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diff --git a/31711.txt b/31711.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a35916a --- /dev/null +++ b/31711.txt @@ -0,0 +1,23786 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Life of William Ewart Gladstone (Vol 3 +of 3) by John Morley + + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no +restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under +the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or +online at http://www.gutenberg.org/license + + + +Title: The Life of William Ewart Gladstone (Vol 3 of 3) + +Author: John Morley + +Release Date: March 20, 2010 [Ebook #31711] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: US-ASCII + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE (VOL 3 OF 3)*** + + + + + + The Life Of + + William Ewart Gladstone + + By + + John Morley + + In Three Volumes--Vol. III. + + (1890-1898) + + Toronto + + George N. Morang & Company, Limited + + Copyright, 1903 + + By The Macmillan Company + + + + + +CONTENTS + + +Book VIII. 1880-1885 + Chapter I. Opening Days Of The New Parliament. (1880) + Chapter II. An Episode In Toleration. (1880-1883) + Chapter III. Majuba. (1880-1881) + Chapter IV. New Phases Of The Irish Revolution. (1880-1882) + Chapter V. Egypt. (1881-1882) + Chapter VI. Political Jubilee. (1882-1883) + Chapter VII. Colleagues--Northern Cruise--Egypt. (1883) + Chapter VIII. Reform. (1884) + Chapter IX. The Soudan. (1884-1885) + Chapter X. Interior Of The Cabinet. (1895) + Chapter XI. Defeat Of Ministers. (May-June 1885) + Chapter XII. Accession Of Lord Salisbury. (1885) +Book IX. 1885-1886 + Chapter I. Leadership And The General Election. (1885) + Chapter II. The Polls In 1885. (1885) + Chapter III. A Critical Month (December 1885) + Chapter IV. Fall Of The First Salisbury Government. (January 1886) + Chapter V. The New Policy. (1886) + Chapter VI. Introduction Of The Bill. (1886) + Chapter VII. The Political Atmosphere. Defeat Of The Bill. (1886) +Book X. 1886-1892 + Chapter I. The Morrow Of Defeat. (1886-1887) + Chapter II. The Alternative Policy In Act. (1886-1888) + Chapter III. The Special Commission. (1887-1890) + Chapter IV. An Interim. (1889-1891) + Chapter V. Breach With Mr. Parnell. (1890-1891) + Chapter VI. Biarritz. (1891-1892) + Chapter VII. The Fourth Administration. (1892-1894) + Chapter VIII. Retirement From Public Life. (1894) + Chapter IX. The Close. (1894-1898) + Chapter X. Final. +Appendix + Irish Local Government, 1883. (Page 103) + General Gordon's Instructions. (Page 153) + The Military Position In The Soudan, April 1885. (Page 179) + Home Rule Bill, 1886. (Page 308) + On The Place Of Italy. (Page 415) + The Naval Estimates Of 1894. + Mr. Gladstone's Cabinet Colleagues. (Page 525) +Chronology +Footnotes + + + + + + +BOOK VIII. 1880-1885 + + + + +Chapter I. Opening Days Of The New Parliament. (1880) + + + Il y a bien du factice dans le classement politique des hommes. + --GUIZOT. + + There is plenty of what is purely artificial in the political + classification of men. + + + +I + + +On May 20, after eight-and-forty years of strenuous public life, Mr. +Gladstone met his twelfth parliament, and the second in which he had been +chief minister of the crown. "At 4.15," he records, "I went down to the +House with Herbert. There was a great and fervent crowd in Palace Yard, +and much feeling in the House. It almost overpowered me, as I thought by +what deep and hidden agencies I have been brought back into the midst of +the vortex of political action and contention. It has not been in my power +during these last six months to have made notes, as I would have wished, +of my own thoughts and observations from time to time; of the new access +of strength which in some important respects has been administered to me +in my old age; and of the remarkable manner in which Holy Scripture has +been applied to me for admonition and for comfort. Looking calmly on this +course of experience, I do believe that the Almighty has employed me for +His purposes in a manner larger or more special than before, and has +strengthened me and led me on accordingly, though I must not forget the +admirable saying of Hooker, that even ministers of good things are like +torches, a light to others, waste and destruction to themselves." + +One who approached his task in such a spirit as this was at least +impregnable to ordinary mortifications, and it was well; for before many +days were over it became perceptible that the new parliament and the new +majority would be no docile instrument of ministerial will. An acute chill +followed the discovery that there was to be no recall of Frere or Layard. +Very early in its history Speaker Brand, surveying his flock from the +august altitude of the Chair with an acute, experienced, and friendly eye, +made up his mind that the liberal party were "not only strong, but +determined to have their own way in spite of Mr. Gladstone. He has a +difficult team to drive." Two men of striking character on the benches +opposite quickly became formidable. Lord Randolph Churchill headed a +little group of four tories, and Mr. Parnell a resolute band of five and +thirty Irishmen, with momentous results both for ministers and for the +House of Commons. + +No more capable set of ruling men were ever got together than the cabinet +of 1880; no men who better represented the leading elements in the +country, in all their variety and strength. The great possessors of land +were there, and the heirs of long governing tradition were there; the +industrious and the sedate of the middle classes found their men seated at +the council board, by the side of others whose keen-sighted ambition +sought sources of power in the ranks of manual toil; the church saw one of +the most ardent of her sons upon the woolsack, and the most illustrious of +them in the highest place of all; the people of the chapel beheld with +complacency the rising man of the future in one who publicly boasted an +unbroken line of nonconformist descent. They were all men well trained in +the habits of business, of large affairs, and in experience of English +life; they were all in spite of difference of shade genuinely liberal; and +they all professed a devoted loyalty to their chief. The incident of the +resolutions on the eastern question(1) was effaced from all (M1) memories, +and men who in those days had assured themselves that there was no return +from Elba, became faithful marshals of the conquering hero. Mediocrity in +a long-lived cabinet in the earlier part of the century was the object of +Disraeli's keenest mockery. Still a slight ballast of mediocrity in a +government steadies the ship and makes for unity--a truth, by the way, that +Mr. Disraeli himself, in forming governments, sometimes conspicuously put +in practice. + +In fact Mr. Gladstone found that the ministry of which he stood at the +head was a coalition, and what was more, a coalition of that vexatious +kind, where those who happened not to agree sometimes seemed to be almost +as well pleased with contention as with harmony. The two sections were not +always divided by differences of class or station, for some of the peers +in the cabinet often showed as bold a liberalism as any of the commoners. +This notwithstanding, it happened on more than one critical occasion, that +all the peers _plus_ Lord Hartington were on one side, and all the +commoners on the other. Lord Hartington was in many respects the lineal +successor of Palmerston in his coolness on parliamentary reform, in his +inclination to stand in the old ways, in his extreme suspicion of what +savoured of sentiment or idealism or high-flown profession. But he was a +Palmerston who respected Mr. Gladstone, and desired to work faithfully +under him, instead of being a Palmerston who always intended to keep the +upper hand of him. Confronting Lord Hartington was Mr. Chamberlain, eager, +intrepid, self-reliant, alert, daring, with notions about property, +taxation, land, schools, popular rights, that he expressed with a +plainness and pungency of speech that had never been heard from a privy +councillor and cabinet minister before, that exasperated opponents, +startled the whigs, and brought him hosts of adherents among radicals out +of doors. It was at a very early stage in the existence of the government, +that this important man said to an ally in the cabinet, "I don't see how +we are to get on, if Mr. Gladstone goes." And here was the key to many +leading incidents, both during the life of this administration and for the +eventful year in Mr. Gladstone's career that followed its demise. + +The Duke of Argyll, who resigned very early, wrote to Mr. Gladstone after +the government was overthrown (Dec. 18, 1885), urging him in effect to +side definitely with the whigs against the radicals:-- + + + From the moment our government was fairly under way, I saw and + felt that speeches _outside_ were allowed to affect opinion, and + politically to commit the cabinet in a direction which was not + determined by you deliberately, or by the government as a whole, + but by the audacity ... of our new associates. Month by month I + became more and more uncomfortable, feeling that there was no + paramount direction--nothing but _slip_ and _slide_, what the + Scotch call "slithering." The outside world, knowing your great + gifts and powers, assume that you are dictator in your own + cabinet. And in one sense you are so, that is to say, that when + you choose to put your foot down, others will give way. But your + amiability to colleagues, your even extreme gentleness towards + them, whilst it has always endeared you to them personally, has + enabled men playing their own game ... to take out of your hands + the _formation_ of opinion. + + +On a connected aspect of the same thing, Mr. Gladstone wrote to Lord +Rosebery (Sept. 16, 1880):-- + + + ... All this is too long to bore people with--and yet it is not so + long, nor so interesting, as one at least of the subjects which we + just touched in conversation at Mentmore; the future of politics, + and the food they offer to the mind. What is outside parliament + seems to me to be fast mounting, nay to have already mounted, to + an importance much exceeding what is inside. Parliament deals with + laws, and branches of the social tree, not with the root. I always + admired Mrs. Grote's saying that politics and theology were the + only two really great subjects; it was wonderful considering the + atmosphere in which she had lived. I do not doubt which of the two + she would have put in the first place; and to theology I have no + doubt she would have given a wide sense, as including everything + that touches the relation between the seen and the unseen. + + +What is curious to note is that, though Mr. Gladstone in making his +cabinet had thrown the main weight against (M2) the radicals, yet when +they got to work, it was with them he found himself more often than not in +energetic agreement. In common talk and in partisan speeches, the prime +minister was regarded as dictatorial and imperious. The complaint of some +at least among his colleagues in the cabinet of 1880 was rather that he +was not imperious enough. Almost from the first he too frequently allowed +himself to be over-ruled; often in secondary matters, it is true, but +sometimes also in matters on the uncertain frontier between secondary and +primary. Then he adopted a practice of taking votes and counting numbers, +of which more than one old hand complained as an innovation. Lord +Granville said to him in 1886, "I think you too often counted noses in +your last cabinet." + +What Mr. Gladstone described as the severest fight that he had ever known +in any cabinet occurred in 1883, upon the removal of the Duke of +Wellington's statue from Hyde Park Corner. A vote took place, and three +times over he took down the names. He was against removal, but was unable +to have his own way over the majority. Members of the government thought +themselves curiously free to walk out from divisions. On a Transvaal +division two members of the cabinet abstained, and so did two other +ministers out of the cabinet. In other cases, the same thing happened, not +only breaking discipline, but breeding much trouble with the Queen. Then +an unusual number of men of ability and of a degree of self-esteem not +below their ability, had been left out of the inner circle; and they and +their backers were sometimes apt to bring their pretensions rather +fretfully forward. These were the things that to Mr. Gladstone's +temperament proved more harassing than graver concerns. + + + +II + + +All through the first two months of its business, the House showed signs +of independence that almost broke the spirit of the ministerial whips. A +bill about hares and rabbits produced lively excitement, ministerialists +moved amendments upon the measure of their own leaders, and the minister +in charge boldly taxed the mutineers with insincerity. A motion for local +option was carried by 229 to 203, both Mr. Gladstone and Lord Hartington +in the minority. On a motion about clerical restrictions, only a strong +and conciliatory appeal from the prime minister averted defeat. A more +remarkable demonstration soon followed. The Prince Imperial, unfortunate +son of unfortunate sire, who had undergone his famous baptism of fire in +the first reverses among the Vosges in the Franco-German war of 1870, was +killed in our war in Zululand. Parliament was asked to sanction a vote of +money for a memorial of him in the Abbey. A radical member brought forward +a motion against it. Both Mr. Gladstone and Sir Stafford Northcote +resisted him, yet by a considerable majority the radical carried his +point. The feeling was so strong among the ministerialists, that +notwithstanding Mr. Gladstone's earnest exhortation, they voted almost to +a man against him, and he only carried into the lobby ten official votes +on the treasury bench. + +The great case in which the government were taken to have missed the +import of the election was the failure to recall Sir Bartle Frere from +South Africa. Of this I shall have enough to say by and by. Meanwhile it +gave an undoubted shock to the confidence of the party, and their +energetic remonstrance on this head strained Mr. Gladstone's authority to +the uttermost. The Queen complained of the tendency of the House of +Commons to trench upon the business of the executive. Mr. Gladstone said +in reply generally, that no doubt within the half century "there had been +considerable invasion by the House of Commons of the province assigned by +the constitution to the executive," but he perceived no increase in recent +times or in the present House. Then he proceeded (June 8, 1880):-- + + + ... Your Majesty may possibly have in view the pressure which has + been exercised on the present government in the case of Sir Bartle + Frere. But apart from the fact that this pressure represents a + feeling which extends far beyond the walls of parliament, your + Majesty may probably remember that, in the early part of 1835, the + House of Commons addressed the crown against the appointment of + Lord Londonderry to be ambassador at St. Petersburg, on (M3) + account, if Mr. Gladstone remembers rightly, of a general + antecedent disapproval. This was an exercise of power going far + beyond what has happened now; nor does it seem easy in principle + to place the conduct of Sir B. Frere beyond that general right of + challenge and censure which is unquestionably within the function + of parliament and especially of the House of Commons. + + +In the field where mastery had never failed him, Mr. Gladstone achieved an +early success, and he lost no time in justifying his assumption of the +exchequer. The budget (June 10) was marked by the boldness of former days, +and was explained and defended in one of those statements of which he +alone possessed the secret. Even unfriendly witnesses agreed that it was +many years since the House of Commons had the opportunity of enjoying so +extraordinary an intellectual treat, where "novelties assumed the air of +indisputable truths, and complicated figures were woven into the thread of +intelligible and animated narrative." He converted the malt tax into a +beer duty, reduced the duties on light foreign wines, added a penny to the +income tax, and adjusted the licence duties for the sale of alcoholic +liquors. Everybody said that "none but a _cordon bleu_ could have made +such a sauce with so few materials." The dish was excellently received, +and the ministerial party were in high spirits. The conservatives stood +angry and amazed that their own leaders had found no device for the repeal +of the malt duty. The farmer's friends, they cried, had been in office for +six years and had done nothing; no sooner is Gladstone at the exchequer +than with magic wand he effects a transformation, and the long-suffering +agriculturist has justice and relief. + +In the course of an effort that seemed to show full vigour of body and +mind, Mr. Gladstone incidentally mentioned that when a new member he +recollected hearing a speech upon the malt tax in the old House of Commons +in the year 1833. Yet the lapse of nearly half a century of life in that +great arena had not relaxed his stringent sense of parliamentary duty. +During most of the course of this first session, he was always early in +his place and always left late. In every discussion he came to the front, +and though an under-secretary made the official reply, it was the prime +minister who wound up. One night he made no fewer than six speeches, +touching all the questions raised in a miscellaneous night's sitting. + +In the middle of the summer Mr. Gladstone fell ill. Consternation reigned +in London. It even exceeded the dismay caused by the defeat at Maiwand. A +friend went to see him as he lay in bed. "He talked most of the time, not +on politics, but on Shakespeare's Henry viii., and the decay of +theological study at Oxford. He never intended his reform measure to +produce this result." After his recovery, he went for a cruise in the +_Grantully Castle_, not returning to parliament until September 4, three +days before the session ended, when he spoke with all his force on the +eastern question. + + + +III + + +In the electoral campaign Mr. Gladstone had used expressions about Austria +that gave some offence at Vienna. On coming into power he volunteered an +assurance to the Austrian ambassador that he would willingly withdraw his +language if he understood that he had misapprehended the circumstances. +The ambassador said that Austria meant strictly to observe the treaty of +Berlin. Mr. Gladstone then expressed his regret for the words "of a +painful and wounding character" that had fallen from him. At the time, he +explained, he was "in a position of greater freedom and less +responsibility." + +At the close of the session of 1880, ministers went to work upon the +unfulfilled portions of the Berlin treaty relating to Greece and +Montenegro. Those stipulations were positive in the case of Montenegro; as +to Greece they were less definite, but they absolutely implied a cession +of more or less territory by Turkey. They formed the basis of Lord +Salisbury's correspondence, but his arguments and representations were +without effect. + +Mr. Gladstone and his colleagues went further. They proposed and obtained +a demonstration off the Albanian coast on behalf of Montenegro. Each great +Power sent a man-of-war, but the concert of Europe instantly became what +(M4) Mr. Gladstone called a farce, for Austria and Germany made known that +under no circumstances would they fire a shot. France rather less +prominently took the same course. This defection, which was almost +boastful on the part of Austria and Germany, convinced the British cabinet +that Turkish obduracy would only be overcome by force, and the question +was how to apply force effectually with the least risk to peace. As it +happened, the port of Smyrna received an amount of customs' duties too +considerable for the Porte to spare it. The idea was that the united fleet +at Cattaro should straightway sail to Smyrna and lay hold upon it. The +cabinet, with experts from the two fighting departments, weighed carefully +all the military responsibilities, and considered the sequestration of the +customs' dues at Smyrna to be practicable. Russia and Italy were friendly. +France had in a certain way assumed special cognisance of the Greek case, +but did nothing particular. From Austria and Germany nothing was to be +hoped. On October 4, the Sultan refused the joint European request for the +fulfilment of the engagements entered into at Berlin. This refusal was +despatched in ignorance of the intention to coerce. The British government +had only resolved upon coercion in concert with Europe. Full concert was +now out of the question. But on the morning of Sunday, the 10th, Mr. +Gladstone and Lord Granville learned with as much surprise as delight from +Mr. Goschen, then ambassador extraordinary at Constantinople, that the +Sultan had heard of the British proposal of force, and apparently had not +heard of the two refusals. On learning how far England had gone, he +determined to give way on both the territorial questions. As Mr. Gladstone +enters in his diary, "a faint tinge of doubt remained." That is to say, +the Sultan might find out the rift in the concert and retract. Russia, +however, had actually agreed to force. On Tuesday, the 12th, Mr. +Gladstone, meeting Lord Granville and another colleague, was "under the +circumstances prepared to proceed _en trois_." The other two "rather +differed." Of course it would have been for the whole cabinet to decide. +But between eleven and twelve Lord Granville came in with the news that +the note had arrived and all was well. "The whole of this extraordinary +volte-face," as Mr. Gladstone said with some complacency, "had been +effected within six days; and it was entirely due not to a threat of +coercion from Europe, but to the knowledge that Great Britain had asked +Europe to coerce." Dulcigno was ceded by the Porte to Montenegro. On the +Greek side of the case, the minister for once was less ardent than for the +complete triumph of his heroic Montenegrins, but after tedious +negotiations Mr. Gladstone had the satisfaction of seeing an important +rectification of the Greek frontier, almost restoring his Homeric Greece. +The eastern question looked as if it might fall into one of its fitful +slumbers once more, but we shall soon see that this was illusory. Mr. +Goschen left Constantinople in May, and the prime minister said to him +(June 3, 1881):-- + + + I write principally for the purpose of offering you my hearty + congratulations on the place you have taken in diplomacy by force + of mind and character, and on the services which, in thus far + serving the most honourable aims a man can have, you have rendered + to liberty and humanity. + + +Only in Afghanistan was there a direct reversal of the policy of the +fallen government. The new cabinet were not long in deciding on a return +to the older policy in respect of the north-west frontier of India. All +that had happened since it had been abandoned, strengthened the case +against the new departure. The policy that had been pursued amid so many +lamentable and untoward circumstances, including the destruction of a very +gallant agent of England at Cabul, had involved the incorporation of +Candahar within the sphere of the Indian system. Mr. Gladstone and his +cabinet determined on the evacuation of Candahar. The decision was made +public in the royal speech of the following January (1881). Lord +Hartington stated the case of the government with masterly and crushing +force, in a speech,(2) which is no less than a strong text-book of the +whole argument, if any reader should now desire to comprehend it. The +evacuation was censured in the Lords by 165 against 79; in the Commons +ministers carried the day by a majority of 120. + + + + +Chapter II. An Episode In Toleration. (1880-1883) + + + The state, in choosing men to serve it, takes no notice of their + opinions; if they be willing faithfully to serve it, that + satisfies. ... Take heed of being sharp, or too easily sharpened + by others, against those to whom you can object little but that + they square not with you in every opinion concerning matters of + religion. + + --OLIVER CROMWELL. + + + +I + + +One discordant refrain rang hoarsely throughout the five years of this +administration, and its first notes were heard even before Mr. Gladstone +had taken his seat. It drew him into a controversy that was probably more +distasteful to him than any other of the myriad contentions, small and +great, with which his life was encumbered. Whether or not he threaded his +way with his usual skill through a labyrinth of parliamentary tactics +incomparably intricate, experts may dispute, but in an ordeal beyond the +region of tactics he never swerved from the path alike of liberty and +common-sense. It was a question of exacting the oath of allegiance before +a member could take his seat. + +Mr. Bradlaugh, the new member for Northampton, who now forced the question +forward, as O'Connell had forced forward the civil equality of catholics, +and Rothschild and others the civil equality of Jews, was a free-thinker +of a daring and defiant type. Blank negation could go no further. He had +abundant and genuine public spirit, and a strong love of truth according +to his own lights, and he was both a brave and a disinterested man. This +hard-grit secularism of his was not the worst of his offences in the view +of the new majority and their constituents. He had published an +impeachment of the House of Brunswick, which few members of parliament had +ever heard of or looked at. But even abstract republicanism was not the +worst. What placed him at extreme disadvantage in fighting the battle in +which he was now engaged, was his republication of a pamphlet by an +American doctor on that impracticable question of population, which though +too rigorously excluded from public discussion, confessedly lies among the +roots of most other social questions. For this he had some years before +been indicted in the courts, and had only escaped conviction and +punishment by a technicality. It was Mr. Bradlaugh's refusal to take the +oath in a court of justice that led to the law of 1869, enabling a witness +to affirm instead of swearing. He now carried the principle a step +further. + +When the time came, the Speaker (April 29) received a letter from the +iconoclast, claiming to make an affirmation, instead of taking the oath of +allegiance.(3) He consulted his legal advisers, and they gave an opinion +strongly adverse to the claim. On this the Speaker wrote to Mr. Gladstone +and to Sir Stafford Northcote, stating his concurrence in the opinion of +the lawyers, and telling them that he should leave the question to the +House. His practical suggestion was that on his statement being made, a +motion should be proposed for a select committee. The committee was duly +appointed, and it reported by a majority of one, against a minority that +contained names so weighty as Sir Henry James, Herschell, Whitbread, and +Bright, that the claim to affirm was not a good claim. So opened a series +of incidents that went on as long as the parliament, clouded the radiance +of the party triumph, threw the new government at once into a minority, +dimmed the ascendency of the great minister, and what was more, showed +human nature at its worst. The incidents themselves are in detail not +worth recalling here, but they are a striking episode in the history of +toleration, as well as a landmark in Mr. Gladstone's journey from the day +five-and-forty years before when, in (M5) reference to Molesworth as +candidate for Leeds, he had told his friends at Newark that men who had no +belief in divine revelation were not the men to govern this nation whether +they be whigs or radicals.(4) + +His claim to affirm having been rejected, Bradlaugh next desired to swear. +The ministerial whip reported that the feeling against him in the House +was uncontrollable. The Speaker held a council in his library with Mr. +Gladstone, the law officers, the whip, and two or three other persons of +authority and sense. He told them that if Bradlaugh had in the first +instance come to take the oath, he should have allowed no intervention, +but that the case was altered by the claimant's open declaration that an +oath was not binding on his conscience. A hostile motion was expected when +Bradlaugh came to the table to be sworn, and the Speaker suggested that it +should be met by the previous question, to be moved by Mr. Gladstone. Then +the whip broke in with the assurance that the usual supporters of the +government could not be relied upon. The Speaker went upstairs to dress, +and on his return found that they had agreed on moving another select +committee. He told them that he thought this a weak course, but if the +previous question would be defeated, perhaps a committee could not be +helped. Bradlaugh came to the table, and the hostile motion was made. Mr. +Gladstone proposed his committee, and carried it by a good majority +against the motion that Bradlaugh, being without religious belief, could +not take an oath. The debate was warm, and the attacks on Bradlaugh were +often gross. The Speaker honourably pointed out that such attacks on an +elected member whose absence was enforced by their own order, were unfair +and unbecoming, but the feelings of the House were too strong for him and +too strong for chivalry. The opposition turned affairs to ignoble party +account, and were not ashamed in their prints and elsewhere to level the +charge of "open patronage of unbelief and Malthusianism, Bradlaugh and +Blasphemy," against a government that contained Gladstone, Bright, and +Selborne, three of the most conspicuously devout men to be found in all +England. One expression of faith used by a leader in the attack on +Bradlaugh lived in Mr. Gladstone's memory to the end of his days. "You +know, Mr. Speaker," cried the champion of orthodox creeds, "we all of us +believe in a God of some sort or another." That a man should consent to +clothe the naked human soul in this truly singular and scanty remnant of +spiritual apparel, was held to be the unalterable condition of fitness for +a seat in parliament and the company of decent people. Well might Mr. +Gladstone point out how vast a disparagement of Christianity, and of +orthodox theism also, was here involved:-- + + + They say this, that you may go any length you please in the denial + of religion, provided only you do not reject the name of the + Deity. They tear religion into shreds, so to speak, and say that + there is one particular shred with which nothing will ever induce + them to part. They divide religion into the dispensable and the + indispensable, and among that kind which can be dispensed with--I + am not now speaking of those who declare, or are admitted, under a + special law, I am not speaking of Jews or those who make a + declaration, I am speaking solely of those for whom no provision + is made except the provision of oath--they divide, I say, religion + into what can and what cannot be dispensed with. There is + something, however, that cannot be dispensed with. I am not + willing, Sir, that Christianity, if the appeal is made to us as a + Christian legislature, shall stand in any rank lower than that + which is indispensable. I may illustrate what I mean. Suppose a + commander has to despatch a small body of men on an expedition on + which it is necessary for them to carry on their backs all that + they can take with them; the men will part with everything that is + unnecessary, and take only that which is essential. That is the + course you ask us to take in drawing us upon theological ground; + you require us to distinguish between superfluities and + necessaries, and you tell us that Christianity is one of the + superfluities, one of the excrescences, and has nothing to do with + the vital substance, the name of the Deity, which is + indispensable. I say that the adoption of such a proposition as + that, which is in reality at the very root of your contention, is + disparaging in the very highest degree to the Christian + faith....(5) + + +(M6) Even viewed as a theistic test, he contended, this oath embraced no +acknowledgment of Providence, of divine government, of responsibility, or +retribution; it involved nothing but a bare and abstract admission, a form +void of all practical meaning and concern. + +The House, however, speedily showed how inaccessible were most of its +members to reason and argument of this kind or any kind. On June 21, Mr. +Gladstone thus described the proceedings to the Queen. "With the renewal +of the discussion," he wrote, "the temper of the House does not improve, +both excitement and suspicion appearing to prevail in different quarters." +A motion made by Mr. Bradlaugh's colleague that he should be permitted to +affirm, was met by a motion that he should not be allowed either to affirm +or to swear. + + + _To the Queen._ + + Many warm speeches were made by the opposition in the name of + religion; to those Mr. Bright has warmly replied in the name of + religious liberty. The contention on the other side really is that + as to a certain ill-defined fragment of truth the House is still, + under the Oaths Act, the guardian of religion. The primary + question, whether the House has jurisdiction under the statute, is + almost hopelessly mixed with the question whether an atheist, who + has declared himself an atheist, ought to sit in parliament. Mr. + Gladstone's own view is that the House has no jurisdiction for the + purpose of excluding any one willing to qualify when he has been + duly elected; but he is very uncertain how the House will vote or + what will be the end of the business, if the House undertakes the + business of exclusion. + + _June 22._--The House of Commons has been occupied from the + commencement of the evening until a late hour with the adjourned + debate on the case of Mr. Bradlaugh. The divided state of opinion + in the House made itself manifest throughout the evening. Mr. + Newdegate made a speech which turned almost wholly upon the + respective merits of theism and atheism. Mr. Gladstone thought it + his duty to advise the House to beware of entangling itself in + difficulties possibly of a serious character, by assuming a + jurisdiction in cases of this class. + + At one o'clock in the morning, the first great division was taken, + and the House resolved by 275 votes against 230 that Mr. Bradlaugh + should neither affirm nor swear. The excitement at this result was + tremendous. Some minutes elapsed before the Speaker could declare + the numbers. "Indeed," wrote Mr. Gladstone to the Queen, "it was + an ecstatic transport, and exceeded anything which Mr. Gladstone + remembers to have witnessed. He read in it only a witness to the + dangers of the course on which the House has entered, and to its + unfitness for the office which it has rashly chosen to assume." He + might also have read in it, if he had liked, the exquisite delight + of the first stroke of revenge for Midlothian. + + +The next day (June 23) the matter entered on a more violent phase. + + + _To the Queen._ + + This day, when the Speaker took the chair at a quarter past + twelve, Mr. Bradlaugh came to the table and claimed to take the + oath. The Speaker read to him the resolution of the House which + forbids it. Mr. Bradlaugh asked to be heard, and no objection was + taken. He then addressed the House from the bar. His address was + that of a consummate speaker. But it was an address which could + not have any effect unless the House had undergone a complete + revolution of mind. He challenged the legality of the act of the + House, expressing hereby an opinion in which Mr. Gladstone + himself, going beyond some other members of the minority, has the + misfortune to lean towards agreeing with him.... The Speaker now + again announced to Mr. Bradlaugh the resolution of the House. Only + a small minority voted against enforcing it. Mr. Bradlaugh + declining to withdraw, was removed by the serjeant-at-arms. Having + suffered this removal, he again came beyond the bar, and entered + into what was almost a corporal struggle with the serjeant. + Hereupon Sir S. Northcote moved that Mr. Bradlaugh be committed + for his offence. Mr. Gladstone said that while he thought it did + not belong to him, under the circumstances of the case, to advise + the House, he could take no objection to the advice thus given. + + +The Speaker, it may be said, thought this view of (M7) Mr. Gladstone's a +mistake, and that when Bradlaugh refused to withdraw, the leader of the +House ought, as a matter of policy, to have been the person to move first +the order to withdraw, next the committal to the custody of the +serjeant-at-arms. "I was placed in a false position," says the Speaker, +"and so was the House, in having to follow the lead of the leader of the +opposition, while the leader of the House and the great majority were +passive spectators."(6) As Mr. Gladstone and other members of the +government voted for Bradlaugh's committal, on the ground that his +resistance to the serjeant had nothing to do with the establishment of his +rights before either a court or his constituency, it would seem that the +Speaker's complaint is not unjust. To this position, however, Mr. +Gladstone adhered, in entire conformity apparently to the wishes of the +keenest members of his cabinet and the leading men of his party. + +The Speaker wrote to Sir Stafford Northcote urging on him the propriety of +allowing Bradlaugh to take the oath without question. But Northcote was +forced on against his better judgment by his more ardent supporters. It +was a strange and painful situation, and the party system assuredly did +not work at its best--one leading man forced on to mischief by the least +responsible of his sections, the other held back from providing a cure by +the narrowest of the other sections. In the April of 1881 Mr. Gladstone +gave notice of a bill providing for affirmation, but it was immediately +apparent that the opposition would make the most of every obstacle to a +settlement, and the proposal fell through. In August of this year the +Speaker notes, "The difficulties in the way of settling this question +satisfactorily are great, and in the present temper of the House almost +insuperable." + + + +II + + +It is not necessary to recount all the stages of this protracted struggle: +what devices and expedients and motions, how many odious scenes of +physical violence, how many hard-fought actions in the lawcourts, how many +conflicts between the House of Commons and the constituency, what glee and +rubbing of hands in the camp of the opposition at having thrust their +rivals deep into a quagmire so unpleasant. The scandal was intolerable, +but ministers were helpless, as a marked incident now demonstrated. It was +not until 1883 that a serious attempt was made to change the law. The +Affirmation bill of that year has a biographic place, because it marks in +a definite way how far Mr. Gladstone's mind--perhaps not, as I have said +before, by nature or by instinct peculiarly tolerant--had travelled along +one of the grand highroads of human progress. The occasion was for many +reasons one of great anxiety. Here are one or two short entries, the +reader remembering that by this time the question was two years old:-- + + + _April 24, Tuesday._--On Sunday night a gap of three hours in my + sleep was rather ominous; but it was not repeated.... Saw the + Archbishop of Canterbury, with whom I had a very long conversation + on the Affirmation bill and on _Church and State_. Policy + generally as well as on special subjects.... Globe Theatre in the + evening; excellent acting.... 25.... Worked on Oaths question.... + 26.... Made a long and _begeistert_(7) speech on the Affirmation + bill, taking the bull by the horns. + + +His speech upon this measure was a noble effort. It was delivered under +circumstances of unsurpassed difficulty, for there was revolt in the +party, the client was repugnant, the opinions brought into issue were to +Mr. Gladstone hateful. Yet the speech proved one of his greatest. +Imposing, lofty, persuasive, sage it would have been, from whatever lips +it might have fallen; it was signal indeed as coming from one so fervid, +so definite, so unfaltering in a faith of his own, one who had started +from the opposite pole to that great civil principle of which he now +displayed a grasp invincible. If it be true of a writer that the best +style is that which most directly flows from living qualities in the +writer's own mind and is a pattern of their actual working, so is the same +thing to be said of oratory. These high themes of Faith, on the one hand, +and Freedom on the (M8) other, exactly fitted the range of the thoughts in +which Mr. Gladstone habitually lived. "I have no fear of Atheism in this +House," he said; "Truth is the expression of the Divine mind, and however +little our feeble vision may be able to discern the means by which God may +provide for its preservation, we may leave the matter in His hands, and we +may be sure that a firm and courageous application of every principle of +equity and of justice is the best method we can adopt for the preservation +and influence of Truth." This was Mr. Gladstone at his sincerest and his +highest. I wonder, too, if there has been a leader in parliament since the +seventeenth century, who could venture to address it in the strain of the +memorable passage now to be transcribed:-- + + + You draw your line at the point where the abstract denial of God + is severed from the abstract admission of the Deity. My + proposition is that the line thus drawn is worthless, and that + much on your side of the line is as objectionable as the atheism + on the other. If you call upon us to make distinctions, let them + at least be rational; I do not say let them be Christian + distinctions, but let them be rational. I can understand one + rational distinction, that you should frame the oath in such a way + as to recognise not only the existence of the Deity, but the + providence of the Deity, and man's responsibility to the Deity; + and in such a way as to indicate the knowledge in a man's own mind + that he must answer to the Deity for what he does, and is able to + do. But is that your present rule? No, Sir, you know very well + that from ancient times there have been sects and schools that + have admitted in the abstract as freely as Christians the + existence of a Deity, but have held that of practical relations + between Him and man there can be none. Many of the members of this + House will recollect the majestic and noble lines-- + + Omnis enim per se divom natura necesse est + Immortali aevo summa cum pace fruatur, + Semota a nostris rebus sejunctaque longe. + Nam privata dolore omni, privata periclis, + Ipsa suis pollens opibus, nihil indiga nostri, + Nec bene promeritis capitur, nec tangitur ira.(8) + + "Divinity exists"--according to these, I must say, magnificent + lines--"in remote and inaccessible recesses; but with, us it has no + dealing, of us it has no need, with us it has no relation." I do + not hesitate to say that the specific evil, the specific form of + irreligion, with which in the educated society of this country you + have to contend, and with respect to which you ought to be on your + guard, is not blank atheism. That is a rare opinion very seldom + met with; but what is frequently met with is that form of opinion + which would teach us that, whatever may be beyond the visible + things of this world, whatever there may be beyond this short span + of life, you know and you can know nothing of it, and that it is a + bootless undertaking to attempt to establish relations with it. + That is the mischief of the age, and that mischief you do not + attempt to touch. + + +The House, though but few perhaps recollected their Lucretius or had ever +even read him, sat, as I well remember, with reverential stillness, +hearkening from this born master of moving cadence and high sustained +modulation to "the rise and long roll of the hexameter,"--to the plangent +lines that have come down across the night of time to us from great Rome. +But all these impressions of sublime feeling and strong reasoning were +soon effaced by honest bigotry, by narrow and selfish calculation, by flat +cowardice. The relieving bill was cast out by a majority of three. The +catholics in the main voted against it, and many nonconformists, +hereditary champions of all the rights of private judgment, either voted +against it or did not vote at all. So soon in these affairs, as the world +has long ago found out, do bodies of men forget in a day of power the +maxims that they held sacred and inviolable in days when they were weak. + +The drama did not end here. In that parliament Bradlaugh was never allowed +to discharge his duty as a member, but when after the general election of +1885, being once more chosen by Northampton, he went to the table to take +the oath, as in former days Mill and others of like non-theologic +complexion had taken it, the Speaker would suffer no intervention against +him. Then in 1888, though the majority was conservative, Bradlaugh himself +secured the passing of an affirmation (M9) law. Finally, in the beginning +of 1891, upon the motion of a Scotch member, supported by Mr. Gladstone, +the House formally struck out from its records the resolution of June 22, +1881, that had been passed, as we have seen, amid "ecstatic transports." +Bradlaugh then lay upon his deathbed, and was unconscious of what had been +done. Mr. Gladstone a few days later, in moving a bill of his own to +discard a lingering case of civil disability attached to religious +profession, made a last reference to Mr. Bradlaugh:-- + + + A distinguished man, he said, and admirable member of this House, + was laid yesterday in his mother-earth. He was the subject of a + long controversy in this House--a controversy the beginning of + which we recollect, and the ending of which we recollect. We + remember with what zeal it was prosecuted; we remember how + summarily it was dropped; we remember also what reparation has + been done within the last few days to the distinguished man who + was the immediate object of that controversy. But does anybody who + hears me believe that that controversy, so prosecuted and so + abandoned, was beneficial to the Christian religion?(9) + + + + +Chapter III. Majuba. (1880-1881) + + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. + + --AEsch. _Prom._ 1078. + + In a boundless coil of mischief pure senselessness will entangle + you. + + + +I + + +It would almost need the pen of Tacitus or Dante to tell the story of +European power in South Africa. For forty years, said Mr. Gladstone in +1881, "I have always regarded the South African question as the one great +unsolved and perhaps insoluble problem of our colonial system." Among the +other legacies of the forward policy that the constituencies had +decisively condemned in 1880, this insoluble problem rapidly became acute +and formidable. + +One of the great heads of impeachment in Midlothian had been a war +undertaken in 1878-9 against a fierce tribe on the borders of the colony +of Natal. The author and instrument of the Zulu war was Sir Bartle Frere, +a man of tenacious character and grave and lofty if ill-calculated aims. +The conservative government, as I have already said,(10) without +enthusiasm assented, and at one stage they even formally censured him. +When Mr. Gladstone acceded to office, the expectation was universal that +Sir Bartle would be at once recalled. At the first meeting of the new +cabinet (May 3) it was decided to retain him. The prime minister at first +was his marked protector. The substantial reason against recall was that +his presence was needed to carry out the policy of confederation, and +towards confederation it was hoped that the Cape parliament was +immediately about to take (M10) a long preliminary step. "Confederation," +Mr. Gladstone said, "is the pole-star of the present action of our +government." In a few weeks, for a reason that will be mentioned in +treating the second episode of this chapter, confederation broke down. A +less substantial but still not wholly inoperative reason was the strong +feeling of the Queen for the high commissioner. The royal prepossessions +notwithstanding, and in spite of the former leanings of Mr. Gladstone, the +cabinet determined, at the end of July, that Sir Bartle should be +recalled. The whole state of the case is made sufficiently clear in the +two following communications from the prime minister to the Queen:-- + + + _To the Queen._ + + _May 28, 1880._--Mr. Gladstone presents his humble duty, and has + had the honour to receive your Majesty's telegram respecting Sir + B. Frere. Mr. Gladstone used on Saturday his best efforts to avert + a movement for his dismissal, which it was intended by a powerful + body of members on the liberal side to promote by a memorial to + Mr. Gladstone, and by a motion in the House. He hopes that he has + in some degree succeeded, and he understands that it is to be + decided on Monday whether they will at present desist or + persevere. Of course no sign will be given by your Majesty's + advisers which could tend to promote perseverance, at the same + time Mr. Gladstone does not conceal from himself two things: the + first, that the only chance of Sir B. Frere's remaining seems to + depend upon his ability to make progress in the matter of + confederation; the second, that if the agitation respecting him in + the House, the press, and the country should continue, confidence + in him may be so paralysed as to render his situation intolerable + to a high-minded man and to weaken his hands fatally for any + purpose of good. + + _July 29, 1880._--It was not without some differences of opinion + among themselves that, upon their accession to office, the cabinet + arrived at the conclusion that, if there was a prospect of + progress in the great matter of confederation, this might afford a + ground of co-operation between them and Sir B. Frere, + notwithstanding the strong censures which many of them in + opposition had pronounced upon his policy. This conclusion gave + the liveliest satisfaction to a large portion, perhaps to the + majority, of the House of Commons; but they embraced it with the + more satisfaction because of your Majesty's warm regard for Sir B. + Frere, a sentiment which some among them personally share. + + It was evident, however, and it was perhaps in the nature of the + case, that a confidence thus restricted was far from agreeable to + Sir B. Frere, who, in the opinion of Mr. Gladstone, has only been + held back by a commendable self-restraint and sense of duty, from + declaring himself aggrieved. Thus, though the cabinet have done + the best they could, his standing ground was not firm, nor could + they make it so. But the total failure of the effort made to + induce the Cape parliament to move, has put confederation wholly + out of view, for a time quite indefinite, and almost certainly + considerable. Mr. Gladstone has therefore the painful duty of + submitting to your Majesty, on behalf of the Cabinet, the enclosed + copy of a ciphered telegram of recall. + + + +II + + +The breaking of the military power of the Zulus was destined to prove much +less important than another proceeding closely related to it, though not +drawing the same attention at the moment. I advise the reader not to +grudge a rather strict regard to the main details of transactions that, +owing to unhappy events of later date, have to this day held a conspicuous +place in the general controversy as to the great minister's statesmanship. + +For some time past, powerful native tribes had been slowly but steadily +pushing the Boers of the Transvaal back, and the inability to resist was +now dangerously plain. In 1876 the Boers had been worsted in one of their +incessant struggles with the native races, and this time they had barely +been able to hold their own against an insignificant tribe of one of the +least warlike branches. It was thought certain by English officials on the +ground, that the example would not be lost on fiercer warriors, and that a +native conflagration might any day burst into blaze in other regions of +the immense territory. The British government despatched an agent of great +local experience; he found the Boer (M11) government, which was loosely +organised even at its best, now completely paralysed, without money, +without internal authority, without defensive power against external foes. +In alarm at the possible result of such a situation on the peace of the +European domain in South Africa, he proclaimed the sovereignty of the +Queen, and set up an administration. This he was empowered by secret +instructions to do, if he should think fit. Here was the initial error. +The secretary of state in Downing Street approved (June 21, 1877), on the +express assumption that a sufficient number of the inhabitants desired to +become the Queen's subjects. Some have thought that if he had waited the +Boers would have sought annexation, but this seems to be highly +improbable. In the annexation proclamation promises were made to the Boers +of 'the fullest legislative privileges compatible with the circumstances +of the country and the intelligence of the people.' An assembly was also +promised. + +The soundness of the assumption was immediately disputed. The Boer +government protested against annexation. Two delegates--one of them Mr. +Kruger--repaired to England, assured Lord Carnarvon that their fellow-Boers +were vehemently opposed to annexation, and earnestly besought its +reversal. The minister insisted that he was right and they were wrong. +They went back, and in order to convince the government of the true +strength of feeling for independence, petitions were prepared seeking the +restoration of independence. The signatures were those of qualified +electors of the old republic. The government were informed by Sir Garnet +Wolseley that there were about 8000 persons of the age to be electors, of +whom rather fewer than 7000 were Boers. To the petitions were appended +almost exactly 7000 names. The colonial office recognised that the +opposition of the Boers to annexation was practically unanimous. The +comparatively insignificant addresses on the other side came from the town +and digging population, which was as strong in favour of the suppression +of the old republic, as the rural population was strong against it. + +For many months the Boers persevered. They again sent Kruger and Joubert +to England; they held huge mass meetings; they poured out prayers to the +high commissioner to give back their independence; they sent memorial +after memorial to the secretary of state. In the autumn of 1879 Sir Garnet +Wolseley assumed the administration of the Transvaal, and issued a +proclamation setting forth the will and determination of the government of +the Queen that this Transvaal territory should be, and should continue to +be for ever, an integral part of her dominions in South Africa. In the +closing days of 1879 the secretary of state, Sir Michael Hicks Beach, who +had succeeded Carnarvon (Jan. 1878), received from the same eminent +soldier a comprehensive despatch, warning him that the meetings of protest +against annexation, attended by thousands of armed men in angry mood, +would be likely to end in a serious explosion. While putting all sides of +the question before his government, Sir Garnet inserted one paragraph of +momentous import. "The Transvaal," he said, "is rich in minerals; gold has +already been found in quantities, and there can be little doubt that +larger and still more valuable goldfields will sooner or later be +discovered. Any such discovery would soon bring a large British population +here. The time must eventually arrive when the Boers will be in a small +minority, as the country is very sparsely peopled, and would it not +therefore be a very near-sighted policy to recede now from the position we +have taken up here, simply because for some years to come, the retention +of 2000 or 3000 troops may be necessary to reconsolidate our power?"(11) +This pregnant and far-sighted warning seems to have been little considered +by English statesmen of either party at this critical time or afterwards, +though it proved a vital element in any far-sighted decision. + +On March 9--the day, as it happened, on which the intention to dissolve +parliament was made public--Sir Garnet telegraphed for a renewed expression +of the determination of the government to retain the country, and he +received the assurance that he sought. The Vaal river, he told the Boers, +would flow backwards through the Drakensberg sooner than the British would +be withdrawn from the Transvaal. The picturesque figure did not soften the +Boer heart. (M12) This was the final share of the conservative cabinet in +the unfortunate enterprise on which they had allowed the country to be +launched. + + + +III + + +When the question of annexation had originally come before parliament, Mr. +Gladstone was silent. He was averse to it; he believed that it would +involve us in unmixed mischief; but he felt that to make this judgment +known at that period would not have had any effect towards reversing what +had been done, while it might impede the chances of a good issue, slender +as these might be.(12) In the discussion at the opening of the final +session of the old parliament, Lord Hartington as leader of the +opposition, enforcing the general doctrine that it behoved us to +concentrate our resources, and to limit instead of extending the empire, +took the Transvaal for an illustration. It was now conclusively proved, he +said, that a large majority of the Boers were bitterly against annexation. +That being so, it ought not to be considered a settled question merely +because annexation had taken place; and if we should find that the balance +of advantage was in favour of the restoration of independence, no false +sense of dignity should stand in the way. Mr. Gladstone in Midlothian had +been more reserved. In that indictment, there are only two or three +references, and those comparatively fugitive and secondary, to this +article of charge. There is a sentence in one of the Midlothian speeches +about bringing a territory inhabited by a free European Christian republic +within the limits of a monarchy, though out of 8000 persons qualified to +vote, 6500 voted against it. In another sentence he speaks of the +Transvaal as a country "where we have chosen most unwisely, I am tempted +to say insanely, to place ourselves in the strange predicament of the free +subjects of a monarchy going to coerce the free subjects of a republic, +and to compel them to accept a citizenship which they decline and refuse; +but if that is to be done, it must be done by force."(13) A third sentence +completes the tale: "If Cyprus and the Transvaal were as valuable as they +are valueless, I would repudiate them because they are obtained by means +dishonourable to the character of the country." These utterances of the +mighty unofficial chief and the responsible official leader of the +opposition were all. The Boer republicans thought that they were enough. + +On coming into power, the Gladstone government found the official evidence +all to the effect that the political aspect of the Transvaal was decidedly +improving. The commissioners, the administrators, the agents, were +unanimous. Even those among them who insisted on the rooted dislike of the +main body of the Boers to British authority, still thought that they were +acquiescing, exactly as the Boers in the Cape Colony had acquiesced. Could +ministers justify abandonment, without far stronger evidence than they +then possessed that they could not govern the Transvaal peaceably? Among +other things, they were assured that abandonment would be fatal to the +prospects of confederation, and might besides entail a civil war. On May +7, Sir Bartle Frere pressed the new ministers for an early announcement of +their policy, in order to prevent the mischiefs of agitation. The cabinet +decided the question on May 12, and agreed upon the terms of a +telegram(14) by which Lord Kimberley was to inform Frere that the +sovereignty of the Queen over the Transvaal could not be relinquished, but +that he hoped the speedy accomplishment of confederation would enable free +institutions to be conferred with promptitude. In other words, in spite of +all that had been defiantly said by Lord Hartington, and more cautiously +implied by Mr. Gladstone, the new government at once placed themselves +exactly in the position of the old one.(15) + +The case was stated in his usual nervous language by Mr. Chamberlain a few +months later.(16) "When we came into office," (M13) he said, "we were all +agreed that the original annexation was a mistake, that it ought never to +have been made; and there arose the question could it then be undone? We +were in possession of information to the effect that the great majority of +the people of the Transvaal were reconciled to annexation; we were told +that if we reversed the decision of the late government, there would be a +great probability of civil war and anarchy; and acting upon these +representations, we decided that we could not recommend the Queen to +relinquish her sovereignty. But we assured the Boers that we would take +the earliest opportunity of granting to them the freest and most complete +local institutions compatible with the welfare of South Africa. It is easy +to be wise after the event. It is easy to see now that we were wrong in so +deciding. I frankly admit we made a mistake. Whatever the risk was, and I +believe it was a great risk, of civil war and anarchy in the Transvaal, it +was not so great a danger as that we actually incurred by maintaining the +wrong of our predecessors." Such was the language used by Mr. Chamberlain +after special consultation with Lord Kimberley. With characteristic +tenacity and that aversion ever to yield even the smallest point, which +comes to a man saturated with the habit of a lifetime of debate, Mr. +Gladstone wrote to Mr. Chamberlain (June 8, 1881): "I have read with +pleasure what you say of the Transvaal. Yet I am not prepared, for myself, +to concede that we made a mistake in not advising a revocation of the +annexation when we came in." + +At this instant a letter reached Mr. Gladstone from Kruger and Joubert +(May 10, 1880), telling him that there was a firm belief among their +people that truth prevailed. "They were confident that one day or another, +by the mercy of the Lord, the reins of the imperial government would be +entrusted again to men who look out for the honour and glory of England, +not by acts of injustice and crushing force, but by the way of justice and +good faith. And, indeed, this belief has proven to be a good belief." It +would have been well for the Boers and well for us, if that had indeed +been so. Unluckily the reply sent in Mr. Gladstone's name (June 15), +informed them that obligations had now been contracted, especially towards +the natives, that could not be set aside, but that consistently with the +maintenance of the Queen's sovereignty over the Transvaal, ministers +desired that the white inhabitants should enjoy the fullest liberty to +manage their local affairs. "We believe that this liberty may be most +easily and promptly conceded to the Transvaal, as a member of a South +African confederation." Solemn and deliberate as this sounds, no step +whatever was effectively taken towards conferring this full liberty, or +any liberty at all. + +It is worth while, on this material point, to look back. The original +proclamation had promised the people the fullest legislative privileges +compatible with the circumstances of the country and the intelligence of +the people. Then, at a later date (April 1877), Sir Bartle Frere met a +great assemblage of Boers, and told them that they should receive, as soon +as circumstances rendered it practicable, as large a measure of +self-government as was enjoyed by any colony in South Africa.(17) The +secretary of state had also spoken to the same effect. During the short +period in which Sir Bartle Frere was connected with the administration of +the Transvaal, he earnestly pressed upon the government the necessity for +redeeming the promises made at the time of annexation, "of the same +measure of perfect self-government now enjoyed by Cape Colony," always, of +course, under the authority of the crown.(18) As the months went on, no +attempt was made to fulfil all these solemn pledges, and the Boers +naturally began to look on them as so much mockery. Their anger in turn +increased the timidity of government, and it was argued that the first use +that the Boers would make of a free constitution would be to stop the +supplies. So a thing called an Assembly was set up (November 9, 1879), +composed partly of British officers and partly of nominated members. This +was a complete falsification of a whole set of our national promises. +Still annexation might conceivably have been (M14) accepted, even the +sting might have been partially taken out of the delay of the promised +free institutions, if only the administration had been considerate, +judicious, and adapted to the ways and habits of the people. Instead of +being all these things it was stiff, headstrong, and intensely stupid.(19) + +The value of the official assurances from agents on the spot that +restoration of independence would destroy the chances of confederation, +and would give fuel to the fires of agitation, was speedily tested. It was +precisely these results that flowed from the denial of independence. The +incensed Boer leaders worked so successfully on the Cape parliament +against confederation, that this favourite panacea was indefinitely hung +up. Here, again, it is puzzling to know why ministers did not retrace +their steps. Here, again, their blind guides in the Transvaal persisted +that they knew the road; persisted that with the exception of a turbulent +handful, the Boers of the Transvaal only sighed for the enjoyment of the +_pax britannica_, or, if even that should happen to be not quite true, at +any rate they were incapable of united action, were mortal cowards, and +could never make a stand in the field. While folly of this kind was +finding its way by every mail to Downing Street, violent disturbances +broke out in the collection of taxes. Still Sir Owen Lanyon--who had been +placed in control in the Transvaal in March 1879--assured Lord Kimberley +that no serious trouble would arise (November 14). At the end of the month +he still denies that there is much or any cause for anxiety. In December +several thousands of Boers assembled at Paardekraal, declared for the +restoration of their republic, and a general rising followed. Colley, who +had succeeded General Wolseley as governor of Natal and high commissioner +for south-east Africa, had been so little prepared for this, that at the +end of August he had recommended a reduction of the Transvaal +garrisons,(20) and even now he thought the case so little serious that he +contented himself (December 4) with ordering four companies to march for +the Transvaal. Then he and Lanyon began to get alarmed, and with good +reason. The whole country, except three or four beleaguered British posts, +fell into the hands of the Boers. + +The pleas for failure to take measures to conciliate the Boers in the +interval between Frere's recall and the outbreak, were that Sir Hercules +Robinson had not arrived;(21) that confederation was not yet wholly given +up; that resistance to annexation was said to be abating; that time was in +our favour; that the one thing indispensable to conciliate the Boers was a +railway to Delagoa Bay; that this needed a treaty, and we hoped soon to +get Portugal to ratify a treaty, and then we might tell the Boers that we +should soon make a survey, with a view at some early date to proceed with +the project, and thus all would in the end come right. So a fresh page was +turned in the story of loitering unwisdom. + + + +IV + + +On December 6, Mr. Brand, the sagacious president of the Orange Free +State, sent a message of anxious warning to the acting governor at Cape +Town, urging that means should be devised to avert an imminent collision. +That message, which might possibly have wakened up the colonial office to +the real state of the case, did not reach London until December 30. +Excuses for this fatal delay were abundant: a wire was broken; the +governor did not think himself concerned with Transvaal affairs; he sent +the message on to the general, supposing that the general would send it on +home; and so forth. For a whole string of the very best reasons in the +world the message that (M15) might have prevented the outbreak, arrived +through the slow post at Whitehall just eleven days after the outbreak had +begun. Members of the legislature at the Cape urged the British government +to send a special commissioner to inquire and report. The policy of giving +consideration to the counsels of the Cape legislature had usually been +pursued by the wiser heads concerned in South African affairs, and when +the counsels of the chief of the Free State were urgent in the same +direction, their weight should perhaps have been decisive. Lord Kimberley, +however, did not think the moment opportune (Dec. 30).(22) Before many +weeks, as it happened, a commission was indeed sent, but unfortunately not +until after the mischief had been done. Meanwhile in the Queen's speech a +week later an emphatic paragraph announced that the duty of vindicating +her Majesty's authority had set aside for the time any plan for securing +to European settlers in the Transvaal full control over their own local +affairs. Seldom has the sovereign been made the mouthpiece of an utterance +more shortsighted. + +Again the curtain rose upon a new and memorable act. Four days after the +Queen's speech, President Brand a second time appeared upon the scene +(Jan. 10, 1881), with a message hoping that an effort would be made +without the least delay to prevent further bloodshed. Lord Kimberley +replied that provided the Boers would desist from their armed opposition, +the government did not despair of making a satisfactory settlement. Two +days later (Jan. 12) the president told the government that not a moment +should be lost, and some one (say Chief Justice de Villiers) should be +sent to the Transvaal burghers by the government, to stop further +collision and with a clear and definite proposal for a settlement. +"Moments," he said, "are precious." For twelve days these precious moments +passed. On Jan. 26 the secretary of state informed the high commissioner +at Cape Town, now Sir Hercules Robinson, that President Brand pressed for +the offer of terms and conditions to the Boers through Robinson, "provided +they cease from armed opposition, making it clear to them how this is to +be understood." On this suggestion he instructed Robinson to inform Brand +that if armed opposition should at once cease, the government "would +thereupon endeavour to frame such a scheme as in their belief would +satisfy all friends of the Transvaal community." Brand promptly advised +that the Boers should be told of this forthwith, before the satisfactory +arrangements proposed had been made more difficult by further collision. +This was on Jan. 29. Unhappily on the very day before, the British force +had been repulsed at Laing's Nek. Colley, on Jan. 23, had written to +Joubert, calling on the Boer leaders to disperse, informing them that +large forces were already arriving from England and India, and assuring +them that if they would dismiss their followers, he would forward to +London any statement of their grievances. It would have been a great deal +more sensible to wait for an answer. Instead of waiting for an answer +Colley attacked (Jan. 28) and was beaten back--the whole proceeding a +rehearsal of a still more disastrous error a month later. + +Brand was now more importunate than ever, earnestly urging on General +Colley that the nature of the scheme should be made known to the Boers, +and a guarantee undertaken that if they submitted they would not be +treated as rebels. "I have replied," Colley tells Lord Kimberley, "that I +can give no such assurance, and can add nothing to your words." In other +correspondence he uses grim language about the deserts of some of the +leaders. On this Mr. Gladstone, writing to Lord Kimberley (Feb. 5), says +truly enough, "Colley with a vengeance counts his chickens before they are +hatched, and his curious letter throws some light backward on the +proceedings in India. His line is singularly wide of ours." The secretary +of state, finding barrack-room rigidity out of place, directs Colley (Feb. +8) to inform Brand (M16) that the government would be ready to give all +reasonable guarantees as to treatment of Boers after submission, if they +ceased from armed opposition, and a scheme would be framed for permanent +friendly settlement. As it happened, on the day on which this was +despatched from Downing Street, Colley suffered a second check at the +Ingogo River (Feb. 8). Let us note that he was always eager in his +recognition of the readiness and promptitude of the military support from +the government at home.(23) + +Then an important move took place from the other quarter. The Boers made +their first overture. It came in a letter from Kruger to Colley (Feb. 12). +Its purport was fairly summarised by Colley in a telegram to the colonial +secretary, and the pith of it was that Kruger and his Boers were so +certain of the English government being on their side if the truth only +reached them, that they would not fear the result of inquiry by a royal +commission, and were ready, if troops were ordered to withdraw from the +Transvaal, to retire from their position, and give such a commission a +free passage. This telegram reached London on Feb. 13th, and on the 15th +it was brought before the cabinet. + +Mr. Gladstone immediately informed the Queen (Feb. 15) that viewing the +likelihood of early and sanguinary actions, Lord Kimberley thought that +the receipt of such an overture at such a juncture, although its terms +were inadmissible, made it a duty to examine whether it afforded any hope +of settlement. The cabinet were still more strongly inclined towards +coming to terms. Any other decision would have broken up the government, +for on at least one division in the House on Transvaal affairs Mr. Bright +and Mr. Chamberlain, along with three other ministers not in the cabinet, +had abstained from voting. Colley was directed (Feb. 16) to inform the +Boers that on their desisting from armed opposition, the government would +be ready to send commissioners to develop a scheme of settlement, and that +meanwhile if this proposal were accepted, the English general was +authorised to agree to the suspension of hostilities. This was in +substance a conditional acceptance of the Boer overture.(24) On the same +day the general was told from the war office that, as respected the +interval before receiving a reply from Mr. Kruger, the government did not +bind his discretion, but "we are anxious for your making arrangements to +avoid effusion of blood." The spirit of these instructions was clear. A +week later (Feb. 23) the general showed that he understood this, for he +wrote to Mr. Childers that "he would not without strong reason undertake +any operation likely to bring on another engagement, until Kruger's reply +was received."(25) If he had only stood firm to this, a tragedy would have +been averted. + +On receiving the telegram of Feb. 16, Colley was puzzled to know what was +the meaning of suspending hostilities if armed opposition were abandoned +by the Boers, and he asked the plain question (Feb. 19) whether he was to +leave Laing's Nek (which was in Natal territory) in Boer occupation, and +our garrisons isolated and short of provisions, or was he to occupy +Laing's Nek and relieve the garrisons. Colley's inquiries were instantly +considered by the cabinet, and the reply settled. The garrisons were to be +free to provision themselves and peaceful intercourse allowed; "but," +Kimberley tells Colley, "we do not mean that you should march to the +relief of garrisons or occupy Laing's Nek, if the arrangement proceeds. +_Fix reasonable time within which answer must be sent by Boers._" + +On Feb. 21 Colley despatched a letter to Kruger, stating that on the Boers +ceasing from armed opposition, the Queen would appoint a commission. He +added that "upon this proposal being accepted _within forty-eight hours +from the receipt of this letter_," he was authorised to agree to a +suspension of hostilities on the part of the British. + + + +V + + +(M17) In this interval a calamity, destined to be historic, occurred, +trivial in a military sense, but formidable for many years to come in the +issues moral and political that it raised, and in the passions for which +it became a burning watchword. On the night of Feb. 26, Colley with a +force of 359 men all told, made up of three different corps, marched out +of his camp and occupied Majuba Hill. The general's motives for this +precipitancy are obscure. The best explanation seems to be that he +observed the Boers to be pushing gradually forward on to advanced ground, +and thought it well, without waiting for Kruger's reply, to seize a height +lying between the Nek and his own little camp, the possession of which +would make Laing's Nek untenable. He probably did not expect that his move +would necessarily lead to fighting, and in fact when they saw the height +occupied, the Boers did at first for a little time actually begin to +retire from the Nek, though they soon changed their minds.(26) The British +operation is held by military experts to have been rash; proper steps were +not taken by the general to protect himself upon Majuba, the men were not +well handled, and the Boers showed determined intrepidity as they climbed +steadily up the hill from platform to platform, taking from seven in the +morning (Feb. 27) up to half-past eleven to advance some three thousand +yards and not losing a man, until at last they scaled the crest and poured +a deadly fire upon the small British force, driving them headlong from the +summit, seasoned soldiers though most of them were. The general who was +responsible for the disaster paid the penalty with his life. Some ninety +others fell and sixty were taken prisoners. + +At home the sensation was profound. The hysterical complaints about our +men and officers, General Wood wrote to Childers, "are more like French +character than English used to be." Mr. Gladstone and his colleagues had a +political question to consider. Colley could not be technically accused of +want of good faith in moving forward on the 26th, as the time that he had +appointed had expired. But though Majuba is just inside Natal--some four +miles over the border--his advance was, under the circumstances of the +moment, essentially an aggressive movement. Could his defeat justify us in +withdrawing our previous proposals to the Boers? Was a military +miscarriage, of no magnitude in itself, to be turned into a plea for +abandoning a policy deliberately adopted for what were thought powerful +and decisive reasons? "Suppose, for argument's sake," Mr. Gladstone wrote +to Lord Kimberley when the sinister news arrived (Mar. 2), "that at the +moment when Colley made the unhappy attack on Majuba Hill, there shall +turn out to have been decided on, and possibly on its way, a satisfactory +or friendly reply from the Boer government to your telegram? I fear the +chances may be against this; but if it prove to be the case, we could not +because we had failed on Sunday last, insist on shedding more blood." As +it happened, the Boer answer was decided on before the attack at Majuba, +and was sent to Colley by Kruger at Heidelberg in ignorance of the event, +the day after the ill-fated general's death. The members of the Transvaal +government set out their gratitude for the declaration that under certain +conditions the government of the Queen was inclined to cease hostilities; +and expressed their opinion that a meeting of representatives from both +sides would probably lead with all speed to a satisfactory result. This +reply was despatched by Kruger on the day on which Colley's letter of the +21st came into his hands (Feb. 28), and it reached Colley's successor on +March 7. + +Sir Evelyn Wood, now after the death of Colley in chief command, +throughout recommended military action. Considering the disasters we had +sustained, he thought the happiest result would be that after a successful +battle, which he hoped to fight in about a fortnight, the Boers would +disperse without any guarantee, and many now in the field against their +will would readily settle down. He explained that by happy result, he did +not mean that a series of actions fought by any six companies could affect +our military prestige, but that a British victory would enable the Boer +(M18) leaders to quench a fire that had got beyond their control. The next +day after this recommendation to fight (March 6), he, of his own motion, +accepted a proposal telegraphed from Joubert at the instigation of the +indefatigable Brand, for a suspension of hostilities for eight days, for +the purpose of receiving Kruger's reply. There was a military reason +behind. General Wood knew that the garrison in Potchefstrom must surrender +unless the place were revictualled, and three other beleaguered garrisons +were in almost equal danger. The government at once told him that his +armistice was approved. This armistice, though Wood's reasons were +military rather than diplomatic, virtually put a stop to suggestions for +further fighting, for it implied, and could in truth mean nothing else, +that if Kruger's reply were promising, the next step would not be a fight, +but the continuance of negotiation. Sir Evelyn Wood had not advised a +fight for the sake of restoring military prestige, but to make it easier +for the Boer leaders to break up bands that were getting beyond their +control. There was also present in his mind the intention, if the +government would sanction it, of driving the Boers out of Natal, as soon +as ever he had got his men up across the swollen river. So far from +sanctioning it, the government expressly forbade him to take offensive +action. On March 8, General Wood telegraphed home: "Do not imagine I wish +to fight. I know the attending misery too well. But now you have so many +troops coming, I recommend decisive though lenient action; and I can, +humanly speaking, promise victory. Sir G. Colley never engaged more than +six companies. I shall use twenty and two regiments of cavalry in +direction known to myself only, and undertake to enforce dispersion." This +then was General Wood's view. On the day before he sent this telegram, the +general already had received Kruger's reply to the effect that they were +anxious to negotiate, and it would be best for commissioners from the two +sides to meet. It is important to add that the government were at the same +time receiving urgent warnings from President Brand that Dutch sympathy, +both in the Cape Colony and in the Orange Free State, with the Dutch in +the Transvaal was growing dangerous, and that the prolongation of +hostilities would end in a formidable extension of their area.(27) Even in +January Lanyon had told Colley that men from the Free State were in the +field against him. Three days before Majuba, Lord Kimberley had written to +Colley (February 24), "My great fear has been lest the Free State should +take part against us, or even some movement take place in the Cape Colony. +If our willingness to come to terms has avoided such a calamity, I shall +consider it will have been a most important point gained."(28) + +Two memoranda for the Queen show the views of the cabinet on the new +position of affairs:-- + + + _To the Queen._ + + _March 8, 1881._--The cabinet considered with much care the terms + of the reply to Sir Evelyn Wood's telegram reporting (not + textually) the answer of the Boer leaders to the proposals which + Sir George Colley had sent to them. They felt justified in + construing the Boer answer as leaving the way open to the + appointment of commissioners, according to the telegram previously + seen and approved by your Majesty. They were anxious to keep the + question moving in this direction, and under the extreme urgency + of the circumstances as to time, they have despatched a telegram + to Sir Evelyn Wood accordingly. Mr. Gladstone has always urged, + and still feels, that the proposal of the Boers for the + appointment of commissioners was fortunate on this among other + grounds, that it involved a recognition of your Majesty's _de + facto_ authority in the Transvaal. + + _March 12._--The cabinet determined, in order to obviate + misapprehension or suspicion, to desire Sir E. Wood to inform the + government from what quarter the suggestion of an armistice + actually proceeded. They agreed that the proper persons to be + appointed as commissioners were Sir H. Robinson, Sir E. Wood, and + Mr. De Villiers, chief justice of the Cape; together with Mr. + Brand of the Free State as _amicus curiae_, should he be willing to + lend his good offices in the spirit in which he has hitherto + acted. The cabinet then considered fully the terms of the + communication to be made to the Boers by Sir E. Wood. In this, + which is matter of extreme urgency, they prescribe a time for the + reply of the Boers not later than the 18th; renew the promise of + amnesty; require the dispersion of the Boers to their own homes; + and state the general outlines of the permanent arrangement which + they would propose for the territory.... The cabinet believe that + in requiring the dispersion of the Boers to their homes, they will + have made the necessary provision for the vindication of your + Majesty's authority, so as to open the way for considering terms + of pacific settlement. + + +On March 22, under instructions from home, the general concluded an +agreement for peace. The Boers made some preliminary requests to which the +government declined to assent. Their proposal that the commission should +be joint was rejected; its members were named exclusively by the crown. +They agreed to withdraw from the Nek and disperse to their homes; we +agreed not to occupy the Nek, and not to follow them up with troops, +though General Roberts with a large force had sailed for the Cape on March +6. Then the political negotiation went forward. Would it have been wise, +as the question was well put by the Duke of Argyll (not then a member of +the government), "to stop the negotiation for the sake of defeating a body +of farmers who had succeeded under accidental circumstances and by great +rashness on the part of our commanders, in gaining a victory over us?" +This was the true point. + +The parliamentary attack was severe. The galling argument was that +government had conceded to three defeats what they had refused to ten +times as many petitions, memorials, remonstrances; and we had given to men +with arms in their hands what we refused to their peaceful prayers. A +great lawyer in the House of Lords made the speech that is expected from a +great lawyer who is also a conspicuous party leader; and ministers +undoubtedly exposed an extent of surface that was not easy to defend, not +because they had made a peace, but because they had failed to prevent the +rising. High military authorities found a curious plea for going on, in +the fact that this was our first contest with Europeans since the +breech-loader came in, and it was desirable to give our troops confidence +in the new-fashioned weapon. Reasons of a very different sort from this +were needed to overthrow the case for peace. How could the miscarriage at +Majuba, brought on by our own action, warrant us in drawing back from an +engagement already deliberately proffered? Would not such a proceeding, +asked Lord Kimberley, have been little short of an act of bad faith? Or +were we, in Mr. Gladstone's language, to say to the Boers, "Although we +might have treated with you before these military miscarriages, we cannot +do so now, until we offer up a certain number of victims in expiation of +the blood that has been shed. Until that has been done, the very things +which we believed before to be reasonable, which we were ready to discuss +with you, we refuse to discuss now, and we must wait until Moloch has been +appeased"? We had opened a door for negotiation; were we to close it +again, because a handful of our forces had rashly seized a post they could +not hold? The action of the Boers had been defensive of the _status quo_, +for if we had established ourselves on Majuba, their camp at Laing's Nek +would have been untenable. The minister protested in the face of the House +of Commons that "it would have been most unjust and cruel, it would have +been cowardly and mean, if on account of these defensive operations we had +refused to go forward with the negotiations which, before the first of +these miscarriages had occurred, we had already declared that we were +willing to promote and undertake."(29) + +The policy of the reversal of annexation is likely to remain a topic of +endless dispute.(30) As Sir Hercules Robinson put (M19) it in a letter to +Lord Kimberley, written a week before Majuba (Feb. 21), no possible course +was free from grave objection. If you determine, he said, to hold by the +annexation of the Transvaal, the country would have to be conquered and +held in subjection for many years by a large force. Free institutions and +self-government under British rule would be an impossibility. The only +palliative would be to dilute Dutch feeling by extensive English +immigration, like that of 1820 to the Eastern Province. But that would +take time, and need careful watching; and in the meantime the result of +holding the Transvaal as a conquered colony would undoubtedly be to excite +bitter hatred between the English and Dutch throughout the Free State and +this colony, which would be a constant source of discomfort and danger. On +the other hand, he believed that if they were, after a series of reverses +and before any success, to yield all the Boers asked for, they would be so +overbearing and quarrelsome that we should soon be at war with them again. +On the whole, Sir Hercules was disposed to think--extraordinary as such a +view must appear--that the best plan would be to re-establish the supremacy +of our arms, and then let the malcontents go. He thought no middle course +any longer practicable. Yet surely this course was open to all the +objections. To hold on to annexation at any cost was intelligible. But to +face all the cost and all the risks of a prolonged and a widely extended +conflict, with the deliberate intention of allowing the enemy to have his +own way after the conflict had been brought to an end, was not +intelligible and was not defensible. + +Some have argued that we ought to have brought up an overwhelming force, +to demonstrate that we were able to beat them, before we made peace. +Unfortunately demonstrations of this species easily turn into +provocations, and talk of this kind mostly comes from those who believe, +not that peace was made in the wrong way, but that a peace giving their +country back to the Boers ought never to have been made at all, on any +terms or in any way. This was not the point from which either cabinet or +parliament started. The government had decided that annexation had been an +error. The Boers had proposed inquiry. The government assented on +condition that the Boers dispersed. Without waiting a reasonable time for +a reply, our general was worsted in a rash and trivial attack. Did this +cancel our proffered bargain? The point was simple and unmistakable, +though party heat at home, race passion in the colony, and our everlasting +human proneness to mix up different questions, and to answer one point by +arguments that belong to another, all combined to produce a confusion of +mind that a certain school of partisans have traded upon ever since. +Strange in mighty nations is moral cowardice, disguised as a Roman pride. +All the more may we admire the moral courage of the minister. For moral +courage may be needed even where aversion to bloodshed fortunately happens +to coincide with high prudence and sound policy of state. + + + +VI + + +The negotiations proceeded, if negotiation be the right word. The Boers +disbanded, a powerful British force was encamped on the frontier, no Boer +representative sat on the commission, and the terms of final agreement +were in fact, as the Boers afterwards alleged, dictated and imposed. Mr. +Gladstone watched with a closeness that, considering the tremendous load +of Ireland, parliamentary procedure, and the incessant general business of +a prime minister, is amazing. When the Boers were over-pressing, he warned +them that it was only "the unshorn strength" of the administration that +enabled the English cabinet, rather to the surprise of the world, to spare +them the sufferings of a war. "We could not," he said to Lord Kimberley, +"have carried our Transvaal policy, unless we had here a strong +government, and we spent some, if not much, of our strength in carrying +it." A convention was concluded at Pretoria in (M20) August, recognising +the quasi-independence of the Transvaal, subject to the suzerainty of the +Queen, and with certain specified reservations. The Pretoria convention of +1881 did not work smoothly. Transvaal affairs were discussed from time to +time in the cabinet, and Mr. Chamberlain became the spokesman of the +government on a business where he was destined many years after to make so +conspicuous and irreparable a mark. The Boers again sent Kruger to London, +and he made out a good enough case in the opinion of Lord Derby, then +secretary of state, to justify a fresh arrangement. By the London +convention of 1884, the Transvaal state was restored to its old title of +the South African Republic; the assertion of suzerainty in the preamble of +the old convention did not appear in the new one;(31) and various other +modifications were introduced--the most important of them, in the light of +later events, being a provision for white men to have full liberty to +reside in any part of the republic, to trade in it, and to be liable to +the same taxes only as those exacted from citizens of the republic. + +Whether we look at the Sand River Convention in 1852, which conferred +independence; or at Shepstone's proclamation in 1877, which took +independence away; or at the convention of Pretoria in 1881, which in a +qualified shape gave it back; or at the convention of London in 1884, +which qualified the qualification over again, till independence, subject +to two or three specified conditions, was restored,--we can but recall the +caustic apologue of sage Selden in his table-talk on contracts. "Lady +Kent," he says, "articled with Sir Edward Herbert that he should come to +her when she sent for him, and stay with her as long as she would have +him; to which he set his hand. Then he articled with her that he should go +away when he pleased, and stay away as long as he pleased; to which she +set her hand. This is the epitome of all the contracts in the world, +betwixt man and man, betwixt prince and subject." + + + + +Chapter IV. New Phases Of The Irish Revolution. (1880-1882) + + + The agitation of the Irish land league strikes at the roots of all + contract, and therefore at the very foundations of modern society; + but if we would effectually withstand it, we must cease to insist + on maintaining the forms of free contract where the reality is + impossible.--T. H. GREEN.(32) + + + +I + + +On the day in 1880 when Lord Beaconsfield was finally quitting the +official house in Downing Street, one who had been the ablest and most +zealous supporter of his policy in the press, called to bid him good-bye. +The visitor talked gloomily of the national prospect; of difficulties with +Austria, with Russia, with the Turk; of the confusions to come upon Europe +from the doctrines of Midlothian. The fallen minister listened. Then +looking at his friend, he uttered in deep tones a single word. +"_Ireland!_" he said. + +In a speech made in 1882 Mr. Gladstone put the case to the House of +Commons:-- + + + The government had to deal with a state of things in Ireland + entirely different from any that had been known there for fifty + years.... With a political revolution we have ample strength to + cope. There is no reason why our cheeks should grow pale, or why + our hearts should sink, at the idea of grappling with a political + revolution. The strength of this country is tenfold what is + required for such a purpose. But a social revolution is a very + different matter.... The seat and source of the movement was not + to be found during the time the government was in power. It is to + be looked for in the foundation of the land league.(33) + + +Two years later he said at Edinburgh:-- + + + I frankly admit I had had much upon my hands connected with the + doings of the Beaconsfield government in almost every quarter of + the world, and I did not know, no one knew, the severity of the + crisis that was already swelling upon the horizon, and that + shortly after rushed upon us like a flood.