway. Where the Sudbury +and Assabet unite to form the beautiful little Concord river, celebrated +by Thoreau, is the village of Concord, straggling, placid and beautiful, +full of associations with the opening of the War of Independence and +with American literature. Of particular interest is the "Old Manse," +built in 1765 for Rev. William Emerson, in which his grandson R. W. +Emerson wrote _Nature_, and Hawthorne his _Mosses from an Old Manse_, +containing a charming description of the building and its associations. +At Concord there is a state reformatory, whose inmates, about 800 in +number, are employed in manufacturing various articles, but otherwise +the town has only minor business and industrial interests. The +introduction of the "Concord" grape, first produced here by Ephraim Bull +in 1853, is said to have marked the beginning of the profitable +commercial cultivation of table grapes in the United States. Concord was +settled and incorporated as a township in 1635, and was (with Dedham) +the first settlement in Massachusetts back from the sea-coast. A county +convention at Concord village in August 1774 recommended the calling of +the first Provincial Congress of Massachusetts--one of the first +independent legislatures of America--which assembled here on the 11th of +October 1774, and again in March and April 1775. The village became +thereafter a storehouse of provisions and munitions of war, and hence +became the objective of the British expedition that on the 19th of April +1775 opened with the armed conflict at Lexington (q.v.) the American War +of Independence. As the British proceeded to Concord the whole country +was rising, and at Concord about 500 minute-men confronted the British +regulars who were holding the village and searching for arms and stores. +Volleys were exchanged, the British retreated, the minute-men hung on +their flanks and from the hillsides shot them down, driving their +columns on Lexington. A granite obelisk, erected in 1837, when Emerson +wrote his ode on the battle, marks the spot where the first British +soldiers fell; while across the stream a fine bionze "Minute-Man" (1875) +by D. C. French (a native of Concord) marks the spot where once "the +embattled farmers stood and fired the shot heard round the world" +(Emerson). Concord was long one of the shire-townships of Middlesex +county, losing this honour in 1867. The village is famous as the home of +R. W. Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry D. Thoreau, Louisa M. Alcott +and her father, A. Bronson Alcott, who maintained here from 1879 to 1888 +(in a building still standing) the Concord school of philosophy, which +counted Benjamin Peirce, W. T. Harris, Mrs J. W. Howe, T. W. Higginson, +Professor William James and Emerson among its lecturers. Emerson, +Hawthorne, Thoreau and the Alcotts are buried here in the beautiful +Sleepy Hollow Cemetery. Of the various orations (among others one by +Edward Everett in 1825) that have been delivered at Concord +anniversaries perhaps the finest is that of George William Curtis, +delivered in 1875. + + See A. S. Hudson, _The History of Concord_, vol. i. (Concord, 1904); + G. B. Bartlett, _Concord: Historic, Literary and Picturesque_ (Boston, + 1885); and Mrs J. L. Swayne, _Story of Concord_ (Boston, 1907). + + + + +CONCORD, a city and the county-seat of Cabarrus county, North Carolina, +U.S.A., on the Rocky river, about 150 m. W.S.W. of Raleigh. Pop. (1890) +4339; (1900) 7910 (1789 negroes); (1910) 8715. It is served by the +Southern railway. Concord is situated in a cotton-growing region, and +its chief interest is in the manufacture of cotton goods. The city is +the seat of Scotia seminary (for negro girls), founded in 1870 and under +the care of the Presbyterian Board of Missions for Freedmen, Pittsburgh +Pa. Concord was laid out in 1793 and was first incorporated in 1851. + + + + +CONCORD, the capital of New Hampshire, U.S.A., and the county-seat of +Merrimack county, on both sides of the Merrimac river, about 75 m. N.W. +of Boston, Massachusetts. Pop. (1890) 17,004; (1900) 19,632, of whom +3813 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 21,497. Concord is served by the +Boston & Maine railway. The area of the city in 1906 was 45.16 sq. m. +Concord has broad streets bordered with shade trees; and has several +parks, including Penacook, White, Rollins and the Contoocook river. +Among the principal buildings are the state capitol, the state library, +the city hall, the county court-house, the post-office, a public library +(17,000 vols.), the state hospital, the state prison, the Centennial +home for the aged, the Margaret Pillsbury memorial hospital, the Rolfe +and Rumford asylum for orphan girls, founded by Count Rumford's +daughter, and some fine churches, including the Christian Science church +built by Mrs Eddy. There are a soldiers' memorial arch, a statue of +Daniel Webster by Thomas Ball, and statues of John P. Hale, John Stark, +and Commodore George H. Perkins, the last by Daniel C. French; and at +Penacook, 6 m. N.W. of Concord, there is a monument to Hannah Dustin +(see HAVERHILL). Among the educational institutions are the well-known +St Paul's school for boys (Protestant Episcopal, 1853), about 2 m. W. of +the city, and St Mary's school for girls (Protestant Episcopal, 1885). +From 1847 to 1867 Concord was the seat of the Biblical Institute +(Methodist Episcopal), founded in Newbury, Vermont, in 1841, removed to +Boston as the Boston Theological Seminary in 1867, and after 1871 a part +of Boston University. The city has various manufactures, including flour +and grist mill products, silver ware, cotton and woollen goods, +carriages, harnesses and leather belting, furniture, wooden ware, pianos +and clothing; the Boston & Maine Railroad has a large repair shop in the +city, and there are valuable granite quarries in the vicinity. In 1905 +Concord ranked third among the cities of the state in the value of its +factory products, which was $6,387,372, being an increase of 51.7% since +1900. When first visited by the English settlers, the site of Concord +was occupied by Penacook Indians; a trading post was built here about +1660. In 1725 Massachusetts granted the land in this vicinity to some of +her citizens; but this grant was not recognized by New Hampshire, whose +legislature issued (1727) a grant (the Township of Bow) overlapping the +Massachusetts grant, which was known as Penacook or Penny Cook. The New +Hampshire grantees undertook to establish here a colony of Londonderry +Irish; but the Massachusetts settlers were firmly established by the +spring of 1727, Massachusetts definitely assumed jurisdiction in 1731, +and in 1734 her general court incorporated the settlement under the name +of Rumford. The conflicting rights of Rumford and Bow gave rise to one +of the most celebrated of colonial land cases, and although the New +Hampshire authorities enforced their claims of jurisdiction, the privy +council in 1755 confirmed the Rumford settlers in their possession. In +1765 the name was changed to the "parish of Concord," and in 1784 the +town of Concord was incorporated. Here, for some years before the War of +American Independence, lived Benjamin Thompson, later Count Rumford. In +1778 and again in 1781-1782 a state constitutional convention met here; +the first New Hampshire legislature met at Concord in 1782; the +convention which ratified for New Hampshire the Federal Constitution met +here in 1788; and in 1808 the state capital was definitely established +here. The New Hampshire _Patriot_, founded here in 1808 (and for twenty +years edited) by Isaac Hill (1788-1851), who was a member of the United +States Senate in 1831-1836, and governor of New Hampshire in 1836-1839, +became one of the leading exponents of Jacksonian Democracy in New +England. In 1814 the Middlesex Canal, connecting Concord with Boston, +was completed. A city charter granted by the legislature in 1849 was not +accepted by the city until 1853. + + See J. O. Lyford, _The History of Concord, New Hampshire_ (City + History Commission) (2 vols., Concord, 1903); _Concord Town Records, + 1732-1820_ (Concord, 1894); J. B. Moore, _Annals of Concord, + 1726-1823_ (Concord, 1824); and Nathaniel Bouton, _The History of + Concord_ (Concord, 1856). + + + + +CONCORD, BOOK OF (_Liber Concordiae_), the collective documents of the +Lutheran confession, consisting of the _Confessio Augustana_, the +_Apologia Confessionis Augustanae_, the _Articula Smalcaldici_, the +_Catechismi Major et Minor_ and the _Formula Concordiae_. This last was +a formula issued on the 25th of June 1580 (the jubilee of the Augsburg +Confession) by the Lutheran Church in an attempt to heal the breach +which, since the death of Luther, had been widening between the extreme +Lutherans and the Crypto-Calvinists. Previous attempts at concord had +been made at the request of different rulers, especially by Jacob Andrea +with his Swabian Concordia in 1573, and Abel Scherdinger with the +Maulbronn Formula in 1575. In 1576 the elector of Saxony called a +conference of theologians at Torgau to discuss these two efforts and +from them produce a third. The _Book of Torgau_ was evolved, circulated +and criticized; a new committee, prominent on which was Martin Chemnitz, +sitting at Bergen near Magdeburg, considered the criticisms and finally +drew up the _Formula Concordiae_. It consists of (a) the "Epitome," (b) +the "Solid Repetition and Declaration," each part comprising twelve +articles; and was accepted by Saxony, Wurttemberg, Baden among other +states, but rejected by Hesse, Nassau and Holstein. Even the free cities +were divided, Hamburg and Lubeck for, Bremen and Frankfort against. +Hungary and Sweden accepted it, and so finally did Denmark, where at +first it was rejected, and its publication made a crime punishable by +death. In spite of this very limited reception the _Formula Concordiae_ +has always been reckoned with the five other documents as of +confessional authority. + + See P. Schaff, _Creeds of Christendom_, i. 258-340, iii. 92-180. + + + + +CONCORDANCE (Late Lat. _concordantia_, harmony, from _cum_, with, and +_cor_, heart), literally agreement, harmony; hence derivatively a +citation of parallel passages, and specifically an alphabetical +arrangement of the words contained in a book with citations of the +passages in which they occur. Concordances in this last sense were first +made for the Bible. Originally the word was only used in this connexion +in the plural _concordantiae_, each group of parallel passages being +properly a _concordantia_. The Germans distinguish between concordances +of things and concordances of words, the former indexing the subject +matter of a book ("real" concordance), the latter the words ("verbal" +concordance). + +The original impetus to the making of concordances was due to the +conviction that the several parts of the Bible are consistent with each +other, as parts of a divine revelation, and may be combined as +harmonious elements in one system of spiritual truth. To Anthony of +Padua (1195-1231) ancient tradition ascribes the first concordance, the +anonymous _Concordantiae Morales_, of which the basis was the Vulgate. +The first authentic work of the kind was due to Cardinal Hugh of St +Cher, a Dominican monk (d. 1263), who, in preparing for a commentary on +the Scriptures, found the need of a concordance, and is reported to have +used for the purpose the services of five hundred of his brother monks. +This concordance was the basis of two which succeeded in time and +importance, one by Conrad of Halberstadt (fl. c. 1290) and the other by +John of Segovia in the next century. This book was published in a +greatly improved and amplified form in the middle of the 19th century by +David Nutt, of London, edited by T. P. Dutripon. The first Hebrew +concordance was compiled in 1437-1445 by Rabbi Isaac Nathan b. Kalonymus +of Arles. It was printed at Venice in 1523 by Daniel Bomberg, in Basel +in 1556, 1569 and 1581. It was published under the title _Meir Natib_, +"The Light of the Way." In 1556 it was translated into Latin by Johann +Reuchlin, but many errors appeared in both the Hebrew and the Latin +edition. These were corrected by Marius de Calasio, a Franciscan friar, +who published a four volume folio _Concordantiae Sacr. Bibl. Hebr. et +Latin._ at Rome, 1621, much enlarged, with proper names included. +Another concordance based on Nathan's was Johann Buxtorf the elder's +_Concordantiae Bibl. Ebraicae nova et artificiosa methodo dispositae_, +Basel, 1632. It marks a stage in both the arrangement and the knowledge +of the roots of words, but can only be used by those who know the +massoretic system, as the references are made by Hebrew letters and +relate to rabbinical divisions of the Old Testament. Calasio's +concordance was republished in London under the direction of William +Romaine in 1747-1749, in four volumes folio, under the patronage of all +the monarchs of Europe and also of the pope. In 1754 John Taylor, D.D., +a Presbyterian divine in Norwich, published in two volumes the _Hebrew +Concordance adapted to the English Bible_, disposed after the manner of +Buxtorf. This was the most complete and convenient concordance up to the +date of its publication. In the middle of the 19th century Dr Julius +Furst issued a thoroughly revised edition of Buxtorf's concordance. The +_Hebraischen und chaldaischen Concordanz zu den Heiligen Schriften Alten +Testaments_ (Leipzig, 1840) carried forward the development of the +concordance in several directions. It gave (1) a corrected text founded +on Hahn's Vanderhoogt's Bible; (2) the Rabbinical meanings; (3) +explanations in Latin, and illustrations from the three Greek versions, +the Aramaic paraphrase, and the Vulgate; (4) the Greek words employed by +the Septuagint as renderings of the Hebrew; (5) notes on philology and +archaeology, so that the concordance contained a Hebrew lexicon. An +English translation by Dr Samuel Davidson was published in 1867. A +revised edition of Buxtorf's work with additions from Furst's was +published by B. Bar (Stettin, 1862). A new concordance embodying the +matter of all previous works with lists of proper names and particles +was published by Solomon Mandelkern in Leipzig (1896); a smaller edition +of the same, without quotations, appeared in 1900. There are also +concordances of Biblical proper names by G. Brecher (Frankfort-on-Main, +1876) and Schusslovicz (Wilna, 1878). + +A _Concordance to the Septuagint_ was published at Frankfort in 1602 by +Conrad Kircher of Augsburg; in this the Hebrew words are placed in +alphabetical order and the Greek words by which they are translated are +placed under them. A Septuagint concordance, giving the Greek words in +alphabetical order, was published in 1718 in two volumes by Abraham +Tromm, a learned minister at Groningen, then in the eighty-fourth year +of his age. It gives the Greek words in alphabetical order; a Latin +translation; the Hebrew word or words for which the Greek term is used +by the Septuagint; then the places where the words occur in the order of +the books and chapters; at the end of the quotations from the Septuagint +places are given where the word occurs in Aquila, Symmachus and +Theodotion, the other Greek translations of the O. T.; and the words of +the Apocrypha follow in each case. Besides an index to the Hebrew and +Chaldaic words there is another index which contains a lexicon to the +_Hexapla_ of Origen. In 1887 (London) appeared the _Handy Concordance of +the Septuagint giving various readings from Codices Vaticanus, +Alexandrinus, Sinaiticus and Ephraemi, with an appendix of words from +Origen's Hexapla, not found in the above manuscripts_, by G. M., without +quotations. A work of the best modern scholarship was brought out in +1897 by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, entitled _A Concordance to the +Septuagint and the other Greek versions of the Old Testament including +the Apocryphal Books_, by Edwin Hatch and H. A. Redpath, assisted by +other scholars; this was completed in 1900 by a list of proper names. + +_The first Greek concordance_ to the New Testament was published at +Basel in 1546 by Sixt Birck or Xystus Betuleius (1500-1554), a +philologist and minister of the Lutheran Church. This was followed by +Stephen's concordance (1594) planned by Robert Stephens and published by +Henry, his son. Then in 1638 came Schmied's [Greek: tamieion], which has +been the basis of subsequent concordances to the New Testament. Erasmus +Schmied or Schmid was a Lutheran divine who was professor of Greek in +Wittenberg, where he died in 1637. Revised editions of the [Greek: +tamieion] were published at Gotha in 1717, and at Glasgow in 1819 by the +University Press. In the middle of the 19th century Charles Hermann +Bruder brought out a beautiful edition (Tauchnitz) with many +improvements. The _apparatus criticus_ was a triumph of New Testament +scholarship. It collates the readings of Erasmus, R. Stephens' third +edition, the Elzevirs, Mill, Bengel, Webster, Knapp, Tittman, Scholz, +Lachmann. It also gives a selection from the most ancient patristic +MSS. and from various interpreters. No various reading of critical value +is omitted. An edition of Bruder with readings of Samuel Prideaux +Tregelles was published in 1888 under the editorship of Westcott and +Hort. The _Englishman's Greek Concordance of the New Testament_, and the +_Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance_, are books intended to put +the results of the above-mentioned works at the service of those who +know little Hebrew or Greek. Every word in the Bible is given in Hebrew +or Greek, the word is transliterated, and then every passage in which it +occurs is given--the word, however it may be translated, being +italicized. They are the work of George V. Wigram assisted by W. Burgh +and superintended by S. P. Tregelles, B. Davidson and W. Chalk (1843; +2nd ed. 1860). Another book which deserves mention is, _A Concordance to +the Greek Testament with the English version to each word; the principal +Hebrew roots corresponding to the Greek words of the Septuagint, with +short critical notes and an index_, by John Williams, LL.D., Lond. 1767. + +In 1884 Robert Young, author of an analytical concordance mentioned +below, brought out a _Concordance to the Greek New Testament with a +dictionary of Bible Words and Synonyms_: this contains a concise +concordance to eight thousand changes made in the Revised Testament. +Another important work of modern scholarship is the _Concordance to the +Greek Testament_, edited by the Rev. W. F. Moulton and A. E. Geden, +according to the texts adopted by Westcott and Hort, Tischendorf, and +the English revisers. + +The first concordance to the English version of the New Testament was +published in London, 1535, by Thomas Gybson. It is a black-letter volume +entitled _The Concordance of the New Testament most necessary to be had +in the hands of all soche as delyte in the communicacion of any place +contayned in ye New Testament_. + +The first English concordance of the entire Bible was John Marbeck's, _A +Concordance, that is to saie, a worke wherein by the order of the +letters of the A.B.C. ye maie redely find any worde conteigned in the +whole Bible, so often as it is there expressed or mentioned_, Lond. +1550. Although Robert Stephens had divided the Bible into verses in +1545, Marbeck does not seem to have known this and refers to the +chapters only. In 1550 also appeared Walter Lynne's translation of the +concordance issued by Bullinger, Jude, Pellican and others of the +Reformers. Other English concordances were published by Cotton, Newman, +and in abbreviated forms by John Downham or Downame (cd. 1652), Vavasor +Powell (1617-1670), Jackson and Samuel Clarke (1626-1701). In 1737 +Alexander Cruden (q.v.), a London bookseller, born and educated in +Aberdeen, published his _Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of +the Old and New Testament, to which is added a concordance to the books +called Apocrypha_. This book embodied, was based upon and superseded all +its predecessors. Though the first edition was not remunerative, three +editions were published during Cruden's life, and many since his death. +Cruden's work is accurate and full, and later concordances only +supersede his by combining an English with a Greek and Hebrew +concordance. This is done by the _Critical Greek and English +Concordance_ prepared by C. F. Hudson, H. A. Hastings and Ezra Abbot, +LL.D., published in Boston, Mass., and by the _Critical Lexicon and +Concordance to the English and Greek New Testament_, by E. L. Bullinger, +1892. The _Interpreting Concordance to the New Testament_, edited by +James Gall, shows the Greek original of every word, with a glossary +explaining the Greek words of the New Testament, and showing their +varied renderings in the Authorized Version. The most convenient of +these is _Young's Analytical Concordance_, published in Edinburgh in +1879, and since revised and reissued. It shows (1) the original Hebrew +or Greek of any word in the English Bible; (2) the literal and primitive +meaning of every such original word; (3) thoroughly reliable parallel +passages. There is a _Students' Concordance to the Revised Version of +the New Testament_ showing the changes embodied in the revision, +published under licence of the universities; and a concordance to the +Revised Version by J. A. Thoms for the Christian Knowledge Society. + +Biblical concordances having familiarized students with the value and +use of such books for the systematic study of an author, the practice of +making concordances has now become common. There are concordances to the +works of Shakespeare, Browning and many other writers. (D. Mn.) + + + + +CONCORDAT (Lat. _concordatum_, agreed upon, from _con-_, together, and +_cor_, heart), a term originally denoting an agreement between +ecclesiastical persons or secular persons, but later applied to a pact +concluded between the ecclesiastical authority and the secular authority +on ecclesiastical matters which concern both, and, more specially, to a +pact concluded between the pope, as head of the Catholic Church, and a +temporal sovereign for the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in the +territory of such sovereign. It is to concordats in this later sense +that this article refers. + +No one now questions the profound distinction that exists between the +two powers, spiritual and temporal, between the church and the state. +Yet these two societies are none the less in inevitable relation. The +same men go to compose both; and the church, albeit pursuing a spiritual +end, cannot dispense with the aid of temporal property, which in its +nature depends on the organization of secular society. It follows of +necessity that there are some matters which may be called "mixed," and +which are the legitimate concern of the two powers, such as church +property, places of worship, the appointment and the emoluments of +ecclesiastical dignitaries, the temporal rights and privileges of the +secular and regular clergy, the regulation of public worship, and the +like. The existence of such mixed matters gives rise to inevitable +conflicts of jurisdiction, which may lead, and sometimes have led, to +civil war. It is, therefore, to the general interest that all these +matters should be settled pacifically, by a common accord; and hence +originated those conventions between the two powers which are known by +the significant name of concordat, the official name being _pactum +concordatum_ or _solemnis conventio_. In theory these agreements may +result from the spontaneous and pacific initiative of the contracting +parties, but in reality their object has almost always been to terminate +more or less acute conflicts and remedy more or less disturbed +situations. It is for this reason that concordats always present a +clearly marked character of mutual concession, each of the two powers +renouncing certain of its claims in the interests of peace. + +For the purposes of a concordat the state recognizes the official +_status_ of the church and of its ministers and tribunals; guarantees it +certain privileges; and sometimes binds itself to secure for it +subsidies representing compensation for past spoliations. The pope on +his side grants the temporal sovereign certain rights, such as that of +making or controlling the appointment of dignitaries; engages to proceed +in harmony with the government in the creation of dioceses or parishes; +and regularizes the situation produced by the usurpation of church +property &c. The great advantage of concordats--indeed their principal +utility--consists in transforming necessarily unequal unilateral claims +into contractual obligations analogous to those which result from an +international convention. Whatever the obligations of the state towards +the ecclesiastical society may be in pure theory, in practice they +become more precise and stable when they assume the nature of a +bilateral convention by which the state engages itself with regard to a +third party. And reciprocally, whatever may be the absolute rights of +the ecclesiastical society over the appointment of its dignitaries, the +administration of its property, and the government of its adherents, the +exercise of these rights is limited and restricted by the stable +engagements and concessions of the concordatory pact, which bind the +head of the church with regard to the nations. + +A concordat may assume divers forms,--historically, three. The most +common in modern times is that of a diplomatic convention debated +between the authorized mandatories of the high contracting parties and +subsequently ratified by the latter; as, for example, the French +concordat of 1801. Or, secondly, the concordat may result from two +identical separate acts, one emanating from the pope and the other from +the sovereign; this was the form of the first true concordat, that of +Worms, in 1122. A third form was employed in the case of the concordat +of 1516 between Leo X. and Francis I. of France; a papal bull published +the concordat in the form of a concession by the pope, and it was +afterwards accepted and published by the king as law of the country. The +shades which distinguish these three forms are not without significance, +but they in no way detract from the contractual character of concordats. + +Since concordats are contracts they give rise to that special mutual +obligation which results from every agreement freely entered into; for a +contract is binding on both parties to it. Concordats are undoubtedly +conventions of a particular nature. They may make certain concessions or +privileges once given without any corresponding obligation; they +constitute for a given country a special ecclesiastical law; and it is +thus that writers have sometimes spoken of concordats as privileges. +Again, it is quite certain that the spiritual matters upon which +concordats bear do not concern the two powers in the same manner and in +the same degree; and in this sense concordats are not perfectly equal +agreements. Finally, they do not assume the contracting parties to be +totally independent, i.e. regard is had to the existence of anterior +rights or duties. But with these reservations it must unhesitatingly be +said that concordats are bilateral or synallagmatic contracts, from +which results an equal mutual obligation for the two parties, who enter +into a juridical engagement towards each other. Latterly certain +Catholics have questioned this equality of the concordatory obligation, +and have aroused keen discussion. According to Maurice de Bonald (_Deux +questions sur le concordat de 1801_, Geneva, 1871), who exaggerates the +view of Cardinal Tarquini (_Instit. juris publ. eccl._, 1862 and 1868), +concordats would be pure privileges granted by the pope; the pope would +not be able to enter into agreements on spiritual matters or impose +restraints upon the power of his successors; and consequently he would +not bind himself in any juridical sense and would be able freely to +revoke concordats, just as the author of a privilege can withdraw it at +his pleasure. This exaggerated argument found a certain number of +supporters, several of whom nevertheless sensibly weakened it. But the +best canonists, from the Roman professor De Angelis (_Prael. juris +canon._ i. 106) onwards, and all jurists, have victoriously refuted this +theory, either by insisting on the principles common to all agreements +or by citing the formal text of several concordats and papal acts, which +are as explicit as possible. They have thus upheld the true contractual +nature of concordats and the mutual juridical obligation which results +from them. + +The foregoing statements must not be taken to mean that concordats are +in their nature perpetual, and that they cannot be broken or denounced. +They have the perpetuity of conventions which contain no time +limitation; but, like every human convention, they can be denounced, in +the form in use for international treaties, and for good reasons, which +are summed up in the exigencies of the general good of the country. +Nevertheless, there is no example of a concordat having been denounced +or broken by the popes, whereas several have been denounced or broken by +the civil powers, sometimes in the least diplomatic manner, as in the +case of the French concordat in 1905. The rupture of the concordat at +once terminates the obligations which resulted from it on both sides; +but it does not break off all relation between the church and the state, +since the two societies continue to coexist on the same territory. To +the situation defined by concordat, however, succeeds another situation, +more or less uncertain and more or less strained, in which the two +powers legislate separately on mixed matters, sometimes not without +provoking conflicts. + +We cannot describe in detail the objects of concordatory conventions. +They bear upon very varied matters,[1] and we must confine ourselves +here to a brief _resume_. In the first place is the official recognition +by the state of the Catholic religion and its ministers. Sometimes the +Catholic religion is declared to be the state religion, and at least the +free and public exercise of its worship is guaranteed. Several +conventions guarantee the free communication of the bishops, clergy and +laity with the Holy See; and this admits of the publication and +execution of apostolic letters in matters spiritual. Others define those +affairs of major importance which may be or must be referred to the Holy +See by appeal, or the decision of which is reserved to the Holy See. On +several occasions concordats have established a new division of +dioceses, and provided that future erections or divisions should be made +by a common accord. Analogous provisions have been made with regard to +the territorial divisions within the dioceses; parishes have been +recast, and the consent of the two authorities has been required for the +establishment of new parishes. As regards candidates for ecclesiastical +offices, the concordats concluded with Catholic nations regularly give +the sovereign the right to nominate or present to bishoprics, often also +to other inferior benefices, such as canonries, important parishes and +abbeys; or at least the choice of the ecclesiastical authority is +submitted to the approval of the civil power. In all cases canonical +institution (which confers ecclesiastical jurisdiction) is reserved to +the pope or the bishops. In countries where the head of the state is not +a Catholic, the bishops are regularly elected by the chapters, but the +civil power has the right to strike out objectionable names from the +list of candidates which is previously submitted to it. Other +conventions secure the exercise of the jurisdiction of the bishops in +their diocese, and determine precisely their authority over seminaries +and other ecclesiastical establishments of instruction and education, as +well as over public schools, so far as concerns the teaching of +religion. Certain concordats deal with the orders and congregations of +monks and nuns with a view to subjecting them to a certain control while +securing to them the legal exercise of their activities. Ecclesiastical +immunities, such as reservation of the criminal cases of the clergy, +exemption from military service and other privileges, are expressly +maintained in a certain number of pacts. One of the most important +subjects is that of church property. An agreement is come to as to the +conditions on which pious foundations are able to be made; the measure +in which church property shall contribute to the public expenses is +indicated; and, in the 19th century, the position of those who have +acquired confiscated church property is regularized. In exchange for +this surrender by the church of its ancient property the state engages +to contribute to the subsistence of the ministers of public worship, or +at least of certain of them. + +Scholars agree in associating the earliest concordats with the +celebrated contest about investitures (q.v.), which so profoundly +agitated Christian Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries. The first in +date is that which was concluded for England with Henry I. in 1107 by +the efforts of St Anselm. The convention of Sutri of 1111 between Pope +Paschal II. and the emperor Henry V. having been rejected, negotiations +were resumed by Pope Calixtus II. and ended in the concordat of Worms +(1122), which was confirmed in 1177 by the convention between Alexander +III. and the emperor Frederick I. In this concordat a distinction was +made between spiritual investiture, by the ring and pastoral staff, and +lay or feudal investiture, by the sceptre. The emperor renounced +investiture by ring and staff, and permitted canonical elections; the +pope on his part recognized the king's right to perform lay investiture +and to assist at elections. Analogous to this convention was the +concordat concluded between Nicholas IV. and the king of Portugal in +1289. + +The lengthy discussions on ecclesiastical benefices in Germany ended +finally in the concordat of Vienna, promulgated by Nicholas V. in 1448. +Already at the council of Constance attempts had been made to reduce the +excessive papal reservations and taxes in the matter of benefices, +privileges which had been established under the Avignon popes and during +the Great Schism; for example, Martin V. had had to make with the +different nations special arrangements which were valid for five years +only, and by which he renounced the revenues of vacant benefices. The +council of Basel went further: it suppressed annates and all the +benefice reservations which did not appear in the _Corpus Juris_. +Eugenius IV. repudiated the Basel decrees, and the negotiations +terminated in what was called the "concordat of the princes," which was +accepted by Eugenius IV. on his death-bed (bulls of February 5 and 7, +1447). In February 1448 Nicholas V. concluded the arrangement, which +took the name of the concordat of Vienna. This concordat, however, was +not received as law of the Empire. In Germany the concessions made to +the pope and the reservations maintained by him in the matter of taxes +and benefices were deemed excessive, and the prolonged discontent which +resulted was one of the causes of the success of the Lutheran +Reformation. + +In France the opposition to the papal exactions had been still more +marked. In 1438 the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges adopted and put into +practice the Basel decrees, and in spite of the incessant protests of +the Holy See the Pragmatic was observed throughout the 15th century, +even after its nominal abolition by Louis XI. in 1461. The situation was +modified by the concordat of Bologna, which was personally negotiated by +Leo X. and Francis I. of France at Bologna in December 1515, inserted in +the bull _Primitiva_ (August 18, 1516), and promulgated as law of the +realm in 1517, but not without rousing keen opposition. All bishoprics, +abbeys and priories were in the royal nomination, the canonical +institution belonging to the pope. The pope preserved the right to +nominate to vacant benefices _in curia_ and to certain benefices of the +chapters, but all the others were in the nomination of the bishops or +other inferior collators. However, the exercise of the pope's right of +provision still left considerable scope for papal intervention, and the +pope retained the annates. + +In the 17th century we have only to mention the concordat between Urban +VIII. and the emperor Ferdinand II. for Bohemia in 1640. In the 18th +century concordats are numerous: there are two for Spain, in 1737 and +1753; two for the duchy of Milan, in 1757 and 1784; one for Poland, in +1736; five for Sardinia and Piedmont, in 1727, 1741, 1742, 1750 and +1770; and one for the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1741. + +After the political and territorial upheavals which marked the end of +the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th, all these concordats +either fell to the ground or had to be recast. In the 19th century we +find a long series of concordats, of which a good number are still in +force. The first in date and importance is that of 1801, concluded for +France between Napoleon, First Consul, and Pius VII. after laborious +negotiations. Save in the provisions relating to ecclesiastical +benefices, all the property of which had been confiscated, it reproduced +the concordat of 1516. The pope condoned those who had acquired church +property; and by way of compensation the government engaged to give the +bishops and cures suitable salaries. The concordat was solemnly +promulgated on Easter Day 1802, but the government had added to it +unilateral provisions of Gallican tendencies, which were known as the +Organic Articles. After having been the law of the Church of France for +a century, it was denounced by the French government in 1905. It +remains, however, partly in force for Belgium and Alsace-Lorraine, which +formed part of French territory in 1801. + +We conclude with a brief chronological survey of the concordats during +the 19th century, some now abrogated or replaced, others maintained. It +must be observed that the denunciation of a concordat by a nation does +not necessarily entail the separation of the church and the state in +that country or the rupture of diplomatic relations with Rome. + +1803. For the Italian republic, between Napoleon and Pius VII., +analogous to the French concordat; abrogated. + +1813. It is impossible to designate as a concordat the concessions which +were wrested by violence from Pius VII. when ill and in seclusion at +Fontainebleau, and which he at once retracted. + +1817. For Bavaria; still in force. + +1817. New French concordat, in which Louis XVIII. endeavoured to revive +the concordat of 1516; but it was not put to the vote in the chambers, +and never came into force. + +1817. For Piedmont, completed in 1836 and 1841; was suppressed, like +all other Italian concordats, by the formation of the kingdom of Italy. + +1818. For the Two Sicilies, completed in 1834; lasted until the invasion +of the kingdom of Naples by Piedmont. + +1821. For Prussia; still in force. + +1821. For the Rhine provinces not incorporated in Prussia, with the +special object of regulating episcopal elections; concerned Wurttemberg, +Baden, Hesse, Saxony, Nassau, Frankfort, the Hanseatic towns, Oldenburg +and Waldeck. This first concordat was immediately suspended, and was not +ratified until 1827; it is partially maintained. It had to be replaced +by new concordats concluded with Wurttemberg in 1857 and the grand-duchy +of Baden in 1859; but these conventions, not having been ratified by +those countries, never came into force. + +1824. For the kingdom of Hanover; maintained. + +1827. For Belgium and Holland; abandoned by a common accord. + +1828 and 1845. For Switzerland, for the reorganization of the bishoprics +of Basel and Soleure; in force. + +1847. For Russia, never applied by Russia. It was followed by several +partial conventions. + +1851. For Tuscany; lasted until the formation of the kingdom of Italy. + +1851. For Spain, completed in 1859 and 1888; in force. + +A convention on the religious orders was concluded in 1904, but had not +received the assent of the Senate in 1908. + +1855. For Austria; denounced in 1870. Several of its provisions are +maintained by unilateral Austrian laws. The emperor of Austria continues +to nominate to bishoprics by virtue of rights anterior to this +concordat. + +1857. For Portugal, completed in 1886 for the Portuguese possessions in +the Indies; in force. + +1886. For Montenegro; in force. + +The numerous concordats concluded towards the middle of the 19th century +with several of the South American republics either have not come into +force or have been denounced and replaced by a more or less pacific +modus vivendi. + + For texts see Vincenzio Nussi, _Quinquaginta conventiones de rebus + ecclesiasticis_ (Rome, 1869; Mainz, 1870); Branden, _Concordata inter + S. Sedem et inclytam nationem Germaniae_, &c. (undated). On the nature + and obligation of concordats see Mgr. Giobbio, _I Concordati_ (Monza, + 1900); _idem, Lezioni di diplomazia ecclesiastica_ (Rome, 1899-1903); + Cardinal Cavagnis, _Institutiones juris publici ecclesiastici_ (Rome, + 1906). For the French concordats see A. Baudrillard, _Quatre cents ans + de concordat_ (Paris, 1905); Boulay de la Meurthe, _Documents sur la + negociation du concordat et sur les autres rapports de la France avec + le Saint-Siege_ (Paris, 1891-1905); Cardinal Mathieu, _Le Concordat de + 1801_ (Paris, 1903); E. Sevestre, _Le Concordat de 1801, l'histoire, + le texte, la destinee_ (Paris, 1905). On the relations between the + church and the state in various countries see Vering, _Kirchenrecht_, + SS 30-53. (A. Bo.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] These are arranged under thirty-five distinct heads in Nussi's + _Quinquaginta conventiones de rebus ecclesiasticis_ (Rome, 1869). + + + + +CONCORDIA, a Roman goddess, the personification of peace and goodwill. +Several temples in her honour were erected at Rome, the most ancient +being one on the Capitol, dedicated to her by Camillus (367 B.C.), +subsequently restored by Livia, the wife of Augustus, and consecrated by +Tiberius (A.D. 10). Other temples were frequently built to commemorate +the restoration of civil harmony. Offerings were made to Concordia on +the birthdays of emperors, and Concordia Augusta was worshipped as the +promoter of harmony in the imperial household. Concordia was represented +as a matron holding in her right hand a _patera_ or an olive branch, and +in her left a _cornu copiae_ or a sceptre. Her symbols were two hands +joined together, and two serpents entwined about a herald's staff. + + + + +CONCORDIA (mod. _Concordia Sagittaria_), an ancient town of Venetia, in +Italy, 16 ft. above sea-level, 31 m. W. of Aquileia, at the junction of +roads to Altinum and Patavium, to Opitergium (and thence either to +Vicetia and Verona, or Feltria and Tridentum), to Noricum by the valley +of the Tilaventus (Tagliamento), and to Aquileia. It was a mere village +until the time of Augustus, who made it a colony. Under the later empire +it was one of the most important towns of Italy; it had a strong +garrison and a factory of missiles for the army. The cemetery of the +garrison has been excavated since 1873, and a large number of important +inscriptions, the majority belonging to the end of the 4th and the +beginning of the 5th centuries, have been discovered. It was taken and +destroyed by Attila in A.D. 452. Considerable remains of the ancient +town have been found--parts of the city walls, the sites of the forum +and the theatre, and probably that of the arms factory. The objects +found are preserved at Portogruaro, 1-1/4 m. to the N. The see of Concordia +was founded at an early period, and transferred in 1339 to Portogruaro, +where it still remains. The baptistery of Concordia was probably erected +in 1100. + + See Ch. Hulsen in Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, iv. (Stuttgart, + 1901) 830. (T. As.) + + + + +CONCRETE (Lat. _concretus_, participle of _concrescere_, to grow +together), a term used in various technical senses with the general +significance of combination, conjunction, solidity. Thus the building +material made up of separate substances combined into one is known as +concrete (see below). In mathematics and music, the adjective has been +used as synonymous with "continuous" as opposed to "discrete," i.e. +"separate," "discontinuous." This antithesis is no doubt influenced by +the idea that the two words derive from a common origin, whereas +"discrete" is derived from the Latin _discernere_. In logic and also in +common language concrete terms are those which signify persons or things +as opposed to abstract terms which signify qualities, relations, +attributes (so J. S. Mill). Thus the term "man" is concrete, while +"manhood" and "humanity" are abstract, the names of the qualities +implied. Confusions between abstract and concrete terms are frequent; +thus the word "relation," which is strictly an abstract term implying +connexion between two things or persons, is often used instead of the +correct term "relative" for people related to one another. Concrete +terms are further subdivided as Singular, the names of things regarded +as individuals, and General or Common, the names which a number of +things bear in common in virtue of their possession of common +characteristics. These latter terms, though concrete in so far as they +denote the persons or things which are known by them (see DENOTATION), +have also an abstract sense when viewed connotatively, i.e. as implying +the quality or qualities in isolation from the individuals. The +ascription of adjectives to the class of concrete terms, upheld by J. S. +Mill, has been disputed on the ground that adjectives are applied both +to concrete and to abstract terms. Hence some logicians make a separate +class for adjectives, as being the names neither of things nor of +qualities, and describe them as Attributive terms. + + + + +CONCRETE, the name given to a building material consisting generally of +a mixture of broken stone, sand and some kind of cement. To these is +added water, which combining chemically with the cement conglomerates +the whole mixture into a solid mass, and forms a rough but strong +artificial stone. It has thus the immense advantage over natural stone +that it can be easily moulded while wet to any desired shape or size. +Moreover, its constituents can be obtained in almost any part of the +world, and its manufacture is extremely simple. On account of these +properties, builders have come to give it a distinct preference over +stone, brick, timber and other building materials. So popular has it +become that besides being used for massive constructions like +breakwaters, dock walls, culverts, and for foundations of buildings, +lighthouses and bridges, it is also proving its usefulness to the +architect and engineer in many other ways. A remarkable extension of the +use of concrete has been made possible by the introduction of scientific +methods of combining it with steel or iron. The floors and even the +walls of important buildings are made of this combination, and long span +bridges, tall factory chimneys, and large water-tanks are among the many +novel uses to which it has been put. Piles made of steel concrete are +driven into the ground with blows that would shatter the best of timber. +A fuller description of the combination of steel and concrete will be +given later. + + + Constituents. + +The constituents of concrete are sometimes spoken of as the _matrix_ and +the _aggregate_, and these terms, though somewhat old-fashioned, are +convenient. The matrix is the lime or cement, whose chemical action +with the added water causes the concrete to solidify; and the aggregate +is the broken stone or hard material which is embedded in the matrix. +The matrix most commonly used is Portland cement, by far the best and +strongest of them all. The subject of its manufacture and examination is +a most important and interesting one, and the special article dealing +with it should be studied (see CEMENT), Here it will only be said that +before using Portland cement very careful tests should be made to +ascertain its quality and condition. Moreover, it should be kept in a +damp-proof store for a few weeks; and when taken out for use it should +be mixed and placed in position as quickly as possible, because rain, or +even moist air, spoils it by causing it to set prematurely. The oldest +of all the matrices is lime, and many splendid examples of its use by +the Romans still exist. It has been to a great extent superseded by +Portland cement, on account of the much greater strength of the latter, +though lime concrete is still used in many places for dry foundations +and small structures. To be of service the lime should be what is known +as "hydraulic," that is, not pure or "fat," but containing some +argillaceous matter, and should be carefully slaked with water before +being mixed with the aggregate. To ensure this being properly done, the +lumps of lime should be broken up small, and enough water to slake them +should be added, the lime then being allowed to rest for about +forty-eight hours, when the water changes the particles of quicklime to +hydrate of lime, and breaks up the hard lumps into a powder. The +hydrated lime, after being passed through a fine screen to sort out any +lumps unaffected by the water, is ready for concrete making, and if not +required at once should be stored in a dry place. Other matrices are +slag cement, a comparatively recent invention, and some other natural +and artificial cements which find occasional advocates. Materials like +tar and pitch are sometimes employed as a matrix; they are used hot and +without water, the solidifying action being due to cooling and to +evaporation of the mineral oils contained in them. Whatever matrix is +used, it is almost invariably "diluted" with sand, the grains of which +become coated with the finer particles of the matrix. The sand should be +coarse-grained and hard. It should be free from dirt--that is to say, +free from clay or soft mud, for instance, which prevents the cement +adhering to its particles, or again from sewage matter or any substance +which will chemically destroy the matrix. The grains should show no +signs of decay, and by preference should be of an angular shape. The +sand obtained by crushing granite and hard stones is excellent. When +lime is used as a matrix, certain natural earths such as pozzuolana or +trass, or, failing these, powdered bricks or tiles, may be used instead +of sand with great advantage. They have the property of entering into +chemical combination with the lime, forming a hard setting compound, and +increasing the hardness of the resulting concrete. + +The commonest aggregates are broken stone and natural flint gravel. +Broken bricks or tiles and broken furnace slag are sometimes used, the +essential points being that the aggregate should be hard, clean and +sound. Generally speaking, broken stones will be rough and angular, +whereas the stones in flint gravel will be comparatively smooth and +round. It might be supposed, therefore, that the broken stone will +necessarily be the better aggregate, but this does not always follow. +Experience shows that, although spherical pebbles are to be avoided, +Portland cement adheres tightly to smooth flint surfaces, and that rough +stones often give a less compact concrete than smooth ones on account of +the difficulty of bedding them into the matrix when laying the concrete. +In mixing concrete there is always a tendency for the stones to separate +themselves from the sand and cement, and to form "pockets" of +honeycombed concrete which are neither water-tight nor strong. These are +much more liable to occur when the stones are flat and angular than when +they are round. Modern engineers favour the practice of having the +stones of various sizes instead of being uniform, because if these sizes +are wisely proportioned the whole mixture can be made more solid, and +the rough "pockets" avoided. For first-class work, however, and +especially in steel concrete, it is customary to reject very large +stones, and to insist that all shall pass through a ring 7/8 of an inch +in diameter. + +The water, like all the other constituents of concrete, should be clean +and free from vegetable matter. At one time sea-water was thought to be +injurious, but modern investigation finds no objection to it except on +the score of appearance, efflorescence being more likely to occur when +it is used. + +Sometimes in massive concrete structures large and heavy stones as big +as a man can lift are buried in the concrete after it is laid in +position but while it is still wet. The stones should be hard and clean, +and care must be taken that they are completely surrounded. Such +concrete is known as _rubble concrete_. + + + Proportions. + +In proportioning the quantities of matrix to aggregate the ideal to be +aimed at is to get a concrete in which the voids or air-spaces shall be +as small as possible; and as the lime or cement is usually by far the +most expensive item, it is desirable to use as little of it as is +consistent with strength. When natural flint gravel containing both +stones and sand is used, it is usual to mix so much gravel with so much +lime or cement. The proportions in practice generally run from 3 to 1 +for very strong work, down to 12 to 1 for unimportant work. Some +engineers have the sand separated from the stones by screens or sieves +and then remixed in definite proportions. When stones and sand are +obtained from different sources, their relative proportions have to be +decided upon. A common way of doing this is first to choose a proportion +of sand to cement, which will probably vary from 1 to 1 up to 4 to 1. It +then remains to determine what proportion of stones should be added. For +this purpose a large can, whose volume is known, is