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+Project Gutenberg's Conservation Through Engineering, by Franklin K. Lane
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Conservation Through Engineering
+       Extract from the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior
+
+Author: Franklin K. Lane
+
+Release Date: April 6, 2010 [EBook #31899]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CONSERVATION THROUGH ENGINEERING ***
+
+
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+Produced by Greg Bergquist and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
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+
+ 66TH CONGRESS
+ _2d Session_
+
+ HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
+
+ DOCUMENT No. 572
+
+ DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
+ FRANKLIN K. LANE, Secretary
+
+ UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY
+ GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director
+
+ Bulletin 705
+
+ CONSERVATION THROUGH ENGINEERING
+
+ BY
+
+ FRANKLIN K. LANE
+
+ Extract from the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Interior
+
+ [Illustration]
+
+ WASHINGTON
+ GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
+ 1920
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+                                         Page.
+
+The coal strike                              1
+  National stock-taking                      3
+  Coal as a national asset                   3
+  Public responsibility                      4
+  The miners' year                           5
+  Have we too many mines and miners?         7
+  The long view                              7
+  Saving coal                                9
+  Coal and coal                             10
+  Expansion abroad                          11
+  Saving coal by saving electricity         11
+White coal and black                        12
+The age of petroleum                        13
+  Oil shale                                 15
+  Save oil                                  16
+  Use the Diesel engine                     17
+  Wanted--a foreign supply                  18
+  By way of summary                         20
+Land development                            22
+  A program of progress                     22
+  Garden homes for the people               23
+  Reclamation by district organization      24
+  Soldier-settlement legislation            27
+Alaska                                      29
+  Matanuska coal                            32
+Save and develop Americans                  32
+
+
+
+
+NOTE.
+
+
+The plea for constructive policies contained in the report of the
+Secretary of the Interior to the President deserves a hearing also by
+the engineers and business men who are developing the power resources of
+the country. The largest conservation for the future can come only
+through the wisest engineering of the present.
+
+The conditions under which the utilization of natural resources is
+demanded are outlined by Secretary Lane, and it will be noted that the
+program recommended calls for the cooperation of engineer and
+legislator. To bring this power inventory to the attention of the men
+who furnish the Nation with its coal and oil and electricity, this
+extract from the administrative report of the Secretary of the Interior
+is reprinted as a bulletin of the United States Geological Survey.
+
+
+
+
+CONSERVATION THROUGH ENGINEERING[1]
+
+By FRANKLIN K. LANE.
+
+
+In an age of machinery the measure of a people's industrial capacity
+seems to be surely fixed by its motive power possibilities. Civilized
+nations regard an adequate fuel supply as the very foundation of
+national prosperity--indeed, almost as the very foundation of national
+possibility. I am convinced that there will be a reaction against the
+intense industrialism of the present, but as it must be agreed that the
+race for industrial supremacy is on between the nations of the world,
+America may well take stock of her own power possibilities and concern
+herself more actively with their development and wisest use.
+
+
+THE COAL STRIKE.
+
+The coal strike has brought concretely before us the disturbing fact
+that modern society is so involved that we live virtually by unanimous
+consent. Let less than one-half of 1 per cent of our population quit
+their work of digging coal and we are threatened with the combined
+horrors of pestilence and famine.
+
+It did not take many hours after it was realized that the coal miners
+were in earnest for the American imagination to conceive what might be
+the state of the country in perhaps another 30 days. Industries closed,
+railroads stopped, streets dark, food cut off, houses freezing, idle men
+by the million hungry and in the dark--this was the picture, and not a
+very pleasant one to contemplate. There was an immediate demand for
+facts.
+
+How much coal is normally mined in this country?
+
+By whom is it mined?
+
+What is its quality?
+
+To what uses is it put?
+
+Who gets it?
+
+How much less could be mined if coal were conserved instead of wasted?
+
+What better methods have been developed for using coal than those of
+ancient custom?
+
+Who is to blame that so small a supply is on the surface?
+
+Why should we live from day to day in so vital a matter as a fuel
+supply?
+
+What substitutes can be found for coal and how quickly may these be made
+available?
+
+This is by no means an exhaustive category of the questions which were
+put to this department when the strike came. And these came tumbling in
+by wire, by mail, by hand, from all parts of the country, mixed with
+disquisitions upon the duty of Government, the rights of individuals as
+against the rights of society, the need for strength in times of crisis,
+calls for nationalization of the coal industry, for the destruction of
+labor unions, for troops to mine coal, and much else that was more or
+less germane to the question before the country.
+
+Many of these questions we were able to answer. But if coal operators
+themselves had not carried over the statistical machinery developed
+during the war, we would have been forced to the humiliating confession
+that we did not know facts which at the time were of the most vital
+importance.
+
+In a time of stress it is not enough to be able to say that the United
+States contains more than one-half of the known world supply of coal;
+that we, while only 8 per cent of the world's population, produce
+annually 46 per cent of all coal that is taken from the ground; that 35
+per cent of the railroad traffic is coal; that in less than 100 years we
+have grown in production from 100,000 tons to 700,000,000 tons per
+annum; that if last year's coal were used as construction material it
+would build a wall as huge as the Great Wall of China around every
+boundary of the United States from Maine to Vancouver, down the Pacific
+to San Diego and eastward following the Mexican border and the coast to
+Maine again; and that this same coal contains latent power sufficient to
+lift this same wall 200 miles high in the air, according to one of our
+greatest engineers (Steinmetz).
+
+Such facts are surely startling. They serve to stimulate a certain pride
+and give us a great confidence in our industrial future; yet they are
+not as immediately important, when the mines threaten to close, as would
+be a few figures showing how much coal we have in stock piles and where
+it is! And months since we called upon Congress to grant the money that
+we might secure these figures, but no notice was taken of the urged
+requests until, late in the summer, a committee of the Senate awoke to
+this need and indorsed our petition.
+
+
+NATIONAL STOCK TAKING.
+
+The Government should have a more complete knowledge of the coal and of
+other foundation industries than can be found elsewhere, and we should
+not fear national stock taking as a continuing process. It is indeed the
+beginning of wisdom. The war revealed to us how delinquent in this
+regard we had been in the past. One day when the full story is told of
+the struggle of the Army engineer to meet war emergency demands, and
+this is supplemented by the tale of the effort made by the Council of
+National Defense and the War Industries Board, it will be realized more
+seriously than now how little of stock taking we have done in this
+generous, optimistic land.
+
+When any such undertaking is proposed, however, it at once appears to
+arouse the fear that it is somehow the beginning of a malevolent policy
+called "conservation," and conservation has had a mean meaning to many
+ears. It connoted stinginess and a provincial thrift, spies in the guise
+of Government inspectors, hateful interferences with individual
+enterprise and initiative, governmental haltings and cowardices, and all
+the constrictions of an arrogant, narrow, and academic-minded
+bureaucracy which can not think largely and feels no responsibility for
+national progress. Needless to say this fear should not, need not be.
+The word should mean helpfulness, not hindrance--helpfulness to all who
+wish to use a resource and think in larger terms than that of the
+greatest immediate profit; hindrance only to those who are spendthrift.
+A conservation which results in a stalemate as between the forces of
+progress and governmental inertia is criminal, while a conservation that
+is based on the fuller, the more essential use of a resource is
+statesmanship.
+
+To know what we have and what we can do with it--and what we should not
+do with it, also!--is a policy of wisdom, a policy of lasting progress.
+And in furtherance of such a policy the first step is to know our
+resources--our national wealth in things and in their possibilities; the
+second step is to know their availability for immediate use; the third
+step is to guard them against waste either through ignorance or
+wantonness; and the fourth step is to prolong their life by invention
+and discovery.
+
+
+COAL AS A NATIONAL ASSET.
+
+Enough has been said, perhaps, to indicate how vast are the fields of
+coal which this country holds. It may be that any day some genius will
+release from nature a power that will make of little value our
+carboniferous deposits save for their chemical content. By the
+application of the sun's rays, or the use of the unceasing motion of
+the waves of the sea, the whole dependence of the world upon coal may be
+upset. That day, however, has not yet come; and until it does we may
+consider our coal as the surest insurance which we can have that America
+can meet the severest contest that any industrial rival can present. It
+is more than insurance--it is an asset which can bring to us the
+certainty of great wealth, and if we care to exercise it, a mastery over
+the fate and fortunes of other peoples.
+
+Next to the fertility of our soil, we have no physical asset as valuable
+as our coal deposits. Although we are sometimes alarmed because those
+deposits nearest to the industrial centers are rapidly declining and we
+can already see within this century the end of the anthracite field, if
+it is made to yield as much continuously as at present, yet it is a safe
+generalization that we have sufficient coal in the United States to last
+our people for centuries to come. An extra scuttleful on the fire or
+shovelful in the furnace does not threaten the life of the race, even if
+some Russian or Chinese of the future does not resolve the atom or
+harness the hidden forces of the air. Whatever fears other nations may
+justifiably have as to their ability to continue in the vast rush of a
+machine world, there can be no question of our ability to last.
+
+The present strike, however, makes quite clear, perhaps for the first
+time, that it is not the coal in the mountain that is of value, but that
+which is in the yard. And between the two there may be a great gulf
+fixed. Therefore, we are put to it to make the best of what we have. We
+turn from telling how much coal we use to a study of how little we can
+live upon and do the day's work of the Nation. And this is, I believe,
+as it should be. Indeed I feel justified in saying that the problem of
+this strike is not to be solved in its deeper significances until we
+know much more about coal than we know now, and this especially as to
+the manner in which it is taken from its bed and brought to our cellars.
+
+
+PUBLIC RESPONSIBILITY.
+
+This transfer is effected by a kind of carrier chain, the links of which
+are the operator, the miner, the railroad, and the public. We choose, to
+please ourselves, the link in this chain upon which we place the
+responsibility for its failure to work; but before indulging ourselves
+in abuse of arrogant coal barons or dictatorial labor unions, it may lie
+as well to ask whether we of the public are not responsible in some part
+for this failure to function. I do not refer now to the failure of
+society to provide methods of industrial mediation or other adjustment
+of such labor difficulties. My question is, whether or not the public is
+at all at fault when a nation wealthy beyond all others in coal finds
+itself with so small a supply on hand when a strike comes--but a few
+days removed from the gravest troubles. The answer, to my mind, turns
+upon the manner in which we have done business.