(34) + + +So came upon them by degrees the predominance of Irish affairs and Irish +activity in the parliament of 1880, which had been chosen without much +reference to Ireland. + + + +II + + +A social revolution with the land league for its organ in Ireland, and Mr. +Parnell and his party for its organ in parliament, now, in Mr. Gladstone's +words, rushed upon him and his government like a flood. The mind of the +country was violently drawn from Dulcigno and Thessaly, from Batoum and +Erzeroum, from the wild squalor of Macedonia and Armenia to squalor not +less wild in Connaught and Munster, in Mayo, Galway, Sligo, Kerry. +Agrarian agitation on the one hand, parliamentary violence on the other, +were the two potent weapons by which the Irish revolutionary leader +assailed the misrule of the British garrison as the agents of the British +parliament in his country. This formidable movement slowly unmasked +itself. The Irish government, represented by Mr. Forster in the cabinet, +began by allowing the law conferring exceptional powers upon the executive +to lapse. The main reason was want of time to pass a fresh Act. In view of +the undoubted distress in some parts of Ireland, and of the harshness of +certain evictions, the government further persuaded the House of Commons +to pass a bill for compensating an evicted tenant on certain conditions, +if the landlord turned him out of his holding. The bill was no easy dose +either for the cabinet or its friends. Lord Lansdowne stirred much +commotion by retiring from the government, and landowners and capitalists +were full of consternation. At least one member of the cabinet was +profoundly uneasy. It is impossible to read the letters of the Duke of +Argyll to Mr. Gladstone on land, church establishment, the Zulu war, +without wondering on what theory a cabinet was formed that included him, +able and (M21) upright as he was, along with radicals like Mr. +Chamberlain. Before the cabinet was six months old the duke was plucking +Mr. Gladstone's sleeve with some vivacity at the Birmingham language on +Irish land. Mr. Parnell in the committee stage abstained from supporting +the measure, sixteen liberals voted against the third reading, and the +House of Lords, in which nationalist Ireland had not a single +representative, threw out the bill by a majority of 282 against 51. It was +said that if all the opposition peers had stayed away, still ministers +would have been beaten by their own supporters. + +Looking back upon these events, Mr. Gladstone set out in a memorandum of +later years, that during the session of 1880 the details of the budget +gave him a good deal to do, while the absorbing nature of foreign +questions before and after his accession to office had withdrawn his +attention from his own Land Act of 1870:(35)-- + + + Late in the session came the decisive and disastrous rejection by + the House of Lords of the bill by means of which the government + had hoped to arrest the progress of disorder, and avert the + necessity for measures in the direction of coercion. The rapid and + vast extension of agrarian disturbance followed, as was to be + expected, this wild excess of landlordism, and the Irish + government proceeded to warn the cabinet that coercive legislation + would be necessary. + + Forster allowed himself to be persuaded by the governmental agents + in Ireland that the root of the evil lay within small compass; + that there were in the several parishes a certain limited number + of unreasonable and mischievous men, that these men were known to + the police, and that if summary powers were confided to the Irish + government, by the exercise of which these objectionable persons + might be removed, the evil would die out of itself. I must say I + never fell into this extraordinary illusion of Forster's about his + 'village ruffian.' But he was a very impracticable man placed in a + position of great responsibility. He was set upon a method of + legislation adapted to the erroneous belief that the mischief lay + only with a very limited number of well-known individuals, that is + to say, the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act.... Two points of + difference arose: first, as to the nature of the coercion to be + used; secondly, as to its time. I insisted that we were bound to + try what we could do against Parnell under the existing law, + before asking for extraordinary powers. Both Bright and + Chamberlain, if I remember right, did very good service in + protesting against haste, and resisting Forster's desire to + anticipate the ordinary session for the purpose of obtaining + coercive powers. When, however, the argument of time was exhausted + by the Parnell trial(36) and otherwise, I obtained no support from + them in regard to the kind of coercion we were to ask. I + considered it should be done by giving stringency to the existing + law, but not by abolishing the right to be tried before being + imprisoned. I felt the pulse of various members of the cabinet, + among whom I seem to recollect Kimberley and Carlingford, but I + could obtain no sympathy, and to my dismay both Chamberlain and + Bright arrived at the conclusion that if there was to be coercion + at all, which they lamented, there was something simple and + effective in the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act which made + such a method preferable to others.(37) I finally acquiesced. It + may be asked why? My resistance would have broken up the + government or involved my own retirement. My reason for + acquiescence was that I bore in mind the special commission under + which the government had taken office. It related to the foreign + policy of the country, the whole spirit and effect of which we + were to reconstruct. This work had not yet been fully + accomplished, and it seemed to me that the effective prosecution + of it was our first and highest duty. I therefore submitted. + + +By the end of November Mr. Gladstone explained to the Queen that the state +of Ireland was menacing; its distinctive character was not so much that of +general insecurity of life, as that of a widespread conspiracy against +property. The worst of it was, he said, that the leaders, unlike +O'Connell, failed to denounce crime. The outbreak was not comparable to +that of 1832. In 1879 homicides were 64 against 242 for the earlier year +of disturbance. But things were bad enough. (M22) In Galway they had a +policeman for every forty-seven adult males, and a soldier for every +ninety-seven. Yet dangerous terrorism was rampant. "During more than +thirty-seven years since I first entered a cabinet," Mr. Gladstone told +the Speaker (November 25), "I have hardly known so difficult a question of +administration, as that of the immediate duty of the government in the +present state of Ireland. The multitude of circumstances to be taken into +account must strike every observer. Among these stand the novelty of the +suspension of Habeas Corpus in a case of agrarian crime stimulated by a +public society, and the rather serious difficulty of obtaining it; but +more important than these is the grave doubt whether it would really reach +the great characteristic evil of the time, namely, the paralysis of most +important civil and proprietary rights, and whether the immediate proposal +of a remedy, probably ineffective and even in a coercive sense partial, +would not seriously damage the prospects of that arduous and comprehensive +task which without doubt we must undertake when parliament is summoned." +In view of considerations of this kind, the awkwardness of directing an +Act of parliament virtually against leaders who were at the moment the +object of indictment in the Irish law courts; difficulties of time; doubts +as to the case being really made out; doubts as to the efficacy of the +proposed remedy, Mr. Forster did not carry the cabinet, but agreed to +continue the experiment of the ordinary law. The experiment was no +success, and coercion accompanied by land reform became the urgent policy. + + + +III + + +The opening of the session of 1881 at once brought obstruction into full +view. The Irish took up their position as a party of action. They spoke +incessantly; as Mr. Gladstone put it, "sometimes rising to the level of +mediocrity, and more often grovelling amidst mere trash in unbounded +profusion." Obstruction is obstruction all the world over. It was not +quite new at Westminster, but it was new on this scale. Closure proposals +sprang up like mushrooms. Liberal members with a historical bent ran +privately to the Speaker with ancient precedents of dictatorial powers +asserted by his official ancestors, and they exhorted him to revive them. + +Mr. Forster brought in his bill. Its scope may be described in a sentence. +It practically enabled the viceroy to lock up anybody he pleased, and to +detain him as long as he pleased, while the Act remained in force.(38) The +debate for leave to introduce the bill lasted several days, without any +sign of coming to an end. Here is the Speaker's account of his own +memorable act in forcing a close:-- + + + _Monday, Jan. 31._--The House was boiling over with indignation at + the apparent triumph of obstruction, and Mr. _G_., yielding to the + pressure of his friends, committed himself unwisely, as I thought, + to a continuous sitting on this day in order to force the bill + through its first stage. + + On Tuesday, after a sitting of twenty-four hours, I saw plainly + that this attempt to carry the bill by continuous sitting would + fail, the Parnell party being strong in numbers, discipline, and + organisation, and with great gifts of speech. I reflected on the + situation, and came to the conclusion that it was my duty to + extricate the House from the difficulty by closing the debate of + my own authority, and so asserting the undoubted will of the House + against a rebellious minority. I sent for Mr. G. on Tuesday (Feb. + 1), about noon, and told him that I should be prepared to put the + question in spite of obstruction on the following conditions: 1. + That the debate should be carried on until the following morning, + my object in this delay being to mark distinctly to the outside + world the extreme gravity of the situation, and the necessity of + the step which I was about to take. 2. That he should reconsider + the regulation of business, either by giving more authority to the + House, or by conferring authority on the Speaker. + + He agreed to these conditions, and summoned a meeting of the + cabinet, which assembled in my library at four P.M. on Tuesday + while the House was sitting, and I was in the chair. At that + meeting the resolution as to business assumed the shape in which + it finally appeared on the following Thursday, it having been + previously considered at former meetings of the cabinet. I + arranged with Playfair to take the chair on Tuesday night about + midnight, engaging to resume it on Wednesday morning at nine. + Accordingly at nine I took the chair, Biggar being in possession + of the House. I rose, and he resumed his seat. I proceeded with my + address as concerted with May, and when I had concluded I put the + question. The scene was most dramatic; but all passed off without + disturbance, the Irish party on the second division retiring under + protest. + + I had communicated, with Mr. G.'s approval, my intention to close + the debate to Northcote, but to no one else, except May, from whom + I received much assistance. Northcote was startled, but expressed + no disapproval of the course proposed. + + +So ended the memorable sitting of January 31. At noon, on February 2, the +House assembled in much excitement. The question was put challenging the +Speaker's conduct. "I answered," he says, "on the spur of the moment that +I had acted on my own responsibility, and from a sense of duty to the +House. I never heard such loud and protracted cheering, none cheering more +loudly than Gladstone." "The Speaker's firmness in mind," Mr. Gladstone +reported to the Queen, "his suavity in manner, his unwearied patience, his +incomparable temper, under a thousand provocations, have rendered possible +a really important result." + + + +IV + + +After coercion came a land bill, and here Mr. Gladstone once more +displayed his unequalled mastery of legislative skill and power. He had to +explain and be ready to explain again and again, what he told Lord +Selborne was "the most difficult measure he had ever known to come under +the detailed consideration of a cabinet." It was no affair this time of +speeches out of a railway carriage, or addressed to excited multitudes in +vast halls. That might be, if you so pleased, "the empty verbosity of +exuberant rhetoric"; but nobody could say that of the contest over the +complexities of Irish tenure, against the clever and indomitable Irish +experts who fought under the banner of Mr. Parnell. Northcote was not far +wrong when he said that though the bill was carried by two to one, there +was hardly a man in the House beyond the Irish ranks who cared a straw +about it. Another critic said that if the prime minister had asked the +House to pass the _Koran_ or the _Nautical Almanac_ as a land bill, he +would have met no difficulty. + +The history of the session was described as the carriage of a single +measure by a single man. Few British members understood it, none mastered +it. The whigs were disaffected about it, the radicals doubted it, the +tories thought that property as a principle was ruined by it, the +Irishmen, when the humour seized them, bade him send the bill to line +trunks. Mr. Gladstone, as one observer truly says, "faced difficulties +such as no other bill of this country has ever encountered, difficulties +of politics and difficulties of law, difficulties of principle and +difficulties of detail, difficulties of party and difficulties of +personnel, difficulties of race and difficulties of class, and he has +never once failed, or even seemed to fail, in his clear command of the +question, in his dignity and authority of demeanour, in his impartiality +in accepting amending suggestions, in his firmness in resisting +destructive suggestions, in his clear perception of his aim, and his +strong grasp of the fitting means. And yet it is hardly possible to +appreciate adequately the embarrassments of the situation." + +Enough has already been said of the legislation of 1870, and its +establishment of the principle that Irish land is not the subject of an +undivided ownership, but a partnership.(39) The act of 1870 failed because +it had too many exceptions and limitations; because in administration the +compensation to the tenant for disturbance was inadequate; and because it +did not fix the cultivator in his holding. Things had now ripened. The +Richmond Commission shortly before had pointed to a court for fixing +rents; that is, for settling the terms of the partnership. A commission +nominated by Mr. Gladstone and presided over by Lord Bessborough had +reported early in 1881 in favour not only of fair rents to be settled by a +tribunal, but of fixity of tenure or the right of (M23) the tenant to +remain in his holding if he paid his rent, and of free sale; that is, his +right to part with his interest. These "three F's" were the substance of +the legislation of 1881. + +Rents could not be paid, and landlords either would not or could not +reduce them. In the deepest interests of social order, and in confirmation +of the tenant's equitable and customary ownership, the only course open to +the imperial legislature was to erect machinery for fixing fair rents. The +alternative to what became matter of much objurgation as dual ownership, +was a single ownership that was only a short name for allowing the +landlord to deal as he liked with the equitable interest of the tenant. +Without the machinery set up by Mr. Gladstone, there could be no security +for the protection of the cultivator's interest. What is more, even in +view of a wide and general extension of the policy of buying out the +landlord and turning the tenant into single owner, still a process of +valuation for purposes of fair price would have been just as +indispensable, as under the existing system was the tiresome and costly +process of valuation for purposes of fair rent. It is true that if the +policy of purchase had been adopted, this process would have been +performed once for all. But opinion was not nearly ready either in England +or Ireland for general purchase. And as Mr. Gladstone had put it to Bright +in 1870, to turn a little handful of occupiers into owners would not have +touched the fringe of the case of the bulk of the Irish cultivators, then +undergoing acute mischief and urgently crying for prompt relief. Mr. +Bright's idea of purchase, moreover, assumed that the buyer would come +with at least a quarter of the price in his hand,--an assumption not +consistent with the practical possibilities of the case. + +The legislation of 1881 no doubt encountered angry criticism from the +English conservative, and little more than frigid approval from the Irish +nationalist. It offended the fundamental principle of the landlords; its +administration and the construction of some of its leading provisions by +the courts disappointed and irritated the tenant party. Nevertheless any +attempt in later times to impair the authority of the Land Act of 1881 +brought the fact instantly to light, that the tenant knew it to be the +fundamental charter of his redemption from worse than Egyptian bondage. In +measuring this great agrarian law, not only by parliamentary force and +legislative skill and power, but by the vast and abiding depth of its +social results, both direct and still more indirect, many will be disposed +to give it the highest place among Mr. Gladstone's achievements as +lawmaker. + +Fault has sometimes been found with Mr. Gladstone for not introducing his +bill in the session of 1880. If this had been done, it is argued, Ireland +would have been appeased, no coercion would have been necessary, and we +should have been spared disastrous parliamentary exasperations and all the +other mischiefs and perils of the quarrel between England and Ireland that +followed. Criticism of this kind overlooks three facts. Neither Mr. +Gladstone nor Forster nor the new House of Commons was at all ready in +1880 to accept the Three F's. Second, the Bessborough commission had not +taken its evidence, and made its momentous report. Third, this argument +assumes motives in Mr. Parnell, that probably do not at all cover the +whole ground of his policy. As it happened, I called on Mr. Gladstone one +morning early in 1881. "You have heard," I asked, "that the Bessborough +commission are to report for the Three F's?" "I have not heard," he said; +"it is incredible!" As so often comes to pass in politics, it was only a +step from the incredible to the indispensable. But in 1880 the +indispensable was also the impossible. It was the cruel winter of 1880-1 +that made much difference. + +In point of endurance the session was one of the most remarkable on +record. The House of Commons sat 154 days and for 1400 hours; some 240 of +these hours were after midnight. Only three times since the Reform bill +had the House sat for more days; only once, in 1847, had the total number +of hours been exceeded and that only by seven, and never before had the +House sat so many hours after midnight. On the Coercion bill the House sat +continuously once for 22 hours, and once for 41. The debates on the Land +bill took up 58 sittings, and the Coercion bill 22. No such length of +discussion, Mr. Gladstone told the Queen, (M24) was recorded on any +measure since the committee on the first Reform bill. The Reform bill of +1867 was the only measure since 1843 that took as many as 35 days of +debate. The Irish Church bill took 21 days and the Land bill of 1870 took +25. Of the 14,836 speeches delivered, 6315 were made by Irish members. The +Speaker and chairman of committees interposed on points of order nearly +2000 times during the session. Mr. Parnell, the Speaker notes, "with his +minority of 24 dominates the House. When will the House take courage and +reform its procedure?" After all, the suspension of _habeas corpus_ is a +thing that men may well think it worth while to fight about, and a +revolution in a country's land-system might be expected to take up a good +deal of time. + + + +V + + +It soon appeared that no miracle had been wrought by either Coercion Act +or Land Act. Mr. Parnell drew up test cases for submission to the new land +court. His advice to the army of tenants would depend, he said, on the +fate of these cases. In September Mr. Forster visited Hawarden, and gave a +bad account of the real meaning of Mr. Parnell's plausible propositions +for sending test cases to the newly established land commission, as well +as of other ugly circumstances. "It is quite clear as you said," wrote Mr. +Gladstone to Forster in Ireland, "that Parnell means to present cases +which the commission must refuse, and then to treat their refusal as +showing that they cannot be trusted, and that the bill has failed." As he +interpreted it afterwards, there was no doubt that in one sense the Land +Act tended to accelerate a crisis in Ireland, for it brought to a head the +affairs of the party connected with the land league. It made it almost a +necessity for that party either to advance or to recede. They chose the +desperate course. At the same date, he wrote in a letter to Lord +Granville:-- + + + With respect to Parnellism, I should not propose to do more than a + severe and strong denunciation of it by severing him altogether + from the Irish people and the mass of the Irish members, and by + saying that home rule has for one of its aims local government--an + excellent thing to which I would affix no limits except the + supremacy of the imperial parliament, and the rights of all parts + of the country to claim whatever might be accorded to Ireland. + This is only a repetition of what I have often said before, and I + have nothing to add or enlarge. But I have the fear that when the + occasion for action comes, which will not be in my time, many + liberals may perhaps hang back and may cause further trouble. + + +In view of what was to come four years later, one of his letters to +Forster is interesting (April 12, 1882), among other reasons as +illustrating the depth to which the essence of political liberalism had +now penetrated Mr. Gladstone's mind:-- + + + 1. About local government for Ireland, the ideas which more and + more establish themselves in my mind are such as these. + + (1.) Until we have seriously responsible bodies to deal with us in + Ireland, every plan we frame comes to Irishmen, say what we may, + as an English plan. As such it is probably condemned. At best it + is a one-sided bargain, which binds us, not them. + + (2.) If your excellent plans for obtaining local aid towards the + execution of the law break down, it will be on account of this + miserable and almost total want of the sense of responsibility for + the public good and public peace in Ireland; and this + responsibility we cannot create except through local + self-government. + + (3.) If we say we must postpone the question till the state of the + country is more fit for it, I should answer that the least danger + is in going forward at once. It is liberty alone which fits men + for liberty. This proposition, like every other in politics, has + its bounds; but it is far safer than the counter doctrine, wait + till they are fit. + + (4.) In truth I should say (differing perhaps from many), that for + the Ireland of to-day, the first question is the rectification of + the relations between landlord and tenant, which happily is going + on; the next is to relieve Great Britain from the enormous weight + of the government of Ireland unaided by the people, and from the + hopeless contradiction in which we stand while we give a + parliamentary representation, hardly effective for anything but + mischief without the local institutions of self-government which + it presupposes, and on which alone it can have a sound and healthy + basis. + + +We have before us in administration, he wrote to Forster in September-- + + + a problem not less delicate and arduous than the problem of + legislation with which we have lately had to deal in parliament. + Of the leaders, the officials, the skeleton of the land league I + have no hope whatever. The better the prospects of the Land Act + with their adherents outside the circle of wire-pullers, and with + the Irish people, the more bitter will be their hatred, and the + more sure they will be to go as far as fear of the people will + allow them in keeping up the agitation, which they cannot afford + to part with on account of their ulterior ends. All we can do is + to turn more and more the masses of their followers, to fine them + down by good laws and good government, and it is in this view that + the question of judicious releases from prison, should improving + statistics of crime encourage it, may become one of early + importance. + + + +VI + + +It was in the autumn of 1881 that Mr. Gladstone visited Leeds, in payment +of the debt of gratitude due for his triumphant return in the general +election of the year before. This progress extended over four days, and +almost surpassed in magnitude and fervour any of his experiences in other +parts of the kingdom. We have an interesting glimpse of the physical +effort of such experiences in a couple of his letters written to Mr. +Kitson, who with immense labour and spirit had organized this severe if +glorious enterprise:-- + + + _Hawarden Castle, Sept. 28, 1881._--I thank you for the very clear + and careful account of the proposed proceedings at Leeds. It lacks + as yet that _rough_ statement of numbers at each meeting, which is + requisite to enable me to understand what I shall have to do. This + will be fixed by the scale of the meeting. I see no difficulty but + one--a procession through the principal thoroughfares is one of the + most exhausting processes I know as a _preliminary_ to addressing + a mass meeting. A mass meeting requires the physical powers to be + in their best and freshest state, as far as anything can be fresh + in a man near seventy-two; and I have on one or more former + occasions felt them wofully contracted. In Midlothian I never had + anything of the kind before a great physical effort in speaking; + and the lapse even of a couple of years is something. It would + certainly be most desirable to have the mass meeting first, and + then I have not any fear at all of the procession through whatever + thoroughfares you think fit. + + _Oct. 2, 1881._--I should be very sorry to put aside any of the + opportunities of vision at Leeds which the public may care to use; + but what I had hoped was that these might come _after_ any + speeches of considerable effort and not _before_ them. To + understand what a physical drain, and what a reaction from tension + of the senses is caused by a "progress" before addressing a great + audience, a person must probably have gone through it, and gone + through it at my time of life. When I went to Midlothian, I begged + that this might never happen; and it was avoided throughout. Since + that time I have myself been sensible for the first time of a + diminished power of voice in the House of Commons, and others also + for the first time have remarked it. + + +Vast torchlight processions, addresses from the corporation, four score +addresses from political bodies, a giant banquet in the Cloth Hall Yard +covered in for the purpose, on one day; on another, more addresses, a +public luncheon followed by a mass meeting of over five-and-twenty +thousand persons, then a long journey through dense throngs vociferous +with an exultation that knew no limits, a large dinner party, and at the +end of all a night train. The only concessions that the veteran asked to +weakness of the flesh, were that at the banquet he should not appear until +the eating and drinking were over, and that at the mass meeting some +preliminary speakers should intervene to give him time to take breath +after his long and serious exercises of the morning. When the time came +his voice was heard like the note of a clear and deep-toned bell. So much +had vital energy, hardly less rare than his mental power, to do with the +varied exploits of this spacious career. + +The topics of his Leeds speeches I need not travel over. (M25) What +attracted most attention and perhaps drew most applause was his warning to +Mr. Parnell. "He desires," said the minister, "to arrest the operation of +the Land Act; to stand as Moses stood between the living and the dead; to +stand there not as Moses stood, to arrest, but to spread the plague." The +menace that followed became a catchword of the day: "If it shall appear +that there is still to be fought a final conflict in Ireland between law +on the one side and sheer lawlessness upon the other, if the law purged +from defect and from any taint of injustice is still to be repelled and +refused, and the first conditions of political society to remain +unfulfilled, then I say, gentlemen, without hesitation, the resources of +civilisation against its enemies are not yet exhausted."(40) + +Nor was the pageant all excitement. The long speech, which by way of +prelusion to the great mass meeting he addressed to the chamber of +commerce, was devoted to the destruction of the economic sophisters who +tried to persuade us that "the vampire of free-trade was insidiously +sucking the life-blood of the country." In large survey of broad social +facts, exposition of diligently assorted figures, power of scientific +analysis, sustained chain of reasoning, he was never better. The +consummate mastery of this argumentative performance did not slay a heresy +that has nine lives, but it drove the thing out of sight in Yorkshire for +some time to come.(41) + + + +VII + + +On Wednesday October 12, the cabinet met, and after five hours of +deliberation decided that Mr. Parnell should be sent to prison under the +Coercion Act. The Irish leader was arrested at his hotel the next morning, +and carried off to Kilmainham, where he remained for some six months. The +same day Mr. Gladstone was presented with an address from the Common +Council of London, and in his speech at the Guildhall gave them the news:-- + + + Our determination has been that to the best of our power, our + words should be carried into acts [referring to what he had said + at Leeds], and even within these few moments I have been informed + that towards the vindication of law and order, of the rights of + property, of the freedom of the land, of the first elements of + political life and civilisation, the first step has been taken in + the arrest of the man who unhappily from motives which I do not + challenge, which I cannot examine and with which I have nothing to + do, has made himself beyond all others prominent in the attempt to + destroy the authority of the law, and to substitute what would end + in being nothing more or less than anarchical oppression exercised + upon the people of Ireland. + + +The arrest of Mr. Parnell was no doubt a pretty considerable strain upon +powers conferred by parliament to put down village ruffians; but times +were revolutionary, and though the Act of parliament was not a wise one, +but altogether the reverse of wise, it was no wonder that having got the +instrument, ministers thought they might as well use it. Still executive +violence did not seem to work, and Mr. Gladstone looked in a natural +direction for help in the milder way of persuasion. He wrote (December +17th) to Cardinal Newman:-- + + + I will begin with defining strictly the limits of this appeal. I + ask you to read the inclosed papers; and to consider whether you + will write anything to Rome upon them. I do not ask you to write, + nor to tell me whether you write, nor to make any reply to this + letter, beyond returning the inclosures in an envelope to me in + Downing Street. I will state briefly the grounds of my request, + thus limited. In 1844, when I was young as a cabinet minister, and + the government of Sir R. Peel was troubled with the O'Connell + manifestations, they made what I think was an appeal to Pope + Gregory XVI. for his intervention to discourage agitation in + Ireland. I should be very loath now to tender such a request at + Rome. But now a different case arises. Some members of the Roman + catholic priesthood in Ireland deliver certain sermons and + otherwise express themselves in the way which my inclosures + exhibit. I doubt whether if they were laymen we should not have + settled their cases by putting them into gaol. I need not describe + the sentiments uttered. Your eminence will feel them and judge + them as strongly as I do. But now as to the Supreme Pontiff. You + will hardly be surprised when I say that I regard him, if apprised + of the facts, as responsible for the conduct of these priests. For + I know perfectly well that he has the means of silencing them; and + that, if any one of them were in public to dispute the decrees of + the council of 1870 as plainly as he has denounced law and order, + he would be silenced. + + Mr. Errington, who is at Rome, will I believe have seen these + papers, and will I hope have brought the facts as far as he is + able to the knowledge of his holiness. But I do not know how far + he is able; nor how he may use his discretion. He is not our + official servant, but an independent Roman catholic gentleman and + a volunteer. + + My wish is as regards Ireland, in this hour of her peril and her + hope, to leave nothing undone by which to give heart and strength + to the hope and to abate the peril. But my wish as regards the + Pope is that he should have the means of bringing those for whom + he is responsible to fulfil the elementary duties of citizenship. + I say of citizenship; of Christianity, of priesthood, it is not + for me to speak. + + +The cardinal replied that he would gladly find himself able to be of +service, however slight it might be, in a political crisis which must be +felt as of grave anxiety by all who understand the blessing of national +unity and peace. He thought Mr. Gladstone overrated the pope's power in +political and social matters. Absolute in questions of theology, it was +not so in political matters. If the contest in Ireland were whether +"rebellion" or whether "robbery" was a sin, we might expect him to +anathematise its denial. But his action in concrete matters, as whether a +political party is censurable or not, was not direct, and only in the long +run effective. Local power and influence was often a match for Roman +right. The pope's right keeps things together, it checks extravagances, +and at length prevails, but not without a fight. Its exercise is a matter +of great prudence, and depends upon times and circumstances. As for the +intemperate dangerous words of priests and curates, surely such persons +belonged to their respective bishops, and scarcely required the +introduction of the Supreme Authority. + + + +VIII + + +We have now arrived at April 1882. The reports brought to the cabinet by +Mr. Forster were of the gloomiest. The Land Act had brought no +improvement. In the south-west and many of the midland counties +lawlessness and intimidation were worse than ever. Returns of agrarian +crime were presented in every shape, and comparisons framed by weeks, by +months, by quarters; do what the statisticians would, and in spite of +fluctuations, murders and other serious outrages had increased. The policy +of arbitrary arrest had completely failed, and the officials and crown +lawyers at the Castle were at their wits' end. + +While the cabinet was face to face with this ugly prospect, Mr. Gladstone +received a communication volunteered by an Irish member, as to the new +attitude of Mr. Parnell and the possibility of turning it to good account. +Mr. Gladstone sent this letter on to Forster, replying meanwhile "in the +sense of not shutting the door." When the thing came before the cabinet, +Mr. Chamberlain--who had previously told Mr. Gladstone that he thought the +time opportune for something like a reconciliation with the Irish +party--with characteristic courage took his life in his hands, as he put +it, and set to work to ascertain through the emissary what use for the +public good could be made of Mr. Parnell's changed frame of mind. On April +25th, the cabinet heard what Mr. Chamberlain had to tell them, and it came +to this, that Mr. Parnell was desirous to use his influence on behalf of +peace, but his influence for good depended on the settlement of the +question of arrears. Ministers decided that they could enter into no +agreement and would give no pledge. They would act on their own +responsibility in the light of the knowledge they had gained of Mr. +Parnell's views. Mr. Gladstone was always impatient of any reference to +"reciprocal assurances" or "tacit understanding" in respect of the +dealings with the prisoner in Kilmainham. Still the nature of the +proceedings was plain enough. The object of the communications to which +the government were invited by Mr. Parnell through his emissary, was, +supposing him to be anxious to do what (M26) he could for law and order, +to find out what action on the part of the government would enable him to +adopt this line. + +Events then moved rapidly. Rumours that something was going on got abroad, +and questions began to be put in parliament. A stout tory gave notice of a +motion aiming at the release of the suspects. As Mr. Gladstone informed +the Queen, there was no doubt that the general opinion of the public was +moving in a direction adverse to arbitrary imprisonment, though the +question was a nice one for consideration whether the recent surrender by +the no-rent party of its extreme and most subversive contentions, amounted +to anything like a guarantee for their future conduct in respect of peace +and order. The rising excitement was swelled by the retirement of Lord +Cowper from the viceroyalty, and the appointment as his successor of Lord +Spencer, who had filled that post in Mr. Gladstone's first government. On +May 2nd, Mr. Gladstone read a memorandum to the cabinet to which they +agreed:-- + + + The cabinet are of opinion that the time has now arrived when with + a view to the interests of law and order in Ireland, the three + members of parliament who have been imprisoned on suspicion since + last October, should be immediately released; and that the list of + suspects should be examined with a view to the release of all + persons not believed to be associated with crimes. They propose at + once to announce to parliament their intention to propose, as soon + as necessary business will permit, a bill to strengthen the + ordinary law in Ireland for the security of life and property, + while reserving their discretion with regard to the Life and + Property Protection Act [of 1881], which however they do not at + present think it will be possible to renew, if a favourable state + of affairs shall prevail in Ireland. + + +From this proceeding Mr. Forster dissented, and he resigned his office. +His point seems to have been that no suspect should be released until the +new Coercion Act had been fashioned, whereas the rest of the cabinet held +that there was no excuse for the continued detention under arbitrary +warrant of men as to whom the ground for the "reasonable suspicion" +required by the law had now disappeared. He probably felt that the +appointment of a viceroy of cabinet rank and with successful Irish +experience was in fact his own supersession. "I have received your +letter," Mr. Gladstone wrote to him (May 2), "with much grief, but on this +it would be selfish to expatiate. I have no choice; followed or not +followed I must go on. There are portions of the subject which touch you +personally, and which seem to me to deserve _much_ attention. But I have +such an interest in the main issue, that I could not be deemed impartial; +so I had better not enter on them. One thing, however, I wish to say. You +wish to minimise in any further statement the cause of your retreat. In my +opinion--_and I speak from experience_--viewing the nature of that course, +you will find this hardly possible. For a justification you, I fear, will +have to found upon the doctrine of 'a new departure.' We must protest +against it, and deny it with heart and soul." + +The way in which Mr. Gladstone chose to put things was stated in a letter +to the Queen (May 3): "In his judgment there had been two, and only two, +vital powers of commanding efficacy in Ireland, the Land Act, and the land +league; they had been locked in a combat of life and death; and the +cardinal question was which of the two would win. From the serious effort +to amend the Land Act by the Arrears bill of the nationalists,(42) from +the speeches made in support of it, and from information voluntarily +tendered to the government as to the views of the leaders of the league, +the cabinet believed that those who governed the land league were now +conscious of having been defeated by the Land Act on the main question, +that of paying rent." + +For the office of Irish secretary Mr. Gladstone selected Lord Frederick +Cavendish, who was the husband of a niece of Mrs. Gladstone's, and one of +the most devoted of his friends and adherents. The special reason for the +choice of this capable and high-minded man, was that Lord Frederick had +framed a plan of finance at the treasury for a new scheme of land +purchase. The two freshly appointed Irish ministers at once crossed over +to a country seething in disorder. The (M27) afternoon of the fatal sixth +of May was passed by the new viceroy and Lord Frederick in that grim +apartment in Dublin Castle, where successive secretaries spend unshining +hours in saying No to impossible demands, and hunting for plausible +answers to insoluble riddles. Never did so dreadful a shadow overhang it +as on that day. The task on which the two ministers were engaged was the +consideration of the new provisions for coping with disorder, which had +been prepared in London. The under-secretary, Mr. Burke, and one of the +lawyers, were present. Lord Spencer rode out to the park about five +o'clock, and Lord Frederick followed him an hour later. He was overtaken +by the under-secretary walking homewards, and as the two strolled on +together, they were both brutally murdered in front of the vice-regal +residence. The assassins did not know who Lord Frederick was. Well has it +been said that Ireland seems the sport of a destiny that is aimless.(43) + +The official world of London was on that Saturday night in the full round +of its pleasures. The Gladstones were dining at the Austrian embassy. So, +too, was Sir William Harcourt, and to him as home secretary the black +tidings were sent from Dublin late in the evening. Mr. and Mrs. Gladstone +had already left, she for a party at the admiralty, he walking home to +Downing Street. At the admiralty they told her of bad news from Ireland +and hurried her away. Mr. Gladstone arrived at home a few minutes after +her. When his secretary in the hall told him of the horrible thing that +had been done, it was as if he had been felled to the ground. Then they +hastened to bear what solace they could, to the anguish-stricken home +where solace would be so sorely needed. + +The effect of this blind and hideous crime was at once to arrest the +spirit and the policy of conciliation. While the Irish leaders were locked +up, a secret murder club had taken matters in hand in their own way, and +ripened plots within a stone's throw of the Castle. No worse blow could +have been struck at Mr. Parnell's policy. It has been said that the +nineteenth century had seen the course of its history twenty-five times +diverted by actual or attempted crime. In that sinister list the murders +in the Phoenix Park have a tragic place. + +The voice of party was for the moment hushed. Sir Stafford Northcote wrote +a letter of admirable feeling, saying that if there was any way in which +Mr. Gladstone thought they could serve the government, he would of course +let them know. The Prince of Wales wrote of his own horror and indignation +at the crime, and of his sympathy with Mr. Gladstone in the loss of one +who was not only a colleague of many merits, but a near connection and +devoted friend. With one or two scandalous exceptions, the tone of the +English press was sober, sensible, and self-possessed. "If a nation," said +a leading journal in Paris, "should be judged by the way in which it acts +on grave occasions, the spectacle offered by England is calculated to +produce a high opinion of the political character and spirit of the +British people." Things of the baser sort were not quite absent, but they +did not matter. An appeal confronted the electors of the North-West Riding +as they went to the poll at a bye-election a few days later, to "Vote for +----, and avenge the death of Lord Frederick Cavendish!" They responded by +placing ----'s opponent at the head of the poll by a majority of two +thousand. + +The scene in the House had all the air of tragedy, and Mr. Gladstone +summoned courage enough to do his part with impressive composure. A +colleague was doing some business with him in his room before the +solemnity began. When it was over, they resumed it, Mr. Gladstone making +no word of reference to the sombre interlude, before or after. "Went +reluctantly to the House," he says in his diary, "and by the help of God +forced out what was needful on the question of the adjournment." His words +were not many, when after commemorating the marked qualities of Mr. Burke, +he went on in laboured tones and slow speech and hardly repressed +emotion:-- + + + The hand of the assassin has come nearer home; and though I feel + it difficult to say a word, yet I must say that one of the very + noblest hearts in England has ceased to beat, and has ceased at + the very moment when it was just devoted to the service of + Ireland, full of love for that country, full of hope for her + future, full of capacity to render her service. + + +Writing to Lady Frederick on a later day, he mentions a public reference +to some pathetic words of hers (May 19):-- + + + Sexton just now returned to the subject, with much approval from + the House. You will find it near the middle of a long speech. + Nothing could be better either in feeling or in grace (the man is + little short of a master), and I think it will warm your heart. + You have made a mark deeper than any wound. + + +To Lord Ripon in India, he wrote (June 1):-- + + + The black act brought indeed a great personal grief to my wife and + me; but we are bound to merge our own sorrow in the larger and + deeper affliction of the widow and the father, in the sense of the + public loss of a life so valuable to the nation, and in the + consideration of the great and varied effects it may have on + immediate and vital interests. Since the death of this dearly + loved son, we have heard much good of the Duke, whom indeed we saw + at Chatsworth after the funeral, and we have seen much of Lady + Frederick, who has been good even beyond what we could have hoped. + I have no doubt you have heard in India the echo of words spoken + by Spencer from a letter of hers, in which she said she could give + up even him if his death were to work good to his fellow-men, + which indeed was the whole object of his life. These words have + had a tender effect, as remarkable as the horror excited by the + slaughter. Spencer wrote to me that a priest in Connemara read + them from the altar; when the whole congregation spontaneously + fell down upon their knees. In England, the national attitude has + been admirable. The general strain of language has been, "Do not + let this terrible and flagitious crime deter you from persevering + with the work of justice." + + +Well did Dean Church say that no Roman or Florentine lady ever uttered a +more heroic thing than was said by this English lady when on first seeing +Mr. Gladstone that terrible midnight she said, "You did right to send him +to Ireland."(44) "The loss of F. Cavendish," Mr. Gladstone wrote to his +eldest son, "will ever be to us all as an unhealed wound." + +On the day after the murders Mr. Gladstone received a note through the +same channel by which Mr. Chamberlain had carried on his communications: +"I am authorised by Mr. Parnell to state that if Mr. Gladstone considers +it necessary for the maintenance of his [Mr. G.'s] position and for +carrying out his views, that Mr. Parnell should resign his seat, Mr. +Parnell is prepared to do so immediately." To this Mr. Gladstone replied +(May 7):-- + + + My duty does not permit me for a moment to entertain Mr. Parnell's + proposal, just conveyed to me by you, that he should if I think it + needful resign his seat; but I am deeply sensible of the + honourable motives by which it has been prompted. + + +"My opinion is," said Mr. Gladstone to Lord Granville, "that if Parnell +goes, no restraining influence will remain; the scale of outrages will be +again enlarged; and no repressive bill can avail to put it down." Those of +the cabinet who had the best chance of knowing, were convinced that Mr. +Parnell was "sincerely anxious for the pacification of Ireland." + +The reaction produced by the murders in the Park made perseverance in a +milder policy impossible in face of English opinion, and parliament +eagerly passed the Coercion Act of 1882. I once asked an Irishman of +consummate experience and equitable mind, with no leanings that I know of +to political nationalism, whether the task of any later ruler of Ireland +was comparable to Lord Spencer's. "Assuredly not," he replied: "in 1882 +Ireland seemed to be literally a society on the eve of dissolution. The +Invincibles still roved with knives about the streets of Dublin. +Discontent had been stirred in the ranks of the Royal Irish Constabulary, +and a dangerous mutiny broke out in the metropolitan force. Over half of +the country the demoralisation of every class, the terror, the fierce +hatred, the universal distrust, had grown to an incredible pitch. The +moral cowardice of what ought to have been the governing class was +astounding. The landlords would hold meetings and agree not to go beyond a +certain abatement, and then they would go individually and privately offer +to the tenant a greater abatement. Even the agents of the law and the +courts were shaken in their duty. The power of random arrest and detention +under the Coercion Act of 1881 had not improved the _moral_ of magistrates +and police. The sheriff would let the word get out that he was coming to +make a seizure, and profess surprise that the cattle had vanished. The +whole country-side turned out in thousands in half the counties in Ireland +to attend flaming meetings, and if a man did not attend, angry neighbours +trooped up to know the reason why. The clergy hardly stirred a finger to +restrain the wildness of the storm; some did their best to raise it. All +that was what Lord Spencer had to deal with; the very foundations of the +social fabric rocking." + +The new viceroy attacked the formidable task before him with resolution, +minute assiduity, and an inexhaustible store of that steady-eyed patience +which is the sovereign requisite of any man who, whether with coercion or +without, takes in hand the government of Ireland. He was seconded with +high ability and courage by Mr. Trevelyan, the new Irish secretary, whose +fortitude was subjected to a far severer trial than has ever fallen to the +lot of any Irish secretary before or since. The coercion that Lord Spencer +had to administer was at least law. The coercion with which parliament +entrusted Mr. Forster the year before was the negation of the spirit of +law, and the substitution for it of naked and arbitrary control over the +liberty of the subject by executive power--a system as unconstitutional in +theory as it was infatuated in policy and calamitous in result. Even +before the end of the parliament, Mr. Bright frankly told the House of +Commons of this Coercion Act: "I think that the legislation of 1881 was +unfortunately a great mistake, though I was myself a member of the +government concerned in it." + + + + +Chapter V. Egypt. (1881-1882) + + + I find many very ready to say what I ought to have done when a + battle is over; but I wish some of these persons would come and + tell me what to do before the battle.--WELLINGTON. + + +In 1877 Mr. Gladstone penned words to which later events gave an only too +striking verification. "Territorial questions," he said, "are not to be +disposed of by arbitrary limits; we cannot enjoy the luxury of taking +Egyptian soil by pinches. We may seize an Aden and a Perim, where is no +already formed community of inhabitants, and circumscribe a tract at will. +But our first site in Egypt, be it by larceny or be it by emption, will be +the almost certain egg of a North African empire, that will grow and grow +until another Victoria and another Albert, titles of the lake-sources of +the White Nile, come within our borders; and till we finally join hands +across the equator with Natal and Cape Town, to say nothing of the +Transvaal and the Orange River on the south, or of Abyssinia or Zanzibar +to be swallowed by way of viaticum on our journey."(45) It was one of the +ironies in which every active statesman's life abounds, that the author of +that forecast should have been fated to take his country over its first +marches towards this uncoveted destination. + + + +I + + +For many months after Mr. Gladstone formed his second ministry, there was +no reason to suppose that the Egyptian branch of the eastern question, +which for ever casts its (M28) perplexing shadow over Europe, was likely +to give trouble. The new Khedive held a regularly defined position, alike +towards his titular sovereign at Constantinople, towards reforming +ministers at Cairo, towards the creditors of his state, and towards the +two strong European Powers who for different reasons had the supervision +of Egyptian affairs in charge. The oppression common to oriental +governments seemed to be yielding before western standards. The load of +interest on a profligate debt was heavy, but it was not unskilfully +adjusted. The rate of village usury was falling, and the value of land was +rising. Unluckily the Khedive and his ministers neglected the grievances +of the army, and in January 1881 its leaders broke out in revolt. The +Khedive, without an armed force on whose fidelity he could rely, gave way +to the mutineers, and a situation was created, familiar enough in all +oriental states, and not unlike that in our own country between Charles +I., or in later days the parliament, and the roundhead troopers: anger and +revenge in the breast of the affronted civil ruler, distrust and dread of +punishment in the mind of the soldiery. During the autumn (1881) the +crisis grew more alarming. The Khedive showed neither energy nor tact; he +neither calmed the terror of the mutineers nor crushed them. +Insubordination in the army began to affect the civil population, and a +national party came into open existence in the chamber of notables. The +soldiers found a head in Arabi, a native Egyptian, sprung of fellah +origin. Want either of stern resolution or of politic vision in the +Khedive and his minister had transferred the reality of power to the +insurgents. The Sultan of Turkey here saw his chance; he made a series of +diplomatic endeavours to reestablish a shattered sovereignty over his +nominal feudatory on the Nile. This pretension, and the spreading tide of +disorder, brought England and France actively upon the scene. We can see +now, what expert observers on the spot saw then, that the two Powers +mistook the nature of the Arabist movement. They perceived in it no more +than a military rising. It was in truth national as well as military; it +was anti-European, and above all, it was in its objects anti-Turk. + +In 1879 the two governments had insisted on imposing over Egypt two +controllers, with limited functions but irremovable. This, as Mr. +Gladstone argued later, was to bring foreign intervention into the heart +of the country, and to establish in the strictest sense a political +control.(46) As a matter of fact, not then well known, in September 1879 +Lord Salisbury had come to a definite understanding with the French +ambassador in London, that the two governments would not tolerate the +establishment in Egypt of political influence by any competing European +Power; and what was more important, that they were prepared to take action +to any extent that might be found necessary to give effect to their views +in this respect. The notable acquisition by Lord Beaconsfield of an +interest in the Suez Canal, always regarded by Mr. Gladstone as a +politically ill-advised and hazardous transaction, had tied the English +knot in Egypt still tighter. + +The policy of the Gladstone cabinet was defined in general words in a +despatch from the foreign minister to the British agent at Cairo. Lord +Granville (November 1881) disclaimed any self-aggrandising designs on the +part of either England or France. He proclaimed the desire of the cabinet +to uphold in Egypt the administrative independence secured to her by the +decrees of the sovereign power on the Bosphorus. Finally he set forth that +the only circumstances likely to force the government of the Queen to +depart from this course of conduct, would be the occurrence in Egypt of a +state of anarchy.(47) + +Justly averse to a joint occupation of Egypt by England and France, as the +most perilous of all possible courses, the London cabinet looked to the +Sultan as the best instrument for restoring order. Here they were +confronted by two insurmountable obstacles: first, the steadfast hostility +of France to any form of Turkish intervention, and second, that strong +current of antipathy to the Sultan which had been set flowing over British +opinion in the days of Midlothian.(48) + +(M29) In December (1881) the puissant genius of Gambetta acquired +supremacy for a season, and he without delay pressed upon the British +cabinet the necessity of preparing for joint and immediate action. +Gambetta prevailed. The Turk was ruled out, and the two Powers of the west +determined on action of their own. The particular mode of common action, +however, in case action should become necessary, was left entirely open. + +Meanwhile the British cabinet was induced to agree to Gambetta's proposal +to send instructions to Cairo, assuring the Khedive that England and +France were closely associated in the resolve to guard by their united +efforts against all causes of complaint, internal or external, which might +menace the existing order of things in Egypt. This was a memorable +starting-point in what proved an amazing journey. This Joint Note (January +6, 1881) was the first link in a chain of proceedings that brought each of +the two governments who were its authors, into the very position that they +were most strenuously bent on averting; France eventually ousted herself +from Egypt, and England was eventually landed in plenary and permanent +occupation. So extraordinary a result only shows how impenetrable were the +windings of the labyrinth. The foremost statesmen of England and France +were in their conning towers, and England at any rate employed some of the +ablest of her agents. Yet each was driven out of an appointed course to an +unforeseen and an unwelcome termination. Circumstances like these might +teach moderation both to the French partisans who curse the vacillations +of M. de Freycinet, and to the English partisans who, while rejoicing in +the ultimate result, curse the vacillations of the cabinet of Mr. +Gladstone, in wisely striving to unravel a knot instead of at all risks +cutting it. + + + +II + + +The present writer described the effect of the Joint Note in the following +words written at the time(49): "At Cairo the Note fell like a bombshell. +Nobody there had expected any such declaration, and nobody was aware of +any reason why it should have been launched. What was felt was that so +serious a step on such delicate ground could not have been adopted without +deliberate calculation, nor without some grave intention. The Note was, +therefore, taken to mean that the Sultan was to be thrust still further in +the background; that the Khedive was to become more plainly the puppet of +England and France; and that Egypt would sooner or later in some shape or +other be made to share the fate of Tunis. The general effect was, +therefore, mischievous in the highest degree. The Khedive was encouraged +in his opposition to the sentiments of his Chamber. The military, +national, or popular party was alarmed. The Sultan was irritated. The +other European Powers were made uneasy. Every element of disturbance was +roused into activity." + +It is true that even if no Joint Note had ever been despatched, the +prospects of order were unpromising. The most careful analysis of the +various elements of society in Egypt by those best acquainted at first +hand with all those elements, whether internal or external, whether +Egyptian or European, and with all the roots of antagonism thriving among +them, exhibited no promise of stability. If Egypt had been a simple case +of an oriental government in revolutionary commotion, the ferment might +have been left to work itself out. Unfortunately Egypt, in spite of the +maps, lies in Europe. So far from being a simple case, it was +indescribably entangled, and even the desperate questions that rise in our +minds at the mention of the Balkan peninsula, of Armenia, of +Constantinople, offer no such complex of difficulties as the Egyptian +riddle in 1881-2. The law of liquidation(50)--whatever else we may think of +it--at least made the policy of Egypt for the Egyptians unworkable. Yet the +British cabinet were not wrong in thinking that this was no reason for +sliding into the competing policy of Egypt for the English _and_ the +French, which would have been more unworkable still. + +England strove manfully to hold the ground that she (M30) had taken in +November. Lord Granville told the British ambassador in Paris that his +government disliked intervention either by themselves or anybody else as +much as ever; that they looked upon the experiment of the Chamber with +favourable eyes; that they wished to keep the connection of the Porte with +Egypt so far as it was compatible with Egyptian liberties; and that the +object of the Joint Note was to strengthen the existing government of +Egypt. Gambetta, on the other hand, was convinced that all explanations of +this sort would only serve further to inflate the enemies of France and +England in the Egyptian community, and would encourage their designs upon +the law of liquidation. Lord Granville was honourably and consistently +anxious to confine himself within the letter of international right, while +Gambetta was equally anxious to intervene in Egyptian administration, +within right or without it, and to force forward that Anglo-French +occupation in which Lord Granville so justly saw nothing but danger and +mischief. Once more Lord Granville, at the end of the month which had +opened with the Joint Note, in a despatch to the ambassador at Paris +(January 30), defined the position of the British cabinet. What measures +should be taken to meet Egyptian disorders? The Queen's government had "a +strong objection to the occupation of Egypt by themselves." Egypt and +Turkey would oppose; it would arouse the jealousy of other Powers, who +would, as there was even already good reason to believe, make counter +demonstrations; and, finally, such an occupation would be as distasteful +to the French nation as the sole occupation of Egypt by the French would +be to ourselves. Joint occupation by England and France, in short, might +lessen some difficulties, but it would seriously aggravate others. Turkish +occupation would be a great evil, but it would not entail political +dangers as great as those attending the other two courses. As for the +French objections to the farther admission of the other European Powers to +intervene in Egyptian affairs, the cabinet agreed that England and France +had an exceptional position in Egypt, but might it not be desirable to +enter into some communication with the other Powers, as to the best way of +dealing with a state of things that appeared likely to interfere both with +the Sultan's firmans and with Egypt's international engagements? + +At this critical moment Gambetta fell from power. The mark that he had set +upon western policy in Egypt remained. Good observers on the spot, trained +in the great school of India, thought that even if there were no more than +a chance of working with the national party, the chance was well worth +trying. As the case was put at the time, "It is impossible to conceive a +situation that more imperatively called for caution, circumspection, and +deference to the knowledge of observers on the scene, or one that was +actually handled with greater rashness and hurry. Gambetta had made up his +mind that the military movement was leading to the abyss, and that it must +be peremptorily arrested. It may be that he was right in supposing that +the army, which had first found its power in the time of Ismail, would go +from bad to worse. But everything turned upon the possibility of pulling +up the army, without arousing other elements more dangerous still. M. +Gambetta's impatient policy was worked out in his own head without +reference to the conditions on the scene, and the result was what might +have been expected."(51) + + + +III + + +The dual control, the system of carrying on the Egyptian government under +the advice of an English and a French agent, came to an end. The rude +administration in the provinces fell to pieces. The Khedive was helplessly +involved in struggle after struggle with the military insurgents. The army +became as undisputed masters of the government, as the Cromwellian army at +some moments in our civil war. Meanwhile the British government, true to +Mr. Gladstone's constant principle, endeavoured to turn the question from +being purely Anglo-French, into an international question. The Powers were +not unfavourable, but nothing came of it. Both from Paris and from London +somewhat bewildered suggestions proceeded by way of evading the central +enigma, whether the intervention should be Turkish (M31) or Anglo-French. +It was decided at any rate to send powerful Anglo-French fleets to +Alexandria, and Mr. Gladstone only regretted that the other Powers +(including Turkey) had not been invited to have their flags represented. +To this the French objected, with the evil result that the other Powers +were displeased, and the good effect that the appearance of the Sultan in +the field might have had upon the revolutionary parties in Egypt was lost. +On May 21, 1882, M. de Freycinet went so far as to say that, though he was +still opposed to Turkish intervention, he would not regard as intervention +a case in which Turkish forces were summoned by England and France to +operate under Anglo-French control, upon conditions specified by the two +Powers. If it became advisable to land troops, recourse should be had on +these terms to Turkish troops and them only. Lord Granville acceded. He +proposed (May 24) to address the Powers, to procure international sanction +for the possible despatch of Turkish troops to Egypt. M. Freycinet +insisted that no such step was necessary. At the same time (June 1), M. de +Freycinet told the Chamber that there were various courses to which they +might be led, but he excluded one, and this was a French military +intervention. That declaration narrowed the case to a choice between +English intervention, or Turkish, or Anglo-Turkish, all of them known to +be profoundly unpalatable to French sentiment. Such was the end of Lord +Granville's prudent and loyal endeavour to move in step with France. + +The next proposal from M. de Freycinet was a European conference, as +Prince Bismarck presumed, to cover the admissibility of Turkish +intervention. A conference was too much in accord with the ideas of the +British cabinet, not to be welcomed by them. The Turk, however, who now +might have had the game in his own hands, after a curious exhibition of +duplicity and folly, declined to join, and the conference at first met +without him (June 23). Then, pursuing tactics well known at all times at +Constantinople, the Sultan made one of his attempts to divide the Powers, +by sending a telegram to London (June 25), conferring upon England rights +of exclusive control in the administration of Egypt. + +This Mr. Gladstone and Lord Granville declined without even consulting the +cabinet, as too violent an infraction, I suppose, of the cardinal +principle of European concert. The Queen, anxious for an undivided English +control at any price, complained that the question was settled without +reference to the cabinet, and here the Queen was clearly not wrong, on +doctrines of cabinet authority and cabinet responsibility that were +usually held by nobody more strongly than by the prime minister himself. + +Mr. Gladstone and his cabinet fought as hard as they could, and for good +reasons, against single-handed intervention by Great Britain. When they +saw that order could not be re-established without the exercise of force +from without, they insisted that this force should be applied by the +Sultan as sovereign of Egypt. They proposed this solution to the +conference, and Lord Dufferin urged it upon the Sultan. With curious +infatuation (repeated a few years later) the Sultan stood aside. When it +became necessary to make immediate provision for the safety of the Suez +Canal, England proposed to undertake this duty conjointly with France, and +solicited the co-operation of any other Power. Italy was specially invited +to join. Then when the progress of the rebellion had broken the Khedive's +authority and brought Egypt to anarchy, England invited France and Italy +to act with her in putting the rebellion down. France and Italy declined. +England still urged the Porte to send troops, insisting only on such +conditions as were indispensable to secure united action. The Porte again +held back, and before it carried out an agreement to sign a military +convention, events had moved too fast.(52) Thus, by the Sultan's +perversities and the fluctuations of purpose and temper in France, +single-handed intervention was inexorably forced upon the one Power that +had most consistently striven to avoid it. Bismarck, it is true, judged +that Arabi was now a power to be reckoned with; the Austrian +representatives used language of like purport; and Freycinet also inclined +to coming to terms with Arabi. The British cabinet had persuaded +themselves that the overthrow of the military (M32) party was an +indispensable precedent to any return of decently stable order. + +The situation in Egypt can hardly be adequately understood without a +multiplicity of details for which this is no place, and in such cases +details are everything. Diplomacy in which the Sultan of Turkey plays a +part is always complicated, and at the Conference of Constantinople the +cobwebs were spun and brushed away and spun again with diligence +unexampled. The proceedings were without any effect upon the course of +events. The Egyptian revolution ran its course. The moral support of +Turkish commissioners sent by the Sultan to Cairo came to nothing, and the +moral influence of the Anglo-French squadron at Alexandria came to +nothing, and in truth it did more harm than good. The Khedive's throne and +life were alike in danger. The Christians flocked down from the interior. +The residents in Alexandria were trembling for their lives. At the end of +May our agent at Cairo informed his government that a collision between +Moslems and Christians might occur at any moment. On June 11 some fifty +Europeans were massacred by a riotous mob at Alexandria. The British +consul was severely wounded, and some sailors of the French fleet were +among the killed. Greeks and Jews were murdered in other places. At last a +decisive blow was struck. For several weeks the Egyptians had been at work +upon the fortifications of Alexandria, and upon batteries commanding the +British fleet. The British admiral was instructed (July 3) that if this +operation were continued, he should immediately destroy the earthworks and +silence the batteries. After due formalities he (July 11) opened fire at +seven in the morning, and by half-past five in the evening the Alexandria +guns were silenced. Incendiaries set the town on fire, the mob pillaged +it, and some murders were committed. The French ships had sailed away, +their government having previously informed the British ambassador in +Paris that the proposed operation would be an act of war against Egypt, +and such an act of war without the express consent of the Chamber would +violate the constitution. + +The new situation in which England, now found herself was quickly +described by the prime minister to the House of Commons. On July 22, he +said: "We should not fully discharge our duty, if we did not endeavour to +convert the present interior state of Egypt from anarchy and conflict to +peace and order. We shall look during the time that remains to us to the +co-operation of the Powers of civilised Europe, if it be in any case open +to us. But if every chance of obtaining co-operation is exhausted, the +work will be undertaken by the single power of England." As for the +position of the Powers it may be described in this way. Germany and +Austria were cordial and respectful; France anxious to retain a completely +friendly understanding, but wanting some equivalent for the inevitable +decline of her power in Egypt; Italy jealous of our renewing close +relations with France; Russia still sore, and on the lookout for some +plausible excuse for getting the Berlin arrangement of 1878 revised in her +favour, without getting into difficulties with Berlin itself. + +France was not unwilling to take joint action with England for the defence +of the canal, but would not join England in intervention beyond that +object. At the same time Freycinet wished it to be understood that France +had no objection to our advance, if we decided to make an advance. This +was more than once repeated. Gambetta in vehement wrath declared his dread +lest the refusal to co-operate with England should shake an alliance of +priceless value; and lest besides that immense catastrophe, it should hand +over to the possession of England for ever, territories, rivers, and ports +where the French right to live and trade was as good as hers. The mighty +orator declaimed in vain. Suspicion of the craft of Bismarck was in France +more lively than suspicion of aggressive designs in the cabinet of Mr. +Gladstone, and the Chamber was reminded how extremely well it would suit +Germany that France should lock up her military force in Tunis yesterday, +in Egypt to-day. Ingenious speakers, pointing to Europe covered with camps +of armed men; pointing to the artful statesmanship that had pushed Austria +into Bosnia and (M33) Herzegovina, and encouraged France herself to occupy +Tunis; pointing to the expectant nations reserving their liberty for +future occasions--all urgently exhorted France now to reserve her own +liberty of action too. Under the influence of such ideas as these, and by +the working of rival personalities and parties, the Chamber by an immense +majority turned the Freycinet government out of office (July 29) rather +than sanction even such a degree of intervention as concerned the +protection of the Suez Canal. + +Nine days after the bombardment of Alexandria, the British cabinet decided +on the despatch of what was mildly called an expeditionary force to the +Mediterranean, under the command of Sir Garnet Wolseley. The general's +alertness, energy, and prescient calculation brought him up to Arabi at +Tel-el-Kebir (Sept. 13), and there at one rapid and decisive blow he +crushed the military insurrection.(53) + + + +IV + + +The bombardment of Alexandria cost Mr. Gladstone the British colleague who +in fundamentals stood closest to him of them all. In the opening days of +July, amid differences of opinion that revealed themselves in frequent and +protracted meetings of the cabinet, it was thought probable that Mr. +Gladstone and Bright would resign rather than be parties to despatching +troops to the Mediterranean; and the two representative radicals were +expected to join them. Then came the bombardment, but only Bright went--not +until after earnest protestations from the prime minister. As Mr. +Gladstone described things later to the Queen, Bright's letters and +conversation consisted very much more of references to his past career and +strong statements of feeling, than of attempts to reason on the existing +facts of the case, with the obligations that they appeared to entail. Not +satisfied with his own efforts, Mr. Gladstone turned to Lord Granville, +who had been a stout friend in old days when Bright's was a name of +reproach and obloquy:-- + + + _July 12._--Here is the apprehended letter from dear old John + Bright, which turns a white day into a black one. It would not be + fair in me to beg an interview. His kindness would make him + reluctant to decline; but he would come laden with an + apprehension, that I by impetuosity and tenacity should endeavour + to overbear him. But pray consider whether you could do it. He + would not have the same fear of your dealings with him. I do not + think you could get a _reversal_, but perhaps he would give you + another short delay, and at the end of this the sky might be + further settled. + + +Two days later Mr. Gladstone and Bright had a long, and we may be sure +that it was an earnest, conversation. The former of them the same day put +his remarks into the shape of a letter, which the reader may care to have, +as a statement of the case for the first act of armed intervention, which +led up by a direct line to the English occupation of Egypt, Soudan wars, +and to some other events from which the veil is not even yet lifted:-- + + + The act of Tuesday [the bombardment of Alexandria] was a solemn + and painful one, for which I feel myself to be highly responsible, + and it is my earnest desire that we should all view it now, as we + shall wish at the last that we had viewed it. Subject to this + testing rule, I address you as one whom I suppose not to believe + all use whatever of military force to be unlawful; as one who + detests war in general and believes most wars to have been sad + errors (in which I greatly agree with you), but who in regard to + any particular use of force would look upon it for a justifying + cause, and after it would endeavour to appreciate its actual + effect. + + The general situation in Egypt had latterly become one in which + everything was governed by sheer military violence. Every + legitimate authority--the Khedive, the Sultan, the notables, and + the best men of the country, such as Cherif and Sultan pashas--had + been put down, and a situation, of _force_ had been created, which + could only be met by force. This being so, we had laboured to the + uttermost, almost alone but not without success, to secure that if + force were employed against the violence of Arabi, it should be + force armed with the highest sanction of law; that it should be + the force of the sovereign, authorised and restrained by the + united Powers of Europe, who in such a case represent the + civilised world. + + While this is going on, a by-question arises. The British fleet, + lawfully present in the waters of Alexandria, had the right and + duty of self-defence. It demanded the discontinuance of attempts + made to strengthen the armament of the fortifications.... Met by + fraud and falsehood in its demand, it required surrender with a + view to immediate dismantling, and this being refused, it + proceeded to destroy.... The conflagration which followed, the + pillage and any other outrages effected by the released convicts, + these are not due to us, but to the seemingly wanton wickedness of + Arabi.... + + Such being the amount of our act, what has been its reception and + its effect? As to its reception, we have not received nor heard of + a word of disapproval from any Power great or small, or from any + source having the slightest authority. As to its effect, it has + taught many lessons, struck a heavy, perhaps a deadly, blow at the + reign of violence, brought again into light the beginnings of + legitimate rule, shown the fanaticism of the East that massacre of + Europeans is not likely to be perpetrated with impunity, and + greatly advanced the Egyptian question towards a permanent and + peaceable solution. I feel that in being party to this work I have + been a labourer in the cause of peace. Your co-operation in that + cause, with reference to preceding and collateral points, has been + of the utmost value, and has enabled me to hold my ground, when + without you it might have been difficult. + + +The correspondence closed with a wish from Mr. Gladstone: "Believe in the +sore sense of practical loss, and the (I trust) unalterable friendship and +regard with which I remain, etc." When Bright came to explain his +resignation in parliament, he said something about the moral law, which +led to a sharp retort from the prime minister, but still their friendship +did appear to remain unalterable, as Mr. Gladstone trusted that it would. + +When the question by and by arose whether Arabi should be put to death, +Bright wrote to the prime minister on behalf of clemency. Mr. Gladstone in +replying took a severe line: "I am sorry to say the inquiry is too likely +to show that Arabi is very much more than a rebel. Crimes of the gravest +kind have been committed; and with most of them he stands, I fear, in +_presumptive_ (that is, unproved) connection. In truth I must say that, +having begun with no prejudice against him, and with the strong desire +that he should be saved, I am almost driven to the conclusion that he is a +bad man, and that it will not be an injustice if he goes the road which +thousands of his innocent countrymen through him have trodden." It is a +great mistake to suppose that Mr. Gladstone was all leniency, or that when +he thought ill of men, he stayed either at palliating words or at +half-measures. + + + + +Chapter VI. Political Jubilee. (1882-1883) + + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.--PLUTARCH, _Moralia_, c. 18. + + He strives like an athlete all his life long, and then when he + comes to the end of his striving, he has what is meet. + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}: {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}; {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}. {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + --PINDAR, _Pyth._ viii. 135. + + Things of a day! What is a man? What, when he is not? A dream of + shadow is mankind. Yet when there comes down glory imparted from + God, radiant light shines among men and genial days. + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PSI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~};--_Ol._ i. 131. + + Die since we must, wherefore should a man sit idle and nurse in + the gloom days of long life without aim, without name? + + + +I + + +The words from "antique books" that I have just translated and +transcribed, were written out by Mr. Gladstone inside the cover of the +little diary for 1882-3. To what the old world had to say, he added +Dante's majestic commonplace: "You were not to live like brutes, but to +pursue virtue and knowledge."(54) These meditations on the human lot, on +the mingling of our great hopes with the implacable realities, made the +vital air in which all through his life he drew deep breath. Adjusted to +his ever vivid religious creed, amid all the turbid business of the +worldly elements, they were the sedative and the restorer. Yet here and +always the last word was Effort. The moods that in less strenuous natures +ended in melancholy, philosophic or poetic, to him were fresh incentives +to redeem the time. + +The middle of December 1882 marked his political jubilee. It was now half +a century since he had entered public life, and the youthful graduate from +Oxford had grown to be the foremost man in his country. Yet these fifty +courses of the sun and all the pageant of the world had in some ways made +but little difference in him. In some ways, it seemed as if time had +rolled over him in vain. He had learned many lessons. He had changed his +party, his horizons were far wider, new social truths had made their way +into his impressionable mind, he recognised new social forces. His aims +for the church, that he loved as ardently as he gloried in a powerful and +beneficent state, had undergone a revolution. Since 1866 he had come into +contact with democracy at close quarters; the Bulgarian campaign and +Midlothian lighting up his early faith in liberty, had inflamed him with +new feeling for the voice of the people. As much as in the early time when +he had prayed to be allowed to go into orders, he was moved by a +dominating sense of the common claims and interests of mankind. 'The +contagion of the world's slow stain' had not infected him; the lustre and +long continuity of his public performances still left all his innermost +ideals constant and undimmed. + +His fifty years of public life had wrought his early habits of severe +toil, method, exactness, concentration, into cast-iron. Whether they had +sharpened what is called knowledge of the world, or taught him insight +into men and skill in discrimination among men, it is hard to say. He +always talked as if he found the world pretty much what he had expected. +Man, he used often to say, is the least comprehensible of creatures, and +of men the most incomprehensible are the politicians. Yet nobody was less +of the cynic. As for Weltschmerz, world-weariness, ennui, tedium (M34) +vitae--that enervating family were no acquaintances of his, now nor at any +time. None of the vicissitudes of long experience ever tempted him either +into the shallow satire on life that is so often the solace of the little +and the weak; or on the other hand into the _saeva indignatio_, the sombre +brooding reprobation, that has haunted some strong souls from Tacitus and +Dante to Pascal, Butler, Swift, Turgot. We may, indeed, be sure that +neither of these two moods can ever hold a place in the breast of a +commanding orator. + + + +II + + +I have spoken of his new feeling for democracy. At the point of time at +which we have arrived, it was heartily reciprocated. The many difficulties +in the course of public affairs that confronted parliament and the nation +for two years or more after Mr. Gladstone's second accession to power, did +little to weaken either his personal popularity or his hold upon the +confidence of the constituencies. For many years he and Mr. Disraeli had +stood out above the level of their adherents; they were the centre of +every political storm. Disraeli was gone (April 19, 1881), commemorated by +Mr. Gladstone in a parliamentary tribute that cost him much searching of +heart beforehand, and was a masterpiece of grace and good feeling. Mr. +Gladstone stood alone, concentrating upon himself by his personal +ascendency and public history the bitter antagonism of his opponents, only +matched by the enthusiasm and devotion of his followers. The rage of +faction had seldom been more unbridled. The Irish and the young fourth +party were rivals in malicious vituperation; of the two, the Irish on the +whole observed the better manners. Once Mr. Gladstone was wounded to the +quick, as letters show, when a member of the fourth party denounced as "a +government of infamy" the ministry with whose head he had long been on +terms of more than friendship alike as host and guest. He could not fell +his trees, he could not read the lessons in Hawarden church, without +finding these innocent habits turned into material for platform mockery. +"In the eyes of the opposition, as indeed of the country," said a great +print that was never much his friend, "he is the government and he is the +liberal party," and the writer went on to scold Lord Salisbury for wasting +his time in the concoction of angry epigrams and pungent phrases that were +neither new nor instructive.(55) They pierced no joint in the mail of the +warrior at whom they were levelled. The nation at large knew nothing of +difficulties at Windsor, nothing of awkward passages in the cabinet, +nothing of the trying egotisms of gentlemen out of the cabinet who +insisted that they ought to be in. Nor would such things have made any +difference except in his favour, if the public had known all about them. +The Duke of Argyll and Lord Lansdowne had left him; his Irish policy had +cost him his Irish secretary, and his Egyptian policy had cost him Mr. +Bright. They had got into a war, they had been baffled in legislation, +they had to raise the most unpopular of taxes, there had been the +frightful tragedy in Ireland. Yet all seemed to have been completely +overcome in the public mind by the power of Mr. Gladstone in uniting his +friends and frustrating his foes, and the more bitterly he was hated by +society, the more warmly attached were the mass of the people. Anybody who +had foreseen all this would have concluded that the government must be in +extremity, but he went to the Guildhall on the 9th of November 1882, and +had the best possible reception on that famous stage. One tory newspaper +felt bound to admit that Mr. Gladstone and his colleagues had +rehabilitated themselves in the public judgment with astounding rapidity, +and were now almost as strong in popular and parliamentary support as when +they first took office.(56) Another tory print declared Mr. Gladstone to +be stronger, more popular, more despotic, than at any time since the +policy to carry out which he was placed in office was disclosed.(57) The +session of 1882 had only been exceeded in duration by two sessions for +fifty years. + +The reader has had pictures enough from friendly hands, so here is one +from a persistent foe, one of the most brilliant journalists of that time, +who listened to him from (M35) the gallery for years. The words are from +an imaginary dialogue, and are put into the mouth of a well-known whig in +parliament:-- + + + Sir, I can only tell you that, profoundly as I distrusted him, and + lightly as on the whole I valued the external qualities of his + eloquence, I have never listened to him even for a few minutes + without ceasing to marvel at his influence over men. That + white-hot face, stern as a Covenanter's yet mobile as a + comedian's; those restless, flashing eyes; that wondrous voice, + whose richness its northern burr enriched as the tang of the wood + brings out the mellowness of a rare old wine; the masterly cadence + of his elocution; the vivid energy of his attitudes; the fine + animation of his gestures;--sir, when I am assailed through eye and + ear by this compacted phalanx of assailants, what wonder that the + stormed outposts of the senses should spread the contagion of + their own surrender through the main encampment of the mind, and + that against my judgment, in contempt of my conscience, nay, in + defiance of my very will, I should exclaim, "This is indeed the + voice of truth and wisdom. This man is honest and sagacious beyond + his fellows. He must be believed, he must be obeyed!"(58) + + +On the day of his political jubilee (Dec. 13), the event was celebrated in +many parts of the country, and he received congratulatory telegrams from +all parts of the world; for it was not only two hundred and forty liberal +associations who sent him joyful addresses. The Roumelians poured out +aloud their gratitude to him for the interest he constantly manifested in +their cause, and for his powerful and persistent efforts for their +emancipation. From Athens came the news that they had subscribed for the +erection of his statue, and from the Greeks also came a splendid casket. +In his letter of thanks,(59) after remonstrating against its too great +material value, he said:-- + + + I know not well how to accept it, yet I am still less able to + decline it, when I read the touching lines of the accompanying + address, in itself an ample token, in which you have so closely + associated my name with the history and destinies of your country. + I am not vain enough to think that I have deserved any of the + numerous acknowledgments which I have received, especially from + Greeks, on completing half a century of parliamentary life. Your + over-estimate of my deeds ought rather to humble than to inflate + me. But to have laboured within the measure of justice for the + Greece of the future, is one of my happiest political + recollections, and to have been trained in a partial knowledge of + the Greece of the past has largely contributed to whatever slender + faculties I possess for serving my own country or my kind. I + earnestly thank you for your indulgent judgment and for your too + costly gifts, and I have the honour to remain, etc. + + +What was deeper to him than statues or caskets was found in letters from +comparative newcomers into the political arena thanking him not only for +his long roll of public service, but much more for the example and +encouragement that his life gave to younger men endeavouring to do +something for the public good. To one of these he wrote (Dec. 15):-- + + + I thank you most sincerely for your kind and friendly letter. As + regards the prospective part of it, I can assure you that I should + be slow to plead the mere title to retirement which long labour is + supposed to earn. But I have always watched, and worked according + to what I felt to be the measure of my own mental force. A monitor + from within tells me that though I may still be equal to some + portions of my duties, or as little unequal as heretofore, there + are others which I cannot face. I fear therefore I must keep in + view an issue which cannot be evaded. + + + +III + + +As it happened, this volume of testimony to the affection, gratitude, and +admiration thus ready to go out to him from so many quarters coincided in +point of time with one or two extreme vexations in the conduct of his +daily business as head of the government. Some of them were aggravated by +the loss of a man whom he regarded as one of his two or three most +important friends. In September 1882 the Dean of Windsor died, and in his +death Mr. Gladstone (M36) suffered a heavy blow. To the end he always +spoke of Dr. Wellesley's friendship, and the value of his sagacity and +honest service, with a warmth by this time given to few. + + + _Death of the Dean of Windsor._ + + _To Lord Granville, Sept. 18, 1882._--My belief is that he has been + cognizant of every crown appointment in the church for nearly a + quarter of a century, and that the whole of his influence has been + exercised with a deep insight and a large heart for the best + interests of the crown and the church. If their character during + this period has been in the main more satisfactory to the general + mind of the country than at some former periods, it has been in no + small degree owing to him. + + It has been my duty to recommend I think for fully forty of the + higher appointments, including twelve which were episcopal. I + rejoice to say that every one of them has had his approval. But I + do not scruple to own that he has been in no small degree a help + and guide to me; and as to the Queen, whose heart I am sure is at + this moment bleeding, I do not believe she can possibly fill his + place as a friendly adviser either in ecclesiastical or other + matters. + + _To the Duchess of Wellington, Sept. 24._--He might, if he had + chosen, have been on his way to the Archbishopric of Canterbury. + Ten or eleven years ago, when the present primate was not expected + to recover, the question of the succession was considered, and I + had her Majesty's consent to the idea I have now mentioned. But, + governed I think by his great modesty, he at once refused. + + _To Mrs. Wellesley, Nov. 19, 1882._--I have remained silent, at + least to you, on a subject which for no day has been absent from + my thoughts, because I felt that I could add nothing to your + consolations and could take away nothing from your grief under + your great calamity. But the time has perhaps come when I may + record my sense of a loss of which even a small share is so large. + The recollections of nearly sixty years are upon my mind, and + through all that period I have felt more and more the force and + value of your husband's simple and noble character. No less have I + entertained an ever-growing sense of his great sagacity and the + singularly true and just balance of his mind. We owe much indeed + to you both for your constantly renewed kindness, but I have + another debt to acknowledge in the invaluable assistance which he + afforded me in the discharge of one among the most important and + most delicate of my duties. This void never can be filled, and it + helps me in some degree to feel what must be the void to you. + Certainly he was happy in the enjoyment of love and honour from + all who knew him; yet these were few in comparison with those whom + he so wisely and so warmly served without their knowing it; and + the love and honour paid him, great as they were, could not be as + great as he deserved. His memory is blessed--may his rest be deep + and sweet, and may the memory and example of him ever help you in + your onward pilgrimage. + + +The same week Dr. Pusey died--a name that filled so large a space in the +religious history of England for some thirty years of the century. Between +Mr. Gladstone and him the old relations of affectionate friendship +subsisted unbroken, notwithstanding the emancipation, as we may call it, +of the statesman from maxims and principles, though not, so far as I know, +from any of the leading dogmatic beliefs cherished by the divine. "I +hope," he wrote to Phillimore (Sept. 20, 1882), "to attend Dr. Pusey's +funeral to-morrow at Oxford.... I shall have another mournful office to +discharge in attending the funeral of the Dean of Windsor, more mournful +than the first. Dr. Pusey's death is the ingathering of a ripe shock, and +I go to his obsequies in token of deep respect and in memory of much +kindness from him early in my life. But the death of Dean Wellesley is to +my wife and me an unexpected and very heavy blow, also to me an +irreparable loss. I had honoured and loved him from Eton days." + +The loss of Dean Wellesley's counsels was especially felt in +ecclesiastical appointments, and the greatest of these was made necessary +by the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury at the beginning of December. +That the prime minister should regard so sage, conciliatory, and +large-minded a steersman as Dr. Tait with esteem was certain, and their +relations were easy and manly. Still, Tait had been an active liberal when +Mr. Gladstone was a tory, and (M37) from the distant days of the _Tracts +for the Times_, when Tait had stood amongst the foremost in open dislike +of the new tenets, their paths in the region of theology lay wide apart. +"I well remember," says Dean Lake, "a conversation with Mr. Gladstone on +Tait's appointment to London in 1856, when he was much annoyed at Tait's +being preferred to Bishop Wilberforce, and of which he reminded me nearly +thirty years afterwards, at the time of the archbishop's death, by saying, +'Ah! I remember you maintaining to me at that time that his {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} and +his judgment would make him a great bishop.' "(60) And so, from the point +of ecclesiastical statesmanship, he unquestionably was. + +The recommendation of a successor in the historic see of Canterbury, we +may be very certain, was no common event to Mr. Gladstone. Tait on his +deathbed had given his opinion that Dr. Harold Browne, the Bishop of +Winchester, would do more than any other man to keep the peace of the +church. The Queen was strong in the same sense, thinking that the bishop +might resign in a year or two, if he could not do the work. He was now +seventy-one years old, and Mr. Gladstone judged this to be too advanced an +age for the metropolitan throne. He was himself now seventy-three, and +though his sense of humour was not always of the protective kind, he felt +the necessity of some explanatory reason, and with him to seek a plea was +to find one. He wrote to the Bishop of Winchester:-- + + + ... It may seem strange that I, who in my own person exhibit so + conspicuously the anomaly of a disparate conjunction between years + and duties, should be thus forward in interpreting the + circumstances of another case certainly more mitigated in many + respects, yet differing from my own case in one vital point, the + newness of the duties of the English, or rather anglican or + British, primacy to a diocesan bishop, however able and + experienced, and the newness of mental attitude and action, which + they would require. Among the materials of judgment in such an + instance, it seems right to reckon precedents for what they are + worth; and I cannot find that from the time of Archbishop Sheldon + any one has assumed the primacy at so great an age as seventy. + Juxon, the predecessor of Sheldon, was much older; but his case + was altogether peculiar. I cannot say how pleasant it would have + been to me personally, but for the barrier I have named, to mark + my respect and affection for your lordship by making to you such a + proposal. What is more important is, that I am directly authorised + by her Majesty to state that this has been the single impediment + to her conferring the honour, and imposing the burden, upon you of + such an offer.