filled loosely with +stones, and the volume of the voids between them is determined by +measuring how much water the can will hold in addition to the stones. It +is then assumed that the quantity of sand and cement should be equal to +the voids. Moreover, the volume of sand and cement together is generally +assumed to be equal to that of the sand alone, as the cement to a large +extent fills up voids in the sand. For example, suppose it is resolved +to use 2 parts of sand to 1 of cement, and suppose that experiment shows +that in a pailful of stones two-fifths of the volume consists of voids, +then 2 parts of sand (or sand with cement) will fill voids in 5 parts of +stones, and the proportion of cement, sand, stones becomes 1:2:5. There +are several weak points in this reasoning, and a more accurate way of +determining the best proportions is to try different mixtures of cement, +stones and sand, filling them into different pails of the same size, and +then ascertaining, by weighing the pails, which mixture is the densest. + +In determining the amount of water to be added, several things must be +considered. The amount required to combine chemically with the cement is +about 16% by weight, but in practice much more than this is used, +because of loss by evaporation, and the difficulty of ensuring that the +water shall be uniformly distributed. If the situation is cool, the +stone hard, and the concrete carefully rammed directly it is laid down +and kept moist with damp cloths, only just sufficient to moisten the +whole mass is required. On the other hand, water should be given +generously in hot weather, also when absorbent stone is used or when the +concrete is not rammed. In these cases the concrete should be allowed to +take all it can, but an excess of water which would flow away, carrying +the cement with it, should be avoided. + + + Mixing. + +The thorough mixing of the constituents is a most important item in the +production of good concrete. Its object is to distribute all the +materials evenly throughout the mass, and it is performed in many +different ways, both by hand and by machine. The relative values of hand +and machine work are often discussed. Roughly it may be said that where +a large mass of concrete is to be mixed at one or two places a good +machine will be of great advantage. On the other hand, where the mixing +platform has to be constantly shifted, hand mixing is the more +convenient way. In hand mixing it is usual to measure out from gauge +boxes the sand, stones and cement or lime in a heap on a wooden +platform. Then they are turned once or twice in their dry state by men +with shovels. Next water is carefully added, and the mixture again +turned, when it is ready for depositing. For important work and +especially for thin structures the number of turnings should be +increased. Many types of mixing machines are obtainable; the favourite +type is one in which the materials are placed in a large iron box which +is made to rotate, thus tumbling the matrix and aggregate over each +other again and again. Another simple apparatus is a large vertical pipe +or shoot in which sloping baffle plates or shelves are placed at +intervals. The materials are fed in at the top of the shoot and fall +from shelf to shelf, the mixing being effected by the various shocks +thus given. When mixed the concrete is carried at once to the position +required, and if the matrix is quick-setting Portland cement this +operation must not be delayed. + + + Moulds. + +One of the few drawbacks of concrete is that, unlike brickwork or +masonry, it has nearly always to be deposited within moulds or framing +which give it the required shape, and which are removed after it is set. +Indeed, the trouble and expense of these moulds sometimes prohibit its +use. It is essential that they shall be strong and stiff, so as not to +yield at all from the pressure of the wet concrete. The moulds for the +face of a wall consist generally of wooden shutters, leaning against +upright timbers which are secured by horizontal or raking struts to firm +ground, or to anything that will bear the weight. If a smooth and neat +face is wanted other precautions must be taken. The shutters must be +planed, and coated with a mixture of soap and oil, so as to come away +easily after the concrete is set. Moreover, when depositing the +concrete, a shovel or other tool must be worked between the wet concrete +and the shutter. This draws sand and water to the face and prevents the +rough stones from showing themselves. Sometimes rough concrete is +rendered over with a plaster of cement and sand after the shutters have +been removed, but this is liable to peel off and should be avoided. + + + Depositing. + +The method of depositing depends on the situation. If for important +walls, or for small scantlings such as steel concrete generally +involves, the concrete should be deposited in quite small quantities and +very carefully rammed into position. If for massive walls, it is usual +to tip it out in large quantities from a barrow or wagon, and simply +spread it in layers about a foot thick. Depositing concrete under water +for breakwaters and bridge foundations requires special skill and +special appliances. It is usually done in one of three ways:--(a) By +moulding the concrete ashore into large blocks, which, when sufficiently +hard, are lowered through the water into position by a crane or similar +machine with the aid of divers. The most notable instance of this type +of construction was at the port of Dublin, where Mr B. B. Stoney made +blocks no less than 350 tons in weight. Each block formed a piece of the +quay wall 12 ft. long and 27 ft. high, being made on shore and then +deposited in position by floating sheers of special design. (b) By +moulding the concrete into what are called "bag-blocks." In this system +the concrete is filled into bags, which are at once lowered through the +water like the blocks. But in this case the concrete being still wet can +adapt itself more or less to the shape of the adjoining bags, and strong +rough walls can be built in this way. Sometimes the bags are made of +enormous size, as at Aberdeen breakwater, where the contents of each bag +weighed 50 tons. The canvas was laid in a hopper barge and there filled +with the concrete and sewn up. The enormous bag was then dropped through +a door in the bottom of the barge upon the breakwater foundation. (c) By +depositing the wet concrete through the water between temporary upright +timber frames which form the two faces of the wall. In this case very +great care has to be taken to prevent the cement from being washed away +from the other constituents when passing through the water. Indeed, this +is bound to happen more or less, but it is guarded against by lowering +the concrete slowly in a special box, the bottom of which is opened as +it reaches the ground on which the concrete is to be laid. This method +can only be carried out in still water, and where strong and tight +framing can be built which will prevent the concrete from escaping. For +small work the box can be replaced by a canvas bag secured by a special +tripping noose which can be loosened when the bag has reached the +ground. The concrete escapes from the bag, which is then drawn up and +refilled. + + + Strength. + +Concrete may be compared with other building materials like masonry or +timber from various points of view, such as strength, durability, +convenience of building, fire-resistance, appearance and cost. Its +strength varies within very wide limits according to the quality and +proportions of the constituents, and the skill shown in mixing and +placing them. To give a rough idea, however, it may be said that its +safe crushing load would be about 1/2 cwt. per sq. in. for lime concrete, +and 1 to 5 cwt. for Portland cement concrete. The safe tensile strength +of Portland cement concrete would be something like one-tenth of its +compressive strength, and might be far less. On this account it is usual +to neglect the tensile strength of concrete in designing structures, and +to arrange the material in such a way that tensile stresses are avoided. +Hence slabs or beams of long span should not be built of plain concrete, +though when reinforced with steel it is admirably adapted for these +purposes. + + + Durability. + +In regard to durability good Portland cement concrete is one of the most +durable materials known. Neither hot, cold, nor wet weather has +practically any effect whatever upon it. Frost will not injure it after +it has once set, though it is essential to guard it from frost during +the operations of mixing and depositing. The same praise cannot, +however, be given to lime concrete. Even though the best hydraulic lime +be used it is wise to confine it to places where it is not exposed to +the air, or to running water, and indeed for important structures the +use of lime should be avoided. Good Portland cement is so much stronger +than any lime that there are few situations where it is not cheaper as +well as better to use the former, because, although cement is the more +expensive matrix, a smaller proportion of it will suffice for use. Lime +should never be used in work exposed to sea-water, or to water +containing chemicals of any kind. Portland cement concrete, on the other +hand, may be used without fear in sea-water, provided that certain +reasonable precautions are taken. Considerable alarm was created about +the year 1887 by the failure of two or three large structures of +Portland cement concrete exposed to sea-water, both in England and other +countries. The matter was carefully investigated, and it was found that +the sulphate of magnesia in the sea-water has a decomposing action on +Portland cements, especially those which contain a large proportion of +lime or even of alumina. Indeed, no Portland cement is free from the +liability to be decomposed by sea-water, and on a moderate scale this +action is always going on more or less. But to ensure the permanence of +structures in sea-water the great object is to choose a cement +containing as little lime and alumina as possible, and free from +sulphates such as gypsum; and more important still to proportion the +sand and stones in the concrete in such a way that the structure is +practically non-porous. If this is done there is really nothing to fear. +On the other hand, if the concrete is rough and porous the sea-water +will gradually eat into the heart of the structure, especially in a case +like a dam, where the water, being higher on one side than the other, +constantly forces its way through the rough material, and decomposes the +Portland cement it contains. + + + Convenience and appearance. + +As regards its convenience for building purposes it may be said roughly +that in "mass" work concrete is vastly more convenient than any other +material. But concrete is hampered by the fact that the surface always +has to be formed by means of wooden or other framing, and in the case of +thin walls or floors this framing becomes a serious item, involving +expense and delay. In appearance concrete can rarely if ever rival stone +or brickwork. It is true that it can be moulded to any desired shape, +but mouldings in concrete generally give the appearance of being +unsatisfactory imitations of stone. Moreover, its colour is not +pleasing. These defects will no doubt be overcome as concrete grows in +popularity as a building material and its aesthetic treatment is better +understood. Concrete pavings are being used in buildings of first +importance, the aggregate being very carefully selected, and in many +cases the whole mixture coloured by the use of pigments. Care must be +taken in their selection, however, as certain colouring matters such as +red lead are destructive to the cement. One of the great objections to +the appearance of concrete is the fact that soon after its erection +irregular cracks invariably appear on its surface. These cracks are +probably due to shrinkage while setting, aggravated by changes in +temperature. They occur no less in structures of masonry and brickwork, +but in these cases they generally follow the joints, and are almost +imperceptible. In the case of a smooth concrete face there are no joints +to follow, and the cracks become an ugly feature. They are sometimes +regulated by forming artificial "joints" in the structure by embedding +strips of wood or sheet iron at regular intervals, thus forming "lines +of weakness," at which the cracks therefore take place. A pleasing +"rough" appearance can be given to concrete by brushing it over soon +after it has set with a stiff brush dipped in water or dilute acid. Or, +if hard, its surface can be picked all over with a bush hammer. + + + Resistance to fire. + +At one time Portland cement concrete was considered to be lacking in +fireproof qualities, but now it is regarded as one of the best +fire-resisting materials known. Although experiments on this matter are +badly needed, there is little doubt that good steel concrete is very +nearly indestructible by fire. The matrix should be Portland cement, and +the nature of the aggregate is important. Cinders have been and are +still much favoured for this purpose. The reason for this preference +lies in the fact that being porous and full of air, they are a good +non-conductor. But they are weak, and modern experience goes to show +that a strong concrete is the best, and that probably materials like +broken clamp bricks or burnt clay, which are porous and yet strong, are +far better than cinders as a fireproof aggregate. Limestone should be +avoided, as it soon splits under heat. The steel reinforcement is of +immense importance in fireproof work, because, if properly designed, it +enables the concrete to hold together and do its work even when it has +been cracked by fire and water. On the other hand, the concrete, being a +non-conductor, preserves the steel from being softened and twisted by +excessive temperature. + + + Cost. + +Only very general remarks can be made on the subject of cost, as this +item varies greatly in different situations and with the market price of +the materials used. But in England it may be said that for massive work +such as big walls and foundations concrete is nearly always cheaper than +brickwork or masonry. On the other hand, for reasons already given, thin +walls, such as house walls, will cost more in concrete. Steel concrete +is even more difficult to generalize about, as its use is comparatively +new, but even in the matter of first cost it is proving a serious rival +to timber and to plate steel work, in floors, bridges and tanks, and to +brickwork and plain concrete in structures such as culverts and +retaining walls, towers and domes. + +_Artificial Stones._--There are many varieties of concrete known as +"artificial stones" which can now be bought ready moulded into the form +of paving slabs, wall blocks and pipes: they are both pleasing in +appearance and very durable, being carefully made by skilled workmen. +Granolithic, globe granite and synthetic stone are examples of these. +Some, such as victoria stone, imperial stone and others, are hardened +and rendered non-porous after manufacture by immersion in a solution of +silicate of soda. Others, like Ford's silicate of limestone, are +practically lime mortars of excellent quality, which can be carved and +cut like a sandstone of fine quality. + +_Steel Concrete._--The introduction of steel concrete (also known as +ferroconcrete, armoured concrete, or reinforced concrete) is generally +attributed to Joseph Monier, a French gardener, who about the year 1868 +was anxious to build some concrete water basins. In order to reduce the +thickness of the walls and floor he conceived the idea of strengthening +them by building in a network of iron rods. As a matter of fact other +inventors were at work before Monier, but he deserves much credit for +having pushed his invention with vigour, and for having popularized the +use of this invaluable combination. The important point of his idea was +that it combined steel and concrete in such a way that the best +qualities of each material were brought into play. Concrete is readily +procured and easily moulded into shape. It has considerable compressive +or crushing strength, but is somewhat deficient in shearing strength, +and distinctly weak in tensile or pulling strength. Steel, on the other +hand, is easily procurable in simple forms such as long bars, and is +exceedingly strong. But it is difficult and expensive to work up into +various forms. Concrete has been avoided for making beams, slabs and +thin walls, just because its deficiency in tensile strength doomed it to +failure in such structures. But if a concrete slab be "reinforced" with +a network of small steel rods on its under surface where the tensile +stresses occur (see fig. 1) its strength will be enormously increased. +Thus the one point of weakness in the concrete slab is overcome by the +addition of steel in its simplest form, and both materials are used to +their best advantage. The scientific and practical value of this idea +was soon seized upon by various inventors and others, and the number of +patented systems of combining steel with concrete is constantly +increasing. Many of them are but slight modifications of the older +systems, and no attempt will be made here to describe them in full. In +England it is customary to allow the patentee of one or other system to +furnish his own designs, but this is as much because he has gained the +experience needed for success as because of any special virtue in this +or that system. The majority of these systems have emanated from France, +where steel concrete is largely used. America and Germany adopted them +readily, and in England some very large structures have been erected +with this material. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Expanded Steel Concrete Slab.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2. Expanded Metal. + Section through Intersection.] + +The concrete itself should always be the very best quality, and Portland +cement should be used on account of its superiority to all others. The +aggregate should be the best obtainable and of different sizes, the +stones being freshly crushed and screened to pass through a 7/8 in. +ring. Very special care should be taken so to proportion the sand as to +make a perfectly impervious mixture. The proportions generally used are +4 to 1 and 5 to 1 in the case of gravel concrete, or 1:2:4 or 1:2-1/2:6 in +the case of broken stone concrete. But, generally speaking, in steel +concrete the cost of the cement is but a small item of the whole +expense, and it is worth while to be generous with it. If It is used in +piles or structures where it is likely to be bruised the proportion of +cement should be increased. The mixing and laying should all be done +very thoroughly; the concrete should be rammed in position, and any old +surface of concrete which has to be covered should be cleaned and coated +with fresh cement. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Hennebique System.] + +The reinforcement mostly consists of mild steel and sometimes of wrought +iron: steel, however, is stronger and generally cheaper, so that in +English practice it holds the field. It should be mild and is usually +specified to have a breaking (tensile) strength of 28 to 32 tons per sq. +in., with an elongation of at least 20% in 8 in. Any bar should be +capable of being bent cold to the shape of the letter U without breaking +it. The steel is generally used in the form of long bars of circular +section. At first it was feared that such bars would have a tendency to +slip through the concrete in which they were embedded, but experiments +have shown that if the bar is not painted but has a natural rusty +surface a very considerable adhesion between the concrete and steel--as +much as 2 cwt. per sq. in. of contact surface--may be relied upon. Many +devices are used, however, to ensure the adhesion between concrete and +bar being perfect. (1) In the Hennebique system of construction the bars +are flattened at the end and split to form a "fish tail." (2) In the +Ransome system round bars are rejected in favour of square bars, which +have been twisted in a lathe in "barley sugar" fashion. (3) In the +Habrick system a flat bar similarly twisted is used. (4) In the Thacher +system a flat bar with projections like rivet heads is specially rolled +for this purpose. (5) In the Kahn system a square bar with "branches" is +used. (6) In the "expanded metal" system no bars are used, but instead a +strong steel netting is manufactured in large sheets by special +machinery. It is made by cutting a series of long slots at regular +intervals in a plain steel plate, which is then forcibly stretched out +sideways until the slots become diamond-shaped openings, and a trellis +work of steel without any joints is the result (fig. 2). + +[Illustration: FIG. 4. Hennebique System.] + +The structures in which steel concrete is used may be analysed as +consisting essentially of (1) walls, (2) columns, (3) piles, (4) beams, +(5) slabs, (6) arches. The designs differ considerably according to +which of these purposes the structure is to fulfil. + +The effect of reinforcing _walls_ with steel is that they can be made +much thinner. The steel reinforcement is generally applied in the form +of vertical rods built in the wall at intervals, with lighter horizontal +rods which cross the vertical ones, and thus form a network of steel +which is buried in the concrete. These rods assist in taking the weight, +and the whole network binds the concrete together and prevents it from +cracking under a heavy load. The vertical rods should not be quite in +the middle of the wall but near the inner and outer faces alternately. +Care must be taken, however, that all the rods are covered by at least +an inch of concrete to preserve them from damage by rust or fire. In +the Cottancin system the concrete is replaced by bricks pierced with +holes through which the vertical rods are threaded; the horizontal +tie-rods are also used, but these do not merely cross the vertical ones, +but are woven in and out of them. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Steel and Concrete Pile (Williams System).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.] + +_Columns_ have generally to bear a heavier weight than walls, and have +to be correspondingly stronger. They have usually been made square with +a vertical steel rod at each corner. To prevent these rods from +spreading apart they must be tied together at frequent intervals. In +some systems this is done by loops of stout wire connecting each rod to +its neighbour, and placed one above the other about every 10 in. up the +column (figs. 3 and 4). In other systems a stout wire is wound +continuously in a spiral form round the four rods. Modern investigation +goes to prove that the latter is theoretically the more economical way +of using the steel, as the spiral binding wire acts like the binding of +a wire gun, and prevents the concrete which it encloses from bursting +even under very great loads. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +That steel concrete can be used for _piles_ is perhaps the most +astonishing feature in this invention. The fact that a comparatively +brittle material like concrete can be subjected not only to heavy loads +but also to the jar and vibration from the blows of a heavy pile ram +makes it appear as if its nature and properties had been changed by the +steel reinforcement. In a sense this is undoubtedly the case. A. G. +Considere's experiments have shown that concrete when reinforced is +capable of being stretched, without fracture, about twenty times as much +as plain concrete. Most of the piles driven in Great Britain have been +made on the Hennebique system with four or six longitudinal steel rods +tied together by stirrups or loops at frequent intervals. Piles made on +the Williams system have a steel rolled joist of I section buried in the +heart of the pile, and round it a series of steel wire hoops at regular +intervals (fig. 5). Whatever system is used, care must be taken not to +batter the head of the pile to pieces with the heavy ram. To prevent +this an iron "helmet" containing a lining of sawdust is fitted over the +head of the pile. The sawdust adapts itself to the rough shape of the +concrete, and deadens the blow to some extent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 13.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Stirrup (Hennebique System).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 15.] + +But it is in the design of steel concrete _beams_ that the greatest +ingenuity has been shown, and almost every patentee of a "system" has +some new device for arranging the steel reinforcement to the best +advantage. Concrete by itself, though strong in compression, can offer +but little resistance to tensile and shearing stresses, and as these +stresses always occur in beams the problem arises how best to arrange +the steel so as to assist the concrete in bearing them. To meet tensile +stresses the steel is nearly always inserted in the form of bars running +along the beam. Figs. 6 to 9 show how they are arranged for different +loading. In each case the object is to place the bars as nearly as +possible where the tensile stresses occur. In cases where all the +stresses are heavy, that portion of the beam which is under compression +is similarly reinforced, though with smaller bars (figs. 10 and 11). But +as these tension and compression bars are generally placed near the +under and upper surface of the beam they are of little use in helping to +resist the shearing stresses which are greatest at its neutral axis. +(See BRIDGES.) These shearing stresses in a heavily loaded beam would +cause it to split horizontally at or near the centre. To prevent this +many ingenious devices have been introduced. (1) Perhaps one of the most +efficient is a diagonal bracing of steel wire passing to and fro between +the upper and lower bars and firmly secured to each by lapping or +otherwise (fig. 12); this device is used in the Coignet and other French +systems. (2) In the Hennebique system (which has found great favour in +England) vertical bands or "stirrups," as they are generally called, of +hoop steel are used (fig. 13). They are of U shape, and passing round +the tension bars extend to the top of the beam (figs. 14 and 3). They +are exceedingly thin, but being buried in concrete no danger of their +perishing from rust is to be feared. (3) In the Boussiron system a +similar stirrup is used, but instead of being vertical the two parts are +spread so that each is slightly inclined. (4) In the Coularon system, +the stirrups are inclined as in fig. 15, and consist of rods, the ends +of which are hooked over the tension and compression bars. (5) In the +Kahn system the stirrups are similarly arranged, but instead of being +merely secured to the tension bar, they form an integral part of it like +branches on a stem, the bar being rolled to a special section to admit +of this. (6) In many systems such as the "expanded metal" system, the +tension and compression rods together with the stirrups are all +abandoned in favour of a single rolled steel joist of I section, buried +in concrete (see fig. 16). Probably the weight of steel used in this way +is excessive, but the joists are cheap, readily procurable and easy to +handle. + +Floor _slabs_ may be regarded as wide and shallow beams, and the remarks +made about the stresses in the one apply to the other also; accordingly, +the various devices which are used for strengthening beams recur in the +slabs. But in a thin slab, with its comparatively small span and light +load, the concrete is generally strong enough to bear the shearing +stresses unaided, and the reinforcement is devoted to assisting it where +the tensile stresses occur. For this purpose many designers simply use +the modification of the Monier system, consisting of a horizontal +network of crossed steel rods buried in the concrete. "Expanded metal" +too is admirably adapted for the purpose (fig. 1). In the Matrai system +thin wires are used instead of rods, and are securely fastened to rolled +steel joists, which form the beams on which the slabs rest; moreover, +the wires instead of being stretched tight from side to side of the slab +are allowed to sag as much as the thickness of the concrete will allow. +In the Williams system small flat bars are used, which are not quite +horizontal, but pass alternately over and under the rolled joists which +support the slabs. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.] + +A concrete _arch_ is reinforced in much the same way as a wall, the +stresses being somewhat similar. The reinforcing rods are generally laid +both longitudinally and circumferentially. In the case of a culvert the +circumferential rods are sometimes laid continuously in the form of a +spiral as in the Bordenave system. + + To those wishing to pursue the subject further, the following books + among others may be suggested:--Sabin, _Cement and Concrete_ (New + York); Taylor and Thompson, _Concrete, Plain and Reinforced_ (London); + Sutcliffe, _Concrete, Nature and Uses_ (London); Marsh and Dunn, + _Reinforced Concrete_ (London); Twelvetrees, _Concrete Steel_ + (London); Paul Christophe, _Le Beton arme_ (Paris); Buel and Hill, + _Reinforced Concrete Construction_ (London). (F. E. W.-S.) + + + + +CONCRETION, in petrology, a name applied to nodular or irregularly +shaped masses of various size occurring in a great variety of +sedimentary rocks, differing in composition from the main mass of the +rock, and in most cases obviously formed by some chemical process which +ensued after the rock was deposited. As these bodies present so many +variations in composition and in structure, it will conduce to clearness +if some of the commonest be briefly adverted to. In sandstones there are +often hard rounded lumps, which separate out when the rock is broken or +weathered. They are mostly siliceous, but sometimes calcareous, and may +differ very little in general appearance from the bulk of the sandstone. +Through them the bedding passes uninterrupted, thus showing that they +are not pebbles; often in their centres shells or fragments of plants +are found. Argillaceous sandstones and flagstones very frequently +contain "clay galls" or concretionary lumps richer in clay than the +remainder of the rock. Nodules of pyrites and of marcasite are common in +many clays, sandstones and marls. Their outer surfaces are tuberculate; +internally they commonly have a radiate fibrous structure. Usually they +are covered with a dark brown crust of limonite produced by weathering; +occasionally imperfect crystalline faces may bound them. Not +infrequently (e.g. in the Gault) these pyritous nodules contain altered +fossils. In clays also siliceous and calcareous concretions are often +found. They present an extraordinary variety of shapes, often +grotesquely resembling figures of men or animals, fruits, &c, and have +in many countries excited popular wonder, being regarded as of +supernatural origin ("fairy-stones," &c.), and used as charms. + +Another type of concretion, very abundant in many clays and shales, is +the "septarian nodule." These are usually flattened disk-shaped or +ovoid, often lobulate externally like the surface of a kidney. When +split open they prove to be traversed by a network of cracks, which are +usually filled with calcite and other minerals. These white infillings +of the fissures resemble partitions; hence the name from the Latin +_septum_, a partition. Sometimes the cracks are partly empty. They vary +up to half an inch in breadth, and are best seen when the nodule is cut +through with a saw. These concretions may be calcareous or may consist +of carbonate of iron. The former are common in some beds of the London +Clay, and were formerly used for making cement. The clay-ironstone +nodules or sphaerosiderites are very abundant in some Carboniferous +shales, and have served in some places as iron ores. Some of the largest +specimens are 3 ft. in diameter. In the centre of these nodules fossils +are often found, e.g. coprolites, pieces of plants, fish teeth and +scales. Phosphatic concretions are often present in certain limestones, +clays, shelly sands and marls. They occur, for example, in the Cambridge +Greensand, and at the base of certain of the Pliocene beds in the east +of England. In many places they have been worked, under the name of +"coprolite-beds," as sources of artificial manures. Bones of animals +more or less completely mineralized are frequent in these phosphatic +concretions, the commonest being fragments of extinct reptilia. Their +presence points to a source for the phosphate of lime. + +Another very important series of concretionary structures are the flint +nodules which occur in chalk, and the patches and bands of chert which +are found in limestones. Flints consist of dark-coloured +cryptocrystalline silica. They weather grey or white by the removal of +their more soluble portions by percolating water. Their shapes are +exceedingly varied, and often they are studded with tubercules and +nodosities. Sometimes they have internal cavities, and very frequently +they contain shells of echinoderms, molluscs, &c., partly or entirely +replaced by silica, but preserving their original forms. Chert occurs in +bands and tabular masses rather than in nodules; it often replaces +considerable portions of a bed of limestone (as in the Carboniferous +Limestones of Ireland). Corals and other fossils frequently occur in +chert, and when sliced and microscopically examined both flint and chert +often show silicified foraminifera, polyzoa &c., and sponge spicules. +Flints in chalk frequently lie along joints which may be vertical or may +be nearly horizontal and parallel to the bedding. Hence they increase +the stratified appearance of natural exposures of chalk. + +It will be seen from the details given above that concretions may be +calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous and phosphatic, and they may consist +of carbonate or sulphide of iron. In the red clay of the deep sea bottom +concretionary masses rich in manganese dioxide are being formed, and are +sometimes brought up by the dredge. In clays large crystals of gypsum, +having the shape of an arrow-head, are occasionally found in some +numbers. They bear a considerable resemblance to some concretions, e.g. +crystalline marcasite and pyrite nodules. These examples will indicate +the great variety of substances which may give rise to concretionary +structures. + +Some concretions are amorphous, e.g. phosphatic nodules; others are +cryptocrystalline, e.g. flint and chert; others finely crystalline, e.g. +pyrites, sphaerosiderite; others consist of large crystals, e.g. gypsum, +barytes, pyrites and marcasite. From this it is clear that the formation +of concretions is not closely dependent on any single inorganic +substance, or on any type of crystalline structure. Concretions seem to +arise from the tendency of chemical compounds to be slowly dissolved by +interstitial water, either while the deposit is unconsolidated or at a +later period. Certain nuclei, present in the rock, then determine +reprecipitation of these solutions, and the deposit once begun goes on +till either the supply of material for growth is exhausted, or the +physical character of the bed is changed by pressure and consolidation +till it is no longer favourable to further accretion. The process +resembles the growth of a crystal in a solution by slowly attracting to +itself molecules of suitable nature from the surrounding medium. But in +the majority of cases it is not the crystalline forces, or not these +alone, which attract the particles. The structure of a flint, for +example, shows that the material had so little tendency to crystallize +that it remained permanently in cryptocrystalline or sub-crystalline +state. That the concretions grew in the solid sediment is proved by the +manner in which lines of bedding pass through them and not round them. +This is beautifully shown by many siliceous and calcareous nodules out +of recent clays. That the sediment was in a soft condition may be +inferred from the purity and perfect crystalline form of some of these +bodies, e.g. gypsum, pyrites, marcasite. The crystals must have pushed +aside the yielding matrix as they gradually enlarged. In deep-sea +dredgings concretions of phosphate of lime and manganese dioxide are +frequently brought up; this shows that concretionary action operates on +the sea floor in muddy sediments, which have only recently been laid +down. The phosphatic nodules seem to originate around the dead bodies of +fishes, and manganese incrustations frequently enclose teeth of sharks, +ear-bones of whales, &c. This recalls the occurrence of fossils in +septarian nodules, flints, phosphatic concretions, &c., in the older +strata. Probably the decomposing organic matter partly supplied +substances for the growth of the nodules (phosphates, carbonates, &c.), +partly acted as reducing agents, or otherwise determined mineral +precipitation in those places where organic remains were mingled with +the sediment. (J. S. F.) + + + + +CONCUBINAGE (Lat. _concubina_, a concubine; from _con-_, with, and +_cubare_, to lie), the state of a man and woman cohabiting as married +persons without the full sanctions of legal marriage. In early +historical times, when marriage laws had scarcely advanced beyond the +purely customary stage, the concubine was definitely recognized as a +sort of inferior wife, differing from those of the first rank mainly by +the absence of permanent guarantees. The history of Abraham's family +shows us clearly that the concubine might be dismissed at any time, and +her children were liable to be cast off equally summarily with gifts, in +order to leave the inheritance free for the wife's sons (Genesis xxi. 9 +ff., xxv. 5 ff.). + +The Roman law recognized two classes of legal marriage: (1) with the +definite public ceremonies of _confarreatio_ or _coemptio_, and (2) +without any public form whatever and resting merely on the _affectio +maritalis_, i.e. the fixed intention of taking a particular woman as a +permanent spouse.[1] Next to these strictly lawful marriages came +concubinage as a recognized legal status, so long as the two parties +were not married and had no other concubines. It differed from the +formless marriage in the absence (1) of _affectio maritalis_, and +therefore (2) of full conjugal rights. For instance, the concubine was +not raised, like the wife, to her husband's rank, nor were her children +legitimate, though they enjoyed legal rights forbidden to mere bastards, +e.g. the father was bound to maintain them and to leave them (in the +absence of legitimate children) one-sixth of his property; moreover, +they might be fully legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their +parents. + +In the East, the emperor Leo the Philosopher (d. 911) insisted on formal +marriage as the only legal status; but in the Western Empire concubinage +was still recognized even by the Christian emperors. The early +Christians had naturally preferred the formless marriage of the Roman +law as being free from all taint of pagan idolatry; and the +ecclesiastical authorities recognized concubinage also. The first +council of Toledo (398) bids the faithful restrict himself "to a single +wife or concubine, as it shall please him";[2] and there is a similar +canon of the Roman synod held by Pope Eugenius II. in 826. Even as late +as the Roman councils of 1052 and 1063, the suspension from communion of +laymen who had a wife and a concubine _at the same time_ implies that +mere concubinage was tolerated. It was also recognized by many early +civil codes. In Germany "left-handed" or "morganatic" marriages were +allowed by the Salic law between nobles and women of lower rank. In +different states of Spain the laws of the later middle ages recognized +concubinage under the name of _barragania_, the contract being +lifelong, the woman obtaining by it a right to maintenance during life, +and sometimes also to part of the succession, and the sons ranking as +nobles if their father was a noble. In Iceland, the concubine was +recognized in addition to the lawful wife, though it was forbidden that +they should dwell in the same house. The Norwegian law of the later +middle ages provided definitely that in default of legitimate sons, the +kingdom should descend to illegitimates. In the Danish code of Valdemar +II., which was in force from 1280 to 1683, it was provided that a +concubine kept openly for three years shall thereby become a legal wife; +this was the custom of _hand vesten_, the "handfasting" of the English +and Scottish borders, which appears in Scott's _Monastery_. In Scotland, +the laws of William the Lion (d. 1214) speak of concubinage as a +recognized institution; and, in the same century, the great English +legist Bracton treats the "concubina _legitima_" as entitled to certain +rights.[3] There seems to have been at times a pardonable confusion +between some quasi-legitimate unions and those marriages by mere word of +mouth, without ecclesiastical or other ceremonies, which the church, +after some natural hesitation, pronounced to be valid.[4] Another and +more serious confusion between concubinage and marriage was caused by +the gradual enforcement of clerical celibacy (see CELIBACY). During the +bitter conflict between laws which forbade sacerdotal marriages and long +custom which had permitted them, it was natural that the legislators and +the ascetic party generally should studiously speak of the priests' +wives as concubines, and do all in their power to reduce them to this +position. This very naturally resulted in a too frequent substitution of +clerical concubinage for marriage; and the resultant evils form one of +the commonest themes of complaint in church councils of the later middle +ages.[5] Concubinage in general was struck at by the concordat between +the Pope Leo X. and Francis I. of France in 1516; and the council of +Trent, while insisting on far more stringent conditions for lawful +marriage than those which had prevailed in the middle ages, imposed at +last heavy ecclesiastical penalties on concubinage and appealed to the +secular arm for help against contumacious offenders (Sessio xxiv. cap. +8). + + AUTHORITIES.--Besides those quoted in the notes, the reader may + consult with advantage Du Cange's _Glossarium, s.v. Concubina_, the + article "Concubinat" in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed., + Freiburg i/B., 1884), and Dr H. C. Lea's _History of Sacerdotal + Celibacy_ (3rd ed., London, 1907). (G. G. Co.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The difference between English and Scottish law, which once made + "Gretna Green marriages" so frequent, is due to the fact that Scotland + adopted the Roman law (which on this particular point was followed by + the whole medieval church). + + [2] Gratian, in the 12th century, tried to explain this away by + assuming that concubinage here referred to meant a formless marriage; + but in 398 a church council can scarcely so have misused the technical + terms of the then current civil law (Gratian, _Decretum_, pars i. + dist. xxiv. c. 4). + + [3] Bracton, _De Legibus_, lib. iii. tract. ii. c. 28, S I, and lib. + iv. tract. vi. c. 8, S 4. + + [4] F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, _Hist. of English Law_, 2nd ed. + vol. ii. p. 370. In the case of Richard de Anesty, decided by papal + rescript in 1143, "a marriage solemnly celebrated in church, a + marriage of which a child had been born, was set aside as null in + favour of an earlier marriage constituted by a mere exchange of + consenting words" (ibid. p. 367; cf. the similar decretal of Alexander + III. on p. 371). The great medieval canon lawyer Lyndwood illustrates + the difficulty of distinguishing, even as late as the middle of the + 15th century, between concubinage and a clandestine, though legal, + marriage. He falls back on the definition of an earlier canonist that + if the woman eats out of the same dish with the man, and if he takes + her to church, she may be presumed to be his wife; if, however, he + sends her to draw water and dresses her in vile clothing, she is + probably a concubine (_Provinciale_, ed. Oxon. 1679, p. 10, _s.v. + concubinarios_). + + [5] It may be gathered from the Dominican C. L. Richard's _Analysis + Conciliorum_ (vol. ii., 1778) that there were more than 110 such + complaints in councils and synods between the years 1009 and 1528. Dr + Rashdall (_Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, vol. ii. p. + 691, note) points out that a master of the university of Prague, in + 1499, complained openly to the authorities against a bachelor for + assaulting his concubine. + + + + +CONDE, PRINCES OF. The French title of prince of Conde, assumed from the +ancient town of Conde-sur-l'Escaut, was borne by a branch of the house +of Bourbon. The first who assumed it was the famous Huguenot leader, +Louis de Bourbon (see below), the fifth son of Charles de Bourbon, duke +of Vendome. His son, Henry, prince of Conde (1552-1588), also belonged +to the Huguenot party. Fleeing to Germany he raised a small army with +which in 1575 he joined Alencon. He became leader of the Huguenots, but +after several years' fighting was taken prisoner of war. Not long after +he died of poison, administered, according to the belief of his +contemporaries, by his wife, Catherine de la Tremouille. This event, +among others, awoke strong suspicions as to the legitimacy of his heir +and namesake, Henry, prince of Conde (1588-1646). King Henry IV., +however, did not take advantage of the scandal. In 1609 he caused the +prince of Conde to marry Charlotte de Montmorency, whom shortly after +Conde was obliged to save from the king's persistent gallantry by a +hasty flight, first to Spain and then to Italy. On the death of Henry, +Conde returned to France, and intrigued against the regent, Marie de' +Medici; but he was seized, and imprisoned for three years (1616-1619). +There was at that time before the court a plea for his divorce from his +wife, but she now devoted herself to enliven his captivity at the cost +of her own liberty. During the rest of his life Conde was a faithful +servant of the king. He strove to blot out the memory of the Huguenot +connexions of his house by affecting the greatest zeal against +Protestants. His old ambition changed into a desire for the safe +aggrandizement of his family, which he magnificently achieved, and with +that end he bowed before Richelieu, whose niece he forced his son to +marry. His son Louis, the great Conde, is separately noticed below. + +The next in succession was Henry Jules, prince of Conde (1643-1709), the +son of the great Conde and of Clemence de Maille, niece of Richelieu. He +fought with distinction under his father in Franche-Comte and the Low +Countries; but he was heartless, avaricious and undoubtedly insane. The +end of his life was marked by singular hypochondriacal fancies. He +believed at one time that he was dead, and refused to eat till some of +his attendants dressed in sheets set him the example. His grandson, +Louis Henry, duke of Bourbon (1692-1740), Louis XV.'s minister, did not +assume the title of prince of Conde which properly belonged to him. + +The son of the duke of Bourbon, Louis Joseph, prince of Conde +(1736-1818), after receiving a good education, distinguished himself in +the Seven Years' War, and most of all by his victory at Johannisberg. As +governor of Burgundy he did much to improve the industries and means of +communication of that province. At the Revolution he took up arms in +behalf of the king, became commander of the "army of Conde," and fought +in conjunction with the Austrians till the peace of Campo Formio in +1797, being during the last year in the pay of England. He then served +the emperor of Russia in Poland, and after that (1800) returned into the +pay of England, and fought in Bavaria. In 1800 Conde arrived in England, +where he resided for several years. On the restoration of Louis XVIII. +he returned to France. He died in Paris in 1818. He wrote _Essai sur la +vie du grand Conde_ (1798). + +LOUIS HENRY JOSEPH, duke of Bourbon (1756-1830), son of the last named, +was the last prince of Conde. Several of the earlier events of his life, +especially his marriage with the princess Louise of Orleans, and the +duel that the comte d'Artois provoked by raising the veil of the +princess at a masked ball, caused much scandal. At the Revolution he +fought with the army of the _emigres_ in Liege. Between the return of +Napoleon from Elba and the battle of Waterloo, he headed with no success +a royalist rising in La Vendee. In 1829 he made a will by which he +appointed as his heir the due d'Aumale, and made some considerable +bequests to his mistress, the baronne de Feucheres (q.v.). On the 27th +of August 1830 he was found hanged on the fastening of his window. A +crime was generally suspected, and the princes de Rohan, who were +relatives of the deceased, disputed the will. Their petition, however, +was dismissed by the courts. + +Two cadet branches of the house of Conde played an important part: those +of Soissons and Conti. The first, sprung from Charles of Bourbon (b. +1566), son of Louis I., prince of Conde, became extinct in the +legitimate male line in 1641. The second took its origin from Armand of +Bourbon, born in 1629, son of Henry II., prince of Conde, and survived +up to 1814. + + See Muret, _L'Histoire de l'armee de Conde_; Chamballand, _Vie de + Louis Joseph, prince de Conde_; Cretineau-Joly, _Histoire des trois + derniers princes de la maison de Conde_; and _Histoire des princes de + Conde_, by the due d'Aumale (translated by R. B. Borthwick, 1872). + + + + +CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON, PRINCE OF (1530-1569), fifth son of Charles de +Bourbon, duke of Vendome, younger brother of Antoine, king of Navarre +(1518-1562), was the first of the famous house of Conde (see above). +After his father's death in 1537 Louis was educated in the principles of +the reformed religion. Brave though deformed, gay but extremely poor for +his rank, Conde was led by his ambition to a military career. He fought +with distinction in Piedmont under Marshal de Brissac; in 1552 he forced +his way with reinforcements into Metz, then besieged by Charles V.; he +led several brilliant sorties from that town; and in 1554 commanded the +light cavalry on the Meuse against Charles. In 1557 he was present at +the battle of St Quentin, and did further good service at the head of +the light horse. But the descendants of the constable de Bourbon were +still looked upon with suspicion in the French court, and Conde's +services were ignored. The court designed to reduce his narrow means +still further by despatching him upon a costly mission to Philip II. of +Spain. His personal griefs thus combined with his religious views to +force upon him a role of political opposition. He was concerned in the +conspiracy of Amboise, which aimed at forcing from the king the +recognition of the reformed religion. He was consequently condemned to +death, and was only saved by the decease of Francis II. At the accession +of the boy-king Charles IX., the policy of the court was changed, and +Conde received from Catherine de' Medici the government of Picardy. But +the struggle between the Catholics and the Huguenots soon began once +more, and henceforward the career of Conde is the story of the wars of +religion (see FRANCE: _HISTORY_). He was the military as well as the +political chief of the Huguenot party, and displayed the highest +generalship on many occasions, and notably at the battle of St Denis. At +the battle of Jarnac, with only 400 horsemen, Conde rashly charged the +whole Catholic army. Worn out with fighting, he at last gave up his +sword, and a Catholic officer named Montesquiou treacherously shot him +through the head on the 13th of March 1569. + + + + +CONDE, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON, PRINCE OF (1621-1686), called the Great +Conde, was the son of Henry, prince of Conde, and Charlotte Marguerite +de Montmorency, and was born at Paris on the 8th of September 1621. As a +boy, under his father's careful supervision, he studied diligently at +the Jesuits' College at Bourges, and at seventeen, in the absence of his +father, he governed Burgundy. The duc d'Enghien, as he was styled during +his father's lifetime, took part with distinction in the campaigns of +1640 and 1641 in northern France while yet under twenty years of age. + +During the youth of Enghien all power in France was in the hands of +Richelieu; to him even the princes of the blood had to yield; and Henry +of Conde sought with the rest to win the cardinal's favour. Enghien was +forced to conform. He was already deeply in love with Mlle. Marthe du +Vigean, who in return was passionately devoted to him, yet, to flatter +the cardinal, he was compelled by his father, at the age of twenty, to +give his hand to Richelieu's niece, Claire Clemence de Maille-Breze, a +child of thirteen. He was present with Richelieu during the dangerous +plot of Cinq Mars, and afterwards fought in the siege of Perpignan +(1642). + +In 1643 Enghien was appointed to command against the Spaniards in +northern France. He was opposed by experienced generals, and the +veterans of the Spanish army were accounted the finest soldiers in +Europe; on the other hand, the strength of the French army was placed at +his command, and under him were the best generals of the service. The +great battle of Rocroy (May 18) put an end to the supremacy of the +Spanish army and inaugurated the long period of French military +predominance. Enghien himself conceived and directed the decisive +attack, and at the age of twenty-two won his place amongst the great +captains of modern times. After a campaign of uninterrupted success, +Enghien returned to Paris in triumph, and in gallantry and intrigues +strove to forget his enforced and hateful