+
+We have been content to go without insurance as to a coal reserve. Each
+day has brought its daily supply. There was no thought of railroads
+stopping or mines closing down, so that large storage facilities have
+not been provided, and, indeed, we would rebel at paying for our coal
+the added cost of caring for it outside its native warehouse. We have
+not thought in terms of apprehension, but, as always, in the calm
+certainty that the stream of supply would flow without ceasing. In some
+way there would be coal into which we could drive our shovels when the
+need was felt.
+
+No wonder, therefore, that we are rudely disturbed when one link in the
+carrier chain from coal-in-place to coal-in-the-furnace breaks. It
+simply is one of those things which doesn't happen. And not having
+happened sufficiently often to give us fear, we have had no thought that
+we should provide against it. It is a most heterodox thing to say, but
+we may find that a bit more foresight on the part of the public would
+certainly have made less sudden the present crisis. Let us look, for
+instance, into the matter of the coal miners' year and see if it is not
+fixed in some degree by the habit of the public in its purchasing.
+
+
+THE MINERS' YEAR.
+
+The record year, 1918, with everything to stimulate production had an
+average of only 249 working days for the bituminous mines of the
+country. This average of the country included a minimum among the
+principal coal-producing States of 204 days for Arkansas and a maximum
+of 301 for New Mexico. In such a State as Ohio the average working year
+is under 200 days. In 1917 the miners of New Mexico reached an average
+of 321 days, and in the largest field, the Raton field, it was actually
+336--probably the record for steady operation.
+
+This short year in coal-mine operation is due in part to seasonal
+fluctuation in demand. The mines averaged only 24 hours a week during
+the spring months. The weekly report of that date showed that 80 per
+cent of the lost time was due to "no market" and only 15 per cent to
+"labor shortage," while "car shortage" was a negligible factor. In
+contrast with this should be taken the last week before the strike, when
+the average hours operated were 39 and "no market" was a negligible item
+in lost time, while "car shortage" was by far the largest item. It
+follows that the short year is a source of loss to both operator and
+mine worker and is a tax on the consumer.[2]
+
+With substantially the same number of mines and miners working this year
+as last, the accumulative production for the first 10 months of this
+year is 100,000,000 tons less than that mined in the same period last
+year. This 25 per cent loss in output means that both plant and labor
+have been less productive, and, in terms of capital and labor, coal cost
+the Nation more this year than last. For in the long run both capital
+and labor require a living wage.
+
+The public must accept responsibility for the coal industry and pay for
+carrying it on the year round. Mine operators and mine workers of
+whatever mines are necessary to meet the needs of the country must be
+paid for a year's work. The shorter the working year the less coal is
+mined per man and per dollar invested in plant, and eventually the
+higher priced must be the coal. It is obvious that the 264 short tons of
+coal mined by the average British miner last year could not be as cheap
+per ton as the 942 tons mined by the average American mine worker,
+backed up as he was with more efficient plant. (A proud contrast!)
+
+It would clearly appear that the coal business may be stabilized, not
+wholly, but in a very large measure, in some of the western fields,[3]
+if the public does not regard its supply of coal as it does its supply
+of domestic water, which requires only that the faucet shall be opened
+to bring forth a gushing supply. Coal does not have pressure behind it
+which forces it out of the mine and into the coal yard. It rather must
+be drawn out by the suction of demand. And herein the public must play
+its part by keeping that demand as steady and uniform as possible.
+
+
+HAVE WE TOO MANY MINES AND MINERS?
+
+The problem of the miner and his industry may be stated in another way.
+We consume all the coal we produce. We produce it with labor that upon
+social and economic grounds works as a rule too few days in the year. We
+therefore must have a longer miners' year and fewer miners or a longer
+miners' year and additional markets. One or the other is inevitable
+unless we are to carry on the industry as a whole as an emergency
+industry, holding men ready for work when they are not needed in order
+that they may be ready for duty when the need arises. There are too many
+mines to keep all the miners employed all of the time or to give them a
+reasonable year's work. This conclusion is based on the assumption that
+we now produce only enough coal from all the mines to meet the country's
+demand, which is the fact. More coal produced would not sell more coal,
+but more coal demanded would result in greater coal production. With the
+full demand met by men working two-thirds or less of the time in the
+year there can not be a longer year given to all the miners without more
+demand for coal. This seems to be manifest. Therefore the miners must
+remain working but part time as now, or fewer miners must work more
+days, or market must be found for more coal and thus all the miners
+given a longer year. If we worked all of our miners in all of our mines
+a reasonable year, we would have a great overproduction. And to have all
+our mines work a longer period means that we must find some place in
+which to sell more coal, either at home or abroad.
+
+Why have we so many mines working so many miners? There can be no
+one-word reply to this question. It penetrates into almost every social
+and economic condition of the country--the initiative of capital, the
+size of the country, the pride of localities, the intense competition
+between railroads, their inability to furnish cars when needed, the
+manner in which cars are apportioned between mines, the manner in which
+the railroads are operated so that movement is slow and equipment is
+short, and this runs into the need for new facilities, such as more
+yards, more tracks, more equipment, which brings us into the need for
+more capital and so on and on.
+
+We have none too many mines or too many miners to supply our need if the
+mines are operated as at present. But we have too many to fill that need
+if they are operated on a basis nearer to 100 per cent of possible
+production.
+
+
+THE LONG VIEW.
+
+Passing from the labor phase of the coal situation to the larger aspect
+of our coal supply as related to the whole problem of the economical
+production of light, heat, and power, which Sir William Crookes has
+characterized as "first among the immediate practical problems of
+science," we find ourselves both rich and wasteful, following the
+primrose path, heedless of the morrow and not yet conscious that the
+morrow is to be a day of battle.
+
+In the first place we treat coal as if it were a thing which was
+exclusively for home use, a nonexportable commodity which must be used
+"on the farm," whereas it should be treated with profound respect,
+because we know from Paris that sacred treaties and national boundaries
+turn on its presence. The world wants our coal, envies us for having it,
+fears us because of it. It is not only useful to us, but it has a cash
+value in the markets of the world. Therefore it should be saved.
+
+In the next place we treat coal as if it were all alike, not selected by
+nature for specific uses; whereas we should choose our coal with as
+scientific a judgment as we choose our reading glasses. There is coal
+for coke and coal for furnaces and coal for house use and coal adapted
+for one kind of boiler and a different kind of coal for a different kind
+of boiler. Therefore we should discriminate in coal.
+
+And again we have shown little willingness to dignify coal by seeking to
+draw out by improved mechanical processes all the stored content of heat
+in this lump of carbon. Instead we content ourselves by giving it a mere
+pauper touch, driving off the greater volume of its value into the air.
+This is a task for the mechanical engineer.
+
+Then, too there is the problem of using coal in the form of steam or in
+the more exalted form of electric current. The lifting, bobbing lid of
+James Watt's teakettle did not speak the last word in power. We are only
+beginning to know how we may move on from one form of motive power to
+another. The wastefulness of steam power as contrasted with electric
+power is a real challenging problem in conservation by itself.
+
+And then we naturally ask, Why this long haul over mountains and through
+tunnels and across bridges and along streets and into houses, by
+railroad, truck, and on the backs of men, when at the very pit mouth, or
+within the mine itself, this same coal might be transformed into
+electricity and by wire served into factories and homes 100, 200, 300
+miles from the mine? Why burden our congested railroads with this
+traffic? Why strew our streets with this dirt? This may be a practicable
+thing, a wise thing; it deserves study if coal is worth conserving.
+
+Are there no substitutes for coal which we can use and can not export?
+This question immediately raises the water-power possibilities of our
+land, of which only the most superficial study has been made. Sell coal
+and use electricity would appear a thrifty policy.
+
+As petroleum is being used as a substitute for coal--and inasmuch as
+the whole problem of fuel supply is one--we are ultimately compelled to
+an investigation of the ability of our petroleum supply to meet its
+present drain and to meet the expansion in its use, which is the most
+surprising development of our day in the study of power creation.
+
+This spells a program of development and conservation which should
+challenge the ambitions of this Nation, and on a few of its features
+perhaps a few further words would be justified.
+
+
+SAVING COAL.
+
+The two ways by which coal in greatest volume can be saved are the
+discovery of the method by which more power can be taken from the ton
+and the discovery of what kind of coal is best fitted for any particular
+use.
+
+It has been everyone's business to save coal, hence.... The railroads
+have experimented with some success. They get perhaps 10 per cent of the
+heat energy from a ton shoveled beneath the locomotive boiler, 10 per
+cent of the total in the ton. They use one-quarter of all the coal
+mined. Next to labor this is the greatest expense which our railroads
+have. This shows how great the problem is to them. Some have adopted a
+system of paying a bonus for the greatest distance made on a given
+quantity of a given coal. But this laudable effort has not met with the
+cooperation that would be expected from the firemen, for reasons that go
+far afield. Industries, especially those which generate electric power,
+have made similar effort to gain from their fuel its greatest
+potentiality, and with varying success. We can overlook the stoking of
+the domestic furnace as a national concern, for the amount of coal used
+in this way amounts to not more than 17 per cent of the national coal
+bill, and this whole charge could be saved, it is estimated, by giving
+care to the 75 per cent of our coal which is burned under boilers to
+make steam. Here there is a maximum figure of 13 per cent of the energy
+of the coal put into harness, and the average is less than 10 per cent,
+even in the larger plants.
+
+In one establishment visited by the fuel engineers of this department
+during the war a preventable waste of 40,000 tons a year was discovered.
+By changes in the admission of air to the furnaces and in the "baffling"
+of the boilers the engineers of the Bureau of Mines are confident that
+they have been able to increase the economy of coal in the ships of the
+Emergency Fleet Corporation by 16 per cent, making 6 pounds of coal do
+the work of 7. If such a percentage of economy could be generally
+effected it would mean the saving of as much coal as France and Italy
+together will need in this year of their greatest distress.
+
+
+COAL AND COAL.