(61) + + +The world made free with the honoured name of Church, the Dean of Saint +Paul's, and it has constantly been said that he declined the august +preferment to Canterbury on this occasion. In that story there is no +truth. "Formal offer," the Dean himself wrote to a friend, "there was +none, and could not be, for I had already on another occasion told my mind +to Gladstone, and said that reasons of health, apart from other reasons, +made it impossible for me to think of anything, except a retirement +altogether from office."(62) + +When it was rumoured that Mr. Gladstone intended to recommend Dr. Benson, +then Bishop of Truro, to the archbishopric, a political supporter came to +remonstrate with him. "The Bishop of Truro is a strong tory," he said, +"but that is not all. He has joined Mr. Raikes's election committee at +Cambridge; and it was only last week that Raikes made a violent personal +attack on yourself." "Do you know," replied Mr. Gladstone, "you have just +supplied me with a strong argument in Dr. Benson's favour? For if he had +been a worldly man or self-seeker, he would not have done anything so +imprudent." Perhaps we cannot wonder that whips and wirepullers deemed +this to be somewhat over-ingenious, a Christianity out of season. Even +liberals who took another point of view, still asked themselves how it was +(M38) that when church preferment came his way, the prime minister so +often found the best clergymen in the worst politicians. They should have +remembered that he was of those who believed "no more glorious church in +Christendom to exist than the church of England"; and its official +ordering was in his eyes not any less, even if it was not infinitely more, +important in the highest interests of the nation than the construction of +a cabinet or the appointment of permanent heads of departments. The church +was at this moment, moreover, in one of those angry and perilous crises +that came of the Elizabethan settlement and the Act of Uniformity, and the +anglican revival forty years ago, and all the other things that mark the +arrested progress of the Reformation in England. The anti-ritualist hunt +was up. Civil courts were busy with the conscience and conduct of the +clergy. Harmless but contumacious priests were under lock and key. It +seemed as if more might follow them, or else as if the shock of the great +tractarian catastrophe of the forties might in some new shape recur. To +recommend an archbishop in times like these could to a churchman be no +light responsibility. + +With such thoughts in his mind, however we may judge them, it is not +altogether surprising that in seeking an ecclesiastical governor for an +institution to him the most sacred and beloved of all forms of human +association, Mr. Gladstone should have cared very little whether the +personage best fitted in spirituals was quite of the right shade as to +state temporals. The labour that he now expended on finding the best man +is attested by voluminous correspondence. Dean Church, who was perhaps the +most freely consulted by the prime minister, says, "Of one thing I am +quite certain, that never for hundreds of years has so much honest +disinterested pains been taken to fill the primacy--such inquiry and +trouble resolutely followed out to find the really fittest man, apart from +every personal and political consideration, as in this case."(63) + +Another ecclesiastical vacancy that led to volumes of correspondence was +the deanery of Westminster the year before. In the summer of 1881 Dean +Stanley died, and it is interesting to note how easy Mr. Gladstone found +it to do full justice to one for whom as erastian and latitudinarian he +could in opinion have such moderate approval. In offering to the Queen his +"cordial sympathy" for the friend whom she had lost, he told her how early +in his own life and earlier still in the dean's he had opportunities of +watching the development of his powers, for they had both been educated at +a small school near the home of Mr. Gladstone's boyhood.(64) He went on to +speak of Stanley's boundless generosity and brilliant gifts, his genial +and attaching disposition. "There may be," he said, "and must be much +diversity as to parts of the opinions of Dean Stanley, but he will be long +remembered as one who was capable of the deepest and widest love, and who +received it in return." + +Far away from these regions of what he irreverently called the shovel hat, +about this time Carlyle died (Feb. 4, 1881), a firm sympathiser with Mr. +Gladstone in his views of the unspeakable Turk, but in all else the rather +boisterous preacher of a gospel directly antipathetic. "Carlyle is at +least a great fact in the literature of his time; and has contributed +largely, in some respects too largely, towards forming its characteristic +habits of thought." So Mr. Gladstone wrote in 1876, in a highly +interesting parallel between Carlyle and Macaulay--both of them honest, he +said, both notwithstanding their honesty partisans; both of them, though +variously, poets using the vehicle of prose; both having the power of +painting portraits extraordinary for vividness and strength; each of them +vastly though diversely powerful in expression, each more powerful in +expression than in thought; neither of them to be resorted to for +comprehensive disquisition, nor for balanced and impartial judgments.(65) +Perhaps it was too early in 1876 to speak of Carlyle as forming the +characteristic habits of thought of his time, but undoubtedly now when he +died, his influence was beginning to tell heavily against the speculative +liberalism that had reigned in England for two generations, with enormous +advantage to the peace, prosperity and power of (M39) the country and the +two generations concerned. Half lights and half truths are, as Mr. +Gladstone implies, the utmost that Carlyle's works were found to yield in +philosophy and history, but his half lights pointed in the direction in +which men for more material reasons thought that they desired to go. + + + +IV + + +A reconstruction of the ministry had become necessary by his own +abandonment of the exchequer. For one moment it was thought that Lord +Hartington might become chancellor, leaving room for Lord Derby at the +India office, but Lord Derby was not yet ready to join. In inviting Mr. +Childers to take his place as chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Gladstone +told him (Dec. 1, 1882): "The basis of my action is not so much a desire +to be relieved from labour, as an anxiety to give the country a much +better finance minister than myself,--one whose eyes will be always ranging +freely and vigilantly over the whole area of the great establishments, the +public service and the laws connected with his office, for the purposes of +improvement and of good husbandry." + +The claim of Sir Charles Dilke to a seat in the cabinet had become +irresistible alike by his good service as undersecretary at the foreign +office, and by his position out of doors; and as the admission of a +radical must be balanced by a whig--so at least it was judged--Mr. Gladstone +succeeded in inducing Lord Derby to join, though he had failed with him +not long before.(66) + +Apart from general objections at court, difficulties arose about the +distribution of office. Mr. Chamberlain, who has always had his full share +of the virtues of staunch friendship, agreed to give up to Sir C. Dilke +his own office, which he much liked, and take the duchy, which he did not +like at all. In acknowledging Mr. Chamberlain's letter (Dec. 14) Mr. +Gladstone wrote to him, "I shall be glad, if I can, to avoid acting upon +it. But I cannot refrain from at once writing a hearty line to acknowledge +the self-sacrificing spirit in which it is written; and which, I am sure, +you will never see cause to repent or change." This, however, was found to +be no improvement, for Mr. Chamberlain's language about ransoms to be paid +by possessors of property, the offence of not toiling and spinning, and +the services rendered by courtiers to kings, was not much less repugnant +than rash assertions about the monarch evading the income-tax. All +contention on personal points was a severe trial to Mr. Gladstone, and any +conflict with the wishes of the Queen tried him most of all. One of his +audiences upon these affairs Mr. Gladstone mentions in his diary: "Dec. +11.--Off at 12.45 to Windsor in the frost and fog. Audience of her Majesty +at 3. Most difficult ground, but aided by her beautiful manners, we got +over it better than might have been expected." The dispute was stubborn, +but like all else it came to an end; colleagues were obliging, holes and +pegs were accommodated, and Lord Derby went to the colonial office, and +Sir C. Dilke to the local government board. An officer of the court, who +was in all the secrets and had foreseen all the difficulties, wrote that +the actual result was due "to the judicious manner in which Mr. Gladstone +managed everything. He argued in a friendly way, urging his views with +moderation, and appealed to the Queen's sense of courtesy." + +In the course of his correspondence with the Queen, the prime minister +drew her attention (Dec. 18) to the fact that when the cabinet was formed +it included three ministers reputed to belong to the radical section, Mr. +Bright, Mr. Forster, and Mr. Chamberlain, and of these only the last +remained. The addition of Lord Derby was an addition drawn from the other +wing of the party. Another point presented itself. The cabinet originally +contained eight commoners and six peers. There were now seven peers and +six commoners. This made it requisite to add a commoner. As for Mr. +Chamberlain, the minister assured the Queen that though he had not yet, +like Mr. Bright, undergone the mollifying influence of age and experience, +his leanings on foreign policy would be far more acceptable to her Majesty +than those of Mr. Bright, while his views were not known to be any more +democratic in principle. He further expressed his firm opinion (Dec. 22) +(M40) that though Lord Derby might on questions of peace and war be some +shades nearer to the views of Mr. Bright than the other members of the +cabinet, yet he would never go anything like the length of Mr. Bright in +such matters. In fact, said Mr. Gladstone, the cabinet must be deemed a +little less pacific now than it was at its first formation. This at least +was a consolatory reflection. + +Ministerial reconstruction is a trying moment for the politician who +thinks himself "not a favourite with his stars," and is in a hurry for a +box seat before his time has come. Mr. Gladstone was now harassed with +some importunities of this kind.(67) Personal collision with any who stood +in the place of friends was always terrible to him. His gift of sleep +deserted him. "It is disagreeable to talk of oneself," he wrote to Lord +Granville (Jan. 2, 1883), "when there is so much of more importance to +think and speak about, but I am sorry to say that the incessant strain and +pressure of work, and especially the multiplication of these personal +questions, is overdoing me, and for the first time my power of sleep is +seriously giving way. I dare say it would soon right itself if I could +offer it any other medicine than the medicine in Hood's 'Song of the +Shirt.' " And the next day he wrote: "Last night I improved, 3-1/2-hours to +4-1/2, but this is different from 7 and 8, my uniform standard through +life." And two days later: "The matter of sleep is with me a very grave +one. I am afraid I may have to go up and consult Clark. My habit has +always been to reckon my hours rather exultingly, and say how little I am +awake. It is not impossible that I may have to ask you to meet me in +London, but I will not do this except in necessity. I think that, to +convey a clear idea, I should say I attach no importance to the broken +sleep itself; it is the state of the brain, tested by my own sensations, +when I begin my work in the morning, which may make me need higher +assurance." Sir Andrew Clark, "overflowing with kindness, as always," went +down to Hawarden (Jan. 7), examined, and listened to the tale of heavy +wakeful nights. While treating the case as one of temporary and accidental +derangement, he instantly forbade a projected expedition to Midlothian, +and urged change of air and scene. + +This prohibition eased some of the difficulties at Windsor, where +Midlothian was a name of dubious association, and in announcing to the +Queen the abandonment by Dr. Clark's orders of the intended journey to the +north, Mr. Gladstone wrote (Jan. 8, 1883):-- + + + In your Majesty's very kind reference on the 5th to his former + visits to Midlothian, and to his own observations on the 24th + April 1880, your Majesty remarked that he had said he did not then + think himself a responsible person. He prays leave to fill up the + outline which these words convey by saying he at that time (to the + best of his recollection) humbly submitted to your Majesty his + admission that he must personally bear the consequences of all + that he had said, and that he thought some things suitable to be + said by a person out of office which could not suitably be said by + a person in office; also that, as is intimated by your Majesty's + words, the responsibilities of the two positions severally were + different. With respect to the political changes named by your + Majesty, Mr. Gladstone considers that the very safe measure of + extending to the counties the franchise enjoyed by the boroughs + stands in all likelihood for early consideration; but he doubts + whether there can be any serious dealing of a general character + with the land laws by the present parliament, and so far as + Scottish disestablishment is concerned he does not conceive that + that question has made progress during recent years; and he may + state that in making arrangements recently for his expected visit + to Midlothian, he had received various overtures for deputations + on this subject, which he had been able to put aside. + + + +V + + +On January 17, along with Mrs. Gladstone, at Charing Cross he said +good-bye to many friends, and at Dover to Lord Granville, and the +following afternoon he found himself at Cannes, the guest of the +Wolvertons at the Chateau (M41) Scott, "nobly situated, admirably planned, +and the kindness exceeded even the beauty and the comfort." "Here," he +says, "we fell in with the foreign hours, the snack early, dejeuner at +noon, dinner at seven, break-up at ten.... I am stunned by this wonderful +place, and so vast a change at a moment's notice in the conditions of +life." He read steadily through the _Odyssey_, Dixon's _History of the +Church of England_, Scherer's _Miscellanies_, and _The Life of +Clerk-Maxwell_, and every day he had long talks and walks with Lord Acton +on themes personal, political and religious--and we may believe what a +restorative he found in communion with that deep and well-filled mind--that +"most satisfactory mind," as Mr. Gladstone here one day calls it. He took +drives to gardens that struck him as fairyland. The Prince of Wales paid +him kindly attentions as always. He had long conversations with the Comte +de Paris, and with M. Clemenceau, and with the Duke of Argyll, the oldest +of his surviving friends. In the evening he played whist. Home affairs he +kept at bay pretty successfully, though a speech of Lord Hartington's +about local government in Ireland drew from him a longish letter to Lord +Granville that the reader, if he likes, will find elsewhere.(68) His +conversation with M. Clemenceau (whom he found "decidedly pleasing") was +thought indiscreet, but though the most circumspect of men, the buckram of +a spurious discretion was no favourite wear with Mr. Gladstone. As for the +report of his conversation with the French radical, he wrote to Lord +Granville, "It includes much which Clemenceau did not say to me, and omits +much which he did, for our principal conversation was on Egypt, about +which he spoke in a most temperate and reasonable manner." He read the +"harrowing details" of the terrible scene in the court-house at +Kilmainham, where the murderous Invincibles were found out. "About Carey," +he said to Lord Granville, "the spectacle is indeed loathsome, but I +cannot doubt that the Irish government are distinctly _right_. In +accepting an approver you do not incite him to do what is in itself wrong; +only his own bad mind can make it wrong to him. The government looks for +the truth. Approvers are, I suppose, for the most part base, but I do not +see how you could act on a distinction of degree between them. Still, one +would have heard the hiss from the dock with sympathy." + +Lord Granville wrote to him (Jan. 31, 1883) that the Queen insisted much +upon his diminishing the amount of labour thrown upon him, and expressed +her opinion that his acceptance of a peerage would relieve him of the +heavy strain. Lord Granville told her that personally he should be +delighted to see him in the Lords, but that he had great doubts whether +Mr. Gladstone would be willing. From Cannes Mr. Gladstone replied (Feb. +3):-- + + + As to removal into the House of Lords, I think the reasons against + it of general application are conclusive. At least I cannot see my + way in regard to them. But at any rate it is obvious that such a + step is quite inapplicable to the circumstances created by the + present difficulty. It is really most kind of the Queen to testify + such an interest, and the question is how to answer her. You would + do this better and perhaps more easily than I. + + +Perhaps he remembered the case of Pulteney and of the Great Commoner. + +He was not without remorse at the thought of his colleagues in harness +while he was lotus-eating. On the day before the opening of the session he +writes, "I feel dual: I am at Cannes, and in Downing Street eating my +parliamentary dinner." By February 21 he was able to write to Lord +Granville:-- + + + As regards my health there is no excuse. It has got better and + better as I have stayed on, and is now, I think, on a higher level + than for a long time past. My sleep, for example, is now about as + good as it can be, and far better than it was during the autumn + sittings, _after_ which it got so bad. The pleasure I have had in + staying does not make an argument at all; it is a mere expression + or anticipation of my desire to be turned out to grass for + good.... + + +At last the end of the holiday came. "I part from Cannes with a heavy +heart," he records on Feb. 26:-- + + + Read the _Iliad_, copiously. Off by the 12.30 train. We exchanged + bright sun, splendid views, and a little dust at the beginning of + our journey, for frost and fog, which however hid no scenery, at + the end. _27th, Tuesday._--Reached Paris at 8, and drove to the + Embassy, where we had a most kind reception [from Lord Lyons]. + Wrote to Lord Granville, Lord Spencer, Sir W. Harcourt. Went with + Lord L. to see M. Grevy; also Challemel-Lacour in his most + palatial abode. Looked about among the shops; and at the sad face + of the Tuileries. An embassy party to dinner; excellent company. + + _To Lord Granville._ + + _Feb. 27th._--I have been with Lord Lyons to see Grevy and + Challemel-Lacour. Grevy's conversation consisted of civilities and + a mournful lecture on the political history of France, with many + compliments to the superiority of England. Challemel thought the + burdens of public life intolerable and greater here than in + England, which is rather strong. Neither made the smallest + allusion to present questions, and it was none of my business to + introduce them.... + + +After three days of bookstalls, ivory-hunting, and conversation, by the +evening of March 2 the travellers were once more after a bright day and +rapid passage safe in Downing Street. + +Shortly after their return from the south of France the Gladstones paid a +visit to the Prince and Princess of Wales:-- + + + _March 30, 1883._--Off at 11.30 to Sandringham. Reception kinder if + possible even than heretofore. Wrote.... Read and worked on London + municipality. _31, Saturday_.--Wrote. Root-cut a small tree in the + forenoon; then measured oaks in the park; one of 30 feet. In the + afternoon we drove to Houghton, a stately house and place, but + woe-begone. Conversation with Archbishop of Canterbury, Prince of + Wales and others. Read ... _Life of Hatherley_, Law's account of + Craig. _April 1._--Sandringham church, morning. West Newton, + evening. Good services and sermons from the archbishop. The Prince + bade me read the lessons. Much conversation with the archbishop, + also Duke of Cambridge. Read _Nineteenth Century_ on Revised + Version; Manning on Education; _Life of Hatherley_; Craig's + _Catechism_. Wrote, etc. 2.--Off at 11. D. Street 3.15. Wrote to + the Queen. Long conversation with the archbishop in the train. + + +Here a short letter or two may find a place:-- + + + _To Lady Jessel on her husband's death._ + + _March 30._--Though I am reluctant to intrude upon your sorrow + still so fresh, and while I beg of you on no account to + acknowledge this note, I cannot refrain from writing to assure you + not only of my sympathy with your grief, but of my profound sense + of the loss which the country and its judiciary have sustained by + the death of your distinguished husband. From the time of his + first entrance into parliament I followed his legal expositions + with an ignorant but fervid admiration, and could not help placing + him in the first rank, a rank held by few, of the many able and + powerful lawyers whom during half a century I have known and heard + in parliament. When I came to know him as a colleague, I found + reason to admire no less sincerely his superiority to + considerations of pecuniary interest, his strong and tenacious + sense of the dignity of his office, and his thoroughly frank, + resolute, and manly character. These few words, if they be a + feeble, yet I assure you are also a genuine, tribute to a memory + which I trust will long be cherished. Earnestly anxious that you + may have every consolation in your heavy bereavement. + + _To Cardinal Manning._ + + _April 19._--I thank you much for your kind note, though I am sorry + to have given you the trouble of writing it. Both of us have much + to be thankful for in the way of health, but I should have, hoped + that your extremely spare living would have saved you from the + action of anything like gouty tendencies. As for myself, I can in + no way understand how it is that for a full half century I have + been permitted and enabled to resist a pressure of special + liabilities attaching to my path of life, to which so many have + given way. I am left as a solitary, surviving all his compeers. + But I trust it may not be long ere I escape into some position + better suited to declining years. + + _To Sir W. V. Harcourt._ + + _April 27._--A separate line to thank you for your more than kind + words about my rather Alexandrine speech last night; as to which I + can only admit that it contained one fine passage--six lines in + length.(69) Your "instincts" of kindliness in all personal matters + are known to all the world. I should be glad, on selfish grounds, + if I could feel sure that they had not a little warped your + judicial faculty for the moment. But this misgiving abates nothing + from my grateful acknowledgment. + + +An application was made to him on behalf of a member of the opposite party +for a political pension, and here is his reply, to which it may be added +that ten years later he had come rather strongly to the view that +political pensions should be abolished, and he was only deterred from +trying to carry out his view by the reminder from younger ministers, not +themselves applicants nor ever likely to be, that it would hardly be a +gracious thing to cut off benefactions at a time when the bestowal of them +was passing away from him, though he had used them freely while that +bestowal was within his reach. + + + _Political Pensions._ + + _July 4, 1883._--You are probably aware that during the fifty years + which have passed since the system of political and civil pensions + was essentially remodelled, no political pension has been granted + by any minister except to one of those with whom he stood on terms + of general confidence and co-operation. It is needless to refer to + older practice. + + This is not to be accounted for by the fact that after meeting the + just claims of political adherents, there has been nothing left to + bestow. For, although it has happened that the list of pensions of + the first class has usually been full, it has not been so with + political pensions of the other classes, which have, I think, + rarely if ever been granted to the fullest extent that the Acts + have allowed. At the present time, out of twelve pensions which + may legally be conferred, only seven have been actually given, if + I reckon rightly. I do not think that this state of facts can have + been due to the absence of cases entitled to consideration, and I + am quite certain that it is not to be accounted for by what are + commonly termed party motives. It was obvious to me that I could + not create a precedent of deviation from a course undeviatingly + pursued by my predecessors of all parties, without satisfying + myself that a new form of proceeding would be reasonable and safe. + The examination of private circumstances, such as I consider the + Act to require, is from its own nature difficult and invidious: + but the examination of competing cases in the ex-official corps is + a function that could not, I think, be discharged with the + necessary combination of free responsible action, and of exemption + from offence and suspicion. Such cases plainly may occur.(70) + + _To H.R.H. the Prince of Wales._ + + _August 14th._--I am much shocked at an omission which I made last + night in failing to ask your royal Highness's leave to be the + first to quit Lord Alcester's agreeable party, in order that I + might attend to my duties in the House of Commons. In my early + days not only did the whole company remain united, if a member of + the royal family were present, until the exalted personage had + departed; but I well recollect the application of the same rule in + the case of the Archbishop (Howley) of Canterbury. I am sorry to + say that I reached the House of Commons in time to hear some + outrageous speeches from the ultra Irish members. I will not say + that they were meant to encourage crime, but they tended directly + to teach the Irish people to withhold their confidence from the + law and its administrators; and they seemed to exhibit Lord + Spencer as the enemy to the mass of the community--a sad and + disgraceful fact, though I need not qualify what I told your royal + Highness, that they had for some time past not been guilty of + obstruction. + + +Even in pieces that were in their nature more or less official, he touched +the occasions of life by a note that was not merely official, or was +official in its best form. To Mrs. Garfield he wrote (July 21, 1881):-- + + + You will, I am sure, excuse me, though a personal stranger, for + addressing you by letter, to convey to you the assurance of my own + feelings and those of my countrymen on the occasion of the late + horrible attempt to murder the President of the United States, in + a form more palpable at least than that of messages conveyed by + telegraph. Those feelings have been feelings in the first instance + of sympathy, and afterwards of joy and thankfulness, almost + comparable, and I venture to say only second to the strong + emotions of the great nation, of which he is the appointed head. + Individually I have, let me beg you to believe, had my full share + in the sentiments which have possessed the British nation. They + have been prompted and quickened largely by what I venture to + think is the ever-growing sense of harmony and mutual respect and + affection between the two countries, and of a relationship which + from year to year becomes more and more a practical bond of union + between us. But they have also drawn much of their strength from a + cordial admiration of the simple heroism which has marked the + personal conduct of the President, for we have not yet wholly lost + the capacity of appreciating such an example of Christian faith + and manly fortitude. This exemplary picture has been made complete + by your own contribution to its noble and touching features, on + which I only forbear to dwell because I am directly addressing + you. + + +Under all the conventional solemnities in Mr. Gladstone on such occasions, +we are conscious of a sincere feeling that they were in real relation to +human life and all its chances and changes. + + + + +Chapter VII. Colleagues--Northern Cruise--Egypt. (1883) + + + Parran faville della sua virtute + In non curar d'argento ne d'affanni. + + --_Paradiso_, xvii. 83. + + Sparks of his worth shall show in the little heed he gives either + to riches or to heavy toils. + + + +I + + +The session of 1883 was marked by one legislative performance of the first +order, the bill devised against corrupt practices at elections. This +invaluable measure was worked through the House of Commons mainly by Sir +Henry James, the attorney general, whose skill and temper in a business +that was made none the easier by the fact of every man in the House +supposing himself to understand the subject, excited Mr. Gladstone's +cordial admiration; it strengthened that peculiarly warm regard in which +he held Sir Henry, not only now but even when the evil days of political +severance came. The prime minister, though assiduous, as he always was, in +the discharge of those routine and secondary duties which can never be +neglected without damage to the House, had, for the first session in his +career as head of a government, no burden in the shaping of a great bill. +He insisted, in spite of some opposition in the cabinet, on accepting a +motion pledging parliament to economy (April 3). In a debate on the Congo, +he was taken by some to have gone near to giving up the treaty-making +power of the crown. He had to face more than one of those emergencies that +were naturally common for the leader of a party with a zealous radical +wing represented in his cabinet, and in some measure these occasions beset +Mr. Gladstone from 1869 (M42) onwards. His loyalty and kindness to +colleagues who got themselves and him into scrapes by imprudent speeches, +and his activity and resource in inventing ways out of scrapes, were +always unfailing. Often the difficulty was with the Queen, sometimes with +the House of Lords, occasionally with the Irish members. Birmingham, for +instance, held a grand celebration (June 13) on the twenty-fifth +anniversary of Mr. Bright's connection as its representative. Mr. Bright +used strong language about "Irish rebels," and then learned that he would +be called to account. He consulted Mr. Gladstone, and from him received a +reply that exhibits the use of logic as applied to inconvenient displays +of the sister art of rhetoric:-- + + + _To Mr. Bright._ + + _June 15, 1883._--I have received your note, and I am extremely + sorry either that you should have personal trouble after your + great exertions, or that anything should occur to cloud the + brilliancy or mar the satisfaction of your recent celebration in + Birmingham. I have looked at the extract from your speech, which + is to be alleged as the _corpus delicti_, with a jealous eye. It + seems well to be prepared for the worst. The points are, I think, + _three_:--1. "Not a few" tories are guilty of determined + obstruction. I cannot conceive it possible that this can be deemed + a breach of privilege. 2. These members are found 'in alliance' + with the Irish party. Alliance is often predicated by those who + disapprove, upon the ground that certain persons have been voting + together. This I think can hardly be a breach of privilege even in + cases where it may be disputable or untrue. + + But then: 3. This Irish party are "rebels" whose oath of + allegiance is broken by association with the enemies of the + country. Whether these allegations are true or not, the following + questions arise:--(a) Can they be proved; (b) Are they allegations + which would be allowed in debate? I suppose you would agree with + me that they cannot be proved; and I doubt whether they would be + allowed in debate. The question whether they are a breach of + privilege is for the House; but the Speaker would have to say, if + called upon, whether they were allowable in debate. My impression + is that he would say no; and I think you would not wish to use + elsewhere expressions that you could not repeat in the House of + Commons. + + +The Speaker has a jotting in his diary which may end this case of a great +man's excess:-- + + + _June 18._--Exciting sitting. Bright's language about Irish rebels. + Certainly his language was very strong and quite inadmissible if + spoken within the House. In conversation with Northcote I + deprecated the taking notice of language outside the House, though + I could not deny that the House, if it thought fit, might regard + the words as a breach of privilege. But Northcote was no doubt + urged by his friends. + + +Mr. Chamberlain's was a heavier business, and led to much correspondence +and difficult conversation in high places. A little of it, containing +general principles, will probably suffice here:-- + + + _To Sir Henry Ponsonby._ + + _June 22.--Re_ Chamberlain's speech. I am sorry to say I had not + read the report until I was warned by your letters to Granville + and to Hamilton, for my sight does not allow me to read largely + the small type of newspapers. I have now read it, and I must at + once say with deep regret. We had done our best to keep the Bright + celebration in harmony with the general tone of opinion by the + mission which Granville kindly undertook. I am the more sorry + about this speech, because Chamberlain has this year in parliament + shown both tact and talent in the management of questions not + polemical, such as the bankruptcy bill. The speech is open to + exception from three points of view, as I think--first in relation + to Bright, secondly in relation to the cabinet, thirdly and most + especially in relation to the crown, to which the speech did not + indicate the consciousness of his holding any special relation. + + _June. 26._--It appeared to me in considering the case of Mr. + Chamberlain's speech that by far the best correction would be + found, if a natural opportunity should offer, in a speech + differently coloured from himself. I found also that he was + engaged to preside on Saturday next at the dinner of the Cobden + Club. I addressed myself therefore to this point, and Mr. + Chamberlain will revert, on that occasion, to the same line of + thought.... But, like Granville, I consider that the offence does + not consist in holding certain opinions, of which in my judgment + the political force and effect are greatly exaggerated, but in the + attitude assumed, and the tone and colour given to the speech. + + _To Lord Granville._ + + _July 1, 1883._--I have read with care Chamberlain's speech of last + night [at the Cobden Club dinner].... Am I right or wrong in + understanding the speech as follows? He admits without stint that + in a cabinet concessions may be made as to action, but he seems to + claim an unlimited liberty of speech. Now I should be as far as + possible from asserting that under all circumstances speech must + be confined within the exact limits to which action is tied down. + But I think the dignity and authority, not to say the honour and + integrity, of government require that the liberty of speaking + beyond those limits should be exercised sparingly, reluctantly, + and with much modesty and reserve. Whereas Chamberlain's + Birmingham speech exceeded it largely, gratuitously, and with a + total absence of recognition of the fact that he was not an + individual but a member of a body. And the claim made last night + to liberty of speech must be read with the practical illustration + afforded by the Birmingham discourse, which evidently now stands + as an instance, a sort of moral instance, of the mode in which + liberty of speech is to be reconciled with limitation of + action.(71) + + In order to test the question, must we not bear in mind that the + liberty claimed in one wing of a cabinet may also be claimed in + another, and that while one minister says I support this measure, + though it does not go far enough, another may just as lawfully say + I support this measure, though it goes too far? For example, + Argyll agreed to the Disturbance Compensation bill in 1880, mainly + out of regard to his colleagues and their authority. What if he + had used in the House of Lords language like that I have just + supposed? Every extravagance of this kind puts weapons into the + hands of opponents, and weakens the authority of government, which + is hardly ever too strong, and is often too weak already. + + +In a letter written some years before when he was leader of the House, Mr. +Gladstone on the subject of the internal discipline of a ministerial corps +told one, who was at that time and now his colleague, a little story:-- + + + As the subject is one of interest, perhaps you will let me mention + the incident which first obliged me to reflect upon it. Nearly + thirty years ago, my leader, Sir R. Peel, agreed in the Irish + Tithes bills to give 25 per cent. of the tithe to the landlord in + return for that "Commutation." Thinking this too much (you see + that twist was then already in me), I happened to say so in a + private letter to an Irish clergyman. Very shortly after I had a + note from Peel, which inclosed one from Shaw, his head man in + Ireland, complaining of my letter as making his work impossible if + such things were allowed to go on. Sir R. Peel indorsed the + remonstrance, and I had to sing small. The discipline was very + tight in those days (and we were in opposition, not in + government). But it worked well on the whole, and I must say it + was accompanied on Sir R. Peel's part with a most rigid regard to + rights of all kinds within the official or quasi-official corps, + which has somewhat declined in more recent times. + + +A minister had made some reference in a public speech, to what happened in +the cabinet of which he was a member. "I am sure it cannot have occurred +to you," Mr. Gladstone wrote, "that the cabinet is the operative part of +the privy council, that the privy councillor's oath is applicable to its +proceedings, that this is a very high obligation, and that no one can +dispense with it except the Queen. I may add that I believe no one is +entitled even to make a note of the proceedings except the prime minister, +who has to report its proceedings on every occasion of its meeting to the +Queen, and who must by a few scraps assist his memory." + +By the end of the session, although its labours had not (M43) been on the +level of either 1881 or 1882, Mr. Gladstone was somewhat strained. On Aug. +22 he writes to Mrs. Gladstone at Hawarden: "Yesterday at 41/2 I entered the +House hoping to get out soon and write you a letter, when the Speaker told +me Northcote was going to raise a debate on the Appropriation bill, and I +had to wait, listen, and then to speak for more than an hour, which tired +me a good deal, finding me weak after sitting till 2.30 the night before, +and a long cabinet in the interval. Rough work for 73!" + + + +II + + +In September he took a holiday in a shape that, though he was no hearty +sailor, was always a pleasure and a relief to him. Three letters to the +Queen tell the story, and give a glimpse of court punctilio:-- + + + _On the North Sea, Sept. 15. Posted at Copenhagen, Sept. 16, + 1883._--Mr. Gladstone presents his humble duty to your Majesty, and + has to offer his humble apology for not having sought from your + Majesty the usual gracious permission before setting foot on a + foreign shore. He embarked on the 8th in a steamer of the Castles + Company under the auspices of Sir Donald Currie, with no more + ambitious expectation than that of a cruise among the Western + Isles. But the extraordinary solidity, so to call it, of a very + fine ship (the _Pembroke Castle_, 4000 tons, 410 feet long) on the + water, rendering her in no small degree independent of weather, + encouraged his fellow-voyagers, and even himself, though a most + indifferent sailor, to extend their views, and the vessel is now + on the North Sea running over to Christiansand in Norway, from + whence it is proposed to go to Copenhagen, with the expectation, + however, of again touching British soil in the middle of next + week. Mr. Gladstone humbly trusts that, under these circumstances, + his omission may be excused. + + Mr. Tennyson, who is one of the party, is an excellent sailor, and + seems to enjoy himself much in the floating castle, as it may be + termed in a wider sense than that of its appellation on the + register. The weather has been variable with a heavy roll from the + Atlantic at the points not sheltered; but the stormy North Sea has + on the whole behaved extremely well as regards its two besetting + liabilities to storm and fog. + + _Ship __"__Pembroke Castle,__"__ Mouth of the Thames. Sept. 20, + 1883._--Mr. Gladstone with his humble duty reports to your Majesty + his return this evening from Copenhagen to London. The passage was + very rapid, and the weather favourable. He had the honour, with + his wife and daughter and other companions of his voyage, to + receive an invitation to dine at Fredensborg on Monday. He found + there the entire circle of illustrious personages who have been + gathered for some time in a family party, with a very few + exceptions. The singularly domestic character of this remarkable + assemblage, and the affectionate intimacy which appeared to + pervade it, made an impression upon him not less deep than the + demeanour of all its members, which was so kindly and so simple, + that even the word condescending could hardly be applied to it. + Nor must Mr. Gladstone allow himself to omit another striking + feature of the remarkable picture, in the unrestrained and + unbounded happiness of the royal children, nineteen in number, who + appeared like a single family reared under a single roof. + + [_The royal party, forty in number, visit the ship._] + + The Emperor of Russia proposed the health of your Majesty. Mr. + Gladstone by arrangement with your Majesty's minister at this + court, Mr. Vivian, proposed the health of the King and Queen of + Denmark, and the Emperor and Empress of Russia, and the King and + Queen of the Hellenes. The King of Denmark did Mr. Gladstone the + honour to propose his health; and Mr. Gladstone in acknowledging + this toast, thought he could not do otherwise, though no speeches + had been made, than express the friendly feeling of Great Britain + towards Denmark, and the satisfaction with which the British + people recognised the tie of race which unites them with the + inhabitants of the Scandinavian countries. Perhaps the most + vigorous and remarkable portion of the British nation had, Mr. + Gladstone said, been drawn from these countries. After luncheon, + the senior imperial and royal personages crowded together into a + small cabin on the deck to hear Mr. Tennyson read two of his + poems, several of the younger branches clustering round the doors. + Between 2 and 3, the illustrious party left the _Pembroke Castle_, + and in the midst of an animated scene, went on board the King of + Denmark's yacht, which steamed towards Elsinore. + + Mr. Gladstone was much pleased to observe that the Emperor of + Russia appeared to be entirely released from the immediate + pressure of his anxieties supposed to weigh much upon his mind. + The Empress of Russia has the genial and gracious manners which on + this, and on every occasion, mark H.R.H. the Princess of Wales. + + ------------------------------------- + + _Sept. 22, 1883._--Mr. Gladstone presents his humble duty to your + Majesty, and has to acknowledge your Majesty's letter of the 20th + "giving him full credit for not having reflected at the time" when + he decided, as your Majesty believes, to extend his recent cruise + to Norway and Denmark. + + He may humbly state that he had no desire or idea beyond a glance, + if only for a few hours, at a little of the fine and peculiar + scenery of Norway. But he is also responsible for having + acquiesced in the proposal (which originated with Mr. Tennyson) to + spend a day at Copenhagen, where he happens to have some + associations of literary interest; for having accepted an + unexpected invitation to dine with the king some thirty miles off; + and for having promoted the execution of a wish, again + unexpectedly communicated to him, that a visit of the illustrious + party to the _Pembroke Castle_ should be arranged. Mr. Gladstone + ought probably to have foreseen all these things. With respect to + the construction put upon his act abroad, Mr. Gladstone ought + again, perhaps, to have foreseen that, in countries habituated to + more important personal meetings, which are uniformly declared to + be held in the interests of general peace, his momentary and + unpremeditated contact with the sovereigns at Fredensborg would be + denounced, or suspected of a mischievous design. He has, however, + some consolation in finding that, in England at least, such a + suspicion appears to have been confined to two secondary journals, + neither of which has ever found (so far as he is aware) in any act + of his anything but guilt and folly. + + Thus adopting, to a great extent, your Majesty's view, Mr. + Gladstone can confirm your Majesty's belief that (with the + exception of a sentence addressed by him to the King of the + Hellenes singly respecting Bulgaria), there was on all hands an + absolute silence in regard to public affairs.... + + +In proposing at Kirkwall the health of the poet who was his fellow-guest +on the cruise, Mr. Gladstone let fall a hint--a significant and perhaps a +just one--on the comparative place of politics and letters, the difference +between the statesman and orator and the poet. "Mr. Tennyson's life and +labour," he said, "correspond in point of time as nearly as possible to my +own; but he has worked in a higher field, and his work will be more +durable. We public men play a part which places us much in view of our +countrymen, but the words which we speak have wings and fly away and +disappear.... But the Poet Laureate has written his own song on the hearts +of his countrymen that can never die." + + + +III + + +It was said in 1884 that the organisation of Egypt was a subject, whether +regarded from the English or the European point of view, that was probably +more complicated and more fraught with possible dangers in the future, +than any question of foreign policy with which England had had to deal for +the last fifty years or more. + +The arguments against prolonged English occupation were tolerably clear. +It would freeze all cordiality between ourselves and the French. It would +make us a Mediterranean military power. In case of war, the necessity of +holding Egypt would weaken us. In diplomacy it would expose fresh surface +to new and hostile combinations. Yet, giving their full weight to every +one of these considerations, a British statesman was confronted by one of +those intractable dilemmas that make up the material of a good half of +human history. The Khedive could not stand by himself. The Turk would not, +and ought not to be endured for his protector. Some other European power +would step in and block the English road. Would common prudence in such a +case suffer England to acquiesce and stand aside? Did not subsisting +obligations also confirm the precepts of policy and self-interest? In many +minds this reasoning was clenched and clamped by the sacrifices that +England had made when she took, and took alone, the initial military step. + +Egyptian affairs were one of the heaviest loads that (M44) weighed upon +Mr. Gladstone during the whole of 1884. One day in the autumn of this +year, towards the end of the business before the cabinet, a minister asked +if there was anything else. "No," said Mr. Gladstone with sombre irony as +he gathered up his papers, "we have done our Egyptian business, and we are +an Egyptian government." His general position was sketched in a letter to +Lord Granville (Mar. 22, 1884): "In regard to the Egyptian question +proper, I am conscious of being moved by three powerful considerations. +(1) Respect for European law, and for the peace of eastern Europe, +essentially connected with its observance. (2) The just claims of the +Khedive, who has given us no case against him, and his people as connected +with him. (3) Indisposition to extend the responsibilities of this +country. On the first two I feel very stiff. On the third I should have +due regard to my personal condition as a vanishing quantity." + +The question of the continuance of the old dual control by England and +France was raised almost immediately after the English occupation began, +but English opinion supported or stimulated the cabinet in refusing to +restore a form of co-operation that had worked well originally in the +hands of Baring and de Blignieres, but had subsequently betrayed its +inherent weakness. France resumed what is diplomatically styled liberty of +action in Egypt; and many months were passed in negotiations, the most +entangled in which a British government was ever engaged. Why did not +England, impatient critics of Mr. Gladstone and his cabinet inquire, at +once formally proclaim a protectorate? Because it would have been a direct +breach of her moral obligations of good faith to Europe. These were +undisputed and indisputable. It would have brought her within instant +reach of a possible war with France, for which the sinister and interested +approval of Germany would have been small compensation. + +The issue lay between annexation and withdrawal,--annexation to be veiled +and indirect, withdrawal to be cautious and conditional. No member of the +cabinet at this time seems to have listened with any favour whatever to +the mention of annexation. Apart from other objections, it would +undeniably have been a flagrant breach of solemn international +engagements. The cabinet was pledged up to the lips to withdrawal, and +when Lord Hartington talked to the House of Commons of the last British +soldier quitting Egypt in a few months, nobody ever doubted then or since +that he was declaring the sincere intention of the cabinet. Nor was any +doubt possible that the intention of the cabinet entirely coincided at +that time with the opinion and wishes of the general public. The +operations in Egypt had not been popular,(72) and the national temper was +still as hostile to all expansion as when it cast out Lord Beaconsfield. +Withdrawal, however, was beset with inextricable difficulties. Either +withdrawal or annexation would have simplified the position and brought +its own advantages. Neither was possible. The British government after +Tel-el-Kebir vainly strove to steer a course that would combine the +advantages of both. Say what they would, military occupation was taken to +make them responsible for everything that happened in Egypt. This +encouraged the view that they should give orders to Egypt, and make Egypt +obey. But then direct and continuous interference with the Egyptian +administration was advance in a path that could only end in annexation. To +govern Egypt from London through a native ministry, was in fact nothing +but annexation, and annexation in its clumsiest and most troublesome +shape. Such a policy was least of all to be reconciled with the avowed +policy of withdrawal. To treat native ministers as mere ciphers and +puppets, and then to hope to leave them at the end with authority enough +to govern the country by themselves, was pure delusion. + +So much for our relations with Egypt internally. Then came Europe and the +Powers, and the regulation of a financial situation of indescribable +complexity. "I sometimes fear," Mr. Gladstone wrote to Lord Granville +(Dec. 8, (M45) 1884), "that some of the foreign governments have the same +notion of me that Nicholas was supposed to have of Lord Aberdeen. But +there is no one in the cabinet less disposed than I am to knuckle down to +them in this Egyptian matter, about which they, except Italy, behave so +ill, some of them without excuse." "As to Bismarck," he said, "it is a +case of sheer audacity, of which he has an unbounded stock." Two months +before he had complained to Lord Granville of the same powerful personage: +"Ought not some notice to be taken of Bismarck's impudent reference to the +English exchequer? Ought you to have such a remark in your possession +without protest? He coolly assumes in effect that we are responsible for +all the financial wants and occasions of Egypt." + +The sensible reader would resist any attempt to drag him into the +Serbonian bog of Egyptian finance. Nor need I describe either the +protracted conference of the European Powers, or the mission of Lord +Northbrook. To this able colleague, Mr. Gladstone wrote on the eve of his +departure (Aug. 29, 1884):-- + + + I cannot let you quit our shores without a word of valediction. + Your colleagues are too deeply interested to be impartial judges + of your mission. But they certainly cannot be mistaken in their + appreciation of the generosity and courage which could alone have + induced you to undertake it. Our task in Egypt generally may not + unfairly be called an impossible task, and with the impossible no + man can successfully contend. But we are well satisfied that + whatever is possible, you will achieve; whatever judgment, + experience, firmness, gentleness can do, will be done. Our + expectations from the nature of the case must be moderate; but be + assured, they will not be the measure of our gratitude. All good + go with you. + + +Lord Northbrook's report when in due time it came, engaged the prime +minister's anxious consideration, but it could not be carried further. +What the Powers might agree to, parliament would not look at. The +situation was one of the utmost delicacy and danger, as anybody who is +aware of the diplomatic embarrassments of it knows. An agreement with +France about the Suez Canal came to nothing. A conference upon finance +came to nothing. Bismarck was out of humour with England, partly from his +dislike of certain exalted English personages and influences at his own +court, partly because it suited him that France and England should be bad +friends, partly because, as he complained, whenever he tried to found a +colony, we closed in upon him. He preached a sermon on _do ut des_, and +while scouting the idea of any real differences with this country, he +hinted that if we could not accommodate him in colonial questions, he +might not find it in his power to accommodate us in European questions. +Mr. Gladstone declared for treating every German claim in an equitable +spirit, but said we had our own colonial communities to consider. + +In March 1885, after negotiations that threatened to be endless, the +London Convention was signed and the riddle of the financial sphinx was +solved. This made possible the coming years of beneficent reform. The +wonder is, says a competent observer, how in view of the indifference of +most of the Powers to the welfare of Egypt and the bitter annoyance of +France at our position in that country, the English government ever +succeeded in inducing all the parties concerned to agree to so reasonable +an arrangement.(73) + +Meanwhile, as we shall see all too soon, the question of Egypt proper, as +it was then called, had brought up the question of the Soudan, and with it +an incident that made what Mr. Gladstone called "the blackest day since +the Phoenix Park." In 1884 the government still seemed prosperous. The +ordinary human tendency to croak never dies, especially in the politics of +party. Men talked of humiliation abroad, ruin at home, agricultural +interests doomed, trade at a standstill--calamities all obviously due to a +government without spirit, and a majority with no independence. But then +humiliation, to be sure, only meant jealousy in other countries because we +declined to put ourselves in the wrong, and to be hoodwinked into unwise +alliances. Ruin only meant reform without revolution. Doom meant an +inappreciable falling off in the vast volume of our trade. + + + + +Chapter VIII. Reform. (1884) + + + Decision by majorities is as much an expedient as lighting by gas. + In adopting it as a rule, we are not realising perfection, but + bowing to an imperfection. It has the great merit of avoiding, and + that by a test perfectly definite, the last resort to violence; + and of making force itself the servant instead of the master of + authority. But our country rejoices in the belief that she does + not decide all things by majorities.--GLADSTONE (1858). + + + +I + + +"The word procedure," said Mr. Gladstone to a club of young political +missionaries in 1884, "has in it something homely, and it is difficult for +any one, except those who pass their lives within the walls of parliament, +to understand how vital and urgent a truth it is, that there is no more +urgent demand, there is no aim or purpose more absolutely essential to the +future victories and the future efficiency of the House of Commons, than +that it should effect, with the support of the nation--for it can be +effected in no other way--some great reform in the matter of its +procedure." He spoke further of the "absolute and daily-growing necessity +of what I will describe as a great internal reform of the House of +Commons, quite distinct from that reform beyond its doors on which our +hearts are at present especially set." Reform from within and reform from +without were the two tasks, neither of them other than difficult in +themselves and both made supremely difficult by the extraordinary spirit +of faction at that time animating the minority. The internal reform had +been made necessary, as Mr. Gladstone expressed it, by systematised +obstruction, based upon the abuse of ancient and generous rules, under +which system the House of Commons "becomes more and more the slave of some +of the poorest and most insignificant among its members." Forty years +before he told the provost of Oriel, "The forms of parliament are little +more than a mature expression of the principles of justice in their +application to the proceedings of deliberative bodies, having it for their +object to secure freedom and reflection, and well fitted to attain that +object." These high ideals had been gradually lowered, for Mr. Parnell had +found out that the rules which had for their object the security of +freedom and reflection, could be still more effectually wrested to objects +the very opposite. + +In Mr. Gladstone's first session (1833) 395 members (the speaker excluded) +spoke, and the total number of speeches was 5765. Fifty years later, in +the session of 1883, the total number of speeches had risen to 21,160. The +remedies proposed from time to time in this parliament by Mr. Gladstone +were various, and were the occasion of many fierce and stubborn conflicts. +But the subject is in the highest degree technical, and only intelligible +to those who, as Mr. Gladstone said, "pass their lives within the walls of +parliament"--perhaps not by any means to all even of them. His papers +contain nothing of interest or novelty upon the question either of +devolution or of the compulsory stoppage of debate. We may as well, +therefore, leave it alone, only observing that the necessity for the +closure was probably the most unpalatable of all the changes forced on Mr. +Gladstone by change in social and political circumstance. To leave the +subject alone is not to ignore its extreme importance, either in the +effect of revolution in procedure upon the character of the House, and its +power of despatching and controlling national business; or as an +indication that the old order was yielding in the political sphere as +everywhere else to the conditions of a new time. + + + +II + + +The question of extending to householders in the country the franchise +that in 1867 had been conferred on householders in boroughs, had been +first pressed with eloquence and resolution by Mr. Trevelyan. In 1876 he +introduced two resolutions, one for extended franchise, the other for a +new (M46) arrangement of seats, made necessary by the creation of the new +voters. In a tory parliament he had, of course, no chance. Mr. Gladstone, +not naturally any more ardent for change in political machinery than Burke +or Canning had been, was in no hurry about it, but was well aware that the +triumphant parliament of 1880 could not be allowed to expire without the +effective adoption by the government of proposals in principle such as +those made by Mr. Trevelyan in 1876. One wing of the cabinet hung back. +Mr. Gladstone himself, reading the signs in the political skies, felt that +the hour had struck; the cabinet followed, and the bill was framed. Never, +said Mr. Gladstone, was a bill so large in respect of the numbers to have +votes; so innocent in point of principle, for it raised no new questions +and sprang from no new principles. It went, he contended and most truly +contended, to the extreme of consideration for opponents, and avoided +several points that had especial attractions for friends. So likewise, the +general principles on which redistribution of seats would be governed, +were admittedly framed in a conservative spirit. + +The comparative magnitude of the operation was thus described by Mr. +Gladstone (Feb. 28, 1884):-- + + + In 1832 there was passed what was considered a Magna Charta of + British liberties; but that Magna Charta of British liberties + added, according to the previous estimate of Lord John Russell, + 500,000, while according to the results considerably less than + 500,000 were added to the entire constituency of the three + countries. After 1832 we come to 1866. At that time the total + constituency of the United Kingdom reached 1,364,000. By the bills + which were passed between 1867 and 1869 that number was raised to + 2,448,000. Under the action of the present law the constituency + has reached in round numbers what I would call 3,000,000. This + bill, if it passes as presented, will add to the English + constituency over 1,300,000 persons. It will add to the Scotch + constituency, Scotland being at present rather better provided in + this respect than either of the other countries, over 200,000, and + to the Irish constituency over 400,000; or in the main, to the + present aggregate constituency of the United Kingdom taken at + 3,000,000 it will add 2,000,000 more, nearly twice as much as was + added since 1867, and more than four times as much as was added in + 1832. + + +The bill was read a second time (April 7) by the overwhelming majority of +340 against 210. Even those who most disliked the measure admitted that a +majority of this size could not be made light of, though they went on in +charity to say that it did not represent the honest opinion of those who +composed it. It was in fact, as such persons argued, the strongest proof +of the degradation brought into our politics by the Act of 1867. "All the +bribes of Danby or of Walpole or of Pelham," cried one excited critic, +"all the bullying of the Tudors, all the lobbying of George III., would +have been powerless to secure it in the most corrupt or the most servile +days of the ancient House of Commons."(74) + +On the third reading the opposition disappeared from the House, and on Mr. +Gladstone's prompt initiative it was placed on record in the journals that +the bill had been carried by a unanimous verdict. It went to the Lords, +and by a majority, first of 59 and then of 50, they put what Mr. Gladstone +mildly called "an effectual stoppage on the bill, or in other words did +practically reject it." The plain issue, if we can call it plain, was +this. What the tories, with different degrees of sincerity, professed to +dread was that the election might take place on the new franchise, but +with an unaltered disposition of parliamentary seats. At heart the bulk of +them were as little friendly to a lowered franchise in the counties, as +they had been in the case of the towns before Mr. Disraeli educated them. +But this was a secret dangerous to let out, for the enfranchised workers +in the towns would never understand why workers in the villages should not +have a vote. Apart from this, the tory leaders believed that unless the +allotment of seats went with the addition of a couple of million new +voters, the prospect would be ruinously unfavourable to their party, and +they offered determined resistance to the chance of a jockeying operation +of this (M47) kind. At least one very eminent man among them had privately +made up his mind that the proceeding supposed to be designed by their +opponents--their distinct professions notwithstanding--would efface the tory +party for thirty years to come. Mr. Gladstone and his government on the +other hand agreed, on grounds of their own and for reasons of their own, +that the two changes should come into operation together. What they +contended was, that to tack redistribution on to franchise, was to scotch +or kill franchise. "I do not hesitate to say," Mr. Gladstone told his +electors, "that those who are opposing us, and making use of this topic of +redistribution of seats as a means for defeating the franchise bill, know +as well as we do that, had we been such idiots and such dolts as to +present to parliament a bill for the combined purpose, or to bring in two +bills for the two purposes as one measure--I say, they know as well as we +do, that a disgraceful failure would have been the result of our folly, +and that we should have been traitors to you, and to the cause we had in +hand."(75) Disinterested onlookers thought there ought to be no great +difficulty in securing the result that both sides desired. As the Duke of +Argyll put it to Mr. Gladstone, if in private business two men were to +come to a breach, when standing so near to one another in aim and +profession, they would be shut up in bedlam. This is just what the +judicious reader will think to-day. + +The controversy was transported from parliament to the platform, and a +vigorous agitation marked the autumn recess. It was a double agitation. +What began as a campaign on behalf of the rural householder, threatened to +end as one against hereditary legislators. It is a well-known advantage in +movements of this sort to be not only for, but also against, somebody or +something; against a minister, by preference, or if not an individual, +then against a body. A hereditary legislature in a community that has +reached the self-governing stage is an anachronism that makes the easiest +of all marks for mockery and attack, so long as it lasts. Nobody can doubt +that if Mr. Gladstone had been the frantic demagogue or fretful +revolutionist that his opponents thought, he now had an excellent chance +of bringing the question of the House of Lords irresistibly to the front. +As it was, in the midst of the storm raised by his lieutenants and +supporters all over the country, he was the moderating force, elaborately +appealing, as he said, to the reason rather than the fears of his +opponents. + +One reproachful passage in his speeches this autumn acquires a rather +peculiar significance in the light of the events that were in the coming +years to follow. He is dealing with the argument that the hereditary House +protects the nation against fleeting opinions:-- + + + How is it with regard to the solid and permanent opinion of the + nation? We have had twelve parliaments since the Reform Act,--I + have a right to say so, as I have sat in every one of them,--and + the opinion, the national opinion, has been exhibited in the + following manner. Ten of those parliaments have had a liberal + majority. The eleventh parliament was the one that sat from 1841 + to 1847. It was elected as a tory parliament; but in 1846 it put + out the conservative government of Sir Robert Peel, and put in and + supported till its dissolution, the liberal government of Lord + John Russell. That is the eleventh parliament. But then there is + the twelfth parliament, and that is one that you and I know a good + deal about [Lord Beaconsfield's parliament], for we talked largely + on the subject of its merits and demerits, whichever they may be, + at the time of the last election. That parliament was, I admit, a + tory parliament from the beginning to the end. But I want to know, + looking back for a period of more than fifty years, which + represented the solid permanent conviction of the nation?--the ten + parliaments that were elected upon ten out of the twelve + dissolutions, or the one parliament that chanced to be elected + from the disorganized state of the liberal party in the early part + of the year 1874? Well, here are ten parliaments on the one side; + here is one parliament on the other side.... The House of Lords + was in sympathy with the one parliament, and was in opposition ... + to the ten parliaments. And yet you are told, when--we will say for + forty-five years out of fifty--practically the nation has + manifested its liberal tendencies by the election of liberal + parliaments, and once only has chanced to elect a thoroughly tory + parliament, you are told that it is the thoroughly tory parliament + that represents the solid and permanent opinion of the + country.(76) + + +In time a curious thing, not yet adequately explained, fell out, for the +extension of the franchise in 1867 and now in 1884 resulted in a reversal +of the apparent law of things that had ruled our political parties through +the epoch that Mr. Gladstone has just sketched. The five parliaments since +1884 have not followed the line of the ten parliaments preceding, +notwithstanding the enlargement of direct popular power. + + + +III + + +In August Mr. Gladstone submitted to the Queen a memorandum on the +political situation. It was much more elaborate than the ordinary official +submissions. Lord Granville was the only colleague who had seen it, and +Mr. Gladstone was alone responsible for laying it before the sovereign. It +is a masterly statement of the case, starting from the assumption for the +sake of argument that the tories were right and the liberals wrong as to +the two bills; then proceeding on the basis of a strongly expressed desire +to keep back a movement for organic change; next urging the signs that +such a movement would go forward with irresistible force if the bill were +again rejected; and concluding thus:-- + + + I may say in conclusion that there is no personal act if it be + compatible with personal honour and likely to contribute to an end + which I hold very dear, that I would not gladly do for the purpose + of helping to close the present controversy, and in closing it to + prevent the growth of one probably more complex and more + formidable. + + +This document, tempered, unrhetorical, almost dispassionate, was the +starting-point of proceedings that, after enormous difficulties had been +surmounted by patience and perseverance, working through his power in +parliament and his authority in the country, ended in final pacification +and a sound political settlement. It was Mr. Gladstone's statesmanship +that brought this pacification into sight and within reach. + +The Queen was deeply struck both by the force of his arguments and the +earnest tone in which they were pressed. Though doubting whether there was +any strong desire for a change in the position of the House of Lords, +still she "did not shut her eyes to the possible gravity of the situation" +(Aug. 31). She seemed inclined to take some steps for ascertaining the +opinion of the leaders of opposition, with a view to inducing them to +modify their programme. The Duke of Richmond visited Balmoral (Sept. 13), +but when Mr. Gladstone, then himself on Deeside, heard what had passed in +the direction of compromise, he could only say, "Waste of breath!" To all +suggestions of a dissolution on the case in issue, Mr. Gladstone said to a +confidential emissary from Balmoral:-- + + + Never will I be a party to dissolving in order to determine + whether the Lords or the Commons were right upon the Franchise + bill. If I have anything to do with dissolution, it will be a + dissolution upon organic change in the House of Lords. Should this + bill be again rejected in a definite manner, there will be only + two courses open to me, one to cut out of public life, which I + shall infinitely prefer; the other to become a supporter of + organic change in the House of Lords, which I hate and which I am + making all this fuss in order to avoid. We have a few weeks before + us to try and avert the mischief. After a second rejection it will + be too late. There is perhaps the alternative of advising a large + creation of peers; but to this there are great objections, even if + the Queen were willing. I am not at present sure that I could + bring myself to be a party to the adoption of a plan like that of + 1832. + + +When people talked to him of dissolution as a means of bringing the Lords +to account, he replied in scorn: "A marvellous conception! On such a +dissolution, if the country disapproved of the conduct of its +representatives, it would cashier them; but, if it disapproved of the +conduct of the peers, it would simply have to see them resume their place +of power, to employ it to the best of their ability as opportunity might +serve, in thwarting the desires of the country expressed through its +representatives." + +It was reported to Mr. Gladstone that his speeches in (M48) Scotland +(though they were marked by much restraint) created some displeasure at +Balmoral. He wrote to Lord Granville (Sept. 26):-- + + + The Queen does not know the facts. If she did, she would have + known that while I have been compelled to deviate from the + intention, of speaking only to constituents which (with much + difficulty) I kept until Aberdeen, I have thereby (and again with + much difficulty in handling the audiences, every one of which + would have wished a different course of proceeding) been enabled + to do much in the way of keeping the question of organic change in + the House of Lords out of the present stage of the controversy. + + +Sir Henry Ponsonby, of course at the Queen's instigation, was +indefatigable and infinitely ingenious in inventing devices of possible +compromise between Lords and Commons, or between Lords and ministers, such +as might secure the passing of franchise and yet at the same time secure +the creation of new electoral areas before the extended franchise should +become operative. The Queen repeated to some members of the opposition--she +did not at this stage communicate directly with Lord Salisbury--the essence +of Mr. Gladstone's memorandum of August, and no doubt conveyed the +impression that it had made upon her own mind. Later correspondence +between her secretary and the Duke of Richmond set up a salutary ferment +in what had not been at first a very promising quarter. + +Meanwhile Mr. Gladstone was hard at work in other directions. He was +urgent (Oct. 2) that Lord Granville should make every effort to bring more +peers into the fold to save the bill when it reappeared in the autumn +session. He had himself "garnered in a rich harvest" of bishops in July. +On previous occasions he had plied the episcopal bench with political +appeals, and this time he wrote to the Archbishop of Canterbury:-- + + + _July 2, 1884._--I should have felt repugnance and scruple about + addressing your Grace at any time on any subject of a political + nature, if it were confined within the ordinary limits of such + subjects. But it seems impossible to refuse credit to the + accounts, which assure us that the peers of the opposition, under + Lord Salisbury and his coadjutors, are determined to use all their + strength and influence for the purpose of throwing out the + Franchise bill in the House of Lords; and thus of entering upon a + conflict with the House of Commons, from which at each step in the + proceeding it may probably become more difficult to retire, and + which, if left to its natural course, will probably develop itself + into a constitutional crisis of such an order, as has not occurred + since 1832.... + + +To Tennyson, the possessor of a spiritual power even more than +archiepiscopal, who had now a place among peers temporal, he addressed a +remonstrance (July 6):-- + + + ... Upon consideration I cannot help writing a line, for I must + hope you will reconsider your intention. The best mode in which I + can support a suggestion seemingly so audacious is by informing + you, that all sober-minded conservative peers are in great dismay + at this wild proceeding of Lord Salisbury; that the ultra-radicals + and Parnellites, on the other hand, are in a state of glee, as + they believe, and with good reason, that the battle once begun + will end in some great humiliation to the House of Lords, or some + important change in its composition. That (to my knowledge) + various bishops of conservative leanings are, on this account, + going to vote with the government--as may be the case with lay + peers also. That you are the _only_ peer, so far as I know, + associated with liberal ideas or the liberal party, who hesitates + to vote against Lord Salisbury. + + +In the later stage of this controversy, Tennyson shot the well-known lines +at him-- + + + Steersman, be not precipitate in thine act + Of steering, for the river here, my friend, + Parts in two channels, moving to one end-- + This goes straight forward to the cataract: + That streams about the bend. + But tho' the cataract seems the nearer way, + Whate'er the crowd on either bank may say, + Take thou "the bend," 'twill save thee many a day. + + +To a poet who made to his generation such exquisite gifts of beauty and +pleasure, the hardest of party-men may pardon unseasonable fears about +franchise and one-horse constituencies. As matter of fact and in plain +prose, this (M49) taking of the bend was exactly what the steersman had +been doing, so as to keep other people out of cataracts. + +"Then why should not Lord Granville try his hand on ambassadors, pressing +them to save their order from a tempest that must strain and might wreck +it?" To Mr. Chamberlain, who was in his element, or in one of his +elements, Mr. Gladstone wrote (Oct. 8):-- + + + I see that Salisbury by his declaration in the _Times_ of + Saturday, that the Lords are to contend for the simultaneous + passing of the two bills, has given you an excellent subject for + denunciation, and you may safely denounce him to your heart's + content. But I earnestly hope that you will leave us all elbow + room on other questions which _may_ arise. If you have seen my + letters (virtually) to the Queen, I do not think you will have + found reason for alarm in them. I am sorry that Hartington the + other day used the word compromise, a word which has never passed + my lips, though I believe he meant nothing wrong. If we could find + anything which, though surrendering nothing substantial, would + build a bridge for honourable and moderate men to retreat by, I am + sure you would not object to it. But I have a much stronger plea + for your reserve than any request of my own. It is this, that the + cabinet has postponed discussing the matter until Wednesday simply + in order that you may be present and take your share. They meet at + twelve. I shall venture to count on your doing nothing to narrow + the ground left open to us, which is indeed but a stinted one. + + +Three days later (Oct. 11) the Queen writing to the prime minister was +able to mark a further stage:-- + + + Although the strong expressions used by ministers in their recent + speeches have made the task of conciliation undertaken by the + Queen a most difficult one, she is so much impressed with the + importance of the issue at stake, that she has persevered in her + endeavours, and has obtained from the leaders of the opposition an + expression of their readiness to negotiate on the basis of Lord + Hartington's speech at Hanley. In the hope that this _may_ lead to + a compromise, the Queen has suggested that Lord Hartington may + enter into communication with Lord Salisbury, and she trusts, from + Mr. Gladstone's telegram received this morning, that he will + empower Lord Hartington to discuss the possibility of an agreement + with Lord Salisbury. + + +In acknowledgment, Mr. Gladstone offered his thanks for all her Majesty's +"well-timed efforts to bring about an accommodation." He could not, +however, he proceeded, feel sanguine as to obtaining any concession from +the leaders, but he is very glad that Lord Hartington should try. + +Happily, and as might have been expected by anybody who remembered the +action of the sensible peers who saved the Reform bill in 1832, the rash +and headstrong men in high places in the tory party were not allowed to +have their own way. Before the autumn was over, prudent members of the +opposition became uneasy. They knew that in substance the conclusion was +foregone, but they knew also that just as in their own body there was a +division between hothead and moderate, so in the cabinet they could count +upon a whig section, and probably upon the prime minister as well. They +noted his words spoken in July, "It is not our desire to see the bill +carried by storm and tempest. It is our desire to see it win its way by +persuasion and calm discussion to the rational minds of men."(77) + +Meanwhile Sir Michael Hicks Beach had already, with the knowledge and +without the disapproval of other leading men on the tory side, suggested +an exchange of views to Lord Hartington, who was warmly encouraged by the +cabinet to carry on communications, as being a person peculiarly fitted +for the task, "enjoying full confidence on one side," as Mr. Gladstone +said to the Queen, "and probably more on the other side than any other +minister could enjoy." These two cool and able men took the extension of +county franchise for granted, and their conferences turned pretty +exclusively on redistribution. Sir Michael pressed the separation of urban +from rural areas, and what was more specifically important was his +advocacy of single-member or one-horse constituencies. His own long +experience of a scattered agricultural division had convinced him that +such areas with household suffrage would be unworkable. Lord Hartington +knew the advantage of two-member constituencies (M50) for his party, +because they made an opening for one whig candidate and one radical. But +he did not make this a question of life or death, and the ground was +thoroughly well hoed and raked. Lord Salisbury, to whom the nature of +these communications had been made known by the colleague concerned, told +him of the suggestion from the Queen, and said that he and Sir Stafford +Northcote had unreservedly accepted it. So far the cabinet had found the +several views in favour with their opponents as to electoral areas, rather +more sweeping and radical than their own had been, and they hoped that on +the basis thus informally laid, they might proceed to the more developed +conversation with the two official leaders. Then the tory ultras +interposed. + + + +IV + + +On the last day of October the Queen wrote to Mr. Gladstone from +Balmoral:-- + + + The Queen thinks that it would be a means of arriving at some + understanding if the leaders of the parties in both Houses could + exchange their views personally. The Duke of Argyll or any other + person unconnected for the present with the government or the + opposition might be employed in bringing about a meeting, and in + assisting to solve difficulties. The Queen thinks the government + should in any project forming the basis of resolutions on + redistribution to be proposed to the House, distinctly define + their plans at such a personal conference. The Queen believes that + were assurance given that the redistribution would not be wholly + inimical to the prospects of the conservative party, their + concurrence might be obtained. The Queen feels most strongly that + it is of the utmost importance that in this serious crisis such + means, even if unusual, should be tried, and knowing how fully Mr. + Gladstone recognises the great danger that might arise by + prolonging the conflict, the Queen _earnestly_ trusts that he will + avail himself of such means to obviate it. + + +The Queen then wrote to Lord Salisbury in the same sense in which she had +written to the prime minister. Lord Salisbury replied that it would give +him great pleasure to consult with anybody the Queen might desire, and +that in obedience to her commands he would do all that lay in him to bring +the controversy finally to a just and honourable issue. He went on however +to say, in the caustic vein that was one of his ruling traits, that while +cheerfully complying with the Queen's wishes, he thought it right to add +that, so far as his information went, no danger attached to the +prolongation of the controversy for a considerable time, nor did he +believe that there was any real excitement in the country about it. The +Queen in replying (Nov. 5) said that she would at once acquaint Mr. +Gladstone with what he had said. + +The autumn session began, and the Franchise bill was introduced again. +Three days later, in consequence of a communication from the other camp, +the debate on the second reading was conciliatory, but the tories won a +bye-election, and the proceedings in committee became menacing and +clouded. Discrepancies abounded in the views of the opposition upon +redistribution. When the third reading came (Nov. 11), important men on +the tory side insisted on the production of a Seats bill, and declared +there must be no communication with the enemy. Mr. Gladstone was +elaborately pacific. If he could not get peace, he said, at least let it +be recorded that he desired peace. The parleys of Lord Hartington and Sir +Michael Hicks Beach came to an end. + +Mr. Gladstone, late one night soon after this (Nov. 14), had a long +conversation with Sir Stafford Northcote at the house of a friend. He had +the authority of the cabinet (not given for this special interview) to +promise the introduction of a Seats bill before the committee stage of the +Franchise bill in the Lords, provided he was assured that it could be done +without endangering or retarding franchise. Northcote and Mr. Gladstone +made good progress on the principles of redistribution. Then came an +awkward message from Lord Salisbury that the Lords could not let the +Franchise bill through, until they got the Seats bill from the Commons. So +negotiations were again broken off. + +The only hope now was that a sufficient number of Lord Salisbury's +adherents would leave him in the lurch, if he (M51) did not close with +what was understood to be Mr. Gladstone's engagement, to procure and press +a Seats bill as soon as ever franchise was out of danger. So it happened, +and the door that had thus been shut, speedily opened. Indirect +communication reached the treasury bench that seemed to show the leaders +of opposition to be again alive. There were many surmises, everybody was +excited, and two great tory leaders in the Lords called on Lord Granville +one day, anxious for a _modus vivendi_. Mr. Gladstone in the Commons, in +conformity with a previous decision of the cabinet, declared the +willingness of the government to produce a bill or explain its provisions, +on receiving a reasonable guarantee that the Franchise bill would be +passed before the end of the sittings. The ultras of the opposition still +insisted on making bets all round that the Franchise bill would not become +law; besides betting, they declared they would die on the floor of the +House in resisting an accommodation. A meeting of the party was summoned +at the Carlton club for the purpose of declaring war to the knife, and +Lord Salisbury was reported to hold to his determination. This resolve, +however, proved to have been shaken by Mr. Gladstone's language on a +previous day. The general principles of redistribution had been +sufficiently sifted, tested, and compared to show that there was no +insuperable discrepancy of view. It was made clear to Lord Salisbury +circuitously, that though the government required adequate assurances of +the safety of franchise before presenting their scheme upon seats, this +did not preclude private and confidential illumination. So the bill was +read a second time. + +All went prosperously forward. On November 19, Lord Salisbury and Sir S. +Northcote came to Downing Street in the afternoon, took tea with the prime +minister, and had a friendly conversation for an hour in which much ground +was covered. The heads of the government scheme were discussed and handed +to the opposition leaders. Mr. Gladstone was well satisfied. He was much +struck, he said after, with the quickness of the tory leader, and found it +a pleasure to deal with so acute a man. Lord Salisbury, for his part, was +interested in the novelty of the proceeding, for no precedent could be +found in our political or party history for the discussion of a measure +before its introduction between the leaders of the two sides. This novelty +stirred his curiosity, while he also kept a sharp eye on the main party +chance. He proved to be entirely devoid of respect for tradition, and Mr. +Gladstone declared himself to be a strong conservative in comparison. The +meetings went on for several days through the various parts of the +questions, Lord Hartington, Lord Granville, and Sir Charles Dilke being +also taken into council--the last of the three being unrivalled master of +the intricate details. + +The operation was watched with jealous eyes by the radicals, though they +had their guardians in the cabinet. To Mr. Bright who, having been all his +life denounced as a violent republican, was now in the view of the new +school hardly even so much as a sound radical, Mr. Gladstone thought it +well to write (Nov. 25) words of comfort, if comfort were needed:-- + + + I wish to give you the assurance that in the private + communications which are now going on, liberal principles such as + we should conceive and term them, are in no danger. Those with + whom we confer are thinking without doubt of party interests, as + affected by this or that arrangement, but these are a distinct + matter, and I am not so good at them as some others; but the + general proposition which I have stated is I think one which I can + pronounce with some confidence.... The whole operation is + essentially delicate and slippery, and I can hardly conceive any + other circumstance in which it would be justified, but in the + present very peculiar case I think it is not only warranted, but + called for. + + +On November 27 all was well over; and Mr. Gladstone was able to inform the +Queen that "the delicate and novel communications" between the two sets of +leaders had been brought to a happy termination. "His first duty," he +said, "was to tender his grateful thanks to your Majesty for the wise, +gracious, and steady influence on your Majesty's part, which has so +powerfully contributed to bring about this accommodation, and to avert a +serious crisis of affairs." He (M52) adds that "his cordial +acknowledgments are due to Lord Salisbury and Sir Stafford Northcote for +the manner in which they have conducted their difficult communications." +The Queen promptly replied: "I gladly and thankfully return your +telegrams. To be able to be of use is all I care to live for now." By way +of winding up negotiations so remarkable, Mr. Gladstone wrote to Lord +Salisbury to thank him for his kindness, and to say that he could have +desired nothing better in candour and equity. Their conversation on the +Seats bill would leave him none but the most agreeable recollections. + +The Queen was in high good humour, as she had a right to be. She gave Mr. +Gladstone ample credit for his conciliatory spirit. The last two months +had been very trying to her, she said, but she confessed herself repaid by +the thought that she had assisted in a settlement. Mr. Gladstone's +severest critics on the tory side confessed that "they did not think he +had it in him." Some friends of his in high places even suggested that +this would be a good moment for giving him the garter. He wrote to Sir +Arthur Gordon (Dec. 5): "The time of this government has been on the whole +the most stormy and difficult that I have known in office, and the last +six weeks have been perhaps the most anxious and difficult of the +government." + + + +V + + +One further episode deserves a section, if the reader will turn back for a +moment or two. The question whether the extension of the parliamentary +franchise to rural householders should be limited to Great Britain or +should apply to the whole kingdom, had been finally discussed in a couple +of morning sittings in the month of May. Nobody who heard it can forget +the speech made against Irish inclusion by Mr. Plunket, the eloquent +grandson of the most eloquent of all the orators whom Ireland has sent to +the imperial senate. He warned the House that to talk of assimilating the +franchise in Ireland to the franchise in England, was to use language +without meaning; that out of seven hundred and sixty thousand inhabited +houses in Ireland, no fewer than four hundred and thirty-five thousand +were rated at one pound and under; that those whom the bill would +enfranchise would be taken from a class of whom more than forty per cent. +could neither read nor write; that the measure would strengthen the hands +of that disloyal party who boasted of their entire indifference to English +opinion, and their undivided obligation to influences which Englishmen +were wholly unable to realise. Then in a lofty strain Mr. Plunket foretold +that the measure which they were asked to pass would lead up to, and would +precipitate, the establishment of a separate Irish nationality. He +reminded his hearers that the empire had been reared not more by the +endurance of its soldiers and sailors than by the sagacity and firmness, +the common sense and patriotism, of that ancient parliament; and he ended +with a fervid prayer that the historian of the future might not have to +tell that the union of these three kingdoms on which rested all its honour +and all its power--a union that could never be broken by the force of +domestic traitor or foreign foe--yielded at last under the pressure of the +political ambitions and party exigencies of British statesmen. + +The orator's stately diction, his solemn tone, the depth of his +conviction, made a profound impression. Newer parliamentary hands below +the government gangway, as he went on, asked one another by what arts of +parliamentary defence the veteran minister could possibly deal with this +searching appeal. Only a quarter of an hour remained. In two or three +minutes Mr. Gladstone had swept the solemn impression entirely away. +Contrary to his wont, he began at once upon the top note. With high +passion in his voice, and mastering gesture in his uplifted arm, he dashed +impetuously upon the foe. What weighs upon my mind is this, he said, that +when the future historian speaks of the greatness of this empire, and +traces the manner in which it has grown through successive generations, he +will say that in that history there was one chapter of disgrace, and that +chapter of disgrace was the treatment of Ireland. It is the scale of +justice that will determine the issue of the conflict with Ireland, if +conflict there is to be. There is nothing we can do, cried the orator, +(M53) turning to the Irish members, except the imprudence of placing in +your hands evidence that will show that we are not acting on principles of +justice towards you, that can render you for a moment formidable in our +eyes, should the day unfortunately arise when you endeavour to lay hands +on this great structure of the British empire. Let us be as strong in +right as we are in population, in wealth, and in historic traditions, and +then we shall not fear to do justice to Ireland. There is but one mode of +making England weak in the face of Ireland--that is by applying to her +principles of inequality and principles of injustice. + +As members sallied forth from the House to dine, they felt that this +vehement improvisation had put the true answer. Mr. Plunket's fine appeal +to those who had been comrades of the Irish loyalists in guarding the +union was well enough, yet who but the Irish loyalists had held Ireland in +the hollow of their hands for generation upon generation, and who but they +were answerable for the odious and dishonouring failure, so patent before +all the world, to effect a true incorporation of their country in a united +realm? And if it should happen that Irish loyalists should suffer from +extension of equal civil rights to Irishmen, what sort of reason was that +why the principle of exclusion and ascendency which had worked such +mischief in the past, should be persisted in for a long and indefinite +future? These views, it is important to observe, were shared, not only by +the minister's own party, but by a powerful body among his opponents. Some +of the gentlemen who had been most furious against the government for not +stopping Irish meetings in the autumn of 1883, were now most indignant at +the bare idea of refusing or delaying a proposal for strengthening the +hands of the very people who promoted and attended such meetings. It is +true also that only two or three months before, Lord Hartington had +declared that it would be most unwise to deal with the Irish franchise. +Still more recently, Mr. W. H. Smith had declared that any extension of +the suffrage in Ireland would draw after it "confiscation of property, +ruin of industry, withdrawal of capital,--misery, wretchedness, and war." +The valour of the platform, however, often expires in the keener air of +cabinet and parliament. It became Lord Hartington's duty now to move the +second reading of provisions which, he had just described as most unwise +provisions, and Mr. Smith found himself the object of brilliant mockery +from the daring leader below the gangway on his own side. + +Lord Randolph produced a more serious, though events soon showed it to be +not any more solid an argument, when he said that the man who lives in a +mud cabin very often has a decent holding, and has money in the savings' +bank besides, and more than that, he is often more fit to take an interest +in politics, and to form a sound view about them, than the English +agricultural labourer. The same speaker proceeded to argue that the Fenian +proclivities of the towns would be more than counterbalanced by the +increased power given to the peasantry. The incidents of agricultural +life, he observed, are unfavourable to revolutionary movements, and the +peasant is much more under the proper and legitimate influence of the +Roman catholic priesthood than the lower classes of the towns. On the +whole, the extension of the franchise to the peasantry of Ireland would +not be unfavourable to the landlord interest. Yet Lord Randolph, who +regaled the House with these chimerical speculations, had had far better +opportunities than almost any other Englishman then in parliament of +knowing something about Ireland. + +What is certain is that English and Scotch members acted with their eyes +open. Irish tories and Irish nationalists agreed in menacing predictions. +The vast masses of Irish people, said the former, had no sense of loyalty +and no love of order to which a government could appeal. In many districts +the only person who was unsafe was the peace officer or the relatives of a +murdered man. The effect of the change would be the utter annihilation of +the political power of the most orderly, the most loyal, the most educated +classes of Ireland, and the swamping of one-fourth of the community, +representing two-thirds of its property. A representative of the great +house of Hamilton in the Commons, amid a little cloud of the dishevelled +prophecies (M54) too common in his class, assured the House that everybody +knew that if the franchise in Ireland were extended, the days of home rule +could not be far distant. The representative of the great house of +Beresford in the Lords, the resident possessor of a noble domain, an able +and determined man, with large knowledge of his country, so far as large +knowledge can be acquired from a single point of view, expressed his +strong conviction that after the passage of this bill the Irish outlook +would be blacker than it had ever been before.