marriage. In 1644 he was sent +with reinforcements into Germany to the assistance of Turenne, who was +hard pressed, and took command of the whole army. The battle of Freiburg +(Aug.) was desperately contested, but in the end the French army won a +great victory over the Bavarians and Imperialists commanded by Count +Mercy. As after Rocroy, numerous fortresses opened their gates to the +duke. The next winter Enghien spent, like every other winter during the +war, amid the gaieties of Paris. The summer campaign of 1645 opened with +the defeat of Turenne by Mercy, but this was retrieved in the brilliant +victory of Nordlingen, in which Mercy was killed, and Enghien himself +received several serious wounds. The capture of Philipsburg was the most +important of his other achievements during this campaign. In 1646 +Enghien served under the duke of Orleans in Flanders, and when, after +the capture of Mardyck, Orleans returned to Paris, Enghien, left in +command, captured Dunkirk (October 11th). + +It was in this year that the old prince of Conde died. The enormous +power that fell into the hands of his successor was naturally looked +upon with serious alarm by the regent and her minister. Conde's birth +and military renown placed him at the head of the French nobility; but, +added to that, the family of which he was chief was both enormously rich +and master of no small portion of France. Conde himself held Burgundy, +Berry and the marches of Lorraine, as well as other less important +territory; his brother Conti held Champagne, his brother-in-law, +Longueville, Normandy. The government, therefore, determined to permit +no increase of his already overgrown authority, and Mazarin made an +attempt, which for the moment proved successful, at once to find him +employment and to tarnish his fame as a general. He was sent to lead the +revolted Catalans. Ill-supported, he was unable to achieve anything, +and, being forced to raise the siege of Lerida, he returned home in +bitter indignation. In 1648, however, he received the command in the +important field of the Low Countries; and at Lens (Aug. 19th) a battle +took place, which, beginning with a panic in his own regiment, was +retrieved by Conde's coolness and bravery, and ended in a victory that +fully restored his prestige. + +In September of the same year Conde was recalled to court, for the +regent Anne of Austria required his support. Influenced by the fact of +his royal birth and by his arrogant scorn for the bourgeois, Conde lent +himself to the court party, and finally, after much hesitation, he +consented to lead the army which was to reduce Paris (Jan. 1649). + +On his side, insufficient as were his forces, the war was carried on +with vigour, and after several minor combats their substantial losses +and a threatening of scarcity of food made the Parisians weary of the +war. The political situation inclined both parties to peace, which was +made at Rueil on the 20th of March (see Fronde, The). It was not long, +however, before Conde became estranged from the court. His pride and +ambition earned for him universal distrust and dislike, and the personal +resentment of Anne in addition to motives of policy caused the sudden +arrest of Conde, Conti and Longueville on the 18th of January 1650. But +others, including Turenne and his brother the duke of Bouillon, made +their escape. Vigorous attempts for the release of the princes began to +be made. The women of the family were now its heroes. The dowager +princess claimed from the parlement of Paris the fulfilment of the +reformed law of arrest, which forbade imprisonment without trial. The +duchess of Longueville entered into negotiations with Spain; and the +young princess of Conde, having gathered an army around her, obtained +entrance into Bordeaux and the support of the parlement of that town. +She alone, among the nobles who took part in the folly of the Fronde, +gains our respect and sympathy. Faithful to a faithless husband, she +came forth from the retirement to which he had condemned her, and +gathered an army to fight for him. But the delivery of the princes was +brought about in the end by the junction of the old Fronde (the party of +the parlement and of Cardinal de Retz) and the new Fronde (the party of +the Condes); and Anne was at last, in February 1651, forced to liberate +them from their prison at Havre. Soon afterwards, however, another +shifting of parties left Conde and the new Fronde isolated. With the +court and the old Fronde in alliance against him, Conde found no +resource but that of making common cause with the Spaniards, who were at +war with France. The confused civil war which followed this step (Sept. +1651) was memorable chiefly for the battle of the Faubourg St Antoine, +in which Conde and Turenne, two of the foremost captains of the age, +measured their strength (July 2, 1652), and the army of the prince was +only saved by being admitted within the gates of Paris. La Grande +Mademoiselle, daughter of the duke of Orleans, persuaded the Parisians +to act thus, and turned the cannon of the Bastille on Turenne's army. +Thus Conde, who as usual had fought with the most desperate bravery, was +saved, and Paris underwent a new investment. This ended in the flight of +Conde to the Spanish army (Sept. 1652), and thenceforward, up to the +peace, he was in open arms against France, and held high command in the +army of Spain. But his now fully developed genius as a commander found +little scope in the cumbrous and antiquated system of war practised by +the Spaniards, and though he gained a few successes, and man[oe]uvred +with the highest possible skill against Turenne, his disastrous defeat +at the Dunes near Dunkirk (14th of June 1658), in which an English +contingent of Cromwell's veterans took part on the side of Turenne, led +Spain to open negotiations for peace. After the peace of the Pyrenees in +1659, Conde obtained his pardon (January 1660) from Louis, who thought +him less dangerous as a subject than as possessor of the independent +sovereignty of Luxemburg, which had been offered him by Spain as a +reward for his services. + +Conde now realized that the period of agitation and party warfare was at +an end, and he accepted, and loyally maintained henceforward, the +position of a chief subordinate to a masterful sovereign. Even so, some +years passed before he was recalled to active employment, and these +years he spent on his estate at Chantilly. Here he gathered round him a +brilliant company, which included many men of genius--Moliere, Racine, +Boileau, La Fontaine, Nicole, Bourdaloue and Bossuet. About this time +negotiations between the Poles, Conde and Louis were carried on with a +view to the election, at first of Conde's son Enghien, and afterwards of +Conde himself, to the throne of Poland. These, after a long series of +curious intrigues, were finally closed in 1674 by the veto of Louis XIV. +and the election of John Sobieski. The prince's retirement, which was +only broken by the Polish question and by his personal intercession on +behalf of Fouquet in 1664, ended in 1668. In that year he proposed to +Louvois, the minister of war, a plan for seizing Franche-Comte, the +execution of which was entrusted to him and successfully carried out. He +was now completely re-established in the favour of Louis, and with +Turenne was the principal French commander in the celebrated campaign of +1672 against the Dutch. At the forcing of the Rhine passage at Tollhuis +(June 12) he received a severe wound, after which he commanded in Alsace +against the Imperialists. In 1673 he was again engaged in the Low +Countries, and in 1674 he fought his last great battle at Seneff against +the prince of Orange (afterwards William III. of England). This battle, +fought on the 11th of August, was one of the hardest of the century, and +Conde, who displayed the reckless bravery of his youth, had three horses +killed under him. His last campaign was that of 1675 on the Rhine, where +the army had been deprived of its general by the death of Turenne; and +where by his careful and methodical strategy he repelled the invasion of +the Imperial army of Montecucculi. After this campaign, prematurely worn +out by the toils and excesses of his life, and tortured by the gout, he +returned to Chantilly, where he spent the eleven years that remained to +him in quiet retirement. In the end of his life he specially sought the +companionship of Bourdaloue, Nicole and Bossuet, and devoted himself to +religious exercises. He died on the 11th of November 1686 at the age of +sixty-five. Bourdaloue attended him at his death-bed, and Bossuet +pronounced his _eloge_. + +The earlier political career of Conde was typical of the great French +noble of his day. Success in love and war, predominant influence over +his sovereign and universal homage to his own exaggerated pride, were +the objects of his ambition. Even as an exile he asserted the precedence +of the royal house of France over the princes of Spain and Austria, with +whom he was allied for the moment. But the Conde of 1668 was no longer a +politician and a marplot; to be first in war and in gallantry was still +his aim, but for the rest he was a submissive, even a subservient, +minister of the royal will. It is on his military character, however, +that his fame rests. This changed but little. Unlike his great rival +Turenne, Conde was equally brilliant in his first battle and in his +last. The one failure of his generalship was in the Spanish Fronde, and +in this everything united to thwart his genius; only on the battlefield +itself was his personal leadership as conspicuous as ever. That he was +capable of waging a methodical war of positions may be assumed from his +campaigns against Turenne and Montecucculi, the greatest generals of the +predominant school. But it was in his eagerness for battle, his quick +decision in action, and the stern will which sent his regiments to face +the heaviest loss, that Conde is distinguished above all the generals of +his time. In private life he was harsh and unamiable, seeking only the +gratification of his own pleasures and desires. His enforced and +loveless marriage embittered his life, and it was only in his last +years, when he had done with ambition, that the more humane side of his +character appeared in his devotion to literature. + +Conde's unhappy wife had some years before been banished to Chateauroux. +An accident brought about her ruin. Her contemporaries, greedy as they +were of scandal, refused to believe any evil of her, but the prince +declared himself convinced of her unfaithfulness, placed her in +confinement, and carried his resentment so far that his last letter to +the king was to request him never to allow her to be released. + + AUTHORITIES.--See, besides the numerous _Memoires_ of the time, Puget + de la Serre, _Les Sieges, les batailles, &c., de Mr. le prince de + Conde_ (Paris, 1651); J. de la Brune, _Histoire de la vie, &c., de + Louis de Bourbon, prince de Conde_ (Cologne, 1694); P. Coste, + _Histoire de Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Hague, 1748); Desormeaux, + _Histoire de Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Paris, 1768); Turpin, _Vie de + Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Paris and Amsterdam, 1767); _Eloge militaire + de Louis de Bourbon_ (Dijon, 1772); _Histoire du grand Conde_, by A. + Lemercier (Tours, 1862); J. J. E. Roy (Lille, 1859); L. de Voivreuil + (Tours, 1846); Fitzpatrick, _The Great Conde_, and Lord Mahon, _Life + of Louis, prince of Conde_ (London, 1845). Works on the Conde family + by the prince de Conde and de Sevilinges (Paris, 1820), the due + d'Aumale, and Guibout (Rouen, 1856), should also be consulted. + + + + +CONDE, the name of some twenty villages in France and of two towns of +some importance. Of the villages, Conde-en-Brie (Lat. _Condetum_) is a +place of great antiquity and was in the middle ages the seat of a +principality, a sub-fief of that of Montmirail; Conde-sur-Aisne +(_Condatus_) was given in 870 by Charles the Bald to the abbey of St +Ouen at Rouen, gave its name to a seigniory during the middle ages, and +possessed a priory of which the church and a 12th-century chapel remain; +Conde-sur-Marne (_Condate_), once a place of some importance, preserves +one of its parish churches, with a fine Romanesque tower. The two towns +are:-- + +1. CONDE-SUR-L'ESCAUT, in the department of Nord, at the junction of the +canals of the Scheldt and of Conde-Mons. Pop. (1906) town, 2701; +commune, 5310. It lies 7 m. N. by E. of Valenciennes and 2 m. from the +Belgian frontier. It has a church dating from the middle of the 18th +century. Trade is in coal and cattle. The industries include brewing, +rope-making and boat-building, and there is a communal college. Conde +(_Condate_) is of considerable antiquity, dating at least from the later +Roman period. Taken in 1676 by Louis XIV., it definitely passed into the +possession of France by the treaty of Nijmwegen two years later, and was +afterwards fortified by Vauban. During the revolutionary war it was +besieged and taken by the Austrians (1793); and in 1815 it again fell to +the allies. It was from this place that the princes of Conde (q.v.) took +their title. See Perron-Gelineau, _Conde ancien et moderne_ (Nantes, +1887). + +2. CONDE-SUR-NOIREAU, in the department of Calvados, at the confluence +of the Noireau and the Drouance, 33 m. S.S.W. of Caen on the Ouest-Etat +railway. Pop. (1906) 5709. The town is the seat of a tribunal of +commerce, a board of trade-arbitration and a chamber of arts and +manufactures, and has a communal college. It is important for its +cotton-spinning and weaving, and carries on dyeing, printing and +machine-construction; there are numerous nursery-gardens in the +vicinity. Important fairs are held in the town. The church of St Martin +has a choir of the 12th and 15th centuries, and a stained-glass window +(15th century) representing the Crucifixion. There is a statue to Dumont +d'Urville, the navigator (b. 1790), a native of the town. Throughout the +middle ages Conde (_Condatum_, _Condetum_) was the seat of an important +castellany, which was held by a long succession of powerful nobles and +kings, including Robert, count of Mortain, Henry II. and John of +England, Philip Augustus of France, Charles II. (the Bad) and Charles +III. of Navarre. The place was held by the English from 1417 to 1449. Of +the castle some ruins of the keep survive. See L. Huet, _Hist. de +Conde-sur-Noireau, ses seigneurs, son industrie, &c._ (Caen, 1883). + + + + +CONDE, JOSE ANTONIO (1766-1820), Spanish Orientalist, was born at +Peraleja (Cuenca) on the 28th of October 1766, and was educated at the +university of Alcala. His translation of Anacreon (1791) obtained him a +post in the royal library in 1795, and in 1796-1797 he published +paraphrases from Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, Sappho and Meleager. These +were followed by a mediocre edition of the Arabic text of Edrisi's +_Description of Spain_ (1799), with notes and a translation. Conde +became a member of the Spanish Academy in 1802 and of the Academy of +History in 1804, but his appointment as interpreter to Joseph Bonaparte +led to his expulsion from both bodies in 1814. He escaped to France in +February 1813, and returned to Spain in 1814, but was not allowed to +reside at Madrid till 1816. Two years later he was re-elected by both +academies; he died in poverty on the 12th of June 1820. His _Historia de +la Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana_ was published in 1820-1821. Only +the first volume was corrected by the author, the other two being +compiled from his manuscript by Juan Tineo. This work was translated +into German (1824-1825), French (1825) and English (1854). Conde's +pretensions to scholarship have been severely criticized by Dozy, and +his history is now discredited. It had, however, the merit of +stimulating abler workers in the same field. + + + + +CONDENSATION OF GASES. + + + Critical temperature. + +If the volume of a gas continually decreases at a constant temperature, +for which an increasing pressure is required, two cases may occur:--(1) +The volume may continue to be homogeneously filled. (2) If the substance +is contained in a certain volume, and if the pressure has a certain +value, the substance may divide into two different phases, each of which +is again homogeneous. The value of the temperature T decides which case +will occur. The temperature which is the limit above which the space +will always be homogeneously filled, and below which the substance +divides into two phases, is called the _critical temperature_ of the +substance. It differs greatly for different substances, and if we +represent it by Tc, the condition for the condensation of a gas is that +T must be below Tc. If the substance is divided into two phases, two +different cases may occur. The denser phase may be either a liquid or a +solid. The limiting temperature for these two cases, at which the +division into three phases may occur, is called the _triple point_. Let +us represent it by T3; if the term "condensation of gases" is taken in +the sense of "liquefaction of gases"--which is usually done--the +condition for condensation is Tc > T > T3. The opinion sometimes held +that for all substances T3 is the same fraction of Tc (the value being +about 1/2) has decidedly not been rigorously confirmed. Nor is this to +be expected on account of the very different form of crystallization +which the solid state presents. Thus for carbon dioxide, CO2, for which +Tc = 304 deg. on the absolute scale, and for which we may put T3 = 216 +deg., this fraction is about 0.7; for water it descends down to 0.42, +and for other substances it may be still lower. + +If we confine ourselves to temperatures between Tc and T3, the gas will +pass into a liquid if the pressure is sufficiently increased. When the +formation of liquid sets in we call the gas a _saturated vapour_. If the +decrease of volume is continued, the gas pressure remains constant till +all the vapour has passed into liquid. The invariability of the +properties of the phases is in close connexion with the invariability of +the pressure (called _maximum tension_). Throughout the course of the +process of condensation these properties remain unchanged, provided the +temperature remain constant; only the relative quantity of the two +phases changes. Until all the gas has passed into liquid a further +decrease of volume will not require increase of pressure. But as soon as +the liquefaction is complete a slight decrease of volume will require a +great increase of pressure, liquids being but slightly compressible. + + + Critical pressure. + +The pressure required to condense a gas varies with the temperature, +becoming higher as the temperature rises. The highest pressure will +therefore be found at Tc and the lowest at T3. We shall represent the +pressure at Tc by pc. It is called the _critical pressure_. The pressure +at T3 we shall represent by p3. It is called the _pressure of the triple +point_. The values of Tc and pc for different substances will be found +at the end of this article. The values of T3 and p3 are accurately known +only for a few substances. As a rule p3 is small, though occasionally it +is greater than 1 atmosphere. This is the case with CO2, and we may in +general expect it if the value of T3/Tc is large. In this case there can +only be a question of a real boiling-point (under the normal pressure) +if the liquid can be supercooled. + +We may find the value of the pressure of the saturated vapour for each T +in a geometrical way by drawing in the theoretical isothermal a straight +line parallel to the v-axis in such a way that [int] v1 to v2 pdv will +have the same value whether the straight line or the theoretical +isothermal is followed. This construction, given by James Clerk Maxwell, +may be considered as a result of the application of the general rules +for coexisting equilibrium, which we owe to J. Willard Gibbs. The +construction derived from the rules of Gibbs is as follows:--Construe +the free energy at a constant temperature, i.e. the quantity - [int]pdv +as ordinate, if the abscissa represents v, and determine the inclination +of the double tangent. Another construction derived from the rules of +Gibbs might be expressed as follows:--Construe the value of pv - +[int]pdv as ordinate, the abscissa representing p, and determine the +point of intersection of two of the three branches of this curve. + +As an approximate half-empirical formula for the calculation of the +pressure, + + p /Tc-T\ + -log10 --- = f( ---- ) + pc \ T / + +may be used. It would follow from the law of corresponding states that +in this formula the value of [int] is the same for all substances, the +molecules of which do not associate to form larger molecule-complexes. +In fact, for a great many substances, we find a value for f, which +differs but little from 3, e.g. ether, carbon dioxide, benzene, benzene +derivatives, ethyl chloride, ethane, &c. As the chemical structure of +these substances differs greatly, and association, if it takes place, +must largely depend upon the structure of the molecule, we conclude from +this approximate equality that the fact of this value of [int] being +equal to about 3 is characteristic for normal substances in which, +consequently, association is excluded. Substances known to associate, +such as organic acids and alcohols, have a sensibly higher value of f. +Thus T. Estreicher (Cracow, 1896) calculates that for fluor-benzene f +varies between 3.07 and 2.94; for ether between 3.0 and 3.1; but for +water between 3.2 and 3.33, and for methyl alcohol between 3.65 and +3.84, &c. For isobutyl alcohol [int] even rises above 4. It is, however, +remarkable that for oxygen [int] has been found almost invariably equal +to 2.47 from K. Olszewski's observations, a value which is appreciably +smaller than 3. This fact makes us again seriously doubt the correctness +of the supposition that [int] = 3 is a characteristic for +non-association. + + + Critical volume. + +It is a general rule that the volume of saturated vapour decreases when +the temperature is raised, while that of the coexisting liquid +increases. We know only one exception to this rule, and that is the +volume of water below 4 deg. C. If we call the liquid volume v_l, and the +vapour v_v, v_v - v_l decreases if the temperature rises, and becomes +zero at Tc. The limiting value, to which vl and vv converge at Tc, is +called the _critical volume_, and we shall represent it by v_c. +According to the law of corresponding states the values both of v_l/v_c +and vv/vc must be the same for all substances, if T/Tc has been taken +equal for them all. According to the investigations of Sydney Young, +this holds good with a high degree of approximation for a long series of +substances. Important deviations from this rule for the values of vv/vl +are only found for those substances in which the existence of +association has already been discovered by other methods. Since the +lowest value of T, for which investigations on v_l and v_v may be made, +is the value of T3; and since T3/Tc, as has been observed above, is not +the same for all substances, we cannot expect the smallest value of +v_l/v_c to be the same for all substances. But for low values of T, viz. +such as are near T3, the influence of the temperature on the volume is +but slight, and therefore we are not far from the truth if we assume the +minimum value of the ratio v_l/v_c as being identical for all normal +substances, and put it at about 1/3. Moreover, the influence of the +polymerization (association) on the liquid volume appears to be small, +so that we may even attribute the value 1/3 to substances which are not +normal. The value of v_v/v_c at T = T3 differs widely for different +substances. If we take p3 so low that the law of Boyle-Gay Lussac may be +applied, we can calculate v3/v_c by means of the formula p3.v3/T3 = +k.p_c.v_c/Tc provided k be known. According to the observations of +Sydney Young, this factor has proved to be 3.77 for normal substances. +In consequence + + v3 p_c T3 + --- = 3.77 --- --. + v_c p3 Tc + +A similar formula, but with another value of k, may be given for +associating substances, provided the saturated vapour does not contain +any complex molecules. But if it does, as is the case with acetic acid, +we must also know the degree of association. It can, however, only be +found by measuring the volume itself. + + + Rule of the rectilinear diameter. + +E. Mathias has remarked that the following relation exists between the +densities of the saturated vapour and of the coexisting liquid:-- + + / T \ + [rho]l + [rho]v = 2[rho]c {1 + a(1 - -- ) }, + \ Tc/ + +and that, accordingly, the curve which represents the densities at +different temperatures possesses a rectilinear diameter. According to +the law of corresponding states, a would be the same for all substances. +Many substances, indeed, actually appear to have a rectilinear diameter, +and the value of a appears approximatively to be the same. In a _Memoire +presente a la societe royale a Liege_, 15th June 1899, E. Mathias gives +a list of some twenty substances for which a has a value lying between +0.95 and 1.05. It had been already observed by Sydney Young that a is +not perfectly constant even for normal substances. For associating +substances the diameter is not rectilinear. Whether the value of a, near +1, may serve as a characteristic for normal substances is rendered +doubtful by the fact that for nitrogen a is found equal to 0.6813 and +for oxygen to 0.8. At T = Tc/2, the formula of E. Mathias, if [rho]v be +neglected with respect to [rho]l, gives the value 2 + a for +[rho]l/[rho]c. + + + Latent heat. + +The heat required to convert a molecular quantity of liquid coexisting +with vapour into saturated vapour at the same temperature is called +_molecular latent heat_. It decreases with the rise of the temperature, +because at a higher temperature the liquid has already expanded, and +because the vapour into which it has to be converted is denser. At the +critical temperature it is equal to zero on account of the identity of +the liquid and the gaseous states. If we call the molecular weight m and +the latent heat per unit of weight r, then, according to the law of +corresponding states, mr/T is the same for all normal substances, +provided the temperatures are corresponding. According to F. T. Trouton, +the value of mr/T is the same for all substances if we take for T the +boiling-point. As the boiling-points under the pressure of one +atmosphere are generally not equal fractions of Tc, the two theorems are +not identical; but as the values of p_c for many substances do not differ +so much as to make the ratios of the boiling-points under the pressure +of one atmosphere differ greatly from the ratios of Tc, an approximate +confirmation of the law of Trouton may be compatible with an approximate +confirmation of the consequence of the law of corresponding states. If +we take the term boiling-point in a more general sense, and