+
+The Government should sample and certify coal. We do this as to wheat
+and meat; it is just as necessary to avoid injustice in the case of
+coal, and it is thoroughly practicable. The public should know the kind
+of coal it is buying, because it should buy the coal it needs. There
+need be no prohibition against the mining or selling of any coal,[4] but
+coal should sell in terms of its capacity to deliver heat. Some coal
+that is only a pint bottle is selling as a quart bottle. And the quart
+is hurt by the competition of the pint. A bill to effect such fuel
+inspection has been drafted and will be presented to Congress. It is not
+a bill commanding anything, but rather gives to those who are willing an
+opportunity to have their product inspected and attested and thus
+acquire merit in the eye of the world as against those who are not
+willing to subject their coal to the official test tube. Coal is coal in
+the sense of the classic traffic classification. Coal is, however, not
+always coal, nor is it altogether coal when put to the pragmatic test of
+the furnace. If such a bill were passed it would promote the interests
+of those who schedule their price upon the merit of their goods and make
+against the hauling of slate and dirt, its storage and handling under an
+assumed name. The plan is not to punish the malefactor who attempts to
+impose upon the public a slender number of thermal units as a ton of
+coal, but rather to give to ever man an opportunity to advertise the
+number of such units which his particular article contains, thus
+enabling the injured public to strike against an unfair mine.
+
+Furthermore we are to become great exporters of coal, unless all signs
+fail, and such certification should be required as to every ton sent
+abroad.
+
+
+EXPANSION ABROAD.
+
+It has been said that we have too many mines in operation, as we appear
+to have too many miners, if we are to maintain only our present output.
+Rapid expansion in the development of industry in general may justify
+the existence of such mines and so large a corps of workers, even with
+an adequate car supply and more abundant local storage facilities, which
+are greatly needed in almost all places, and a more even demand. If,
+however, this should not be so, there is a foreign demand for the best
+of our bituminous coals, which at present we are altogether unable to
+meet for lack of credits on the part of those who wish the coal, and
+lack of ships to carry it. England's annual production has fallen
+100,000,000 tons, according to Mr. Hoover, and the European demand next
+year will be more than 150,000,000 tons above her production. Whatever
+the world need, it can not be supplied. It is too large for any possible
+supply by ship, even if all necessary financial arrangements could be
+made, either by loan or credit. Europe, indeed, will sadly learn through
+this winter how little coal she can live on and how more than perilous
+is the state of a people who are short of power, light, and heat.
+
+As this country prior to the war sold abroad no more than 4,500,000 tons
+as against England's 77,000,000, it is quite manifest that here will be
+a new field for American enterprise, the enterprise being needed not for
+the winning of markets as much as for finding ways of dealing with the
+larger phases of a heavy overseas trade with those who are without
+immediate resources.
+
+
+SAVING COAL BY SAVING ELECTRICITY.
+
+It is three years since Congress was urged that we should be empowered
+to make a study of the power possibilities of the congested industrial
+part of the Atlantic seaboard, with a view to developing not only the
+fact that there could be effected a great saving in power and a much
+larger actual use secured out of that now produced, but also that new
+supplies could be obtained both from running water and from the
+conversion of coal at the mines instead of after a long rail haul. A
+stream of power paralleling the Atlantic from Richmond to Boston, a main
+channel into which run many minor feeding streams and from which diverge
+an infinite number of small delivering lines--the whole an interlocking
+system that would take from the coal mine and the railroad a part of
+their present burden and insure the operation of street lights, street
+cars, elevators, and essential industries in the face of railroad
+delinquencies--this is the dream of our engineers, and a very possible
+dream it has seemed to me; of such value, indeed, that we might well
+spend a few thousand dollars in studying it, not with the thought that
+the Government would construct or operate even the trunk line, but that
+it might so attract the attention of the engineering and financial world
+as to make it a reality.
+
+To tie together the separated power plants of 10 States so that one can
+give aid to the other, so that one can take the place of the other, so
+that all may join their power for good in any great drive that may be
+projected--this would be the prime purpose of the plan; and from this
+would evolve the development of the most practicable method of supplying
+this vast interdependent system with more power--perhaps from the
+conversion of coal, as it drops from the very tipple, using the mine as
+one might use a waterfall, or by the development of great hydroelectric
+plants on the many streams from the Androscoggin to the James.
+
+
+WHITE COAL AND BLACK.
+
+This would be a plan for the wedding of the stream and the mine, the
+white coal with the black. "White coal" they call it in imaginative
+France, this tumbling water which is converted into so many forms; and a
+much cleaner, handier kind of coal it is than its black brother. And
+cheaper, for the water goes on to return again and fall once more and
+forever into the pockets of the turbine which whirls the dynamo and so
+gathers or releases that mystery which we name but never define.
+Farsighted, purposeful Germany fought four and a half years upon the
+strength of great power plants run by the snows of the Alps. She did not
+rely on these alone for power, nor were they her main reliance, but they
+gave her a lasting power which otherwise she would not have had. And we
+may expect her to improve on that war-time experience for the conduct of
+the hard fight she is to make in the industrial field. France saved
+enough territory from the invader to permit her to make new adventures
+into this field and so to some degree offset the coal loss of Lens.
+Italy found that she had still left unused opportunities for
+hydroelectric development sufficient with the coal she could secure from
+England and America to see her through the war. And with coal conditions
+as they are in Europe we may expect a still greater push to make use of
+water power to turn the industrial wheels of peace. It must be so
+likewise here.
+
+And it is likely that the long-pending power bill which will make
+available the dam and reservoir sites on withdrawn public lands and
+make feasible the financing of many projects on both navigable and
+unnavigable streams will soon have become law. We shall then have an
+opportunity that never before has been given us to develop the
+hydroelectric possibilities of the country. And this raises the question
+as to their extent.
+
+The theoretical maximum quantity of hydroelectric power that can be
+produced in the United States has recently been estimated by Dr.
+Steinmetz, who calculates that if every stream could be fully utilized
+throughout its length at all seasons, the power obtained would be
+230,000,000 kilowatts (320,000,000 horsepower). It is clear that only a
+fraction of this absolute maximum can ever be made available. The
+Geological Survey estimates that the water power in this country that is
+available for ultimate development amounts to 54,000,000 continuous
+horsepower.
+
+The census of 1912 showed that the country's developed water power was
+4,870,000 horsepower, about 9 per cent of the maximum power available
+for economic development and less than 2 per cent of the total that may
+be supplied by the streams as estimated by Dr. Steinmetz. According to
+the census, stationary prime movers representing a capacity of more than
+30,000,000 horsepower, furnished by water, steam, and gas, were in
+operation in the United States in 1912. (This amount does not, of
+course, include power generated by locomotives, marine engines,
+automobiles, and similar mobile apparatus.) The average power furnished
+by these stationary prime movers was probably not more than 20 per cent
+of their installed capacity, so that the power produced in 1912 was
+equivalent to probably not more than 6,000,000 continuous horsepower.
+
+As the estimated available water power given above represents continuous
+power the country evidently possesses much more water power than it now
+requires, so that there would be an ample surplus for many years if the
+power were so distributed geographically that it could be economically
+supplied to the industries that need it. But as a matter of fact the
+water-power resources of the country are by no means evenly distributed.
+Over 70 per cent of the available water power is west of the
+Mississippi, whereas over 70 per cent of the total horsepower now
+installed in prime movers is east of the river. Therefore unless the
+East is to lose its industrial supremacy it must press and press hard
+for the development of all water-power possibilities!
+
+
+THE AGE OF PETROLEUM.
+
+For a full century now we have been passing through different phases of
+industrial and commercial life which have been characterized by some
+form of power. First the age of steam, and then the age of electricity.
+We have passed out of neither and yet we have come into another
+age--that of petroleum. As a lubricant, it has become of such universal
+use that it has been called the barometer of industry, and no doubt
+after it has ceased to be a popular illuminant or a source of power it
+will live invaluable as the thing which lets the wheels go round. Its
+greatest popularity now arises out of its use in the internal-combustion
+engine, and of the making of these there is no end. It draws railroad
+trains and drives street cars. It pumps water, lifts heavy loads, has
+taken the place of millions of horses, and in 20 years has become a
+farming, industrial, business, and social necessity. The naval and the
+merchant ships of this country and of England are fitted and being
+fitted to use it either under steam boilers as fuel or directly in the
+Diesel engine. The airplane has been made possible by it. It propels
+that modern juggernaut, the tank. In the air it has no rival, while on
+land and sea it threatens the supremacy of its rivals whenever it
+appears. There has been no such magician since the day of Aladdin as
+this drop of mineral oil. Medicines and dyes and high explosives are
+distilled from it. No one knows whence it cometh or whither it goeth.
+Men search for it with the passion of the early Argonauts, and the
+promise now is that nations will yet fight to gain the fitful bed in
+which it lies.
+
+In Persia and in Palestine, in Java and in China, in southern Russia and
+in Rumania we know that petroleum is, for it has been found there. How
+great these fields or others in Europe, Asia, or Africa may be no one
+would dare to say. As yet, however, the petroleum of the world has come
+from this hemisphere.
+
+The "oil spring" which George Washington found in western Virginia and
+by his last will called to the especial consideration of his trustees
+was the promise of a continental well which last year yielded
+356,000,000 barrels. Each year has seen the prophecy unfulfilled that
+the peak of the possible yield had been reached.
+
+From the mountains of western Pennsylvania into the very ocean bed of
+the Pacific and even beyond and into the broken strata of upturned
+Alaska, the oil prospector bored with his sharp tooth of steel and found
+oil. Hardly has one field fallen into a decline when another has come
+rushing into service. Only three years ago and all hopes were centered
+in Oklahoma, and then came Kansas, and then the turn went south again to
+Texas, and now it looks toward Louisiana. Geologists have estimated and
+estimated, and they do not differ widely, for few give more than thirty
+years of life to the petroleum sands of this country if the present
+yield is insisted upon. And yet there is so much of mystery in the
+hiding of this strange subterranean liquid that honest men will not say
+but that it will become a permanent factor in the world of light, heat,
+and power. If this is not so we are a fatuous people, for with every
+fifth man in the country the owner of an automobile and the expenditure
+of hundreds of millions of dollars for roads fit only for their use, and
+with ships by the hundred specially constructed to burn oil, we have
+surely given a large fortune in pledge of our faith that our pools of
+petroleum will not soon be drained dry, or that others elsewhere will
+come to our help.