(78) + +Another person, far more powerful than any Hamilton or Beresford, was +equally explicit. With characteristic frigidity, precision, and +confidence, the Irish leader had defined his policy and his expectations. +"Beyond a shadow of doubt," he had said to a meeting in the Rotunda at +Dublin, "it will be for the Irish people in England--separated, isolated as +they are--and for your independent Irish members, to determine at the next +general election whether a tory or a liberal English ministry shall rule +England. This is a great force and a great power. If we cannot rule +ourselves, we can at least cause them to be ruled as we choose. This force +has already gained for Ireland inclusion in the coming Franchise bill. We +have reason to be proud, hopeful, and energetic."(79) In any case, he +informed the House of Commons, even if Ireland were not included in the +bill, the national party would come back seventy-five strong. If household +suffrage were conceded to Ireland, they would come back ninety strong.(80) +That was the only difference. Therefore, though he naturally supported +inclusion,(81) it was not at all indispensable to the success of his +policy, and he watched the proceedings in the committee as calmly as he +might have watched a battle of frogs and mice. + + + + +Chapter IX. The Soudan. (1884-1885) + + + You can only govern men by imagination: without imagination they + are brutes.... 'Tis by speaking to the soul that you electrify + men.--NAPOLEON. + + + +I + + +In the late summer of 1881 a certain native of Dongola, proclaiming +himself a heaven-inspired Mahdi, began to rally to his banner the wild +tribes of the southern Soudan. His mission was to confound the wicked, the +hypocrite, the unbeliever, and to convert the world to the true faith in +the one God and his prophet. The fame of the Mahdi's eloquence, his piety, +his zeal, rapidly spread. At his ear he found a counsellor, so well known +to us after as the khalifa, and this man soon taught the prophet politics. +The misrule of the Soudan by Egypt had been atrocious, and the combination +of a religious revival with the destruction of that hated yoke swelled a +cry that was irresistible. The rising rapidly extended, for fanaticism in +such regions soon takes fire, and the Egyptian pashas had been sore +oppressors, even judged by the rude standards of oriental states. Never +was insurrection more amply justified. From the first, Mr. Gladstone's +curious instinct for liberty disclosed to him that here was a case of "a +people rightly struggling to be free." The phrase was mocked and derided +then and down to the end of the chapter. Yet it was the simple truth. +"During all my political life," he said at a later stage of Soudanese +affairs, "I am thankful to say that I have never opened my lips in favour +of a domination such as that which has been exercised upon certain +countries by certain other countries, and I am not going now to begin." +(M55) "I look upon the possession of the Soudan," he proceeded, "as the +calamity of Egypt. It has been a drain on her treasury, it has been a +drain on her men. It is estimated that 100,000 Egyptians have laid down +their lives in endeavouring to maintain that barren conquest." Still +stronger was the Soudanese side of the case. The rule of the Mahdi was +itself a tyranny, and tribe fought with tribe, but that was deemed an +easier yoke than the sway of the pashas from Cairo. Every vice of eastern +rule flourished freely under Egyptian hands. At Khartoum whole families of +Coptic clerks kept the accounts of plundering raids supported by Egyptian +soldiers, and "this was a government collecting its taxes." The function +of the Egyptian soldiers "was that of honest countrymen sharing in the +villainy of the brigands from the Levant and Asia Minor, who wrung money, +women, and drink from a miserable population."(82) Yet the railing against +Mr. Gladstone for saying that the "rebels" were rightly struggling to be +free could not have been more furious if the Mahdi had been for dethroning +Marcus Aurelius or Saint Louis of France. + +The ministers at Cairo, however, naturally could not find in their hearts +to withdraw from territory that had been theirs for over sixty years,(83) +although in the winter of 1882-3 Colonel Stewart, an able British officer, +had reported that the Egyptian government was wholly unfit to rule the +Soudan; it had not money enough, nor fighting men enough, nor +administrative skill enough, and abandonment at least of large portions of +it was the only reasonable course. Such counsels found no favour with the +khedive's advisers and agents, and General Hicks, an Indian officer, +appointed on the staff of the Egyptian army in the spring of 1883, was now +despatched by the government of the khedive from Khartoum, for the +recovery of distant and formidable regions. If his operations had been +limited to the original intention of clearing Sennaar of rebels and +protecting Khartoum, all might have been well. Unluckily some trivial +successes over the Mahdi encouraged the Cairo government to design an +advance into Kordofan, and the reconquest of all the vast wildernesses of +the Soudan. Lord Dufferin, Sir E. Malet, Colonel Stewart, were all of them +clear that to attempt any such task with an empty chest and a worthless +army was madness, and they all argued for the abandonment of Kordofan and +Darfur. The cabinet in London, fixed in their resolve not to accept +responsibility for a Soudan war, and not to enter upon that responsibility +by giving advice for or against the advance of Hicks, stood aloof.(84) In +view of all that followed later, and of their subsequent adoption of the +policy of abandoning the Soudan, British ministers would evidently have +been wiser if they had now forbidden an advance so pregnant with disaster. +Events showed this to have been the capital miscalculation whence all else +of misfortune followed. The sounder the policy of abandonment, the +stronger the reasons for insisting that the Egyptian government should not +undertake operations inconsistent with that policy. The Soudan was not +within the sphere of our responsibility, but Egypt was; and just because +the separation of Egypt from the Soudan was wise and necessary, it might +have been expected that England would peremptorily interpose to prevent a +departure from the path of separation. What Hicks himself, a capable and +dauntless man, thought of the chances we do not positively know, but he +was certainly alive to the risks of such a march with such material. On +November 5 (1883) the whole force was cut to pieces, the victorious +dervishes were free to advance northwards, and the loose fabric of +Egyptian authority was shattered to the ground. + + + +II + + +(M56) The three British military officers in Cairo all agreed that the +Egyptian government could not hold Khartoum if the Mahdi should draw down +upon it; and unless a British, an Indian, or a Turkish force came to the +rescue, abandonment of the Soudan was the only possible alternative. The +London cabinet decided that they would not employ British or Indian troops +in the Soudan, and though they had no objection to the resort to the Turks +by Egypt, if the Turks would pay their own expenses (a condition fatal to +any such resort), they strongly recommended the khedive to abandon all +territory south of Assouan or Wady-Halfa. Sir Evelyn Baring, who had now +assumed his post upon a theatre where he was for long years to come to +play the commanding part, concurred in thinking that the policy of +complete abandonment was the best admitted by the circumstances. It is the +way of the world to suppose that because a given course is best, it must +therefore be possible and ought to be simple. Baring and his colleagues at +Cairo were under no such illusion, but it was the foundation of most of +the criticism that now broke forth in the English press. + +The unparalleled difficulties that ultimately attended the evacuation of +the Soudan naturally led inconsiderate critics,--and such must ever be the +majority,--to condemn the policy and the cabinet who ordered it. So apt are +men in their rough judgments on great disputable things, to mistake a mere +impression for a real opinion; and we must patiently admit that the +Result--success or failure in the Event--is the most that they have time +for, and all that they can go by. Yet two remarks are to be made upon this +facile censure. The first is that those who knew the Soudan best, approved +most. On January 22, 1884, Gordon wrote to Lord Granville that the Soudan +ever was and ever would be a useless possession, and that he thought the +Queen's ministers "fully justified in recommending evacuation, inasmuch as +the sacrifices necessary towards securing good government would be far too +onerous to admit of such an attempt being made." Colonel Stewart quite +agreed, and added the exclamation that nobody who had ever visited the +Soudan could escape the reflection, "What a useless possession and what a +huge encumbrance on Egypt!" As we shall see, the time soon came when +Gordon accepted the policy of evacuation, even with an emphasis of his +own. The second remark is that the reconquest of the Soudan and the +holding of Khartoum were for the Egyptian government, if left to its own +resources, neither more nor less than impossible; these objects, whether +they were good objects or bad, not only meant recourse to British troops +for the first immense operations, but the retention of them in a huge and +most inhospitable region for an indefinite time. A third consideration +will certainly not be overlooked by anybody who thinks on the course of +the years of Egyptian reform that have since elapsed, and constitute so +remarkable a chapter of British administration,--namely, that this +beneficent achievement would have been fatally clogged, if those who +conducted it had also had the Soudan on their hands. The renovation or +reconstruction of what is called Egypt proper, its finances, its army, its +civil rule, would have been absolutely out of reach, if at the same time +its guiding statesmen had been charged with the responsibilities +recovering and holding that vaster tract which had been so rashly acquired +and so mercilessly misgoverned. This is fully admitted by those who have +had most to do with the result. + + + +III + + +The policy of evacuation was taken as carrying with it the task of +extricating the Egyptian garrisons. This aim induced Mr. Gladstone's +cabinet once more to play an active military part, though Britain had no +share in planting these garrisons where they were. Wise men in Egypt were +of the same mind as General Gordon, that in the eastern Soudan it would +have been better for the British government to keep quiet, and "let events +work themselves out." Unfortunately the ready clamour of headlong +philanthropists, political party men, and the men who think England +humiliated if she ever lets slip an excuse for drawing her sword, drove +the cabinet on to the rocks. When the decision of the cabinet was (M57) +taken (Feb. 12, 1883) to send troops to Suakin, Mr. Gladstone stood alone +in objecting. Many thousands of savages were slaughtered under +humanitarian pressure, not a few English lives were sacrificed, much +treasure flowed, and yet Sinkat fell, and Tokar fell, and our labours in +the eastern Soudan were practically fruitless.(85) The operations had no +effect upon the roll of the fierce mahdi wave over the Soudan. + +In England, excitement of the unsound sort that is independent of +knowledge, consideration, or deliberation; independent of any weighing of +the actual facts and any forecast of latent possibilities, grew more and +more vociferous. Ministers quailed. Twice they inquired of their agent in +Egypt(86) whether General Gordon might not be of use, and twice they +received an adverse reply, mainly on the ground that the presence in +authority of a Christian officer was a dubious mode of confronting a +sweeping outbreak of moslem fanaticism, and would inevitably alienate +tribes that were still not caught by the Mahdi.(87) Unhappily a third +application from London at last prevailed, and Sir E. Baring, supported by +Nubar, by Sir Evelyn Wood, by Colonel Watson, who had served with Gordon +and knew him well, all agreed that Gordon would be the best man if he +would pledge himself to carry out the policy of withdrawing from the +Soudan as quickly as possible. "Whoever goes," said Sir E. Baring in +pregnant words to Lord Granville, will "undertake a service of great +difficulty and danger." This was on January 16th. Two days later the die +was cast. Mr. Gladstone was at Hawarden. Lord Granville submitted the +question (Jan. 14, 1884) to him in this form: "If Gordon says he believes +he could by his personal influence excite the tribes to escort the +Khartoum garrison and inhabitants to Suakin, a little pressure on Baring +might be advisable. The destruction of these poor people will be a great +disaster." Mr. Gladstone telegraphed that to this and other parts of the +same letter, he agreed. Granville then sent him a copy of the telegram +putting "a little pressure on Baring." To this Mr. Gladstone replied (Jan. +16) in words that, if they had only been taken to heart, would have made +all the difference:-- + + + I can find no fault with your telegram to Baring _re_ Chinese + Gordon, and the main point that strikes me is this: While his + opinion on the Soudan may be of great value, must we not be very + careful in any instruction we give, that he does not shift the + centre of gravity as to political and military responsibility for + that country? In brief, if he reports what should be done, he + should not be the judge _who_ should do it, nor ought he to commit + us on that point by advice officially given. It would be extremely + difficult after sending him to reject such advice, and it should + therefore, I think, be made clear that he is not our agent for the + purpose of advising on that point. + + +On January 18, Lord Hartington (then secretary of state for war), Lord +Granville, Lord Northbrook, and Sir Charles Dilke met at the war office in +Pall Mall. The summons was sudden. Lord Wolseley brought Gordon and left +him in the ante-room. After a conversation with the ministers, he came out +and said to Gordon, "Government are determined to evacuate the Soudan, for +they will not guarantee the future government. Will you go and do it?" "_I +said_, 'Yes.' _He said_, 'Go in.' _I went in and saw them. They said_, +'Did Wolseley tell you our orders?' _I said_, 'Yes.' _I said_, 'You will +not guarantee future government of the Soudan, and you wish me to go up +and evacuate now.' _They said_, 'Yes,' _and it was over, and I left at 8 +p.m. for Calais_."(88) This graphic story does not pretend to be a full +version of all that passed, though it puts the essential point +unmistakably enough. Lord Granville seems to have drawn Gordon's (M58) +special attention to the measures to be taken for the security of the +Egyptian garrisons (plural) still holding positions in the Soudan and to +the best mode of evacuating the interior.(89) On the other hand, according +to a very authentic account that I have seen, Gordon on this occasion +stated that the danger at Khartoum was exaggerated, and that he would be +able to bring away the garrisons without difficulty. + +Thus in that conclave of sober statesmen a tragedy began. The next day one +of the four ministers met another; "We were proud of ourselves +yesterday--are you sure we did not commit a gigantic folly?" The prime +minister had agreed at once on receiving the news of what was done at the +war office, and telegraphed assent the same night.(90) The whole cabinet +met four days later, Mr. Gladstone among them, and the decision was +approved. There was hardly a choice, for by that time Gordon was at +Brindisi. Gordon, as Mr. Gladstone said, was a hero of heroes. He was a +soldier of infinite personal courage and daring; of striking military +energy, initiative, and resource; a high, pure, and single character, +dwelling much in the region of the unseen. But as all who knew him admit, +and as his own records testify, notwithstanding an under-current of shrewd +common-sense, he was the creature, almost the sport, of impulse; his +impressions and purposes changed with the speed of lightning; anger often +mastered him; he went very often by intuitions and inspirations rather +than by cool inference from carefully surveyed fact: with many variations +of mood he mixed, as we often see in people less famous, an invincible +faith in his own rapid prepossessions while they lasted. Everybody now +discerns that to despatch a soldier of this temperament on a piece of +business that was not only difficult and dangerous, as Sir E. Baring said, +but profoundly obscure, and needing vigilant sanity and self-control, was +little better than to call in a wizard with his magic. Mr. Gladstone +always professed perplexity in understanding why the violent end of the +gallant Cavagnari in Afghanistan, stirred the world so little in +comparison with the fate of Gordon. The answer is that Gordon seized the +imagination of England, and seized it on its higher side. His religion was +eccentric, but it was religion; the Bible was the rock on which he founded +himself, both old dispensation and new; he was known to hate forms, +ceremonies, and all the "solemn plausibilities"; his speech was sharp, +pithy, rapid, and ironic; above all, he knew the ways of war and would not +bear the sword for nought. All this was material enough to make a popular +ideal, and this is what Gordon in an ever-increasing degree became, to the +immense inconvenience of the statesmen, otherwise so sensible and wary, +who had now improvidently let the genie forth from the jar. + + + +IV + + +It has been sometimes contended that all the mischief that followed was +caused by the diversion of Gordon from Suakin, his original destination. +If he had gone to the Red Sea, as originally intended, there to report on +the state and look of things in the Soudan, instead of being waylaid and +brought to Cairo, and thence despatched to Khartoum, they say, no +catastrophe would have happened. This is not certain, for the dervishes in +the eastern Soudan were in the flush of open revolt, and Gordon might +either have been killed or taken prisoner, or else he would have come back +without performing any part of his mission. In fact, on his way from +London to Port Said, Gordon had suggested that with a view to carrying out +evacuation, the khedive should make him governor-general of the Soudan. +Lord Granville authorised Baring to procure the nomination, and this Sir +Evelyn did, "for the time necessary to accomplish the evacuation." The +instructions were thus changed, in an important sense, but the change was +suggested by Gordon and sanctioned by Lord Granville.(91) + +(M59) When Gordon left London his instructions, drafted in fact by +himself, were that he should "consider and report upon the best mode of +effecting the evacuation of the interior of the Soudan." He was also to +perform such duties as the Egyptian government might wish to entrust to +him, and as might be communicated to him by Sir E. Baring.(92) At Cairo, +Baring and Nubar, after discussion with Gordon, altered the mission from +one of advice and report to an executive mission--a change that was +doubtless authorised and covered by the original reference to duties to be +entrusted to him by Egypt. But there was no change in the policy either at +Downing Street or Cairo. Whether advisory or executive, the only policy +charged upon the mission was abandonment. When the draft of the new +instructions was read to Gordon at Cairo, Sir E. Baring expressly asked +him whether he entirely concurred in "the policy of abandoning the +Soudan," and Gordon not only concurred, but suggested the strengthening +words, that he thought "it should on no account be changed."(93) This +despatch, along with the instructions to Gordon making this vast +alteration, was not received in London until Feb. 7. By this time Gordon +was crossing the desert, and out of reach of the English foreign office. + +On his way from Brindisi, Gordon had prepared a memorandum for Sir E. +Baring, in which he set out his opinion that the Soudan had better be +restored to the different petty sultans in existence before the Egyptian +conquest, and an attempt should be made to form them into some sort of +confederation. These petty rulers might be left to accept the Mahdi for +their sovereign or not, just as they pleased. But in the same document he +emphasised the policy of abandonment. "I understand," he says, "that +H.M.'s government have come to the irrevocable decision not to incur the +very onerous duty of granting to the peoples of the Soudan a just future +government." Left to their independence, the sultans "would doubtless +fight among themselves." As for future good government, it was evident +that "this we could not secure them without an inordinate expenditure of +men and money. The Soudan is a useless possession; ever was so, and ever +will be so. No one who has ever lived in the Soudan, can escape the +reflection, What a useless possession is this land." Therefore--so he winds +up--"I think H.M.'s government are fully justified in recommending the +evacuation, inasmuch as the sacrifices necessary towards securing a good +government would be far too onerous to admit of any such attempt being +made. Indeed, one may say it is impracticable at any cost. _H.M.'s +government will now leave them as God has placed them._"(94) + +It was, therefore, and it is, pure sophistry to contend that Gordon's +policy in undertaking his disastrous mission was evacuation but not +abandonment. To say that the Soudanese should be left in the state in +which God had placed them, to fight it out among themselves, if they were +so minded, is as good a definition of abandonment as can be invented, and +this was the whole spirit of the instructions imposed by the government of +the Queen and accepted by Gordon. + +Gordon took with him instruments from the khedive into which, along with +definite and specific statements that evacuation was the object of his +mission, two or three loose sentences are slipped about "establishing +organised government in the different provinces of the Soudan," +maintaining order, and the like. It is true also that the British cabinet +sanctioned the extension of the area of evacuation from Khartoum to the +whole Soudan.(95) Strictly construed, the whole body of instructions, +including firmans and khedive's proclamations, is not technically compact +nor coherent. But this is only another way of saying that Gordon was to +have the widest discretionary powers as to the manner of carrying out the +policy, and the best time and mode of announcing it. The policy itself, as +well understood by Gordon as by everybody else, was untouched, and it was: +to leave the Soudanese in the state in which God had placed them. + +The hot controversy on this point is idle and without substance--the idlest +controversies are always the hottest--for (M60) not only was Gordon the +last man in all the world to hold himself bound by official instructions, +but the actual conditions of the case were too little known, too shifting, +too unstable, to permit of hard and fast directions beforehand how to +solve so desperate a problem. Two things at any rate were clear--one, that +Gordon should faithfully adhere to the policy of evacuation and +abandonment which he had formally accepted; the other, that the British +government should leave him a free hand. Unhappily neither of these two +clear things was accepted by either of the parties. + + + +V + + +Gordon's policies were many and very mutable. Viewing the frightful +embarrassments that enveloped him, we cannot wonder. Still the same +considerateness that is always so bounteously and so justly extended to +the soldier in the field, is no less due in its measure to the councillor +in the cabinet. This is a bit of equity often much neglected both by +contemporaries and by history. + +He had undertaken his mission without any serious and measured forecast, +such as his comrade, Colonel Stewart, was well fitted to supply. His first +notion was that he could restore the representatives of the old rulers, +but when he got into the country, he found that there were none; with one +by no means happy exception, they had all disappeared. When he reached +Berber, he learned more clearly how the question of evacuation was +interlaced with other questions. Once at Khartoum, at first he thought +himself welcome as a deliverer, and then when new light as to the real +feelings of the Soudanese broke upon him, he flung the policy of his +mission overboard. Before the end of February, instead of the suzerainty +of Egypt, the British government should control Soudanese administration, +with Zobeir as their governor-general. "When Gordon left this country," +said Mr. Gladstone, "and when he arrived in Egypt, he declared it to be, +and I have not the smallest doubt that it was--a fixed portion of his +policy, that no British force should be employed in aid of his +mission."(96) When March came, he flung himself with ardour into the +policy of "smashing up" the Mahdi, with resort to British and Indian +troops. This was a violent reversal of all that had been either settled or +dreamed of, whether in London or at Cairo. A still more vehement stride +came next. He declared that to leave outlying garrisons to their fate +would be an "indelible disgrace." Yet, as Lord Hartington said, the +government "were under no moral obligation to use the military resources +of this empire for the relief of those garrisons." As for Gordon's opinion +that "indelible disgrace" would attach to the British government if they +were not relieved, "I do not admit," said the minister very sensibly, +"that General Gordon is on this point a better authority than anybody +else."(97) All this illustrates the energy of Gordon's mental movements, +and also, what is more important, the distracting difficulties of the case +before him. In one view and one demand he strenuously persevered, as we +shall now see. + +Mr. Gladstone at first, when Gordon set all instructions at defiance, was +for recalling him. A colleague also was for recalling him on the first +instant when he changed his policy. Another important member of the +cabinet was, on the contrary, for an expedition. "I cannot admit," wrote a +fourth leading minister, "that either generals or statesmen who have +accepted the offer of a man to lead a forlorn hope, are in the least bound +to risk the lives of thousands for the uncertain chance of saving the +forlorn hope." Some think that this was stern common sense, others call it +ignoble. The nation, at any rate, was in one of its high idealising +humours, though Gordon had roused some feeling against himself in this +country (unjustly enough) by his decree formally sanctioning the holding +of slaves. + +The general had not been many hours in Khartoum (February 18) before he +sent a telegram to Sir E. Baring, proposing that on his withdrawal from +Khartoum, Zobeir Pasha should be named his successor as governor-general +of the Soudan: he should be made a K.C.M.G., and have presents given to +him. This request was strenuously pressed by Gordon. Zobeir had been a +prime actor in the (M61) devastations of the slave trade; it was he who +had acquired Darfur for Egypt; he was a first-rate fighting man, and the +ablest leader in the Soudan. He is described by the English officer who +knows the Soudan best, as a far-seeing, thoughtful man of iron will--a born +ruler of men.(98) The Egyptian government had desired to send him down to +aid in the operations at Suakin in 1883, but the government in London +vetoed him, as they were now to veto him a second time. The Egyptian +government was to act on its own responsibility, but not to do what it +thought best. So now with Gordon. + +Gordon in other days had caused Zobeir's son to be shot, and this was +supposed to have set up an unquenchable blood-feud between them. Before +reaching Cairo, he had suggested that Zobeir should be sent to Cyprus, and +there kept out of the way. This was not done. On Gordon's way through +Cairo, the two men met in what those present describe as a highly dramatic +interview. Zobeir bitterly upbraided Gordon: "You killed my son, whom I +entrusted to you. He was as your son. You brought my wives and women and +children in chains to Khartoum." Still even after that incident, Gordon +declared that he had "a mystical feeling" that Zobeir and he were all +right.(99) What inspired his reiterated demand for the immediate despatch +of Zobeir is surmised to have been the conviction forced upon him during +his journey to Khartoum, that his first idea of leaving the various petty +sultans to fight it out with the Mahdi, would not work; that the Mahdi had +got so strong a hold that he could only be met by a man of Zobeir's +political capacity, military skill, and old authority. Sir E. Baring, +after a brief interval of hesitation, now supported Gordon's request. So +did the shrewd and expert Colonel Stewart. Nubar too favoured the idea. +The cabinet could not at once assent; they were startled by the change of +front as to total withdrawal from the Soudan--the very object of Gordon's +mission, and accepted by him as such. On February 21 Mr. Gladstone +reported to the Queen that the cabinet were of opinion that there would be +the gravest objection to nominating by an assumption of British authority +a successor to General Gordon in the Soudan, nor did they as yet see +sufficient reasons for going beyond Gordon's memorandum of January 25, by +making special provision for the government of that country. But at first +it looked as if ministers might yield, if Baring, Gordon, and Nubar +persisted. + +As ill-fortune had it, the Zobeir plan leaked out at home by Gordon's +indiscretion before the government decided. The omnipotent though not +omniscient divinity called public opinion intervened. The very men who had +most loudly clamoured for the extrication of the Egyptian garrisons, who +had pressed with most importunity for the despatch of Gordon, who had been +most urgent for the necessity of giving him a free hand, now declared that +it would be a national degradation and a European scandal to listen to +Gordon's very first request. He had himself unluckily given them a capital +text, having once said that Zobeir was alone responsible for the slave +trade of the previous ten years. Gordon's idea was, as he explained, to +put Zobeir into a position like that of the Ameer of Afghanistan, as a +buffer between Egypt and the Mahdi, with a subsidy, moral support, and all +the rest of a buffer arrangement. The idea may or may not have been a good +one; nobody else had a better. + +It was not at all surprising that the cabinet should ask what new reason +had come to light why Zobeir should be trusted; why he should oppose the +Mahdi whom at first he was believed to have supported; why he should turn +the friend of Egypt; why he should be relied upon as the faithful ally of +England. To these and other doubts Gordon had excellent answers (March 8). +Zobeir would run straight, because it was his interest. If he would be +dangerous, was not the Mahdi dangerous, and whom save Zobeir could you set +up against the Mahdi? You talked of slave-holding and slave-hunting, but +would slave-holding and slave-hunting (M62) stop with your own policy of +evacuation? Slave-holding you cannot interfere with, and as for +slave-hunting, that depended on the equatorial provinces, where Zobeir +could be prevented from going, and besides he would have his hands full in +consolidating his power elsewhere. As for good faith towards Egypt, +Zobeir's stay in Cairo had taught him our power, and being a great trader, +he would rather seek Egypt's close alliance. Anyhow, said Gordon, "if you +do not send Zobeir, you have no chance of getting the garrisons away." + +The matter was considered at two meetings of the cabinet, but the prime +minister was prevented by his physician from attending.(100) A difference +of opinion showed itself upon the despatch of Zobeir; viewed as an +abstract question, three of the Commons members inclined to favour it, but +on the practical question, the Commons members were unanimous that no +government from either side of the House could venture to sanction Zobeir. +Mr. Gladstone had become a strong convert to the plan of sending Zobeir. +"I am better in chest and generally," he wrote to Lord Granville, "but +unfortunately not in throat and voice, and Clark interdicts my appearance +at cabinet; but I am available for any necessary communication, say with +you, or you and Hartington." One of the ministers went to see him in his +bed, and they conversed for two hours. The minister, on his return, +reported with some ironic amusement that Mr. Gladstone considered it very +likely that they could not bring parliament to swallow Zobeir, but +believed that he himself could. Whether his confidence in this was right +or wrong, he was unable to turn his cabinet. The Queen telegraphed her +agreement with the prime minister. But this made no difference. "On +Saturday 15," Mr. Gladstone notes, "it seemed as if by my casting vote +Zobier was to be sent to Gordon. But on Sunday ---- and ---- receded from +their ground, and I gave way. The nature of the evidence on which +judgments are formed in this most strange of all cases, precludes (in +reason) pressing all conclusions, which are but preferences, to extremes." +"It is well known," said Mr. Gladstone in the following year when the +curtain had fallen on the catastrophe, "that if, when the recommendation +to send Zobeir was made, we had complied with it, an address from this +House to the crown would have paralysed our action; and though it was +perfectly true that the decision arrived at was the judgment of the +cabinet, it was also no less the judgment of parliament and the people." +So Gordon's request was refused. + +It is true that, as a minister put it at the time, to send Zobeir would +have been a gambler's throw. But then what was it but a gambler's throw to +send Gordon himself? The Soudanese chieftain might possibly have done all +that Gordon and Stewart, who knew the ground and were watching the quick +fluctuation of events with elastic minds, now positively declared that he +would have the strongest motives not to do. Even then, could the issue +have been worse? To run all the risks involved in the despatch of Gordon, +and then immediately to refuse the request that he persistently +represented as furnishing him his only chance, was an incoherence that the +parliament and people of England have not often surpassed.(101) All +through this critical month, from the 10th until the 30th, Mr. Gladstone +was suffering more or less from indisposition which he found it difficult +to throw off. + + + +VI + + +The chance, whatever it may have been, passed like a flash. Just as the +proposal inflamed many in England, so it did mischief in Cairo. Zobeir +like other people got wind of it; enemies of England at Cairo set to work +with him; Sir E. Baring might have found him hard to deal with. It was +Gordon's rashness that had made the design public. Gordon, too, as it +happened, had made a dire mistake on his way up. At Berber he had shown +the khedive's secret firman, (M63) announcing the intended abandonment of +the Soudan. The news spread; it soon reached the Mahdi himself, and the +Mahdi made politic use of it. He issued a proclamation of his own, asking +all the sheikhs who stood aloof from him or against him, what they had to +gain by supporting a pasha who was the next day going to give the Soudan +up. Gordon's argument for this unhappy proceeding was that, the object of +his mission being to get out of the country and leave them to their +independence, he could have put no sharper spur into them to make them +organise their own government. But he spoke of it after as the fatal +proclamation, and so it was.(102) + +What happened was that the tribes round Khartoum almost at once began to +waver. From the middle of March, says a good observer, one searches in +vain for a single circumstance hopeful for Gordon. "When the eye wanders +over the huge and hostile Soudan, notes the little pin-point garrisons, +each smothered in a cloud of Arab spears, and remembers that Gordon and +Stewart proceeded to rule this vast empire, already given away to others, +one feels that the Soudanese view was marked by common sense."(103) +Gordon's too sanguine prediction that the men who had beaten Hicks, and +the men who afterwards beat Baker, would never fight beyond their tribal +limits, did not come true. Wild forces gathered round the Mahdi as he +advanced northwards. The tribes that had wavered joined them. Berber fell +on May 26. The pacific mission had failed, and Gordon and his comrade +Stewart--a more careful and clear-sighted man than himself--were shut up in +Khartoum. + +Distractions grew thicker upon the cabinet, and a just reader, now far +away from the region of votes of censure, will bear them in mind. The +Queen, like many of her subjects, grew impatient, but Mr. Gladstone was +justified in reminding her of the imperfect knowledge, and he might have +called it blank ignorance, with which the government was required on the +shortest notice to form conclusions on a remote and more than +half-barbarous region. + +Gordon had told them that he wanted to take his steam vessels to Equatoria +and serve the king of the Belgians. This Sir Evelyn Baring refused to +allow, not believing Gordon to be in immediate danger (March 26). From +Gordon himself came a telegram (March 28), "I think we are now safe, and +that, as the Nile rises, we shall account for the rebels." Mr. Gladstone +was still unwell and absent. Through Lord Granville he told the cabinet +(March 15) that, with a view to speedy departure from Khartoum, he would +not even refuse absolutely to send cavalry to Berber, much as he disliked +it, provided the military authorities thought it could be done, and +provided also that it was declared necessary for Gordon's safety, and was +strictly confined to that object. The cabinet decided against an immediate +expedition, one important member vowing that he would resign if an +expedition were not sent in the autumn, another vowing that he would +resign if it were. On April 7, the question of an autumn expedition again +came up. Six were favourable, five the other way, including the prime +minister. + +Almost by the end of March it was too probable that no road of retreat was +any longer open. If they could cut no way out, either by land or water, +what form of relief was possible? A diversion from Suakin to Berber--one of +Gordon's own suggestions? But the soldiers differed. Fierce summer heat +and little water; an Indian force might stand it; even they would find it +tough. A dash by a thousand cavalry across two hundred miles of desert--one +hundred of them without water; without communication with its base, and +with the certainty that whatever might befall, no reinforcements could +reach it for months? What would be your feelings, and your language, asked +Lord (M64) Hartington, if besides having Gordon and Stewart beleaguered in +Khartoum, we also knew that a small force of British cavalry unable to +take the offensive was shut up in the town of Berber?(104) Then the +government wondered whether a move on Dongola might not be advantageous. +Here again the soldiers thought the torrid climate a fatal objection, and +the benefits doubtful. Could not Gordon, some have asked, have made his +retreat at an early date after reaching Khartoum, by way of Berber? +Answer--the Nile was too low. All this it was that at a later day, when the +time had come to call his government to its account, justified Mr. +Gladstone in saying that in such enterprises as these in the Soudan, +mistakes and miscarriages were inevitable, for they were the proper and +certain consequences of undertakings that lie beyond the scope of human +means and of rational and prudent human action, and are a war against +nature.(105) If anybody now points to the victorious expedition to +Khartoum thirteen years later, as falsifying such language as this, that +experience so far from falsifying entirely justifies. A war against nature +demands years of study, observation, preparation, and those who are best +acquainted with the conditions at first hand all agree that neither the +tribes nor the river nor the desert were well known enough in 1885, to +guarantee that overthrow in the case of the Mahdi, which long afterwards +destroyed his successor. + +On April 14 Sir E. Baring, while as keenly averse as anybody in the world +to an expedition for the relief of Khartoum if such an expedition could be +avoided, still watching events with a clear and concentrated gaze, assured +the government that it was very likely to be unavoidable; it would be well +therefore, without loss of time, to prepare for a move as soon as ever the +Nile should rise. Six days before, Lord Wolseley also had written to Lord +Hartington at the war office, recommending immediate and active +preparations for an exclusively British expedition to Khartoum. Time, he +said, is the most important element in this question; and in truth it was, +for time was flying, and so were events. The cabinet were reported as +feeling that Gordon, "who was despatched on a mission essentially pacific, +had found himself, from whatever cause, unable to prosecute it +effectually, and now proposed the use of military means, which might fail, +and which, even if they should succeed, might be found to mean a new +subjugation of the Soudan--the very consummation which it was the object of +Gordon's mission to avert." On June 27 it was known in London that Berber +had fallen a month before. + + + +VII + + +Lord Hartington, as head of the war department, had a stronger leaning +towards the despatch of troops than some of his colleagues, but, says Mr. +Gladstone to Lord Granville in a letter of 1888, "I don't think he ever +came to any sharp issue (like mine about Zobeir); rather that in the main +he got what he wanted." Wherever the fault lay, the issue was unfortunate. +The generals in London fought the battle of the routes with unabated +tenacity for month after month. One was for the approach to Khartoum by +the Nile; another by Suakin and Berber; a third by the Korosko desert. A +departmental committee reported in favour of the Nile as the easiest, +safest, and cheapest, but they did not report until July 29. It was not +until the beginning of August that the House of Commons was asked for a +vote of credit, and Lord Hartington authorised General Stephenson at Cairo +to take measures for moving troops southward. In his despatch of August 8, +Lord Hartington still only speaks of operations for the relief of Gordon, +"should they become necessary"; he says the government were still +unconvinced that Gordon could not secure the withdrawal of the garrison +from Khartoum; but "they are of opinion that the time had arrived for +obtaining accurate information as to his position," and, "if necessary, +for rendering him assistance."(106) As soon as the decision was taken, +preparations were carried out with rapidity and skill. In the same month +Lord Wolseley was (M65) appointed to command the expedition, and on +September 9 he reached Cairo. The difficulties of a military decision had +been great, said Lord Hartington, and there was besides, he added, a +difference of opinion among the military authorities.(107) It was October +5 before Lord Wolseley reached Wady-Halfa, and the Nile campaign began. + +Whatever decision military critics may ultimately form upon the choice of +the Nile route, or upon the question whether the enterprise would have +been any more successful if the route had been by Suakin or Korosko, it is +at least certain that no position, whether strategically false or no, has +ever evoked more splendid qualities in face of almost preterhuman +difficulties, hardship, and labour. The treacherous and unknown river, for +it was then unknown, with its rapids, its shifting sandbanks and tortuous +channels and rocky barriers and heart-breaking cataracts; the Bayuda +desert, haunted by fierce and stealthy enemies; the trying climate, the +heat, the thirst, all the wearisome embarrassments of transport on camels +emaciated by lack of food and water--such scenes exacted toil, patience, +and courage as worthy of remark and admiration as if the advance had +successfully achieved its object. Nobody lost heart. "Everything goes on +swimmingly," wrote Sir Herbert Stewart to Lord Wolseley, "_except as to +time_." This was on January 14, 1885. Five days later, he was mortally +wounded. + +The end of it all, in spite of the gallantry of Abu Klea and Kirbekan, of +desert column and river column, is only too well known. Four of Gordon's +small steamers coming down from Khartoum met the British desert column at +Gubat on January 21. The general in command at once determined to proceed +to Khartoum, but delayed his start until the morning of the 24th. The +steamers needed repairs, and Sir Charles Wilson deemed it necessary for +the safety of his troops to make a reconnaissance down the river towards +Berber before starting up to Khartoum. He took with him on two of Gordon's +steamers--described as of the dimensions of the penny boats upon the +Thames, but bullet proof--a force of twenty-six British, and two hundred +and forty Soudanese. He had also in tow a nugger laden with dhura. This +was what, when Khartoum came in sight (Jan. 28) the "relief force" +actually amounted to. As the two steamers ran slowly on, a solitary voice +from the river-bank now and again called out to them that Khartoum was +taken, and Gordon slain. Eagerly searching with their glasses, the +officers perceived that the government-house was a wreck, and that no flag +was flying. Gordon, in fact, had met his death two days before. + +Mr. Gladstone afterwards always spoke of the betrayal of Khartoum. But +Major Kitchener, who prepared the official report, says that the +accusations of treachery were all vague, and to his mind, the outcome of +mere supposition. "In my opinion," he says, "Khartoum fell from sudden +assault, when the garrison were too exhausted by privations to make proper +resistance."(108) The idea that the relieving force was only two days late +is misleading. A nugger's load of dhura would not have put an end to the +privations of the fourteen thousand people still in Khartoum; and even +supposing that the handful of troops at Gubat could have effected their +advance upon Khartoum many days earlier, it is hard to believe that they +were strong enough either to drive off the Mahdi, or to hold him at bay +until the river column had come up. + + + +VIII + + +The prime minister was on a visit to the Duke of Devonshire at Holker, +where he had many long conversations with Lord Hartington, and had to deal +with heavy post-bags. On Thursday, Feb. 5, after writing to the Queen and +others, he heard what had happened on the Nile ten days before. "After 11 +A.M.," he records, "I learned the sad news of the fall or betrayal of +Khartoum. H[artington] and I, with C [his wife], went off by the first +train, and reached Downing Street soon after 8.15. The circumstances are +sad and trying. It is one of the least points about them that they may put +an end to this government."(109) The next day the cabinet met; (M66) +discussions "difficult but harmonious." The Queen sent to him and to Lord +Hartington at Holker an angry telegram--blaming her ministers for what had +happened--a telegram not in cipher as usual, but open. Mr. Gladstone +addressed to the Queen in reply (Feb. 5, 1885) a vindication of the course +taken by the cabinet; and it may be left to close an unedifying and a +tragic chapter:-- + + + _To the Queen._ + + Mr. Gladstone has had the honour this day to receive your + Majesty's telegram _en clair_, relating to the deplorable + intelligence received this day from Lord Wolseley, and stating + that it is too fearful to consider that the fall of Khartoum might + have been, prevented and many precious lives saved by earlier + action. Mr. Gladstone does not presume to estimate the means of + judgment possessed by your Majesty, but so far as his information + and recollection at the moment go, he is not altogether able to + follow the conclusion which your Majesty has been pleased thus to + announce. Mr. Gladstone is under the impression that Lord + Wolseley's force might have been sufficiently advanced to save + Khartoum, had not a large portion of it been detached by a + circuitous route along the river, upon the express application of + General Gordon, to occupy Berber on the way to the final + destination. He speaks, however, with submission on a point of + this kind. There is indeed in some quarters a belief that the + river route ought to have been chosen at an earlier period, and + had the navigation of the Nile in its upper region been as well + known as that of the Thames, this might have been a just ground of + reproach. But when, on the first symptoms that the position of + General Gordon in Khartoum was not secure, your Majesty's advisers + at once sought from the most competent persons the best + information they could obtain respecting the Nile route, the + balance of testimony and authority was decidedly against it, and + the idea of the Suakin and Berber route, with all its formidable + difficulties, was entertained in preference; nor was it until a + much later period that the weight of opinion and information + warranted the definitive choice of the Nile route. Your Majesty's + ministers were well aware that climate and distance were far more + formidable than the sword of the enemy, and they deemed it right, + while providing adequate military means, never to lose from view + what might have proved to be the destruction of the gallant army + in the Soudan. It is probable that abundant wrath and indignation + will on this occasion be poured out upon them. Nor will they + complain if so it should be; but a partial consolation may be + found on reflecting that neither aggressive policy, nor military + disaster, nor any gross error in the application of means to ends, + has marked this series of difficult proceedings, which, indeed, + have greatly redounded to the honour of your Majesty's forces of + all ranks and arms. In these remarks which Mr. Gladstone submits + with his humble devotion, he has taken it for granted that + Khartoum has fallen through the exhaustion of its means of + defence. But your Majesty may observe from the telegram that this + is uncertain. Both the correspondent's account and that of Major + Wortley refer to the delivery of the town by treachery, a + contingency which on some previous occasions General Gordon has + treated as far from improbable; and which, if the notice existed, + was likely to operate quite independently of the particular time + at which a relieving force might arrive. The presence of the enemy + in force would naturally suggest the occasion, or perhaps even the + apprehension of the approach of the British army. In pointing to + these considerations, Mr. Gladstone is far from assuming that they + are conclusive upon the whole case; in dealing with which the + government has hardly ever at any of its stages been furnished + sufficiently with those means of judgment which rational men + usually require. It may be that, on a retrospect, many errors will + appear to have been committed. There are many reproaches, from the + most opposite quarters, to which it might be difficult to supply a + conclusive answer. Among them, and perhaps among the most + difficult, as far as Mr. Gladstone can judge, would be the + reproach of those who might argue that our proper business was the + protection of Egypt, that it never was in military danger from the + Mahdi, and that the most prudent course would have been to provide + it with adequate frontier defences, and to assume no + responsibility for the lands beyond the desert. + + +One word more. Writing to one of his former colleagues long after Mr. +Gladstone says:-- + + + _Jan. 10, '90._--In the Gordon case we all, and I rather + prominently, must continue to suffer in silence. Gordon was a + hero, and a hero of heroes; but we ought to have known that a hero + of heroes is not the proper person to give effect at a distant + point, and in most difficult circumstances, to the views of + ordinary men. It was unfortunate that he should claim the hero's + privilege by turning upside down and inside out every idea and + intention with which he had left England, and for which he had + obtained our approval. Had my views about Zobeir prevailed, it + would not have removed our difficulties, as Forster would + certainly have moved, and with the tories and the Irish have + carried, a condemnatory address. My own opinion is that it is + harder to justify our doing so much to rescue him, than our not + doing more. Had the party reached Khartoum in time, he would not + have come away (as I suppose), and the dilemma would have arisen + in another form. + + +In 1890 an application was made to Mr. Gladstone by a certain foreign +writer who had undertaken an article on Gordon and his mission. Mr. +Gladstone's reply (Jan. 11, '90) runs to this effect:-- + + + I am much obliged by your kind letter and enclosure. I hope you + will not think it belies this expression when I say that I feel + myself precluded from supplying any material or entering upon any + communications for the purpose of self-defence against the charges + which are freely made and I believe widely accepted against myself + and against the cabinet of 1880-5 in connection with General + Gordon. It would be felt in this country, by friends I think in + many cases as well as adversaries, that General Gordon's + much-lamented death ought to secure him, so far as we are + concerned, against the counter-argument which we should have to + present on his language and proceedings. On this account you will, + I hope, excuse me from entering into the matter. I do not doubt + that a true and equitable judgment will eventually prevail.(110) + + + + +Chapter X. Interior Of The Cabinet. (1895) + + + I am aware that the age is not what we all wish, but I am sure + that the only means to check its degeneracy is heartily to concur + in whatever is best in our time.--BURKE. + + + +I + + +The year 1885 must be counted as in some respects the severest epoch of +Mr. Gladstone's life. The previous twelve months had not ended cheerfully. +Sleep, the indispensable restorer, and usually his constant friend, was +playing him false. The last entry in his diary was this:-- + + + The year closed with a bad night, only one hour and a half of + sleep, which will hardly do to work upon. There is much that I + should like to have recorded.... But the pressure on me is too + great for the requisite recollection. It is indeed a time of + _Sturm und Drang_. What with the confusion of affairs, and the + disturbance of my daily life by the altered character of my + nights, I cannot think in calm, but can only trust and pray. + + +He was unable to be present at the dinner of the tenants, and his eldest +son in his absence dwelt once more on his father's wish to retire, +whenever occasion should come, from the public service, or at least from +that kind of service to the public which imposed on him such arduous +efforts. + +One great element of confusion was the sphinx's riddle of Egyptian +finance. On his birthday, among a dozen occupations, he says: "A little +woodcraft for helping sleep; wrote mem. on Egyptian finance which I hope +may help to clear my brain and nerves." And this was a characteristic way +of seeking a cure; for now and at every time, any task that demanded close +thought and firm expression was his surest (M67) sedative. More perplexing +even than the successive problems of the hour, was the threatened +disorganisation, not only of his cabinet, but of the party and its future. +On January 20 he was forced to London for two Egyptian cabinets, but he +speedily returned to Hawarden, whence he immediately wrote a letter to +Lord Granville:-- + + + _January 22, 1885._--Here I am after a journey of 5-1/2 hours from + door to door, through the unsought and ill-deserved kindness of + the London and North-Western railway, which entirely spoils me by + special service. + + There was one part of my conversation of to-day with Hartington + which I should like not to leave in any case without record. He + referred to the difficulties he had had, and he "gratefully" + acknowledged the considerateness of the cabinet. He said the point + always urged upon him was, not to break up the liberal party. But, + he said, can we avoid its breaking up, within a very short time + after you retire, and ought this consideration therefore to be + regarded as of such very great force? I said, my reply is in two + sentences. First, I admit that from various symptoms it is not + improbable there may be a plan or intention to break up the party. + But if a rupture of that kind comes,--this is my second sentence--it + will come upon matters of principle, known and understood by the + whole country, and your duty will probably be clear and your + position unembarrassed. But I entreat you to use your utmost + endeavour to avoid bringing about the rupture on one of the points + of this Egyptian question, which lies outside the proper business + of a government and is beyond its powers, which does not turn upon + clear principles of politics, and about which the country + understands almost nothing, and cares, for the most part, very + little. All this he took without rejoinder. + + _P.S._--We are going to Holker next week, and Hartington said he + would try to come and see me there. + + +As we have already seen,(111) Mr. Gladstone paid his visit to Holker +(January 30), where he found the Duke of Devonshire "wonderfully well, and +kind as ever," where he was joined by Lord Hartington, and where they +together spelled out the cipher telegram (on February 5) bringing the evil +news of the fall of Khartoum. + +It is not uninteresting to see how the notion of Mr. Gladstone's +retirement, now much talked of in his family, affected a friendly, +philosophic, and most observant onlooker. Lord Acton wrote to him +(February 2):-- + + + You mean that the new parliament, the first of our democratic + constitution, shall begin its difficult and perilous course + without the services of a leader who has greater experience and + authority than any other man. You design to withdraw your + assistance when most urgently needed, at the moment of most + conservative apprehension and most popular excitement. By the + choice of this particular moment for retirement you increase the + danger of the critical transition, because nobody stands as you do + between the old order of things and the new, or inspires general + confidence; and the lieutenants of Alexander are not at their + best. Next year's change will appear vast and formidable to the + suspicious foreigner, who will be tempted to doubt our identity. + It is in the national interest to reduce the outer signs of + change, to bridge the apparent chasm, to maintain the traditional + character of the state. The unavoidable elements of weakness will + be largely and voluntarily aggravated by their untimely + coincidence with an event which must, at any time, be a blow to + the position of England among the Powers. Your absence just then + must grievously diminish our credit.... You alone inspire + confidence that what is done for the great masses shall be done + with a full sense of economic responsibility.... A divided liberal + party and a weak conservative party mean the supremacy of the + revolutionary Irish.... + + +To this Mr. Gladstone replied:-- + + + _10 Downing Street, Feb. 11, 1885._ Your argument against letting + the outworn hack go to grass, depends wholly on a certain + proposition, namely this, that there is about to be a crisis in + the history of the constitution, growing out of the extension of + the franchise, and that it is my duty to do what I can in aiding + to steer the ship through the boiling waters of this crisis. My + answer is simple. There is no crisis at all in view. There is a + process of slow modification and development mainly in directions + which I view with misgiving. "Tory democracy," the favourite idea + on that side, is no more like the conservative party in which I + was bred, than it is like liberalism. In fact less. It is + demagogism, only a demagogism not ennobled by love and + appreciation of liberty, but applied in the worst way, to put down + the pacific, law-respecting, economic elements which ennobled the + old conservatism, living upon the fomentation of angry passions, + and still in secret as obstinately attached as ever to the evil + principle of class interests. The liberalism of to-day is better + in what I have described as ennobling the old conservatism; nay, + much better, yet far from being good. Its pet idea is what they + call construction,--that is to say, taking into the hands of the + state the business of the individual man. Both the one and the + other have much to estrange me, and have had for many, many years. + But, with all this, there is no crisis. I have even the hope that + while the coming change may give undue encouragement to + "construction," it will be favourable to the economic, pacific, + law-regarding elements; and the sense of justice which abides + tenaciously in the masses will never knowingly join hands with the + fiend of Jingoism. On the whole, I do not abandon the hope that it + may mitigate the chronic distemper, and have not the smallest fear + of its bringing about an acute or convulsive action. You leave me + therefore rooted in my evil mind.... + + +The activity of the left wing, acute, perhaps, but not convulsive, became +much more embarrassing than the desire of the right wing to be inactive. +Mr. Chamberlain had been rapidly advancing in public prominence, and he +now showed that the agitation against the House of Lords was to be only +the beginning and not the end. At Ipswich (January 14), he said this +country had been called the paradise of the rich, and warned his audience +no longer to allow it to remain the purgatory of the poor. He told them +that reform of local government must be almost the first reform of the +next parliament, and spoke in favour of allotments, the creation of small +proprietors, the placing of a small tax on the total property of the +taxpayer, and of free education. Mr. Gladstone's attention was drawn from +Windsor to these utterances, and he replied (January 22) that though he +thought some of them were "on various grounds open to grave objection," +yet they seemed to raise no "definite point on which, in his capacity of +prime minister, he was entitled to interfere and lecture the speaker." A +few days later, more terrible things were said by Mr. Chamberlain at +Birmingham. He pronounced for the abolition of plural voting, and in +favour of payment of members, and manhood suffrage. He also advocated a +bill for enabling local communities to acquire land, a graduated +income-tax, and the breaking up of the great estates as the first step in +land reform. This deliverance was described by not unfriendly critics as +"a little too much the speech of the agitator of the future, rather than +of the minister of the present." Mr. Gladstone made a lenient +communication to the orator, to the effect that "there had better be some +explanations among them when they met." To Lord Granville he wrote +(January 31):-- + + + Upon the whole, weak-kneed liberals have caused us more trouble in + the present parliament than radicals. But I think these + declarations by Chamberlain upon matters which cannot, humanly + speaking, become practical before the next parliament, can hardly + be construed otherwise than as having a remote and (in that sense) + far-sighted purpose which is ominous enough. The opposition can + hardly fail in their opportunity, I must add in their duty, to + make them matter of attack. Such things will happen casually from + time to time, and always with inconvenience--but there is here a + degree of method and system which seem to give the matter a new + character. + + +It will be seen from his tone that Mr. Gladstone, in all the +embarrassments arising from this source, showed complete freedom from +personal irritation. Like the lofty-minded man he was, he imputed no low +motives to a colleague because the colleague gave him trouble. He +recognised by now that in his cabinet the battle was being fought between +old time and new. He did not allow his dislike of some of the new methods +of forming public opinion, to prevent him from doing full justice to the +energetic and sincere public spirit behind them. He had, moreover, quite +enough to do with (M68) the demands of the present, apart from signs that +were ominous for the future. A year before, in a letter to Lord Granville +(March 24, 1884), he had attempted a definition that will, perhaps, be of +general interest to politicians of either party complexion. It is, at any +rate, characteristic of his subtlety, if that be the right word, in +drawing distinctions:-- + + + What are divisions in a cabinet? In my opinion, differences of + views stated, and if need be argued, and then advisedly + surrendered with a view to a common conclusion are not "divisions + in a cabinet." By that phrase I understand unaccommodated + differences on matters standing for immediate action. + + +It was unaccommodated differences of this kind that cost Mr. Disraeli +secessions on the Reform bill, and secessions no less serious on his +eastern policy, and it is one of the wonders of his history that Mr. +Gladstone prevented secession on the matters now standing for immediate +action before his own cabinet. During the four months between the meeting +of parliament and the fall of the government, the two great difficulties +of the government--Egypt and Ireland--reached their climax. + + + +II + + +The news of the fall of Khartoum reached England on February 5. One of the +least points, as Mr. Gladstone wrote on the day, was that the grievous +news would put an end to the government, and so it very nearly did. As was +to be expected, Sir Stafford Northcote moved a vote of censure. Mr. +Gladstone informed the Queen, on the day before the division, that the +aspect of the House was "dubious and equivocal." If there was a chance of +overthrowing the ministry, he said, the nationalists were pretty sure to +act and vote as a body with Sir Stafford. Mr. Forster, Mr. Goschen, and +some members of the whig section of the liberal party, were likely either +to do the same, or else to abstain. These circumstances looked towards an +unfavourable issue, if not in the shape of an adverse majority, yet in the +form of a majority too small to enable the government to carry on with +adequate authority and efficiency. In the debate, said Mr. Gladstone, Lord +Hartington re-stated with measured force the position of the government, +and overthrew the contention that had taken a very forward place in the +indictment against ministers, that their great offence was the failure to +send forward General Graham's force to relieve General Gordon. In the +course of this debate Mr. Goschen warned the government that if they +flinched from the policy of smashing the Mahdi at Khartoum, he should vote +against them. A radical below the gangway upon this went to the party whip +and declared, with equal resolution, that if the government insisted on +the policy, then it would be for him and others to vote against them. Sir +William Harcourt, in a speech of great power, satisfied the gentlemen +below the gangway, and only a small handful of the party went into the +lobby with the opposition and the Irish. The division was taken at four in +the morning (February 28), and the result was that the government which +had come in with morning radiance five years ago, was worn down to an +attenuated majority of fourteen.(112) + +When the numbers were declared, Mr. Gladstone said to a colleague on the +bench, "_That will do._" Whether this delphic utterance meant that the +size of the majority would justify resignation or retention, the colleague +was not sure. When the cabinet met at a more mellowed hour in the day, the +question between going out of office and staying in, was fully discussed. +Mere considerations of ease all pointed one way, for, if they held on, +they would seem to be dependent on tory support; trouble was brewing with +Russia, and the Seats bill would not be through in a hurry. On the other +hand, fourteen was majority enough to swear by, the party would be +surprised by resignation and discouraged, and retirement would wear the +look of a false position. In fact Mr. Gladstone, in spite of his incessant +sighs for a hermit's calm, was always for fighting out every position to +the last trench. I can think of no exception, and even when the time came +ten years later, he thought his successors pusillanimous for (M69) +retiring on a small scratch defeat on cordite.(113) So now he acted on the +principle that with courage cabinets may weather almost any storm. No +actual vote was taken, but the numbers for and against retirement were +equal, until Mr. Gladstone spoke. He thought that they should try to go +on, at least until the Seats bill was through. This was the final +decision. + +All this brought once more into his mind the general consideration that +now naturally much haunted him. He wrote to the Queen (February 27):-- + + + Mr. Gladstone believes that circumstances independent of his own + will enable him to estimate, with some impartiality, future + political changes, and he is certainly under the impression that, + partly from the present composition and temper of the liberal + party, and still more, and even much more, from the changes which + the conservative party has been undergoing during the last forty + years (especially the last ten or fifteen of them), the next + change of government may possibly form the introduction to a + period presenting some new features, and may mean more than what + is usually implied in the transfer of power from one party to + another. + + +Mr. Bright has left a note of a meeting with him at this time:-- + + + _March 2, 1885._--Dined with Mrs. Gladstone. After dinner, sat for + half an hour or more with Mr. Gladstone, who is ill with cold and + hoarseness. Long talk on Egypt. He said he had suffered torment + during the continuance of the difficulty in that country. The + sending Gordon out a great mistake,--a man totally unsuited for the + work he undertook. Mr. Gladstone never saw Gordon. He was + appointed by ministers in town, and Gladstone concurred, but had + never seen him. + + +At this moment clouds began to darken the remote horizon on the north-west +boundary of our great Indian possessions. The entanglement in the deserts +of the Soudan was an obvious temptation to any other Power with policies +of its own, to disregard the susceptibilities or even the solid interests +of Great Britain. As we shall see, Mr. Gladstone was as little disposed as +Chatham or Palmerston to shrink from the defence of the legitimate rights +or obligations of his country. But the action of Russia in Afghanistan +became an added and rather poignant anxiety. + +As early as March 12 the cabinet found it necessary to consider the +menacing look of things on the Afghan frontier. Military necessities in +India, as Mr. Gladstone described to the Queen what was in the mind of her +ministers, "might conceivably at this juncture come to overrule the +present intentions as to the Soudan as part of them, and it would +consequently be imprudent to do anything which could practically extend +our obligations in that quarter; as it is the entanglement of the British +forces in Soudanese operations, which would most powerfully tempt Russia +to adopt aggressive measures." Three or four weeks later these +considerations came to a head. The question put by Mr. Gladstone to his +colleagues was this: "Apart from the defence of Egypt, which no one would +propose to abandon, does there appear to be any obligation of honour or +any inducement of policy (for myself I should add, is there any moral +warrant?) that should lead us in the present state of the demands on the +empire, to waste a large portion of our army in fighting against nature, +and I fear also fighting against liberty (such liberty as the case admits) +in the Soudan?" The assumptions on which the policy had been founded had +all broken down. Osman Digna, instead of being readily crushed, had +betaken himself to the mountains and could not be got at. The railway from +Suakin to Berber, instead of serving the advance on Khartoum in the +autumn, could not possibly be ready in time. Berber, instead of being +taken before the hot season, could not be touched. Lord Wolseley, instead +of being able to proceed with his present forces or a moderate addition, +was already asking for twelve more battalions of infantry, with a +proportion of other arms. + +Mr. Gladstone's own view of this crisis is to be found in a memorandum +dated April 9, circulated to the cabinet three or four days before the +question came up for final settlement. (M70) It is long, but then the case +was intricate and the stages various. The reader may at least be satisfied +to know that he will have little more of it.(114) + +Three cabinets were held on three successive days (April 13-15). On the +evening of the first day Mr. Gladstone sent a telegram to the Queen, then +abroad, informing her that in the existing state of foreign affairs, her +ministers felt bound to examine the question of the abandonment of +offensive operations in the Soudan and the evacuation of the territory. +The Queen, in reply, was rather vehement against withdrawal, partly on the +ground that it would seriously affect our position in India. The Queen had +throughout made a great point that the fullest powers should be granted to +those on the spot, both Wolseley and Baring having been selected by the +government for the offices they held. No question cuts deeper in the art +of administering a vast system like that of Great Britain, than the +influence of the agent at a distant place; nowhere is the balance of peril +between too slack a rein from home and a rein too tight, more delicate. +Mr. Gladstone, perhaps taught by the experience of the Crimean war, always +strongly inclined to the school of the tight rein, though I never heard of +any representative abroad with a right to complain of insufficient support +from a Gladstone cabinet.(115) On this aspect of matters, so raised by the +Queen, Mr. Gladstone had (March 15) expressed his view to Sir Henry +Ponsonby:-- + + + Sir Evelyn Baring was appointed to carry onwards a declared and + understood policy in Egypt, when all share in the management of + the Soudan was beyond our province. To Lord Wolseley as general of + the forces in Egypt, and on account of the arduous character of + the work before him, we are bound to render in all military + matters a firm and ungrudging support. We have accordingly not + scrupled to counsel, on his recommendation, very heavy charges on + the country, and military operations of the highest importance. + But we have no right to cast on him any responsibility beyond what + is strictly military. It is not surely possible that he should + decide policy, and that we should adopt and answer for it, even + where it is in conflict with the announcements we have made in + parliament. + + +By the time of these critical cabinets in April Sir Evelyn Baring had +spontaneously expressed his views, and with a full discussion recommended +abandonment of the expedition to Khartoum. + +On the second day the matter was again probed and sifted and weighed. + +At the third cabinet the decision was taken to retire from the Soudan, and +to fix the southern frontier of Egypt at the line where it was left for +twelve years, until apprehension of designs of another European power on +the upper waters of the Nile was held to demand a new policy. Meanwhile, +the policy of Mr. Gladstone's cabinet was adopted and followed by Lord +Salisbury when he came into office. He was sometimes pressed to reverse +it, and to overthrow the dervish power at Khartoum. To any importunity of +this kind, Lord Salisbury's answer was until 1896 unwavering.(116) + +It may be worth noting that, in the course of his correspondence with the +Queen on the change of policy in the Soudan, Mr. Gladstone casually +indulged in the luxury of a historical parallel. "He must assure your +Majesty," he wrote in a closing sentence (April 20), "that at least he has +never in any cabinet known any question more laboriously or more +conscientiously discussed; and he is confident that the basis of action +has not been the mere change in the public view (which, however, is in +some cases imperative, as it was with King George III. in the case of the +American war), but a deep conviction of what the honour and interest of +the empire require them as faithful servants of your Majesty to advise." +(M71) The most harmless parallel is apt to be a challenge to discussion, +and the parenthesis seems to have provoked some rejoinder from the Queen, +for on April 28 Mr. Gladstone wrote to her secretary a letter which takes +him away from Khartoum to a famous piece of the world's history:-- + + + _To Sir Henry Ponsonby._ + + In further prosecution of my reply to your letter of the 25th, I + advert to your remarks upon Lord North. I made no reference to his + conduct, I believe, in writing to her Majesty. What I endeavoured + to show was that King George III., without changing his opinion of + the justice of his war against the colonies, was obliged to give + it up on account of a change of public opinion, and was not open + to blame for so doing. + + You state to me that Lord North never flinched from his task till + it became hopeless, that he then resigned office, but did not + change his opinions to suit the popular cry. The implied contrast + to be drawn with the present is obvious. I admit none of your + three propositions. Lord North did not, as I read history, require + to change his opinions to suit the popular cry. They were already + in accordance with the popular cry; and it is a serious reproach + against him that without sharing his master's belief in the + propriety of the war, he long persisted in carrying it on, through + subserviency to that master. + + Lord North did not resign office for any reason but because he + could not help it, being driven from it by some adverse votes of + the House of Commons, to which he submitted with great good + humour, and probably with satisfaction. + + Lord North did not, so far as I know, state the cause to be + hopeless. Nor did those who were opposed to him. The movers of the + resolution that drove him out of office did not proceed upon that + ground. General Conway in his speech advised the retention of the + ground we held in the colonies, and the resolution, which + expressed the sense of the House as a body, bears a singular + resemblance to the announcement we have lately made, as it + declares, in its first clause, that the further prosecution of + offensive war (on the continent of America) "will be the means of + weakening the efforts of this country against her European + enemies," February 27, 1782. This was followed, on March 4, by an + address on the same basis; and by a resolution declaring that any + ministers who should advise or attempt to frustrate it should be + considered "as enemies to his Majesty and to this country." I + ought, perhaps, to add that I have never stated, and I do not + conceive, that a change in the public opinion of the country is + the ground on which the cabinet have founded the change in their + advice concerning the Soudan. + + + +III + + +The reader has by this time perhaps forgotten how Mr. Gladstone +good-humouredly remonstrated with Lord Palmerston for associating him as +one of the same school as Cobden and Bright.(117) The twenty intervening +years had brought him more and more into sympathy with those two eminent +comrades in good causes, but he was not any less alive to the +inconvenience of the label. Speaking in Midlothian after the dissolution +in 1880, he denied the cant allegation that to instal the liberals in +power would be to hand over the destinies of the country to the Manchester +school.(118) "Abhorring all selfishness of policy," he said, "friendly to +freedom in every country of the earth attached, to the modes of reason, +detesting the ways of force, this Manchester school, this peace-party, has +sprung prematurely to the conclusion that wars may be considered as having +closed their melancholy and miserable history, and that the affairs of the +world may henceforth be conducted by methods more adapted to the dignity +of man, more suited both to his strength and to his weakness, less likely +to lead him out of the ways of duty, to stimulate his evil passions, to +make him guilty before God for inflicting misery on his fellow-creatures." +Such a view, he said, was a serious error, though it was not only a +respectable, it was even a noble error. Then he went on, "However much you +may detest war--and you cannot detest it too much--there is no war--except +one, the war for liberty--that does not contain in it elements of +corruption, as well as of misery, that are deplorable to recollect and to +consider; but however deplorable wars may be, they are among the +necessities of our condition; and there are times when justice, when +faith, when the welfare of mankind, require a man not to shrink from the +responsibility of undertaking them. And if you undertake war, so also you +are often obliged to undertake measures that may lead to war."(119) + +It is also, if not one of the necessities, at least one of the natural +probabilities of our imperfect condition, that when a nation has its +forces engaged in war, that is the moment when other nations may press +inconvenient questions of their own. Accordingly, as I have already +mentioned, when Egyptian distractions were at their height, a dangerous +controversy arose with Russia in regard to the frontier of Afghanistan. +The question had been first raised a dozen years before without effect, +but it was now sharpened into actuality by recent advances of Russia in +Central Asia, bringing her into close proximity to the territory of the +Ameer. The British and Russian governments appointed a commission to lay +down the precise line of division between the Turcoman territory recently +annexed by Russia and Afghanistan. The question of instructions to the +commission led to infinite discussion, of which no sane man not a +biographer is now likely to read one word. While the diplomatists were +thus teasing one another, Russian posts and Afghan pickets came closer +together, and one day (March 30, 1885) the Russians broke in upon the +Afghans at Penjdeh. The Afghans fought gallantly, their losses were heavy, +and Penjdeh was occupied by the Russians. "Whose was the provocation," as +Mr. Gladstone said later, "is a matter of the utmost consequence. We only +know that the attack was a Russian attack. We know that the Afghans +suffered in life, in spirit, and in repute. We know that a blow was struck +at the credit and the authority of a sovereign--our protected ally--who had +committed no offence. All I say is, we cannot in that state of things +close this book and say, 'We will look into it no more.' We must do our +best to have right done in the matter." + +Here those who were most adverse to the Soudan policy stood firmly with +their leader, and when Mr. Gladstone proposed a vote of credit for eleven +millions, of which six and a half were demanded to meet "the case for +preparation," raised by the collision at Penjdeh, he was supported with +much more than a mechanical loyalty, alike by the regular opposition and +by independent adherents below his own gangway. The speech in which he +moved this vote of a war supply (April 27) was an admirable example both +of sustained force and lucidity in exposition, and of a combined firmness, +dignity, reserve, and right human feeling, worthy of a great minister +dealing with an international situation of extreme delicacy and peril. +Many anxious moments followed; for the scene of quarrel was far off, +details were hard to clear up, diplomacy was sometimes ambiguous, popular +excitement was heated, and the language of faction was unmeasured in its +violence. The preliminary resolution on the vote of credit had been +received with acclamation, but a hostile motion was made from the front +opposition bench (May 11), though discord on a high imperial matter was +obviously inconvenient enough for the public interest. The mover declared +the government to have murdered so many thousand men and to have arranged +a sham arbitration, and this was the prelude to other speeches in the same +key. Sir S. Northcote supported the motion--one to displace the ministers +on a bill that it was the declared intention not to oppose. The division +was taken at half-past two in the morning, after a vigorous speech from +the prime minister, and the government only counted 290 against 260. In +the minority were 42 followers of Mr. Parnell. This premature debate +cleared the air. Worked with patience and with vigorous preparations at +the back of conciliatory negotiation, the question was prosecuted to a +happy issue, and those who had done their (M72) best to denounce Mr. +Gladstone and Lord Granville for trampling the interests and honour of +their country underfoot thought themselves very lucky, when the time came +for them to take up the threads, in being able to complete the business by +adopting and continuing the selfsame line. With justifiable triumph Mr. +Gladstone asked how they would have confronted Russia if "that insane +policy--for so I still must call it"--of Afghan occupation which he had +brought to an end in 1880, had been persevered in. In such a case, when +Russia came to advance her claim so to adjust boundaries as to make her +immediate neighbour to Afghanistan, she would have found the country full +of friends and allies, ready to join her in opposing the foreigner and the +invader; and she would have been recognised as the liberator.(120) + + + +IV + + +In some respects Mr. Gladstone was never more wonderful than in the few +weeks that preceded the fall of his second administration. Between the +middle of April and the middle of May, he jots down with half-rueful +humour the names of no fewer than nine members of the cabinet who within +that period, for one reason or another and at one moment or another, +appeared to contemplate resignation; that is to say a majority. Of one +meeting he said playfully to a colleague, "A very fair cabinet to-day--only +three resignations." The large packets of copious letters of this date, +written and received, show him a minister of unalterable patience, +unruffled self-command; inexhaustible in resource, catching at every straw +from the resource of others, indefatigable in bringing men of divergent +opinions within friendly reach of one another; of tireless ingenuity in +minimising differences and convincing recalcitrants that what they took +for a yawning gulf was in fact no more than a narrow trench that any +decent political gymnast ought to be ashamed not to be able to vault over. +Though he takes it all as being in the day's work, in the confidence of +the old jingle, that be the day short or never so long, at length it +ringeth to evensong, he does not conceal the burden. To Mrs. Gladstone he +writes from Downing Street on May-day:-- + + + Rather oppressed and tired with the magnitude and the complication + of subjects on my mind, I did not think of writing by the first + post, but I will now supply the omission by making use of the + second. As to all the later history of this ministry, which is now + entering on its sixth year, it has been a wild romance of + politics, with a continual succession of hairbreadth escapes and + strange accidents pressing upon one another, and it is only from + the number of dangers we have passed through already, that one can + be bold enough to hope we may pass also through what yet remain. + Some time ago I told you that dark as the sky was with many a + thunder-cloud, there were the possibilities of an admirable + situation and result, and _for me_ a wind-up better than at any + time I could have hoped. Russia and Ireland are the two _great_ + dangers remaining. The "ray" I mentioned yesterday for the first + is by no means extinct to-day, but there is nothing new of a + serious character; what there is, is good. So also upon the Irish + complications there is more hope than there was yesterday, + although the odds may still be heavily against our getting forward + unitedly in a satisfactory manner. + + +On May 2, as he was looking at the pictures in the Academy, Lord Granville +brought him tidings of the Russian answer, which meant peace. His short +entries tell a brave story:-- + + + _May 3, Sunday._--Dined at Marlborough House. They were most kind + and pleasant. But it is so unsundaylike and unrestful. I am much + fatigued in mind and body. Yet very happy. _May 4._--Wrote to Lord + Spencer, Mr. Chamberlain, Sir C. Dilke, Lord Granville. Conclave. + H. of C., 4-3/4-8-1/2 and 9-1/2-2-1/2. Spoke on Russian question. A heavy + day. Much knocked up. _May 5._--... Another anxious, very anxious + day, and no clearing of the sky as yet. But after all that has + come, what may not come? _May 14, Ascension Day._--Most of the day + was spent in anxious interviews, and endeavours to bring and keep + the members of the cabinet together. _May 15._--Cabinet 2-4-1/2. + Again stiff. But I must not lose heart. + + +(M73) Difference of opinion upon the budget at one time wore a threatening +look, for the radicals disliked the proposed increase of the duty on beer; +but Mr. Gladstone pointed out in compensation that on the other hand the +equalisation of the death duties struck at the very height of class +preference. Mr. Childers was, as always, willing to accommodate +difficulties; and in the cabinet the rising storm blew over. Ireland never +blows over. + +The struggle had gone on for three years. Many murderers had been hanged, +though more remained undetected; conspirators had fled; confidence was +restored to public officers; society in all its various grades returned +externally to the paths of comparative order; and the dire emergency of +three years before had been brought to an apparent close. The gratitude in +this country to the viceroy who had achieved this seeming triumph over the +forces of disorder was such as is felt to a military commander after a +hazardous and successful campaign. The country was once more +half-conquered, but nothing was advanced, and the other half of the +conquest was not any nearer. The scene was not hopeful. There lay +Ireland,--squalid, dismal, sullen, dull, expectant, sunk deep in hostile +intent. A minority with these misgivings and more felt that the minister's +pregnant phrase about the government "having no moral force behind them" +too exactly described a fatal truth. + + + + +Chapter XI. Defeat Of Ministers. (May-June 1885) + + + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}. + + --AESCH. _Prom._ V. 548. + + Never do counsels of mortal men thwart the ordered purpose of + Zeus. + + + +I + + +What was to be the Irish policy? The Crimes Act would expire in August, +and the state of parties in parliament and of sections within the cabinet, +together with the approach of the general election, made the question +whether that Act should be renewed, and if so on what terms, an issue of +crucial importance. There were good grounds for suspecting that tories +were even then intimating to the Irish that if Lord Salisbury should come +into office, they would drop coercion, just as the liberals had dropped it +when they came into office in 1880, and like them would rely upon the +ordinary law. On May 15 Mr. Gladstone announced in terms necessarily +vague, because the new bill was not settled, that they proposed to +continue what he described as certain clauses of a valuable and equitable +description in the existing Coercion Act. + +No parliamentary situation could be more tempting to an astute opposition. +The signs that the cabinet was not united were unmistakable. The leader of +the little group of four clever men below the gangway on the tory side +gave signs that he espied an opportunity. This was one of the occasions +that disclosed the intrepidity of Lord Randolph Churchill. He made a +speech after Mr. Gladstone's announcement of a (M74) renewal of portions +of the Crimes Act, not in his place but at a tory club. He declared +himself profoundly shocked that so grave an announcement should have been +taken as a matter of course. It was really a terrible piece of news. +Ireland must be in an awful state, or else the radical members of the +cabinet would never have assented to such unanswerable evidence that the +liberal party could not govern Ireland without resort to that arbitrary +force which their greatest orators had so often declared to be no remedy. +It did not much matter whether the demand was for large powers or for +small. Why not put some kind thoughts towards England in Irish minds, by +using the last days of this unlucky parliament to abrogate all that harsh +legislation which is so odious to England, and which undoubtedly abridges +the freedom and insults the dignity of a sensitive and imaginative race? +The tory party should be careful beyond measure not to be committed to any +act or policy which should unnecessarily wound or injure the feelings of +our brothers on the other side of the channel of St. George.(121) + +The key to an operation that should at once, with the aid of the +disaffected liberals and the Irish, turn out Mr. Gladstone and secure the +English elections, was an understanding with Mr. Parnell. The price of +such an understanding was to drop coercion, and that price the tory +leaders resolved to pay. The manoeuvre was delicate. If too plainly +disclosed, it might outrage some of the tory rank and file who would +loathe an Irish alliance, and it was likely, moreover, to deter some of +the disaffected liberals from joining in any motion for Mr. Gladstone's +overthrow. Lord Salisbury and his friends considered the subject with +"immense deliberation some weeks before the fall of the government." They +came to the conclusion that in the absence of official information, they +could see nothing to warrant a government in applying for a renewal of +exceptional powers. That conclusion they profess to have kept sacredly in +their own bosoms. Why they should give immense deliberation to a decision +that in their view must be worthless without official information, and +that was to remain for an indefinite time in mysterious darkness, was +never explained when this secret decision some months later was revealed +to the public.(122) If there was no intention of making the decision known +to the Irishmen, the purpose of so unusual a proceeding would be +inscrutable. Was it made known to them? Mr. McCarthy, at the time acting +for his leader, has described circumstantially how the Irish were +endeavouring to obtain a pledge against coercion; how two members of the +tory party, one of them its recognised whip, came to him in succession +declaring that they came straight from Lord Salisbury with certain +propositions; how he found the assurance unsatisfactory, and asked each of +these gentlemen in turn on different nights to go back to Lord Salisbury, +and put further questions to him; and how each of them professed to have +gone back to Lord Salisbury, to have conferred with him, and to have +brought back his personal assurance.