put T in the +law of Trouton to represent the boiling-point under an arbitrary equal +pressure, we may take the pressure equal to pc for a certain substance. +For this substance mr/T would be equal to zero, and the values of mr/T +would no longer show a trace of equality. At present direct trustworthy +investigations about the value of r for different substances are +wanting; hence the question whether as to the quantity mr/T the +substances are to be divided into normal and associating ones cannot be +answered. Let us divide the latent heat into heat necessary for internal +work and heat necessary for external work. Let r' represent the former +of these two quantities, then:-- + + r = r' + p(v_v - v_l). + +Then the same remark holds good for mr'/T as has been made for mr/T. The +ratio between r and that part that is necessary for external work is +given in the formula, + + r T dp + ------------ = ----. + p(v_v - v_l) p dT + +By making use of the approximate formula for the vapour tension:-- + + p /Tc - T\ + log_[epsilon] --- = [int]' (--------), we find-- + p_c \ T / + + r Tc + ------------ = [int]' --. + p(v_v - v_l) T + +At T = Tc we find for this ratio [int]', a value which, for normal +substances is equal to 3/0.4343 = 7. At the critical temperature the +quantities r and vv-vl are both equal to 0, but they have a finite +ratio. As we may equate p(v_v - v_l) with pv_v = RT at very low +temperatures, we get, if we take into consideration that R expressed in +calories is nearly equal to 2/m, the value 2[int]'Tc = 14Tc as limiting +value for mr for normal substances. This value for mr has, however, +merely the character of a rough approximation--especially since the +factor f' is not perfectly constant. + + + Nature of a liquid. + +All the phenomena which accompany the condensation of gases into liquids +may be explained by the supposition, that the condition of aggregation +which we call liquid differs only in quantity, and not in quality, from +that which we call gas. We imagine a gas to consist of separate +molecules of a certain mass [mu], having a certain velocity depending on +the temperature. This velocity is distributed according to the law of +probabilities, and furnishes a quantity of _vis viva_ proportional to +the temperatures. We must attribute extension to the molecules, and they +will attract one another with a force which quickly decreases with the +distance. Even those suppositions which reduce molecules to centra of +forces, like that of Maxwell, lead us to the result that the molecules +behave in mutual collisions as if they had extension--an extension which +in this case is not constant, but determined by the law of repulsion in +the collision, the law of the distribution, and the value of the +velocities. In order to explain capillary phenomena it was assumed so +early as Laplace, that between the molecules of the same substance an +attraction exists which quickly decreases with the distance. That this +attraction is found in gases too is proved by the fall which occurs in +the temperature of a gas that is expanded without performing external +work. We are still perfectly in the dark as to the cause of this +attraction, and opinion differs greatly as to its dependence on the +distance. Nor is this knowledge necessary in order to find the influence +of the attraction, for a homogeneous state, on the value of the external +pressure which is required to keep the moving molecules at a certain +volume (T being given). We may, viz., assume either in the strict sense, +or as a first approximation, that the influence of the attraction is +quite equal to a pressure which is proportional to the square of the +density. Though this molecular pressure is small for gases, yet it will +be considerable for the great densities of liquids, and calculation +shows that we may estimate it at more than 1000 atmos., possibly +increasing up to 10,000. We may now make the same supposition for a +liquid as for a gas, and imagine it to consist of molecules, which for +non-associating substances are the same as those of the rarefied vapour; +these, if T is the same, have the same mean _vis viva_ as the vapour +molecules, but are more closely massed together. Starting from this +supposition and all its consequences, van der Waals derived the +following formula which would hold both for the liquid state and for the +gaseous state:-- + + / a \ + (p + --- )(v - b) = RT. + \ v^2/ + +It follows from this deduction that for the rarefied gaseous state b +would be four times the volume of the molecules, but that for greater +densities the factor 4 would decrease. If we represent the volume of the +molecules by [beta], the quantity b will be found to have the following +form:-- + + { /4[beta]\ /4[beta]\^2 } + b = 4[beta]{ 1 - [gamma]1( ------- ) + [gamma]2( ------- ) &c.} + { \ v / \ v / } + +Only two of the successive coefficients [gamma]1, [gamma]2, &c., have +been worked out, for the determination requires very lengthy +calculations, and has not even led to definitive results (L. Boltzmann, +_Proc. Royal Acad. Amsterdam_, March 1899). The latter formula supposes +the molecules to be rigid spheres of invariable size. If the molecules +are things which are compressible, another formula for b is found, which +is different according to the number of atoms in the molecule (_Proc. +Royal Acad. Amsterdam_, 1900-1901). If we keep the value of a and b +constant, the given equation will not completely represent the net of +isothermals of a substance. Yet even in this form it is sufficient as to +the principal features. From it we may argue to the existence of a +critical temperature, to a minimum value of the product pv, to the law +of corresponding states, &c. Some of the numerical results to which it +leads, however, have not been confirmed by experience. Thus it would +follow from the given equation that p_c.v_c/Tc = 3/8.pv/T, if the value +of v is taken so great that the gaseous laws may be applied, whereas +Sydney Young has found 1/3.77 for a number of substances instead of the +factor 3/8. Again it follows from the given equation, that if a is +thought to be independent of the temperature, Tc/p_c.(dp/dT)_c = 4 +whereas for a number of substances a value is found for it which is near +7. If we assume with Clausius that a depends on the temperature, and has +a value a'.273/T, we find Tc/p_c.(dp/dT)_c = 7 That the accurate +knowledge of the equation of state is of the highest importance is +universally acknowledged, because, in connexion with the results of +thermodynamics, it will enable us to explain all phenomena relating to +ponderable matter. This general conviction is shown by the numerous +efforts made to complete or modify the given equation, or to replace it +by another, for instance, by R. Clausius, P. G. Tait, E. H. Amagat, L. +Boltzmann, T. G. Jager, C. Dieterici, B. Galitzine, T. Rose Innes and M. +Reinganum. + +If we hold to the supposition that the molecules in the gaseous and the +liquid state are the same--which we may call the supposition of the +identity of the two conditions of aggregation--then the heat which is +given out by the condensation at constant T is due to the potential +energy lost in consequence of the coming closer of the molecules which +attract each other, and then it is equal to a(1/v_l - 1/v_v). If a should +be a function of the temperature, it follows from thermodynamics that it +would be equal to (a - T.da/dT)(1/v_l - 1/v_v). Not only in the case of +liquid and gas, but always when the volume is diminished, a quantity of +heat is given out equal to a(1/v1 - 1/v2) or (a -T.da/dT)(1/v1 - 1/v2). + + + Associating substances. + +If, however, when the volume is diminished at a given temperature, and +also during the transition from the gaseous to the liquid state, +combination into larger molecule-complexes takes place, the total +internal heat may be considered as the sum of that which is caused by +the combination of the molecules into greater molecule-complexes and by +their approach towards each other. We have the simplest case of possible +greater complexity when two molecules combine to one. From the course of +the changes in the density of the vapour we assume that this occurs, +e.g. with nitrogen peroxide, NO2, and acetic acid, and the somewhat +close agreement of the observed density of the vapour with that which is +calculated from the hypothesis of such an association to +double-molecules, makes this supposition almost a certainty. In such +cases the molecules in the much denser liquid state must therefore be +considered as double-molecules, either completely so or in a variable +degree depending on the temperature. The given equation of state cannot +hold for such substances. Even though we assume that a and b are not +modified by the formation of double-molecules, yet RT is modified, and, +since it is proportional to the number of the molecules, is diminished +by the combination. The laws found for normal substances will, +therefore, not hold for such associating substances. Accordingly for +substances for which we have already found an anormal density of the +vapour, we cannot expect the general laws for the liquid state, which +have been treated above, to hold good without modification, and in many +respects such substances will therefore not follow the law of +corresponding states. There are, however, also substances of which the +anormal density of vapour has not been stated, and which yet cannot be +ranged under this law, e.g. water and alcohols. The most natural thing, +of course, is to ascribe the deviation of these substances, as of the +others, to the fact that the molecules of the liquid are polymerized. In +this case we have to account for the following circumstance, that +whereas for NO2 and acetic acid in the state of saturated vapour the +degree of association increases if the temperature falls, the reverse +must take place for water and alcohols. Such a difference may be +accounted for by the difference in the quantity of heat released by the +polymerization to double-molecules or larger molecule-complexes. The +quantity of heat given out when two molecules fall together may be +calculated for NO2 and acetic acid from the formula of Gibbs for the +density of vapour, and it proves to be very considerable. With this the +following fact is closely connected. If in the pv diagram, starting from +a point indicating the state of saturated vapour, a geometrical locus is +drawn of the points which have the same degree of association, this +curve, which passes towards isothermals of higher T if the volume +diminishes, requires for the same change in T a greater diminution of +volume than is indicated by the border-curve. For water and alcohols +this geometrical locus will be found on the other side of the +border-curve, and the polymerization heat will be small, i.e. smaller +than the latent heat. For substances with a small polymerization heat +the degree of association will continually decrease if we move along the +border-curve on the side of the saturated vapour in the direction +towards lower T. With this, it is perfectly compatible that for such +substances the saturated vapour, e.g. under the pressure of one +atmosphere, should show an almost normal density. Saturated vapour of +water at 100 deg. has a density which seems nearly 4% greater than the +theoretical one, an amount which is greater than can be ascribed to the +deviation from the gas-laws. For the relation between v, T, and x, if x +represents the fraction of the number of double-molecules, the following +formula has been found ("Moleculartheorie," _Zeits. Phys. Chem._, 1890, +vol. v): + + x(v - b) 2(E1 - E2) + log --------- = ---------- + C, + (1 - x)^2 R1T + +from which + + T /dv\ E1 - E2 + ------( -- ) = -2-------, + (v - b) \dT/_x R1T + +which may elucidate what precedes. + + + Condensation of substances with low Tc. + +By far the majority of substances have a value of Tc above the ordinary +temperature, and diminution of volume (increase of pressure) is +sufficient to condense such gaseous substances into liquids. If Tc is +but little above the ordinary temperature, a great increase of pressure +is in general required to effect condensation. Substances for which Tc +is much higher than the ordinary temperature T0, e.g. Tc > 5/3 T0, occur +as liquids, even without increase of pressure; that is, at the pressure +of one atmosphere. The value 5/3 is to be considered as only a mean +value, because of the inequality of p_c. The substances for which Tc is +smaller than the ordinary temperature are but few in number. Taking the +temperature of melting ice as a limit, these gases are in successive +order: CH4, NO, O2, CO, N2 and H2 (the recently discovered gases argon, +helium, &c., are left out of account). If these gases are compressed at +0 deg. centigrade they do not show a trace of liquefaction, and therefore +they were long known under the name of "permanent gases." The discovery, +however, of the critical temperature carried the conviction that these +substances would not be "permanent gases" if they were compressed at +much lower T. Hence the problem arose how "low temperatures" were to be +brought about. Considered from a general point of view the means to +attain this end may be described as follows: we must make use of the +above-mentioned circumstance that heat disappears when a substance +expands, either with or without performing external work. According as +this heat is derived from the substance itself which is to be condensed, +or from the substance which is used as a means of cooling, we may divide +the methods for condensing the so-called permanent gases into two +principal groups. + + + Liquids as means of cooling. + +In order to use a liquid as a cooling bath it must be placed in a +vacuum, and it must be possible to keep the pressure of the vapour in +that space at a small value. According to the boiling-law, the +temperature of the liquid must descend to that at which the maximum +tension of the vapour is equal to the pressure which reigns on the +surface of the liquid. If the vapour, either by means of absorption or +by an air-pump, is exhausted from the space, the temperature of the +liquid and that of the space itself depend upon the value of the +pressure which finally prevails in the space. From a practical point of +view the value of T3 may be regarded as the limit to which the +temperature falls. It is true that if the air is exhausted to the utmost +possible extent, the temperature may fall still lower, but when the +substance has become solid, a further diminution of the pressure in the +space is of little advantage. At any rate, as a solid body evaporates +only on the surface, and solid gases are bad conductors of heat, further +cooling will only take place very slowly, and will scarcely neutralize +the influx of heat. If the pressure p3 is very small, it is perhaps +practically impossible to reach T3; if so, T3 in the following lines +will represent the temperature practically attainable. There is thus for +every gas a limit below which it is not to be cooled further, at least +not in this way. If, however, we can find another gas for which the +critical temperature is sufficiently above T3 of the first chosen gas, +and if it is converted into a liquid by cooling with the first gas, and +then treated in the same way as the first gas, it may in its turn be +cooled down to (T3)2. Going on in this way, continually lower +temperatures may be attained, and it would be possible to condense all +gases, provided the difference of the successive critical temperatures +of two gases fulfils certain conditions. If the ratio of the absolute +critical temperatures for two gases, which succeed one another in the +series, should be sensibly greater than 2, the value of T3 for the first +gas is not, or not sufficiently, below the Tc of the second gas. This is +the case when one of the gases is nitrogen, on which hydrogen would +follow as second gas. Generally, however, we shall take atmospheric air +instead of nitrogen. Though this mixture of N2 and O2 will show other +critical phenomena than a simple substance, yet we shall continue to +speak of a Tc for air, which is given at -140 deg. C., and for which, +therefore, Tc amounts to 133 deg. absolute. The lowest T which may be +expected for air in a highly rarefied space may be evaluated at 60 deg. +absolute--a value which is higher than the Tc for hydrogen. Without new +contrivances it would, accordingly, not be possible to reach the +critical temperature of H2. The method by which we try to obtain +successively lower temperatures by making use of successive gases is +called the "cascade method." It is not self-evident that by sufficiently +diminishing the pressure on a liquid it may be cooled to such a degree +that the temperature will be lowered to T3, if the initial temperature +was equal to Tc, or but little below it, and we can even predict with +certainty that this will not be the case for all substances. It is +possible, too, that long before the triple point is reached the whole +liquid will have evaporated. The most favourable conditions will, of +course, be attained when the influx of heat is reduced to a minimum. As +a limiting case we imagine the process to be isentropic. Now the +question has become, Will an isentropic line, which starts from a point +of the border-curve on the side of the liquid not far from the +critical-point, remain throughout its descending course in the +heterogeneous region, or will it leave the region on the side of the +vapour? As early as 1878 van der Waals (_Verslagen Kon. Akad. +Amsterdam_) pointed out that the former may be expected to be the case +only for substances for which c_p/c_v is large, and the latter for those +for which it is small; in other words, the former will take place for +substances the molecules of which contain few atoms, and the latter for +substances the molecules of which contain many atoms. Ether is an +example of the latter class, and if we say that the quantity h (specific +heat of the saturated vapour) for ether is found to be positive, we +state the same thing in other words. It is not necessary to prove this +theorem further here, as the molecules of the gases under consideration +contain only two atoms and the total evaporation of the liquid is not to +be feared. + +In the practical application of this cascade-method some variation is +found in the gases chosen for the successive stages. Thus methyl +chloride, ethylene and oxygen are used in the cryogenic laboratory of +Leiden, while Sir James Dewar has used air as the last term. Carbonic +acid is not to be recommended on account of the comparatively high value +of T3. In order to prevent loss of gas a system of "circulation" is +employed. This method of obtaining low temperatures is decidedly +laborious, and requires very intricate apparatus, but it has the great +advantage that very _constant_ low temperatures may be obtained, and can +be regulated arbitrarily within pretty wide limits. + + + Cooling by expansion. + +In order to lower the temperature of a substance down to T3, it is not +always necessary to convert it first into the liquid state by means of +another substance, as was assumed in the last method for obtaining low +temperatures. Its own expansion is sufficient, provided the initial +condition be properly chosen, and provided we take care, even more than +in the former method, that there is no influx of heat. Those conditions +being fulfilled, we may, simply by adiabatic expansion, not only lower +the temperature of some substances down to T3, but also convert them +into the liquid state. This is especially the case with substances the +molecules of which contain few atoms. + +Let us imagine the whole net of isothermals for homogeneous phases drawn +in a pv diagram, and in it the border-curve. Within this border-curve, +as in the heterogeneous region, the theoretical part of every isothermal +must be replaced by a straight line. The isothermals may therefore be +divided into two groups, viz. those which keep outside the heterogeneous +region, and those which cross this region. Hence an isothermal, +belonging to the latter group, enters the heterogeneous region on the +liquid side, and leaves it at the same level on the vapour side. Let us +imagine in the same way all the isentropic curves drawn for homogeneous +states. Their form resembles that of isothermals in so far as they show +a maximum and a minimum, if the entropy-constant is below a certain +value, while if it is above this value, both the maximum and the minimum +disappear, the isentropic line in a certain point having at the same +time dp/dv and d^2p/dv^2 = 0 for this particular value of the constant. +This point, which we might call the critical point of the isentropic +lines, lies in the heterogeneous region, and therefore cannot be +realized, since as soon as an isentropic curve enters this region its +theoretical part will be replaced by an empiric part. If an isentropic +curve crosses the heterogeneous region, the point where it enters this +region must, just as for the isothermals, be connected with the point +where it leaves the region by another curve. When c_p/c_v = k (the +limiting value of c_p/c_v for infinite rarefaction is meant) approaches +unity, the isentropic curves approach the isothermals and vice versa. In +the same way the critical point of the isentropic curves comes nearer to +that of the isothermals. And if k is not much greater than 1, e.g. k < +1.08, the following property of the isothermals is also preserved, viz. +that an isentropic curve, which enters the heterogeneous region on the +side of the liquid, leaves it again on the side of the vapour, not of +course at the same level, but at a lower point. If, however, k is +greater, and particularly if it is so great as it is with molecules of +one or two atoms, an isentropic curve, which enters on the side of the +liquid, however far prolonged, always remains within the heterogeneous +region. But in this case all isentropic curves, if sufficiently +prolonged, will enter the heterogeneous region. Every isentropic curve +has one point of intersection with the border-curve, but only a small +group intersect the border-curve in three points, two of which are to be +found not far from the top of the border-curve and on the side of the +vapour. Whether the sign of h (specific heat of the saturated vapour) is +negative or positive, is closely connected with the preceding facts. For +substances having k great, h will be negative if T is low, positive if T +rises, while it will change its sign again before Tc is reached. The +values of T, at which change of sign takes place, depend on k. The law +of corresponding states holds good for this value of T for all +substances which have the same value of k. + +Now the gases which were considered as permanent are exactly those for +which k has a high value. From this it would follow that every adiabatic +expansion, provided it be sufficiently continued, will bring such +substances into the heterogeneous region, i.e. they can be condensed by +adiabatic expansion. But since the final pressure must not fall below a +certain limit, determined by experimental convenience, and since the +quantity which passes into the liquid state must remain a fraction as +large as possible, and since the expansion never can take place in such +a manner that no heat is given out by the walls or the surroundings, it +is best to choose the initial condition in such a way that the +isentropic curve of this point cuts the border-curve in a point on the +side of the liquid, lying as low as possible. The border-curve being +rather broad at the top, there are many isentropic curves which +penetrate the heterogeneous region under a pressure which differs but +little from p_c. Availing himself of this property, K. Olszewski has +determined p_c for hydrogen at 15 atmospheres. Isentropic curves, which +lie on the right and on the left of this group, will show a point of +condensation at a lower pressure. Olszewski has investigated this for +those lying on the right, but not for those on the left. + +From the equation of state (p + a/v^2)(v-b) = RT, the equation of the +isentropic curve follows as (p + a/v^2)(v-b)^k = C, and from this we may +deduce T(v - b)^(k-1) = C'. This latter relation shows in how high a +degree the cooling depends on the amount by which k surpasses unity, the +change in v - b being the same. + +What has been said concerning the relative position of the border-curve +and the isentropic curve may be easily tested for points of the +border-curve which represent rarefied gaseous states, in the following +way. Following the border-curve we found before [int]' Tc/T for the +value of T/p.dp/dT. Following the isentropic curve the value of T/p +dp/dT is equal to k/(k - 1). If k/(k - 1) < [int]'Tc/T, the isentropic +curve rises more steeply than the border-curve. If we take f' = 7 and +choose the value of Tc/2 for T--a temperature at which the saturated +vapour may be considered to follow the gas-laws--then k/(k - 1) = 14, or +k = 1.07 would be the limiting value for the two cases. At any rate k = +1.41 is great enough to fulfil the condition, even for other values of +T. Cailletet and Pictet have availed themselves of this adiabatic +expansion for condensing some permanent gases, and it must also be used +when, in the cascade method, T3 of one of the gases lies above Tc of the +next. + + + Linde's apparatus. + +A third method of condensing the permanent gases is applied in C. P. G. +Linde's apparatus for liquefying air. Under a high pressure p1 a current +of gas is conducted through a narrow spiral, returning through another +spiral which surrounds the first. Between the end of the first spiral +and the beginning of the second the current of gas is reduced to a much +lower pressure p2 by passing through a tap with a fine orifice. On +account of the expansion resulting from this sudden decrease of +pressure, the temperature of the gas, and consequently of the two +spirals, falls sensibly. If this process is repeated with another +current of gas, this current, having been cooled in the inner spiral, +will be cooled still further, and the temperature of the two spirals +will become still lower. If the pressures p1 and p2 remain constant the +cooling will increase with the lowering of the temperature. In Linde's +apparatus this cycle is repeated over and over again, and after some +time (about two or three hours) it becomes possible to draw off liquid +air. + +The cooling which is the consequence of such a decrease of pressure was +experimentally determined in 1854 by Lord Kelvin (then Professor W. +Thomson) and Joule, who represent the result of their experiments in the +formula + + p1 - p2 + T1 - T2 = [gamma]-------. + T^2 + +In their experiments p2 was always 1 atmosphere, and the amount of p1 +was not large. It would, therefore, be certainly wrong, even though for +a small difference in pressure the empiric formula might be +approximately correct, without closer investigation to make use of it +for the differences of pressure used in Linde's apparatus, where p1 = +200 