+
+In 1908 the country's production of oil was 178,500,000 barrels, and
+there was a surplus above consumption of more than 20,000,000 barrels
+available to go into storage. In 1918, 10 years later, the oil wells of
+the United States yielded 356,000,000 barrels--nearly twice the yield of
+1908--but to meet the demands of the increased consumption more than
+24,000,000 barrels had to be drawn from storage. The annual fuel-oil
+consumption of the railroads alone has increased from 16-2/3 to 36-3/4
+million barrels; the annual gasoline production from 540,000,000 gallons
+in 1909 to 3,500,000,000 gallons in 1918. This reference to the record
+of the past may be taken not only as justifying the earlier appeal for
+Federal action, but as warranting deliberate attention to the oil
+problem of to-day.
+
+Fuel oil, gasoline, lubricating oil--for these three essentials are
+there no practical substitutes or other adequate sources? The obvious
+answer is in terms of cost; the real answer is in terms of man power.
+Whether on land or sea, fuel oil is preferred to coal because it
+requires fewer firemen, and back of that, in the man power required in
+its mining, preparation, and transportation the advantage on the side of
+oil is even greater. So, too, the substitute for gasoline in
+internal-combustion engines, whether alcohol or benzol, means higher
+cost and larger expenditure of labor in its production.
+
+There are large bodies of public land now withdrawn, which, under the
+new leasing bill which seems so near to final passage after seven years
+of struggle and baffled hope, will in all likelihood make a further rich
+contribution to the American supply.
+
+
+OIL SHALE.
+
+And beyond these in point of time lie the vast deposits of oil shale
+which by a comparatively cheap refining process can be made to yield
+vastly more oil than has yet been found in pools or sands. The value of
+this oil shale will depend upon the cheapness of its reduction, and this
+must be greatly lessened by the value of by-products before it can
+compete with coal or the oil from wells. There is every reason to
+believe, however, that some day the production of oil from shale will be
+a great and a permanent industry. And the country could make no better
+immediate investment than to give a large appropriation for the
+development of an economical shale-reducing plant.
+
+So conservative an authority as the Geological Survey estimates that
+the oil shales of the Western States alone contain many times over the
+quantity of oil that will be recovered from our oil wells. The retorting
+of oil from oil shale has been a commercial industry for many years in
+Scotland and France; in fact, oil was obtained from oil shale here in
+the United States before the first oil well was drilled. The industry is
+in process of redevelopment to-day and if successful will assure us of a
+future supply, but at the best it will take years of time and a vast
+investment of capital to build up the industry to such a point that it
+can supply any considerable proportion of our needs. It is imperative,
+however, that the development of this latent resource be furthered and
+brought to a state of commercial development as soon as possible.
+
+
+SAVE OIL.
+
+Yet with all the optimism that can be justified I would urge a policy of
+saving as to petroleum that should be rigid in the extreme. If we are to
+long enjoy the benefits of a petroleum age, which we must frankly admit
+fits into the comfort-loving and the speed-loving side of the American
+nature, we must save this oil.
+
+We must save it before it leaves the well; keep it from being lost; keep
+it from being flooded out, driven away by water. Through the cementing
+of wells in the Cushing field, Oklahoma, the daily volume of water
+lifted from the wells was decreased from 7,520 barrels to 628 barrels,
+while the daily volume of oil produced was increased from 412 barrels to
+4,716. These instances show what can and should be done in our known oil
+fields.
+
+We must save the oil after it leaves the well, save it from draining off
+and sinking into the soil, save it from leaking away at pipe joinings,
+save it from the wastes of imperfect storage.
+
+Then we come to the refining of the oil. How welcome now would be the
+knowledge that we could recover what was thrown away when kerosene was
+petroleum's one great fraction. (The loss in refineries is still
+startling, some 14,556,000 barrels last year--4-1/2 per cent of the
+crude run in the refineries.)
+
+The self-interest of the American refiner, notably the Standard Oil Co.,
+has done a work that probably no mere scientific or noncommercial
+impulse could have equaled, in torturing out of petroleum the secrets of
+its inmost nature. And yet the thought will not altogether give place
+that in that residue which goes to the making of roads or to be burned
+in some crude way there may be things chemical that will work largely
+for man's betterment. This is the fact, too--that where the oil is
+produced by some small companies which have not the financial ability to
+make it yield its full riches there is a greater danger of loss of this
+kind. It would be well indeed if there could be such regulation as
+would require that all petroleum must be refined. That this is done
+generally is not denied. It should be universal. And all the skill and
+study and knowledge of the ablest of chemists and mechanicians should
+find themselves challenged by the problem of petroleum.
+
+Coming to the use of petroleum in its various forms we find a field of
+promise. The engine that doubles the number of miles that can be made on
+a gallon of gasoline doubles our supply. There is where we can apply the
+principle of true conservation--find how little you need; use what you
+must, but treat your resource with respect. Has the last word been said
+as to the carburetor? Mechanical engineers do not think so. Have all
+possible mixtures which will save oil and substitute cheaper and less
+rare combustibles therefor been tried? Men by the hundred are making
+these experiments, and almost daily the quack or the stock promoter
+comes forward with the announcement of a discovery which proves to be a
+revelation--a revelation of human stupidity or criminal cupidity. On
+this line the men of science do not sing a song of the richest hope;
+they shrug their shoulders, exclaiming with uplifted hands: "Well, may
+be, may be."
+
+There are possible substitutes for some petroleum products, but not for
+the whole barrel of oil; furthermore, petroleum is the cheapest
+material, speaking quantitatively, from which liquid fuels and
+lubricants can be made; therefore, any substitutes obtained in quantity
+must cost more. Alcohol can be substituted for gasoline, but only in
+limited quantity and at increased cost. Benzol from byproduct coking
+ovens also can be used, but quantitatively is totally inadequate. For
+kerosene no quantitative substitute is known. Lubricants can be obtained
+from animal and vegetable fats, but mostly are inferior in quality, and
+there seems no hope of obtaining them in quantity. Fuel oil can be
+largely supplanted by coal, but for the internal-combustion engine there
+is no quantitative substitute.
+
+
+USE THE DIESEL ENGINE.
+
+We have ventured on a great shipbuilding program. Our people are to once
+again respond to the call of the sea. On private ways and on Government
+ways ships are being built to go round the world--ships that are to burn
+oil under boilers and produce steam. I presume that there is a
+justification for this policy, perhaps one that is as good, if not
+better, than can be made for the railroads of the West pursuing the same
+policy. I submit, however, that there should be justification shown for
+the construction of any oil-burning ship which does not use an engine of
+the Diesel type. To burn oil under a boiler and convert it into steam
+releases but 10 per cent of the thermal units in the oil, whereas if
+this same fuel oil were used directly in a Diesel engine, 30 to 35 per
+cent of the power in the oil would be secured. Substitute the
+internal-combustion engine for the steam boiler and we multiply by three
+or three and one-half the supply of fuel oil in the United States.
+Instead of our fuel-oil supply being, let us say, 200,000,000 barrels,
+it would at once rise to 600,000,000 barrels or 700,000,000. I recognize
+that this is an impractical and unrealizable hope as applied to things
+as they are, but there is no reason why this should not be a very
+definite policy as to things that are to be.
+
+This Government might itself well undertake to develop an engine of this
+type for use on its ships, tractors, and trucks. We simply can not
+afford to preach economy in oil when we do not promote by every means
+the use of the internal-combustion engine for its consumption. No other
+one thing that can be done by the Government, our industries, or the
+people will save as much oil from being wasted and thereby multiply the
+real production of the United States. If such engines are delicate of
+handling and need specially trained engineers, which appears to be the
+fact, there should be little difficulty experienced in training men for
+such work. A nation that could educate 10,000 automobile mechanics in 60
+days might indeed develop 1,000 Diesel engineers in a year. The matter
+is of too great moment for delay. It touches the interest of everyone.
+We are in the petroleum age, and how long it will last depends upon our
+own foresight, inventiveness, and wisdom.
+
+
+WANTED--A FOREIGN SUPPLY.
+
+Already we are importers of petroleum. We are to be larger importers
+year by year if we continue--and we will--to invent and build machines
+which will rely upon oil or its derivatives as fuel. Our business
+methods have been and doubtless will continue to be developed along
+lines that make a continuing oil supply a necessity. Some of that oil
+must come from abroad, as nearly 40,000,000 barrels did last year, and
+for that we must compete with the world. For while we are the
+discoverers of oil and of the methods of securing it and refining it,
+piping it, and using it, our pioneering is but a service unto the world.
+
+This situation calls for a policy prompt, determined, and looking many
+years ahead. For the American Navy and the American merchant marine and
+American trade abroad must depend to some extent upon our being able to
+secure, not merely for to-day but for to-morrow as well, an equal
+opportunity with other nations to gain a petroleum supply from the
+fields of the world. We are now in the world and of it in every possible
+sense, otherwise our Navy and our merchant fleet would have no excuse.
+No one needs to justify them--they are the expression of an ambition
+that carries no danger to any people. For their support we can ask no
+preference, but in their maintenance we can insist that they shall not
+be discriminated against.
+
+Sometime since I presented to a board of geologists, engineers, and
+economists in this department this question:
+
+     If in the next five years there should develop a new demand for
+     petroleum over and above that now existing, which would amount to
+     100,000,000 barrels a year, where could such a supply be found, and
+     what policy should be adopted to secure it?
+
+The conclusions of this board may be summarized as follows:
+
+     (1) Such an oil need could not be met from domestic sources of
+     supply.
+
+     (2) It could not be assured unless equal opportunities were given
+     our nationals for commercial development of foreign oils.
+
+     (3) Assurance of this oil supply therefore inevitably entails
+     political as well as commercial competition with other nationals,
+     as other nationals controlling foreign sources of supply have
+     adopted policies that discriminate against, hinder, and even
+     prevent our nationals entering foreign fields.
+
+     (4) The encouragement of and effective assistance to our nationals
+     in developing foreign fields is essential to securing the oil
+     needed.
+
+     (5) Commercial control by our nationals over large foreign sources
+     of supply will be essential if the estimated requirements are to be
+     assured.
+
+     (6) It is necessary that all countries be induced to abandon or
+     adequately modify present discriminatory policies and that the
+     interest of our nationals be protected.
+
+     (7) Some form of world-wide oil-producing, purchasing, and
+     marketing agency fostered by this Government seems essential to
+     assure the commercial control over sufficient resources to meet the
+     competition of other nationals. England has apparently adopted such
+     a policy.