(123) On the other hand, it has been +uniformly denied by the tory leaders that there was ever any compact +whatever with the Irishmen at this moment. We are not called upon here to +decide in a conflict of testimony which turns, after all, upon words so +notoriously slippery as pledge, compact, or understanding. It is enough to +mark what is not denied, that Lord Salisbury and his confidential friends +had resolved, subject to official information, to drop coercion, and that +the only visible reason why they should form the resolution at that +particular moment was its probable effect upon Mr. Parnell. + + + +II + + +Let us now return to the ministerial camp. There the whig wing of the +cabinet, adhering to Lord Spencer, were for a modified renewal of the +Coercion Act, with the balm of a land purchase bill and a limited +extension of self-government in local areas. The radical wing were averse +to coercion, and averse to a purchase bill, but they were willing to yield +a milder form of coercion, on condition that the cabinet would agree not +merely to small measures of self-government in local areas, but to the +erection of a (M75) central board clothed with important administrative +functions for the whole of Ireland. In the House of Commons it was certain +that a fairly strong radical contingent would resist coercion in any +degree, and a liberal below the gangway, who had not been long in +parliament but who had been in the press a strong opponent of the coercion +policy of 1881, at once gave notice that if proposals were made for the +renewal of exceptional law, he should move their rejection. Mr. Gladstone +had also to inform the Queen that in what is considered the whig or +moderate section of the House there had been recent indications of great +dislike to special legislation, even of a mild character, for Ireland. +These proceedings are all of capital importance in an eventful year, and +bear pretty directly upon the better known crisis of the year following. + +A memorandum by Mr. Gladstone of a conversation between himself and Lord +Granville (May 6) will best show his own attitude at this opening of a +momentous controversy:-- + + + ... I told him [Granville] I had given no pledge or indication of + my future conduct to Mr. Chamberlain, who, however, knew my + opinions to be strong in favour of some plan for a Central Board + of Local Government in Ireland on something of an elective + basis.... Under the circumstances, while the duty of the hour + evidently was to study the means of possible accommodation, the + present aspect of affairs was that of a probable split, + _independently_ of the question what course I might individually + pursue. My opinions, I said, were very strong and inveterate. I + did not calculate upon Parnell and his friends, nor upon Manning + and his bishops. Nor was I under any obligation to follow or act + with Chamberlain. But independently of all questions of party, of + support, and of success, I looked upon the extension of a strong + measure of local government like this to Ireland, now that the + question is effectually revived by the Crimes Act, as invaluable + itself, and as the only hopeful means of securing crown and state + from an ignominious surrender in the next parliament after a + mischievous and painful struggle. (I did not advert to the + difficulties which will in this session be experienced in carrying + on a great battle for the Crimes Act.) My difficulty would lie not + in my pledges or declarations (though these, of a public + character, are serious), but in my opinions. + + Under these circumstances, I said, I take into view the freedom of + my own position. My engagements to my colleagues are fulfilled; + the great Russian question is probably settled; if we stand firm + on the Soudan, we are now released from that embarrassment; and + the Egyptian question, if the financial convention be safe, no + longer presents any very serious difficulties. I am entitled to + lay down my office as having done my work. + + Consequently the very last thing I should contemplate is opening + the Irish difficulty in connection with my resignation, should I + resign. It would come antecedently to any parliamentary treatment + of that problem. If thereafter the secession of some members + should break up the cabinet, it would leave behind it an excellent + record at home and abroad. Lord Granville, while ready to resign + his office, was not much consoled by this presentation of the + case. + + +Late in the month (May 23) Mr. Gladstone wrote a long letter to the Queen, +giving her "some idea of the shades of opinion existing in the cabinet +with reference to legislation for Ireland." He thought it desirable to +supply an outline of this kind, because the subject was sure to recur +after a short time, and was "likely to exercise a most important influence +in the coming parliament on the course of affairs." The two points on +which there was considerable divergence of view were the expiry of the +Crimes Act, and the concession of local government. The Irish viceroy was +ready to drop a large portion of what Mr. Gladstone called coercive +provisions, while retaining provisions special to Ireland, but favouring +the efficiency of the law. Other ministers were doubtful whether any +special legislation was needed for Irish criminal law. Then on the point +whether the new bill should be for two years or one, some, including Mr. +Gladstone and Lord Spencer, were for the longer term, others, including +Mr. Chamberlain and Sir Charles Dilke, for the shorter. At last the whole +cabinet agreed to two years. Next for local government,--some held that a +liberal move in this region (M76) would possibly obviate all need for +special criminal legislation, and would at any rate take the sting out of +it. To this "vastly important subject" the prime minister presumed to draw +the Queen's special attention, as involving great and far-reaching +questions. He did not, he said, regard the differences of leaning in the +cabinet upon these matters with either surprise or dismay. Such +difficulties were due to inherent difficulties in the matters themselves, +and were to be expected from the action of independent and energetic minds +in affairs so complex. + +There were two main opinions. One favoured the erection of a system of +representative county government in Ireland. The other view was that +besides the county boards, there should be in addition a central board for +all Ireland, essentially municipal and not political; in the main +executive and administrative, but also with a power to make bye-laws, +raise funds, and pledge public credit in such modes as parliament should +provide. The central board would take over education, primary, in part +intermediate, and perhaps even higher; poor law and sanitary +administration; and public works. The whole charge of justice, police, and +prisons would remain with the executive. This board would not be directly +elective by the whole Irish people; it would be chosen by the +representative county boards. Property, moreover, should have a +representation upon it distinct from numbers. This plan, "first made known +to Mr. Gladstone by Mr. Chamberlain," would, he believed, be supported by +six out of the eight Commons ministers. But a larger number of ministers +were not prepared to agree to any plan involving the principle of an +elective central board as the policy of the cabinet. On account of this +preliminary bar, the particular provisions of the policy of a central +board were not discussed. + +All this, however, was for the moment retrospective and historic, because +a fortnight before the letter was written, the policy of the central +board, of which Mr. Gladstone so decisively approved, had been killed. A +committee of the cabinet was appointed to consider it; some remained +stubbornly opposed; as the discussion went on, some changed their minds +and, having resisted, at last inclined to acquiesce. Ministers were aware +from the correspondence of one of them with an eminent third person, that +Mr. Parnell approved the scheme, and in consideration of it would even not +oppose a very limited Crimes bill. This, however, was no temptation to all +of them; perhaps it had the contrary effect. When it came to the full +cabinet, it could not be carried. All the peers except Lord Granville were +against it. All the Commoners except Lord Hartington were for it. As the +cabinet broke up (May 9), the prime minister said to one colleague, "Ah, +they will rue this day"; and to another, "Within six years, if it please +God to spare their lives, they will be repenting in sackcloth and ashes." +Later in the day he wrote to one of them, "The division of opinion in the +cabinet on the subject of local government with a central board for +Ireland was so marked, and if I may use the expression, so diametrical, +that I dismissed the subject from my mind, and sorrowfully accepted the +negative of what was either a majority, or a moiety of the entire +cabinet." + +This decision, more profoundly critical than anybody excepting Mr. +Gladstone and perhaps Mr. Chamberlain seemed to be aware, left all +existing difficulties as acute as ever. In the middle of May things looked +very black. The scheme for a central board was dead, though, wrote Mr. +Gladstone to the viceroy, "for the present only. _It will quickly rise +again, as I think, perhaps in larger dimensions._" Some members of the +cabinet, he knew not how many, would resign rather than demand from +parliament, without a Central Board bill, the new Coercion Act. If such +resignations took place, how was a Coercion bill to be fought through the +House, when some liberals had already declared that they would resist it? + +On May 15 drafts not only of a Coercion bill, but of a bill for land +purchase, came before the cabinet. Much objection was taken to land +purchase, especially by the two radical leaders, and it was agreed to +forego such a bill for the present session. The viceroy gravely lamented +this decision, and Mr. Gladstone entered into communication with Mr. (M77) +Chamberlain and Sir C. Dilke. From them he understood that their main +anxiety sprang from a fear lest the future handling of local government +should be prejudiced by premature disposal of the question of land +purchase, but that in the main they thought the question of local +government would not be prejudiced if the purchase bill only provided +funds for a year. Under this impression and with a full belief that he was +giving effect to the real desire of his colleagues in general to meet the +views of Lord Spencer, and finding the prospects of such a bill +favourable, Mr. Gladstone proceeded (May 20) to give notice of its +introduction. Mr. Chamberlain and Sir C. Dilke took this to be a reversal +of the position to which they had agreed, and would not assent to land +purchase unless definitely coupled with assurances as to local government. +They immediately resigned. The misapprehension was explained, and though +the resignations were not formally withdrawn, they were suspended. But the +two radical leaders did not conceal their view of the general state of the +case, and in very direct terms told Mr. Gladstone that they differed so +completely on the questions that were to occupy parliament for the rest of +the session, as to feel the continuance of the government of doubtful +advantage to the country. In Mr. Chamberlain's words, written to the prime +minister at the time of the misunderstanding (May 21)-- + + + I feel there has been a serious misapprehension on both sides with + respect to the Land Purchase bill, and I take blame to myself if I + did not express myself with sufficient clearness.... I doubt very + much if it is wise or was right to cover over the serious + differences of principle that have lately disclosed themselves in + the cabinet. I think it is now certain that they will cause a + split in the new parliament, and it seems hardly fair to the + constituencies that this should only be admitted, after they have + discharged their function and are unable to influence the result. + + + +III + + +Still the prime minister altogether declined, in his own phrase, to lose +heart, and new compromises were invented. Meanwhile he cheerfully went for +the Whitsuntide recess to Hawarden, and dived into Lechler's _Wycliffe_, +Walpole's _George III._, Conrad on German Union, Cooper on the Atonement, +and so forth. Among other guests at Hawarden came Lord Wolverton, "with +much conversation; we opened rather a new view as to my retirement." What +the new view was we do not know, but the conversation was resumed and +again resumed, until the unwelcome day (June 4) for return to Downing +Street. Before returning, however, Mr. Gladstone set forth his view of the +internal crisis in a letter to Lord Hartington:-- + + + _To Lord Hartington._ + + _May 30, 1885._--I am sorry but not surprised that your rather + remarkable strength should have given way under the pressure of + labour or anxiety or both. Almost the whole period of this + ministry, particularly the year and a half since the defeat of + Hicks, and most particularly of all, the four months since the + morning when you deciphered the Khartoum telegram at Holker, have + been without example in my experience, as to the gravity and + diversity of difficulties which they have presented. What I hope + is that they will not discourage you, or any of our colleagues, in + your anticipations of the future. It appears to me that there is + not one of them, viewed in the gross, which has been due to our + own action. By viewing in the gross, I mean taking the Egyptian + question as one. When we subdivide between Egypt proper and the + Soudan, I find what seem to me two grave errors in our management + of the Soudan business: the first our _landing_ at Suakin, the + second the mission of Gordon, or rather the choice of Gordon for + that mission. But it sometimes happens that the errors gravest in + their consequences are also the most pardonable. And these errors + were surely pardonable enough in themselves, without relying on + the fact that they were approved by the public opinion of the day + and by the opposition. Plenty of other and worse errors have been + urged upon us which we have refused or avoided. I do not remember + a single good measure recommended by opponents, which we have + declined to adopt (or indeed any good measure which they have + recommended at all). We certainly have worked hard. I believe that + according to the measure of human infirmity, we have done fairly + well, but the duties we have had to discharge have been duties, I + mean in Egypt and the Soudan, which it was impossible to discharge + with the ordinary measure of credit and satisfaction, which were + beyond human strength, and which it was very unwise of our + predecessors to saddle upon the country. + + At this moment we have but two great _desiderata_: the Egyptian + Convention and the Afghan settlement (the evacuation of the Soudan + being in principle a thing done). Were these accomplished, we + should have attained for the empire at home and abroad a position + in most respects unusually satisfactory, and both of them _ought_ + to be near accomplishment. With the Egyptian Convention fairly at + work, I should consider the Egyptian question as within a few + comparatively easy stages of satisfactory solution. + + Now as regards the immediate subject. What if Chamberlain and + Dilke, as you seem to anticipate, raise the question of a + prospective declaration about local government in Ireland as a + condition of their remaining in the cabinet? I consider that + question as disposed of for the present (much against my will), + and I do not see that any of us, having accepted the decision, can + attempt to disturb it. Moreover, their ground will be very weak + and narrow; for their actual reason of going, if they go, will be + the really small question arising upon the Land Purchase bill. + + I think they will commit a great error if they take this course. + It will be straining at the gnat. No doubt it will weaken the + party at the election, but I entertain no fear of the immediate + effect. Their error will, however, in my view go beyond this. + Forgive me if I now speak with great frankness on a matter, one of + few, in which I agree with them, and not with you. I am firmly + convinced that on local government for Ireland they hold a winning + position; which by resignation now they will greatly compromise. + You will all, I am convinced, have to give what they recommend; at + the least what they recommend. + + There are two differences between them and me on this subject. + First as to the matter; I go rather further than they do; for I + would undoubtedly make a _beginning_ with the Irish police. + Secondly as to the _ground_; here I differ seriously. I do not + reckon with any confidence upon Manning or Parnell; I have never + looked much in Irish matters at negotiation or the conciliation of + leaders. I look at the question in itself, and I am deeply + convinced that the measure in itself will (especially if + accompanied with similar measures elsewhere, _e.g._ in Scotland) + be good for the country and the empire; I do not say unmixedly + good, but with advantages enormously outweighing any drawbacks. + + Apart from these differences, and taking their point of view, I + think they ought to endeavour to fight the election with you; and + in the _new state of affairs_ which will be presented after the + dissolution, try and see what effect may be produced upon your + mind, and on other minds, when you have to look at the matter + _cominus_ and not _eminus_, as actual, and not as hypothetical. I + gave Chamberlain a brief hint of these speculations when + endeavouring to work upon him; otherwise I have not mentioned them + to any one. + + + +IV + + +On the day of his return to London from Hawarden Mr. Gladstone had an +interview with the two ministers with whom on the merits he was most +disposed to agree, though he differed strongly from them as to tactics. +Resignations were still only suspended, yet the prospects of compromise +were hopeful. At a cabinet held on the following day (June 5) it was +agreed that he should in the course of a week give notice of a bill to +take the place of the expiring Crimes Act. The point left open was whether +the operative provisions of such an Act--agreed on some time before--should +not be brought into operation without some special act of the executive +government, by proclamation, order in council, or otherwise. Local +government was still left open. Lord Spencer crossed over from Ireland on +the night of June 7, and the cabinet met next day. All differences were +narrowed down to the point whether the enactments against intimidation +should be inoperative unless and until the lord lieutenant should waken +them into life by proclamation. As it happened, intimidation had been for +a considerable time upon the increase--from which it might be inferred +either, on the one side, that coercion failed in its object, or, on the +other, that more coercion was still indispensable. The precise state in +which matters were left at the eleventh hour before the crisis, now +swiftly advancing, (M78) was set out by Mr. Gladstone in a letter written +by him to the Queen in the autumn (October 5), when he was no longer her +Majesty's minister:-- + + + _To the Queen._ + + ... He has perceived that in various quarters misapprehension + prevails as to the point at which the deliberations of the late + cabinet on the question of any renewal of, or substitution for, + the Crimes Act in Ireland had arrived when their financial defeat + on the 8th of June caused the tender of their resignation. + + Mr. Gladstone prays your Majesty's gracious permission to remove + this misapprehension by simply stating that which occurred in the + cabinet at its latest meetings, with reference to this particular + question. Substantially it would be a repetition, or little more + (and without any mention of names), of his latest reports to your + Majesty, to the effect-- + + 1. That the cabinet had long before arrived at the conclusion that + the coercion clauses of the Act, properly so called, might be + safely abandoned. + + 2. With regard to the other clauses, which might be generally + described as procedure clauses, they intended as a rule to advise, + not their absolute re-enactment, but that the viceroy should be + empowered to bring them into action, together or separately, as + and when he might see cause. + + 3. But that, with respect to the intimidation or boycotting + provisions, it still remained for consideration whether they + should thus be left subject to executive discretion, or whether, + as the offence had not ceased, they should, as an effective + instrument of repression, remain in direct and full operation. + + +It is worth noticing here as a signal instance of Mr. Gladstone's +tenacious and indomitable will after his defeat, that in a communication +to the Queen four days later (June 12), he stated that the single +outstanding point of difference on the Crimes bill was probably in a fair +way of settlement, but that even if the dissent of the radical members of +the cabinet had become operative, it was his firm intention to make new +arrangements for filling the vacant offices and carrying on the +government. The overthrow came in a different way. The deliberations thus +summarised had been held under the shadow of a possibility, mentioned to +the Queen in the report of this last cabinet, of a coalition between the +tories and the Irish nationalists, in order to put an end to the existence +of the government on their budget. This cloud at last burst, though Mr. +Gladstone at any rate with his usual invincible adherence to the salutary +rule never to bid good morrow to the devil until you meet him, did not +strongly believe in the risk. The diary sheds no light on the state of his +expectations:-- + + + _June 6._... Read Amiel's _Journal Intime_. Queen's birthday + dinner, 39; went very well. Much conversation with the Prince of + Wales, who was handy and pleasant even beyond his wont. Also had + some speech of his son, who was on my left. _June 7, Trinity + Sunday._--Chapel Royal at noon and 5.30. Wrote.... Saw Lord + Granville; ditto _cum_ Kimberley. Read Amiel. Edersheim on Old + Testament. _June 8._--Wrote, etc.... Pitiless rain. Cabinet, + 2-3-3/4.... Spoke on budget. Beaten by 264:252. Adjourned the House. + This is a considerable event. + + +The amendment that led to this "considerable event" was moved by Sir +Michael Hicks Beach. The two points raised by the fatal motion were, +first, the increased duty on beer and spirits without a corresponding +increase on wine; and, second, the increase of the duty on real property +while no relief was given to rates. The fiscal issue is not material. What +was ominous was the alliance that brought about the result. + +The defeat of the Gladstone government was the first success of a +combination between tories and Irish, that proved of cardinal importance +to policies and parties for several critical months to come. By a +coincidence that cut too deep to be mere accident, divisions in the +Gladstone cabinet found their counterpart in insurrection among the tory +opposition. The same general forces of the hour, working through the +energy, ambition, and initiative of individuals, produced the same effect +in each of the two parties; the radical programme of Mr. Chamberlain was +matched by the (M79) tory democracy of Lord Randolph Churchill; each saw +that the final transfer of power from the ten-pound householder to +artisans and labourers would rouse new social demands; each was aware that +Ireland was the electoral pivot of the day, and while one of them was +wrestling with those whom he stigmatised as whigs, the other by dexterity +and resolution overthrew his leaders as "the old gang." + + + + +Chapter XII. Accession Of Lord Salisbury. (1885) + + + Politics are not a drama where scenes follow one another according + to a methodical plan, where the actors exchange forms of speech, + settled beforehand: politics are a conflict of which chance is + incessantly modifying the whole course.--SOREL. + + + +I + + +In tendering his resignation to the Queen on the day following his +parliamentary defeat (June 9), and regretting that he had been unable to +prepare her for the result, Mr. Gladstone explained that though the +government had always been able to cope with the combined tory and +nationalist oppositions, what had happened on this occasion was the silent +withdrawal, under the pressure of powerful trades, from the government +ranks of liberals who abstained from voting, while six or seven actually +voted with the majority. "There was no previous notice," he said, "and it +was immediately before the division that Mr. Gladstone was apprised for +the first time of the likelihood of a defeat." The suspicions hinted that +ministers, or at least some of them, unobtrusively contrived their own +fall. Their supporters, it was afterwards remarked, received none of those +imperative adjurations to return after dinner that are usual on solemn +occasions; else there could never have been seventy-six absentees. The +majority was composed of members of the tory party, six liberals, and +thirty-nine nationalists. Loud was the exultation of the latter contingent +at the prostration of the coercion system. What was natural exultation in +them, may have taken the form of modest satisfaction among many liberals, +that they could go to the country without the obnoxious label of coercion +tied round their necks. As for ministers, it was observed that if in the +streets you saw a man coming along with a particularly elastic step and a +joyful frame of (M80) countenance, ten to one on coming closer you would +find that it was a member of the late cabinet.(124) + +The ministerial crisis of 1885 was unusually prolonged, and it was +curious. The victory had been won by a coalition with the Irish; its +fruits could only be reaped with Irish support; and Irish support was to +the tory victors both dangerous and compromising. The normal process of a +dissolution was thought to be legally impossible, because by the +redistribution bill the existing constituencies were for the most part +radically changed; and a new parliament chosen on the old system of seats +and franchise, even if it were legally possible, would still be empty of +all semblance of moral authority. Under these circumstances, some in the +tory party argued that instead of taking office, it would be far better +for them to force Mr. Gladstone and his cabinet to come back, and leave +them to get rid of their internal differences and their Irish +embarrassments as they best could. Events were soon to demonstrate the +prudence of these wary counsels. On the other hand, the bulk of the tory +party like the bulk of any other party was keen for power, because power +is the visible symbol of triumph over opponents, and to shrink from office +would discourage their friends in the country in the electoral conflict +now rapidly approaching. + +The Queen meanwhile was surprised (June 10) that Mr. Gladstone should make +his defeat a vital question, and asked whether, in case Lord Salisbury +should be unwilling to form a government, the cabinet would remain. To +this Mr. Gladstone replied that to treat otherwise an attack on the +budget, made by an ex-cabinet minister with such breadth of front and +after all the previous occurrences of the session, would be contrary to +every precedent,--for instance, the notable case of December 1852,--and it +would undoubtedly tend to weaken and lower parliamentary government.(125) +If an opposition defeated a government, they must be prepared to accept +the responsibility of their action. As to the second question, he answered +that a refusal by Lord Salisbury would obviously change the situation. On +this, the Queen accepted the resignations (June 11), and summoned Lord +Salisbury to Balmoral. The resignations were announced to parliament the +next day. Remarks were made at the time, indeed by the Queen herself, at +the failure of Mr. Gladstone to seek the royal presence. Mr. Gladstone's +explanation was that, viewing "the probably long reach of Lord +Hartington's life into the future," he thought that he would be more +useful in conversation with her Majesty than "one whose ideas might be +unconsciously coloured by the limited range of the prospect before him," +and Lord Hartington prepared to comply with the request that he should +repair to Balmoral. The visit was eventually not thought necessary by the +Queen. + +In his first audience Lord Salisbury stated that though he and his friends +were not desirous of taking office, he was ready to form a government; but +in view of the difficulties in which a government formed by him would +stand, confronted by a hostile majority and unable to dissolve, he +recommended that Mr. Gladstone should be invited to reconsider his +resignation. Mr. Gladstone, however (June 13), regarded the situation and +the chain of facts that had led up to it, as being so definite, when +coupled with the readiness of Lord Salisbury to undertake an +administration, that it would be a mere waste of valuable time for him to +consult his colleagues as to the resumption of office. Then Lord Salisbury +sought assurances of Mr. Gladstone's support, as to finance, parliamentary +time, and other points in the working of executive government. These +assurances neither Mr. Gladstone's own temperament, nor the humour of his +friends and his party--for the embers of the quarrel with the Lords upon +the franchise bill were still hot--allowed him to give, and he founded +himself on the precedent of the communications of December 1845 between +Peel and Russell. In this default of assurances, Lord Salisbury thought +that he should render the Queen no useful service by taking office. So +concluded the first stage. + +(M81) Though declining specific pledges, Mr. Gladstone now wrote to the +Queen (June 17) that in the conduct of the necessary business of the +country, he believed there would be no disposition to embarrass her +ministers. Lord Salisbury, however, and his colleagues were unanimous in +thinking this general language insufficient. The interregnum continued. On +the day following (June 18), Mr. Gladstone had an audience at Windsor, +whither the Queen had now returned. It lasted over three-quarters of an +hour. "The Queen was most gracious and I thought most reasonable." +(_Diary._) He put down in her presence some heads of a memorandum to +assist her recollection, and the one to which she rightly attached most +value was this: "In my opinion," Mr. Gladstone wrote, "the whole value of +any such declaration as at the present circumstances permit, really +depends upon the spirit in which it is given and taken. For myself and any +friend of mine, I can only say that the spirit in which we should +endeavour to interpret and apply the declaration I have made, would be the +same spirit in which we entered upon the recent conferences concerning the +Seats bill." To this declaration his colleagues on his return to London +gave their entire and marked approval, but they would not compromise the +liberty of the House of Commons by further and particular pledges. + +It was sometimes charged against Mr. Gladstone that he neglected his duty +to the crown, and abandoned the Queen in a difficulty. This is wholly +untrue. On June 20, Sir Henry Ponsonby called and opened one or two +aspects of the position, among them these:-- + + + 1. Can the Queen do anything more? + + I answered, As you ask me, it occurs to me that it might help Lord + Salisbury's going on, were she to make reference to No. 2 of my + memorandum [the paragraph just quoted], and to say that in her + judgment he would be safe in receiving it in a spirit of trust. + + 2. If Lord Salisbury fails, may the Queen rely on you? + + I answered that on a previous day I had said that if S. failed, + the situation would be altered. I hoped, and on the whole thought, + he would go on. But if he did not? I could not promise or expect + smooth water. The movement of questions such as the Crimes Act and + Irish Local Government might be accelerated. But my desire would + be to do my best to prevent the Queen being left without a + government.(126) + + +Mr. Gladstone's view of the position is lucidly stated in the following +memorandum, like the others, in his own hand, (June 21):-- + + + 1. I have endeavoured in my letters (_a_) to avoid all + controversial matter; (_b_) to consider not what the incoming + ministers had a right to ask, but what it was possible for us in a + spirit of conciliation to give. + + 2. In our opinion there was no right to demand from us anything + whatever. The declarations we have made represent an extreme of + concession. The conditions required, _e.g._ the first of them + [control of time], place in abeyance the liberties of parliament, + by leaving it solely and absolutely in the power of the ministers + to determine on what legislative or other questions (except + supply) it shall be permitted to give a judgment. The House of + Commons may and ought to be disposed to facilitate the progress of + all necessary business by all reasonable means as to supply and + otherwise, but would deeply resent any act of ours by which we + agreed beforehand to the extinction of its discretion. + + The difficulties pleaded by Lord Salisbury were all in view when + his political friend, Sir M. H. Beach, made the motion which, as + we apprised him, would if carried eject us from office, and are + simply the direct consequences of their own action. If it be true + that Lord Salisbury loses the legal power to advise and the crown + to grant a dissolution, that cannot be a reason for leaving in the + hands of the executive an absolute power to stop the action + (except as to supply) of the legislative and corrective power of + the House of Commons. At the same time these conditions do not + appear to me to attain the end proposed by Lord Salisbury, for it + would still be left in the power of the House to refuse supplies, + and thereby to bring about in its worst form the difficulty which + he apprehends. + + +It looked for a couple of days as if he would be compelled (M82) to +return, even though it would almost certainly lead to disruption of the +liberal cabinet and party.(127) The Queen, acting apparently on Mr. +Gladstone's suggestion of June 20, was ready to express her confidence in +Mr. Gladstone's assurance that there would be no disposition on the part +of himself or his friends to embarrass new ministers. By this expression +of confidence, the Queen would thus make herself in some degree +responsible as it were for the action of the members of the defeated +Gladstone government in the two Houses. Still Lord Salisbury's +difficulties--and some difficulties are believed to have arisen pretty +acutely within the interior conclaves of his own party--remained for +forty-eight hours insuperable. His retreat to Hatfield was taken to mark a +second stage in the interregnum. + +June 22 is set down in the diary as "a day of much stir and vicissitude." +Mr. Gladstone received no fewer than six visits during the day from Sir +Henry Ponsonby, whose activity, judgment, and tact in these duties of +infinite delicacy were afterwards commemorated by Lord Granville in the +House of Lords.(128) He brought up from Windsor the draft of a letter that +might be written by the Queen to Lord Salisbury, testifying to her belief +in the sincerity and loyalty of Mr. Gladstone's words. Sir Henry showed +the draft to Mr. Gladstone, who said that he could not be party to certain +passages in it, though willing to agree to the rest. The draft so altered +was submitted to Lord Salisbury; he demanded modification, placing a more +definite interpretation on the words of Mr. Gladstone's previous letters +to the Queen. Mr. Gladstone was immovable throughout the day in declining +to admit any modifications in the sense desired; nor would he consent to +be privy to any construction or interpretation placed upon his words which +Lord Salisbury, with no less tenacity than his own, desired to extend. + + + At 5.40 [June 22] Sir H. Ponsonby returned for a fifth interview, + his infinite patience not yet exhausted.... He said the Queen + believed the late government did not wish to come back. I simply + reminded him of my previous replies, which, he remembered, nearly + as follows:--That if Lord Salisbury failed, the situation would be + altered. That I could not in such a case promise her Majesty + smooth water. That, however, a great duty in such circumstances + lay upon any one holding my situation, to use his best efforts so + as, _quoad_ what depended upon him, not to leave the Queen without + a government. I think he will now go to Windsor.--_June 22, '85_, 6 + P.M. + + +The next day (June 23), the Queen sent on to Lord Salisbury the letter +written by Mr. Gladstone on June 21, containing his opinion that +facilities of supply might reasonably be provided, without placing the +liberties of the House of Commons in abeyance, and further, his +declaration that he felt sure there was no idea of withholding ways and +means, and that there was no danger to be apprehended on that score. In +forwarding this letter, the Queen expressed to Lord Salisbury her earnest +desire to bring to a close a crisis calculated to endanger the best +interests of the state; and she felt no hesitation in further +communicating to Lord Salisbury her opinion that he might reasonably +accept Mr. Gladstone's assurances. In deference to these representations +from the Queen, Lord Salisbury felt it his duty to take office, the crisis +ended, and the tory party entered on the first portion of a term of power +that was destined, with two rather brief interruptions, to be prolonged +for many years.(129) In reviewing this interesting episode in the annals +of the party system, it is impossible not to observe the dignity in form, +the patriotism in substance, the common-sense in result, that marked the +proceedings alike of the sovereign and of her two ministers. + + + +II + + +After accepting Mr. Gladstone's resignation the Queen, on June 13, +proffered him a peerage:-- + + + _The Queen to Mr. Gladstone._ + + Mr. Gladstone mentioned in his last letter but one, his intention + of proposing some honours. But before she considers these, she + wishes to offer him an Earldom, as a mark of her recognition of + his long and distinguished services, and she believes and thinks + he will thereby be enabled still to render great service to his + sovereign and country--which if he retired, as he has repeatedly + told her of late he intended to do shortly,--he could not. The + country would doubtless be pleased at any signal mark of + recognition of Mr. Gladstone's long and eminent services, and the + Queen believes that it would be beneficial to his health,--no + longer exposing him to the pressure from without, for more active + work than he ought to undertake. Only the other day--without + reference to the present events--the Queen mentioned to Mrs. + Gladstone at Windsor the advantage to Mr. Gladstone's health of a + removal from one House to the other, in which she seemed to agree. + The Queen trusts, therefore, that Mr. Gladstone will accept the + offer of an earldom, which would be very gratifying to her. + + +The outgoing minister replied on the following day:-- + + + Mr. Gladstone offers his humble apology to your Majesty. It would + not be easy for him to describe the feelings with which he has + read your Majesty's generous, most generous letter. He prizes + every word of it, for he is fully alive to all the circumstances + which give it value. It will be a precious possession to him and + to his children after him. All that could recommend an earldom to + him, it already has given him. He remains, however, of the belief + that he ought not to avail himself of this most gracious offer. + Any service that he can render, if small, will, however, be + greater in the House of Commons than in the House of Lords; and it + has never formed part of his views to enter that historic chamber, + although he does not share the feeling which led Sir R. Peel to + put upon record what seemed a perpetual or almost a perpetual + self-denying ordinance for his family. + + When the circumstances of the state cease, as he hopes they may + ere long, to impose on him any special duty, he will greatly covet + that interval between an active career and death, which the + profession of politics has always appeared to him especially to + require. There are circumstances connected with the position of + his family, which he will not obtrude upon your Majesty, but + which, as he conceives, recommend in point of prudence the + personal intention from which he has never swerved. He might + hesitate to act upon the motives to which he has last adverted, + grave as they are, did he not feel rooted in the persuasion that + the small good he may hope hereafter to effect, can best be + prosecuted without the change in his position. He must beg your + Majesty to supply all that is lacking in his expression from the + heart of profound and lasting gratitude. + + +To Lord Granville, the nearest of his friends, he wrote on the same day:-- + + + I send you herewith a letter from the Queen which moves and almost + upsets me. It must have cost her much to write, and it is really a + pearl of great price. Such a letter makes the subject of it + secondary--but though it would take me long to set out my reasons, + I remain firm in the intention to accept nothing for myself. + + +Lord Granville replied that he was not surprised at the decision. "I +should have greatly welcomed you," he said, "and under some circumstances +it might be desirable, but I think you are right now." + +Here is Mr. Gladstone's letter to an invaluable occupant of the +all-important office of private secretary:-- + + + _To Mr. E. W. Hamilton._ + + _June 30, 1885._--Since you have in substance (and in form?) + received the appointment [at the Treasury], I am unmuzzled, and + may now express the unbounded pleasure which it gives me, together + with my strong sense (not disparaging any one else) of your + desert. The modesty of your letter is as remarkable as its other + qualities, and does you the highest honour. I can accept no + tribute from you, or from any one, with regard to the office of + private secretary under me except this, that it has always been + made by me a strict and severe office, and that this is really the + only favour I have ever done you, or any of your colleagues to + whom in their several places and measures I am similarly obliged. + + As to your services to me they have been simply indescribable. No + one I think could dream, until by experience he knew, to what an + extent in these close personal relations devolution can be + carried, and how it strengthens the feeble knees and thus also + sustains the fainting heart. + + + +III + + +The declaration of the Irish policy of the new government was made to +parliament by no less a personage than the lord-lieutenant.(130) The prime +minister had discoursed on frontiers in Asia and frontiers in Africa, but +on Ireland he was silent. Lord Carnarvon, on the contrary, came forward +voluntarily with a statement of policy, and he opened it on the broadest +general lines. His speech deserves as close attention as any deliverance +of this memorable period. It laid down the principles of that alternative +system of government, with which the new ministers formally challenged +their predecessors. Ought the Crimes Act to be re-enacted as it stood; or +in part; or ought it to be allowed to lapse? These were the three courses. +Nobody, he thought, would be for the first, because some provisions had +never been put in force; others had been put in force but found useless; +and others again did nothing that might not be done just as well under the +ordinary law. The re-enactment of the whole statute, therefore, was +dismissed. But the powers for changing venue at the discretion of the +executive; for securing special juries at the same discretion; for holding +secret inquiry without an accused person; for dealing summarily with +charges of intimidation--might they not be continued? They were not +unconstitutional, and they were not opposed to legal instincts. No, all +quite true; but then the Lords should not conceal from themselves that +their re-enactment would be in the nature of special or exceptional +legislation. He had been looking through coercion Acts, he continued, and +had been astonished to find that ever since 1847, with some very short +intervals hardly worth mentioning, Ireland had lived under exceptional and +coercive legislation. What sane man could admit this to be a satisfactory +or a wholesome state of things? Why should not they try to extricate +themselves from this miserable habit, and aim at some better solution? +"Just as I have seen in English colonies across the sea a combination of +English, Irish, and Scotch settlers bound together in loyal obedience to +the law and the crown, and contributing to the general prosperity of the +country, so I cannot conceive that there is any irreconcilable bar here in +their native home and in England to the unity and the amity of the two +nations." He went to his task individually with a perfectly free, open, +and unprejudiced mind, to hear, to question, and, as far as might be, to +understand. "My Lords, I do not believe that with honesty and +single-mindedness of purpose on the one side, and with the willingness of +the Irish people on the other, it is hopeless to look for some +satisfactory solution of this terrible question. My Lords, these I believe +to be the opinions and the views of my colleagues."(131) + +This remarkable announcement, made in the presence of the prime minister, +in the name of the cabinet as a whole, and by a man of known purity and +sincerity of character, was taken to be an express renunciation, not +merely of the policy of which notice had been given by the outgoing +administration, but of coercion as a final instrument of imperial rule. It +was an elaborate repudiation in advance of that panacea of firm and +resolute government, which became so famous before twelve months were +over. It was the suggestion, almost in terms, that a solution should be +sought in that policy which had brought union both within our colonies, +and between the colonies and the mother country, and men did not forget +that this suggestion was being made by a statesman who had carried +federation in Canada, and tried to carry it in South Africa. We cannot +wonder that upon leading members of the late government, and especially +upon the statesman who had been specially responsible for Ireland, the +impression was startling and profound. Important members of the tory party +hurried (M83) from Ireland to Arlington Street, and earnestly warned their +leader that he would never be able to carry on with the ordinary law. They +were coldly informed that Lord Salisbury had received quite different +counsel from persons well acquainted with the country. + +The new government were not content with renouncing coercion for the +present. They cast off all responsibility for its practice in the past. +Ostentatiously they threw overboard the viceroy with whom the only fault +that they had hitherto found, was that his sword was not sharp enough. A +motion was made by the Irish leader calling attention to the +maladministration of the criminal law by Lord Spencer. Forty men had been +condemned to death, and in twenty-one of these cases the capital sentence +had been carried out. Of the twenty-one executions six were savagely +impugned, and Mr. Parnell's motion called for a strict inquiry into these +and some other convictions, with a view to the full discovery of truth and +the relief of innocent persons. The debate soon became famous from the +principal case adduced, as the Maamtrasna debate. The topic had been so +copiously discussed as to occupy three full sittings of the House in the +previous October. The lawyer who had just been made Irish chancellor, at +that time pronounced against the demand. In substance the new government +made no fresh concession. They said that if memorials or statements were +laid before him, the viceroy would carefully attend to them. No minister +could say less. But incidental remarks fell from the government that +created lively alarm in tories and deep disgust in liberals. Sir Michael +Hicks Beach, then leader of the House, told them that while believing Lord +Spencer to be a man of perfect honour and sense of duty, "he must say very +frankly that there was much in the Irish policy of the late government +which, though in the absence of complete information he did not condemn, +he should be very sorry to make himself responsible for."(132) An even +more important minister emphasised the severance of the new policy from +the old. "I will tell you," cried Lord Randolph Churchill, "how the +present government is foredoomed to failure. They will be foredoomed to +failure if they go out of their way unnecessarily to assume one jot or +tittle of the responsibility for the acts of the late administration. It +is only by divesting ourselves of all responsibility for the acts of the +late government, that we can hope to arrive at a successful issue."(133) + +Tory members got up in angry fright, to denounce this practical +acquiescence by the heads of their party in what was a violent Irish +attack not only upon the late viceroy, but upon Irish judges, juries, and +law officers. They remonstrated against "the pusillanimous way" in which +their two leaders had thrown over Lord Spencer. "During the last three +years," said one of these protesting tories, "Lord Spencer has upheld +respect for law at the risk of his life from day to day, with the +sanction, with the approval, and with the acknowledgment inside and +outside of this House, of the country, and especially of the conservative +party. Therefore I for one will not consent to be dragged into any +implied, however slight, condemnation of Lord Spencer, because it happens +to suit the exigencies of party warfare."(134) This whole transaction +disgusted plain men, tory and liberal alike; it puzzled calculating men; +and it had much to do with the silent conversion of important and leading +men. + +The general sentiment about the outgoing viceroy took the form of a +banquet in his honour (July 24), and some three hundred members of the two +Houses attended, including Lord Hartington, who presided, and Mr. Bright. +The two younger leaders of the radical wing who had been in the late +cabinet neither signed the invitation nor were present. But on the same +evening in another place, Mr. Chamberlain recognised the high qualities +and great services of Lord Spencer, though they had not always agreed upon +details. He expressed, however, his approval both of the policy and of the +arguments which had led the new government to drop the Crimes Act. At the +same time he denounced the "astounding tergiversation" of ministers, and +energetically declared that "a strategic movement of that kind, executed +in opposition to the notorious convictions of the men who effected it, +carried out for party purposes and party purposes alone, is the most +flagrant instance of political dishonesty this country has ever known." +(M84) Lord Hartington a few weeks later told his constituents that the +conduct of the government, in regard to Ireland, had dealt a heavy blow +"both at political morality, and at the cause of order in Ireland." The +severity of such judgments from these two weighty statesmen testifies to +the grave importance of the new departure. + +The enormous change arising from the line adopted by the government was +visible enough even to men of less keen vision than Mr. Gladstone, and it +was promptly indicated by him in a few sentences in a letter to Lord Derby +on the very day of the Maamtrasna debate:-- + + + Within the last two or three weeks, he wrote, the situation has + undergone important changes. I am not fully informed, but what I + know looks as if the Irish party so-called in parliament, excited + by the high biddings of Lord Randolph, had changed what was + undoubtedly Parnell's ground until within a very short time back. + It is now said that a central board will not suffice, and that + there must be a parliament. This I suppose may mean the repeal of + the Act of Union, or may mean an Austro-Hungarian scheme, or may + mean that Ireland is to be like a great colony such as Canada. Of + all or any of these schemes I will now only say that, of course, + they constitute an entirely new point of departure and raise + questions of an order totally different to any that are involved + in a central board appointed for local purposes. + + +Lord Derby recording his first impressions in reply (July 19) took the +rather conventional objection made to most schemes on all subjects, that +it either went too far or did not go far enough. Local government he +understood, and home rule he understood, but a quasi-parliament in Dublin, +not calling itself such though invested with most of the authority of a +parliament, seemed to him to lead to the demand for fuller recognition. If +we were forced, he said, to move beyond local government as commonly +understood, he would rather have Ireland treated like Canada. "But the +difficulties every way are enormous." On this Mr. Gladstone wrote a little +later to Lord Granville (Aug. 6):-- + + + As far as I can learn, both you and Derby are on the same lines as + Parnell, in rejecting the smaller and repudiating the larger + scheme. It would not surprise me if he were to formulate something + on the subject. For my own part I have seen my way pretty well as + to the particulars of the minor and rejected plan, but the idea of + the wider one puzzles me much. At the same time, _if_ the election + gives a return of a decisive character, the sooner the subject is + dealt with the better. + + +So little true is it to say that Mr. Gladstone only thought of the +possibility of Irish autonomy after the election. + + + +IV + + +Apart from public and party cares, the bodily machinery gave trouble, and +the fine organ that had served him so nobly for so long showed serious +signs of disorder. + + + _To Lord Richard Grosvenor._ + + _July 14._--After two partial examinations, a thorough examination + of my throat (larynx _versus_ pharynx) has been made to-day by Dr. + Semon in the presence of Sir A. Clark, and the result is rather + bigger than I had expected. It is, that I have a fair chance of + real recovery provided I keep silent almost like a Trappist, but + all treatment would be nugatory without this rest; that the other + alternative is nothing dangerous, but merely the constant passage + of the organ from bad to worse. He asked what demands the H. of C. + would make on me. I answered about three speeches of about five + minutes each, but he was not satisfied and wished me to get rid of + it altogether, which I must do, perhaps saying instead a word by + letter to some friend. Much time has almost of necessity been + lost, but I must be rigid for the future, and even then I shall be + well satisfied if I get back before winter to a natural use of the + voice in conversation. This imports a considerable change in the + course of my daily life. Here it is difficult to organise it + afresh. At Hawarden I can easily do it, but there I am at a + distance from the best aid. I am disposed to "_top up_," with a + sea voyage, but this is No. 3--Nos. 1 and 2 being rest and then + treatment. + + +The sea voyage that was to "top up" the rest of the treatment began on +August 8, when the Gladstones became the guests of Sir Thomas and Lady +Brassey on the _Sunbeam_. They sailed from Greenhithe to Norway, and after +a three weeks' cruise, were set ashore at Fort George on September 1. Mr. +Gladstone made an excellent tourist; was full of interest in all he saw; +and, I dare say, drew some pleasure from the demonstrations of curiosity +and admiration that attended his presence from the simple population +wherever he moved. Long expeditions with much climbing and scrambling were +his delight, and he let nothing beat him. One of these excursions, the +ascent to the Voeringfos, seems to deserve a word of commemoration, in the +interest either of physiology or of philosophic musings after Cicero's +manner upon old age. "I am not sure," says Lady Brassey in her most +agreeable diary of the cruise,(135) "that the descent did not seem rougher +and longer than our journey up had been, although, as a matter of fact, we +got over the ground much more quickly. As we crossed the green pastures on +the level ground near the village of Saeboe we met several people taking +their evening stroll, and also a tourist apparently on his way up to spend +the night near the Voeringfos. The wind had gone down since the morning, +and we crossed the little lake with fair rapidity, admiring as we went the +glorious effects of the setting sun upon the tops of the precipitous +mountains, and the wonderful echo which was aroused for our benefit by the +boatmen. An extremely jolty drive, in springless country carts, soon +brought us to the little inn at Vik, and by half-past eight we were once +more on board the _Sunbeam_, exactly ten hours after setting out upon our +expedition, which had included a ride or walk, as the case might be, of +eighteen miles, independently of the journey by boat and cart--a hardish +day's work for any one, but really a wonderful undertaking for a man of +seventy-five, who disdained all proffered help, and insisted on walking +the whole distance. No one who saw Mr. Gladstone that evening at dinner in +the highest spirits, and discussing subjects both grave and gay with the +greatest animation, could fail to admire his marvellous pluck and energy, +or, knowing what he had shown himself capable of doing in the way of +physical exertion, could feel much anxiety on the score of the failure of +his strength." + +He was touched by a visit from the son of an old farmer, who brought him +as an offering from his father to Mr. Gladstone a curiously carved +Norwegian bowl three hundred years old, with two horse-head handles. +Strolling about Aalesund, he was astonished to find in the bookshop of the +place a Norse translation of Mill's _Logic_. He was closely observant of +all religious services whenever he had the chance, and noticed that at +Laurvig all the tombstones had prayers for the dead. He read perhaps a +little less voraciously than usual, and on one or two days, being unable +to read, he "meditated and reviewed"--always, I think, from the same point +of view--the point of view of Bunyan's _Grace Abounding_, or his own +letters to his father half a century before. Not seldom a vision of the +coming elections flitted before the mind's eye, and he made notes for what +he calls an _abbozzo_ or sketch of his address to Midlothian. + + + + + +BOOK IX. 1885-1886 + + + + +Chapter I. Leadership And The General Election. (1885) + + + Our understanding of history is spoiled by our knowledge of the + event.--HELPS. + + + +I + + +Mr. Gladstone came back from his cruise in the _Sunbeam_ at the beginning +of September; leaving the yacht at Fort George and proceeding to Fasque to +celebrate his elder brother's golden wedding. From Fasque he wrote to Lord +Hartington (Sept. 3): "I have returned to terra firma extremely well in +general health, and with a better throat; in full expectation of having to +consider anxious and doubtful matters, and now finding them rather more +anxious and doubtful than I had anticipated. As yet I am free to take a +share or not in the coming political issues, and I must weigh many things +before finally surrendering this freedom." His first business, he wrote to +Sir W. Harcourt (Sept. 12), was to throw his thoughts into order for an +address to his constituents, framed only for the dissolution, and "written +with my best care to avoid treading on the toes of either the right or the +left wing." He had communicated, he said, with Granville, Hartington, and +Chamberlain; by both of the two latter he had been a good deal buffeted; +and having explained the general idea with which he proposed to write, he +asked each of the pair whether upon the whole their wish was that he +should go on or cut out. "To this question I have not yet got a clear +affirmative answer from either of them." + +"The subject of Ireland," he told Lord Hartington, "has perplexed me much +even on the North Sea," and he expressed some regret that in a recent +speech his correspondent had felt it necessary at this early period to +join issue in so pointed a manner with Mr. Parnell and his party. +Parnell's speech was, no doubt, he said, "as bad as bad could be, and +admitted of only one answer. But the whole question of the position which +Ireland will assume after the general election is so new, so difficult, +and as yet, I think, so little understood, that it seems most important to +reserve until the proper time all possible liberty of examining it." + +The address to his electors, of which he had begun to think on board the +_Sunbeam_, was given to the public on September 17. It was, as he said, as +long as a pamphlet, and a considerable number of politicians doubtless +passed judgment upon it without reading it through. The whigs, we are +told, found it vague, the radicals cautious, the tories crafty; but +everybody admitted that it tended to heal feuds. Mr. Goschen praised it, +and Mr. Chamberlain, though raising his own flag, was respectful to his +leader's manifesto.(136) + +The surface was thus stilled for the moment, yet the waters ran very deep. +What were "the anxious and doubtful matters," what "the coming political +issues," of which Mr. Gladstone had written to Lord Hartington? They were, +in a word, twofold: to prevent the right wing from breaking with the left; +and second, to make ready for an Irish crisis, which as he knew could not +be averted. These were the two keys to all his thoughts, words, and deeds +during the important autumn of 1885--an Irish crisis, a solid party. He was +not the first great parliamentary leader whose course lay between two +impossibilities. + +All his letters during the interval between his return from the cruise in +the _Sunbeam_ and the close of the general election disclose with perfect +clearness the channels in which events and his judgment upon them were +moving. Whigs and radicals alike looked to him, and across him fought +their battle. The Duke of Argyll, for example, (M85) taking advantage of a +lifelong friendship to deal faithfully with him, warned him that the long +fight with "Beaconsfieldism" had thrown him into antagonism with many +political conceptions and sympathies that once had a steady hold upon him. +Yet they had certainly no less value and truth than they ever had, and +perhaps were more needed than ever in face of the present chaos of +opinion. To this Mr. Gladstone replied at length:-- + + + _To the Duke of Argyll._ + + _Sept. 30, 1885._--I am very sensible of your kind and sympathetic + tone, and of your indulgent verdict upon my address. It was + written with a view to the election, and as a practical document, + aiming at the union of all, it propounds for immediate action what + all are supposed to be agreed on. This is necessarily somewhat + favourable to the moderate section of the liberal party. You will + feel that it would not have been quite fair to the advanced men to + add some special reproof to them. And reproof, if I had presumed + upon it, would have been two-sided. Now as to your suggestion that + I should say something in public to indicate that I am not too + sanguine as to the future. If I am unable to go in this + direction--and something I may do--it is not from want of sympathy + with much that you say. But my first and great cause of anxiety + is, believe me, the condition of the tory party. As at present + constituted, or at any rate moved, it is destitute of all the + effective qualities of a respectable conservatism.... For their + administrative spirit I point to the Beaconsfield finance. For + their foreign policy they have invented Jingoism, and at the same + time by their conduct _re_ Lord Spencer and the Irish + nationalists, they have thrown over--and they formed their + government only by means of throwing over--those principles of + executive order and caution which have hitherto been common to all + governments.... + + There are other chapters which I have not time to open. I deeply + deplore the oblivion into which public economy has fallen; the + prevailing disposition to make a luxury of panics, which + multitudes seem to enjoy as they would a sensational novel or a + highly seasoned cookery; and the leaning of both parties to + socialism, which I radically disapprove. I must lastly mention + among my causes of dissatisfaction the conduct of the timid or + reactionary whigs. They make it day by day more difficult to + maintain that most valuable characteristic of our history, which + has always exhibited a good proportion of our great houses at the + head of the liberal movement. If you have ever noted of late years + a too sanguine and high-coloured anticipation of our future, I + should like to be reminded of it. I remain, and I hope always to + be, your affectionate friend. + + +The correspondence with Lord Granville sets out more clearly than anything +else could do Mr. Gladstone's general view of the situation of the party +and his own relation to it, and the operative words in this +correspondence, in view of the maelstrom to which they were all drawing +nearer, will be accurately noted by any reader who cares to understand one +of the most interesting situations in the history of party. To Lord +Granville he says (September 9, 1885), "The problem for me is to make if +possible a statement which will hold through the election and not to go +into conflict with either the right wing of the party for whom Hartington +has spoken, or the left wing for whom Chamberlain, I suppose, spoke last +night. I do not say they are to be treated as on a footing, but I must do +no act disparaging to Chamberlain's wing." And again to Lord Granville a +month later (Oct. 5):-- + + + You hold a position of great impartiality in relation to any + divergent opinions among members of the late cabinet. No other + person occupies ground so thoroughly favourable. I turn to myself + for one moment. I remain at present in the leadership of the + party, first with a view to the election, and secondly with a view + to being, by a bare possibility, of use afterwards in the Irish + question if it should take a favourable turn; but as you know, + with the intention of taking no part in any schism of the party + should it arise, and of avoiding any and all official + responsibility, should the question be merely one of liberal _v._ + conservative and not one of commanding imperial necessity, such as + that of Irish government may come to be after the dissolution. + + +He goes on to say that the ground had now been sufficiently laid for going +to the election with a united front, that ground being the common +profession of a limited creed (M86) or programme in the liberal sense, +with an entire freedom for those so inclined, to travel beyond it, but not +to impose their own sense upon all other people. No one, he thought, was +bound to determine at that moment on what conditions he would join a +liberal government. If the party and its leaders were agreed as to +immediate measures on local government, land, and registration, were not +these enough to find a liberal administration plenty of work, especially +with procedure, for several years? If so, did they not supply a ground +broad enough to start a government, that would hold over, until the proper +time should come, all the questions on which its members might not be +agreed, just as the government of Lord Grey held over, from 1830 to 1834, +the question whether Irish church property might or might not be applied +to secular uses? + +As for himself, in the event of such a government being formed (of which I +suppose Lord Granville was to be the head), "My desire would be," he says, +"to place myself in your hands for all purposes, except that of taking +office; to be present or absent from the House, and to be absent for a +time or for good, as you might on consultation and reflection think best." +In other words Mr. Gladstone would take office to try to settle the Irish +question, but for nothing else. Lord Granville held to the view that this +was fatal to the chances of a liberal government. No liberal cabinet could +be constructed unless Mr. Gladstone were at its head. The indispensable +chief, however, remained obdurate. + +An advance was made at this moment in the development of a peculiar +situation by important conversations with Mr. Chamberlain. Two days later +the redoubtable leader of the left wing came to Hawarden for a couple of +days, and Mr. Gladstone wrote an extremely interesting account of what +passed to Lord Granville:(137)-- + + + _To Lord Granville._ + + _Hawarden, Oct. 8, 1885._--Chamberlain came here yesterday and I + have had a great deal of conversation with him. He is a good man + to talk to, not only from his force and clearness, but because he + speaks with reflection, does not misapprehend or (I think) + suspect, or make unnecessary difficulties, or endeavour to + maintain pedantically the uniformity and consistency of his + argument throughout. + + As to the three points of which he was understood to say that they + were indispensable to the starting of a liberal government, I + gather that they stand as follows:-- + + 1. As to the authority of local authorities for compulsory + expropriation.(138) To this he adheres; though I have said I could + not see the justification for withholding countenance from the + formation of a government with considerable and intelligible plans + in view, because it would not at the first moment bind all its + members to this doctrine. He intimates, however, that the form + would be simple, the application of the principle mild; that he + does not expect wide results from it, and that Hartington, he + conceives, is not disposed wholly to object to everything of the + kind. + + 2. As regards readjustment of taxation, he is contented with the + terms of my address, and indisposed to make any new terms. + + 3. As regards free education, he does not ask that its principle + be adopted as part of the creed of a new cabinet. He said it would + be necessary to reserve his right individually to vote for it. I + urged that he and the new school of advanced liberals were not + sufficiently alive to the necessity of refraining when in + government from declaring by _vote_ all their individual opinions; + that a vote founded upon time, and the engagements of the House at + the moment with other indispensable business, would imply no + disparagement to the principle, which might even be expressly + saved ("without prejudice") by an amending resolution; that he + could hardly carry this point to the rank of a _sine qua non_. He + said,--That the sense of the country might bind the liberal + majority (presuming it to exist) to declare its opinion, even + though unable to give effect to it at the moment; that he looked + to a single declaration, not to the sustained support of a + measure; and he seemed to allow that if the liberal sense were so + far divided as not to show a unanimous front, in that case it + might be a question whether some plan other than, and short of, a + direct vote might be pursued.(139) + + The question of the House of Lords and disestablishment he regards + as still lying in the remoter distance. + + All these subjects I separated entirely from the question of + Ireland, on which I may add that he and I are pretty well agreed; + unless upon a secondary point, namely, whether Parnell would be + satisfied to acquiesce in a County Government bill, good so far as + it went, maintaining on other matters his present general + attitude.(140) We agreed, I think, that a prolongation of the + present relations of the Irish party would be a national disgrace, + and the civilised world would scoff at the political genius of + countries which could not contrive so far to understand one + another as to bring their differences to an accommodation. + + All through Chamberlain spoke of reducing to an absolute minimum + his idea of necessary conditions, and this conversation so far + left untouched the question of men, he apparently assuming + (wrongly) that I was ready for another three or four years' + engagement. + + _Hawarden, Oct. 8, 1885._--In another "private," but less private + letter, I have touched on measures, and I have now to say what + passed in relation to men. + + He said the outline he had given depended on the supposition of my + being at the head of the government. He did not say he could + adhere to it on no other terms, but appeared to stipulate for a + new point of departure. + + I told him the question of my time of life had become such, that + in any case prudence bound him, and all who have a future, to + think of what is to follow me. That if a big Irish question should + arise, and arise in such a form as to promise a possibility of + settlement, that would be a crisis with a beginning and an end, + and perhaps one in which from age and circumstances I might be + able to supply aid and service such as could not be exactly had + without me.(141) Apart from an imperious demand of this kind the + question would be that of dealing with land laws, with local + government, and other matters, on which I could render _no_ + special service, and which would require me to enter into a new + contest for several years, a demand that ought not to be made, and + one to which I could not accede. I did not think the adjustment of + personal relations, or the ordinary exigencies of party, + constituted a call upon me to continue my long life in a course of + constant pressure and constant contention with half my + fellow-countrymen, until nothing remained but to step into the + grave. + + He agreed that the House of Lords was not an available resort. He + thought I might continue at the head of the government, and leave + the work of legislation to others.(142) I told him that all my + life long I had had an essential and considerable share in the + legislative work of government, and to abandon it would be an + essential change, which the situation would not bear. + + He spoke of the constant conflicts of opinion with Hartington in + the late cabinet, but I reverted to the time when Hartington used + to summon and lead meetings of the leading commoners, in which he + was really the least antagonistic of men. + + He said Hartington might lead a whig government aided by the + tories, or might lead a radical government.... I recommended his + considering carefully the personal composition of the group of + leading men, apart from a single personality on which reliance + could hardly be placed, except in the single contingency to which + I have referred as one of a character probably brief. + + He said it might be right for him to look as a friend on the + formation of a liberal government, having (as I understood) + moderate but intelligible plans, without forming part of it. I + think this was the substance of what passed. + + +Interesting as was this interview, it did not materially alter Mr. +Gladstone's disposition. After it had taken place he wrote to Lord +Granville (Nov. 10):-- + + + _To Lord Granville._ + + I quite understand how natural it is that at the present juncture + pressure, and even the whole pressure, should from both quarters + be brought to bear upon me. Well, if a special call of imperial + interest, such as I have described, should arise, I am ready for + the service it may entail, so far as my will is concerned. But a + very different question is raised. Let us see how matters stand. + + A course of action for the liberals, moderate but substantial, has + been sketched. The party in general have accepted it. After the + late conversations, there is no reason to anticipate a breach upon + any of the conditions laid down anywhere for immediate adoption, + between the less advanced and the more advanced among the leaders. + It must occupy several years, and it may occupy the whole + parliament. According to your view they will, unless on a single + condition [_i.e._ Mr. Gladstone's leadership], refuse to combine + in a cabinet, and to act, with a majority at their back; and will + make over the business voluntarily to the tories in a minority, at + the commencement of a parliament. Why? They agree on the subjects + before them. Other subjects, unknown as yet, may arise to split + them. But this is what may happen to any government, and _it_ can + form no reason. + + But what _is_ the condition demanded? It is that a man of + seventy-five,(143) after fifty-three years' service, with _no_ + particular qualification for the questions in view should enter + into a fresh contract of service in the House of Commons, reaching + according to all likelihood over three, four, or five years, and + without the smallest reasonable prospect of a break. And this is + not to solve a political difficulty, but to soothe and conjure + down personal misgivings and apprehensions. I have not said + jealousies, because I do _not_ believe them to be the operative + cause; perhaps they do not exist at all. + + I firmly say this is not a reasonable condition, or a tenable + demand, in the circumstances supposed. Indeed no one has + endeavoured to show that it is. Further, abated action in the + House of Commons is out of the question. We cannot have, in these + times, a figurehead prime minister. I have gone a very long way in + what I have said, and I really cannot go further. + + Lord Aberdeen, taking office at barely seventy in the House of + Lords, apologised in his opening speech for doing this at a time + when his mind ought rather to be given to "other thoughts." Lord + Palmerston in 1859 did not speak thus. But he was bound to no plan + of any kind; and he was seventy-four, _i.e._ in his seventy-fifth + year. + + + +II + + +It is high time to turn to the other deciding issue in the case. Though +thus stubborn against resuming the burden of leadership merely to compose +discords between Chatsworth and Birmingham, Mr. Gladstone was ready to be +of use in the Irish question, "if it should take a favourable turn." As if +the Irish question ever took a favourable turn. We have seen in the +opening of the present chapter, how he spoke to Lord Hartington of a +certain speech of Mr. Parnell's in September, "as bad as bad could be." +The secret of that speech was a certain fact that must be counted a +central hinge of these far-reaching transactions. In July, a singular +incident had occurred, nothing less strange than an interview between the +new lord-lieutenant and the leader of the Irish party. To realise its full +significance, we have to recall the profound odium that at this time +enveloped Mr. Parnell's name in the minds of nearly all Englishmen. For +several years and at that moment he figured in the public imagination for +all that is sinister, treasonable, dark, mysterious, and unholy. He had +stood his trial for a criminal conspiracy, and was supposed only to have +been acquitted by the corrupt connivance of a Dublin jury. He had been +flung into prison and kept there for many months without trial, as a +person reasonably suspected of lawless practices. High treason was the +least dishonourable of the offences imputed to him and commonly credited +about him. He had been elaborately accused before the House of Commons by +one of the most important men in it, of direct personal responsibility for +outrages and murders, and he left the accusation with scant reply. He was +constantly denounced as the apostle of rapine and rebellion. That the +viceroy of the Queen should (M87) without duress enter into friendly +communication with such a man, would have seemed to most people at that +day incredible and abhorrent. Yet the incredible thing happened, and it +was in its purpose one of the most sensible things that any viceroy ever +did.(144) + +The interview took place in a London drawing-room. Lord Carnarvon opened +the conversation by informing Mr. Parnell, first, that he was acting of +himself and by himself, on his own exclusive responsibility; second, that, +he sought information only, and that he had not come for the purpose of +arriving at any agreement or understanding however shadowy; third, that he +was there as the Queen's servant, and would neither hear nor say one word +that was inconsistent with the union of the two countries. Exactly what +Mr. Parnell said, and what was said in reply, the public were never +authentically told. Mr. Parnell afterwards spoke(145) as if Lord Carnarvon +had given him to understand that it was the intention of the government to +offer Ireland a statutory legislature, with full control over taxation, +and that a scheme of land purchase was to be coupled with it. On this, the +viceroy denied that he had communicated any such intention. Mr. Parnell's +story was this:-- + + + Lord Carnarvon proceeded to say that he had sought the interview + for the purpose of ascertaining my views regarding--should he call + it?--a constitution for Ireland. But I soon found out that he had + brought me there in order that he might communicate his own views + upon the matter, as well as ascertain mine.... In reply to an + inquiry as to a proposal which had been made to build up a central + legislative body upon the foundation of county boards, I told him + I thought this would be working in the wrong direction, and would + not be accepted by Ireland; that the central legislative body + should be a parliament in name and in fact.... Lord Carnarvon + assured me that this was his own view also, and he strongly + appreciated the importance of giving due weight to the sentiment + of the Irish in this matter.... He had certain suggestions to this + end, taking the colonial model as a basis, which struck me as + being the result of much thought and knowledge of the subject.... + At the conclusion of the conversation, which lasted for more than + an hour, and to which Lord Carnarvon was very much the larger + contributor, I left him, believing that I was in complete accord + with him regarding the main outlines of a settlement conferring a + legislature upon Ireland.(146) + + +It is certainly not for me to contend that Mr. Parnell was always an +infallible reporter, but if closely scrutinised the discrepancy in the two +stories as then told was less material than is commonly supposed. To the +passage just quoted, Lord Carnarvon never at any time in public offered +any real contradiction. What he contradicted was something different. He +denied that he had ever stated to Mr. Parnell that it was the intention of +the government, if they were successful at the polls, to establish the +Irish legislature, with limited powers and not independent of imperial +control, which he himself favoured. He did not deny, any more than he +admitted, that he had told Mr. Parnell that on opinion and policy they +were very much at one. How could he deny it, after his speech when he +first took office? Though the cabinet was not cognisant of the nature of +these proceedings, the prime minister was. To take so remarkable a step +without the knowledge and assent of the head of the government, would have +been against the whole practice and principles of our ministerial system. +Lord Carnarvon informed Lord Salisbury of his intention of meeting Mr. +(M88) Parnell, and within twenty-four hours after the meeting, both in +writing and orally, he gave Lord Salisbury as careful and accurate a +statement as possible of what had passed. We can well imagine the close +attention with which the prime minister followed so profoundly interesting +a report, and at the end of it he told the viceroy that "he had conducted +the conversation with Mr. Parnell with perfect discretion." The knowledge +that the minister responsible for the government of Ireland was looking in +the direction of home rule, and exchanging home rule views with the great +home rule leader, did not shake Lord Salisbury's confidence in his fitness +to be viceroy. + +This is no mere case of barren wrangle and verbal recrimination. The +transaction had consequences, and the Carnarvon episode was a pivot. The +effect upon the mind of Mr. Parnell was easy to foresee. Was I not +justified, he asked long afterwards, in supposing that Lord Carnarvon, +holding the views that he now indicated, would not have been made viceroy +unless there was a considerable feeling in the cabinet that his views were +right?(147) Could he imagine that the viceroy would be allowed to talk +home rule to him--however shadowy and vague the words--unless the prime +minister considered such a solution to be at any rate well worth +discussing? Why should he not believe that the alliance formed in June to +turn Mr. Gladstone out of office and eject Lord Spencer from Ireland, had +really blossomed from being a mere lobby manoeuvre and election expedient, +into a serious policy adopted by serious statesmen? Was it not certain +that in such remarkable circumstances Mr. Parnell would throughout the +election confidently state the national demand at its very highest? + +In 1882 and onwards up to the Reform Act of 1885, Mr. Parnell had been +ready to advocate the creation of a central council at Dublin for +administrative purposes merely. This he thought would be a suitable +achievement for a party that numbered only thirty-five members. But the +assured increase of his strength at the coming election made all the +difference. When semi-official soundings were taken from more than one +liberal quarter after the fall of the Gladstone government, it was found +that Mr. Parnell no longer countenanced provisional reforms. After the +interview with Lord Carnarvon, the mercury rose rapidly to the top of the +tube. Larger powers of administration were not enough. The claim for +legislative power must now be brought boldly to the front. In unmistakable +terms, the Irish leader stated the Irish demand, and posed both problem +and solution. He now declared his conviction that the great and sole work +of himself and his friends in the new parliament would be the restoration +of a national parliament of their own, to do the things which they had +been vainly asking the imperial parliament to do for them.(148) + + + +III + + +When politicians ruminate upon the disastrous schism that followed Mr. +Gladstone's attempt to deal with the Irish question in 1886, they ought +closely to study the general election of 1885. In that election, though +leading men foresaw the approach of a marked Irish crisis, and awaited the +outcome of events with an overshadowing sense of pregnant issues, there +was nothing like general concentration on the Irish prospect. The strife +of programmes and the rivalries of leaders were what engrossed the popular +attention. The main body of the British electors were thinking mainly of +promised agrarian booms, fair trade, the church in danger, or some other +of their own domestic affairs. + +Few forms of literature or history are so dull as the narrative of +political debates. With a few exceptions, a political speech like the +manna in the wilderness loses its savour on the second day. Three or four +marked utterances of this critical autumn, following all that has been set +forth already, will enable the reader to understand the division of +counsel that prevailed immediately before the great change of policy in +1886, and the various strategic evolutions, masked movements, and play of +mine, sap, and countermine, that led to it. As has just been described, +and with good reason, (M89) for he believed that he had the Irish viceroy +on his side, Mr. Parnell stood inflexible. In his speech of August 24 +already mentioned, he had thrown down his gauntlet. + +Much the most important answer to the challenge, if we regard the effect +upon subsequent events, was that of Lord Salisbury two months later. To +this I shall have to return. The two liberal statesmen, Lord Hartington +and Mr. Chamberlain, who were most active in this campaign, and whose +activity was well spiced and salted by a lively political antagonism, +agreed in a tolerably stiff negative to the Irish demand. The whig leader +with a slow mind, and the radical leader with a quick mind, on this single +issue of the campaign spoke with one voice. The whig leader(149) thought +Mr. Parnell had made a mistake and ensured his own defeat: he +overestimated his power in Ireland and his power in parliament; the Irish +would not for the sake of this impossible and impracticable undertaking, +forego without duress all the other objects which parliament was ready to +grant them; and it remained to be seen whether he could enforce his iron +discipline upon his eighty or ninety adherents, even if Ireland gave him +so many. + +The radical leader was hardly less emphatic, and his utterance was the +more interesting of the two, because until this time Mr. Chamberlain had +been generally taken throughout his parliamentary career as leaning +strongly in the nationalist direction. He had taken a bold and energetic +part in the proceedings that ended in the release of Mr. Parnell from +Kilmainham. He had with much difficulty been persuaded to acquiesce in the +renewal of any part of the Coercion Act, and had absented himself from the +banquet in honour of Lord Spencer. Together with his most intimate ally in +the late government, he had projected a political tour in Ireland with Mr. +Parnell's approval and under his auspices. Above all, he had actually +opened his electoral campaign with that famous declaration which was so +long remembered: "The pacification of Ireland at this moment depends, I +believe, on the concession to Ireland of the right to govern itself in the +matter of its purely domestic business. Is it not discreditable to us that +even now it is only by unconstitutional means that we are able to secure +peace and order in one portion of her Majesty's dominions? It is a system +as completely centralised and bureaucratic as that with which Russia +governs Poland, or as that which prevailed in Venice under the Austrian +rule. An Irishman at this moment cannot move a step--he cannot lift a +finger in any parochial, municipal, or educational work, without being +confronted with, interfered with, controlled by, an English official, +appointed by a foreign government, and without a shade or shadow of +representative authority. I say the time has come to reform altogether the +absurd and irritating anachronism which is known as Dublin Castle. That is +the work to which the new parliament will be called."(150) Masters of +incisive speech must pay the price of their gifts, and the sentence about +Poland and Venice was long a favourite in many a debate. But when the +Irish leader now made his proposal for removing the Russian yoke and the +Austrian yoke from Ireland, the English leader drew back. "If these," he +said, "are the terms on which Mr. Parnell's support is to be obtained, I +will not enter into the compact." This was Mr. Chamberlain's +response.(151) + + + +IV + + +The language used by Mr. Gladstone during this eventful time was that of a +statesman conscious of the magnitude of the issue, impressed by the +obscurity of the path along which parties and leaders were travelling, and +keenly alive to the perils of a premature or unwary step. Nothing was +easier for the moment either for quick minds or slow minds, than to face +the Irish demand beforehand with a bare, blank, wooden _non possumus_. Mr. +Gladstone had pondered the matter more deeply. His gift of political +imagination, his wider experience, and his personal share in some chapters +of the modern history of Europe and its changes, planted him on a height +whence he commanded a view of possibilities (M90) and necessities, of +hopes and of risks, that were unseen by politicians of the beaten track. +Like a pilot amid wandering icebergs, or in waters where familiar buoys +had been taken up and immemorial beacons put out, he scanned the scene +with keen eyes and a glass sweeping the horizon in every direction. No +wonder that his words seemed vague, and vague they undoubtedly were. +Suppose that Cavour had been obliged to issue an election address on the +eve of the interview at Plombieres, or Bismarck while he was on his visit +to Biarritz. Their language would hardly have been pellucid. This was no +moment for ultimatums. There were too many unascertained elements. Yet +some of those, for instance, who most ardently admired President Lincoln +for the caution with which he advanced step by step to the abolition +proclamation, have most freely censured the English statesman because he +did not in the autumn of 1885 come out with either a downright Yes or a +point-blank No. The point-blank is not for all occasions, and only a +simpleton can think otherwise. + +In September Mr. Childers--a most capable administrator, a zealous +colleague, wise in what the world regards as the secondary sort of wisdom, +and the last man to whom one would have looked for a plunge--wrote to Mr. +Gladstone to seek his approval of a projected announcement to his +constituents at Pontefract, which amounted to a tolerably full-fledged +scheme of home rule.(152) In view of the charitable allegation that Mr. +Gladstone picked up home rule after the elections had placed it in the +power of the Irish either to put him into office or to keep him out of +office, his reply to Mr. Childers deserves attention:-- + + + _To Mr. Childers._ + + _Sept. 28, 1885._--I have a decided sympathy with the general scope + and spirit of your proposed declaration about Ireland. If I offer + any observations, they are meant to be simply in furtherance of + your purpose. + + 1. I would disclaim giving any exhaustive list of Imperial + subjects, and would not "put my foot down" as to revenue, but + would keep plenty of elbow-room to keep all customs and excise, + which would probably be found necessary. + + 2. A general disclaimer of particulars as to the form of any local + legislature might suffice, without giving the Irish expressly to + know it might be decided mainly by their wish. + + 3. I think there is no doubt Ulster would be able to take care of + itself in respect to education, but a question arises and forms, I + think, the most difficult part of the whole subject, whether some + defensive provisions for the owners of land and property should + not be considered. + + 4. It is evident you have given the subject much thought, and my + sympathy goes largely to your details as well as your principle. + But considering the danger of placing confidence in the leaders of + the national party at the present moment, and the decided + disposition they have shown to raise their terms on any favourable + indication, I would beg you to consider further whether you should + _bind_ yourself at present to any details, or go beyond general + indications. If you say in terms (and this I do not dissuade) that + you are ready to consider the question whether they can have a + legislature for all questions not Imperial, this will be a great + step in advance; and anything you may say beyond it, I should like + to see veiled in language not such as to commit you. + + +The reader who is now acquainted with Mr. Gladstone's strong support of +the Chamberlain plan in 1885, and with the bias already disclosed, knows +in what direction the main current of his thought must have been setting. +The position taken in 1885 was in entire harmony with all these +premonitory notes. Subject, said Mr. Gladstone, to the supremacy of the +crown, the unity of the empire, and all the authority of parliament +necessary for the conservation of that unity, every grant to portions of +the country of enlarged powers for the management of their own affairs, +was not a source of danger, but a means of averting it. "As to the +legislative union, I believe history and posterity will consign to +disgrace the name and memory of every man, be he who he may, and on +whichever side of the Channel he may dwell, that having the power to aid +in an equitable settlement between Ireland and Great Britain, shall use +that power not to aid, but to prevent or retard it."(153) These and all +the other large and profuse sentences of the Midlothian address were +undoubtedly open to more than one construction, and they either admitted +or excluded home rule, as might happen. The fact that, though it was +running so freely in his own mind, he did not put Irish autonomy into the +forefront of his address, has been made a common article of charge against +him. As if the view of Irish autonomy now running in his mind were not +dependent on a string of hypotheses. And who can imagine a party leader's +election address that should have run thus?--" If Mr. Parnell returns with +a great majority of members, and if the minority is not weighty enough, +and if the demand is constitutionally framed, and if the Parnellites are +unanimous, then we will try home rule. And this possibility of a +hypothetical experiment is to be the liberal cry with which to go into +battle against Lord Salisbury, who, so far as I can see, is nursing the +idea of the same experiment." + +Some weeks later, in speaking to his electors in Midlothian, Mr. Gladstone +instead of minimising magnified the Irish case, pushed it into the very +forefront, not in one speech, but in nearly all; warned his hearers of the +gravity of the questions soon to be raised by it, and assured them that it +would probably throw into the shade the other measures that he had +described as ripe for action. He elaborated a declaration, of which much +was heard for many months and years afterwards. What Ireland, he said, may +deliberately and constitutionally demand, unless it infringes the +principles connected with the honourable maintenance of the unity of the +empire, will be a demand that we are bound at any rate to treat with +careful attention. To stint Ireland in power which might be necessary or +desirable for the management of matters purely Irish, would be a great +error; and if she was so stinted, the end that any such measure might +contemplate could not be attained. Then came the memorable appeal: "Apart +from the term of whig and tory, there is one thing I will say and will +endeavour to impress upon you, and it is this. It will be a vital danger +to the country and to the empire, if at a time when a demand from Ireland +for larger powers of self-government is to be dealt with, there is not in +parliament a party totally independent of the Irish vote."(154) Loud and +long sustained have been the reverberations of this clanging sentence. It +was no mere passing dictum. Mr. Gladstone himself insisted upon the same +position again and again, that "for a government in a minority to deal +with the Irish question would not be safe." This view, propounded in his +first speech, was expanded in his second. There he deliberately set out +that the urgent expediency of a liberal majority independent of Ireland +did not foreshadow the advent of a liberal government to power. He +referred to the settlement of household suffrage in 1867. How was the tory +government enabled to effect that settlement? Because there was in the +House a liberal majority which did not care to eject the existing +ministry.(155) He had already reminded his electors that tory governments +were sometimes able to carry important measures, when once they had made +up their minds to it, with greater facility than liberal governments +could. For instance, if Peel had not been the person to propose the repeal +of the corn laws, Lord John would not have had fair consideration from the +tories; and no liberal government could have carried the Maynooth +Act.