and p2 = 18 atmospheres. For the existence of a most favourable +value of p1 is in contradiction with the formula, since it would follow +from it that T1 - T2 would always increase with the increase of p1. Nor +would it be right to regard as the cause for the existence of this most +favourable value of p1 the fact that the heat produced in the +compression of the expanded gas, and therefore p1/p2, must be kept as +small as possible, for the simple reason that the heat is produced in +quite another part of the apparatus, and might be neutralized in +different ways. + +Closer examination of the process shows that if p2 is given, a most +favourable value of p1 must exist for the cooling itself. If p1 is taken +still higher, the cooling decreases again; and we might take a value for +p1 for which the cooling would be zero, or even negative. + + If we call the energy per unit of weight [epsilon] and the specific + volume v, the following equation holds:-- + + [epsilon]1 + p1v1 - p2v2 = [epsilon]2, + + or [epsilon]1 + p1v1 = [epsilon]2 + p2v2. + + According to the symbols chosen by Gibbs, [chi]1 = [chi]2. + + As [chi]1 is determined by T1 and p1, and [chi]2 by T2 and p2, we + obtain, if we take T1 and p2 as being constant, + + /[delta][chi]1\ /[delta][chi]2\ + (---------------) dp1 = ( ------------- ) dT2. + \ [delta]p1 /_T1 \ [delta]T2 /_p2 + + If T_2 is to have a minimum value, we have + + /[delta][chi]1\ /[delta][chi]1)\ + (---------------) = 0, or ( -------------- ) = 0. + \ [delta]p1 /_T1 \ [delta]v1 /_T1 + + From this follows + + /[delta][epsilon]1\ /[delta](p1v1)\ + ( ----------------- ) + ( ------------- ) = 0. + \ [delta]v1 /_T1 \ [delta]v1 /_T1 + + As ([delta][epsilon]1/[delta]v1)T is positive, we shall have to take + for the maximum cooling such a pressure that the product p_v decreases + with v, viz. a pressure larger than that at which p_v has the minimum + value. By means of the equation of state mentioned already, we find + for the value of the specific volume that gives the greatest cooling + the formula + + RT1b 2a + ---------- = ----, + (v1 - b)^2 v1^2 + + and for the value of the pressure + _ _____ _ _ _____ _ + | / 4 T1 | | / 4 T1 | + p1 = 27p_c | 1 - / -- -- | | 3 / -- -- - 1 |. + |_ \/ 27 Tc _| |_ \/ 27 Tc _| + + If we take the value 2Tc for T1, as we may approximately for air when + we begin to work with the apparatus, we find for p1 about 8p_c, or + more than 300 atmospheres. If we take T1 = Tc, as we may at the end of + the process, we find p1 = 2.5p_c, or 100 atmospheres. The constant + pressure which has been found the most favourable in Linde's apparatus + is a mean of the two calculated pressures. In a theoretically perfect + apparatus we ought, therefore, to be able to regulate p1 according to + the temperature in the inner spiral. + +The critical temperatures and pressures of the permanent gases are given +in the following table, the former being expressed on the absolute scale +and the latter in atmospheres:-- + + Tc p_c Tc p_c + + CH4 191.2 deg. 55 CO 133.5 deg. 35.5 + NO 179.5 deg. 71.2 N2 127 deg. 35 + O2 155 deg. 50 Air 133 deg. 39 + Argon 152 deg. 50.6 H2 32 deg. 15 + +The values of Tc and p_c for hydrogen are those of Dewar. They are in +approximate accordance with those given by K. Olszewski. Liquid hydrogen +was first collected by J. Dewar in 1898. Apparatus for obtaining +moderate and small quantities have been described by M. W. Travers and +K. Olszewski. H. Kamerlingh Onnes at Leiden has brought about a +circulation yielding more than 3 litres per hour, and has made use of it +to keep baths of 1.5 litre capacity at all temperatures between 20.2 +deg. and 13.7 deg. absolute, the temperatures remaining constant within +0.01 deg. (See also LIQUID GASES.) (J. D. v. d. W.) + + + + +CONDENSER, the name given to many forms of apparatus which have for +their object the concentration of matter, or bringing it into a smaller +volume, or the intensification of energy. In chemistry the word is +applied to an apparatus which cools down, or condenses, a vapour to a +liquid; reference should be made to the article DISTILLATION for the +various types in use, and also to GAS (_Gas Manufacture_) and COAL TAR; +the device for the condensation of the exhaust steam of a steam-engine +is treated in the article STEAM-ENGINE. In woollen manufactures, +"condensation" of the wool is an important operation and is accomplished +by means of a "condenser." The term is also given--generally as a +qualification, e.g. condensing-syringe, condensing-pump,--to apparatus +by which air or a vapour may be compressed. In optics a "condenser" is a +lens, or system of lenses, which serves to concentrate or bring the +luminous rays to a focus; it is specially an adjunct to the optical +lantern and microscope. In electrostatics a condenser is a device for +concentrating an electrostatic charge (see ELECTROSTATICS; LEYDEN JAR; +ELECTROPHORUS). + + + + +CONDER, CHARLES (1868-1909), English artist, son of a civil engineer, +was born in London, and spent his early years in India. After an English +education he went into the government service in Australia, but in 1890 +determined to devote himself to art, and studied for several years in +Paris, where in 1893 he became an associate of the Societe Nationale des +Beaux-Arts. About 1895 his reputation as an original painter, +particularly of Watteau-like designs for fans, spread among a limited +circle of artists in London, mainly connected first with the New English +Art Club, and later the International Society; and his unique and +charming decorative style, in dainty pastoral scenes, gradually gave him +a peculiar vogue among connoisseurs. Examples of his work were bought +for the Luxembourg and other art galleries. Conder suffered much in +later years from ill-health, and died on the 9th of February 1909. + + + + +CONDILLAC, ETIENNE BONNOT DE (1715-1780), French philosopher, was born +at Grenoble of a legal family on the 30th of September 1715, and, like +his elder brother, the well-known political writer, abbe de Mably, took +holy orders and became abbe de Mureau.[1] In both cases the profession +was hardly more than nominal, and Condillac's whole life, with the +exception of an interval as tutor at the court of Parma, was devoted to +speculation. His works are _Essai sur l'origine des connaissances +humaines_ (1746), _Traite des systemes_ (1749), _Traite des sensations_ +(1754), _Traite des animaux_ (1755), a comprehensive _Cours d'etudes_ +(1767-1773) in 13 vols., written for the young Duke Ferdinand of Parma, +a grandson of Louis XV., _Le Commerce et le gouvernement, consideres +relativement l'un a l'autre_ (1776), and two posthumous works, _Logique_ +(1781) and the unfinished _Langue des calculs_ (1798). In his earlier +days in Paris he came much into contact with the circle of Diderot. A +friendship with Rousseau, which lasted in some measure to the end, may +have been due in the first instance to the fact that Rousseau had been +domestic tutor in the family of Condillac's uncle, M. de Mably, at +Lyons. Thanks to his natural caution and reserve, Condillac's relations +with unorthodox philosophers did not injure his career; and he justified +abundantly the choice of the French court in sending him to Parma to +educate the orphan duke, then a child of seven years. In 1768, on his +return from Italy, he was elected to the French Academy, but attended no +meeting after his reception. He spent his later years in retirement at +Flux, a small property which he had purchased near Beaugency, and died +there on the 3rd of August 1780. + +Though Condillac's genius was not of the highest order, he is important +both as a psychologist and as having established systematically in +France the principles of Locke, whom Voltaire had lately made +fashionable. In setting forth his empirical sensationism, Condillac +shows many of the best qualities of his age and nation, lucidity, +brevity, moderation and an earnest striving after logical method. +Unfortunately it must be said of him as of so many of his +contemporaries, "er hat die Theile in seiner Hand, fehlt leider nur der +geistiger Band"; in the analysis of the human mind on which his fame +chiefly rests, he has missed out the active and spiritual side of human +experience. His first book, the _Essai sur l'origine des connaissances +humaines_, keeps close to his English master. He accepts with some +indecision Locke's deduction of our knowledge from two sources, +sensation and reflection, and uses as his main principle of explanation +the association of ideas. His next book, the _Traite des systemes_, is a +vigorous criticism of those modern systems which are based upon abstract +principles or upon unsound hypotheses. His polemic, which is inspired +throughout with the spirit of Locke, is directed against the innate +ideas of the Cartesians, Malebranche's faculty--psychology, Leibnitz's +monadism and preestablished harmony, and, above all, against the +conception of substance set forth in the first part of the _Ethics_ of +Spinoza. By far the most important of his works is the _Traite des +sensations_, in which he emancipates himself from the tutelage of Locke +and treats psychology in his own characteristic way. He had been led, he +tells us, partly by the criticism of a talented lady, Mademoiselle +Ferrand, to question Locke's doctrine that the senses give us intuitive +knowledge of objects, that the eye, for example, judges naturally of +shapes, sizes, positions and distances. His discussions with the lady +had convinced him that to clear up such questions it was necessary to +study our senses separately, to distinguish precisely what ideas we owe +to each sense, to observe how the senses are trained, and how one sense +aids another. The result, he was confident, would show that all human +faculty and knowledge are transformed sensation only, to the exclusion +of any other principle, such as reflection. The plan of the book is that +the author imagines a statue organized inwardly like a man, animated by +a soul which has never received an idea, into which no sense-impression +has ever penetrated. He then unlocks its senses one by one, beginning +with smell, as the sense that contributes least to human knowledge. At +its first experience of smell, the consciousness of the statue is +entirely occupied by it; and this occupancy of consciousness is +attention. The statue's smell-experience will produce pleasure or pain; +and pleasure and pain will thenceforward be the master-principle which, +determining all the operations of its mind, will raise it by degrees to +all the knowledge of which it is capable. The next stage is memory, +which is the lingering impression of the smell-experience upon the +attention: "memory is nothing more than a mode of feeling." From memory +springs comparison: the statue experiences the smell, say, of a rose, +while remembering that of a carnation; and "comparison is nothing more +than giving one's attention to two things simultaneously." And "as soon +as the statue has comparison it has judgment." Comparisons and judgments +become habitual, are stored in the mind and formed into series, and thus +arises the powerful principle of the association of ideas. From +comparison of past and present experiences in respect of their +pleasure-giving quality arises desire; it is desire that determines the +operation of our faculties, stimulates the memory and imagination, and +gives rise to the passions. The passions, also, are nothing but +sensation transformed. These indications will suffice to show the +general course of the argument in the first section of the _Traite des +sensations_. To show the thoroughness of the treatment it will be enough +to quote the headings of the chief remaining chapters: "Of the Ideas of +a Man limited to the Sense of Smell," "Of a Man limited to the Sense of +Hearing," "Of Smell and Hearing combined," "Of Taste by itself, and of +Taste combined with Smell and Hearing," "Of a Man limited to the Sense +of Sight." In the second section of the treatise Condillac invests his +statue with the sense of touch, which first informs it of the existence +of external objects. In a very careful and elaborate analysis, he +distinguishes the various elements in our tactile experiences--the +touching of one's own body, the touching of objects other than one's own +body, the experience of movement, the exploration of surfaces by the +hands: he traces the growth of the statue's perceptions of extension, +distance and shape. The third section deals with the combination of +touch with the other senses. The fourth section deals with the desires, +activities and ideas of an isolated man who enjoys possession of all the +senses; and ends with observations on a "wild boy" who was found living +among bears in the forests of Lithuania. The conclusion of the whole +work is that in the natural order of things everything has its source in +sensation, and yet that this source is not equally abundant in all men; +men differ greatly in the degree of vividness with which they feel; and, +finally, that man is nothing but what he has acquired; all innate +faculties and ideas are to be swept away. The last dictum suggests the +difference that has been made to this manner of psychologizing by modern +theories of evolution and heredity. + +Condillac's work on politics and history, contained, for the most part, +in his _Cours d'etudes_, offers few features of interest, except so far +as it illustrates his close affinity to English thought: he had not the +warmth and imagination to make a good historian. In logic, on which he +wrote extensively, he is far less successful than in psychology. He +enlarges with much iteration, but with few concrete examples, upon the +supremacy of the analytic method; argues that reasoning consists in the +substitution of one proposition for another which is identical with it; +and lays it down that science is the same thing as a well-constructed +language, a proposition which in his _Langue des calculs_ he tries to +prove by the example of arithmetic. His logic has in fact the good and +bad points that we might expect to find in a sensationist who knows no +science but mathematics. He rejects the medieval apparatus of the +syllogism; but is precluded by his standpoint from understanding the +active, spiritual character of thought; nor had he that interest in +natural science and appreciation of inductive reasoning which form the +chief merit of J. S. Mill. It is obvious enough that Condillac's +anti-spiritual psychology, with its explanation of personality as an +aggregate of sensations, leads straight to atheism and determinism. +There is, however, no reason to question the sincerity with which he +repudiates both these consequences. What he says upon religion is always +in harmony with his profession; and he vindicated the freedom of the +will in a dissertation that has very little in common with the _Traite +des sensations_ to which it is appended. The common reproach of +materialism should certainly not be made against him. He always asserts +the substantive reality of the soul; and in the opening words of his +_Essai_, "Whether we rise to heaven, or descend to the abyss, we never +get outside ourselves--it is always our own thoughts that we perceive," +we have the subjectivist principle that forms the starting-point of +Berkeley. + +As was fitting to a disciple of Locke, Condillac's ideas have had most +importance in their effect upon English thought. In matters connected +with the association of ideas, the supremacy of pleasure and pain, and +the general explanation of all mental contents as sensations or +transformed sensations, his influence can be traced upon the Mills and +upon Bain and Herbert Spencer. And, apart from any definite +propositions, Condillac did a notable work in the direction of making +psychology a science; it is a great step from the desultory, genial +observation of Locke to the rigorous analysis of Condillac, +short-sighted and defective as that analysis may seem to us in the light +of fuller knowledge. His method, however, of imaginative reconstruction +was by no means suited to English ways of thinking. In spite of his +protests against abstraction, hypothesis and synthesis, his allegory of +the statue is in the highest degree abstract, hypothetical and +synthetic. James Mill, who stood more by the study of concrete +realities, put Condillac into the hands of his youthful son with the +warning that here was an example of what to avoid in the method of +psychology. In France Condillac's doctrine, so congenial to the tone of +18th century philosophism, reigned in the schools for over fifty years, +challenged only by a few who, like Maine de Biran, saw that it gave no +sufficient account of volitional experience. Early in the 19th century, +the romantic awakening of Germany had spread to France, and sensationism +was displaced by the eclectic spiritualism of Victor Cousin. + + Condillac's collected works were published in 1798 (23 vols.) and two + or three times subsequently; the last edition (1822) has an + introductory dissertation by A. F. Thery. The _Encyclopedie + methodique_ has a very long article on Condillac (Naigeon). + Biographical details and criticism of the _Traite des systemes_ in J. + P. Damiron's _Memoires pour servir a l'histoire de la philosophie au + dixhuitieme siecle_, tome iii.; a full criticism in V. Cousin's _Cours + de l'histoire de la philosophie moderne_, ser. i. tome iii. Consult + also F. Rethore, _Condillac ou l'empirisme et le rationalisme_ (1864); + L. Dewaule, _Condillac et la psychologie anglaise contemporaine_ + (1891); histories of philosophy. (H. St.) + +FOOTNOTE: + +[1] i.e. abbot _in commendam_ of the Premonstratensian abbey of Mureau +in the Vosges. (Ed.) + + + + +CONDITION (Lat. _condicio_, from _condicere_, to agree upon, arrange; +not connected with _conditio_, from _condere, conditum_, to put +together), a stipulation, agreement. The term is applied technically to +any circumstance, action or event which is regarded as the indispensable +prerequisite of some other circumstance, action or event. It is also +applied generally to the sum of the circumstances in which a person is +situated, and more specifically to favourable or prosperous +circumstances; thus a person of wealth or birth is described as a person +"of condition," or an athlete as being "in condition," i.e. physically +fit, having gone through the necessary course of preliminary training. +In all these senses there is implicit the idea of limitation or +restraint imposed with a view to the attainment of a particular end. + +(1) _In Logic_, the term "condition" is closely related to "cause" in so +far as it is applied to prior events, &c., in the absence of which +another event would not take place. It is, however, different from +"cause" inasmuch as it has a predominantly negative or passive +significance. Hence the adjective "conditional" is applied to +propositions in which the truth of the main statement is made to depend +on the truth of another; these propositions are distinguished from +categorical propositions, which simply state a fact, as being "composed +of two categorical propositions united by a conjunction," e.g. if A is +B, C is D. The second statement (the "consequent") is restricted or +qualified by the first (the "antecedent"). By some logicians these +propositions are classified as (1) Hypothetical, and (2) Disjunctive, +and their function in syllogistic reasoning gives rise to the following +classification of conditional arguments:--(a) Constructive hypothetical +syllogism (_modus ponens_, "affirmative mood"): If A is B, C is D; but A +is B; therefore C is D. (b) Destructive hypothetical syllogism (_modus +tollens_, mood which "removes," i.e. the consequent): if A is B, C is D; +but C is not D; therefore A is not B. In (a) the antecedent must be +affirmed, in (b) the consequent must be denied; otherwise the arguments +become fallacious. A second class of conditional arguments are +disjunctive syllogisms consisting of (c) the _modus ponendo tollens_: A +is either B or C; but A is B; therefore C is not D; and (d) _modus +tollendo ponens_: A is either B or C; A is not B; therefore A is C. A +more complicated conditional argument is the dilemma (q.v.).[1] + +The limiting or restrictive significance of "condition" has led to its +use in metaphysical theory in contradistinction to the conception of +absolute being, the _aseitas_ of the Schoolmen. Thus all finite things +exist in certain relations not only to all other things but also to +thought; in other words, all finite existence is "conditioned." Hence +Sir Wm. Hamilton speaks of the "philosophy of the unconditioned," i.e. +of thought in distinction to things which are determined by thought in +relation to other things. An analogous distinction is made (cf. H. W. B. +Joseph, _Introduction to Logic_, pp. 380 foll.) between the so-called +universal laws of nature and conditional principles, which, though they +are regarded as having the force of law, are yet dependent or +derivative, i.e. cannot be treated as universal truths. Such principles +hold good under present conditions, but other conditions might be +imagined under which they would be invalid; they hold good only as +corollaries from the laws of nature under existing conditions. + +(2) _In Law_, condition in its general sense is a restraint annexed to a +thing, so that by the non-performance the party to it shall receive +prejudice and loss, and by the performance commodity or advantage. +Conditions may be either: (1) condition in a deed or _express_ +condition, i.e. the condition being expressed in actual words; or (2) +condition in law or _implied_ condition, i.e. where, although no +condition is actually expressed, the law implies a condition. The word +is also used indifferently to mean either the event upon the happening +of which some estate or obligation is to begin or end, or the provision +or stipulation that the estate or obligation will depend upon the +happening of the event. A condition may be of several kinds: (1) a +condition _precedent_, where, for example, an estate is granted to one +for life upon condition that, if the grantee pay the grantor a certain +sum on such a day, he shall have the fee simple; (2) a condition +_subsequent_, where, for example, an estate is granted in fee upon +condition that the grantee shall pay a certain sum on a certain day, or +that his estate shall cease. Thus a condition precedent gets or gains, +while a condition subsequent keeps and continues. A condition may also +be _affirmative_, that is, the doing of an act; _negative_, the not +doing of an act; _restrictive, compulsory_, &c. The word is also used +adjectivally in the sense set out above, as in the phrases "conditional +legacy," "conditional limitation," "conditional promise," &c.; that is, +the legacy, the limitation, the promise is to take effect only upon the +happening of a certain event. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The terminology used above has not been adopted by all logicians. + "Conditional" has been used as equivalent to "hypothetical" in the + widest sense (including "disjunctive"); or narrowed down to be + synonymous with "conjunctive" (the condition being there more + explicit), as a subdivision of "hypothetical." + + + + +CONDITIONAL FEE, at English common law, a fee or estate restrained in +its form of donation to some particular heirs, as, to the heirs of a +man's body, or to the heirs male of his body. It was called a +conditional fee by reason of the condition expressed or implied in the +donation of it, that if the donee died without such particular heirs, +the land should revert to the donor. In other words, it was a fee simple +on condition that the donee had issue, and as soon as such issue was +born, the estate was supposed to become absolute by the performance of +the condition. A conditional fee was converted by the statute _De Donis +Conditionalibus_ into an estate tail (see REAL PROPERTY). + + + + +CONDITIONAL LIMITATION, in law, a phrase used in two senses. (1) The +qualification annexed to the grant of an estate or interest in land, +providing for the determination of that grant or interest upon a +particular contingency happening. An estate with such a limitation can +endure only until the particular contingency happens; it is a present +interest, to be divested on a future contingency. The grant of an estate +to a man so long as he is parson of Dale, or while he continues +unmarried, are instances of conditional limitations of estates for life. +(2) A future use or interest in land limited to take effect upon a given +contingency. For instance, a grant to N. and his heirs to the use of A., +provided that when C. returns from Rome the land shall go to the use of +B. in fee simple. B. is said to take under a conditional limitation, +operating by executory devise or springing or shifting use (see +REMAINDER, REVERSION). + + + + +CONDOM, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in +the department of Gers, on the right bank of the Baise, at its junction +with the Gele, 27 m. by road N.N.W. of Auch. Pop. (1906) town, 4046; +commune, 6435. Two stone bridges unite Condom with its suburb on the +left bank of the river. The streets are small and narrow and several old +houses still remain, but to the east the town is bordered by pleasant +promenades. The Gothic church of St Pierre, its chief building, was +erected from 1506 to 1521, and was till 1790 a cathedral. The interior, +which is without aisles or transept, is surrounded by lateral chapels. +On the south is a beautifully sculptured portal. An adjoining cloister +of the 16th century is occupied by the hotel de ville. The former +episcopal palace with its graceful Gothic chapel is used as a law-court. +The sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal +college, are among the public institutions. Brandy-distilling, +wood-sawing, iron-founding and the manufacture of stills are among the +industries. The town is a centre for the sale of Armagnac brandy and has +commerce in grain and flour, much of which is river-borne. + +Condom (_Condomus_) was founded in the 8th century, but in 840 was +sacked and burnt by the Normans. A monastery built here c. 900 by the +wife of Sancho of Gascony was soon destroyed by fire, but in 1011 was +rebuilt, by Hugh, bishop of Agen. Round this abbey the town grew up, and +in 1317 was made into an episcopal see by Pope John XXII. The line of +bishops, which included Bossuet (1668-1671), came to an end in 1790 when +the see was suppressed. Condom was, during the middle ages, a fortress +of considerable strength. During the Hundred Years' War, after several +unsuccessful attempts, it was finally captured and held by the English. +In 1569 it was sacked by the Huguenots under Gabriel, count of +Montgomery. + + A list of monographs, &c., on the abbey, see and town of Condom is + given s.v. in U. Chevalier, _Repertoire des sources. Topobibliogr_. + (Montbeliard, 1894-1899). + + + + +CONDOR (_Sarcorhamphus gryphus_), an American vulture, and almost the +largest of existing birds of flight, although by