+
+This board proposed the following program of action:
+
+     (1) To secure the removal of all discriminations to the end that
+     our nationals may enjoy in other countries all the privileges now
+     enjoyed by other nationals in ours:
+
+     (_a_) By appropriate diplomatic and trade measures.
+
+     (_b_) By securing equal rights to our nationals in countries newly
+     organized as mandatories.
+
+     (2) To encourage our nationals to acquire, develop, and market oil
+     in foreign countries:
+
+     (_a_) By assured adequate protection of our citizens engaged in
+     securing and developing foreign oil fields.
+
+     (_b_) By promotion of syndication of our nationals engaged in
+     foreign business, in order to effectually conduct oil development
+     and distribution of petroleum and its products abroad.
+
+     (3) Governmental action--through special agency or board:
+
+     (_a_) Through the organization of a subsidiary governmental
+     corporation with power to produce, purchase, refine, transport,
+     store, and market oil and oil products.
+
+     (_b_) Through the formation of a permanent petroleum
+     administration.
+
+     (4) To assure to our nationals the exclusive opportunity to
+     explore, develop, and market the oil resources of the Philippine
+     Islands, provided discriminatory policies of other nations against
+     our nationals are not abandoned or satisfactorily modified.
+
+I have given much thought during the past year to this problem of adding
+to our petroleum supply, and it has seemed to me but fair that we
+should first make every effort to increase the domestic supply through
+the methods that have been indicated--
+
+(1) The saving of that which is now wasted, below ground and above
+ground.
+
+(2) The more intensive use, through new machinery and devices, of the
+supply which we have.
+
+(3) The development of oil fields on our withdrawn territory and in new
+areas such as the Philippines.
+
+In addition, we must look abroad for a supplemental supply, and this may
+be secured through American enterprise if we do these things:
+
+(1) Assure American capital that if it goes into a foreign country and
+secures the right to drill for oil on a legal and fair basis (all of
+which must be shown to the State Department) it will be protected
+against confiscation or discrimination. This should be a known,
+published policy.
+
+(2) Require every American corporation producing oil in a foreign
+country to take out a Federal charter for such enterprise under which
+whatever oil it produces should be subject to a preferential right on
+the part of this Government to take all of its supply or a percentage
+thereof at any time on payment of the market price.
+
+(3) Sell no oil to a vessel carrying a charter from any foreign
+government either at an American port or at any American bunker when
+that government does not sell oil at a nondiscriminatory price to our
+vessels at its bunkers or ports.
+
+The oil industry is more distinctively American than any other of the
+great basic industries. It has been the creation of no one class or
+group but of many men of many kinds--the hardy, keen-eyed prospector
+with a "nose for oil" who spent his months upon the deserts and in the
+mountains searching for seepages and tracing them to their source; the
+rough and two-fisted driller, a man generally of unusual physical
+strength, who handled the great tools of his trade; the venturesome
+"wildcatter," part prospector, part promoter, part operator, the
+"marine" of the industry, "soldier and sailor too"; the geologist who
+through his study of the anatomy of the earth crust could map the pools
+and sands almost as if he saw them; the inventor; the chemist with still
+and furnace; the genius who found that oil would run in a pipe--these
+and many more, in most of the sciences and in nearly all of the crafts,
+have created this American industry. If they are permitted they will
+reveal the world supply of oil. And upon that supply the industries of
+our country will come to be increasingly dependent year by year.
+
+
+BY WAY OF SUMMARY.
+
+It would seem to be our plain duty to discover how little oil we need to
+use. To do this we must dignify coal by grading it in terms not merely
+of convenience as to size, but in terms of service as to its power. We
+should save it, if for no better reason than that we may sell it to a
+coal-hungry world. We should develop water power as an inexhaustible
+substitute for coal and if necessary compel the coordination of all
+power plants which serve a common territory. New petroleum supplies have
+become a national necessity, so quickly have we adapted ourselves to
+this new fuel and so extravagantly have we given ourselves over to its
+adaptability. To save that we may use abundantly, to develop that we may
+never be weak, to bring together into greater effectiveness all power
+possibilities--these would seem to be national duties, dictated by a
+large self-interest.
+
+I have gone only sufficiently far into this whole question to realize
+that it is as fundamental and of as deep public concern as the railroad
+question and that it is even more complex. No one, so far as I can
+learn, has mastered all of its various phases; in fact, there are few
+who know even one sector of the great battle front of power. A Foch is
+needed, one in whom would center a knowledge of all the activities and
+the inactivities of these three great industries, which in reality are
+but a single industry. We should know more than we do, far more about
+the ways and means by which our unequaled wealth in all three divisions
+can be used and made interdependent, and the moral and the legal
+strength of the Nation should be behind a studied, fact-based,
+long-viewed plan to make America the home of the cheapest and the most
+abundant and the most immediately and intimately serviceable power
+supply in the world. If we do this, we can release labor and lighten
+nearly every task. We will not need to send the call to other countries
+for men, and we can distribute our industries in parts of the country
+where labor is less abundant and where homes will take the place of
+tenements. One could expand upon the benefits that would come to this
+land if a rounded program such as has been but skeletonized here could
+be carried out. I am convinced that within a generation it will be
+effected, because it will be necessary.
+
+The simple steps now obviously needed are to pass those primary bills
+which are already before Congress or are here suggested. But beyond this
+there is imperative need that some one man (an assistant secretary in
+this department would serve)--some one man with a competent staff and
+commanding all the resources of this and other departments of the
+Government shall be given the task of taking a world view as well as a
+national view of this whole involved and growing problem, that he may
+recommend policies and induce activities and promote cooperative
+relationships which will effect the most economical production of light,
+heat, and power, which is more than the first among the immediate
+practical problems of science, as Sir William Crookes said, for it is
+foremost among the immediate practical problems of national and
+international statesmanship.
+
+
+LAND DEVELOPMENT.
+
+I wish now to ask consideration for another matter of home concern to
+which I gave attention in my last report and as to which the intervening
+year has strengthened and perhaps broadened my ideas--the development of
+our unused lands.
+
+It was never more vital to the welfare of our people that a creative and
+out-reaching plan of developing and utilizing our natural resources
+should go bravely forward than it is to-day. Ours is a growing country,
+and as its social and industrial superstructure expands its agricultural
+foundation must be broadened in proportion. The normal growth of the
+United States now requires an addition of 6,300,000 acres to its
+cultivable area each year, which means an average increase of 17,000
+acres a day.
+
+Fortunately, the opportunity for this essential expansion exists not
+only in the West, where much of the public domain is yet unoccupied, but
+in every part of the Republic. We have a great fund of natural resources
+in the very oldest States, from Maine to Louisiana, which invite and
+would richly reward the constructive genius of the Nation. It is claimed
+by those who have specialized for years on the subject of reclamation
+that the control and utilization of flood waters now wasted would
+produce within the next 10 years more wealth than the entire cost to the
+United States of the war with Germany.
+
+After every other war in our history the work of internal development
+has gone forward by leaps and bounds, and our people have thus quickly
+made good the economic wastes of the conflict. The needs of to-day are
+different from those of the past and require different treatment, but
+they are by no means beyond the reach of enlightened thought and action.
+
+More than a year ago we began an earnest discussion of reconstruction
+policies, particularly with respect to the land. But nothing has been
+done. Not one line of legislation, not one dollar of money has been
+provided except in the way of preliminary investigation. We stand
+voiceless in the presence of opportunity and idle in the face of urgent
+national need.
+
+
+A PROGRAM OF PROGRESS.
+
+The great work of material development accomplished in the past has been
+done very largely by private capital and enterprise. Doubtless this must
+be the chief reliance for progress in the future. We should realize,
+however, that this method has involved losses as well as gains, for the
+Nation has sometimes been too prodigal in offering its natural resources
+as an inducement to private effort. Not only so, but with the exhaustion
+of the free public lands in our great central valleys--the most
+remarkable natural heritage that ever fell into the lap of a young
+nation--conditions of home making and settlement have radically changed.
+
+There can be do doubt that there is an important sphere of action which
+the Government must occupy if we are to go steadily forward with the
+work of continental conquest, and all it implies to the future of the
+Nation, but in suggesting practicable steps of progress at this time I
+do not forget the burden of taxation which confronts our people nor the
+delicate and difficult task which Congress is called upon to perform in
+trying to keep the national outgo within the national income. Hence, I
+am now suggesting such constructive things as the Government may be able
+to do through the exercise of its powers of supervision and direction
+and with the smallest possible outlay of money.
+
+Under this head I put, first, the matter of suburban homes for wage
+earners; second, reclamation of desert, overflow, and cut-over areas,
+together with improvement of abandoned farms, under a system of district
+organization which may be made to finance itself; third, cooperation
+with various States in the work of internal development.
+
+
+GARDEN HOMES FOR THE PEOPLE.
+
+There is no more baffling problem than that presented by the continued
+growth of great cities, but it is a problem with which we must sometime
+deal. It bears directly on the high cost of living and is, indeed,
+largely responsible for it. Rent is based on land values. Land values
+rise with increasing population. The price of food is closely related to
+the growing disproportion between consumers and producers, resulting
+from urban congestion.
+
+Here is Washington, a city of some 400,000 people, doubtless destined
+steadily to grow until--a Member of Congress predicts--it may touch
+2,000,000 twenty years hence. Already the housing problem is acute, as
+it is in almost every other large American city. It would be a pitiful
+thing if the provision of more housing facilities to meet the needs of
+growing population meant merely more congestion and higher rents, with
+an ever-decreasing degree of landed proprietorship and true individual
+independence. Such conditions, it seems to me, undermine the American
+hearthstone and carry a deep menace to the future of our institutions. I
+believe there must be a better way, and that the time has come when we
+should make an earnest effort to find it.
+
+Within a 10-mile circle drawn around the Capitol dome are thousands of
+acres of good agricultural land, of which the merest fraction has been
+reduced to intensive cultivation. Much of it is wastefully used, and
+much of it is not used at all. Conditions of soil, climate, and water
+supply are good and represent a fair average for the United States.
+Suburban transportation is a serious problem in some localities and less
+so in others, but tends to become more simple with the extension of good
+roads and increasing use of motor vehicles, including the auto bus.