(156) + +The plain English of the abundant references to Ireland in the Midlothian +speeches of this election is, that Mr. Gladstone foresaw beyond all shadow +of doubt that the Irish question in its largest extent would at once +demand the instant attention of the new parliament; that the best hope of +settling it would be that the liberals should have a majority of their +own; that the second best hope lay in its settlement by the tory +government with the aid of the liberals; but that, in any case, the worst +of all conditions under which a settlement could be attempted--an attempt +that could not be avoided--would be a situation in which Mr. Parnell should +hold the balance between parliamentary parties. + +The precise state of Mr. Gladstone's mind at this moment is best shown in +a very remarkable letter written by him to Lord Rosebery, under whose roof +at Talmeny he was staying at the time:-- + + + _To Lord Rosebery._ + + _Dalmeny Park, 13th Nov. 1885._--You have called my attention to + the recent speech of Mr. Parnell, in which he expresses the desire + that I should frame a plan for giving to Ireland, without + prejudice to imperial unity and interests, the management of her + own affairs. The subject is so important that, though we are + together, I will put on paper my view of this proposal. For the + moment I assume that such a plan can be framed. Indeed, if I had + considered this to be hopeless, I should have been guilty of great + rashness in speaking of it as a contingency that should be kept in + view at the present election. I will first give reasons, which I + deem to be of great weight, against my producing a scheme, + reserving to the close one reason, which would be conclusive in + the absence of every other reason. + + 1. It is not the province of the person leading the party in + opposition, to frame and produce before the public detailed + schemes of such a class. + + 2. There are reasons of great weight, which make it desirable that + the party now in power should, if prepared to adopt the principle, + and if supported by an adequate proportion of the coming House of + Commons, undertake the construction and proposal of the measure. + + 3. The unfriendly relations between the party of nationalists and + the late government in the expiring parliament, have of necessity + left me and those with whom I act in great ignorance of the + interior mind of the party, which has in parliament systematically + confined itself to very general declarations. + + 4. That the principle and basis of an admissible measure have been + clearly declared by myself, if not by others, before the country; + more clearly, I think, than was done in the case of the Irish + disestablishment; and that the particulars of such plans in all + cases have been, and probably must be, left to the discretion of + the legislature acting under the usual checks. + + But my final and paramount reason is, that the production at this + time of a plan by me would not only be injurious, but would + destroy all reasonable hope of its adoption. Such a plan, proposed + by the heads of the liberal party, is so certain to have the + opposition of the tories _en bloc_, that every computation must be + founded on this anticipation. This opposition, and the appeals + with which it will be accompanied, will render the carrying of the + measure difficult even by a united liberal party; hopeless or most + difficult, should there be serious defection. + + Mr. Parnell is apprehensive of the opposition of the House of + Lords. That idea weighs little with me. I have to think of + something nearer, and more formidable. The idea of constituting a + legislature for Ireland, whenever seriously and responsibly + proposed, will cause a mighty heave in the body politic. It will + be as difficult to carry the liberal party and the two British + nations in favour of a legislature for Ireland, as it was easy to + carry them in the case of Irish disestablishment. I think that it + may possibly be done; but only by the full use of a great + leverage. That leverage can only be found in their equitable and + mature consideration of what is due to the fixed desire of a + nation, clearly and constitutionally expressed. Their + prepossessions will not be altogether favourable; and they cannot + in this matter be bullied. + + I have therefore endeavoured to lay the ground by stating largely + the possibility and the gravity, even the solemnity, of that + demand. I am convinced that this is the only path which can lead + to success. With such a weapon, one might go hopefully into + action. But I well know, from a thousand indications past and + present, that a new project of mine launched into the air, would + have no _momentum_ which could carry it to its aim. So, in my + mind, stands the case.... + + +Three days before this letter, Mr. Gladstone had replied to one from Lord +Hartington:-- + + + _To Lord Hartington._ + + _Dalmeny, Nov. 10, 1885._--I made a beginning yesterday in one of + my conversation speeches, so to call them, on the way, by laying + it down that I was particularly bound to prevent, if I could, the + domination of sectional opinion over the body and action of the + party. + + I wish to say something about the modern radicalism. But I must + include this, that if it is rampant and ambitious, the two most + prominent causes of its forwardness have been: 1. Tory democracy. + 2. The gradual disintegration of the liberal aristocracy. On both + these subjects my opinions are strong. I think the conduct of the + Duke of Bedford and others has been as unjustifiable as it was + foolish, especially after what we did to save the House of Lords + from itself in the business of the franchise. + + Nor can I deny that the question of the House of Lords, of the + church, or both, will probably split the liberal party. But let it + split decently, honourably, and for cause. That it should split + now would, so far as I see, be ludicrous. + + So far I have been writing in great sympathy with you, but now I + touch a point where our lines have not been the same. You have, I + think, courted the hostility of Parnell. Salisbury has carefully + avoided doing this, and last night he simply confined himself to + two conditions, which you and I both think vital; namely, the + unity of the empire and an honourable regard to the position of + the "minority," _i.e._ the landlords. You will see in the + newspapers what Parnell, _making_ for himself an opportunity, is + reported to have said about the elections in Ulster now at hand. + You have opened a vista which appears to terminate in a possible + concession to Ireland of full power to manage her own local + affairs. But I own my leaning to the opinion that, if that + consummation is in any way to be contemplated, action at a stroke + will be more honourable, less unsafe, less uneasy, than the + jolting process of a series of partial measures. This is my + opinion, but I have no intention, as at present advised, of + signifying it. I have all along in public declarations avoided + offering anything to the nationalists, beyond describing the + limiting rule which must govern the question. It is for them to + ask, and for us, as I think, to leave the space so defined as open + and unencumbered as possible. I am much struck by the increased + breadth of Salisbury's declaration last night; he dropped the "I + do not see how." + + We shall see how these great and difficult matters develop + themselves. Meantime be assured that, with a good deal of + misgiving as to the future, I shall do what little I can towards + enabling all liberals at present to hold together with credit and + good conscience. + + + +V + + +Mr. Gladstone's cardinal deliverance in November had been preceded by an +important event. On October 7, 1885, Lord Salisbury made that speech at +Newport, which is one of the tallest and most striking landmarks in the +shifting sands of this controversy. It must be taken in relation to Lord +Carnarvon's declaration of policy on taking office, and to his exchange of +views with Mr. Parnell at the end of July. Their first principle, said +Lord Salisbury, was to extend to Ireland, so far as they could, all the +institutions of this country. But one must remember that in Ireland the +population is on several subjects deeply divided, and a government is +bound 'on all matters of essential justice' to protect a minority against +a majority. Then came remarkable sentences: "Local authorities are more +exposed to the temptation of enabling the majority to be unjust to the +minority when they obtain jurisdiction over a small area, than is the case +when the authority derives its sanction and extends its jurisdiction over +a wider area. In a large central authority, the wisdom of several parts of +the country will correct the folly and mistakes of one. In a local +authority, that correction is to a much greater extent wanting, and it +would be impossible to leave that out of sight, in any extension of any +such local authority in Ireland." This principle was often used in the +later controversy as a recognition by Lord Salisbury that the creation of +a great central body would be a safer policy than the mere extension of +self-government in Irish counties. In another part of the speech, it is +true, the finger-post or weather-vane pointed in the opposite direction. +"With respect to the larger organic questions connected with Ireland," +said Lord Salisbury, "I cannot say much, though I can speak emphatically. +I have nothing to say but that the traditions of the party to which we +belong, are on this point clear and distinct, and you may rely upon it our +party will not depart from them." Yet this emphatic refusal to depart from +the traditions of the tory party did not prevent Lord Salisbury from +retaining at that moment in his cabinet an Irish viceroy, with whom he +(M91) was in close personal relations, and whose active Irish policy he +must have known to be as wide a breach in tory tradition as the mind of +man can imagine. So hard is it in distracted times, the reader may +reflect, even for men of honourable and lofty motive to be perfectly +ingenuous. + +The speaker next referred to the marked way in which Mr. Parnell, a day or +two before, had mentioned the position of Austro-Hungary. "I gathered that +some notion of imperial federation was floating in his mind. With respect +to Ireland, I am bound to say that I have never seen any plan or any +suggestion which gives me at present the slightest ground for anticipating +that it is in that direction that we shall find any substantial solution +of the difficulties of the problem." In an electric state of the political +atmosphere, a statesman who said that at present he did not think federal +home rule possible, was taken to imply that he might think it possible, +by-and-by. No door was closed. + +It was, however, Lord Salisbury's language upon social order that gave +most scandal to simple consciences in his own ranks. You ask us, he said, +why we did not renew the Crimes Act. There are two answers: we could not, +and it would have done no good if we could. To follow the extension of the +franchise by coercion, would have been a gross inconsistency. To show +confidence by one act, and the absence of confidence by a simultaneous +act, would be to stultify parliament. Your inconsistency would have +provoked such intense exasperation, that it would have led to ten times +more evil, ten times more resistance to the law, than your Crimes Act +could possibly have availed to check. Then the audience was favoured with +a philosophic view of boycotting. This, said the minister, is an offence +which legislation has very great difficulty in reaching. The provisions of +the Crimes Act against it had a very small effect. It grew up under that +Act. And, after all, look at boycotting. An unpopular man or his family go +to mass. The congregation with one accord get up and walk out. Are you +going to indict people for leaving church? The plain fact is that +boycotting "is more like the excommunication or interdict of the middle +ages, than anything that we know now." "The truth about boycotting is that +it depends on the passing humour of the population." + +It is important to remember that in the month immediately preceding this +polished apologetic, there were delivered some of the most violent +boycotting speeches ever made in Ireland.(157) These speeches must have +been known to the Irish government, and their occurrence and the purport +of them must presumably have been known therefore to the prime minister. +Here was indeed a removal of the ancient buoys and beacons that had +hitherto guided English navigation in Irish waters. There was even less of +a solid ultimatum at Newport, than in those utterances in Midlothian which +were at that time and long afterwards found so culpably vague, blind, and +elusive. Some of the more astute of the minister's own colleagues were +delighted with his speech, as keeping the Irishmen steady to the tory +party. They began to hope that they might even come within five-and-twenty +of the liberals when the polling began. + +The question on which side the Irish vote in Great Britain should be +thrown seems not to have been decided until after Mr. Gladstone's speech. +It was then speedily settled. On Nov. 21 a manifesto was issued, handing +over the Irish vote in Great Britain solid to the orator of the Newport +speech. The tactics were obvious. It was Mr. Parnell's interest to bring +the two contending British parties as near as might be to a level, and +this he could only hope to do by throwing his strength upon the weaker +side. It was from the weaker side, if they could be retained in office, +that he would get the best terms.(158) The document was composed with +vigour and astuteness. But the phrases of the manifesto were the least +important part of it. It was enough that the hard word was passed. Some +estimated the loss to the liberal party in this island at twenty seats, +others at forty. Whether twenty or forty, these lost seats made a fatal +difference in the division on the Irish bill a few months later, and when +(M92) that day had come and gone, Mr. Parnell sometimes ruefully asked +himself whether the tactics of the electoral manifesto were not on the +whole a mistake. But this was not all and was not the worst of it. The +Irish manifesto became a fiery element in a sharp electioneering war, and +threw the liberals in all constituencies where there was an Irish vote +into a direct and angry antagonism to the Irish cause and its leaders; +passions were roused, and things were said about Irishmen that could not +at once be forgotten; and the great task of conversion in 1886, difficult +in any case, was made a thousand times more difficult still by the +arguments and antipathies of the electoral battle of 1885. Meanwhile it +was for the moment, and for the purposes of the moment, a striking +success. + + + + +Chapter II. The Polls In 1885. (1885) + + + I would say that civil liberty can have no security without + political power.--C. J. FOX. + + + +I + + +The election ran a chequered course (Nov. 23-Dec. 19). It was the first +trial of the whole body of male householders, and it was the first trial +of the system of single-member districts. This is not the place for a +discussion of the change of electoral area. As a scheme for securing +representation of minorities it proved of little efficacy, and many +believe that the substitution of a smaller constituency for a larger one +has tended to slacken political interest, and to narrow political +judgment. Meanwhile some of those who were most deeply concerned in +establishing the new plan, were confident that an overwhelming liberal +triumph would be the result. Many of their opponents took the same view, +and were in despair. A liberal met a tory minister on the steps of a club +in Pall Mall, as they were both going to the country for their elections. +"I suppose," said the tory, "we are out for twenty years to come." _O +pectora caeca!_ He has been in office for nearly fifteen of the eighteen +years since. In September one of the most authoritative liberal experts +did not see how the tories were to have more than 210 out of the 670 +seats, including the tory contingent from Ireland. Two months later the +expert admitted that the tory chances were improving, mainly owing to what +in electioneering slang was called the church scare. Fair trade, too, had +made many converts in Lancashire. On the very eve of the polls the +estimate at liberal headquarters was a majority of forty over tories and +Irishmen combined. + + + +II + + +(M93) As I should have told the reader on an earlier page, Mr. Gladstone +had proceeded to his own constituency on November 9. The previous month +had found, as usual, endless other interests to occupy him, quite apart +from politics. These are the ordinary entries. "Worked, say, five hours on +books. Three more hours reduced my books and rooms to apparent order, but +much detail remains. Worked mildly on books." In this region he would have +said of disorder and disarray what Carlyle said to dirt, "Thou shalt not +abide with me." As to the insides of books, his reading was miscellaneous: +Madame d'Arblay, Bodley's _Remains_, Bachaumont's _Anecdotes_, Cuvier's +_Theory of the Earth_, Whewell on _Astronomy_, the _Life of B. Gilpin_, +Hennell's _Inquiry_, Schmidt's _Social Effects of Christianity_, Miss +Martineau's _Autobiography_, Anderson on _Glory of the Bible,_ Barrow's +_Towards the Truth_, and so on--many of the books now stone-dead. Besides +such reading as this, he "made a beginning of a paper on Hermes, and read +for it," and worked hard at a controversial article, in reply to M. +Reville, upon the Dawn of Creation and Worship. When he corrected the +proof, he found it ill-written, and in truth we may rather marvel at, than +admire, the hardihood that handled such themes amid such +distractions.(159) Much company arrived. "Count Muenster came to luncheon; +long walk and talk with him. The Derby-Bedford party came and went. I had +an hour's good conversation with Lord D. Tea in the open air. _Oct. +7._--Mr. Chamberlain came. Well, and much conversation. _Oct. 8._--Mr. +Chamberlain. Three hours of conversation." + +Before the end of the month the doctors reported excellently of the +condition of his vocal cords, and when he started for Dalmeny and the +scene of the exploits of 1880 once more, he was in spirits to enjoy "an +animated journey," and the vast enthusiasm with which Edinburgh again +received him. His speeches were marked by undiminished fire. He boldly +challenged a verdict on policy in the Soudan, while freely admitting that +in some points, not immaterial, his cabinet had fallen into error, though +in every case the error was fostered by the party opposite; and he pointed +to the vital fact that though the party opposite were in good time, they +never dreamed of altering the policy. He asked triumphantly how they would +have fared in the Afghan dispute, if the policy anterior to 1880 had not +been repudiated. In his address he took the same valiant line about South +Africa. "In the Transvaal," he said, "we averted a war of European and +Christian races throughout South African states, which would have been +alike menacing to our power, and scandalous in the face of civilisation +and of Christendom. As this has been with our opponents a favourite +subject of unmeasured denunciation, so I for one hail and reciprocate +their challenge, and I hope the nation will give a clear judgment on our +refusal to put down liberty by force, and on the measures that have +brought about the present tranquillity of South Africa." His first speech +was on Ireland, and Ireland figured, as we have seen, largely and +emphatically to the last. Disestablishment was his thorniest topic, for +the scare of the church in danger was working considerable havoc in +England, and every word on Scottish establishment was sure to be +translated to establishment elsewhere. On the day on which he was to +handle it, his entry is: "Much rumination, and made notes which in +speaking I could not manage to see. Off to Edinburgh at 2.30. Back at 6. +Spoke seventy minutes in Free Kirk Hall: a difficult subject. The present +agitation does not strengthen in my mind the principle of establishment." +His leading text was a favourite and a salutary maxim of his, that "it is +a very serious responsibility to take political questions out of their +proper time and their proper order," and the summary of his speech was +that the party was agreed upon certain large and complicated questions, +such as were enough for one parliament to settle, and that it would be an +error to attempt to thrust those questions aside, to cast them into the +shade and the darkness, "for the sake of a subject of which I will not +undervalue the importance, but of which I utterly deny the maturity at the +present moment."(160) + +On Nov. 27 the poll was taken; 11,241 electors out of 12,924, or 87 per +cent., recorded their votes, and of these 7879 voted for Mr. Gladstone, +and 3248 for Mr. Dalrymple, or a majority of 4631. So little impression +had been made (M94) in Midlothian by Kilmainham, Majuba, Khartoum, +Penjdeh, and the other party cries of a later period. + + + +III + + +Let us turn to the general result, and the final composition of Mr. +Gladstone's thirteenth parliament. The polls of the first three or four +days were startling. It looked, in the phrases of the time, as if there +were conservative reaction all round, as if the pendulum had swung back to +the point of tory triumph in 1874, and as if early reverses would wind up +in final rout. Where the tories did not capture the seat, their numbers +rose and the liberal majorities fell. At the end of four days the liberals +in England and Wales had scored 86 against 109 for their adversaries. When +two-thirds of the House had been elected, the liberals counted 196, the +tories 179, and the Irish nationalists 37. In spite of the early panic or +exultation, it was found that in boroughs of over 100,000 the liberals had +after all carried seventeen, against eight for their opponents. But the +tories were victorious in a solid Liverpool, save one Irish seat; they won +all the seats in Manchester save one; and in London, where liberals had +been told by those who were believed to know, that they would make a clean +sweep, there were thirty-six tories against twenty-six liberals. Two +members of the late liberal cabinet and three subordinate ministers were +thrown out. "The verdict of the English borough constituencies," cried the +_Times_, "will be recorded more emphatically than was even the case in +1874 in favour of the conservatives. The opposition have to thank Mr. +Chamberlain not only for their defeat at the polls, but for the +irremediable disruption and hopeless disorganisation of the liberal party +with its high historic past and its high claims to national gratitude. His +achievement may give him such immortality as was won by the man who burned +down the temple of Diana at Ephesus."(161) The same writers have ever +since ascribed the irremediable disruption to Mr. Gladstone and the Irish +question. + +Now came the counties with their newly enfranchised hosts. Here the tide +flowed strong and steady. Squire and parson were amazed to see the +labourer, of whose stagnant indifference to politics they had been so +confident, trudging four or five miles to a political meeting, listening +without asking for a glass of beer to political speeches, following point +upon-point, and then trudging back again dumbly chewing the cud. +Politicians with gifts of rhetoric began to talk of the grand revolt of +the peasants, and declared that it was the most remarkable transformation +since the conversion of the Franks. Turned into prose, this meant that the +liberals had extended their area into large rural provinces where hitherto +tory supremacy had never been disputed. Whether or no Mr. Chamberlain had +broken the party in the boroughs, his agrarian policy together with the +natural uprising of the labourer against the party of squire and farmer, +had saved it in the counties. The nominees of such territorial magnates as +the Northumberlands, the Pembrokes, the Baths, the Bradfords, the Watkin +Wynns, were all routed, and the shock to territorial influence was felt to +be profound. An ardent agrarian reformer, who later became a conspicuous +unionist, writing to Mr. Gladstone in July a description of a number of +great rural gatherings, told him, "One universal feature of these meetings +is the joy, affection, and unbounded applause with which your name is +received by these earnest men. Never in all your history had you so strong +a place in the hearts of the common people, as you have to-day. It +requires to be seen to be realised." + +All was at last over. It then appeared that so far from there being a +second version of the great tory reaction of 1874, the liberals had now in +the new parliament a majority over tories of 82, or thirty under the +corresponding majority in the year of marvel, 1880. In great Britain they +had a majority of 100, being 333 against 233.(162) But (M95) they had no +majority over tories and Irishmen combined. That hopeful dream had glided +away through the ivory gate. + +Shots between right wing and left of the liberal party were exchanged to +the very last moment. When the borough elections were over, the Birmingham +leader cried that so far from the loss in the boroughs being all the fault +of the extreme liberals, it was just because the election had not been +fought on their programme, but was fought instead on a manifesto that did +not include one of the points to which the extreme liberals attached the +greatest importance. For the sake of unity, they had put aside their most +cherished principles, disestablishment for instance, and this, forsooth, +was the result.(163) The retort came as quickly as thunder after the +flash. Lord Hartington promptly protested from Matlock, that the very +crisis of the electoral conflict was an ill-chosen moment for the public +expression of doubt by a prominent liberal as to the wisdom of a policy +accepted by the party, and announced by the acknowledged leader of the +whole party. When the party had found some more tried, more trusted, more +worthy leader, then might perhaps be the time to impugn the policy. These +reproachful ironies of Lord Hartington boded ill for any prospect of the +heroes of this fratricidal war of the platform smoothing their wrinkled +fronts in a liberal cabinet. + + + +IV + + +In Ireland the result shed a strong light on the debating prophecies that +the extension of the county franchise would not be unfavourable to the +landlord interest; that it would enable the deep conservative interest of +the peasantry to vindicate itself against the nationalism of the towns; +that it would prove beyond all doubt that the Irish leader did not really +speak the mind of a decided majority of the people of Ireland. Relying on +the accuracy of these abstract predictions, the Irish tories started +candidates all over the country. Even some of them who passed for shrewd +and candid actually persuaded themselves that they were making an +impression on the constituencies. The effect of their ingenuous operations +was to furnish such a measure of nationalist strength, as would otherwise +have seemed incredible almost to the nationalists themselves. An instance +or two will suffice. In two divisions of Cork, the tories polled 300 votes +against nearly 10,000 for the nationalists. In two divisions of Mayo, the +tories polled 200 votes against nearly 10,000 for the nationalists. In one +division of Kilkenny there were 4000 nationalist votes against 170 for the +tory, and in another division 4000 against 220. In a division of Kerry the +nationalist had over 3000 votes against 30 for the tory,--a hundred to one. +In prosperous counties with resident landlords and a good class of gentry +such as Carlow and Kildare, in one case the popular vote was 4800 against +750, and in the other 3169 against 467. In some fifty constituencies the +popular majorities ranged in round numbers from 6500 the highest, to 2400 +the lowest. Besides these constituencies where a contest was so futile, +were those others in which no contest was even attempted. + +In Ulster a remarkable thing happened. This favoured province had in the +last parliament returned nine liberals. Lord Hartington attended a banquet +at Belfast (Nov. 5) just before the election. It was as unlucky an affair +as the feast of Belshazzar. His mission was compared by Orange wits to +that of the Greek hero who went forth to wrestle with Death for the body +of an old woman. The whole of the liberal candidates in Ulster fell down +as dead men. Orangemen and catholics, the men who cried damnation to King +William and the men who cried "To hell with the Pope," joined hands +against them. In Belfast itself, nationalists were (M96) seen walking to +the booths with orange cards in their hats to vote for orangemen against +liberals.(164) It is true that the paradox did not last, and that the Pope +and King William were speedily on their old terms again. Within six +months, the two parties atoned for this temporary backsliding into +brotherly love, by one of the most furious and protracted conflagrations +that ever raged even in the holy places of Belfast. Meanwhile nationalism +had made its way in the south of the province, partly by hopes of reduced +rents, partly by the energy of the catholic population, who had not tasted +political power for two centuries. The adhesion of their bishops to the +national movement in the Monaghan election had given them the signal three +years before. Fermanagh, hitherto invariably Orange, now sent two +nationalists. Antrim was the single county out of the thirty-two counties +of Ireland that was solid against home rule, and even in Antrim in one +contest the nationalist was beaten only by 35 votes. + +Not a single liberal was returned in the whole of Ireland. To the last +parliament she had sent fourteen. They were all out bag and baggage. +Ulster now sent eighteen nationalists and seventeen tories. Out of the +eighty-nine contests in Ireland, Mr. Parnell's men won no fewer than +eighty-five, and in most of them they won by such overwhelming majorities +as I have described. It was noticed that twenty-two of the persons +elected, or more than one-fourth of the triumphant party, had been put in +prison under the Act of 1881. A species of purge, moreover, had been +performed. All half-hearted nationalists, the doubters and the faithless, +were dismissed, and their places taken by men pledged either to obey or +else go. + +The British public now found out on what illusions they had for the last +four years been fed. Those of them who had memories, could recollect how +the Irish secretary of the day, on the third reading of the first Coercion +bill in 1881, had boldly appealed from the Irish members to the People of +Ireland. "He was sure that he could appeal with confidence from gentlemen +sitting below the gangway opposite to their constituents."(165) They +remembered all the talk about Mr. Parnell and his followers being a mere +handful of men and not a political party at all, and the rest of it. They +had now a revelation what a fool's paradise it had been. + +As a supreme electoral demonstration, the Irish elections of 1885 have +never been surpassed in any country. They showed that neither remedial +measures nor repressive measures had made even the fleeting shadow of an +impression on the tenacious sentiment of Ireland, or on the powerful +organisation that embodied and directed it. The Land Act had made no +impression. The two Coercion Acts had made none. The imperial parliament +had done its best for five years. Some of the ablest of its ministers had +set zealous and intrepid hands to the task, and this was the end. Whether +you counted seats or counted votes, the result could not be twisted into +anything but what it was--the vehement protest of one of the three kingdoms +against the whole system of its government, and a strenuous demand for its +reconstruction on new foundations. + +Endeavours were made to discredit so startling and unwelcome a result. It +was called "the carefully prepared verdict of a shamefully packed jury." +Much was made of the number of voters who declared themselves illiterate, +said to be compelled so to do in order that the priest or other +intimidatory person might see that they voted right. As a matter of fact +the percentage of illiterate voters answered closely to the percentage of +males over twenty-one in the census returns, who could neither read nor +write. Only two petitions followed the general election, one at Belfast +against a nationalist, and the other at Derry against a tory, and in +neither of the two was undue influence or intimidation alleged. The routed +candidates in Ireland, like the same unlucky species elsewhere, raised the +usual chorus of dolorous explanation. The register, they cried, was in a +shameful condition; the polling stations were too few or too remote; the +loyalists were afraid, and the poll did not represent their real numbers; +people did not believe that the ballot was really secret; the percentage +of illiterates was monstrous; promises and pledges went for nothing. Such +are ever the too familiar voices of mortified electioneering. + +(M97) There was also the best known of all the conclusive topics from tory +Ireland. It was all done, vowed the tories, by the bishops and clergy; +they were indefatigable; they canvassed at the houses and presided at +meetings; they exhorted their flocks from the altar, and they drilled them +at the polling-booths. The spiritual screw of the priest and the temporal +screw of the league--there was the whole secret. Such was the story, and it +was not wholly devoid of truth; but then what balm, what comfort, had even +the truth of it for British rulers? + +Some thousands of voters stayed away from the polls. It was ingeniously +explained that their confidence in British rule had been destroyed by the +Carnarvon surrender; a shopkeeper would not offend his customers for the +sake of a Union Jack that no longer waved triumphant in the breeze. They +were like the Arab sheikhs at Berber, who, when they found that the +Egyptian pashas were going to evacuate, went over to the Mahdi. The +conventions appointed to select the candidates were denounced as the mere +creatures of Mr. Parnell, the Grand Elector. As if anything could have +shown a more politic appreciation of the circumstances. There are +situations that require a dictator, not to impose an opinion, but to +kindle an aspiration; not to shape a demand, but to be the effective organ +of opinion and demand. Now in the Irish view was one of those situations. +In the last parliament twenty-six seats were held by persons designated +nominal home rulers; in the new parliament, not one. Every new nationalist +member pledged himself to resign whenever the parliamentary party should +call upon him. Such an instrument grasped in a hand of iron was +indispensable, first to compel the British government to listen, and +second, to satisfy any British government disposed to listen, that in +dealing with Mr. Parnell they were dealing with nationalist Ireland, and +with a statesman who had the power to make his engagements good. You need +greater qualities, said Cardinal De Retz, to be a good party leader than +to be emperor of the universe. Ireland is not that portion of the universe +in which this is least true. + + + + +Chapter III. A Critical Month (December 1885) + + + Whoever has held the post of minister for any considerable time + can never absolutely, unalterably maintain and carry out his + original opinions. He finds himself in the presence of situations + that are not always the same--of life and growth--in connection with + which he must take one course one day, and then, perhaps, another + on the next day. I could not always run straight ahead like a + cannon ball.--BISMARCK. + + + +I + + +The month of December was passed by Mr. Gladstone at Hawarden, in such +depth of meditation as it is easy for us to conjecture. The composition of +his party, the new situation in parliament, the mutual relations of +important individuals, the Irish case, his own share in respect of the +Irish case, the strange new departure in Irish policy announced and acted +upon by the subsisting cabinet--from all these points of view it was now +his business to survey the extraordinary scene. The knot to be unravelled +in 1886 was hardly less entangled than that which engaged the powerful +genius of Pitt at the opening of the century. Stripped of invidious +innuendo, the words of Lord Salisbury a few weeks later state with +strength and truth the problem that now confronted parliament and its +chief men. "Up to the time," said the tory prime minister, "when Mr. +Gladstone took office, be it for good or evil, for many generations +Ireland had been governed through the influence and the action of the +landed gentry. I do not wish to defend that system. There is a good deal +to be said for it, and a good deal to be said against it. What I wish to +insist upon is, not that that system was good, but that the statesman who +undertook to overthrow it, should have had something to put in its place. +He utterly destroyed it. By the Land Act of 1870, by the Ballot Act of +1872, by the Land Act of 1881, and last of all by the Reform bill of 1884, +the power of the landed gentry in Ireland is absolutely shattered; and he +now stands before the formidable problem of a country deprived of a system +of government under which it had existed for many generations, and +absolutely without even a sketch of a substitute by which the ordinary +functions of law and order can be maintained. Those changes which he +introduced into the government of Ireland were changes that were admirable +from a parliamentary point of view. They were suited to the dominant +humour of the moment. But they were barren of any institutions by which +the country could be governed and kept in prosperity for the future."(166) +This is a statement of the case that biographer and historian alike should +ponder. Particularly should they remember that both parties had renounced +coercion. + +Mr. Gladstone has publicly explained the working of his mind, and both his +private letters at the time, and many a conversation later, attest the +hold which the new aspect, however chimerical it may now seem to those who +do not take long views, had gained upon him. He could not be blind to the +fact that the action and the language of the tory ministers during the +last six months had shown an unquestionable readiness to face the new +necessities of a complex situation with new methods. Why should not a +solution of the present difficulties be sought in the same co-operation of +parties, that had been as advantageous as it was indispensable in other +critical occasions of the century? He recalled other leading precedents of +national crisis. There was the repeal of the Test Act in 1828; catholic +emancipation in 1829; the repeal of the corn law in 1846; the extension of +the franchise in 1867. In the history of these memorable transactions, Mr. +Gladstone perceived it to be extremely doubtful whether any one of these +measures, all carried as they were by tory governments, could have become +law except under the peculiar conditions which secured for each of them +both the aid of the liberal vote in the House of Commons, and the +authority possessed by all tory governments in the House of Lords. What +was the situation? The ministerial party just reached the figure of two +hundred and fifty-one. Mr. Gladstone had said in the course of the +election that for a government in a minority to deal with the Irish +question would not be safe, such an operation could not but be attended by +danger; but the tender of his support to Lord Salisbury was a +demonstration that he thought the operation might still properly be +undertaken.(167) + + + _To Herbert Gladstone._ + + _December 10, 1885._--1. The nationalists have run in political + alliance with the tories for years; more especially for six + months; most of all at the close during the elections, when _they_ + have made us 335 (say) against 250 [conservatives] instead of 355 + against 230. This alliance is therefore at its zenith. 2. The + question of Irish government ought for the highest reasons to be + settled at once, and settled by the allied forces, (1) because + they have the government, (2) because their measure will have fair + play from all, most, or many of us, which a measure of ours would + not have from the tories. 3. As the allied forces are half the + House, so that there is not a majority against them, no + constitutional principle is violated by allowing the present + cabinet to continue undisturbed for the purpose in view. 4. The + plan for Ireland ought to be produced by the government of the + day. Principles may be laid down by others, but not the detailed + interpretation of them in a measure. I have publicly declared I + produce no plan until the government has arrived at some issue + with the Irish, as I hope they will. 5. If the moment ever came + when a plan had to be considered with a view to production on + behalf of the liberal party, I do not at present see how such a + question could be dissociated from another vital question, namely, + who are to be the government. For a government alone can carry a + measure, though some outline of essentials might be put out in a + motion or resolution. + + +Happening in these days to meet in the neighbouring (M98) palace of a whig +magnate, Mr. Balfour, a young but even then an important member of the +government, with whom as a veteran with a junior of high promise he had +long been on terms of friendly intimacy, Mr. Gladstone began an informal +conversation with him upon the condition of Ireland, on the stir that it +was making in men's minds, and on the urgency of the problem. The +conversation he followed up by a letter (Dec. 20). Every post, he said, +bore him testimony to the growing ferment. In urging how great a calamity +it would be if so vast a question should fall into the lines of party +conflict, he expressed his desire to see it taken up by the government, +and to be able, with reserve of necessary freedom, to co-operate in their +design. Mr. Balfour replied with courteous scepticism, but promised to +inform Lord Salisbury. The tactical computation was presumably this, that +Lord Salisbury would lose the Orange group from Ireland and the extreme +tories in England, but would keep the bulk of his party. On the other +hand, Mr. Gladstone in supporting a moderate home rule would drop some of +the old whigs and some of the extreme radicals, but he too would keep the +bulk of the liberal party. Therefore, even if Mr. Parnell and his +followers should find the scheme too moderate to be endurable, still Lord +Salisbury with Mr. Gladstone's help would settle the Irish question as +Peel with the help of the whigs settled the question of corn. + +Both at the time and afterwards Mr. Gladstone was wont to lay great stress +upon the fact that he had opened this suggestion and conveyed this proffer +of support. For instance, he writes to Lord Hartington (Dec. 20): "On +Tuesday I had a conversation with Balfour at Eaton, which in conformity +with my public statements, I think, conveyed informally a hope that they +would act, as the matter is so serious, and as its becoming a party +question would be a great national calamity. I have written to him to say +(without speaking for others) that if they can make a proposal for the +purpose of settling definitely the question of Irish government, I shall +wish with proper reserves to treat it in the spirit in which I have +treated Afghanistan and the Balkan Peninsula." + +The language of Lord Carnarvon when he took office and of Lord Salisbury +at Newport, coupled with the more substantial fact of the alliance between +tories and nationalists before and during the election, no doubt warranted +Mr. Gladstone's assumption that the alliance might continue, and that the +talk of a new policy had been something more than an electioneering +manoeuvre. Yet the importance that he always attached to his offer of +support for a definite settlement, or in plainer English, some sort of +home rule, implies a certain simplicity. He forgot in his patriotic zeal +the party system. The tory leader, capable as his public utterances show +of piercing the exigencies of Irish government to the quick, might +possibly, in the course of responsible consultations with opponents for a +patriotic purpose, have been drawn by argument and circumstance on to the +ground of Irish autonomy, which he had hitherto considered, and considered +with apparent favour, only in the dim distance of abstract meditation or +through the eyes of Lord Carnarvon. The abstract and intellectual +temperament is sometimes apt to be dogged and stubborn; on the other hand, +it is often uncommonly elastic. Lord Salisbury's clear and rationalising +understanding might have been expected to carry him to a thoroughgoing +experiment to get rid of a deep and inveterate disorder. If he thought it +politic to assent to communication with Mr. Parnell, why should he not +listen to overtures from Mr. Gladstone? On the other hand, Lord +Salisbury's hesitation in facing the perils of an Irish settlement in +reliance upon the co-operation of political opponents is far from being +unintelligible. His inferior parliamentary strength would leave him at the +mercy of an extremely formidable ally. He may have anticipated that, apart +from the ordinary temptations of every majority to overthrow a minority, +all the strong natural impulses of the liberal leader, his vehement +sympathy with the principle of nationality, the irresistible attraction +for him of all the grand and eternal commonplaces of liberty and +self-government, would inevitably carry him much further on the Irish road +than either Lord Salisbury himself may have been disposed to travel, or +than he could be sure of persuading his party to follow. He may (M99) well +have seen grounds for pause before committing himself to so delicate and +precarious an enterprise. + + + +II + + +Early in December Lord Granville was at Hawarden, and the two discussed +the crucial perplexities of the hour, not going further than agreement +that responsibility lay with the government, and that the best chance for +settlement lay in large concession. From Hawarden Lord Granville went to +Chatsworth, where he found Lord Spencer on his way to visit Mr. Gladstone; +but nothing important passed among the three leaders thus brought together +under the roof of Lord Hartington. Lord Granville imparted to Lord Spencer +and Lord Hartington that Mr. Gladstone was full of Ireland in the +direction of some large concession of self-government. The host discussed +the thing dispassionately without much expression of opinion. Proceeding +to Hawarden, Lord Spencer was there joined by Lord Rosebery. Their chief +repeated to them the propositions already stated (p. 258). Mr. Gladstone +wrote to Lord Granville (Dec. 9): + + + You have, I think, acted very prudently in not returning here. It + would have been violently canvassed. Your report is as favourable + as could be expected. I think my conversations with Rosebery and + Spencer have also been satisfactory. What I expect is a healthful, + slow fermentation in many minds, working towards the final + product. It is a case of between the devil and the deep sea. But + our position is a bed of roses, compared with that of the + government.... + + +Lord Spencer was hardly second in weight to Mr. Gladstone himself. His +unrivalled experience of Irish administration, his powers of firm decision +in difficult circumstances, and the impression of high public spirit, +uprightness, and fortitude, which had stamped itself deep upon the public +mind, gave him a force of moral authority in an Irish crisis that was +unique. He knew the importance of a firm and continuous system in Ireland. +Such a system he had inflexibly carried out. Extreme concessions had been +extorted from him by the radicals in the cabinet, and when the last moment +of the eleventh hour had arrived, it looked as if he would break up the +government by insisting. Then the government was turned out, and the party +of "law and order" came in. He saw his firm and continuous system at the +first opportunity flouted and discarded. He was aware, as officials and as +the public were aware, that his successor at Dublin Castle made little +secret that he had come over to reverse the policy. Lord Spencer, too, +well knew in the last months of his reign at Dublin that his own system, +in spite of outward success, had made no mark upon Irish disaffection. It +is no wonder that after his visit to Hawarden, he laboured hard at +consideration of the problem that the strange action of government on the +one hand, and the speculations of a trusted leader on the other, had +forced upon him. On Mr. Gladstone he pressed the question whether a +general support should be given to Irish autonomy as a principle, before +particulars were matured. In any case he perceived that the difficulty of +governing Ireland might well be increased by knowledge of the mere fact +that Mr. Gladstone and himself, whether in office or in opposition, were +looking in the direction of autonomy. Somebody said to Mr. Gladstone, +people talked about his turning Spencer round his thumb. "It would be more +true," he replied, "that he had turned me round his." That is, I suppose, +by the lessons of Lord Spencer's experience. + +In the middle of the month Lord Hartington asked Mr. Gladstone for +information as to his views and intentions on the Irish question as +developed by the general election. The rumours in the newspapers, he said, +as well as in private letters, were so persistent that it was hard to +believe them without foundation. Mr. Gladstone replied to Lord Hartington +in a letter of capital importance in its relation to the prospects of +party union (Dec. 17):-- + + + _To Lord Hartington._ + + The whole stream of public excitement is now turned upon me, and I + am pestered with incessant telegrams which I have no defence + against, but either suicide or Parnell's method of + self-concealment. The truth is, I have more or less of opinions + and ideas, but no intentions or negotiations. In these ideas and + opinions there is, I think, little that I have not more or less + conveyed in public declarations; in principle nothing. I will try + to lay them before you. I consider that Ireland has now spoken; + and that an effort ought to be made _by the government_ without + delay to meet her demands for the management by an Irish + legislative body of Irish as distinct from imperial affairs. Only + a government can do it, and a tory government can do it more + easily and safely than any other. There is first a postulate that + the state of Ireland shall be such as to warrant it. The + conditions of an admissible plan are-- + + 1. Union of the empire and due supremacy of parliament. + + 2. Protection for the minority--a difficult matter on which I have + talked much with Spencer, certain points, however, remaining to be + considered. + + 3. Fair allocation of imperial charges. + + 4. A statutory basis seems to me better and safer than the revival + of Grattan's parliament, but I wish to hear much more upon this, + as the minds of men are still in so crude a state on the whole + subject. + + 5. Neither as opinions nor as instructions have I to any one alive + promulgated these ideas as decided on by me. + + 6. As to intentions, I am determined to have none at present, to + leave space to the government--I should wish to encourage them if I + properly could--above all, on no account to say or do anything + which would enable the nationalists to establish rival biddings + between us. If this storm of rumours continues to rage, it may be + necessary for me to write some new letter to my constituents, but + I am desirous to do nothing, simply leaving the field open for the + government until time makes it necessary to decide. Of our late + colleagues I have had most communication with Granville, Spencer, + Rosebery. Would you kindly send this on to Granville? + + I think you will find this in conformity with my public + declarations, though some blanks are filled up. I have in truth + thought it my duty without in the least committing myself or any + one else, to think through the subject as well as I could, being + equally convinced of its urgency and bigness. If H. and N. are + with you, pray show them this letter, which is a very hasty one, + for I am so battered with telegrams that I hardly know whether I + stand on my head or my heels.... + + With regard to the letter I sent you, my opinion is that there is + a Parnell party and a separation or civil war party, and the + question which is to have the upper hand will have to be decided + in a limited time. My earnest recommendation to everybody is not + to commit himself. Upon this rule, under whatever pressure, I + shall act as long as I can. There shall be no private negotiation + carried on by me, but the time may come when I shall be obliged to + speak publicly. Meanwhile I hope you will keep in free and full + communication with old colleagues. Pray put questions if this + letter seems ambiguous.... + + Pray remember that I am at all times ready for personal + communication, should you think it desirable. + + + +III + + +Before receiving this letter, Lord Hartington was startled, as all the +world was, to come on something in the newspapers that instantly created a +new situation. Certain prints published on December 17 what was alleged to +be Mr. Gladstone's scheme for an Irish settlement.(168) It proposed in +terms the creation of an Irish parliament. Further particulars were given +in detail, but with these we need not concern ourselves. The Irish +parliament was enough. The public mind, bewildered as it was by the +situation that the curious issue of the election had created, was thrown +by this announcement into extraordinary commotion. The facts are these. +Mr. Herbert Gladstone visited London at this time (Dec. 14), partly in +consequence of a speech made a few days before by Sir C. Dilke, and of the +club talk which the speech had set going. It was taken to mean that he and +Mr. Chamberlain, the two radical leaders, thought that such an Irish +policy as might be concocted between Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Parnell would +receive no general support from the liberal party, and that it would be +much safer to (M100) leave the tories in power, in the expectation that +some moderate measures of reform might be got from them, and that +meanwhile they would become committed with the Irishmen. Tactics of this +kind were equivalent to the exclusion of Mr. Gladstone, for in every +letter that he wrote he pronounced the Irish question urgent. Mr. Herbert +Gladstone had not been long in London before the impression became strong +upon him, that in the absence of a guiding hint upon the Irish question, +the party might be drifting towards a split. Under this impression he had +a conversation with the chief of an important press agency, who had +previously warned him that the party was all at sea. To this gentleman, in +an interview at which no notes were taken and nothing read from papers--so +little formal was it--he told his own opinions on the assumed opinions of +Mr. Gladstone, all in general terms, and only with the negative view of +preventing friendly writers from falling into traps. Unluckily it would +seem to need at least the genius of a Bismarck, to perform with precision +and success the delicate office of inspiring a modern oracle on the +journalistic tripod. Here, what was intended to be a blameless negative +soon swelled, as the oracular fumes are wont to do, into a giant positive. +In conversations with another journalist, who was also his private friend +(Dec. 15), he used language which the friend took to justify the pretty +unreserved announcement that Mr. Gladstone was about to set to work in +earnest on home rule. + +"With all these matters," Mr. Herbert Gladstone wrote to a near relative +at the time, "my father had no more connection than the man in the moon, +and until each event occurred, he knew no more of it than the man in the +street." Mr. Gladstone on the same day (Dec. 17) told the world by +telegraph that the statement was not an accurate representation of his +views, but a speculation upon them; he added that it had not been +published with his knowledge or authority. There can be no doubt, whatever +else may be said, that the publication was neither to his advantage, nor +in conformity with his view of the crisis. No statesman in our history has +ever been more careful of the golden rule of political strategy--to neglect +of which Frederick the Great traced the failure of Joseph II.--not to take +the second step before you have taken the first. Neither scheme nor +intention had yet crystallised in his mind. Never was there a moment when +every consideration of political prudence more imperatively counselled +silence. Mr. Gladstone's denial of all responsibility was not found to be +an explicit contradiction; it was a repudiation of the two newspapers, but +it was not a repudiation of an Irish parliament. Therefore people believed +the story the more. Friends and foes became more than ever alert, excited, +alarmed, and in not a few cases vehemently angry. This unauthorised +publication with the qualified denial, placed Mr. Gladstone in the very +position which he declared that he would not take up; it made him a +trespasser on ground that belonged to the government. Any action on his +part would in his own view not only be unnecessary; it would be +unwarrantable; it would be in the highest degree injurious and +mischievous.(169) Yet whatever it amounted to, some of this very injury +and mischief followed. + +Lord Hartington no sooner saw what was then called the Hawarden kite +flying in the sky, than he felt its full significance. He at once wrote to +Mr. Gladstone, partly in reply to the letter of the 17th already given, +and pointed with frankness to what would follow. No other subject would be +discussed until the meeting of parliament, and it would be discussed with +the knowledge, or what would pass for knowledge, that in Mr. Gladstone's +opinion the time for concession to Ireland had arrived, and that +concession was practicable. In replying to his former letter Mr. Gladstone +had invited personal communication, and Lord Hartington thought that he +might in a few days avail himself of it, though (December 18) he feared +that little advantage would follow. In spite of urgent arguments from wary +friends, Lord Hartington at once proceeded to write to his chairman in +Lancashire (December 20), informing the public that no proposals of +liberal policy on the Irish demand had been communicated to him; for his +own part he stood to what (M101) he said, at the election. This letter was +the first bugle note of an inevitable conflict between Mr. Gladstone and +those who by and by became the whig dissentients. + +To Lord Hartington resistance to any new Irish policy came easily, alike +by temperament and conviction. Mr. Chamberlain was in a more embarrassing +position; and his first speech after the election showed it. "We are face +to face," he said, "with a very remarkable demonstration by the Irish +people. They have shown that as far as regards the great majority of them, +they are earnestly in favour of a change in the administration of their +government, and of some system which would give them a larger control of +their domestic affairs. Well, we ourselves by our public declarations and +by our liberal principles are pledged to acknowledge the justice of this +claim." What was the important point at the moment, Mr. Chamberlain +declared that in his judgment the time had hardly arrived when the liberal +party could interfere safely or with advantage to settle this great +question. "Mr. Parnell has appealed to the tories. Let him settle accounts +with his new friends. Let him test their sincerity and goodwill; and if he +finds that he has been deceived, he will approach the liberal party in a +spirit of reason and conciliation."(170) + +Translated into the language of parliamentary action, this meant that the +liberals, with a majority of eighty-two over the tories, were to leave the +tory minority undisturbed in office, on the chance of their bringing in +general measures of which liberals could approve, and making Irish +proposals to which Mr. Parnell, in the absence of competition for his +support, might give at least provisional assent. In principle, these +tactics implied, whether right or wrong, the old-fashioned union of the +two British parties against the Irish. Were the two hundred and fifty +tories to be left in power, to carry out all the promises of the general +election, and fulfil all the hopes of a new parliament chosen on a new +system? The Hawarden letter-bag was heavy with remonstrances from newly +elected liberals against any such course. + +Second only to Mr. Gladstone in experience of stirring and perilous +positions, Lord Granville described the situation to one of his colleagues +as nothing less than "thoroughly appalling." A great catastrophe, he said, +might easily result from any of the courses open: from the adoption of +coercion by either government or opposition; from the adoption by either +of concession; from the attempt to leave the state of Ireland as it was. +If, as some think, a great catastrophe did in the end result from the +course that Mr. Gladstone was now revolving in his own mind at Hawarden, +and that he had commended to the meditations of his most important +colleagues, what alternative was feasible? + + + +IV + + +The following letters set out the various movements in a drama that was +now day by day, through much confusion and bewilderment, approaching its +climax. + + + _To Lord Granville._ + + _December 18, '85._--... Thinking incessantly about the matter, + speaking freely and not with finality to you, and to Rosebery and + Spencer--the only colleagues I have seen--I have trusted to writing + to Hartington (who had had Harcourt and Northbrook with him) and + to you for Derby. + + If I have made _any_ step in advance at all, which I am not sure + of, it has most certainly been in the direction of leaving the + field open for the government, encouraging them to act, and + steadily refusing to say or do _anything_ like negotiation on my + own behalf. So I think Derby will see that in the main I am + certainly with him.... What will Parnell do? What will the + government do? How can we decide without knowing or trying to + know, both if we can, but at any rate the second? This letter is + at your discretion to use in proper quarters. + + _December 22._--In the midst of these troubles, I look to you as + the great feud-composer, and your note just received is just what + I should have hoped and expected. Hartington wrote to me on + Saturday that he was going up to see Goschen, but as I thought + inviting a letter from me, which I wrote [December 17, above], and + it was with no small surprise that I read him yesterday in the + _Times_. However, I repeated yesterday to R. Grosvenor all that I + have said to you about what seems to me the plain duty of the + _party_, in the event of a severance between nationalists and + tories. Meantime I care not who knows my anxiety to prevent that + severance, and for that reason among others to avoid all + communications of ideas and intentions which could tend to bring + it about. + + +On December 27, Lord Granville wrote to Mr. Gladstone at Hawarden:-- + + + I have been asked to request you to call a cabinet of your late + colleagues to discuss the present state of affairs. I have + declined, giving my reasons, which appear to me to be good. At the + same time, I think it would calm some fussiness that exists, if + you let it be known to a few that you will be in town and ready + for consultation, before the actual meeting. + + +Mr. Gladstone answered, as those acquainted with his modes of mind might +have been sure that he would:-- + + + _December 28._--Thank you for stopping the request to which your + letter of yesterday refers. A cabinet does not exist out of + office, and no one in his senses could covenant to call _the late + cabinet_ together, I think, even if there were something on which + it was ready to take counsel, which at this moment there is not. + On the other hand, you will have seen from my letter that the idea + before me has been that of going unusual lengths in the way of + consulting beforehand, not only leading men but the party, or + undertaking some special obligation to be assured of their + concurrence generally, before undertaking new responsibilities. + + The one great difficulty in proceeding to consult now, I think, is + that we cannot define the situation for ourselves, as an essential + element of it is the relation between nationalists and tories, + which they--not we--have to settle. If we meet on Tuesday 12th to + choose a Speaker, so far as I can learn, regular business will not + begin before the 19th. By the 12th we shall have given ourselves a + much better chance of knowing how the two parties stand together; + and there will be plenty of time for our consultations. Thus at + least I map out the time; pray give me any comments you think + required. + + I begged you to keep Derby informed; would you kindly do the same + with Harcourt? Rosebery goes to London to-morrow. + + +Two days before this resistance to the request for a meeting, he had +written to Lord Granville with an important enclosure:-- + + + _December 26, 1885._--I have put down on paper in a memorandum as + well as I can, the possible forms of the question which may have + to be decided at the opening of the session. I went over the + ground in conversation with you, and afterwards with R. Grosvenor, + and I requested R. Grosvenor, who was going to London, to speak to + Hartington in that sense. After his recent act of publication, I + should not like to challenge him by sending him the written paper. + Please, however, to send it on to Spencer, who will send it back + to me. + + +The memorandum itself must here be quoted, for it sets out in form, +succinct, definite, and exhaustive, the situation as Mr. Gladstone at that +time regarded it:-- + + + _Secret._ _Hawarden Castle, Chester, Dec. 26, 1885._ + + 1. Government should act. + + 2. Nationalists should support them in acting. + + 3. I have done what I can to bring about (1). I am confident the + nationalists know my desire. They also publicly know there can be + no plan from me in the present circumstances. + + 4. If (1) and (2) come about, we, who are half the House of + Commons, may under the circumstances be justified in waiting for + the production of a plan. + + 5. This would be in every sense the best situation. + + 6. But if ministers refuse to take up the question--or if from + their not actually taking it up, or on any grounds, the + nationalists publicly dissolve their alliance with them, the + government then have a party of 250 in the face of 420, and in the + face of 335 who were elected to oppose them. + + 7. The basis of our system is that the ministry shall have the + confidence of the House of Commons. The exception is, when it is + about to appeal to the people. The rule applies most strongly when + an election has just taken place. Witness 1835, 1841, 1859, and + the _three_ last elections, after each of which, the rule has been + acted upon, silent inference standing instead of a vote. + + 8. The present circumstances warrant, I think, an understanding as + above, between ministers and the nationalists; but not one between + us and the nationalists. + + 9. If from any cause the alliance of the tories and nationalists + which did exist, and presumably does exist, should be known to be + dissolved, I do not see how it is possible for what would then be + the liberal majority to shrink from the duty appertaining to it as + such, and to leave the business of government to the 250 men whom + it was elected to oppose. + + 10. This looks towards an amendment to the Address, praying her + Majesty to choose ministers possessed of the confidence of the + House of Commons. + + 11. Which under the circumstances should, I think, have the + sanction of a previous meeting of the party. + + 12. An attempt would probably be made to traverse the proceeding + by drawing me on the Irish question. + + 13. It is impossible to justify the contention that as _a + condition previous_ to asserting the right and duty of a + parliamentary majority, the party or the leaders should commit + themselves on a measure about which they can form no final + judgment, until by becoming the government they can hold all the + necessary communications. + + 14. But in all likelihood jealousy will be stronger than logic; + and to obviate such jealousy, it might be right for me [to go] to + the very farthest allowable point. + + 15. The case supposed is, the motion made--carried--ministers + resign--Queen sends for me. + + Might I go so far as to say at the first meeting that in the case + supposed, I should only accept the trust if assured of the + adequate, that is of the general, support of the party to a plan + of duly guarded home rule? + + 16. If that support were withheld, it would be my duty to stand + aside. + + 17. In that event it would, I consider, become the duty of that + portion of the party, which was not prepared to support me in an + effort to frame a plan of duly guarded home rule, to form a + government itself if invited by the Queen to do so. + + 18. With me the Irish question would of course remain paramount; + but preferring a liberal government without an adequate Irish + measure to a tory government similarly lacking, such a liberal + government would be entitled to the best general support I could + give it. + + +The reference of this memorandum to Lords Granville and Spencer was +regarded as one of the first informal steps towards a consultation of +leaders. On receiving Lord Spencer's reply on the point of procedure Mr. +Gladstone wrote to him (December 30):-- + + + _To Lord Spencer._ + + I understand your idea to be that inasmuch as leaders of the party + are likely to be divided on the subject of a bold Irish measure, + and a divergence might be exhibited in a vote on the Address, it + may be better to allow the tory government, with 250 supporters in + a house of 670, to assume the direction of the session and + continue the administration of imperial affairs. I do not + undervalue the dangers of the other course. But let us look at + this one-- + + 1. It is an absolute novelty. + + 2. Is it not a novelty which strikes at the root of our + parliamentary government? under which the first duty of a majority + freshly elected, according to a uniform course of precedent and a + very clear principle, is to establish a government which has its + confidence. + + 3. Will this abdication of primary duty avert or materially + postpone the (apprehended) disruption of the party? Who can + guarantee us against an Irish or independent amendment to the + Address? The government must in any case produce at once their + Irish plan. What will have been gained by waiting for it? The + Irish will know three things--(1) That I am conditionally in favour + of at least examining their demand. (2) That from the nature of + the case, I must hold this question paramount to every interest of + party. (3) That a part, to speak within bounds, of the liberal + party will follow me in this respect. Can it be supposed that in + these circumstances they will long refrain, or possibly refrain at + all? With their knowledge of possibilities behind them, _dare_ + they long refrain? An immense loss of dignity in a great crisis of + the empire would attend the forcing of our hands by the Irish or + otherwise. There is no necessity for an instant decision. My + desire is thoroughly to shake up all the materials of the + question. The present leaning of my mind is to consider the faults + and dangers of abstention greater than those of a more decided + course. Hence, in part, my great anxiety that the present + government should move. Please send this on to Granville. + + +Finding Mr. Gladstone immovable at Hawarden, four of the members of the +last liberal cabinet of both wings met at Devonshire House on New Year's +day. All, save one, found themselves hopeless, especially after the +Hawarden revelations, as to the possibility of governing Ireland by mere +repression. Lord Hartington at once communicated the desires of the +conclave for information of his views and designs. Mr. Gladstone replied +(January 2, 1886):-- + + + On the 17th December I communicated to you _all_ the opinions I + had formed on the Irish question. But on the 21st you published in + the _Times_ a re-affirmation of opposite opinions. + + On the Irish question, I have not a word to add to that letter. I + am indeed doing what little the pressure of correspondence + permits, to prepare myself by study and reflection. My object was + to facilitate study by you and others--I cannot say it was wholly + gained. But I have done nothing, and shall do nothing, to convert + those opinions into intentions, for I have not the material before + me. I do not know whether my "postulate" is satisfied.... I have + taken care by my letter of the 17th that you should know my + opinions _en bloc_. You are quite welcome to show it, if you think + fit, to those whom you met. But Harcourt has, I believe, seen it, + and the others, if I mistake not, know the substance.... There is + no doubt that a very grave situation is upon us, a little sooner + or a little later. All my desire and thought was how to render it + less grave, for next to the demands of a question far higher than + all or any party interests, is my duty to labour for the + consolidation of the party.... Pray show this letter, if you think + fit, to those on whose behalf you write. I propose to be available + in London about 4 P.M., for any who wish to see me. + + + +V + + +Signals and intimations were not wholly wanting from the Irish camp. It +was known among the subalterns in that rather impenetrable region, partly +by the light of nature, partly by the indiscretions of dubiously +accredited ambassadors, that Mr. Gladstone was not disposed on any terms +to meet the Irish demand by more coercion. For the liberal party as a +whole the Irish had a considerable aversion. The violent scenes that +attended the Coercion bill of 1881, the interchange of hard words, the +suspensions, the imprisonments--all mechanically acquiesced in by the +ministerial majority--had engendered both bitterness and contempt. The +Irishmen did not conceal the satisfaction with which they saw the defeat +of some of those liberals who had openly gloated over their arrests and +all the rest of their humiliations. Mr. Gladstone, it is true, had laid a +heavy and chastening hand upon them. Yet, even when the struggle had been +fiercest, with the quick intuition of a people long oppressed, they +detected a note of half-sympathetic passion which convinced them that he +would be their friend if he could, and would help them when he might. + +Mr. Parnell was not open to impressions of this order. He had a long +memory for injuries, and he had by no means satisfied himself that the +same injuries might not recur. As soon as the general election was over, +he had at once set to work upon the result. Whatever might be right for +others, his line of tactics was plain--to ascertain from which of the two +English parties he was most likely to obtain the response that he desired +to the Irish demand, and then to concert the procedure best fitted to +place that party in power. He was at first not sure whether Lord Salisbury +would renounce the Irish alliance after it had served the double purpose +of ousting the liberals from office, and then reducing their numbers at +the election. He seems also to have counted upon further communications +with Lord Carnarvon, and this expectation was made known to Mr. Gladstone, +who expressed his satisfaction at the news, though it was also made known +to him that Mr. Parnell doubted (M102) Lord Carnarvon's power to carry out +his unquestionably favourable dispositions. He at the same time very +naturally did his best to get some light as to Mr. Gladstone's own frame +of mind. If neither party would offer a solution of the problem of Irish +government, Mr. Parnell would prefer to keep the tories in office, as they +would at least work out gradually a solution of the problems of Irish +land. To all these indirect communications Mr. Gladstone's consistent +reply was that Mr. Parnell's immediate business was with the government of +the day, first, because only the government could handle the matter; +second, because a tory government with the aid that it would receive from +liberals, might most certainly, safely, and quickly settle it. He declined +to go beyond the ground already publicly taken by him, unless by way of a +further public declaration. On to this new ground he would not go, until +assured that the government had had a fair opportunity given them. + +By the end of December Mr. Parnell decided that there was not the +slightest possibility of any settlement being offered by the conservatives +under the existing circumstances. "Whatever chance there was," he said, +"disappeared when the seemingly authoritative statements of Mr. +Gladstone's intention to deal with the question were published." He +regarded it as quite probable that in spite of a direct refusal from the +tories, the Irish members might prefer to pull along with them, rather +than run the risk of fresh coercion from the liberals, should the latter +return to power. "Supposing," he argued, "that the liberals came into +office, and that they offered a settlement of so incomplete a character +that we could not accept it, or that owing to defections they could not +carry it, should we not, if any long interval occurred before the proposal +of a fresh settlement, incur considerable risk of further coercion?" At +any rate, they had better keep the government in, rather than oust them in +order to admit Lord Hartington or Mr. Chamberlain with a new coercion bill +in their pockets. + +Foreseeing these embarrassments, Mr. Gladstone wrote in a final memorandum +(December 24) of this eventful year, "I used every effort to obtain a +clear majority at the election, and failed. I am therefore at present a +man in chains. Will ministers bring in a measure? If 'Aye,' I see my way. +If 'No': that I presume puts an end to all relations of confidence between +nationalists and tories. If that is done, I have then upon me, as is +evident, the responsibilities of _the leader of a majority_. But what if +neither Aye nor No can be had--will the nationalists then continue their +support and thus relieve me from responsibility, or withdraw their support +[from the government] and thus change essentially my position? Nothing but +a public or published dissolution of a relation of amity publicly sealed +could be of any avail." + +So the year ended. + + + + +Chapter IV. Fall Of The First Salisbury Government. (January 1886) + + + Historians coolly dissect a man's thoughts as they please; and + label them like specimens in a naturalist's cabinet. Such a thing, + they argue, was done for mere personal aggrandizement; such a + thing for national objects; such a thing from high religious + motives. In real life we may be sure it was not so.--GARDINER. + + + +I + + +Ministers meanwhile hesitated, balanced, doubted, and wavered. Their party +was in a minority, and so they had a fair plea for resigning and not +meeting the new parliament. On the other hand, they had a fair plea for +continuing in office, for though they were in a minority, no other party +had a majority. Nobody knew what the Hartington whigs would do, or what +the Irish would do. There seemed to be many chances for expert angling. +Then with what policy were they to meet the House of Commons? They might +adhere to the conciliatory policy of the summer and autumn, keep clear of +repressive legislation, and make a bold attempt in the direction of +self-government. Taking the same courageous plunge as was taken by +Wellington and Peel in 1829, by Peel in the winter of 1845, by Disraeli in +1867, they might carry the declarations made by Lord Carnarvon on behalf +of the government in July to their only practical conclusion. But then +they would have broken up their party, as Wellington and Peel broke it up; +and Lord Salisbury may have asked himself whether the national emergency +warranted the party risk. + +Resistance then to the Irish demand being assumed, various tactics came +under review. They might begin by asking for a vote of confidence, saying +plainly that if they were turned out and Mr. Gladstone were put in, he +would propose home rule. In that case a majority was not wholly +impossible, for the whig wing might come over, nor was it quite certain +that the Irish would help to put the government out. At any rate the +debate would force Mr. Gladstone into the open, and even if they did not +have a majority, they would be in a position to advise immediate +dissolution on the issue of home rule. + +The only other course open to the cabinet was to turn their backs upon the +professions of the summer; to throw overboard the Carnarvon policy as a +cargo for which there was no longer a market; to abandon a great +experiment after a ludicrously short trial; and to pick up again the old +instrument of coercion, which not six months before they had with such +elaborate ostentation condemned and discarded. This grand manoeuvre was +kept carefully in the background, until there had been time for the whole +chapter of accidents to exhaust itself, and it had become certain that no +trump cards were falling to the ministerial hand. Not until this was quite +clear, did ministers reveal their poignant uneasiness about the state of +Ireland. + +In the middle of October (1885) Lord Randolph Churchill visited the +viceroy in Dublin, and found him, as he afterwards said, extremely anxious +and alarmed at the growing power of the National League. Yet the viceroy +was not so anxious and alarmed as to prevent Lord Randolph from saying at +Birmingham a month after, on November 20, that up to the present time +their decision to preserve order by the same laws as in England had been +abundantly justified, and that on the whole crime and outrage had greatly +diminished. This was curious, and shows how tortuous was the crisis. Only +a fortnight later the cabinet met (December 2), and heard of the +extraordinary development and unlimited resources of the league. All the +rest of the month of December,--so the public were by and by informed,--the +condition of Ireland was the subject of the most anxious consideration. +With great deliberation, a decision was at length reached. It was that +ordinary law had broken down, and that exceptional means of repression +were indispensable. Then a (M103) serious and embarrassing incident +occurred. Lord Carnarvon "threw up the government of Ireland," and was +followed by Sir William Hart Dyke, the chief secretary.(171) A measure of +coercion was prepared, its provisions all drawn in statutory form, but who +was to warrant the necessity for it to parliament?(172) + +Though the viceroy's retirement was not publicly known until the middle of +January, yet so early as December 17 the prime minister had applied to Mr. +Smith, then secretary of state for war, to undertake the duties of Irish +government.(173) This was one of the sacrifices that no man of public +spirit can ever refuse, and Mr. Smith, who had plenty of public spirit, +became Irish secretary. Still when parliament assembled more than a month +after Lord Salisbury's letter to his new chief secretary, no policy was +announced. Even on the second night of the session Mr. Smith answered +questions for the war office. The parliamentary mystification was +complete. Who, where, and what was the Irish government? + +The parliamentary session was rapidly approaching, and Mr. Gladstone had +good information of the various quarters whence the wind was blowing. +Rumours reached him (January 9) from the purlieus of Parliament Street, +that general words of confidence in the government would be found in the +Queen's Speech. Next he was told of the report that an amendment would be +moved by the ultras of law and order,--the same who had mutinied on the +Maamtrasna debate,--censuring ministers for having failed to uphold the +authority of the Queen. The same correspondent (January 15), who was well +able to make his words good, wrote to Mr. Gladstone that even though home +rule might perhaps not be in a parliamentary sense before the House, it +was in a most distinct manner before the country, and no political party +could avoid expressing an opinion upon it. On the same day another +colleague of hardly less importance drew attention to an article in a +journal supposed to be inspired by Lord Randolph, to the effect that +conciliation in Ireland had totally failed, that Lord Carnarvon had +retired because that policy was to be reversed and he was not the man for +the rival policy of vigour, and finally, that the new policy would +probably be announced in the Queen's Speech; in no circumstances would it +be possible to avoid a general action on the Address. + + + +II + + +The current of domestic life at Hawarden, in the midst of all these +perplexities, flowed in its usual ordered channels. The engagement of his +second daughter stirred Mr. Gladstone's deepest interest. He practised +occasional woodcraft with his sons, though ending his seventy-sixth year. +He spends a morning in reviewing his private money affairs, the first time +for three years. He never misses church. He corrects the proofs of an +article on Huxley; carries on tolerably profuse correspondence, coming to +very little; he works among his books, and arranges his papers; reads +Beaconsfield's _Home Letters_, Lord Stanhope's _Pitt_, Macaulay's _Warren +Hastings_, which he counts the most brilliant of all that illustrious +man's performances; Maine on _Popular Government_; _King Solomon's Mines_; +something of Tolstoy; Dicey's _Law of the Constitution_, where a chapter +on semi-sovereign assemblies made a deep impression on him in regard to +the business that now absorbed his mind. Above all, he nearly every day +reads Burke: "_December 18._--Read Burke; what a magazine of wisdom on +Ireland and America. _January 9._--Made many extracts from Burke--_sometimes +almost divine_."(174) We may easily imagine how the heat from that +profound and glowing furnace still further inflamed strong purposes and +exalted resolution in Mr. Gladstone. The Duke of Argyll wrote to say that +he was sorry to hear of the study of Burke: "Your _perfervidum ingenium +Scoti_ does not need being touched with a live coal from that Irish altar. +Of course your reference to Burke indicates a tendency to compare our +position as regards Ireland to the position of George III. towards the +colonies. I deny that there is any parallelism or even analogy." (M104) It +was during these months that he renewed his friendly intercourse with +Cardinal Manning, which had been suspended since the controversy upon the +Vatican pamphlets. In November Mr. Gladstone sent Manning his article on +the "Dawn of Creation." The cardinal thanked him for the paper--"still more +for your words, which revive the memories of old days. Fifty-five years +are a long reach of life in which to remember each other. We have twice +been parted, but as the path declines, as you say, it narrows, and I am +glad that we are again nearing each other as we near our end.... If we +cannot unite in the realm where 'the morning stars sang together' we +should be indeed far off." Much correspondence followed on the articles +against Huxley. Then his birthday came:-- + + + Postal deliveries and other arrivals were seven hundred. + Immeasurable kindness almost overwhelmed us. There was also the + heavy and incessant weight of the Irish question, which offers + daily phases more or less new. It was a day for intense + thankfulness, but, alas, not for recollection and detachment. When + will that day come? Until then, why string together the + commonplaces and generalities of great things, really unfelt?... I + am certain there is one keen and deep desire to be extricated from + the life of contention in which a chain of incidents has for the + last four years detained me against all my will. Then, indeed, I + should reach an eminence from which I could look before and after. + But I know truly that I am not worthy of this liberty with which + Christ makes free his elect. In his own good time, something, I + trust, will for me too be mercifully devised. + + + +III + + +At the end of this long travail, which anybody else would have found all +the sorer for the isolation and quietude that it was ever Mr. Gladstone's +fashion in moments of emergency to seek, he reached London on January +11th; two days later he took the oath in the new parliament, whose life +was destined to be so short; and then he found himself on the edge of the +whirlpool. Three days before formalities were over, and the House +assembled for the despatch of business, he received a communication that +much perturbed him, and shed an ominous light on the prospect of liberal +unity. This communication he described to Lord Granville:-- + + + _21 Carlton House Terrace, Jan. 18, 1886._--Hartington writes to me + a letter indicating the possibility that on Thursday, while I + announce with reasons a policy of silence and reserve, he may feel + it his duty to declare his determination "to maintain the + legislative union," that is to proclaim a policy (so I understand + the phrase) of absolute resistance without examination to the + demand made by Ireland through five-sixths of her members. This is + to play the tory game with a vengeance. They are now, most rashly + not to say more, working the Irish question to split the liberal + party. + + It seems to me that if a gratuitous declaration of this kind is + made, it must produce an explosion; and that in a week's time + Hartington will have to consider whether he will lead the liberal + party himself, or leave it to chaos. He will make my position + impossible. When, in conformity with the wishes expressed to me, I + changed my plans and became a candidate at the general election, + my motives were two. The _first_, a hope that I might be able to + contribute towards some pacific settlement of the Irish question. + The _second_, a desire to prevent the splitting of the party, of + which there appeared to be an immediate danger. The second object + has thus far been attained. But it may at any moment be lost, and + the most disastrous mode of losing it perhaps would be that now + brought into view. It would be certainly opposed to my convictions + and determination, to attempt to lead anything like a home rule + opposition, and to make this subject--the strife of nations--the + dividing line between parties. This being so, I do not see how I + could as leader survive a gratuitous declaration of opposition to + me such as Hartington appears to meditate. If he still meditates + it, ought not the party to be previously informed? + + Pray, consider whether you can bring this subject before him, less + invidiously than I. I have explained to you and I believe to him, + and I believe you approve, my general idea, that we ought not to + join issue with the government on what is called home rule (which + indeed the social state of Ireland may effectually thrust aside + for the time); and that still less ought we to join issue among + ourselves, if we have a choice, unless and until we are called + upon to consider whether or not to take the government. I for one + will have nothing to do with ruining the party if I can avoid it. + + +This letter discloses with precision the critical state of facts on the +eve of action being taken. Issue was not directly joined with ministers on +home rule; no choice was found to exist as to taking the government; and +this brought deep and long-standing diversities among the liberal leaders +to the issue that Mr. Gladstone had strenuously laboured to avoid from the +beginning of 1885 to the end. + + + +IV + + +The Irish paragraphs in the speech from the throne (January 21, 1886) were +abstract, hypothetical, and vague. The sovereign was made to say that +during the past year there had been no marked increase of serious crime, +but there was in many places a concerted resistance to the enforcement of +legal obligations, and the practice of intimidation continued to exist. +"If," the speech went on, "as my information leads me to apprehend, the +existing provisions of the law should prove to be inadequate to cope with +these growing evils, I look with confidence to your willingness to invest +my government with all necessary powers." There was also an abstract +paragraph about the legislative union between the two islands. + +In a fragment composed in the autumn of 1897, Mr. Gladstone has described +the anxiety with which he watched the course of proceedings on the +Address:-- + + + I had no means of forming an estimate how far the bulk of the + liberal party could be relied on to support a measure of home + rule, which should constitute an Irish parliament subject to the + supremacy of the parliament at Westminster. I was not sanguine on + this head. Even in the month of December, when rumours of my + intentions were afloat, I found how little I could reckon on a + general support. Under the circumstances I certainly took upon + myself a grave responsibility. I attached value to the acts and + language of Lord Carnarvon, and the other favourable + manifestations. Subsequently we had but too much evidence of a + deliberate intention to deceive the Irish, with a view to their + support at the election. But in the actual circumstances I thought + it my duty to encourage the government of Lord Salisbury to settle + the Irish question, so far as I could do this by promises of my + personal support. Hence my communication with Mr. Balfour, which + has long been in the hands of the public. + + It has been unreasonably imputed to me, that the proposal of home + rule was a bid for the Irish vote. But my desire for the + adjustment of the question by the tories is surely a conclusive + answer. The fact is that I could not rely upon the collective + support of the liberals; but I could and did rely upon the support + of so many of them as would make the success of the measure + certain, in the event of its being proposed by the tory + administration. It would have resembled in substance the liberal + support given to Roman catholic emancipation in 1829, and the + repeal of the corn laws in 1846. Before the meeting of parliament, + I had to encounter uncomfortable symptoms among my principal + friends, of which I think ---- was the organ. + + I was, therefore, by no means eager for the dismissal of the tory + government, though it counted but 250 supporters out of 670, as + long as there were hopes of its taking up the question, or at all + events doing nothing to aggravate the situation. + + When we came to the debate on the Address I had to face a night of + extreme anxiety. The speech from the throne referred in a menacing + way to Irish disturbances, and contained a distinct declaration in + support of the legislative union. On referring to the clerks at + the table to learn in what terms the Address in reply to the + speech was couched, I found it was a "thanking" address, which did + not commit the House to an opinion. What I dreaded was lest some + one should have gone back to the precedent of 1833, when the + Address in reply to the speech was virtually made the vehicle of a + solemn declaration in favour of the Act of Union.(175) + + Home rule, rightly understood, altered indeed the terms of the Act + of Union, but adhered to its principle, which was the supremacy of + the imperial parliament. Still [it] was pretty certain that any + declaration of a substantive character, at the epoch we had now + reached, would in its moral effect shut the doors of the existing + parliament against home rule. + + In a speech of pronounced clearness, Mr. Arthur Elliot endeavoured + to obtain a movement in this direction. I thought it would be + morally fatal if this tone were extensively adopted on the liberal + side; so I determined on an effort to secure reserve for the time, + that our freedom might not be compromised. I, therefore, ventured + upon describing myself as an "old parliamentary hand," and in that + capacity strongly advised the party to keep its own counsel, and + await for a little the development of events. Happily this counsel + was taken; had it been otherwise, the early formation of a + government favourable to home rule would in all likelihood have + become an impossibility. For although our Home Rule bill was + eventually supported by more than 300 members, I doubt whether, if + the question had been prematurely raised on the night of the + Address, as many as 200 would have been disposed to act in that + sense. + + +In the debate on the Address the draft Coercion bill reposing in the +secret box was not mentioned. Sir Michael Hicks Beach, the leader of the +House, described the mischiefs then afoot, and went on to say that whether +they could be dealt with by ordinary law, or would require exceptional +powers, were questions that would receive the new chief secretary's +immediate attention,(176) Parliament was told that the minister had +actually gone to Ireland to make anxious inquiry into these questions. Mr. +Smith arrived in Dublin at six o'clock on the morning of January 24, and +he quitted it at six o'clock on the evening of the 26th. He was sworn in +at the Castle in the forenoon of that day.(177) His views must have +reached the cabinet in London not later than the morning of the 26th. Not +often can conclusions on such a subject have been ripened with such +electrifying precocity. + +"I intend to reserve my own freedom of action," Mr. Gladstone said; "there +are many who have taken their seats for the first time upon these benches, +and I may avail myself of the privilege of old age to offer a +recommendation. I would tell them of my own intention to keep my counsel +and reserve my own freedom, until I see the moment and the occasion when +there may be a prospect of public benefit in endeavouring to make a +movement forward, and I will venture to recommend them, as an old +parliamentary hand, to do the same."