no means attaining the +dimensions attributed to it by early writers. It usually measures about +4 ft. from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail, and 9 ft. +between the tips of its wings, while it is probable that the expanse of +wing never exceeds 12 ft. The head and neck are destitute of feathers, +and the former, which is much flattened above, is in the male crowned +with a caruncle or comb, while the skin of the latter in the same sex +lies in folds, forming a wattle. The adult plumage is of a uniform +black, with the exception of a frill of white feathers nearly +surrounding the base of the neck, and certain wing feathers which, +especially in the male, have large patches of white. The middle toe is +greatly elongated, and the hinder one but slightly developed, while the +talons of all the toes are comparatively straight and blunt, and are +thus of little use as organs of prehension. The female, contrary to the +usual rule among birds of prey, is smaller than the male. + +The condor is a native of South America, where it is confined to the +region of the Andes, from the Straits of Magellan to 4 deg. north +latitude,--the largest examples, it is said, being found about the +volcano of Cayambi, situated on the equator. It is often seen on the +shores of the Pacific, especially during the rainy season, but its +favourite haunts for roosting and breeding are at elevations of 10,000 +to 16,000 ft. There, during the months of February and March, on +inaccessible ledges of rock, it deposits two white eggs, from 3 to 4 in. +in length, its nest consisting merely of a few sticks placed around the +eggs. The period of incubation lasts for seven weeks, and the young are +covered with a whitish down until almost as large as their parents. They +are unable to fly till nearly two years old, and continue for a +considerable time after taking wing to roost and hunt with their +parents. The white ruff on the neck, and the similarly coloured feathers +of the wing, do not appear until the completion of the first moulting. +By preference the condor feeds on carrion, but it does not hesitate to +attack sheep, goats and deer, and for this reason it is hunted down by +the shepherds, who, it is said, train their dogs to look up and bark at +the condors as they fly overhead. They are exceedingly voracious, a +single condor of moderate size having been known, according to Orton, to +devour a calf, a sheep and a dog in a single week. When thus gorged with +food, they are exceedingly stupid, and may then be readily caught. For +this purpose a horse or mule is killed, and the carcase surrounded with +palisades to which the condors are soon attracted by the prospect of +food, for the weight of evidence seems to favour the opinion that those +vultures owe their knowledge of the presence of carrion more to sight +than to scent. Having feasted themselves to excess, they are set upon by +the hunters with sticks, and being unable, owing to the want of space +within the pen, to take the run without which they are unable to rise on +wing, they are readily killed or captured. They sleep during the greater +part of the day, searching for food in the clearer light of morning and +evening. They are remarkably heavy sleepers, and are readily captured by +the inhabitants ascending the trees on which they roost, and noosing +them before they awaken. Great numbers of condors are thus taken alive, +and these, in certain districts, are employed in a variety of +bull-fighting. They are exceedingly tenacious of life, and can exist, it +is said, without food for over forty days. Although the favourite haunts +of the condor are at the level of perpetual snow, yet it rises to a much +greater height, Humboldt having observed it flying over Chimborazo at a +height of over 23,000 ft. On wing the movements of the condor, as it +wheels in majestic circles, are remarkably graceful. The birds flap +their wings on rising from the ground, but after attaining a moderate +elevation they seem to sail on the air, Charles Darwin having watched +them for half an hour without once observing a flap of their wings. + + + + +CONDORCET, MARIE JEAN ANTOINE NICOLAS CARITAT, MARQUIS DE (1743-1794), +French mathematician, philosopher and Revolutionist, was born at +Ribemont, in Picardy, on the 17th of September 1743. He descended from +the ancient family of Caritat, who took their title from Condorcet, near +Nyons in Dauphine, where they were long settled. His father dying while +he was very young, his mother, a very devout woman, had him educated at +the Jesuit College in Reims and at the College of Navarre in Paris, +where he displayed the most varied mental activity. His first public +distinctions were gained in mathematics. At the age of sixteen his +performances in analysis gained the praise of D'Alembert and A. C. +Clairaut, and at the age of twenty-two he wrote a treatise on the +integral calculus which obtained warm approbation from competent judges. +With his many-sided intellect and richly-endowed emotional nature, +however, it was impossible for him to be a specialist, and least of all +a specialist in mathematics. Philosophy and literature attracted him, +and social work was dearer to him than any form of intellectual +exercise. In 1769 he became a member of the Academy of Sciences. His +contributions to its memoirs are numerous, and many of them are on the +most abstruse and difficult mathematical problems. + +Being of a very genial, susceptible and enthusiastic disposition, he was +the friend of almost all the distinguished men of his time, and a +zealous propagator of the religious and political views then current +among the literati of France. D'Alembert, Turgot and Voltaire, for whom +he had great affection and veneration, and by whom he was highly +respected and esteemed, contributed largely to the formation of his +opinions. His _Lettre d'un laboureur de Picardie a M. N..._ (Necker) was +written under the inspiration of Turgot, in defence of free internal +trade in corn. Condorcet also wrote on the same subject the _Reflexions +sur le commerce des bles_ (1776). His _Lettre d'un theologien_, &c., was +attributed to Voltaire, being inspired throughout by the Voltairian +anti-clerical spirit. He was induced by D'Alembert to take an active +part in the preparation of the _Encyclopedie_. His _Eloges des +Academiciens de l'Academie Royale des Sciences morts depuis 1666 +jusqu'en 1699_ (1773) gained him the reputation of being an eloquent and +graceful writer. He was elected to the perpetual secretaryship of the +Academy of Sciences in 1777, and to the French Academy in 1782. He was +also member of the academies of Turin, St Petersburg, Bologna and +Philadelphia. In 1785 he published his _Essai sur l'application de +l'analyse aux probabilites des decisions prises a la pluralite des +voix_,--a remarkable work which has a distinguished place in the history +of the doctrine of probability; a second edition, greatly enlarged and +completely recast, appeared in 1804 under the title of _Elements du +calcul des probabilites et son application aux jeux de hazard, a la +loterie, et aux jugements des hommes, &c._ In 1786 he married Sophie de +Grouchy, a sister of Marshal Grouchy, said to have been one of the most +beautiful women of her time. Her _salon_ at the Hotel des Monnaies, +where Condorcet lived in his capacity as inspector-general of the mint, +was one of the most famous of the time. In 1786 Condorcet published his +_Vie de Turgot_, and in 1787 his _Vie de Voltaire_. Both works were +widely and eagerly read, and are perhaps, from a merely literary point +of view, the best of Condorcet's writings. + +The political tempest which had been long gathering over France now +began to break and to carry everything before it. Condorcet was, of +course, at once hurried along by it into the midst of the conflicts and +confusion of the Revolution. He greeted with enthusiasm the advent of +democracy, and laboured hard to secure and hasten its triumph. He was +indefatigable in writing pamphlets, suggesting reforms, and planning +constitutions. He was not a member of the States-General of 1789, but he +had expressed his ideas in the electoral assembly of the noblesse of +Mantes. The first political functions which he exercised were those of a +member of the municipality of Paris (1790). He was next chosen by the +Parisians to represent them in the Legislative Assembly, and then +appointed by that body one of its secretaries. In this capacity he drew +up most of its addresses, but seldom spoke, his pen being more effective +than his tongue. He was the chief author of the address to the European +powers when they threatened France with war. He was keenly interested in +education, and, as a member of the committee of public instruction, +presented to the Assembly (April 21 and 22, 1792) a bold and +comprehensive scheme for the organization of a system of state education +which, though more urgent questions compelled its postponement, became +the basis of that adopted by the Convention, and thus laid the +foundations on which the modern system of national education in France +is built up. After the attempted flight of the king, in June 1791, +Condorcet was one of the first to declare in favour of a republic, and +it was he who drew up the memorandum which led the Assembly, on the 4th +of September 1792, to decree the suspension of the king and the +summoning of the National Convention. He had, meanwhile, resigned his +offices and left the Hotel des Monnaies; his declaration in favour of +republicanism had alienated him from his former friends of the +constitutional party, and he did not join the Jacobin Club, which had +not yet declared against the monarchy. Though attached to no powerful +political group, however, his reputation gave him great influence. At +the elections for the Convention he was chosen for five departments, and +took his seat for that of Aisne. He now became the most influential +member of the committee on the constitution, and as "reporter" he +drafted and presented to the Convention (February 15, 1793) a +constitution, which was, however, after stormy debates, rejected in +favour of that presented by Herault de Sechelles. The work of +constitution-making had been interrupted by the trial of Louis XVI. +Condorcet objected to the assumption of judicial functions by the +Convention, objected also on principle to the infliction of the death +penalty; but he voted the king guilty of conspiring against liberty and +worthy of any penalty short of death, and against the appeal to the +people advocated by the Girondists. In the atmosphere of universal +suspicion that inspired the Terror his independent attitude could not, +however, be maintained with impunity. His severe and public criticism of +the constitution adopted by the Convention, his denunciation of the +arrest of the Girondists, and his opposition to the violent conduct of +the Mountain, led to his being accused of conspiring against the +Republic. He was condemned and declared to be _hors la loi_. Friends, +sought for him an asylum in the house of Madame Vernet, widow of the +sculptor and a near connexion of the painters of the same name. Without +even asking his name, this heroic woman, as soon as she was assured that +he was an honest man, said, "Let him come, and lose not a moment, for +while we talk he may be seized." When the execution of the Girondists +showed him that his presence exposed his protectress to a terrible +danger, he resolved to seek a refuge elsewhere. "I am outlawed," he +said, "and if I am discovered you will meet the same sad end as myself. +I must not stay." Madame Vernet's reply deserves to be immortal, and +should be given in her own words: "La Convention, Monsieur, a le droit +de mettre hors la loi: elle n'a pas le pouvoir de mettre hors de +l'humanite; vous resterez." From that time she had his movements +strictly watched lest he should attempt to quit her house. It was partly +to turn his mind from the idea of attempting this, by occupying it +otherwise, that his wife and some of his friends, with the co-operation +of Madame Vernet, prevailed on him to engage in the composition of the +work by which he is best known--the _Esquisse d'un tableau historique +des progres de l'esprit humain_. In his retirement Condorcet wrote also +his justification, and several small works, such as the _Moyen +d'apprendre a compter surement et avec facilite_, which he intended for +the schools of the republic. Several of these works were published at +the time, thanks to his friends; the rest appeared after his death. +Among the latter was the admirable _Avis d'un proscrit a sa fille_. +While in hiding he also continued to take an active interest in public +affairs. Thus, he wrote several important memoranda on the conduct of +the war against the Coalition, which were laid before the Committee of +Public Safety anonymously by a member of the Mountain named Marcoz, who +lived in the same house as Condorcet without thinking it his duty to +denounce him. In the same way he forwarded to Arbogast, president of the +committee for public instruction, the solutions of several problems in +higher mathematics. + +Certain circumstances having led him to believe that the house of Madame +Vernet, 21 rue Servandoni, was suspected and watched by his enemies, +Condorcet, by a fatally successful artifice, at last baffled the +vigilance of his generous friend and escaped. Disappointed in finding +even a night's shelter at the chateau of one whom he had befriended, he +had to hide for three days and nights in the thickets and stone-quarries +of Clamart. Oh the evening of the 7th of April 1794--not, as Carlyle +says, on a "bleared May morning,"--with garments torn, with wounded leg, +with famished looks, he entered a tavern in the village named, and +called for an omelette. "How many eggs in your omelette?" "A dozen." +"What is your trade?" "A carpenter." "Carpenters have not hands like +these, and do not ask for a dozen eggs in an omelette." When his papers +were demanded he had none to show; when his person was searched a Horace +was found on him. The villagers seized him, bound him, haled him +forthwith on bleeding feet towards Bourg-la-Reine; he fainted by the +way, was set on a horse offered in pity by a passing peasant, and, at +the journey's end, was cast into a cold damp cell. Next morning he was +found dead on the floor. Whether he had died from suffering and +exhaustion, from apoplexy or from poison, is an undetermined question. + +Condorcet was undoubtedly a most sincere, generous and noble-minded man. +He was eager in the pursuit of truth, ardent in his love of human good, +and ever ready to undertake labour or encounter danger on behalf of the +philanthropic plans which his fertile mind contrived and his benevolent +heart inspired. It was thus that he worked for the suppression of +slavery, for the rehabilitation of the chevalier de La Barre, and in +defence of Lally-Tollendal. He lived at a time when calumny was rife, +and various slanders were circulated regarding him, but fortunately the +slightest examination proves them to have been inexcusable fabrications. +That while openly opposing royalty he was secretly soliciting the office +of tutor to the Dauphin; that he was accessory to the murder of the duc +de la Rochefoucauld; or that he sanctioned the burning of the literary +treasures of the learned congregations, are stories which can be shown +to be utterly untrue. + +His philosophical fame is chiefly associated with the _Esquisse ... +des'progres_ mentioned above. With the vision of the guillotine before +him, with confusion and violence around him, he comforted himself by +trying to demonstrate that the evils of life had arisen from a +conspiracy of priests and rulers against their fellows, and from the bad +laws and institutions which they had succeeded in creating, but that the +human race would finally conquer its enemies and free itself of its +evils. His fundamental idea is that of a human perfectibility which has +manifested itself in continuous progress in the past, and must lead to +indefinite progress in the future. He represents man as starting from +the lowest stage of barbarism, with no superiority over the other +animals save that of bodily organization, and as advancing +uninterruptedly, at a more or less rapid rate, in the path of +enlightenment, virtue and happiness. The stages which the human race has +already gone through, or, in other words, the great epochs of history, +are regarded as nine in number. The first three can confessedly be +described only conjecturally from general observations as to the +development of the human faculties, and the analogies of savage life. In +the first epoch, men are united into hordes of hunters and fishers, who +acknowledge in some degree public authority and the claims of family +relationship, and who make use of an articulate language. In the second +epoch--the pastoral state--property is introduced, and along with it +inequality of conditions, and even slavery, but also leisure to +cultivate intelligence, to invent some of the simpler arts, and to +acquire some of the more elementary truths of science. In the third +epoch--the agricultural state--as leisure and wealth are greater, labour +better distributed and applied, and the means of communication increased +and extended, progress is still more rapid. With the invention of +alphabetic writing the conjectural part of history closes, and the more +or less authenticated part commences. The fourth and fifth epochs are +represented as corresponding to Greece and Rome. The middle ages are +divided into two epochs, the former of which terminates with the +Crusades, and the latter with the invention of printing. The eighth +epoch extends from the invention of printing to the revolution in the +method of philosophic thinking accomplished by Descartes. And the ninth +epoch begins with that great intellectual revolution, and ends with the +great political and moral revolution of 1789, and is illustrious, +according to Condorcet, through the discovery of the true system of the +physical universe by Newton, of human nature by Locke and Condillac, and +of society by Turgot, Richard Price and Rousseau. There is an epoch of +the future--a tenth epoch,--and the most original part of Condorcet's +treatise is that which is devoted to it. After insisting that general +laws regulative of the past warrant general inferences as to the future, +he argues that the three tendencies which the entire history of the past +shows will be characteristic features of the future are:--(1) the +destruction of inequality between nations; (2) the destruction of +inequality between classes; and (3) the improvement of individuals, the +indefinite perfectibility of human nature itself--intellectually, +morally and physically. These propositions have been much misunderstood. +The equality to which he represents nations and individuals as tending +is not absolute equality, but equality of freedom and of rights. It is +that equality which would make the inequality of the natural advantages +and faculties of each community and person beneficial to all. Nations +and men, he thinks, are equal, if equally free, and are all tending to +equality because all tending to freedom. As to indefinite +perfectibility, he nowhere denies that progress is conditioned both by +the constitution of humanity and the character of its surroundings. But +he affirms that these conditions are compatible with endless progress, +and that the human mind can assign no fixed limits to its own +advancement in knowledge and virtue, or even to the prolongation of +bodily life. This theory explains the importance he attached to popular +education, to which he looked for all sure progress. + +The book is pervaded by a spirit of excessive hopefulness, and contains +numerous errors of detail, which are fully accounted for by the +circumstances in which it was written. Its value lies entirely in its +general ideas. Its chief defects spring from its author's narrow and +fanatical aversion to all philosophy which did not attempt to explain +the world exclusively on mechanical and sensational principles, to all +religion whatever, and especially to Christianity and Christian +institutions, and to monarchy. His ethical position, however, gives +emphasis to the sympathetic impulses and social feelings, and had +considerable influence upon Auguste Comte. + +Madame de Condorcet (b. 1764), who was some twenty years younger than +her husband, was rendered penniless by his proscription, and compelled +to support not only herself and her four years old daughter but her +younger sister, Charlotte de Grouchy. After the end of the Jacobin +Terror she published an excellent translation of Adam Smith's _Theory of +Moral Sentiments_; in 1798 a work of her own, _Lettres sur la +sympathie_; and in 1799 her husband's _Eloges des academiciens_. Later +she co-operated with Cabanis, who had married her sister, and with Garat +in publishing the complete works of Condorcet (1801-1804). She adhered +to the last to the political views of her husband, and under the +Consulate and Empire her _salon_ became a meeting-place of those opposed +to the autocratic regime. She died at Paris on the 8th of September +1822. Her daughter was married, in 1807, to General O'Connor. + + A _Biographie de Condorcet_, by M. F. Arago, is prefixed to A. + Condorcet-O'Connor's edition of Condorcet's works, in 12 volumes + (1847-1849). There is an able essay on Condorcet in Lord Morley of + Blackburn's _Critical Miscellanies_. On Condorcet as an historical + philosopher see Comte's _Cours de philosophie positive_, iv. 252-253, + and _Systeme de politique positive_, iv. Appendice General, 109-111; + F. Laurent, _Etudes_, xii. 121-126, 89-110; and R. Flint, _Philosophy + of History in France and Germany_, i. 125-138. The _Memoires de + Condorcet sur la Revolution francaise, extraits de sa correspondance + et de celles de ses amis_ (2 vols., Paris, Ponthieu, 1824), which were + in fact edited by F. G. de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt, are spurious. + See also Dr J. F. E. Robinet, _Condorcet, sa vie et son [oe]uvre_, and + more especially L. Cahen, _Condorcet et la Revolution francaise_ + (Paris, 1904). On Madame de Condorcet see Antoine Guillois, _La + Marquise de Condorcet, sa famille, son salon et ses [oe]uvres_ (Paris, + 1897). + + + + +CONDOTTIERE (plural, _condottieri_), an Italian term, derived ultimately +from Latin _conducere_, meaning either "to conduct" or "to hire," for +the leader of the mercenary military companies, often several thousand +strong, which used to be hired out to carry on the wars of the Italian +states. The word is often extended so as to include the soldiers as well +as the leader of a company. The condottieri played a very important part +in Italian history from the middle of the 13th to the middle of the 15th +century. The special political and military circumstances of medieval +Italy, and in particular the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, +brought it about that the condottieri and their leaders played a more +conspicuous and important part in history than the "Free Companies" +elsewhere. Amongst these circumstances the absence of a numerous feudal +cavalry, the relative luxury of city life, and the incapacity of city +militia for wars of aggression were the most prominent. From this it +resulted that war was not merely the trade of the condottiere, but also +his monopoly, and he was thus able to obtain whatever terms he asked, +whether money payments or political concessions. These companies were +recruited from wandering mercenary bands and individuals of all nations, +and from the ranks of the many armies of middle Europe which from time +to time overran Italy. + +Montreal d'Albarno, a gentleman of Provence, was the first to give them +a definite form. A severe discipline and an elaborate organization were +introduced within the company itself, while in their relations to the +people the most barbaric licence was permitted. Montreal himself was put +to death at Rome by Rienzi, and Conrad Lando succeeded to the command. +The Grand Company, as it was called, soon numbered about 7000 cavalry +and 1500 select infantry, and was for some years the terror of Italy. +They seem to have been Germans chiefly. On the conclusion (1360) of the +peace of Bretigny between England and France, Sir John Hawkwood (q.v.) +led an army of English mercenaries, called the White Company, into +Italy, which took a prominent part in the confused wars of the next +thirty years. Towards the end of the century the Italians began to +organize armies of the same description. This ended the reign of the +purely mercenary company, and began that of the semi-national mercenary +army which endured in Europe till replaced by the national standing army +system. The first company of importance raised on the new basis was that +of St George, originated by Alberigo, count of Barbiano, many of whose +subordinates and pupils conquered principalities for themselves. Shortly +after, the organization of these mercenary armies was carried to the +highest perfection by Sforza Attendolo, condottiere in the service of +Naples, who had been a peasant of the Romagna, and by his rival +Brancaccio di Montone in the service of Florence. The army and the +renown of Sforza were inherited by his son Francesco Sforza, who +eventually became duke of Milan (1450). Less fortunate was another great +condottiere, Carmagnola, who first served one of the Visconti, and then +conducted the wars of Venice against his former masters, but at last +awoke the suspicion of the Venetian oligarchy, and was put to death +before the palace of St Mark (1432). Towards the end of the 15th +century, when the large cities had gradually swallowed up the small +states, and Italy itself was drawn into the general current of European +politics, and became the battlefield of powerful armies--French, Spanish +and German--the condottieri, who in the end proved quite unequal to the +gendarmerie of France and the improved troops of the Italian states, +disappeared. + +The soldiers of the condottieri were almost entirely heavy armoured +cavalry (men-at-arms). They had, at any rate before 1400, nothing in +common with the people among whom they fought, and their disorderly +conduct and rapacity seem often to have exceeded that of other medieval +armies. They were always ready to change sides at the prospect of higher +pay. They were connected with each other by the interest of a common +profession, and by the possibility that the enemy of to-day might be the +friend and fellow-soldier of to-morrow. Further, a prisoner was always +more valuable than a dead enemy. In consequence of all this their +battles were often as bloodless as they were theatrical. Splendidly +equipped armies were known to fight for hours with hardly the loss of a +man (Zagonara, 1423; Molinella, 1467). + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 6, Slice 7, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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