+
+Somewhere and sometime, it seems to me, a new system must be devised to
+disperse the people of great cities on the vacant lands surrounding
+them, to give the masses a real hold upon the soil, and to replace the
+apartment house with the home in a garden. Such a system should enable
+the ambitious and thrifty family not only to save the entire cost of
+rent, but possibly half the cost of food, while at the same time
+enhancing its standard of living socially and spiritually, as well as
+economically.
+
+It has been suggested that there is no better place to demonstrate a new
+form of suburban life than here at the National Capital, where we may
+freely draw upon all the resources of the governmental departments for
+expert knowledge and advice and where the demonstration can readily
+command wide publicity and come under the observation of the Nation's
+lawmakers. And I am expecting that this experiment will be made. Such a
+plan of town or community life, rather than city life, should be
+extended to every other large city in the Nation. A simple act of
+legislation, accompanied by a moderate appropriation for organization
+and educational work, would enable the department to put its facilities
+at the service of local communities and of the industries throughout the
+United States. This form of national leadership would be of value both
+to investors in the local securities and to the home builders
+themselves. If the work of land acquisition and construction, together
+with the organization of community settlements resulting therefrom, were
+conducted under the supervision of the State or the Federal Government
+it would safeguard the character of the movement from every point of
+view.
+
+Therefore, I put first among the constructive things which may be done
+by the exercise of the Government's power of supervision and direction,
+with the smallest outlay of money, this matter of providing suburban
+homes for our millions of wage earners.
+
+
+RECLAMATION BY DISTRICT ORGANIZATION.
+
+The provision of garden homes for millions of city workers will
+contribute largely to the Nation's food supply and become in time a most
+effective influence in reducing excessive cost of living for many of
+our people. It will not, of course, solve the problem of increasing the
+number of farms and the area of cultivation to meet the needs of growing
+population. Neither will it enable us to expand our home market rapidly
+and largely enough to keep the country on an even keel of prosperity.
+
+We must go forward with the development of natural resources as we have
+done for the past three centuries. And we must recognize at the outset
+that conditions have changed with the depletion of the public domain to
+the point where it offers comparatively little in the way of cultivable
+lands.
+
+We have now to deal principally with lands in private ownership. This
+calls for a new point of view and for the application of a somewhat
+different principle than that which has governed our reclamation policy
+heretofore. Moreover, reclamation is no longer an affair of one section
+of the United States. The day has come when it must be nationalized and
+extended to all parts of the Republic.
+
+To the deserts of the West we have brought the creative touch of water,
+and we must find a way to go on with this work. But it is of equal
+importance that we should liberate rich areas now held in bondage by the
+swamp, convert millions of acres of idle cut-over lands to profitable
+use, and raise from the dead the once vigorous agricultural life of our
+abandoned farms.
+
+One more fundamental consideration--we have outlived our day of small
+things. Whether we would or not, we are compelled by the inexorable law
+of necessity arising out of existing physical conditions to cooperate,
+to work together, and to employ large-scale operations, and on this
+principle we should move: Not what the Government can do for the people,
+but what the people can do for themselves under the intelligent and
+kindly leadership of the Government.
+
+We have an instrument at hand in the Reclamation Service which has dealt
+with every phase of the problem which now confronts us, and with such
+high average success as to command the entire confidence of Congress and
+the country. It has turned rivers out of their natural beds, reared the
+highest dams in existence, transported water long distances by every
+form of canal, conduit, and tunnel, installed electric power plants,
+cleared land, provided drainage systems, constructed highways and even
+railroads, platted townsites, and erected buildings of various sorts. In
+this experience, obtained under a variety of physical and climatic
+conditions, it has developed a body of trained men equal to any
+constructive task which may be assigned to it in connection with
+reclamation and settlement in any part of the country.
+
+True economic reclamation is a process of converting liabilities into
+assets--of transforming dormant natural resources into agencies of
+living production. When such a process is intelligently applied it
+should be able to pay its own bills without placing fresh burdens on the
+national treasury. It is in the confident belief that such is actually
+the case that I suggest the policy of reclamation by means of local
+districts, financed on the basis of their own credit but with the
+fullest measure of encouragement and moral support of the Government,
+practically expressed through the Reclamation Service.
+
+In this connection it seems worth while to recall that with a net
+expenditure of $119,000,000 the Reclamation Service has created taxable
+values of $500,000,000 in the States where it has operated. The ratio is
+better than three to one, and that is a wider margin of security than is
+usually demanded by the most conservative banking methods. There is no
+reason to doubt that the overflow lands of the South, the cut-over areas
+of the Northwest, and the abandoned farm districts of New England and
+New York and other States would do quite as well as the deserts of the
+West if handled by such an organization.
+
+What is the legitimate function of the Government in connection with
+reclamation districts to be financed entirely upon their own credits
+without the aid of national appropriations? I should say that the
+Government, with great advantage to the investor, the landowner, the
+future settler, and the general public, might do these things:
+
+1. Employ its trained, experienced engineers, attorneys, and economists
+in making a thorough investigation of all the factors involved in a
+given situation, to be followed by a thorough official report upon the
+district proposed to be formed.
+
+2. Offer the district securities for public subscription in the open
+market. This, of course, would follow the actual organization of the
+district and the approval of its proceedings by the Government's legal
+experts.
+
+3. Construct the works of reclamation with proceeds of district bond
+sales, and administer the system until it becomes a "going concern,"
+when it may be safely confided to its local officers.
+
+The most obvious advantage of Government cooperation is the fact that it
+would assure the service of a body of engineers, builders, and
+administrators trained in the actual work of reclamation. This
+advantage, as compared with the management that might be had in a
+sparsely settled local district, would often make all the difference
+between success and failure. Unquestionably it would materially reduce
+the interest rate on district bonds and greatly facilitate their sale in
+the open market.
+
+There are other advantages less obvious but really more important.
+Experience has shown that great enterprises can best be handled under
+centralized control. This control, to be effective, must extend from the
+initiation to the completion of the project. There can be no assurance
+of this when the management is left to the electorate of a local
+district, and without such assurance it is difficult to command the
+support, first, of the landowners whose consent is essential to the
+formation of the district; next, of the investors who must supply the
+money; finally, of the settlers who must purchase and develop the land
+in order that the object of the enterprise may be realized. The
+Government can give the assurance of precisely that quality of unified,
+centralized, permanent, and responsible control that is required to
+command the confidence of all the factors in the situation.
+
+There is another advantage of Government cooperation that will inure
+greatly to the benefit of the settler. The Government may readily apply
+the policy it now uses in connection with privately owned lands within
+reclamation projects. It requires the owners to enter into a contract by
+which they agree to accept a certain maximum price for their land if
+sold within a given period of years. This price is based upon the value
+of the land before reclamation. There are many instances, particularly
+of swamp and cut-over areas, where land that may be bought for $10 an
+acre and reclaimed at a cost of $25 to $50 per acre, has an actual
+market value of $100 to $200 per acre the moment it is put into shape
+for cultivation. If the Government, by means of a contract with the
+local district, undertakes the work of reclamation and settlement and
+does this work at actual cost, the settler will generally save enough to
+pay for all his improvements and equipment.
+
+The crowning consideration is the fact that, because of all these
+advantages, the work of reclamation would actually be accomplished,
+while to-day it is not being done except in the far West, and
+accomplished without the aid of Government appropriations.
+
+
+SOLDIER-SETTLEMENT LEGISLATION.
+
+In the foregoing, attention has been called to those things which may be
+accomplished by the exercise of the Government's powers of supervision
+and direction with the smallest outlay of money. In all this I have been
+speaking of reclamation for the sake of reclamation.
+
+The proposed soldier-settlement legislation stands on an entirely
+different footing. The primary object is not to reclaim land but to
+reward our returned soldiers with the opportunity to obtain employment
+and larger interest in the proprietorship of the country. The policy is
+based on a sense of gratitude for heroic service, not on economic
+considerations. This is the answer to those who have criticized it as
+class legislation or the proposal to grant special privileges to one
+element of our citizenship or as a plunge into socialism. Frankly, we
+avow our purpose to do for the soldier what we would not think of doing
+for anybody else and what would not be justified solely as a matter of
+reclamation.
+
+Many measures of soldier legislation have been introduced into Congress.
+Only one of these has been favorably reported. This was introduced by
+Representative Mondell, of Wyoming, on the first day of the present
+special session, embodying the plan of reclamation and community
+settlement brought forward by this department in the spring of 1918.
+
+The measure has been much misunderstood and sometimes deliberately
+misrepresented. In the first place, it was not put forward as the
+complete solution of the soldier problem. It was at no time supposed or
+expected that all of the 4,800,000 men and women engaged in the war with
+Germany would or could take advantage of its provisions. It fortunately
+happens that the vast majority quickly found their places in the
+national life. Of the remainder, a very large proportion may be
+classified as "city minded." They have no taste for farm life but would
+be better served by vocational training and opportunities to enter upon
+remunerative trades or professions. There is an element of "country
+minded," and of these some 150,000 have made application for
+opportunities of employment and home-making under the terms of this
+bill. Largely they are men who have had agricultural experience but who
+can not obtain farms of their own without very considerable cash
+advances and other assistance which the Government could render. It is
+for this element that the policy is designed.
+
+It has often been said that the plan would be applied only in the West
+and South. The truth is that it has been the purpose from the first to
+extend it to every State where feasible projects could be found, and
+that our preliminary investigations lead us to believe this will include
+every State in the Union.
+
+The wide discussion of the measure has been highly educational to the
+country, and some of the criticism is of constructive character. For
+example, attention has been sharply called to the fact that in certain
+localities there are individual farms well suited to our purpose which
+may often be had at a price representing rather less than the value of
+their improvements. These are the so-called "abandoned farms" so
+numerous in the Northeastern States. In some cases they are interspersed
+with land now cultivated, so situated that it is not possible to bring
+together a large number of contiguous farms as the basis of a Government
+project.
+
+In New England and elsewhere public sentiment strongly favors a
+modification of the pending measure which will enable the purchase of
+individual farms rather than community settlement. This would be
+practicable only in localities where a sufficient number of farms, even
+if not contiguous, could be had to make possible the necessary
+supervision and instruction, together with cooperative organization for
+the purchase of supplies and sale of products. Without these advantages
+the plan of soldier settlement would fail in many instances. My
+information is that these conditions could be met. Not only so, but it
+is urged that existing farm communities would be inspired by the
+presence of soldier settlers and benefited by the presence of soldier
+settlers by their cooperative buying and selling agencies.