(178) Something in this turn of phrase +kindled lively irritation, and it drew bitter reproaches from more than +one of the younger whigs. The angriest of these remonstrances was listened +to from beginning to end without a solitary cheer from the liberal +benches. The great bulk of the party took their leader's advice. Of course +the reserve of his speech was as significant of Irish concession, as the +most open declaration would have been. Yet there was no rebellion. This +was felt by ministers to be a decisive omen of the general support likely +to be given to Mr. Gladstone's supposed policy by his own party. Mr. +Parnell offered some complimentary remarks on the language of Mr. +Gladstone, but he made no move in the direction of an amendment. The +public outside looked on with stupefaction. For two or three days all +seemed to be in suspense. But the two ministerial leaders in the Commons +knew how to read the signs. What Sir Michael (M105) Hicks Beach and Lord +Randolph foresaw, for one thing was an understanding between Mr. Gladstone +and the Irishmen, and for another, they foresaw the acquiescence of the +mass of the liberals. This twofold discovery cleared the ground for a +decision. After the second night's debate ministers saw that the only +chance now was to propose coercion. Then it was that the ephemeral chief +secretary had started on his voyage for the discovery of something that +had already been found. + + + +V + + +On the afternoon of the 26th, the leader of the House gave notice that two +days later the new Irish secretary would ask leave to introduce a bill +dealing with the National League, with intimidation, and with the +protection of life, property, and public order. This would be followed by +a bill dealing with land, pursuing in a more extensive sense the policy of +the Ashbourne Act of the year before. The great issue was thus at last +brought suddenly and nakedly into view. When the Irish secretary reached +Euston Square on the morning of the 27th, he found that his government was +out. + +The crucial announcement of the 26th of January compelled a prompt +determination, and Mr. Gladstone did not shrink. A protest against a +return to coercion as the answer of the British parliament to the +extraordinary demonstration from Ireland, carried with it the +responsibility of office, and this responsibility Mr. Gladstone had +resolved to undertake. + + + The determining event of these transactions,--he says in the + fragment already cited,--was the declaration of the government that + they would propose coercion for Ireland. This declaration put an + end to all the hopes and expectations associated with the mission + of Lord Carnarvon. Not perhaps in mere logic, but practically, it + was now plain that Ireland had no hope from the tories. This being + so, my rule of action was changed at once, and I determined on + taking any and every legitimate opportunity to remove the existing + government from office. Immediately on making up my mind about the + rejection of the government, I went to call upon Sir William + Harcourt and informed him as to my intentions and the grounds of + them. He said, "What! Are you prepared to go forward without + either Hartington or Chamberlain?" I answered, "Yes." I believe it + was in my mind to say, if I did not actually say it, that I was + prepared to go forward without anybody. That is to say without any + known and positive assurance of support. This was one of the great + imperial occasions which call for such resolutions. + + +An amendment stood upon the notice-paper in the name of Mr. Collings, +regretting the omission from the speech of measures for benefiting the +rural labourer; and on this motion an immediate engagement was fought. +Time was important. An exasperating debate on coercion with obstruction, +disorder, suspensions, would have been a damning prologue to any policy of +accommodation. The true significance of the motion was not concealed. On +the agrarian aspect of it, the only important feature was the adhesion of +Mr. Gladstone, now first formally declared, to the policy of Mr. +Chamberlain. The author of the agrarian policy fought out once more on the +floor of the House against Lord Hartington and Mr. Goschen the battle of +the platform. It was left for Sir Michael Hicks Beach to remind the House +that, whatever the honest mover might mean, the rural labourer had very +little to do with the matter, and he implored the gentlemen in front of +him to think twice and thrice before they committed the future of this +country to the gravest dangers that ever awaited it. + +The debate was not prolonged. The discussion opened shortly before dinner, +and by one o'clock the division was taken. The government found itself in +a minority of 79. The majority numbered 331, composed of 257 liberals and +74 Irish nationalists. The ministerialist minority was 252, made up of 234 +tories and 18 liberals. Besides the fact that Lord Hartington, Mr. +Goschen, and Sir Henry James voted with ministers, there was a still more +ominous circumstance. No fewer than 76 liberals were absent, including +among them the imposing personality of Mr. Bright. In a memorandum written +for submission to the Queen a few days later, Mr. Gladstone said, "I must +express my personal conviction that had the late ministers remained in +office and proceeded with their proposed plan of repression, and even had +that plan received my support, it would have ended in a disastrous +parliamentary failure."(179) + +The next day (Jan. 28) ministers of course determined to resign. A liberal +member of parliament was overtaken by Lord Randolph on the parade ground, +walking away from the cabinet. "You look a little pensive," said the +liberal. "Yes; I was thinking. I have plenty to think of. Well, we are +out, and you are in." "I suppose so," the liberal replied, "we are in for +six months; we dissolve; you are in for six years." "Not at all sure," +said Lord Randolph; "let me tell you one thing most solemnly and most +surely: the conservative party are not going to be made the instrument of +the Irish for turning out Mr. Gladstone, if he refuses repeal." "Nobody," +observed the sententious liberal, "should so often as the politician say +the prayer not to be led into temptation. Remember your doings last +summer." + + + + +Chapter V. The New Policy. (1886) + + + In reason all government without the consent of the governed is + the very definition of slavery; but in fact eleven men well armed + will certainly subdue one single man in his shirt.... Those who + have used to cramp liberty have gone so far as to resent even the + liberty of complaining; although a man upon the rack was never + known to be refused the liberty of roaring as loud as he thought + fit.--JONATHAN SWIFT. + + + +I + + +The tory government was defeated in the sitting of Tuesday (Jan. 26). On +Friday, "at a quarter after midnight, in came Sir H. Ponsonby, with verbal +commission from her Majesty, which I at once accepted."(180) The whole of +Saturday was spent in consultations with colleagues. On Sunday, Mr. +Gladstone records, "except church, my day from one to eight was given to +business. I got only fragmentary reading of the life of the admirable Mr. +Suckling and other books. At night came a painful and harassing succession +of letters, and my sleep for once gave way; yet for the soul it was +profitable, driving me to the hope that the strength of God might be made +manifest in my weakness." On Monday, Feb. 1, he went to attend the Queen. +"Off at 9.10 to Osborne. Two audiences: an hour and half in all. +Everything good in the main points. Large discourse upon Ireland in +particular. Returned at 7-3/4. I kissed hands and am thereby prime minister +for the third time. But, as I trust, for a brief time only. Slept well, +_D.G._" + +The first question was, how many of his colleagues in the liberal cabinet +that went out of office six months before, would now embark with him in +the voyage into stormy and unexplored seas. I should suppose that no such +difficulties (M106) had ever confronted the attempt at making a cabinet +since Canning's in 1827. + +Mr. Gladstone begins the fragment from which I have already quoted with a +sentence or two of retrospect, and then proceeds:-- + + + In 1885 (I think) Chamberlain had proposed a plan accepted by + Parnell (and supported by me) which, without establishing in + Ireland a national parliament, made very considerable advances + towards self-government. It was rejected by a small majority of + the cabinet--Granville said at the time he would rather take home + rule. Spencer thought it would introduce confusion into executive + duties. + + On the present occasion a full half of the former ministers + declined to march with me. Spencer and Granville were my main + supports. Chamberlain and Trevelyan went with me, their basis + being that we were to seek for some method of dealing with the + Irish case other than coercion. What Chamberlain's motive was I do + not clearly understand. It was stated that he coveted the Irish + secretaryship.... To have given him the office would at that time + have been held to be a declaration of war against the Irish party. + + Selborne nibbled at the offer, but I felt that it would not work, + and did not use great efforts to bring him in.(181) + + When I had accepted the commission, Ponsonby brought me a message + from the Queen that she hoped there would not be any Separation in + the cabinet. The word had not at that time acquired the offensive + meaning in which it has since been stereotyped by the so-called + unionists; and it was easy to frame a reply in general but strong + words. I am bound to say that at Osborne in the course of a long + conversation, the Queen was frank and free, and showed none of the + "armed neutrality," which as far as I know has been the best + definition of her attitude in the more recent years towards a + liberal minister. Upon the whole, when I look back upon 1886, and + consider the inveterate sentiment of hostility flavoured with + contempt towards Ireland, which has from time immemorial formed + the basis of English, tradition, I am much more disposed to be + thankful for what we then and afterwards accomplished, than to + murmur or to wonder at what we did not. + + +What Mr. Gladstone called the basis of his new government was set out in a +short memorandum, which he read to each of those whom he hoped to include +in his cabinet: "I propose to examine whether it is or is not practicable +to comply with the desire widely prevalent in Ireland, and testified by +the return of eighty-five out of one hundred and three representatives, +for the establishment by statute of a legislative body to sit in Dublin, +and to deal with Irish as distinguished from imperial affairs; in such a +manner as would be just to each of the three kingdoms, equitable with +reference to every class of the people of Ireland, conducive to the social +order and harmony of that country, and calculated to support and +consolidate the unity of the empire on the continued basis of imperial +authority and mutual attachment." + +No definite plan was propounded or foreshadowed, but only the proposition +that it was a duty to seek a plan. The cynical version was that a cabinet +was got together on the chance of being able to agree. To Lord Hartington, +Mr. Gladstone applied as soon as he received the Queen's commission. The +invitation was declined on reasoned grounds (January 30). Examination and +inquiry, said Lord Hartington, must mean a proposal. If no proposal +followed inquiry, the reaction of Irish disappointment would be severe, as +it would be natural. His adherence, moreover, would be of little value. He +had already, he observed, in the government of 1880 made concessions on +other subjects that might be thought to have shaken public confidence in +him; he could go no further without destroying that confidence altogether. +However that might be, he could not depart from the traditions of British +statesmen, and he was opposed to a separate Irish legislature. At the same +time he concluded, in a sentence afterwards pressed by Mr. Gladstone on +the notice of the Queen: "I am fully convinced that the alternative policy +of governing Ireland without large concessions to the national sentiment, +presents difficulties of a tremendous character, which in my opinion could +now only be faced by the support of a nation united by the consciousness +that the fullest opportunity had been given for the production and +consideration of a conciliatory policy." + +A few days later (February 5) Lord Hartington wrote: "I have been told +that I have been represented as having been in general agreement with you +on your Irish policy, and having been prevented joining your government +solely by the declarations which I made to my constituents; and as not +intending to oppose the government even on home rule. On looking over my +letter I think that the general intention is sufficiently clear, but there +is part of one sentence which, taken by itself, might be understood as +committing me beyond what I intended or wished. The words I refer to are +those in which I say that it may be possible for me as a private member to +prevent obstacles being placed in the way of a fair trial being given to +the policy of the new government. But I think that the commencement of the +sentence in which these words occur sufficiently reserves my liberty, and +that the whole letter shows that what I desire is that the somewhat +undefined declarations which have hitherto been made should now assume a +practical shape."(182) + +The decision was persistently regarded by Mr. Gladstone as an important +event in English political history. With a small number of distinguished +individual exceptions, it marked the withdrawal from the liberal party of +the aristocratic element. Up to a very recent date this had been its +governing element. Until 1868, the whig nobles and their connections held +the reins and shaped the policy. After the accession of a leader from +outside of the caste in 1868, when Mr. Gladstone for the first time became +prime minister, they continued to hold more than their share of the +offices, but in cabinet they sank to the position of what is called a +moderating force. After 1880 it became every day more clear that even this +modest function was slipping away. Lord Hartington found that the +moderating force could no longer moderate. If he went on, he must make up +his mind to go under the Caudine forks once a week. The significant +reference, among his reasons for not joining the new ministry, to the +concessions that he had made in the last government for the sake of party +unity, and to his feeling that any further moves of the same kind for the +same purpose would destroy all public confidence in him, shows just as the +circumstances of the election had shown, and as the recent debate on the +Collings amendment had shown, how small were the chances, quite apart from +Irish policy, of uniting whig and radical wings in any durable liberal +government. + +Mr. Goschen, who had been a valuable member of the great ministry of 1868, +was invited to call, but without hopes that he would rally to a cause so +startling; the interview, while courteous and pleasant, was over in a very +few minutes. Lord Derby, a man of still more cautious type, and a rather +recent addition to the officers of the liberal staff, declined, not +without good nature. Lord Northbrook had no faith in a new Irish policy, +and his confidence in his late leader had been shaken by Egypt. Most +lamented of all the abstentions was the honoured and trusted name of Mr. +Bright. + +Mr. Trevelyan agreed to join, in the entirely defensible hope that they +"would knock the measure about in the cabinet, as cabinets do," and mould +it into accord with what had until now been the opinion of most of its +members.(183) Mr. Chamberlain, who was destined to play so singular and +versatile a part in the eventful years to come, entered the cabinet with +reluctance and misgiving. The Admiralty was first proposed to him and was +declined, partly on the ground that the chief of the fighting and spending +departments was not the post for one who had just given to domestic +reforms the paramount place in his stirring addresses to (M107) the +country. Mr. Chamberlain, we may be sure, was not much concerned about the +particular office. Whatever its place in the hierarchy, he knew that he +could trust himself to make it as important as he pleased, and that his +weight in the cabinet and the House would not depend upon the accident of +a department. Nobody's position was so difficult. He was well aware how +serious a thing it would be for his prospects, if he were to join a +confederacy of his arch enemies, the whigs, against Mr. Gladstone, the +commanding idol of his friends, the radicals. If, on the other hand, by +refusing to enter the government he should either prevent its formation or +should cause its speedy overthrow, he would be left planted with a +comparatively ineffective group of his own, and he would incur the deep +resentment of the bulk of those with whom he had hitherto been accustomed +to act. + +All these were legitimate considerations in the mind of a man with the +instinct of party management. In the end he joined his former chief. He +made no concealment of his position. He warned the prime minister that he +did not believe it to be possible to reconcile conditions as to the +security of the empire and the supremacy of parliament, with the +establishment of a legislative body in Dublin. He declared his own +preference for an attempt to come to terms with the Irish members on the +basis of a more limited scheme of local government, coupled with proposals +about land and about education. At the same time, as the minister had been +good enough to leave him unlimited liberty of judgment and rejection, he +was ready to give unprejudiced examination to more extensive +proposals.(184) Such was Mr. Chamberlain's excuse for joining. It is +hardly so intelligible as Lord Hartington's reasons for not joining. For +the new government could only subsist by Irish support. That support +notoriously depended on the concession of more than a limited scheme of +local government. The administration would have been overthrown in a week, +and to form a cabinet on such a basis as was here proposed would be the +idlest experiment that ever was tried. + +The appointment of the writer of these pages to be Irish secretary was at +once generally regarded as decisive of Mr. Gladstone's ultimate intention, +for during the election and afterwards I had spoken strongly in favour of +a colonial type of government for Ireland. It was rightly pressed upon Mr. +Gladstone by at least one of his most experienced advisers, that such an +appointment to this particular office would be construed as a declaration +in favour of an Irish parliament, without any further examination at +all.(185) And so, in fact, it was generally construed. + +Nobody was more active in aiding the formation of the new ministry than +Sir William Harcourt, in whose powerful composition loyalty to party and +conviction of the value of party have ever been indestructible instincts. +"I must not let the week absolutely close," Mr. Gladstone wrote to him +from Mentmore (February 6), "without emphatically thanking you for the +indefatigable and effective help which you have rendered to me during its +course, in the difficult work now nearly accomplished." + +At the close of the operation, he writes from Downing Street to his son +Henry, then in India:-- + + + _February 12, 1886._ You see the old date has reappeared at the + head of my letter. The work last week was extremely hard from the + mixture of political discussions on the Irish question, by way of + preliminary condition, with the ordinary distribution of offices, + which while it lasts is of itself difficult enough. + + Upon the whole I am well satisfied with its composition. It is not + a bit more radical than the government of last year; perhaps a + little less. And we have got some good young hands, which please + me very much. Yet short as the Salisbury government has been, it + would not at all surprise me if this were to be shorter still, + such are the difficulties that bristle round the Irish question. + But the great thing is to be right; and as far as matters have yet + advanced, I see no reason to be apprehensive in this capital + respect. I have framed a plan for the land and for the finance of + what must be a very large transaction. It is necessary to see our + way a little on these at the outset, for, unless these portions of + anything we attempt are sound and well constructed, we cannot hope + to succeed. On the other hand, if we fail, as I believe the late + ministers would have failed even to pass their plan of repressive + legislation, the consequences will be deplorable in every way. + There seems to be no doubt that some, and notably Lord R. + Churchill, fully reckoned on my failing to form a government.(186) + + + +II + + +The work pressed, and time was terribly short. The new ministers had +barely gone through their re-elections before the opposition began to +harry them for their policy, and went so far, before the government was +five weeks old, as to make the extreme motion for refusing supply. Even if +the opposition had been in more modest humour, no considerable delay could +be defended. Social order in Ireland was in a profoundly unsatisfactory +phase. That fact was the starting-point of the reversal of policy which +the government had come into existence to carry out. You cannot announce a +grand revolution, and then beg the world to wait. The very reason that +justified the policy commanded expedition. Anxiety and excitement were too +intense out of doors for anything but a speedy date, and it was quite +certain that if the new plan were not at once propounded, no other public +business would have much chance. + +The new administration did not meet parliament until after the middle of +February, and the two Irish bills, in which their policy was contained, +were ready by the end of the first week of April. Considering the enormous +breadth and intricacy of the subjects, the pressure of parliamentary +business all the time, the exigencies of administrative work in the case +of at least one of the ministers principally concerned, and the +distracting atmosphere of party perturbation and disquiet that daily and +hourly harassed the work, the despatch of such a task within such limits +of time was at least not discreditable to the industry and concentration +of those who achieved it. I leave it still open to the hostile critic to +say, as Moliere's Alceste says of the sonnet composed in a quarter of an +hour, that time has nothing to do with the business. + +All through March Mr. Gladstone laboured in what he called "stiff +conclaves" about finance and land, attended drawing rooms, and "observed +the variations of H.M.'s _accueils_"; had an audience of the Queen, "very +gracious, but avoided serious subjects"; was laid up with cold, and the +weather made Sir Andrew Clark strict; then rose up to fresh grapples with +finance and land and untoward colleagues, and all the "inexorable demands +of my political vocation." His patience and self-control were as +marvellous as his tireless industry. Sorely tried by something or another +at a cabinet, he enters,--"Angry with myself for not bearing it better. I +ought to have been thankful for it all the time." On a similar occasion, a +junior colleague showed himself less thankful than he should have been for +purposeless antagonism. "Think of it as discipline," said Mr. (M108) +Gladstone. "But why," said the unregenerate junior, "should we grudge the +blessings of discipline to some other people?" + +Mr. Gladstone was often blamed even by Laodiceans among his supporters, +not wise but foolish after the event, because he did not proceed by way of +resolution, instead of by bill. Resolutions, it was argued, would have +smoothed the way. General propositions would have found readier access to +men's minds. Having accepted the general proposition, people would have +found it harder to resist the particular application. Devices that +startled in the precision of a clause, would in the vagueness of a broad +and abstract principle have soothed and persuaded. Mr. Gladstone was +perfectly alive to all this, but his answer to it was plain. Those who +eventually threw out the bill would insist on unmasking the resolution. +They would have exhausted all the stereotyped vituperation of abstract +motions. They would have ridiculed any general proposition as mere +platitude, and pertinaciously clamoured for working details. What would +the resolution have affirmed? The expediency of setting up a legislative +authority in Ireland to deal with exclusively Irish affairs. But such a +resolution would be consistent equally with a narrow scheme on the one +hand, such as a plan for national councils, and a broad scheme on the +other, giving to Ireland a separate exchequer, separate control over +customs and excise, and practically an independent and co-ordinate +legislature.(187) How could the government meet the challenge to say +outright whether they intended broad or narrow? Such a resolution could +hardly have outlived an evening's debate, and would not have postponed the +evil day of schism for a single week. + +Precedents lent no support. It is true that the way was prepared for the +Act of Union in the parliament of Great Britain, by the string of +resolutions moved by Mr. Pitt in the beginning of 1799. But anybody who +glances at them, will at once perceive that if resolutions on their model +had been framed for the occasion of 1886, they would have covered the +whole ground of the actual bill, and would instantly have raised all the +formidable objections and difficulties exactly as the bill itself raised +them. The Bank Charter Act of 1833 was founded on eight resolutions, and +they also set forth in detail the points of the ministerial plan.(188) The +renewal of the East India Company's charter in the same year went on by +way of resolutions, less abundant in particulars than the Bank Act, but +preceded by correspondence and papers which had been exhaustively +canvassed and discussed.(189) The question of Irish autonomy was in no +position of that sort. + +The most apt precedent in some respects is to be found on a glorious +occasion, also in the year 1833. Mr. Stanley introduced the proposals of +his government for the emancipation of the West Indian slaves in five +resolutions. They furnished a key not only to policy and general +principles, but also to the plan by which these were to be carried +out.(190) Lord Howick followed the minister at once, raising directly the +whole question of the plan. Who could doubt that Lord Hartington would now +take precisely the same course towards Irish resolutions of similar scope? +The procedure on the India bill of 1858 was just as little to the point. +The general disposition of the House was wholly friendly to a settlement +of the question of Indian government by the existing ministry. No single +section of the opposition wished to take it out of their hands, for +neither Lord Russell nor the Peelites nor the Manchester men, and probably +not even Lord Palmerston himself, were anxious for the immediate return of +the last-named minister to power. Who will pretend that in the House, of +Commons in February 1886, anything at all like the same state of facts +prevailed? As for the resolutions in the case of the Irish church, they +were moved by Mr. Gladstone in opposition, and he thought it obvious that +a policy proposed in opposition stands on a totally different footing from +a policy laid before parliament on the responsibility of a government, and +a government bound by every necessity of the situation to prompt +action.(191) + +(M109) At a later stage, as we shall see, it was actually proposed that a +vote for the second reading of the bill should be taken to mean no more +than a vote for its principle. Every one of the objections that instantly +sprang out of their ambush against this proposal would have worked just as +much mischief against an initial resolution. In short, in opening a policy +of this difficulty and extent, the cabinet was bound to produce to +parliament not merely its policy but its plan for carrying the policy out. +By that course only could parliament know what it was doing. Any other +course must have ended in a mystifying, irritating, and barren confusion, +alike in the House of Commons and in the country.(192) + +The same consideration that made procedure by resolution unadvisable told +with equal force within the cabinet. Examination into the feasibility of +some sort of plan was most rapidly brought to a head by the test of a +particular plan. It is a mere fable of faction that a cast iron policy was +arbitrarily imposed upon the cabinet; as matter of fact, the plan +originally propounded did undergo large and radical modifications. + +The policy as a whole shaped itself in two measures. First, a scheme for +creating a legislative body, and defining its powers; second, a scheme for +opening the way to a settlement of the land question, in discharge of an +obligation of honour and policy, imposed upon this country by its active +share in all the mischiefs that the Irish land system had produced. The +introduction of a plan for dealing with the land was not very popular even +among ministers, but it was pressed by Lord Spencer and the Irish +secretary, on the double ground that the land was too burning a question +to be left where it then stood, and next that it was unfair to a new and +untried legislature in Ireland to find itself confronted by such a +question on the very threshold. + +The plan was opened by Mr. Gladstone in cabinet on March 13th, and Mr. +Chamberlain and Mr. Trevelyan at once wished to resign. He remonstrated in +a vigorous correspondence. "I have seen many and many a resignation," he +said, "but never one based upon the intentions, nay the immature +intentions, of the prime minister, and on a pure intuition of what may +happen. Bricks and rafters are prepared for a house, but are not +themselves a house." The evil hour was postponed, but not for long. The +Cabinet met again a few days later (March 26) and things came to a sharp +issue. The question was raised in a sufficiently definite form by the +proposition from the prime minister for the establishment of a statutory +body sitting in Dublin with legislative powers. No difficulty was made +about the bare proposition itself. Every one seemed to go as far as that. +It needed to be tested, and tests were at once forthcoming. Mr. Trevelyan +could not assent to the control of the immediate machinery of law and +order being withdrawn from direct British authority, among other reasons +because it was this proposal that created the necessity for buying out the +Irish landlords, which he regarded as raising a problem absolutely +insoluble.(193) Mr. Chamberlain raised four points. He objected to the +cesser of Irish representation; he could not consent to the grant of full +rights of taxation to Ireland; he resisted the surrender of the +appointment of judges and magistrates; and he argued strongly against +proceeding by enumeration of the things that an Irish government might not +do, instead of by a specific delegation of the things that it might +do.(194) That these four objections were not in themselves incapable of +accommodation was shown by subsequent events. The second was very +speedily, and the first was ultimately allowed, while the fourth was held +by good authority to be little more than a question of drafting. Even the +third was not a point either way on which to break up a government, +destroy a policy, and split a party. But everybody who is acquainted with +either the great or the small conflicts of human history, knows how little +the mere terms of a principle or of an objection are to be trusted as a +clue either to its practical significance, or (M110) to the design with +which it is in reality advanced. The design here under all the four heads +of objection, was the dwarfing of the legislative body, the cramping and +constriction of its organs, its reduction to something which the Irish +could not have even pretended to accept, and which they would have been no +better than fools if they had ever attempted to work. + +Some supposed then, and Mr. Chamberlain has said since, that when he +entered the cabinet room on this memorable occasion, he intended to be +conciliatory. Witnesses of the scene thought that the prime minister made +little attempt in that direction. Yet where two men of clear mind and firm +will mean two essentially different things under the same name, whether +autonomy or anything else, and each intends to stand by his own +interpretation, it is childish to suppose that arts of deportment will +smother or attenuate fundamental divergence, or make people who are quite +aware how vitally they differ, pretend that they entirely agree. Mr. +Gladstone knew the giant burden that he had taken up, and when he went to +the cabinet of March 26, his mind was no doubt fixed that success, so +hazardous at best, would be hopeless in face of personal antagonisms and +bitterly divided counsels. This, in his view, and in his own phrase, was +one of the "great imperial occasions" that call for imperial resolves. The +two ministers accordingly resigned. + +Besides these two important secessions, some ministers out of the cabinet +resigned, but they were of the whig complexion.(195) The new prospect of +the whig schism extending into the camp of the extreme radicals created +natural alarm but hardly produced a panic. So deep were the roots of +party, so immense the authority of a veteran leader. It used to be said of +the administration of 1880, that the world would never really know Mr. +Gladstone's strength in parliament and the country, until every one of his +colleagues had in turn abandoned him to his own resources. Certainly the +secessions of the end of March 1886 left him undaunted. Every +consideration of duty and of policy bound him to persevere. He felt, +justly enough, that a minister who had once deliberately invited his party +and the people of the three kingdoms to follow him on so arduous and bold +a march as this, had no right on any common plea to turn back until he had +exhausted every available device to "bring the army of the faithful +through." + + + +III + + +From the first the Irish leader was in free and constant communication +with the chief secretary. Proposals were once or twice made, not I think +at Mr. Parnell's desire, for conversations to be held between Mr. +Gladstone and himself, but they were always discouraged by Mr. Gladstone, +who was never fond of direct personal contentions, or conversations when +the purpose could be as well served otherwise, and he had a horror of what +he called multiplying channels of communication. "For the moment," he +replied, "I think we may look to Mr. M. alone, and rely on all he says for +accuracy as well as fidelity. I have been hard at work, and to-day I mean +to have a further and full talk with Mr. M., who will probably soon after +wish for some renewed conversation with Mr. Parnell." Mr. Parnell showed +himself acute, frank, patient, closely attentive, and possessed of +striking though not rapid insight. He never slurred over difficulties, nor +tried to pretend that rough was smooth. On the other hand, he had nothing +in common with that desperate species of counsellor, who takes all the +small points, and raises objections instead of helping to contrive +expedients. He measured the ground with a slow and careful eye, and fixed +tenaciously on the thing that was essential at the moment. Of constructive +faculty he never showed a trace. He was a man of temperament, of will, of +authority, of power; not of ideas or ideals, or knowledge, or political +maxims, or even of the practical reason in any of its higher senses, as +Hamilton, Madison, and Jefferson had practical reason. But he knew what he +wanted. + +(M111) He was always perfectly ready at this period to acquiesce in Irish +exclusion from Westminster, on the ground that they would want all the +brains they had for their own parliament. At the same time he would have +liked a provision for sending a delegation to Westminster on occasion, +with reference to some definite Irish questions such as might be expected +to arise. As to the composition of the upper or protective order in the +Irish parliament, he was wholly unfamiliar with the various utopian plans +that have been advanced for the protection of minorities, and he declared +himself tolerably indifferent whether the object should be sought in +nomination by the crown, or through a special and narrower elective body, +or by any other scheme. To such things he had given no thought. He was a +party chief, not a maker of constitutions. He liked the idea of both +orders sitting in one House. He made one significant suggestion: he wished +the bill to impose the same disqualification upon the clergy as exists in +our own parliament. But he would have liked to see certain ecclesiastical +dignitaries included by virtue of their office in the upper or protective +branch. All questions of this kind, however, interested him much less than +finance. Into financial issues he threw himself with extraordinary energy, +and he fought for better terms with a keenness and tenacity that almost +baffled the mighty expert with whom he was matched. They only met once +during the weeks of the preparation of the bill, though the indirect +communication was constant. Here is my scanty note of the meeting:-- + + + _April 5._--Mr. Parnell came to my room at the House at 8.30, and + we talked for two hours. At 10.30 I went to Mr. Gladstone next + door, and told him how things stood. He asked me to open the + points of discussion, and into my room we went. He shook hands + cordially with Mr. Parnell, and sat down between him and me. We at + once got to work. P. extraordinarily close, tenacious, and sharp. + It was all finance. At midnight, Mr. Gladstone rose in his chair + and said, "I fear I must go; I cannot sit as late as I used to + do." "Very clever, very clever," he muttered to me as I held open + the door of his room for him. I returned to Parnell, who went on + repeating his points in his impenetrable way, until the policeman + mercifully came to say the House was up. + + +Mr. Gladstone's own note must also be transcribed:-- + + + _April 5._--Wrote to Lord Spencer. The Queen and ministers. Four + hours on the matter for my speech. 1-1/2 hours with Welby and + Hamilton on the figures. Saw Lord Spencer, Mr. Morley, Mr. A. M. + H. of C., 5-8. Dined at Sir Thomas May's. + + 1-1/2 hours with Morley and Parnell on the root of the matter; + rather too late for me, 10-1/2-12. A hard day. (_Diary._) + + +On more than one financial point the conflict went perilously near to +breaking down the whole operation. "If we do not get a right budget," said +Mr. Parnell, "all will go wrong from the very first hour." To the last he +held out that the just proportion of Irish contribution to the imperial +fund was not one-fourteenth or one-fifteenth, but a twentieth or +twenty-first part. He insisted all the more strongly on his own more +liberal fraction, as a partial compensation for their surrender of fiscal +liberty and the right to impose customs duties. Even an hour or two before +the bill was actually to be unfolded to the House, he hurried to the Irish +office in what was for him rather an excited state, to make one more +appeal to me for his fraction. It is not at all improbable that if the +bill had gone forward into committee, it would have been at the eleventh +hour rejected by the Irish on this department of it, and then all would +have been at an end. Mr. Parnell never concealed this danger ahead. + +In the cabinet things went forward with such ups and downs as are usual +when a difficult bill is on the anvil. In a project of this magnitude, it +was inevitable that some minister should occasionally let fall the +consecrated formula that if this or that were done or not done, he must +reconsider his position. Financial arrangements, and the protection of the +minority, were two of the knottiest points,--the first from the contention +raised on the Irish side, the second from misgiving in some minds as to +the possibility of satisfying protestant sentiment in England and +Scotland. Some kept the colonial type more strongly in view than others, +and the bill no doubt ultimately bore that cast. + +(M112) The draft project of surrendering complete taxing-power to the +Irish legislative body was eventually abandoned. It was soon felt that the +bare possibility of Ireland putting duties on British goods--and it was not +more than a bare possibility in view of Britain's position as practically +Ireland's only market--would have destroyed the bill in every manufacturing +and commercial centre in the land. Mr. Parnell agreed to give up the +control of customs, and also to give up direct and continuous +representation at Westminster. On this cardinal point of the cesser of +Irish representation, Mr. Gladstone to the last professed to keep an open +mind, though to most of the cabinet, including especially three of its +oldest hands and coolest heads, exclusion was at this time almost vital. +Exclusion was favoured not only on its merits. Mr. Bright was known to +regard it as large compensation for what otherwise he viewed as pure +mischief, and it was expected to win support in other quarters generally +hostile. So in truth it did, but at the cost of support in quarters that +were friendly. On April 30, Mr. Gladstone wrote to Lord Granville, "I +scarcely see how a cabinet could have been formed, if the inclusion of the +Irish members had been insisted on; and now I do not see how the scheme +and policy can be saved from shipwreck, if the exclusion is insisted on." + +The plan was bound to be extensive, as its objects were extensive, and it +took for granted in the case of Ireland the fundamental probabilities of +civil society. He who looks with "indolent and kingly gaze" upon all +projects of written constitutions need not turn to the Appendix unless he +will. Two features of the plan were cardinal. + +The foundation of the scheme was the establishment in Ireland of a +domestic legislature to deal with Irish as distinguished from imperial +affairs. It followed from this that if Irish members and representative +peers remained at Westminster at all, though they might claim a share in +the settlement of imperial affairs, they could not rightly control English +or Scotch affairs. This was from the first, and has ever since remained, +the Gordian knot. The cabinet on a review of all the courses open +determined to propose the plan of total exclusion, save and unless for the +purpose of revising this organic statute. + +The next question was neither so hard nor so vital. Ought the powers of +the Irish legislature to be specifically enumerated? Or was it better to +enumerate the branches of legislation from which the statutory parliament +was to be shut out? Should we enact the things that they might do, or the +things that they might not do, leaving them the whole residue of +law-making power outside of these exceptions and exclusions? The latter +was the plan adopted in the bill. Disabilities were specified, and +everything not so specified was left within the scope of the Irish +authority. These disabilities comprehended all matters affecting the +crown. All questions of defence and armed force were shut out; all foreign +and colonial relations; the law of trade and navigation, of coinage and +legal tender. The new legislature could not meddle with certain charters, +nor with certain contracts, nor could it establish or endow any particular +religion.(196) + + + +IV + + +Among his five spurious types of courage, Aristotle names for one the man +who seems to be brave, only because he does not see his danger. This, at +least, was not Mr. Gladstone's case. No one knew better than the leader in +the enterprise, how formidable were the difficulties that lay in his path. +The giant mass of secular English prejudice against Ireland frowned like a +mountain chain across the track. A strong and proud nation had trained +itself for long courses of time in habits of dislike for the history, the +political claims, the religion, the temperament, of a weaker nation. The +violence of the Irish members in the last parliament, sporadic barbarities +in some of the wilder portions of the island, the hideous murders in the +Park, had all deepened and vivified the scowling impressions nursed by +large bodies of Englishmen for many ages past about unfortunate Ireland. +Then the practical operation of shaping an Irish constitution, whether on +colonial, federal, or any (M113) other lines, was in itself a task that, +even if all external circumstance had been as smiling as it was in fact +the opposite, still abounded in every kind of knotty, intricate, and +intractable matter. + +It is true that elements could be discovered on the other side. First, was +Mr. Gladstone's own high place in the confidence of great masses of his +countrymen, the result of a lifetime of conspicuous service and +achievement. Next, the lacerating struggle with Ireland ever since 1880, +and the confusion into which it had brought our affairs, had bred +something like despair in many minds, and they were ready to look in +almost any direction for relief from an intolerable burden. Third, the +controversy had not gone very far before opponents were astounded to find +that the new policy, which they angrily scouted as half insanity and half +treason, gave comparatively little shock to the new democracy. This was at +first imputed to mere ignorance and raw habits of political judgment. +Wider reflection might have warned them that the plain people of this +island, though quickly roused against even the shadow of concession when +the power or the greatness of their country is openly assailed, seem at +the same time ready to turn to moral claims of fair play, of conciliation, +of pacific truce. With all these magnanimous sentiments the Irish case was +only too easily made to associate itself. The results of the Irish +elections and the force of the constitutional demand sank deep in the +popular mind. The grim spectre of Coercion as the other alternative wore +its most repulsive look in the eyes of men, themselves but newly admitted +to full citizenship. Rash experiment in politics has been defined as +raising grave issues without grave cause. Nobody of any party denied in +this crisis the gravity of the cause. + + + + +Chapter VI. Introduction Of The Bill. (1886) + + + Much have I seen and known; cities of men + And manners, climates, councils, governments, + Myself not least, but honour'd of them all.... + There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail; + There gloom the dark broad seas. + --TENNYSON, _Ulysses_. + + + +I + + +It was not within the compass either of human effort or human endurance +even for the most practised and skilful of orators to unfold the whole +plan, both government and land, in a single speech. Nor was public +interest at all equally divided. Irish land had devoured an immense amount +of parliamentary time in late years; it is one of the most technical and +repulsive of all political subjects; and to many of the warmest friends of +Irish self-government, any special consideration for the owners of Irish +land was bitterly unpalatable. Expectation was centred upon the plan for +general government. This was introduced on April 8. Here is the entry in +the little diary:-- + + + The message came to me this morning: "Hold thou up my goings in + thy path, that my footsteps slip not." Settled finally my figures + with Welby and Hamilton; other points with Spencer and Morley. + Reflected much. Took a short drive. H. of C., 4-1/2-8-1/4. + Extraordinary scenes outside the House and in. My speech, which I + have sometimes thought could never end, lasted nearly 3-1/2 hours. + Voice and strength and freedom were granted to me in a degree + beyond what I could have hoped. But many a prayer had gone up for + me, and not I believe in vain. + + +No such scene had ever been beheld in the House of Commons. Members came +down at break of day to secure their places; before noon every seat was +marked, and (M114) crowded benches were even arrayed on the floor of the +House from the mace to the bar. Princes, ambassadors, great peers, high +prelates, thronged the lobbies. The fame of the orator, the boldness of +his exploit, curiosity as to the plan, poignant anxiety as to the party +result, wonder whether a wizard had at last actually arisen with a spell +for casting out the baleful spirits that had for so many ages made Ireland +our torment and our dishonour, all these things brought together such an +assemblage as no minister before had ever addressed within those +world-renowned walls. The parliament was new. Many of its members had +fought a hard battle for their seats, and trusted they were safe in the +haven for half a dozen good years to come. Those who were moved by +professional ambition, those whose object was social advancement, those +who thought only of upright public service, the keen party men, the men +who aspired to office, the men with a past and the men who looked for a +future, all alike found themselves adrift on dark and troubled waters. The +secrets of the bill had been well kept. To-day the disquieted host were +first to learn what was the great project to which they would have to say +that Aye or No on which for them and for the state so much would hang. + +Of the chief comrades or rivals of the minister's own generation, the +strong administrators, the eager and accomplished debaters, the sagacious +leaders, the only survivor now comparable to him in eloquence or in +influence was Mr. Bright. That illustrious man seldom came into the House +in those distracted days; and on this memorable occasion his stern and +noble head was to be seen in dim obscurity. Various as were the emotions +in other regions of the House, in one quarter rejoicing was unmixed. +There, at least, was no doubt and no misgiving. There pallid and tranquil +sat the Irish leader, whose hard insight, whose patience, energy, and +spirit of command, had achieved this astounding result, and done that +which he had vowed to his countrymen that he would assuredly be able to +do. On the benches round him, genial excitement rose almost to tumult. +Well it might. For the first time since the union, the Irish case was at +last to be pressed in all its force and strength, in every aspect of +policy and of conscience, by the most powerful Englishman then alive. + +More striking than the audience was the man; more striking than the +multitude of eager onlookers from the shore was the rescuer with +deliberate valour facing the floods ready to wash him down; the veteran +Ulysses, who after more than half a century of combat, service, toil, +thought it not too late to try a further "work of noble note." In the +hands of such a master of the instrument, the theme might easily have lent +itself to one of those displays of exalted passion which the House had +marvelled at in more than one of Mr. Gladstone's speeches on the Turkish +question, or heard with religious reverence in his speech on the +Affirmation bill in 1883. What the occasion now required was that passion +should burn low, and reasoned persuasion hold up the guiding lamp. An +elaborate scheme was to be unfolded, an unfamiliar policy to be explained +and vindicated. Of that best kind of eloquence which dispenses with +declamation, this was a fine and sustained example. There was a deep, +rapid, steady, onflowing volume of argument, exposition, exhortation. +Every hard or bitter stroke was avoided. Now and again a fervid note +thrilled the ear and lifted all hearts. But political oratory is action, +not words,--action, character, will, conviction, purpose, personality. As +this eager muster of men underwent the enchantment of periods exquisite in +their balance and modulation, the compulsion of his flashing glance and +animated gesture, what stirred and commanded them was the recollection of +national service, the thought of the speaker's mastering purpose, his +unflagging resolution and strenuous will, his strength of thew and sinew +well tried in long years of resounding war, his unquenched conviction that +the just cause can never fail. Few are the heroic moments in our +parliamentary politics, but this was one. + + + +II + + +The first reading of the bill was allowed to pass without a division. To +the second, Lord Hartington moved an (M115) amendment in the ordinary form +of simple rejection.(197) His two speeches(198) present the case against +the policy and the bill in its most massive form. The direct and +unsophisticated nature of his antagonism, backed by a personal character +of uprightness and plain dealing beyond all suspicion, gave a momentum to +his attack that was beyond any effect of dialectics. It was noticed that +he had never during his thirty years of parliamentary life spoken with +anything like the same power before. The debates on the two stages +occupied sixteen nights. They were not unworthy of the gravity of the +issue, nor of the fame of the House of Commons. Only one speaker held the +magic secret of Demosthenic oratory. Several others showed themselves +masters of the higher arts of parliamentary discussion. One or two +transient spurts of fire in the encounters of orange and green, served to +reveal the intensity of the glow behind the closed doors of the furnace. +But the general temper was good. The rule against irritating language was +hardly ever broken. Swords crossed according to the strict rules of +combat. The tone was rational and argumentative. There was plenty of +strong, close, and acute reasoning; there was some learning, a +considerable acquaintance both with historic and contemporary, foreign and +domestic fact, and when fact and reasoning broke down, their place was +abundantly filled by eloquent prophecy of disaster on one side, or +blessing on the other. Neither prophecy was demonstrable; both could be +made plausible. + +Discussion was adorned by copious references to the mighty shades who had +been the glory of the House in a great parliamentary age. We heard again +the Virgilian hexameters in which Pitt had described the spirit of his +policy at the union:-- + + + "Paribus se legibus ambae + Invictae gentes aeterna in foedera mittant." + + +We heard once more how Grattan said that union of the legislatures was +severance of the nations; that the ocean forbade union, the channel +forbade separation; that England in her government of Ireland had gone to +hell for her principles and to bedlam for her discretion. There was, above +all, a grand and copious anthology throughout the debate from Burke, the +greatest of Irishmen and the largest master of civil wisdom in our tongue. + +The appearance of a certain measure of the common form of all debates was +inevitable. No bill is ever brought in of which its opponents do not say +that it either goes too far, or else it does not go far enough; no bill of +which its defenders do not say as to some crucial flaw pounced upon and +paraded by the enemy, that after all it is a mere question of drafting, or +can be more appropriately discussed in committee. There was the usual +evasion of the strong points of the adversary's case, the usual +exaggeration of its weak ones. That is debating. Perorations ran in a +monotonous mould; integrity of the empire on one side, a real, happy, and +indissoluble reconciliation between English and Irish on the other. + +One side dwelt much on the recall of Lord Fitzwilliam in 1795, and the +squalid corruption of the union; the other, on the hopeless distraction +left by the rebellion of 1798, and the impotent confusion of the Irish +parliament. One speaker enumerated Mr. Pitt's arguments for the union--the +argument about the regency and about the commercial treaty, the argument +about foreign alliances and confederacies and the army, about free trade +and catholic emancipation; he showed that under all these six heads the +new bill carefully respected and guarded the grounds taken by the minister +of the union. He was bluntly answered by the exclamation that nobody cared +a straw about what Mr. Pitt said, or what Sir Ralph Abercromby said; what +we had to deal with were the facts of the case in the year 1886. You show +your mistrust of the Irish by inserting all these safeguards in the bill, +said the opposition. No, replied ministers; the safeguards are to meet no +mistrusts of ours, but those entertained or feigned by other people. You +had no mandate for home rule, said the opposition. Still less, ministers +retorted, had you a mandate for coercion. (M116) Such a scheme as this, +exclaimed the critics, with all its checks and counterchecks, its +truncated functions, its vetoes, exceptions, and reservations, is +degrading to Ireland, and every Irish patriot with a spark of spirit in +his bosom must feel it so. As if, retorted the defenders, there were no +degradation to a free people in suffering twenty years of your firm and +resolute coercion. One side argued that the interests of Ireland and Great +Britain were much too closely intertwined to permit a double legislature. +The other argued that this very interdependence was just what made an +Irish legislature safe, because it was incredible that they should act as +if they had no benefit to receive from us, and no injury to suffer from +injury inflicted upon us. Do you, asked some, blot out of your minds the +bitter, incendiary, and rebellious speech of Irish members? But do you +then, the rejoinder followed, suppose that the language that came from +men's hearts when a boon was refused, is a clue to the sentiment in their +hearts when the boon shall have been granted? Ministers were bombarded +with reproachful quotations from their old speeches. They answered the +fire by taunts about the dropping of coercion, and the amazing manoeuvres +of the autumn of 1885. The device of the two orders was denounced as +inconsistent with the democratic tendencies of the age. A very impressive +argument forsooth from you, was the reply, who are either stout defenders +of the House of Lords as it is, or else stout advocates for some of the +multifarious schemes for mixing hereditary peers with fossil officials, +all of them equally alien to the democratic tendencies whether of this age +or any other. So, with stroke and counter-stroke, was the ball kept +flying. + +Much was made of foreign and colonial analogies; of the union between +Austria and Hungary, Norway and Sweden, Denmark and Iceland; how in +forcing legislative union on North America we lost the colonies; how the +union of legislatures ended in the severance of Holland from Belgium. All +this carried little conviction. Most members of parliament like to think +with pretty large blinkers on, and though it may make for narrowness, this +is consistent with much practical wisdom. Historical parallels in the +actual politics of the day are usually rather decorative than substantial. + +If people disbelieve premisses, nothing can be easier than to ridicule +conclusions; and what happened now was that critics argued against this or +that contrivance in the machinery, because they insisted that no machinery +was needed at all, and that no contrivance could ever be made to work, +because the Irish mechanicians would infallibly devote all their +infatuated energy and perverse skill, not to work it, but to break it in +pieces. The Irish, in Mr. Gladstone's ironical paraphrase of these +singular opinions, had a double dose of original sin; they belonged wholly +to the kingdoms of darkness, and therefore the rules of that probability +which wise men have made the guide of life can have no bearing in any case +of theirs. A more serious way of stating the fundamental objection with +which Mr. Gladstone had to deal was this. Popular government is at the +best difficult to work. It is supremely difficult to work in a statutory +scheme with limits, reservations, and restrictions lurking round every +corner. Finally, owing to history and circumstance, no people in all the +world is less fitted to try a supremely difficult experiment in government +than the people who live in Ireland. Your superstructure, they said, is +enormously heavy, yet you are going to raise it on foundations that are a +quaking bog of incapacity and discontent. This may have been a good answer +to the policy of the bill. But to criticise its provisions from such a +point of view was as inevitably unfruitful as it would be to set a +hardened agnostic to revise the Thirty-nine articles or the mystic theses +of the Athanasian creed. + +On the first reading, Mr. Chamberlain astounded allies and opponents alike +by suddenly revealing his view, that the true solution of the question was +to be sought in some form of federation. It was upon the line of +federation, and not upon the pattern of the self-governing colonies, that +we should find a way out of the difficulty.(199) Men could hardly trust +their ears. On the second reading, he startled us once more by declaring +that he was perfectly prepared, the very (M117) next day if we pleased, to +establish between this country and Ireland the relations subsisting +between the provincial legislatures and the dominion parliament of +Canada.(200) As to the first proposal, anybody could see that federation +was a vastly more revolutionary operation than the delegation of certain +legislative powers to a local parliament. Moreover before federating an +Irish legislature, you must first create it. As to the second proposal, +anybody could see on turning for a quarter of an hour to the Dominion Act +of 1867, that in some of the particulars deemed by Mr. Chamberlain to be +specially important, a provincial legislature in the Canadian system had +more unfettered powers than the Irish legislature would have under the +bill. Finally, he urged that inquiry into the possibility of satisfying +the Irish demand should be carried on by a committee or commission +representing all sections of the House.(201) In face of projects so +strangely fashioned as this, Mr. Gladstone had a right to declare that +just as the subject held the field in the public mind--for never before had +been seen such signs of public absorption in the House and out of the +House--so the ministerial plan held the field in parliament. It had many +enemies, but it had not a single serious rival. + +The debate on the second reading had hardly begun when Lord Salisbury +placed in the hands of his adversaries a weapon with which they took care +to do much execution. Ireland, he declared, is not one nation, but two +nations. There were races like the Hottentots, and even the Hindoos, +incapable of self-government. He would not place confidence in people who +had acquired the habit of using knives and slugs. His policy was that +parliament should enable the government of England to govern Ireland. +"Apply that recipe honestly, consistently, and resolutely for twenty +years, and at the end of that time you will find that Ireland will be fit +to accept any gifts in the way of local government or repeal of coercion +laws that you may wish to give her."(202) In the same genial vein, Lord +Salisbury told his Hottentot fellow-citizens--one of the two _invictae +gentes_ of Mr. Pitt's famous quotation--that if some great store of +imperial treasure were going to be expended on Ireland, instead of buying +out landlords, it would be far more usefully employed in providing for the +emigration of a million Irishmen. Explanations followed this inconvenient +candour, but explanations are apt to be clumsy, and the pungency of the +indiscretion kept it long alive. A humdrum speaker, who was able to +contribute nothing better to the animation of debate, could always by +insinuating a reference to Hottentots, knives and slugs, the deportation +of a million Irishmen, and twenty years of continuous coercion, make sure +of a roar of angry protest from his opponents, followed by a lusty +counter-volley from his friends. + + + +V + + +The reception of the bill by the organs of Irish opinion was easy to +foretell. The nationalists accepted it in sober and rational language, +subject to amendments on the head of finance and the constabulary clauses. +The tories said it was a bill for setting up an Irish republic. It is +another selfish English plan, said the moderates. Some Irishmen who had +played with home rule while it was a phrase, drew back when they saw it in +a bill. Others, while holding to home rule, objected to being reduced to +the status of colonists. The body of home rulers who were protestant was +small, and even against them it was retorted that for every protestant +nationalist there were ten catholic unionists. The Fenian organs across +the Atlantic, while quarrelling with such provisions as the two orders, +"one of which would be Irish and the other English," did justice to the +bravery of the attempt, and to the new moral forces which it would call +out. The florid violence which the Fenians abandoned was now with proper +variations adopted by Orangemen in the north. The General Assembly of the +presbyterian church in Ireland passed strong resolutions against a +parliament, in favour of a peasant proprietary, in favour of loyalty, and +of coercion. A few days later the general synod of the protestant +episcopal church followed suit, and denounced a parliament. The Orange +print in Belfast drew up a Solemn League and Covenant for Ulster, to +ignore and resist an Irish national government. Unionist prints in Dublin +declared and indignantly repelled "the selfish English design to get rid +of the Irish nuisance from Westminster, and reduce us to the position of a +tributary dependency."(203) + +The pivot of the whole policy was the acceptance of the bill by the +representatives of Ireland. On the evening when the bill was produced, Mr. +Parnell made certain complaints as to the reservation of the control of +the constabulary, as to the power of the first order to effect a deadlock, +and as to finance. He explicitly and publicly warned the government from +the first that, when the committee stage was reached, he would claim a +large decrease in the fraction named for the imperial contribution. There +was never any dissembling as to this. In private discussion, he had always +held that the fair proportion of Irish contribution to imperial charges +was not a fifteenth but a twentieth, and he said no more in the House than +he had persistently said in the Irish secretary's room. There too he had +urged what he also declared in the House: that he had always insisted that +due representation should be given to the minority; that he should welcome +any device for preventing ill-considered legislation, but that the +provision in the bill, for the veto of the first order, would lead to +prolonged obstruction and delay. Subject to modification on these three +heads, he accepted the bill. "I am convinced," he said in concluding, +"that if our views are fairly met in committee regarding the defects to +which I have briefly alluded,--the bill will be cheerfully accepted by the +Irish people, and by their representatives, as a solution of the +long-standing dispute between the two countries."(204) + +It transpired at a later date that just before the introduction of the +bill, when Mr. Parnell had been made acquainted with its main proposals, +he called a meeting of eight of his leading colleagues, told them what +these proposals were, and asked them whether they would take the bill or +leave it.(205) Some began to object to the absence of certain provisions, +such as the immediate control of the constabulary, and the right over +duties of customs. Mr. Parnell rose from the table, and clenched the +discussion by informing them that if they declined the bill, the +government would go. They at once agreed "to accept it _pro tanto_, +reserving for committee the right of enforcing and, if necessary, +reconsidering their position with regard to these important questions." +This is neither more nor less than the form in which Mr. Parnell made his +declaration in parliament. There was complete consistency between the +terms of this declaration, and the terms of acceptance agreed to by his +colleagues, as disclosed in the black days of December four years later. +The charge of bad faith and hypocrisy so freely made against the Irishmen +is wholly unwarranted by a single word in these proceedings. If the whole +transaction had been known to the House of Commons, it could not have +impaired by one jot or tittle the value set by the supporters of the bill +on the assurances of the Irishmen that, in principle and subject to +modification on points named, they accepted the bill as a settlement of +the question, and would use their best endeavours to make it work.(206) + + + + +Chapter VII. The Political Atmosphere. Defeat Of The Bill. (1886) + + + Everything on every side was full of traps and mines.... It was in + the midst of this chaos of plots and counterplots ... that the + firmness of that noble person [Lord Rockingham] was put to the + proof. He never stirred from his ground; no, not an inch.--BURKE + (1766). + + + +I + + +The atmosphere in London became thick and hot with political passion. +Veteran observers declared that our generation had not seen anything like +it. Distinguished men of letters and, as it oddly happened, men who had +won some distinction either by denouncing the legislative union, or by +insisting on a decentralisation that should satisfy Irish national +aspirations, now choked with anger because they were taken at their word. +Just like irascible scholars of old time who settled controversies about +corrupt texts by imputing to rival grammarians shameful crimes, so these +writers could find no other explanation for an opinion that was not their +own about Irish government, except moral turpitude and personal +degradation. One professor of urbanity compared Mr. Gladstone to a +desperate pirate burning his ship, or a gambler doubling and trebling his +stake as luck goes against him. Such strange violence in calm natures, +such pharisaic pretension in a world where we are all fallen, remains a +riddle. Political differences were turned into social proscription. Whigs +who could not accept the new policy were specially furious with whigs who +could. Great ladies purified their lists of the names of old intimates. +Amiable magnates excluded from their dinner-tables and their country +houses once familiar friends who had fallen into the guilty heresy, and +even harmless portraits of the heresiarch were sternly removed from the +walls. At some of the political clubs it rained blackballs. It was a +painful demonstration how thin after all is our social veneer, even when +most highly polished. + +When a royal birthday was drawing near, the prime minister wrote to Lord +Granville, his unfailing counsellor in every difficulty political and +social: "I am becoming seriously perplexed about my birthday dinner. +Hardly any peers of the higher ranks will be available, and not many of +the lower. Will the seceding colleagues come if they are asked? (Argyll, +to whom I applied privately on the score of old friendship, has already +_refused_ me.) I am for asking them; but I expect refusal. Lastly, it has +become customary for the Prince of Wales to dine with me on that day, and +he brings his eldest son now that the young Prince is of age. But his +position would be very awkward, if he comes and witnesses a great +nakedness of the land. What do you say to all this? If you cannot help me, +who can?" Most of the seceding colleagues accepted, and the dinner came +off well enough, though as the host wrote to a friend beforehand, "If +Hartington were to get up and move a vote of want of confidence after +dinner, he would almost carry it." The Prince was unable to be present, +and so the great nakedness was by him unseen, but Prince Albert Victor, +who was there instead, is described by Mr. Gladstone as "most kind." + +The conversion of Peel to free trade forty years before had led to the +same species of explosion, though Peel had the court strongly with him. +Both then and now it was the case of a feud within the bosom of a party, +and such feuds like civil wars have ever been the fiercest. In each case +there was a sense of betrayal--at least as unreasonable in 1886 as it was +in 1846. The provinces somehow took things more rationally than the +metropolis. Those who were stunned by the fierce moans of London over the +assured decline in national honour and credit, the imminence of civil war, +and the ultimate destruction of British power, found their acquaintances +in the country excited and interested, but still clothed and in their +right minds. The gravity of the question was fully understood, but in +taking sides ordinary (M118) men did not talk as if they were in for the +battle of Armageddon. The attempt to kindle the torch of religious fear or +hate was in Great Britain happily a failure. The mass of liberal +presbyterians in Scotland, and of nonconformists in England and Wales, +stood firm, though some of their most eminent and able divines resisted +the new project, less on religious grounds than on what they took to be +the balance of political arguments. Mr. Gladstone was able to point to the +conclusive assurances he had received that the kindred peoples in the +colonies and America regarded with warm and fraternal sympathy the present +effort to settle the long-vexed and troubled relations between Great +Britain and Ireland:-- + + + We must not be discouraged if at home and particularly in the + upper ranks of society, we hear a variety of discordant notes, + notes alike discordant from our policy and from one another. You + have before you a cabinet determined in its purpose and an + intelligible plan. I own I see very little else in the political + arena that is determined or that is intelligible. + + +Inside the House subterranean activity was at its height all through the +month of May. This was the critical period. The regular opposition spoke +little and did little; with composed interest they watched others do their +work. On the ministerial side men wavered and changed and changed again, +from day to day and almost from hour to hour. Never were the motions of +the pendulum so agitated and so irregular. So novel and complex a problem +was a terrible burden for a new parliament. About half its members had not +sat in any parliament before. The whips were new, some of the leaders on +the front benches were new, and those of them who were most in earnest +about the policy were too heavily engrossed in the business of the +measure, to have much time for the exercises of explanation, argument, and +persuasion with their adherents. One circumstance told powerfully for +ministers. The great central organisation of the liberal party came +decisively over to Mr. Gladstone (May 5), and was followed by nearly all +the local associations in the country. Neither whig secession nor radical +dubitation shook the strength inherent in such machinery, in a community +where the principle of government by party has solidly established itself. +This was almost the single consolidating and steadying element in that +hour of dispersion. A serious move in the opposite direction had taken +place three weeks earlier. A great meeting was held at the Opera House, in +the Haymarket, presided over by the accomplished whig nobleman who had the +misfortune to be Irish viceroy in the two dismal years from 1880, and it +was attended both by Lord Salisbury on one side and Lord Hartington on the +other. This was the first broad public mark of liberal secession, and of +that practical fusion between whig and tory which the new Irish policy had +actually precipitated, but to which all the signs in the political heavens +had been for three or four years unmistakably pointing. + +The strength of the friends of the bill was twofold: first, it lay in the +dislike of coercion as the only visible alternative; and second, it lay in +the hope of at last touching the firm ground of a final settlement with +Ireland. Their weakness was also twofold: first, misgivings about the +exclusion of the Irish members; and second, repugnance to the scheme for +land purchase. There were not a few, indeed, who pronounced the exclusion +of Irish members to be the most sensible part of the plan. Mr. Gladstone +retained his impartiality, but knew that if we proposed to keep the +Irishmen, we should be run in upon quite as fiercely from the other side. +Mr. Parnell stood to his original position. Any regular and compulsory +attendance at Westminster, he said, would be highly objectionable to his +friends. Further, the right of Irish members to take part in purely +English as well as imperial business would be seized upon by English +politicians, whenever it should answer their purpose, as a pretext for +interfering in Irish affairs. In short, he foresaw, as all did, the +difficulties that would inevitably arise from retention. But the tide ran +more and more strongly the other way. Scotland grew rather restive at a +proposal which, as she apprehended, would make a precedent for herself +when her turn for extension of local powers should come, and Scotchmen had +no intention of being shut out (M119) from a voice in imperial affairs. In +England, the catholics professed alarm at the prospect of losing the only +catholic force in the House of Commons. "We cannot spare one of you," +cried Cardinal Manning. Some partisans of imperial federation took it into +their heads that the plan for Ireland would be fatal to a plan for the +whole empire, though others more rationally conceived that if there was to +be a scheme for the empire, schemes for its several parts must come first. +Some sages, while pretending infinite friendship to home rule, insisted +that the parliament at Westminster should retain a direct and active veto +upon legislation at Dublin, and that Irish members should remain as they +were in London. That is to say, every precaution should be taken to ensure +a stiff fight at Westminster over every Irish measure of any importance +that had already been fought on College Green. Speaking generally, the +feeling against this provision was due less to the anomaly of taxation +without representation, than to fears for the unity of the empire and the +supremacy of parliament. + +The Purchase bill proved from the first to be an almost intolerable dose. +Vivid pictures were drawn of a train of railway trucks two miles long, +loaded with millions of bright sovereigns, all travelling from the pocket +of the British son of toil to the pocket of the idle Irish landlord. The +nationalists from the first urged that the scheme for home rule should not +be weighted with a land scheme, though they were willing to accept it so +long as it was not used to prejudice the larger demand. On the other side +the Irish landlords themselves peremptorily rejected the plan that had +been devised for their protection. + +The air was thick with suggestions, devices, contrivances, expedients, +possible or madly impossible. Proposals or embryonic notions of proposals +floated like motes in a sunbeam. Those to whom lobby diplomacy is as the +breath of their nostrils, were in their element. So were the worthy +persons who are always ready with ingenious schemes for catching a vote or +two here, at the cost of twenty votes elsewhere. Intrigue may be too dark +a word, but coaxing, bullying, managing, and all the other arts of party +emergency, went on at an unprecedented rate. Of these arts, the +supervising angels will hardly record that any section had a monopoly. The +legerdemain that makes words pass for things, and liquefies things into +words, achieved many flashes of success. But they were only momentary, and +the solid obstacles remained. The foundations of human character are much +the same in all historic ages, and every public crisis brings out the same +types. + +Much depended on Mr. Bright, the great citizen and noble orator, who had +in the last five-and-forty years fought and helped to win more than one +battle for wise and just government; whose constancy had confronted storms +of public obloquy without yielding an inch of his ground; whose eye for +the highest questions of state had proved itself singularly sure; and +whose simplicity, love of right, and unsophisticated purity of public and +private conduct, commanded the trust and the reverence of nearly all the +better part of his countrymen. To Mr. Bright the eyes of many thousands +were turned in these weeks of anxiety and doubt. He had in public kept +silence, though in private he made little secret of his disapproval of the +new policy. Before the bill was produced he had a prolonged conversation +(March 20) with Mr. Gladstone at Downing Street. "Long and weighty" are +the words in the diary. The minister sketched his general design, Mr. +Bright stated his objections much in the form in which, as we shall see, +he stated them later. Of the exclusion of the Irish members he approved. +The Land bill he thought quite wrong, for why should so enormous an effort +be made for one interest only? He expressed his sympathy with Mr. +Gladstone in his great difficulties, could not but admire his ardour, and +came away with the expectation that the obstacles would be found +invincible, and that the minister would retire and leave others to +approach the task on other lines. Other important persons, it may be +observed, derived at this time a similar impression from Mr. Gladstone's +language to them: that he might discern the impossibility of his policy, +that he would admit it, and would then hand the responsibility over to +Lord Hartington, or whoever else might be willing to face it. + +(M120) On the other hand, Mr. Bright left the minister himself not without +hopes that as things went forward he might count on this potent auxiliary. +So late as the middle of May, though he could not support, it was not +certain that he would actively oppose. The following letter to Mr. +Gladstone best describes his attitude at this time:-- + + + _Mr. Bright to Mr. Gladstone._ + _Rochdale, May 13th, 1886._ + + MY DEAR GLADSTONE,--Your note just received has put me in a great + difficulty. To-day is the anniversary of the greatest sorrow of my + life, and I feel pressed to spend it at home. I sent a message to + Mr. Arnold Morley last evening to say that I did not intend to + return to town before Monday next--but I shall now arrange to go + to-morrow--although I do not see how I can be of service in the + great trouble which has arisen. + + I feel outside all the contending sections of the liberal + party--for I am not in favour of home rule, or the creation of a + Dublin parliament--nor can I believe in any scheme of federation as + shadowed forth by Mr. Chamberlain. + + I do not believe that with regard to the Irish question "the + resources of civilisation are exhausted"; and I think the plan of + your bill is full of complexity, and gives no hope of successful + working in Ireland or of harmony between Westminster and Dublin. I + may say that my regard for you and my sympathy with you have made + me silent in the discussion on the bills before the House. I + cannot consent to a measure which is so offensive to the whole + protestant population of Ireland, and to the whole sentiment of + the province of Ulster so far as its loyal and protestant people + are concerned. I cannot agree to exclude them from the protection + of the imperial parliament. I would do much to clear the rebel + party from Westminster, and I do not sympathise with those who + wish to retain them, but admit there is much force in the + arguments on this point which are opposed to my views upon it. + + Up to this time I have not been able to bring myself to the point + of giving a vote in favour of your bills. I am grieved to have to + say this. As to the Land bill, if it comes to a second reading, I + fear I must vote against it. It may be that my hostility to the + rebel party, looking at their conduct since your government was + formed six years ago, disables me from taking an impartial view of + this great question. If I could believe them loyal, if they were + honourable and truthful men, I could yield them much; but I + suspect that your policy of surrender to them will only place more + power in their hands, to war with greater effect against the unity + of the three kingdoms with no increase of good to the Irish + people. + + How then can I be of service to you or to the real interests of + Ireland if I come up to town? I cannot venture to advise you, so + superior to me in party tactics and in experienced statesmanship, + and I am not so much in accord with Mr. Chamberlain as to make it + likely that I can say anything that will affect his course. One + thing I may remark, that it appears to me that measures of the + gravity of those now before parliament cannot and ought not to be + thrust through the House by force of a small majority. The various + reform bills, the Irish church bill, the two great land bills, + were passed by very large majorities. In the present case, not + only the whole tory party oppose, but a very important section of + the liberal party; and although numerous meetings of clubs and + associations have passed resolutions of confidence in you, yet + generally they have accepted your Irish government bill as a + 'basis' only, and have admitted the need of important changes in + the bill--changes which in reality would destroy the bill. Under + these circumstances it seems to me that more time should be given + for the consideration of the Irish question. Parliament is not + ready for it, and the intelligence of the country is not ready for + it. If it be possible, I should wish that no division should be + taken upon the bill. If the second reading should be carried only + by a _small_ majority, it would not forward the bill; but it would + strengthen the rebel party in their future agitation, and make it + more difficult for another session or another parliament to deal + with the question with some sense of independence of that party. + In any case of a division, it is I suppose certain that a + considerable majority of British members will oppose the bill. + Thus, whilst it will have the support of the rebel members, it + will be opposed by a majority from Great Britain and by a most + hostile vote from all that is loyal in Ireland. The result will + be, if a majority supports you it will be one composed in effect + of the men who for six years past have insulted the Queen, have + torn down the national flag, have declared your lord lieutenant + guilty of deliberate murder, and have made the imperial parliament + an assembly totally unable to manage the legislative business for + which it annually assembles at Westminster. + + Pray forgive me for writing this long letter. I need not assure + you of my sympathy with you, or my sorrow at being unable to + support your present policy in the House or the country. The more + I consider the question, the more I am forced in a direction + contrary to my wishes. + + For thirty years I have preached justice to Ireland. I am as much + in her favour now as in past times, but I do not think it justice + or wisdom for Great Britain to consign her population, including + Ulster and all her protestant families, to what there is of + justice and wisdom in the Irish party now sitting in the + parliament in Westminster. + + Still, if you think I can be of service, a note to the Reform Club + will, I hope, find me there to-morrow evening.--Ever most sincerely + yours, JOHN BRIGHT. + + +An old parliamentary friend, of great weight and authority, went to Mr. +Bright to urge him to support a proposal to read the bill a second time, +and then to hang it up for six months. Bright suffered sore travail of +spirit. At the end of an hour the peacemaker rose to depart. Bright +pressed him to continue the wrestle. After three-quarters of an hour more +of it, the same performance took place. It was not until a third hour of +discussion that Mr. Bright would let it come to an end, and at the end he +was still uncertain. The next day the friend met him, looking worn and +gloomy. "You may guess," Mr. Bright said, "what sort of a night I have +had." He had decided to vote against the second reading. The same person +went to Lord Hartington. He took time to deliberate, and then finally +said, "No; Mr. Gladstone and I do not mean the same thing." + + + +II + + +The centre of interest lay in the course that might be finally taken by +those who declared that they accepted the principle of the bill, but +demurred upon detail. It was upon the group led from Birmingham that the +issue hung. "There are two principles in the bill," said Mr. Chamberlain +at this time, "which I regard as vital. The first is the principle of +autonomy, to which I am able to give a hearty assent. The second is +involved in the method of giving effect to this autonomy. In the bill the +government have proceeded on the lines of separation or of colonial +independence, whereas, in my humble judgment, they should have adopted the +principle of federation as the only one in accordance with democratic +aspirations and experience."(207) He was even so strong for autonomy, that +he was ready to face all the immense difficulties of federation, whether +on the Canadian or some other pattern, rather than lose autonomy. Yet he +was ready to slay the bill that made autonomy possible. To kill the bill +was to kill autonomy. To say that they would go to the country on the +plan, and not on the principle, was idle. If the election were to go +against the government, that would destroy not only the plan which they +disliked, but the principle of which they declared that they warmly +approved. The new government that would in that case come into existence, +would certainly have nothing to say either to plan or principle. + +Two things, said Mr. Chamberlain on the ninth night of the debate, had +become clear during the controversy. One was that the British democracy +had a passionate devotion to the prime minister. The other was the display +of a sentiment out of doors, "the universality and completeness of which, +I dare say, has taken many of us by surprise, in favour of some form of +home rule to Ireland, which will give to the Irish people some greater +control over their own affairs."(208) It did not need so acute a +strategist as Mr. Chamberlain to perceive that the only hope of rallying +any (M121) considerable portion of the left wing of the party to the +dissentient flag, in face of this strong popular sentiment embodied in a +supereminent minister, was to avoid as much as possible all irreconcilable +language against either the minister or the sentiment, even while taking +energetic steps to unhorse the one and to nullify the other. + +The prime minister meanwhile fought the battle as a battle for a high +public design once begun should be fought. He took few secondary +arguments, but laboured only to hold up to men's imagination, and to burn +into their understanding, the lines of central policy, the shame and +dishonour from which it would relieve us, the new life with which it would +inspire Ireland, the ease that it would bring to parliament in England. +His tenacity, his force and resource, were inexhaustible. He was harassed +on every side. The Irish leader pressed him hard upon finance. Old +adherents urged concession about exclusion. The radicals disliked the two +orders. Minor points for consideration in committee rained in upon him, as +being good reasons for altering the bill before it came in sight of +committee. Not a single constructive proposal made any way in the course +of the debate. All was critical and negative. Mr. Gladstone's grasp was +unshaken, and though he saw remote bearings and interdependent +consequences where others supposed all to be plain sailing, yet if the +principle were only saved he professed infinite pliancy. He protested that +there ought to be no stereotyping of our minds against modifications, and +that the widest possible variety of modes of action should be kept open; +and he "hammered hard at his head," as he put it, to see what could be +worked out in the way of admitting Irish members without danger, and +without intolerable inconvenience. If anybody considered, he continued to +repeat in endless forms, that there was another set of provisions by which +better and fuller effect could be given to the principle of the bill, they +were free to displace all the particulars that hindered this better and +fuller effect being given to the principle.(209) + + + +III + + +At the beginning of May the unionist computation was that 119 on the +ministerial side of the House had, with or without qualification, promised +to vote against the second reading. Of these, 70 had publicly committed +themselves, and 23 more were supposed to be absolutely certain. If the +whole House voted, this estimate of 93 would give a majority of 17 against +the bill.(210) The leader of the radical wing, however, reckoned that 55 +out of the 119 would vote with him for the second reading, if he +pronounced the ministerial amendments of the bill satisfactory. The +amendments demanded were the retention of the Irish members, a definite +declaration of the supremacy of the imperial parliament, a separate +assembly for Ulster, and the abolition of the restrictive devices for the +representation of minorities. Less than all this might have been taken in +committee, provided that the government would expressly say before the +second reading, that they would retain the Irish representation on its +existing footing. The repeated offer by ministers to regard this as an +open question was derided, because it was contended that if the bill were +once safe through its second reading, Mr. Bright and the whigs would +probably vote with ministers against Irish inclusion. + +Even if this ultimatum had been accepted, there would still have remained +the difficulty of the Land bill, of which Mr. Chamberlain had announced +that he would move the rejection. In the face of ever-growing +embarrassments and importunities, recourse was had to the usual device of +a meeting of the party at the foreign office (May 27). The circular +calling the meeting was addressed to those liberals who, while retaining +full freedom on all particulars in the bill, were "in favour of the +establishment of a legislative body in Dublin for the management of +affairs specifically and exclusively Irish." This was henceforth to be the +test of party membership. A man who was for an Irish legislative body was +expected to come to the party meeting, and a man who was against it was +expected to stay (M122) away. Many thought this discrimination a mistake. +Some two hundred and twenty members attended. The pith of the prime +minister's speech, which lasted for an hour, came to this: that the +government would not consent to emasculate the principle of the bill, or +turn it into a mockery, a delusion, and a snare; that members who did not +wholly agree with the bill, might still in accordance with the strict +spirit of parliamentary rules vote for the second reading with a view to +its amendment in committee; that such a vote would not involve support of +the Land bill; that he was ready to consider any plan for the retention of +the Irish members, provided that it did not interfere with the liberty of +the Irish legislative body, and would not introduce confusion into the +imperial parliament. Finally, as to procedure--and here his anxious +audience fell almost breathless--they could either after a second reading +hang up the bill, and defer committee until the autumn; or they could wind +up the session, prorogue, and introduce the bill afresh with the proper +amendments in October. The cabinet, he told them, inclined to the later +course. + +Before the meeting Mr. Parnell had done his best to impress upon ministers +the mischievous effect that would be produced on Irish members and in +Ireland, by any promise to withdraw the bill after the second reading. On +the previous evening, I received from him a letter of unusual length. "You +of course," he said, "are the best judges of what the result may be in +England, but if it be permitted me to express an opinion, I should say +that withdrawal could scarcely fail to give great encouragement to those +whom it cannot conciliate, to depress and discourage those who are now the +strongest fighters for the measure, to produce doubt and wonder in the +country and to cool enthusiasm; and finally, when the same bill is again +produced in the autumn, to disappoint and cause reaction among those who +may have been temporarily disarmed by withdrawal, and to make them at once +more hostile and less easy to appease." This letter I carried to Mr. +Gladstone the next morning, and read aloud to him a few minutes before he +was to cross over to the foreign office. For a single instant--the only +occasion that I can recall during all these severe weeks--his patience +broke. The recovery was as rapid as the flash, for he knew the duty of the +lieutenant of the watch to report the signs of rock or shoal. He was quite +as conscious of all that was urged in Mr. Parnell's letter as was its +writer, but perception of risks on one side did not overcome risks on the +other. The same evening they met for a second time:-- + + + _May 27._--... Mr. Gladstone and Parnell had a conversation in my + room. Parnell courteous enough, but depressed and gloomy. Mr. + Gladstone worn and fagged.... When he was gone, Parnell repeated + moodily that he might not be able to vote for the second reading, + if it were understood that after the second reading the bill was + to be withdrawn. "Very well," said I, "that will of course destroy + the government and the policy; but be that as it may, the cabinet, + I am positive, won't change their line." + + +The proceedings at the foreign office brought to the supporters of +government a lively sense of relief. In the course of the evening a score +of the waverers were found to have been satisfied, and were struck off the +dissentient lists. But the relief did not last for many hours. The +opposition instantly challenged ministers (May 28) to say plainly which of +the two courses they intended to adopt. Though short, this was the most +vivacious debate of all. Was the bill to be withdrawn, or was it to be +postponed? If it was to be withdrawn, then, argued the tory leader (Sir +M.H. Beach) in angry tones, the vote on the second reading would be a +farce. If it was to be postponed, what was that but to paralyse the forces +of law and order in Ireland in the meantime? Such things were trifling +with parliament, trifling with a vital constitutional question, and +trifling with the social order which the government professed to be so +anxious to restore. A bill read a second time on such terms as these would +be neither more nor less than a Continuance-in-Office bill. + +This biting sally raised the temper of the House on both sides, and Mr. +Gladstone met it with that dignity which did not often fail to quell even +the harshest of his adversaries. "You pronounce that obviously the motive +of the government is to ensure their own continuance in office. They +prefer that to all the considerations connected with the great issue +before them, and their minds in fact are of such a mean and degraded +order, that they can only be acted upon, not by motives of honour and +duty, but simply by those of selfishness and personal interest. Sir, I do +not condescend to discuss that imputation. The dart aimed at our shield, +being such a dart as that, is _telum imbelle sine ictu_."