+
+Another criticism of the pending measure is directed to the amount of
+the first payment the soldier settler is required to make. As the bill
+now stands it calls for 5 per cent on the land, 25 per cent on
+improvements and live stock, and 40 per cent on implements and other
+equipment. It has been urged by some friends of soldier settlement that
+no first payment should be required, but that the Government should make
+advances of 100 per cent in view of the soldiers' peculiar claim upon
+national consideration. It might be feasible to do this in the case of
+community settlements. But it could not be done in the case of scattered
+and individual farms, at least without abandoning the principles of
+sound business.
+
+In the case of community settlement the soldier literally "gets in on
+the ground floor." Starting with a territory that is entirely blank so
+far as homes and improvements are concerned, he finds himself in a place
+where community values remain to be created. When he buys an improved
+farm in a settled neighborhood the situation is precisely reversed. In
+both cases there is or will be "unearned increment," or society-created
+values; but in the one case he _gets_ the increment, while in the other
+case he _pays_ it. Obviously, a larger advance would be justified in one
+case than in the other.
+
+
+ALASKA.
+
+One of the first recommendations made by me in my report of seven years
+ago was that the Government build a railroad from Seward to Fairbanks in
+Alaska. Five years ago you intrusted to me the direction of this work.
+The road is now more than two-thirds built, and Congress at this
+session, after exhaustively examining into the work, has authorized an
+additional appropriation sufficient for its completion. The showing made
+before Congress was that the road had been built without graft: every
+dollar has gone into actual work or material. It has been built without
+giving profits to any large contractors, for it has been constructed
+entirely by small contractors or by day's labor. It has been built
+without touch of politics: every man on the road has been chosen
+exclusively for ability and experience. It has been well and solidly
+built as a permanent road, not an exploiting road. It has been built for
+as little money as private parties could have built it, as all competent
+independent engineers who have seen the road advise.
+
+Edwin F. Wendt, of the Interstate Commerce Commission, in charge of
+valuation of the railroads of the United States from Pittsburgh to
+Boston, after an investigation into the manner in which the Alaskan
+Railroad was constructed and its cost, reported to me as follows:
+
+     In concluding, it is not amiss to again state that after the full
+     study which was given to the property during our trip, we are
+     satisfied that the project is being executed rapidly and
+     efficiently by men of experience and ability. It is believed that
+     it is being handled as cheaply as private contractors could handle
+     it under the circumstances.
+
+The road has not been built as soon as expected because each year we
+have exhausted our appropriation before the work contemplated had been
+done. We could not say in October of one year what the cost of anything
+a year or more later would be, and we ran out of money earlier than
+anticipated. It has not been built as cheaply as expected because it has
+been built on a rising market for everything that went into its
+construction--from labor, lumber, food supplies, machinery, and steel to
+rail and ocean transportation. I believe, however, it can safely be said
+that no other piece of Government construction or private construction
+done during the war will show a less percentage of increase over a cost
+that was estimated more than four years ago.
+
+The men have been well housed and well fed. Their wages have been good
+and promptly paid; there has been but one strike, and that was four
+years ago and was settled by Department of Labor experts fixing the
+scale of wages. The men have had the benefit of a system of compensation
+for damages like that in the Reclamation Service and Panama Canal. They
+have had excellent hospital service, and our camps and towns have been
+free of typhoid fever and malaria. That the men like the work is
+testified by the fact that hundreds who "came out" the past two years,
+attracted by the high wages of war industries, are now anxious to return
+to Alaska.
+
+There has been but one setback in the construction, and that was the
+washing out of 12 miles of tracks along the Nenana River. This is a
+glacial stream which, when the snows melt, comes down at times with
+irresistible force. In this instance it abandoned its long accustomed
+way and cut into a new bed and through trees that had been standing for
+several generations, tearing out part of the track which had been laid.
+
+The work of locating and constructing the road has been left in the
+hands of the engineers appointed by yourself. The only instruction
+which they received from me was that they should build the road as if
+they were working for a private concern, selecting the best men for the
+work irrespective of politics or pressure of any kind. As a result, we
+have a force that has been gathered from the construction camps of the
+western railroads, made up of men of experience and proved capacity.
+That they have done their work efficiently, honestly, and at reasonable
+cost is my belief.
+
+It is not possible during the construction of a railroad to tell what it
+costs per mile because all the foundation work, the construction of
+bases from which to work, the equipment for construction, and much of
+the material is a charge which must be spread over the entire completed
+line. The best estimate that can be made to-day as to the newly
+constructed road is that it has cost between $70,000 and $80,000 per
+main-line mile, or between $60,000 and $70,000 per mile of track.
+
+This cost per mile includes the building of the most difficult and
+expensive stretch of line along the entire route from Seward to
+Fairbanks--that running along Turnagain Arm, which is sheer rock rising
+precipitously from the sea for nearly 30 miles. There are miles of this
+road which have cost $200,000 per mile. Even to blast a mule trail in
+one portion of this route cost $25,000 a mile.
+
+The only Government-built railroad--that across the Isthmus of
+Panama--cost $221,052 per mile. The only two recently built railroads in
+the United States are (1) the Virginian, built by H.H. Rogers, which
+cost exclusive of equipment $151,000 per mile, with labor at from $1.35
+to $1.75 per day and all machinery, fuel, rails, and supplies at its
+door, and (2) the Milwaukee line to Puget Sound, which is estimated as
+having cost $130,000 per mile exclusive of equipment.
+
+The work has been conducted with its main base at Anchorage, which is at
+the head of Cook Inlet. The point was chosen as the nearest point from
+which to construct a railroad into the Matanuska coal fields. That was
+the primary objective of the railroad, to get at the Matanuska coal.
+From Anchorage it was also intended to drive farther north through the
+Susitna Valley and across Broad Pass, and to the south along Turnagain
+Arm toward the Alaska Northern track. To secure coal for Alaska was the
+first need. So in addition to Anchorage as a base, one was also started
+at Nenana, on the Tanana River, from which to reach the Nenana coal
+fields lying to the south. If these two fields were open, one would
+supply the coast of Alaska and one the interior. This program has been
+acted upon, with the result that the Matanuska field is open to
+tidewater with a downgrade road all the way. The Nenana road has been
+pushed far enough south to touch a coal mine near the track, which may
+obviate the immediate necessity for reaching into the Nenana field
+proper.
+
+There is an open stretch across Broad Pass to connect the Susitna
+Valley with the road coming down from Nenana. This gap closed, there
+will be through connection between Seward and Fairbanks.
+
+
+MATANUSKA COAL.
+
+By decisions of the Commissioner of the Land Office all of the claims in
+the Matanuska coal field were set aside, and by act of Congress a
+leasing bill was put into effect over the entire field. Under this law a
+number of claims must be reserved to the Government. The field was
+surveyed, and some of the most promising portions of the field have been
+so reserved.
+
+Two leases have been entered into by the Government, one with Lars
+Netland, a miner, who has a backer, Mr. Fontana, a business man of San
+Francisco, and the other with Oliver La Duke and associates. There are
+many thousands of acres in this field which are open for lease and which
+will be leased to any responsible parties who will undertake their
+development. Government experts who have examined this field do not
+promise without further exploring a larger output of coal from this
+field than 150,000 tons a year.
+
+The population of Alaska has fallen off during the war. She sent, I am
+told, 5,000 men into the Army, the largest proportion to population sent
+by any part of the United States. The high cost of labor and materials
+closed some of the gold mines, and the attractive wages offered by war
+industries drew labor from Alaska to the mainland. All prospecting
+practically closed. But with the return of peace there is evidence of a
+new movement toward that Territory which should be given added
+confidence in its future by the completion of the Alaskan Railroad.
+There is enough arable land in Alaska to maintain a population the equal
+of all those now living in Norway, Sweden, and Finland, and all that can
+be produced in those countries can be produced in Alaska. The great need
+is a market, and this will be found only as the mining and fishing
+industries of the country develop.
+
+
+SAVE AND DEVELOP AMERICANS.
+
+When the whole story is told of American achievement and the picture is
+painted of our material resources, we come back to the plain but
+all-significant fact that far beyond all our possessions in land and
+coal and waters and oil and industries is the American man. To him, to
+his spirit and to his character, to his skill and to his intelligence is
+due all the credit for the land in which we live. And that resource we
+are neglecting. He may be the best nurtured and the best clothed and the
+best housed of all men on this great globe. He may have more chances to
+become independent and even rich. He may have opportunities for
+schooling nowhere else afforded. He may have a freedom to speak and to
+worship and to exercise his judgment over the affairs of the Nation. And
+yet he is the most neglected of our resources because he does not know
+how rich he is, how rich beyond all other men he is. Not rich in
+money--I do not speak of that--but rich in the endowment of powers and
+possibilities no other man ever was given.
+
+Twenty-five per cent of the 1,600,000 men between 21 and 31 years of age
+who were first drafted into our Army could not read nor write our
+language, and tens of thousands could not speak it nor understand it. To
+them the daily paper telling what Von Hindenberg was doing was a blur.
+To them the appeals of Hoover came by word of mouth, if at all. To them
+the messages of their commander in chief were as so much blank paper. To
+them the word of mother or sweetheart came filtering in through other
+eyes that had to read their letters.
+
+Now this is wrong. There is something lacking in the sense of a society
+that would permit it in a land of public schools that assumes leadership
+in the world.
+
+Here is raw material truly, of the most important kind and the greatest
+possibility for good as well as for ill.
+
+Save! Save! Save! This has been the mandate for the past two years. It
+is a word with which this report is replete. But we have been talking of
+food and land and oil while the boys and young men that are about us who
+carry the fortune of the democracy in their hands are without a primary
+knowledge of our institutions, our history, our wars and what we have
+fought for, our men and what they have stood for, our country and what
+its place in the world is.
+
+The marvelous force of public opinion and the rare absorbing quality of
+the American mind never was shown more clearly than by the fact that out
+of these men came a loyalty and a stern devotion to America when the day
+of test came. Had Germany known what we know now, it would have been
+beyond her to believe that America could draft an army to adventure into
+war in Europe. There should not be a man who was in our Army or our Navy
+who has the ambition for an education who should not be given that
+opportunity--indeed, induced to take it--not merely out of appreciation
+but out of the greater value to the Nation that he would be if the tools
+of life were put into his hand. There is no word to say upon this theme
+of Americanization that has not been said, and Congress, it is now
+hoped, will believe those figures which, when presented nearly two years
+ago, were flouted as untrue. The Nation is humiliated at its own
+indifference, and action must be the result.
+
+To save and to develop, I have said, were equally the expression of a
+true conservation. What is true as to material things is true as to
+human beings. And once given a foundation of health there is no other
+course by which this policy may be effected than to place at the command
+of every one the means of acquiring knowledge. The whole people must
+turn in that direction. We should enable all, without distinction, to
+have that training for which they are fitted by their own natural
+endowment. Then we can draw out of hiding the talents that have been
+hidden. The school will yet come to be the first institution of our
+land, in acknowledged preeminence in the making of Americans who
+understand why they are Americans and why to be one is worth while.[5]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES
+
+[1] Extract from the annual report of the Secretary of the Interior for
+the fiscal year ended June 30, 1919. The page numbers are the same as
+those in the report.
+
+[2] In spite of the strike order, effective the last day of the week,
+the production of soft coal during the seven days Oct. 26-Nov. 1 was
+greater than in any week this year save one. The exception was the
+preceding week, that of Oct. 25, which full reports now confirm as the
+record in the history of coal mining in the United States. The total
+production during the week ended Nov. 1 (including lignite and coal made
+into coke) is estimated at 12,142,000 net tons, an average per working
+day of 2,024,000 tons.
+
+Indeed had it not been for the strike, curtailing the output of
+Saturday, the week of Nov. 1 would have far outstripped its predecessor.
+The extraordinary efforts made by the railroads to provide cars bore
+fruit in a rate of production during the first five days of the week
+which, if maintained for the 304 working days of full-time year, would
+yield 715,000,000 tons of coal. It is worth noting that this figure is
+almost identical with the 700,000,000 tons accepted early in 1918 by the
+Geological Survey and the Railroad Administration as representing the
+country's annual capacity. During these five days, therefore, the
+soft-coal mines were working close to actual capacity. There can be
+little doubt that the output on Monday, Oct. 27, was the largest ever
+attained in a single day. (U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.)
+
+[3] It is the western and southern fields that are most affected by the
+seasonal demand. As a typical example, Illinois may be cited, with 18
+per cent of the year's production in 25 per cent of the time, April,
+May, and June, in 1915, and 15 per cent in 1916. Retail dealers received
+27 per cent of the coal from Illinois in the period from August, 1918,
+to February, 1919, compared with 4 per cent from the Pittsburgh, Pa.,
+field.
+
+[4] In every trainload of coal hauled from the mines to our coal bins, 1
+carload out of every 5 is going nowhere. In a train of 40 cars, the last
+8 are dead load that might better have been left in the bowels of the
+earth. No less an authority than Martin A. Rooney states: "Every fifth
+shovel full of coal that the average fireman throws into his furnace
+serves no more useful purpose than to decorate the atmosphere with a
+long black stream of precious soot. At best one-fifth of all our coal is
+wasted."
+
+The first requisite toward effecting fuel economy is to secure
+cooperation between owners, managers, and the men who fire the coal.
+Mechanical devices to increase efficiency in the use of coal can not
+produce satisfactory results unless the operators who handle them are
+impressed with the importance of their duties.
+
+It is not essential for the plant manager to be a fuel expert, but he
+should be familiar with the instruments that give a check on the daily
+operations. It is a mistake not to provide proper instruments, for they
+guide the firemen and show the management what has taken place daily.
+Instruments provided for the boiler room manifest the interest taken by
+the management toward conserving fuel. It indicates cooperation and
+encourages the firemen to work harder to increase the efficiency.
+
+A second factor effecting fuel economy is the selection of fuel for the
+particular plant. It is not expected of a plant manager that he should
+be thoroughly informed as to the character of all fuels; but he can
+enlist the services of a man who is thoroughly trained In this field.
+The Bureau of Mines has compiled valuable information on the character
+and analyses of coal from almost every field in the United States.
+Information concerning the character and chemical constituents of the
+coal, together with knowledge pertaining to the equipment of the plant,
+makes it possible to select a fuel adapted to the equipment, thereby
+insuring better combustion. Hundreds of boiler plants operate at no
+greater than 60 per cent efficiency, and it would be a comparatively
+simple matter to bring them up to 70 per cent efficiency. The saving in
+tonnage would be more than the combined yearly coal-carrying capacity of
+the Baltimore & Ohio and the Southern Railway systems. The direct saving
+to our industries at $5 per ton would amount to $200,000,000 worth of
+coal per year.
+
+[5] Assistant Secretary Herbert Kaufman before the Senate Committee on
+Education presented facts and figures which accentuate the seriousness
+of the national situation. Among other things he said:
+
+"The South leads in illiteracy, but the North leads in non-English
+speaking. Over 17 per cent of the persons in the east-south Central
+States have never been to school. Approximately 16 per cent of the
+people of Passaic, N.J., must deal with their fellow workers and
+employers through interpreters. And 13 per cent of the folk in Lawrence
+and Fall River, Mass., are utter strangers in a strange land.
+
+"The extent to which our industries are dependent upon this labor is
+perilous to all standards of efficiency. Their ignorance not only
+retards production and confuses administration, but constantly piles up
+a junk heap of broken humans and damaged machines which cost the Nation
+incalculably.
+
+"It is our duty to interpret America to all potential Americans in terms
+of protection as well as of opportunity; and neither the opportunities
+of this continent nor that humanity which is the genius of American
+democracy can be rendered intelligible to these 8,000,000 until they can
+talk and read and write our language.
+
+"Steel and iron manufacturers employ 58 per cent of foreign-born
+helpers; the slaughtering and meat-packing trades, 61 per cent;
+bituminous coal mining, 62 per cent; the silk and dye trade, 34 per
+cent; glass-making enterprises, 38 per cent; woolen mills, 62 per cent;
+cotton factories, 69 per cent; the clothing business, 72 per cent; boot
+and shoe manufacturers, 27 per cent; leather tanners, 57 per cent;
+furniture factories, 59 per cent; glove manufacturers, 33 per cent;
+cigar and tobacco trades, 33 per cent; oil refiners, 67 per cent; and
+sugar refiners, 85 per cent.
+
+"You will agree with me that future security compels attention to such
+concentrations of unread, unsocialized masses thus conveniently and
+perilously grouped for misguidance.
+
+"They live in America, but America does not live in them. How can all be
+'free and equal' until they have free access to the same sources of
+self-help and an equal chance to secure them?
+
+"Illiteracy is a pick-and-shovel estate, a life sentence to meniality.
+Democracy may not have fixed classes and survive. The first duty of
+Congress is to preserve opportunity for the whole people, and
+opportunity can not exist where there is no means of information.
+
+"It is a shabby economy, an ungrateful economy that withholds funds for
+their betterment. The fields of France cry shame upon those who are
+content to abandon them to their handicap.
+
+"The loyal service of immigrant soldiers and sailors commit us to
+instruct and nationalize their brothers in breed.
+
+"The spirit in which these United States were conceived insists that the
+Republic remove the cruel disadvantage under which so many native borns
+despairingly carry on.
+
+"How may they reason soundly or plan sagely? The man who knows nothing
+of the past can find little in the future. The less he has gleaned from
+human experience the more he may be expected to duplicate its signal
+errors. No argument is too ridiculous for acceptance; no sophistry can
+seem far-fetched to a person without the sense to confound it.
+
+"Anarchy shall never want for mobs while the uninformed are left at the
+mercy of false prophets. Those who have no way to estimate the worth of
+America are unlikely to value its institutions fairly. Blind to facts,
+the wildest one-eyed argument can sway them.
+
+"Not until we can teach our illiterate millions the truths about the
+land to which they have come and in which they were born shall its
+spirit reach them--not until they can read can we set them right and
+empower them to inherit their estate.
+
+"If we continue to neglect them, there are influences at work that will
+sooner or later convince them who now fail to appreciate the worth of
+our Government that the Government itself has failed--crowd the melting
+pot with class hates and violence and befoul its yield.
+
+"We must not be tried by inquest. We demand the right to vindicate the
+merit of our systems wherever their integrity is questioned or maligned.
+
+"We demand the right to regulate the cheating scales upon which the
+Republic is weighed by its ill-wishers.
+
+"We demand the right to protect unintelligence from Esau bargains with
+hucksters of traitorous creeds.
+
+"We demand the right to present our case and our cause to the unlettered
+mass, whose benightedness and ready prejudices continually invite
+exploitation.
+
+"We demand the right to vaccinate credulous inexperience against
+Bolshevism and kindred plagues.
+
+"We demand the right to render all whose kind we deem fit to fight for
+our flag fit to vote and prosper under its folds.
+
+"We demand the right to bring the American language to every American,
+to qualify each inhabitant of these United States for self-determination,
+self-uplift, and self-defense."
+
+Dr. Philander P. Claxton, Commissioner of Education, in his analysis of
+the illiteracy figures of the census, said:
+
+"Illiteracy is not confined to any one race or class or section. Of the
+5,500,000 illiterates as reported by the census of 1910, nearly
+3,225,000 were whites, and more than 1,500,000 were native-born whites.
+
+"That illiteracy is not a problem of any one section alone is shown by
+the fact that in 1910 Massachusetts had 7,469 more illiterate men of
+voting age than Arkansas; Michigan, 2,663 more than West Virginia;
+Maryland, 2,352 more than Florida; Ohio, more than twice as many as New
+Mexico and Arizona combined; Pennsylvania, 5,689 more than Tennessee and
+Kentucky combined. Boston had more illiterates than Baltimore,
+Pittsburgh more than New Orleans, Fall River more than Birmingham,
+Providence nearly twice as many as Nashville, and the city of Washington
+5,000 more than the city of Memphis.
+
+"It is especially significant that of the 1,534,272 native-born white
+illiterates reported in the 1910 census 1,342,372, about 87.5 per cent,
+were in the open country and small towns, and only 191,900, or 12.5 per
+cent, were in cities having a population of 2,500 and over. Of the
+2,227,731 illiterate negroes 1,834,458, or 82.3 per cent, were in the
+country, and only 393,273, or 17.7 per cent, were in the cities."
+
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