(211) + +The speaker then got on to the more hazardous part of the ground. He +proceeded to criticise the observation of the leader of the opposition +that ministers had undertaken to remodel the bill. "That happy word," he +said, "as applied to the structure of the bill, is a pure invention." Lord +Randolph interjected that the word used was not "remodelled," but +"reconstructed." "Does the noble lord dare to say," asked the minister, +"that it was used in respect of the bill?" "Yes," said the noble lord. +"Never, never," cried the minister, with a vehemence that shook the hearts +of doubting followers; "it was used with respect to one particular clause, +and one particular point of the bill, namely so much of it as touches the +future relation of the representatives of Ireland to the imperial +parliament." Before the exciting episode was over, it was stated +definitely that if the bill were read a second time, ministers would +advise a prorogation and re-introduce the bill with amendments. The effect +of this couple of hours was to convince the House that the government had +made up their minds that it was easier and safer to go to the country with +the plan as it stood, than to agree to changes that would entangle them in +new embarrassments, and discredit their confidence in their own handiwork. +Ingenious negotiators perceived that their toil had been fruitless. Every +man now knew the precise situation that he had to face, in respect alike +of the Irish bill and liberal unity. + +On the day following this decisive scene (May 29), under the direction of +the radical leader an invitation to a conference was issued to those +members "who being in favour of some sort of autonomy for Ireland, +disapproved of the government bills in their present shape." The form of +the invitation is remarkable in view of its ultimate effect on Irish +autonomy. The meeting was held on May 31, in the same committee room +upstairs that four years later became associated with the most cruel of +all phases of the Irish controversy. Mr. Chamberlain presided, and some +fifty-five gentlemen attended. Not all of them had hitherto been +understood to be in favour either of some sort, or of any sort, of +autonomy for Ireland. The question was whether they should content +themselves with abstention from the division, or should go into the lobby +against the government. If they abstained, the bill would pass, and an +extension of the party schism would be averted. The point was carried, as +all great parliamentary issues are, by considerations apart from the nice +and exact balance of argument on the merits. In anxious and distracting +moments like this, when so many arguments tell in one way and so many tell +in another, a casting vote often belongs to the moral weight of some +particular person. The chairman opened in a neutral sense. It seems to +have been mainly the moral weight of Mr. Bright that sent down the scale. +He was not present, but he sent a letter. He hoped that every man would +use his own mind, but for his part he must vote against the bill. This +letter was afterwards described as the death-warrant of the bill and of +the administration. The course of the men who had been summoned because +they were favourable to some sort of home rule was decided by the +illustrious statesman who opposed every sort of home rule. Their boat was +driven straight upon the rocks of coercion by the influence of the great +orator who had never in all his career been more eloquent than when he was +denouncing the mischief and futility of Irish coercion, and protesting +that force is no remedy. + +One of the best speakers in the House, though not at that time in the +cabinet, was making an admirably warm and convinced defence alike of the +policy and the bill while these proceedings were going on. But Mr. Fowler +was listened to by men of pre-occupied minds. All knew what (M123) +momentous business was on foot in another part of the parliamentary +precincts. Many in the ranks were confident that abstention would carry +the day. Others knew that the meeting had been summoned for no such +purpose, and they made sure that the conveners would have their way. The +quiet inside the House was intense and unnatural. As at last the news of +the determination upstairs to vote against the bill ran along the benches +before the speaker sat down, men knew that the ministerial day was lost. +It was estimated by the heads of the "Chamberlain group" that if they +abstained, the bill would pass by a majority of five. Such a bill carried +by such a majority could of course not have proceeded much further. The +principle of autonomy would have been saved, and time would have been +secured for deliberation upon a new plan. More than once Mr. Gladstone +observed that no decision taken from the beginning of the crisis to the +end was either more incomprehensible or more disastrous. + + + +IV + + +The division was taken a little after one o'clock on the morning of the +8th of June. The Irish leader made one of the most masterly speeches that +ever fell from him. Whether agreeing with or differing from the policy, +every unprejudiced listener felt that this was not the mere dialectic of a +party debater, dealing smartly with abstract or verbal or artificial +arguments, but the utterance of a statesman with his eye firmly fixed upon +the actual circumstances of the nation for whose government this bill +would make him responsible. As he dealt with Ulster, with finance, with +the supremacy of parliament, with the loyal minority, with the settlement +of education in an Irish legislature,--soberly, steadily, deliberately, +with that full, familiar, deep insight into the facts of a country, which +is only possible to a man who belongs to it and has passed his life in it, +the effect of Mr. Parnell's speech was to make even able disputants on +either side look little better than amateurs. + +The debate was wound up for the regular opposition by Sir Michael Hicks +Beach, who was justly regarded throughout the session as having led his +party with remarkable skill and judgment. Like the Irish leader, he seemed +to be inspired by the occasion to a performance beyond his usual range, +and he delivered the final charge with strong effect. The bill, he said, +was the concoction of the prime minister and the Irish secretary, and the +cabinet had no voice in the matter. The government had delayed the +progress of the bill for a whole long and weary month, in order to give +party wirepullers plenty of time in which to frighten waverers. To treat a +vote on the second reading as a mere vote on a principle, without +reference to the possibility of applying it, was a mischievous farce. +Could anybody dream that if he supported the second reading now, he would +not compromise his action in the autumn and would not be appealed to as +having made a virtual promise to Ireland, of which it would be impossible +to disappoint her? As for the bill itself, whatever lawyers might say of +the theoretic maintenance of supremacy, in practice it would have gone. +All this side of the case was put by the speaker with the straight and +vigorous thrust that always works with strong effect in this great arena +of contest. + +Then came the unflagging veteran with the last of his five speeches. He +was almost as white as the flower in his coat, but the splendid compass, +the flexibility, the moving charm and power of his voice, were never more +wonderful. The construction of the speech was a masterpiece, the temper of +it unbroken, its freedom from taunt and bitterness and small personality +incomparable. Even if Mr. Gladstone had been in the prime of his days, +instead of a man of seventy-six years all struck; even if he had been at +his ease for the last four months, instead of labouring with indomitable +toil at the two bills, bearing all the multifarious burdens of the head of +a government, and all the weight of the business of the leader of the +House, undergoing all the hourly strain and contention of a political +situation of unprecedented difficulty,--much of the contention being of +that peculiarly trying and painful sort which means the parting of +colleagues and friends,--his closing speech would still have been a +surprising effort of free, argumentative, and fervid appeal. With the +fervid (M124) appeal was mingled more than one piece of piquant mockery. +Mr. Chamberlain had said that a dissolution had no terrors for him. "I do +not wonder at it. I do not see how a dissolution can have any terrors for +him. He has trimmed his vessel, and he has touched his rudder in such a +masterly way, that in whichever direction the winds of heaven may blow +they must fill his sails. Supposing that at an election public opinion +should be very strong in favour of the bill, my right hon. friend would +then be perfectly prepared to meet that public opinion, and tell it, 'I +declared strongly that I adopted the principle of the bill.' On the other +hand, if public opinion were very adverse to the bill, he again is in +complete armour, because he says, 'Yes, I voted against the bill.' +Supposing, again, public opinion is in favour of a very large plan for +Ireland, my right hon. friend is perfectly provided for that case also. +The government plan was not large enough for him, and he proposed in his +speech on the introduction of the bill that we should have a measure on +the basis of federation, which goes beyond this bill. Lastly--and now I +have very nearly boxed the compass--supposing that public opinion should +take quite a different turn, and instead of wanting very large measures +for Ireland, should demand very small measures for Ireland, still the +resources of my right hon. friend are not exhausted, because he is then +able to point out that the last of his plans was for four provincial +circuits controlled from London." All these alternatives and provisions +were visibly "creations of the vivid imagination, born of the hour and +perishing with the hour, totally unavailable for the solution of a great +and difficult problem." + +Now, said the orator, was one of the golden moments of our history, one of +those opportunities which may come and may go, but which rarely return, or +if they return, return at long intervals, and under circumstances which no +man can forecast. There was such a golden moment in 1795, on the mission +of Lord Fitzwilliam. At that moment the parliament of Grattan was on the +point of solving the Irish problem. The cup was at Ireland's lips, and she +was ready to drink it, when the hand of England rudely and ruthlessly +dashed it to the ground in obedience to the wild and dangerous intimations +of an Irish faction. There had been no great day of hope for Ireland +since, no day when you might completely and definitely hope to end the +controversy till now--more than ninety years. The long periodic time had at +last run out, and the star had again mounted into the heavens. + +This strain of living passion was sustained with all its fire and speed to +the very close. "Ireland stands at your bar expectant, hopeful, almost +suppliant. Her words are the words of truth and soberness. She asks a +blessed oblivion of the past, and in that oblivion our interest is deeper +even than hers. You have been asked to-night to abide by the traditions of +which we are the heirs. What traditions? By the Irish traditions? Go into +the length and breadth of the world, ransack the literature of all +countries, find if you can a single voice, a single book, in which the +conduct of England towards Ireland is anywhere treated except with +profound and bitter condemnation. Are these the traditions by which we are +exhorted to stand? No, they are a sad exception to the glory of our +country. They are a broad and black blot upon the pages of its history, +and what we want to do is to stand by the traditions of which we are the +heirs in all matters except our relations with Ireland, and to make our +relation with Ireland to conform to the other traditions of our country. +So we treat our traditions, so we hail the demand of Ireland for what I +call a blessed oblivion of the past. She asks also a boon for the future; +and that boon for the future, unless we are much mistaken, will be a boon +to us in respect of honour, no less than a boon to her in respect of +happiness, prosperity and peace. Such, sir, is her prayer. Think, I +beseech you; think well, think wisely, think, not for the moment, but for +the years that are to come, before you reject this bill." + +The question was put, the sand glass was turned upon the table, the +division bells were set ringing. Even at this moment, the ministerial +whips believed that some were still wavering. A reference made by Mr. +Parnell to harmonious communications in the previous summer with a tory +minister, (M125) inclined them to vote for the bill. On the other hand, +the prospect of going to an election without a tory opponent was no weak +temptation to a weak man. A common impression was that the bill would be +beaten by ten or fifteen. Others were sure that it would be twice as much +as either figure. Some on the treasury bench, perhaps including the prime +minister himself, hoped against hope that the hostile majority might not +be more than five or six. It proved to be thirty. The numbers were 343 +against 313. Ninety-three liberals voted against the bill. These with the +two tellers were between one-third and one-fourth of the full liberal +strength from Great Britain. So ended the first engagement in this long +campaign. As I passed into his room at the House with Mr. Gladstone that +night, he seemed for the first time to bend under the crushing weight of +the burden that he had taken up. + + + +V + + +When ministers went into the cabinet on the following day, three of them +inclined pretty strongly towards resignation as a better course than +dissolution; mainly on the ground that the incoming government would then +have to go to the country with a policy of their own. Mr. Gladstone, +however, entirely composed though pallid, at once opened the case with a +list of twelve reasons for recommending dissolution, and the reasons were +so cogent that his opening of the case was also its closing. They were +entirely characteristic, for they began with precedent and the key was +courage. He knew of no instance where a ministry defeated under +circumstances like ours, upon a great policy or on a vote of confidence, +failed to appeal to the country. Then with a view to the enthusiasm of our +friends in this country, as well as to feeling in Ireland, it was +essential that we should not let the flag go down. We had been constantly +challenged to a dissolution, and not to take the challenge up would be a +proof of mistrust, weakness, and a faint heart. "My conclusion is," he +said, "a dissolution is formidable, but resignation would mean for the +present juncture abandonment of the cause." His conclusion was accepted +without comment. The experts outside the cabinet were convinced that a +bold front was the best way of securing the full fighting power of the +party. The white feather on such an issue, and with so many minds +wavering, would be a sure provocative of defeat. + +Mr. Gladstone enumerated to the Queen what he took to be the new elements +in the case. There were on the side of the government, 1. The transfer of +the Irish vote from, the tories, 2. The popular enthusiasm in the liberal +masses which he had never seen equalled. But what was the electoral value +of enthusiasm against (_a_) anti-Irish prejudices, (_b_) the power of +rank, station, and wealth, (_c_) the kind of influence exercised by the +established clergy, 'perversely applied as of course Mr. Gladstone thinks +in politics, but resting upon a very solid basis as founded on the +generally excellent and devoted work which they do in their parishes'? +This remained to be proved. On the other side there was the whig +defection, with the strange and unnatural addition from Birmingham. "Mr. +Gladstone himself has no skill in these matters, and dare not lay an +opinion before your Majesty on the probable general result." He thought +there was little chance, if any, of a tory majority in the new parliament. +Opinion taken as a whole seemed to point to a majority not very large, +whichever way it may be. + +No election was ever fought more keenly, and never did so many powerful +men fling themselves with livelier activity into a great struggle. The +heaviest and most telling attack came from Mr. Bright, who had up to now +in public been studiously silent. Every word, as they said of Daniel +Webster, seemed to weigh a pound. His arguments were mainly those of his +letter already given, but they were delivered with a gravity and force +that told powerfully upon the large phalanx of doubters all over the +kingdom. On the other side, Mr. Gladstone's plume waved in every part of +the field. He unhorsed an opponent as he flew past on the road; his voice +rang with calls as thrilling as were ever heard in England; he appealed to +the individual, to his personal responsibility, to the best elements in +him, to the sense of justice, to the powers of hope and of sympathy; he +(M126) displayed to the full that rare combination of qualities that had +always enabled him to view affairs in all their range, at the same time +from the high commanding eminence and on the near and sober level. + +He left London on June 17 on his way to Edinburgh, and found "wonderful +demonstrations all along the road; many little speeches; could not be +helped." "The feeling here," he wrote from Edinburgh (June 21), "is truly +wonderful, especially when, the detestable state of the press is +considered." Even Mr. Goschen, whom he described as "supplying in the +main, soul, brains, and movement to the dissentient body," was handsomely +beaten in one of the Edinburgh divisions, so fatal was the proximity of +Achilles. "_June 22._ Off to Glasgow, 12-3/4. Meeting at 3. Spoke an hour +and twenty minutes. Off at 5.50. Reached Hawarden at 12.30 or 40. Some +speeches by the way; others I declined. The whole a scene of triumph. God +help us, His poor creatures." At Hawarden, he found chaos in his room, and +he set to work upon it, but he did not linger. On June 25, "off to +Manchester; great meeting in the Free Trade Hall. Strain excessive. Five +miles through the streets to Mr. Agnew's; a wonderful spectacle half the +way." From Manchester he wrote, "I have found the display of enthusiasm +far beyond all former measure," and the torrid heat of the meeting almost +broke him down, but friends around him heard him murmur, "I must do it," +and bracing himself with tremendous effort he went on. Two days later +(June 28) he wound up the campaign in a speech at Liverpool, which even +old and practised political hands who were there, found the most +magnificent of them all. Staying at Courthey, the residence of his +nephews, in the morning he enters, "Worked up the Irish question once more +for my last function. Seven or eight hours of processional uproar, and a +speech of an hour and forty minutes to five or six thousand people in +Hengler's Circus. Few buildings give so noble a presentation of an +audience. Once more my voice held out in a marvellous manner. I went in +bitterness, in the heat of my spirit, but the hand of the Lord was strong +upon me." + +He had no sooner returned to Hawarden, than he wrote to tell Mrs. +Gladstone (July 2) of a stroke which was thought to have a curiously +daemonic air about it:-- + + + The Leith business will show you I have not been inactive + here.--former M.P. _attended my meeting in the Music Hall_, and was + greeted by me accordingly (he had voted against us after wobbling + about much). Hearing by late post yesterday that waiting to the + last he had then declared against us, I telegraphed down to + Edinburgh in much indignation, that they might if they liked put + me up against him, and I would go down again and speak if they + wished it. They seem to have acted with admirable pluck and + promptitude. Soon after mid-day to-day I received telegrams to say + I am elected for Midlothian,(212) and _also for Leith_,--having + retired rather than wait to be beaten. I told them instantly to + publish this, as it may do good. + + +The Queen, who had never relished these oratorical crusades whether he was +in opposition or in office, did not approve of the first minister of the +crown addressing meetings outside of his own constituency. In reply to a +gracious and frank letter from Balmoral, Mr. Gladstone wrote:-- + + + He must state frankly what it is that has induced him thus to + yield [to importunity for speeches]. It is that since the death of + Lord Beaconsfield, in fact since 1880, the leaders of the + opposition, Lord Salisbury and Lord Iddesleigh (he has not + observed the same practice in the case of Sir M. H. Beach) have + established a rule of what may be called popular agitation, by + addressing public meetings from time to time at places with which + they were not connected. This method was peculiarly marked in the + case of Lord Salisbury as a peer, and this change on the part of + the leaders of opposition has induced Mr. Gladstone to deviate on + this critical occasion from the rule which he had (he believes) + generally or uniformly observed in former years. He is, as he has + previously apprised your Majesty, aware of the immense + responsibility he has assumed, and of the severity of just + condemnation which will be pronounced upon him, if he should + eventually prove to have been wrong. But your Majesty will be the + first to perceive that, even if it had been possible for him to + decline this great contest, it was not possible for him having + entered upon it, to conduct it in a half-hearted manner, or to + omit the use of any means requisite in order to place (what he + thinks) the true issue before the country. + + +Nature, however, served the royal purpose. Before his speech at Liverpool, +he was pressed to speak in the metropolis:-- + + + As to my going to London,--he wrote in reply,--I have twice had my + chest rather seriously strained, and I have at this moment a sense + of internal fatigue within it which is quite new to me, from the + effects of a bad arrangement in the hall at Manchester. Should + anything like it be repeated at Liverpool to-morrow I shall not be + fit physically to speak for a week, if then. Mentally I have never + undergone such an uninterrupted strain as since January 30 of this + year. The forming and reforming of the government, the work of + framing the bills, and _studying the subject_ (which none of the + opponents would do), have left me almost stunned, and I have the + autumn in prospect with, perhaps, most of the work to do over + again if we succeed. + + +But this was not to be. The incomparable effort was in vain. The sons of +Zeruiah were too hard for him, and England was unconvinced. + +The final result was that the ministerialists or liberals of the main body +were reduced from 235 to 196, the tories rose from 251 to 316, the +dissentient liberals fell to 74, and Mr. Parnell remained at his former +strength. In other words, the opponents of the Irish policy of the +government were 390, as against 280 in its favour; or a unionist majority +of 110. Once more no single party possessed an independent or absolute +majority. An important member of the tory party said to a liberal of his +acquaintance (July 7), that he was almost sorry the tories had not played +the bold game and fought independently of the dissentient liberals. "But +then," he added, "we could not have beaten you on the bill, without the +compact to spare unionist seats." + +England had returned opponents of the liberal policy in the proportion of +two and a half to one against its friends; but Scotland approved in the +proportion of three to two, Wales approved by five to one, and Ireland by +four and a half to one. Another fact with a warning in it was that, taking +the total poll for Great Britain, the liberals had 1,344,000, the seceders +397,000, and the tories 1,041,000. Therefore in contested constituencies +the liberals of the main body were only 76,000 behind the forces of tories +and seceders combined. Considering the magnitude and the surprise of the +issue laid before the electors, and in view of the confident prophecies of +even some peculiar friends of the policy, that both policy and its authors +would be swept out of existence by a universal explosion of national anger +and disgust, there was certainly no final and irrevocable verdict in a +hostile British majority of no more than four per cent, of the votes +polled. Apart from electoral figures, coercion loomed large and near at +hand, and coercion tried under the new political circumstances that would +for the first time attend it, might well be trusted to do much more than +wipe out the margin at the polls. "There is nothing in the recent defeat," +said Mr. Gladstone, "to abate the hopes or to modify the anticipations of +those who desire to meet the wants and wishes of Ireland." + + + +VI + + +The question now before Mr. Gladstone was whether to meet the new +parliament or at once to resign. For a short time he wavered, along with +an important colleague, and then he and all the rest came round to +resignation. The considerations that guided him were these. It is best for +Ireland that the party strongest in the new parliament should be at once +confronted with its responsibilities. Again, we were bound to consider +what would most tend to reunite the liberal party, and it was in +opposition that the chances of such reunion would be likely to stand +highest, especially in view of coercion which many of the dissidents had +refused to contemplate. If he could remodel the bill or frame a new one, +that might be a possible ground for endeavouring to make up a majority, +but he could not see his way to any (M127) such process, though he was +ready for certain amendments. Finally, if we remained, an amendment would +be moved definitely committing the new House against home rule. + +The conclusion was for immediate resignation, and his colleagues were +unanimous in assent. The Irish view was different and impossible. +Returning from a visit to Ireland I wrote to Mr. Gladstone (July 19):-- + + + You may perhaps care to see what ---- [not a secular politician] + thinks, so I enclose you a conversation between him and ----. He + does not show much strength of political judgment, and one can + understand why Parnell never takes him into counsel. Parnell, of + course, is anxious for us to hold on to the last moment. Our fall + will force him without delay to take up a new and difficult line. + But his letters to me, especially the last, show a desperate + willingness to blink the new parliamentary situation. + + +Mr. Parnell, in fact, pressed with some importunity that we should meet +the new parliament, on the strange view that the result of the election +was favourable on general questions, and indecisive only on Irish policy. +We were to obtain the balance of supply in an autumn sitting, in January +to attack registration reform, and then to dissolve upon that, without +making any Irish proposition whatever. This curious suggestion left +altogether out of sight the certainty that an amendment referring to +Ireland would be at once moved on the Address, such as must beyond all +doubt command the whole of the tories and a large part, if not all, of the +liberal dissentients. Only one course was possible for the defeated +ministers, and they resigned. + +On July 30, Mr. Gladstone had his final audience of the Queen, of which he +wrote the memorandum following:-- + + + _Conversation with the Queen, August 2, 1886._ + + The conversation at my closing audience on Friday was a singular + one, when regarded as the probable last word with the sovereign + after fifty-five years of political life, and a good quarter of a + century's service rendered to her in office. + + The Queen was in good spirits; her manners altogether pleasant. + She made me sit at once. Asked after my wife as we began, and sent + a kind message to her as we ended. About me personally, I think, + her single remark was that I should require some rest. I remember + that on a closing audience in 1874 she said she felt sure I might + be reckoned upon to support the throne. She did not say anything + of the sort to-day. Her mind and opinions have since that day been + seriously warped, and I respect her for the scrupulous avoidance + of anything which could have seemed to indicate a desire on her + part to claim anything in common with me. + + Only at three points did the conversation touch upon anything even + faintly related to public affairs.... The second point was the + conclusion of some arrangement for appanages or incomes on behalf + of the third generation of the royal house. I agreed that there + ought at a suitable time to be a committee on this subject, as had + been settled some time back, she observing that the recent + circumstances had made the time unsuitable. I did not offer any + suggestion as to the grounds of the affair, but said it seemed to + me possible to try some plan under which intended marriages should + be communicated without forcing a reply from the Houses. Also I + agreed that the amounts were not excessive. I did not pretend to + have a solution ready: but said it would, of course, be the duty + of the government to submit a plan to the committee. The third + matter was trivial: a question or two from her on the dates and + proceedings connected with the meeting. The rest of the + conversation, not a very long one, was filled up with nothings. It + is rather melancholy. But on neither side, given the conditions, + could it well be helped. + + On the following day she wrote a letter, making it evident that, + so far as Ireland was concerned, she could not trust herself to + say what she wanted to say.... + + +Among the hundreds of letters that reached him every week was one from an +evangelical lady of known piety, enclosing him a form of prayer that had +been issued against home rule. His acknowledgment (July 27) shows none of +the impatience of the baffled statesman:-- + + + I thank you much for your note; and though I greatly deplored the + issue, and the ideas of the prayer in question, yet, from the + moment when I heard it was your composition, I knew perfectly well + that it was written in entire good faith, and had no relation to + political controversy in the ordinary sense. I cannot but think + that, in bringing the subject of Irish intolerance before the + Almighty Father, we ought to have some regard to the fact that + down to the present day, as between the two religions, the offence + has been in the proportion of perhaps a hundred to one on the + protestant side, and the suffering by it on the Roman side. At the + present hour, I am pained to express my belief that there is far + more of intolerance in action from so-called protestants against + Roman catholics, than from Roman catholics against protestants. It + is a great satisfaction to agree with you, as I feel confident + that I must do, in the conviction that of prayers we cannot + possibly have too much in this great matter, and for my own part I + heartily desire that, unless the policy I am proposing be for the + honour of God and the good of His creatures, it may be trampled + under foot and broken into dust. Of your most charitable thoughts + and feelings towards me I am deeply sensible, and I remain with + hearty regard. + + +As he wrote at this time to R. H. Hutton (July 2), one of the choice +spirits of our age, "Rely upon it, I can never quarrel with you or with +Bright. What vexes me is when differences disclose baseness, which +sometimes happens." + + + + + +BOOK X. 1886-1892 + + + + +Chapter I. The Morrow Of Defeat. (1886-1887) + + + Charity rendereth a man truly great, enlarging his mind into a + vast circumference, and to a capacity nearly infinite; so that it + by a general care doth reach all things, by an universal affection + doth embrace and grace the world.... Even a spark of it in + generosity of dealing breedeth admiration; a glimpse of it in + formal courtesy of behaviour procureth much esteem, being deemed + to accomplish and adorn a man.--BARROW. + + + +I + + +After the rejection of his Irish policy in the summer of 1886, Mr. +Gladstone had a period of six years before him, the life of the new +parliament. Strangely dramatic years they were, in some respects unique in +our later history. The party schism among liberals grew deeper and wider. +The union between tories and seceders became consolidated and final. The +alternative policy of coercion was passed through parliament in an extreme +form and with violent strain on the legislative machinery, and it was +carried out in Ireland in a fashion that pricked the consciences of many +thousands of voters who had resisted the proposals of 1886. A fierce storm +rent the Irish phalanx in two, and its leader vanished from the field +where for sixteen years he had fought so bold and uncompromising a fight. +During this period Mr. Gladstone stood in the most trying of all the +varied positions of his life, and without flinching he confronted it in +the strong faith that the national honour as well as the assuagement +(M128) of the inveterate Irish wound in the flank of his country, were the +issues at stake. + +This intense pre-occupation in the political struggle did not for a single +week impair his other interests, nor stay his ceaseless activity in +controversies that were not touched by politics. Not even now, when the +great cause to which he had so daringly committed himself was in decisive +issue, could he allow it to dull or sever what had been the standing +concerns of life and thought to him for so long a span of years. As from +his youth up, so now behind the man of public action was the diligent, +eager, watchful student, churchman, apologist, divine. And what is curious +and delightful is that he never set a more admirable example of the tone +and temper in which literary and religious controversy should be +conducted, than in these years when in politics exasperation was at its +worst. It was about this time that he wrote: "Certainly one of the lessons +life has taught me is that where there is known to be a common object, the +pursuit of truth, there should also be a studious desire to interpret the +adversary in the best sense his words will fairly bear; to avoid whatever +widens the breach; and to make the most of whatever tends to narrow it. +These I hold to be part of the laws of knightly tournament." And to these +laws he sedulously conformed. Perhaps at some happy time before the day of +judgment they may be transferred from the tournament to the battle-fields +of philosophy, criticism, and even politics. + + + +II + + +After the defeat in which his tremendous labours had for the moment ended, +he made his way to what was to him the most congenial atmosphere in the +world, to the company of Doellinger and Acton, at Tegernsee in Bavaria. +"Tegernsee," Lord Acton wrote to me (Sept. 7), "is an out-of-the-way +place, peaceful and silent, and as there is a good library in the house, I +have taken some care of his mind, leading in the direction of little +French comedies, and away from the tragedy of existence. It has done him +good, and he has just started with Doellinger to climb a high mountain in +the neighbourhood." + + + _To Mrs. Gladstone._ + + _Tegernsee, Aug. 28, 1886._--We found Doellinger reading in the + garden. The course of his life is quite unchanged. His + constitution does not appear at all to have given way. He beats me + utterly in standing, but that is not saying much, as it never was + one of my gifts; and he is not conscious (eighty-seven last + February) of any difficulty with the heart in going up hill. His + deafness has increased materially, but not so that he cannot carry + on very well conversation with a single person. We have talked + much together even on disestablishment which he detests, and + Ireland as to which he is very apprehensive, but he never seems to + shut up his mind by prejudice. I had a good excuse for giving him + my pamphlet,(213) but I do not know whether he will tell us what + he thinks of it. He was reading it this morning. He rises at six + and breakfasts alone. Makes a _good_ dinner at two and has nothing + more till the next morning. He does not appear after dark. On the + whole one sees no reason why he should not last for several years + yet. + + +"When Dr. Doellinger was eighty-seven," Mr. Gladstone wrote later, "he +walked with me seven miles across the hill that separates the Tegernsee +from the next valley to the eastward. At that time he began to find his +sleep subject to occasional interruptions, and he had armed himself +against them by committing to memory the first three books of the +_Odyssey_ for recital."(214) Of Mr. Gladstone Doellinger had said in 1885, +"I have known Gladstone for thirty years, and would stand security for him +any day; his character is a very fine one, and he possesses a rare +capability for work. I differ from him in his political views on many +points, and it is difficult to convince him, for he is clad in triple +steel."(215) + +Another high personage in the Roman catholic world sent him letters +through Acton, affectionately written and with signs of serious as well as +sympathising study of his Irish policy. A little later (Sept. 21) Mr. +Gladstone writes to his wife at Hawarden:-- + + + Bishop Strossmayer may make a journey all the way to Hawarden, and + it seems that Acton may even accompany him, which would make it + much more manageable. His coming would be a great compliment, and + cannot be discouraged or refused. It would, however, be a serious + affair, for he speaks no language with which as a spoken tongue we + are familiar, his great cards being Slavonic and Latin. + Unfortunately I have a very great increase of difficulty in + _hearing_ the words in foreign tongues, a difficulty which I hope + has hardly begun with you as yet. + + +Like a good host, Lord Acton kept politics out of his way as well as he +could, but some letter of mine "set him on fire, and he is full of ----'s +blunder and of Parnell's bill." Parliamentary duty was always a sting to +him, and by September 20 he was back in the House of Commons, speaking on +the Tenants Relief (Ireland) bill. Then to the temple of peace at Hawarden +for the rest of the year, to read the _Iliad_ "for the twenty-fifth or +thirtieth time, and every time richer and more glorious than before"; to +write elaborately on Homeric topics; to receive a good many visitors; and +to compose the admirable article on Tennyson's second _Locksley Hall_. On +this last let us pause for an instant. The moment was hardly one in which, +from a man of nature less great and powerful than Mr. Gladstone, we should +have counted on a buoyant vindication of the spirit of his time. He had +just been roughly repulsed in the boldest enterprise of his career; his +name was a target for infinite obloquy; his motives were largely denounced +as of the basest; the conflict into which he had plunged and from which he +could not withdraw was hard; friends had turned away from him; he was old; +the issue was dubious and dark. Yet the personal, or even what to him were +the national discomfitures of the hour, were not allowed to blot the sun +out of the heavens. His whole soul rose in challenge against the tragic +tones of Tennyson's poem, as he recalled the solid tale of the vast +improvements, the enormous mitigation of the sorrows and burdens of +mankind, that had been effected in the land by public opinion and public +authority, operative in the exhilarating sphere of self-government during +the sixty years between the first and second _Locksley Hall_. + + + The sum of the matter seems to be that upon the whole, and in a + degree, we who lived fifty, sixty, seventy years back, and are + living now, have lived into a gentler time; that the public + conscience has grown more tender, as indeed was very needful; and + that in matters of practice, at sight of evils formerly regarded + with indifference or even connivance, it now not only winces but + rebels; that upon the whole the race has been reaping, and not + scattering; earning and not wasting; and that without its being + said that the old Prophet is wrong, it may be said that the young + Prophet was unquestionably right. + + +Here is the way in which a man of noble heart and high vision as of a +circling eagle, transcends his individual chagrins. All this optimism was +the natural vein of a statesman who had lived a long life of effort in +persuading opinion in so many regions, in overcoming difficulty upon +difficulty, in content with a small reform where men would not let him +achieve a great one, in patching where he could not build anew, in +unquenchable faith, hope, patience, endeavour. Mr. Gladstone knew as well +as Tennyson that "every blessing has its drawbacks, and every age its +dangers"; he was as sensitive as Tennyson or Ruskin or any of them, to the +implacable tragedy of industrial civilisation--the city children +"blackening soul and sense in city slime," progress halting on palsied +feet "among the glooming alleys," crime and hunger casting maidens on the +street, and all the other recesses of human life depicted by the poetic +prophet in his sombre hours. But the triumphs of the past inspired +confidence in victories for the future, and meanwhile he thought it well +to remind Englishmen that "their country is still young as well as old, +and that in these latest days it has not been unworthy of itself."(216) + +On his birthday he enters in his diary:-- + + + _Dec. 29, 1886._--This day in its outer experience recalls the + Scotch usage which would say, "terrible pleasant." In spite of the + ruin of telegraph wires by snow, my letters and postal arrivals of + to-day have much exceeded those of last year. Even my share of the + reading was very heavy. The day was gone before it seemed to have + begun, all amidst stir and festivity. The estimate was nine + hundred arrivals. O for a birthday of recollection. It is long + since I have had one. There is so much to say on the soul's + history, but bracing is necessary to say it, as it is for reading + Dante. It has been a year of shock and strain. I think a year of + some progress; but of greater absorption in interests which, + though profoundly human, are quite off the line of an old man's + direct preparation for passing the River of Death. I have not had + a chance given me of creeping from this whirlpool, for I cannot + abandon a cause which is so evidently that of my fellow-men, and + in which a particular part seems to be assigned to me. Therefore + am I not disturbed "though the hills be carried into the middle of + the sea." + + + +III + + + _To Lord Acton._ + + _Hawarden, Jan. 13, 1887._--It is with much pleasure that I read + your estimate of Chamberlain. His character is remarkable, as are + in a very high degree his talents. It is one of my common sayings + that to me characters of the political class are the most + mysterious of all I meet, so that I am obliged to travel the road + of life surrounded by an immense number of judgments more or less + in suspense, and getting on for practical purposes as well as I + can. + + I have with a clear mind and conscience not only assented to but + promoted the present conferences, and I had laboured in that sense + long before Mr. Chamberlain made his speech at Birmingham. It will + surprise as well as grieve me if they do harm; if indeed they do + not do some little good. Large and final arrangements, it would be + rash I think to expect. + + The tide is flowing, though perhaps not rapidly, in our favour. + Without our lifting a finger, a crumbling process has begun in + both the opposite parties. "In quietness and in confidence shall + be your strength" is a blessed maxim, often applicable to + temporals as well as spirituals. I have indeed one temptation to + haste, namely, that the hour may come for me to say farewell and + claim my retirement; but inasmuch as I remain _in situ_ for the + Irish question only, I cannot be so foolish as to allow myself to + ruin by precipitancy my own purpose. Though I am writing a paper + on the Irish question for Mr. Knowles, it is no trumpet-blast, but + is meant to fill and turn to account a season of comparative + quietude. + + The death of Iddesleigh has shocked and saddened us all. He was + full of excellent qualities, but had not the backbone and strength + of fibre necessary to restore the tone of a party demoralised by + his former leader. In gentleness, temper, sacrifice of himself to + the common purpose of his friends, knowledge, quickness of + perception, general integrity of intention, freedom from personal + aims, he was admirable.... I have been constantly struggling to + vindicate a portion of my time for the pursuits I want to follow, + but with very little success indeed. Some rudiments of Olympian + religion have partially taken shape. I have a paper ready for + Knowles probably in his March number on the Poseidon of Homer, a + most curious and exotic personage.... Williams and Norgate got me + the books I wanted, but alack for the time to read them! In + addition to want of time, I have to deplore my slowness in + reading, declining sight, and declining memory; all very serious + affairs for one who has such singular reason to be thankful as to + general health and strength. + + I wish I could acknowledge duly or pay even in part your + unsparing, untiring kindness in the discharge of your engagements + as "Cook." Come early to England--and stay long. We will try what + we can to bind you. + + +A few months later, he added to his multifarious exercises in criticism +and controversy, a performance that attracted especial attention.(217) +"Mamma and I," he wrote to Mrs. Drew, "are each of us still separately +engaged in a death-grapple with _Robert Elsmere_. I complained of some of +the novels you gave me to read as too stiff, but they are nothing to this. +It is wholly out of the common order. At present I regard with doubt and +dread the idea of doing anything on it, but cannot yet be sure whether +your observations will be verified or not. In any case it is a tremendous +book." And on April 1 (1888), he wrote, "By hard work I have finished and +am correcting my article on _Robert Elsmere_. It is rather stiff work. I +have had two letters from her. She is much to be liked personally, but is +a fruit, I think, of what must be called Arnoldism." + + + _To Lord Acton._ + + _Aston Clinton, Tring, Easter Day, April 1, '88._--I do not like to + let too long a time elapse without some note of intercourse, even + though that season approaches which brings you back to the shores + of your country. Were you here I should have much to say on many + things; but I will now speak, or first speak, of what is + uppermost, and would, if a mind is like a portmanteau, be taken or + tumble out first. + + You perhaps have not heard of _Robert Elsmere_, for I find without + surprise, that it makes its way slowly into public notice. It is + not far from twice the length of an ordinary novel; and the labour + and effort of reading it all, I should say, sixfold; while one + could no more stop in it than in reading Thucydides. The idea of + the book, perhaps of the writer, appears to be a movement of + retreat from Christianity upon Theism: a Theism with a Christ + glorified, always in the human sense, but beyond the ordinary + measure. It is worked out through the medium of a being--one ought + to say a character, but I withhold the word, for there is no + sufficient substratum of character to uphold the qualities--gifted + with much intellectual subtlety and readiness, and almost every + conceivable moral excellence. He finds vent in an energetic + attempt to carry his new gospel among the skilled artisans of + London, whom the writer apparently considers as supplying the + _norm_ for all right human judgment. He has extraordinary success, + establishes a new church under the name of the new Christian + brotherhood, kills himself with overwork, but leaves his project + flourishing in a certain "Elgood Street." It is in fact (like the + Salvation Army), a new Kirche der Zukunft. + + I am always inclined to consider this Theism as among the least + defensible of the positions alternative to Christianity. Robert + Elsmere who has been a parish clergyman, is upset entirely, as it + appears, by the difficulty of accepting miracles, and by the + suggestion that the existing Christianity grew up in an age + specially predisposed to them. + + I want as usual to betray you into helping the lame dog over the + stile; and I should like to know whether you would think me + violently wrong in holding that the period of the Advent was a + period when the appetite for, or disposition to, the supernatural + was declining and decaying; that in the region of human thought, + speculation was strong and scepticism advancing; that if our Lord + were a mere man, armed only with human means, His whereabouts was + in this and many other ways misplaced by Providence; that the + gospels and the New Testament must have much else besides miracle + torn out of them, in order to get us down to the _caput mortuum_ + of Elgood Street. This very remarkable work is in effect identical + with the poor, thin, ineffectual production published with some + arrogance by the Duke of Somerset, which found a quack remedy for + difficulties in what he considered the impregnable citadel of + belief in God. + + Knowles has brought this book before me, and being as strong as it + is strange, it cannot perish still-born. I am tossed about with + doubt as to writing upon it. + + _To Lord Acton._ + + _Oxford, April 8, '88._--I am grateful for your most interesting + letter, which contains very valuable warnings. On the other side + is copied what I have written on two of the points raised by the + book. Have I said too much of the Academy? I have spoken only of + the first century. You refer to (apparently) about 250 A.D. as a + time of great progress? But I was astonished on first reading the + census of Christian clergy in Rome _temp._ St. Cyprian, it was so + slender. I am not certain, but does not Beugnot estimate the + Christians, before Constantine's conversion, in the west at + one-tenth of the population? Mrs. T. Arnold died yesterday here. + Mrs. Ward had been summoned and she is coming to see me this + evening. It is a very singular phase of the controversy which she + has opened. When do you _repatriate_? + + I am afraid that my kindness to the Positivists amounts only to a + comparative approval of their not dropping the great human + tradition out of view; _plus_ a very high appreciation of the + personal qualities of our friend ----. + + _To Lord Acton._ + + _Dollis Hill, May 13, '88._--Your last letter was one of extreme + interest. It raised such a multitude of points, after your perusal + of my article on R. Elsmere, as to stimulate in the highest degree + my curiosity to know how far you would carry into propositions, + the ideas which you for the most part obliquely put forward. I + gave the letter to Mary, who paid us a flying visit in London, + that she might take it to Hawarden for full digestion. For myself + I feed upon the hope that when (when ?) you come back to England + we may go over the points, and I may reap further benefits from + your knowledge. I will not now attempt anything of the kind. But I + will say this generally, that I am not so much oppressed as you + appear to be, with the notion that great difficulties have been + imported by the researches of scientists into the religious and + theological argument. As respects cosmogony and _geogony_, the + Scripture has, I think, taken much benefit from them. Whatever be + the date of the early books, Pentateuch or Hexateuch in their + present _edition_, the Assyriological investigations seem to me to + have fortified and accredited their substance by producing similar + traditions in variant forms inferior to the Mosaic forms, and + tending to throw them back to a higher antiquity, a fountainhead + nearer the source. Then there is the great chapter of the + Dispersal: which Renan (I think) treats as exhibiting the + marvellous genius (!) of the Jews. As to unbroken sequences in the + physical order, they do not trouble me, because we have to do not + with the natural but the moral order, and over this science, or as + I call it natural science, does not wave her sceptre. It is no + small matter, again (if so it be, as I suppose), that, after + warring for a century against miracle as unsustained by + experience, the assailants should now have to abandon that ground, + stand only upon sequence, and controvert the great facts of the + New Testament only by raising to an extravagant and unnatural + height the demands made under the law of testimony in order to + [justify] a rational belief. One admission has to be made, that + death did not come into the world by sin, namely the sin of Adam, + and this sits inconveniently by the declaration of Saint Paul. + + Mrs. Ward wrote to thank me for the tone of my article. Her first + intention was to make some reply in the _Nineteenth Century_ + itself. It appears that ---- advised her not to do it. But Knowles + told me that he was labouring to bring her up to the scratch + again. There, I said, you show the cloven foot; you want to keep + the _Nineteenth Century_ pot boiling. + + I own that your reasons for not being in England did not appear to + me cogent, but it would be impertinent to make myself a judge of + them. The worst of it was that you did not name _any_ date. But I + must assume that you are coming; and surely the time cannot now be + far. Among other things, I want to speak with you about French + novels, a subject on which there has for me been quite recently + cast a most lurid light. + + +Acton's letters in reply may have convinced Mr. Gladstone that there were +depths in this supreme controversy that he had hardly sounded; and +adversaria that he might have mocked from a professor of the school or +schools of unbelief, he could not in his inner mind make light of, when +coming from the pen of a catholic believer. Before and after the article +on _Robert Elsmere_ appeared, Acton, the student with his vast historic +knowledge and his deep penetrating gaze, warned the impassioned critic of +some historic point overstated or understated, some dangerous breach left +all unguarded, some lack of nicety in definition. Acton's letters will one +day see the light, and the reader may then know how candidly Mr. Gladstone +was admonished as to the excess of his description of the moral action of +Christianity; as to the risk of sending modern questions to ancient +answers, for the apologists of an age can only meet the difficulties of +their age; that there are leaps and bounds in the history of thought; how +well did Newman once say that in theology you have to meet questions that +the Fathers could hardly have been made to understand; how if you go to +St. Thomas or Leibnitz or Paley for rescue from Hegel or Haeckel your +apologetics will be a record of disaster. You insist broadly, says Acton, +on belief in the divine nature of Christ as the soul, substance, and +creative force of Christian religion; you assign to it very much of the +good the church has done; all this with little or no qualification or +drawback from the other side:-- + + + Enter Martineau or Stephen or ---- (unattached), and loq.:--Is this + the final judgment of the chief of liberals? the pontiff of a + church whose fathers are the later Milton and the later Penn, + Locke, Bayle, Toland, Franklin, Turgot, Adam Smith, Washington, + Jefferson, Bentham, Dugald Stewart, Romilly, Tocqueville, + Channing, Macaulay, Mill? These men and others like them + disbelieved that doctrine established freedom, and they undid the + work of orthodox Christianity, they swept away that appalling + edifice of intolerance, tyranny, cruelty, which believers in + Christ built up to perpetuate their belief. + + +The philosophy of liberal history, Acton proceeds, which has to +acknowledge the invaluable services of early Christianity, feels the +anti-liberal and anti-social action of later Christianity, before the rise +of the sects that rejected, some of them the divinity of Christ; others, +the institutions of the church erected upon it. Liberalism if it admits +these things as indifferent, surrenders its own _raison d'etre_, and +ceases to strive for an ethical cause. If the doctrine of Torquemada make +us condone his morality, there can be no public right and no wrong, no +political sin, no secular cause to die for. So it might be said that-- + + + You do not work really from the principle of liberalism, but from + the cognate, though distinct principles of democracy, nationality, + progress, etc. To some extent, I fear, you will estrange valued + friends, not assuredly by any expression of theological belief, + but by seeming to ignore the great central problem of Christian + politics. If I had to put my own doubts, instead of the average + liberal's, I should state the case in other words, but not + altogether differently.(218) + + + + +Chapter II. The Alternative Policy In Act. (1886-1888) + + + Those who come over hither to us from England, and some weak + people among ourselves, whenever in discourse we make mention of + liberty and property, shake their heads, and tell us that "Ireland + is a depending kingdom," as if they would seem by this phrase to + intend, that the people of Ireland are in some state of slavery or + dependence different from those of England.--JONATHAN SWIFT. + + + +I + + +In the ministry that succeeded Mr. Gladstone in 1886, Sir Michael Hicks +Beach undertook for the second time the office of Irish secretary, while +Lord Randolph Churchill filled his place at the exchequer and as leader of +the House. The new Irish policy was to open with the despatch of a +distinguished soldier to put down moonlighters in Kerry; the creation of +one royal commission under Lord Cowper, to inquire into land rents and +land purchase; and another to inquire into the country's material +resources. The two commissions were well-established ways of marking time. +As for Irish industries and Irish resources, a committee of the House of +Commons had made a report in a blue book of a thousand pages only a year +before. On Irish land there had been a grand commission in 1880, and a +committee of the House of Lords in 1882-3. The latest Purchase Act was +hardly yet a year old. Then to commission a general to hunt down little +handfuls of peasants who with blackened faces and rude firearms crept +stealthily in the dead of night round lonely cabins in the remote +hillsides and glens of Kerry, was hardly more sensible than it would be to +send a squadron of life-guards to catch pickpockets in a London slum. + +A question that exercised Mr. Gladstone at least as sharply as the +proceedings of ministers, was the attitude (M129) to be taken by those who +had quitted him, ejected him in the short parliament of 1886, and fought +the election against him. We have seen how much controversy arose long +years before as to the question whereabouts in the House of Commons the +Peelites should take their seats.(219) The same perplexity now confronted +the liberals who did not agree with Mr. Gladstone upon Irish government. +Lord Hartington wrote to him, and here is his reply:-- + + + _August 2, 1886._--I fully appreciate the feeling which has + prompted your letter, and I admit the reality of the difficulties + you describe. It is also clear, I think, that so far as title to + places on the front opposition bench is concerned, your right to + them is identical with ours. I am afraid, however, that I cannot + materially contribute to relieve you from embarrassment. The + choice of a seat is more or less the choice of a symbol; and I + have no such acquaintance with your political views and + intentions, as could alone enable me to judge what materials I + have before me for making an answer to your inquiry. For my own + part, I earnestly desire, subject to the paramount exigencies of + the Irish question, to promote in every way the reunion of the + liberal party; a desire in which I earnestly trust that you + participate. And I certainly could not directly or indirectly + dissuade you from any step which you may be inclined to take, and + which may appear to you to have a tendency in any measure to + promote that end. + + +A singular event occurred at the end of the year (1886), that produced an +important change in the relations of this group of liberals to the +government that they had placed and maintained in power. Lord Randolph, +the young minister who with such extraordinary rapidity had risen to +ascendency in the councils of the government, suddenly in a fatal moment +of miscalculation or caprice resigned (Dec. 23). Political suicide is not +easy to a man with energy and resolution, but this was one of the rare +cases. In a situation so strangely unstable and irregular, with an +administration resting on the support of a section sitting on benches +opposite, and still declaring every day that they adhered to old liberal +principles and had no wish to sever old party ties, the withdrawal of Lord +Randolph Churchill created boundless perturbation. It was one of those +exquisite moments in which excited politicians enjoy the ineffable +sensation that the end of the world has come. Everything seemed possible. +Lord Hartington was summoned from the shores of the Mediterranean, but +being by temperament incredulous of all vast elemental convulsions, he +took his time. On his return he declined Lord Salisbury's offer to make +way for him as head of the government. The glitter of the prize might have +tempted a man of schoolboy ambition, but Lord Hartington was too +experienced in affairs not to know that to be head of a group that held +the balance was, under such equivocal circumstances, far the more +substantial and commanding position of the two. Mr. Goschen's case was +different, and by taking the vacant post at the exchequer he saved the +prime minister from the necessity of going back under Lord Randolph's +yoke. As it happened, all this gave a shake to both of the unionist wings. +The ominous clouds of coercion were sailing slowly but discernibly along +the horizon, and this made men in the unionist camp still more restless +and uneasy. Mr. Chamberlain, on the very day of the announcement of the +Churchill resignation, had made a speech that was taken to hold out an +olive branch to his old friends. Sir William Harcourt, ever holding +stoutly in fair weather and in foul to the party ship, thought the +break-up of a great political combination to be so immense an evil, as to +call for almost any sacrifices to prevent it. He instantly wrote to +Birmingham to express his desire to co-operate in re-union, and in the +course of a few days five members of the original liberal cabinet of 1886 +met at his house in what was known as the Round Table Conference.(220) + +A letter of Mr. Gladstone's to me puts some of his views on the situation +created by the retirement of Lord Randolph:-- + + + _Hawarden, Christmas Day, 1886._--Between Christmas services, a + flood of cards and congratulations for the season, and many + interesting letters, I am drowned in work to-day, having just at + 1-1/4 P.M. ascertained what my letters _are_. So forgive me if, + first thanking you very much for yours, I deal with some points + rather abruptly. + + 1. Churchill has committed an outrage as against the Queen, and + also the prime minister, in the method of resigning and making + known his resignation. This, of course, they will work against + him. 2. He is also entirely wrong in supposing that the finance + minister has any ruling authority on the great estimates of + defence. If he had, he would be the master of the country. But + although he has no right to demand the concurrence of his + colleagues in his view of the estimates, he has a rather special + right, because these do so much towards determining budget and + taxation, to indicate his own views by resignation. I have + repeatedly fought estimates to the extremity, with an intention of + resigning in _case_. But to send in a resignation makes it + impossible for his colleagues as men of honour to recede. 3. I + think one of his best points is that he had made before taking + office recent and formal declarations on behalf of economy, of + which his colleagues must be taken to have been cognisant, and + Salisbury in particular. He may plead that he could not reduce + these all at once to zero. 4. Cannot something be done, without + reference to the holes that may be picked, to give him some + support as a champion of economy? This talk about the continental + war, I for one regard as pure nonsense when aimed at magnifying + our estimates. + + 5. With regard to Hartington. What he will do I know not, and our + wishes could have no weight with him.... The position is one of + such difficulty for H. that I am very sorry for him, though it was + never more true that he who makes his own bed in a certain way + must lie in it. Chamberlain's speech hits him very hard in case of + acceptance. I take it for granted that he will not accept to sit + among thirteen tories, but will have to demand an entry by force, + _i.e._ with three or four friends. To accept upon that footing + would, I think, be the logical consequence of all he has said and + done since April. In logic, he ought to go forward, _or_, as + Chamberlain has done, backward. The Queen will, I have no doubt, + be brought to bear upon him, and the nine-tenths of his order. If + the Irish question rules all others, all he has to consider is + whether he (properly flanked) can serve his view of the Irish + question. But with this logic we have nothing to do. The question + for us also is (I think), what is best for our view of the Irish + question? I am tempted to wish that he should accept; it would + clear the ground. But I do not yet see my way with certainty. + + 6. With regard to Chamberlain. From what has already passed + between us you know that, apart from the new situation and from + his declaration, I was very desirous that everything honourable + should be done to conciliate and soothe. Unquestionably his speech + is a new fact of great weight. He is again a liberal, _quand + meme_, and will not on all points (as good old Joe Hume used to + say) swear black is white for the sake of his views on Ireland. We + ought not to waste this new fact, but take careful account of it. + On the other hand, I think he will see that the moment for taking + account of it has not come. Clearly the first thing is to see who + are the government. When we see this, we shall also know something + of its colour and intentions. I do not think Randolph can go back. + He would go back at a heavy discount. If he wants to minimise, the + only way I see is that he should isolate his vote on the + estimates, form no _clique_, and proclaim strong support in Irish + matters and general policy. Thus he might pave a roundabout road + of return.... In _many_ things Goschen is more of a liberal than + Hartington, and he would carry with him next to nobody. + + 7. On the whole, I rejoice to think that, come what may, this + affair will really effect progress in the Irish question. + + A happy Christmas to you. It will be happier than that of the + ministers. + + +Mr. Gladstone gave the Round Table his blessing, his "general idea being +that he had better meddle as little as possible with the conference, and +retain a free hand." Lord Hartington would neither join the conference, +nor deny that he thought it premature. While negotiation was going on, he +said, somebody must stay at home, guard the position, and keep a watch on +the movements of the enemy, and this duty was his. In truth, after +encouraging or pressing Mr. (M130) Goschen to join the government, it was +obviously impossible to do anything that would look like desertion either +of him or of them. On the other side, both English liberals and Irish +nationalists were equally uneasy lest the unity of the party should be +bought by the sacrifice of fundamentals. The conference was denounced from +this quarter as an attempt to find a compromise that would help a few men +sitting on the fence to salve "their consciences at the expense of a +nation's rights." Such remarks are worth quoting, to illustrate the temper +of the rank and file. Mr. Parnell, though alive to the truth that when +people go into a conference it usually means that they are ready to give +up something, was thoroughly awake to the satisfactory significance of the +Birmingham overtures. + +Things at the round table for some time went smoothly enough. Mr. +Chamberlain gradually advanced the whole length. He publicly committed +himself to the expediency of establishing some kind of legislative +authority in Dublin in accordance with Mr. Gladstone's principle, with a +preference in his own mind for a plan on the lines of Canada. This he +followed up, also in public, by the admission that of course the Irish +legislature must be allowed to organise their own form of executive +government, either by an imitation on a small scale of all that goes on at +Westminster and Whitehall, or in whatever other shape they might think +proper.(221) To assent to an Irish legislature for such affairs as +parliament might determine to be distinctively Irish, with an executive +responsible to it, was to accept the party credo on the subject. Then the +surface became mysteriously ruffled. Language was used by some of the +plenipotentiaries in public, of which each side in turn complained as +inconsistent with conciliatory negotiation in private. At last on the very +day on which the provisional result of the conference was laid before Mr. +Gladstone, there appeared in a print called the _Baptist_(222) an article +from Mr. Chamberlain, containing an ardent plea for the disestablishment +of the Welsh church, but warning the Welshmen that they and the Scotch +crofters and the English labourers, thirty-two millions of people, must +all go without much-needed, legislation because three millions were +disloyal, while nearly six hundred members of parliament would be reduced +to forced inactivity, because some eighty delegates, representing the +policy and receiving the pay of the Chicago convention, were determined to +obstruct all business until their demands had been conceded. Men naturally +asked what was the use of continuing a discussion, when one party to it +was attacking in this peremptory fashion the very persons and the policy +that in private he was supposed to accept. Mr. Gladstone showed no +implacability. Viewing the actual character of the _Baptist_ letter, he +said to Sir W. Harcourt, "I am inclined to think we can hardly do more +now, than to say we fear it has interposed an unexpected obstacle in the +way of any attempt at this moment to sum up the result of your +communications, which we should otherwise hopefully have done; but on the +other hand we are unwilling that so much ground apparently gained should +be lost, that a little time may soften or remove the present ruffling of +the surface, and that we are quite willing that the subject should stand +over for resumption at a convenient season." + +The resumption never happened. Two or three weeks later, Mr. Chamberlain +announced that he did not intend to return to the round table.(223) No +other serious and formal attempt was ever made on either side to prevent +the liberal unionists from hardening into a separate species. When they +became accomplices in coercion, they cut off the chances of re-union. +Coercion was the key to the new situation. Just as at the beginning of +1886, the announcement of it by the tory government marked the parting of +the ways, so was it now. + + + +II + + +We must now with reasonable cheerfulness turn our faces back towards +Ireland. On the day of his return from (M131) Ireland (August 17, 1886) +Mr. Parnell told me that he was quite sure that rents could not be paid in +the coming winter, and if the country was to be kept quiet, the government +would have to do something. He hoped that they would do something; +otherwise there would be disturbance, and that he did not want. He had +made up his mind that his interests would be best served by a quiet +winter. For one thing he knew that disturbance would be followed by +coercion, and he knew and often said that of course strong coercion must +always in the long run win the day, little as the victory might be worth. +For another thing he apprehended that disturbance might frighten away his +new political allies in Great Britain, and destroy the combination which +he had so dexterously built up. This was now a dominant element with him. +He desired definitely that the next stage of his movement should be in the +largest sense political and not agrarian. He brought two or three sets of +proposals in this sense before the House, and finally produced a Tenants +Relief bill. It was not brilliantly framed. For in truth it is not in +human nature, either Irish or any other, to labour the framing of a bill +which has no chance of being seriously considered. + +The golden secret of Irish government was always to begin by trying to +find all possible points for disagreement with anything that Mr. Parnell +said or proposed, instead of seeking whether what he said or proposed +might not furnish a basis for agreement. The conciliatory tone was soon +over, and the Parnell bill was thrown out. The Irish secretary denounced +it as permanently upsetting the settlement of 1881, as giving a death-blow +to purchase, and as produced without the proof of any real grounds for a +general reduction in judicial rents. Whatever else he did, said Sir +Michael Hicks Beach, he would never agree to govern Ireland by a policy of +blackmail.(224) + +A serious movement followed the failure of the government to grapple with +arrears of rent. The policy known as the plan of campaign was launched. +The plan of campaign was this. The tenants of a given estate agreed with +one another what abatement they thought just in the current half-year's +rent. This in a body they proffered to landlord or agent. If it was +refused as payment in full, they handed the money to a managing committee, +and the committee deposited it with some person in whom they had +confidence, to be used for the purpose of the struggle.(225) That such +proceeding constituted an unlawful conspiracy nobody doubts, any more than +it can be doubted that before the Act of 1875 every trade combination of a +like kind in this island was a conspiracy. + +At an early stage the Irish leader gave his opinion to the present +writer:-- + + + _Dec. 7, 1886._--Mr. Parnell called, looking very ill and worn. He + wished to know what I thought of the effect of the plan of + campaign upon public opinion. "If you mean in Ireland," I said, + "of course I have no view, and it would be worth nothing if I had. + In England, the effect is wholly bad; it offends almost more even + than outrages." He said he had been very ill and had taken no + part, so that he stands free and uncommitted. He was anxious to + have it fully understood that the fixed point in his tactics is to + maintain the alliance with the English liberals. He referred with + much bitterness, and very justifiable too, to the fact that when + Ireland seemed to be quiet some short time back, the government + had at once begun to draw away from all their promises of remedial + legislation. If now rents were paid, meetings abandoned, and + newspapers moderated, the same thing would happen over again as + usual. However, he would send for a certain one of his + lieutenants, and would press for an immediate cessation of the + violent speeches. + + _December 12._--Mr. Parnell came, and we had a prolonged + conversation. The lieutenant had come over, and had defended the + plan of campaign. Mr. Parnell persevered in his dissent and + disapproval, and they parted with the understanding that the + meetings should be dropped, and the movement calmed as much as + could be. I told him that I had heard from Mr. Gladstone, and that + he could not possibly show any tolerance for illegalities. + + +That his opponents should call upon Mr. Gladstone to denounce the plan of +campaign and cut himself off from its authors, was to be expected. They +made the most of it. (M132) But he was the last man to be turned aside +from the prosecution of a policy that he deemed of overwhelming moment, by +any minor currents. Immediately after the election, Mr. Parnell had been +informed of his view that it would be a mistake for English and Irish to +aim at uniform action in parliament. Motives could not be at all points +the same. Liberals were bound to keep in view (next to what the Irish +question might require) the reunion of the liberal party. The Irish were +bound to have special regard to the opinion and circumstances of Ireland. +Common action up to a certain degree would arise from the necessities of +the position. Such was Mr. Gladstone's view. He was bent on bringing a +revolutionary movement to what he confidently anticipated would be a good +end; to allow a passing phase of that movement to divert him, would be to +abandon his own foundations. No reformer is fit for his task who suffers +himself to be frightened off by the excesses of an extreme wing. + +In reply to my account of the conversation with Mr. Parnell, he wrote to +me:-- + + + _Hawarden, December 8, 1886._--I have received your very clear + statement and reply in much haste for the post--making the same + request as yours for a return. I am glad to find the ---- speech is + likely to be neutralised, I hope effectually. It was really very + bad. I am glad you write to ----. 2. As to the campaign in Ireland, + I do not at present feel the force of Hartington's appeal to me to + speak out. I do not recollect that he ever spoke out about + Churchill, of whom he is for the time the enthusiastic + follower.(226) 3. But all I say and do must be kept apart from the + slightest countenance direct or indirect to illegality. We too + suffer under the power of the landlord, but we cannot adopt this + as a method of breaking it. 4. I am glad you opened the question + of intermediate measures.... 5. Upon the whole I suppose he sees + he cannot have countenance from us in the plan of campaign. The + question rather is how much disavowal. I have contradicted a tory + figment in Glasgow that I had approved. + + +At a later date (September 16, 1887) he wrote to me as to an intended +speech at Newcastle: "You will, I have no doubt, press even more earnestly +than before on the Irish people the duty and policy of maintaining order, +and in these instances I shall be very glad if you will associate me with +yourself." + +"The plan of campaign," said Mr. Gladstone, "was one of those devices that +cannot be reconciled with the principles of law and order in a civilised +country. Yet we all know that such devices are the certain result of +misgovernment. With respect to this particular instance, if the plan be +blameable (I cannot deny that I feel it difficult to acquit any such plan) +I feel its authors are not one-tenth part so blameable as the government +whose contemptuous refusal of what they have now granted, was the parent +and source of the mischief."(227) This is worth looking at. + +The Cowper Commission, in February 1887, reported that refusal by some +landlords explained much that had occurred in the way of combination, and +that the growth of these combinations had been facilitated by the fall in +prices, restriction of credit by the banks, and other circumstances making +the payment of rent impossible.(228) Remarkable evidence was given by Sir +Redvers Buller. He thought there should be some means of modifying and +redressing the grievance of rents being still higher than the people can +pay. "You have got a very ignorant poor people, and the law should look +after them, instead of which it has only looked after the rich."(229) This +was exactly what Mr. Parnell had said. In the House the government did not +believe him; in Ireland they admitted his case to be true. In one instance +General Buller wrote to the agents of the estate that he believed it was +impossible for the tenants to pay the rent that was demanded; there might +be five or six rogues among them, but in his opinion the greater number of +them were nearer famine than paying rent.(230) In this very case ruthless +evictions followed. The same scenes were enacted elsewhere. The landlords +were within their rights, the courts were bound by the law, the police had +no choice but to back (M133) the courts. The legal ease was complete. The +moral case remained, and it was through these barbarous scenes that in a +rough and non-logical way the realities of the Irish land system for the +first time gained access to the minds of the electors of Great Britain. +Such devices as the plan of campaign came to be regarded in England and +Scotland as what they were, incidents in a great social struggle. In a +vast majority of cases the mutineers succeeded in extorting a reduction of +rent, not any more immoderate than the reduction voluntarily made by good +landlords, or decreed in the land-courts. No agrarian movement in Ireland +was ever so unstained by crime. + +Some who took part in these affairs made no secret of political motives. +Unlike Mr. Parnell, they deliberately desired to make government +difficult. Others feared that complete inaction would give an opening to +the Fenian extremists. This section had already shown some signs both of +their temper and their influence in certain proceedings of the Gaelic +association at Thurles. But the main spring was undoubtedly agrarian, and +the force of the spring came from mischiefs that ministers had refused to +face in time. "What they call a conspiracy now," said one of the insurgent +leaders, "they will call an Act of parliament next year." So it turned +out. + +The Commission felt themselves "constrained to recommend an earlier +revision of judicial rents, on account of the straitened circumstances of +Irish farmers." What the commissioners thus told ministers in the spring +was exactly what the Irish leader had told them in the previous autumn. +They found that there were "real grounds" for some legislation of the kind +that the chief secretary, unconscious of what his cabinet was so rapidly +to come to, had stigmatised as the policy of blackmail. + +On the last day of March 1887, the government felt the necessity of +introducing a measure based on facts that they had disputed, and on +principles that they had repudiated. Leaseholders were admitted, some +hundred thousand of them. That is, the more solemn of the forms of +agrarian contract were set aside. Other provisions we may pass over. But +this was not the bill to which the report of the Commission pointed. The +pith of that report was the revision and abatement of judicial rents, and +from the new bill this vital point was omitted. It could hardly have been +otherwise after a curt declaration made by the prime minister in the +previous August. "We do not contemplate any revision of judicial rents," +he said--immediately, by the way, after appointing a commission to find out +what it was that they ought to contemplate. "We do not think it would be +honest in the first place, and we think it would be exceedingly +inexpedient."(231) He now repeated that to interfere with judicial rents +because prices had fallen, would be to "lay your axe to the root of the +fabric of civilised society."(232) Before the bill was introduced, Mr. +Balfour, who had gone to the Irish office on the retirement of Sir M. H. +Beach in the month of March, proclaimed in language even more fervid, that +it would be folly and madness to break these solemn contracts.(233) + +For that matter, the bill even as it first stood was in direct +contravention to all such high doctrine as this, inasmuch as it clothed a +court with power to vary solemn contracts by fixing a composition for +outstanding debt, and spreading the payment of it over such a time as the +judge might think fit. That, however, was the least part of what finally +overtook the haughty language of the month of April. In May the government +accepted a proposal that the court should not only settle the sum due by +an applicant for relief for outstanding debt, but should fix a reasonable +rent for the rest of the term. This was the very power of variation that +ministers had, as it were only the day before, so roundly denounced. But +then the tenants in Ulster were beginning to growl. In June ministers +withdrew the power of variation, for now it was the landlords who were +growling. Then at last in July the prime minister called his party +together, and told them that if the bill were not altered, Ulster would be +lost to the unionist cause, and that after all he must put into the bill a +general revision of judicial rents for three years. So finally, as it was +put by a speaker of that time, (M134) you have the prime minister +rejecting in April the policy which in May he accepts; rejecting in June +the policy which he had accepted in May; and then in July accepting the +policy which he had rejected in June, and which had been within a few +weeks declared by himself and his colleagues to be inexpedient and +dishonest, to be madness and folly, and to be a laying of the axe to the +very root of the fabric of civilised society. The simplest recapitulation +made the bitterest satire. + +The law that finally emerged from these singular operations dealt, it will +be observed in passing, with nothing less than the chief object of Irish +industry and the chief form of Irish property. No wonder that the +landlords lifted up angry voices. True, the minister the year before had +laid it down that if rectification of rents should be proved necessary, +the landlords ought to be compensated by the state. Of this consolatory +balm it is needless to say no more was ever heard; it was only a graceful +sentence in a speech, and proved to have little relation to purpose or +intention. At the Kildare Street club in Dublin members moodily asked one +another whether they might not just as well have had the policy of Mr. +Parnell's bill adopted on College Green, as adopted at Westminster. + + + +III + + +The moment had by this time once more come for testing the proposition +from which Mr. Gladstone's policy had first started. The tory government +had been turned out at the beginning of 1886 upon coercion, and Mr. +Gladstone's government had in the summer of that year been beaten upon +conciliation. "I ventured to state in 1886," said Mr. Gladstone a year +later,(234) "that we had arrived at the point where two roads met, or +rather where two roads parted; one of them the road that marked the +endeavour to govern Ireland according to its constitutionally expressed +wishes; the other the road principally marked by ultra-constitutional +measures, growing more and more pronounced in character." Others, he said, +with whom we had been in close alliance down to that date, considered that +a third course was open, namely liberal concession, stopping short of +autonomy, but upon a careful avoidance of coercion. Now it became visible +that this was a mistake, and that in default of effective conciliation, +coercion was the inevitable alternative. So it happened. + +The government again unlocked the ancient armoury, and brought out the +well-worn engines. The new Crimes bill in most particulars followed the +old Act, but it contained one or two serious extensions, including a +clause afterwards dropped, that gave to the crown a choice in cases of +murder or certain other aggravated offences of carrying the prisoner out +of his own country over to England and trying him before a Middlesex jury +at the Old Bailey--a puny imitation of the heroic expedient suggested in +1769, of bringing American rebels over for trial in England under a +slumbering statute of King Henry VIII. The most startling innovation of +all was that the new Act was henceforth to be the permanent law of +Ireland, and all its drastic provisions were to be brought into force +whenever the executive government pleased.(235) This Act was not +restricted as every former law of the kind had been in point of time, to +meet an emergency; it was made a standing instrument of government. +Criminal law and procedure is one of the most important of all the +branches of civil rule, and certainly is one of the most important of all +its elements. This was now in Ireland to shift up and down, to be one +thing to-day and another thing to-morrow at executive discretion. Acts +would be innocent or would be crimes, just as it pleased the Irish +minister. Parliament did not enact that given things were criminal, but +only that they should be criminal when an Irish minister should choose to +say so.(236) Persons charged with them would have the benefit of a jury or +would be deprived of a jury, as the Irish minister might think proper. + +(M135) Mr. Parnell was in bad health and took little part, but he made +more than one pulverising attack in that measured and frigid style which, +in a man who knows his case at first hand, may be so much more awkward for +a minister than more florid onslaughts. He discouraged obstruction, and +advised his followers to select vital points and to leave others alone. +This is said to have been the first Coercion bill that a majority of Irish +members voting opposed. + +It was at this point that the government suddenly introduced their +historic proposal for closure by guillotine. They carried (June 10) a +resolution that at ten o'clock on that day week the committee stage should +be brought compulsorily to an end, and that any clauses remaining +undisposed of should be put forthwith without amendment or debate. The +most remarkable innovation upon parliamentary rule and practice since +Cromwell and Colonel Pride, was introduced by Mr. Smith in a +characteristic speech, well larded with phrases about duty, right, +responsibility, business of the country, and efficiency of the House. +These solemnising complacencies' did not hide the mortifying fact that if +it had really been one of the objects of Irish members for ten years past +to work a revolution in the parliament where they were forced against +their will to sit, they had at least, be such a revolution good or bad, +succeeded in their design. + +Perhaps looking forward with prophetic eye to a day that actually arrived +six years later, Mr. Gladstone, while objecting to the proposal as +unjustified, threw the responsibility of it upon the government, and used +none of the flaming colours of defiance. The bulk of the liberals +abstained from the division. This practical accord between the two sets of +leading men made the parliamentary revolution definite and finally +clenched it. It was not without something of a funereal pang that members +with a sense of the old traditions of the power, solemnity, and honour of +the House of Commons came down on the evening of the seventeenth of June. +Within a week they would be celebrating the fiftieth year of the reign of +the Queen, and that night's business was the strange and unforeseen goal +at which a journey of little more than the same period of time along the +high, democratic road had brought the commonalty of the realm since 1832. +Among the provisions that went into the bill without any discussion in +committee were those giving to the Irish executive the power of stamping +an association as unlawful; those dealing with special juries and change +of the place of trial; those specifying the various important conditions +attaching to proclamations, which lay at the foundation of the Act; those +dealing with rules, procedure, and the limits of penalty. The report next +fell under what Burke calls the accursed slider. That stage had taken +three sittings, when the government moved (June 30) that it must close in +four days. So much grace, however, was not needed; for after the motion +had been carried the liberals withdrew from the House, and the Irishmen +betook themselves to the galleries, whence they looked down upon the +mechanical proceedings below. + + + +IV + + +In Ireland the battle now began in earnest. The Irish minister went into +it with intrepid logic. Though very different men in the deeper parts of +character, Macaulay's account of Halifax would not be an ill-natured +account of Mr. Balfour. "His understanding was keen, sceptical, +inexhaustibly fertile in distinctions and objections, his taste refined, +his sense of the ludicrous exquisite; his temper placid and forgiving, but +fastidious, and by no means prone either to malevolence or to enthusiastic +admiration." His business was to show disaffected Ireland that parliament +was her master. Parliament had put the weapon into his hands, and it was +for him to smite his antagonists to the ground. He made no experiments in +judicious mixture, hard blows and soft speech, but held steadily to force +and fear. His apologists argued that after all substantial justice was +done even in what seemed hard cases, and even if the spirit of law were +sometimes a trifle strained. Unluckily the peasant with the blunderbuss, +as he waits behind the hedge for the tyrant or the traitor, says just the +same. The forces of disorder were infinitely less formidable than they had +been a hundred times before. The contest was child's play compared with +(M136) the violence and confusion with which Mr. Forster or Lord Spencer +had to deal. On the other hand the alliance between liberals and Irish +gave to the struggle a parliamentary complexion, by which no coercion +struggle had ever been marked hitherto. In the dialectic of senate and +platform, Mr. Balfour displayed a strength of wrist, a rapidity, an +instant readiness for combat, that took his foes by surprise, and roused +in his friends a delight hardly surpassed in the politics of our day. + +There was another important novelty this time. To England hitherto Irish +coercion had been little more than a word of common form, used without any +thought what the thing itself was like to the people coerced. Now it was +different. Coercion had for once become a flaming party issue, and when +that happens all the world awakes. Mr. Gladstone had proclaimed that the +choice lay between conciliation and coercion. The country would have liked +conciliation, but did not trust his plan. When coercion came, the two +British parties rushed to their swords, and the deciding body of neutrals +looked on with anxiety and concern. There has never been a more +strenuously sustained contest in the history of political campaigns. No +effort was spared to bring the realities of repression vividly home to the +judgment and feelings of men and women of our own island. English visitors +trooped over to Ireland, and brought back stories of rapacious landlords, +violent police, and famishing folk cast out homeless upon the wintry +roadside. Irishmen became the most welcome speakers on British platforms, +and for the first time in all our history they got a hearing for their +lamentable tale. To English audiences it was as new and interesting as the +narrative of an African explorer or a navigator in the Pacific. Our Irish +instructors even came to the curious conclusion that ordinary +international estimates must be revised, and that Englishmen are in truth +far more emotional than Irishmen. Ministerial speakers, on the other hand, +diligently exposed inaccuracy here or over-colouring there. They appealed +to the English distaste for disorder, and to the English taste for +mastery, and they did not overlook the slumbering jealousy of popery and +priestcraft. But the course of affairs was too rapid for them, the strong +harsh doses to the Irish patient were too incessant. The Irish convictions +in cases where the land was concerned rose to 2805, and of these rather +over one-half were in cases where in England the rights of the prisoner +would have been guarded by a jury. The tide of common popular feeling in +this island about the right to combine, the right of public meeting, the +frequent barbarities of eviction, the jarring indignities of prison +treatment, flowed stronger and stronger. The general impression spread +more and more widely that the Irish did not have fair play, that they were +not being treated about speeches and combination and meetings as +Englishmen or Scotchmen would be treated. Even in breasts that had been +most incensed by the sudden reversal of policy in 1886, the feeling slowly +grew that it was perhaps a pity after all that Mr. Gladstone had not been +allowed to persevere on the fair-shining path of conciliation. + + + +V + + +The proceedings under exceptional law would make an instructive chapter in +the history of the union. Mr. Gladstone followed them vigilantly, once or +twice without his usual exercise of critical faculty, but always bringing +into effective light the contrast between this squalid policy and his +anticipations of his own. Here we are only concerned with what affected +British opinion on the new policy. One set of distressing incidents, not +connected with the Crimes Act, created disgust and even horror in the +country and set Mr. Gladstone on fire. A meeting of some six thousand +persons assembled in a large public square at Mitchelstown in the county +of Cork.(237) It was a good illustration of Mr. Gladstone's habitual +strategy in public movements, that he should have boldly and promptly +seized on the doings at Mitchelstown as an incident well fitted to arrest +the attention of the country. "Remember Mitchelstown" became a watchword. +The chairman, speaking from a carriage that did duty for a platform, +opened the proceedings. Then a file of police endeavoured to force a way +through the densest part of the (M137) crowd for a government note-taker. +Why they did not choose an easier mode of approach from the rear, or by +the side; why they had not got their reporter on to the platform before +the business began; and why they had not beforehand asked for +accommodation as was the practice, were three points never explained. The +police unable to make a way through the crowd retired to the outskirt. The +meeting went on. In a few minutes a larger body of police pressed up +through the thick of the throng to the platform. A violent struggle began, +the police fighting their way through the crowd with batons and clubbed +rifles. The crowd flung stones and struck out with sticks, and after three +or four minutes the police fled to their barracks--some two hundred and +fifty yards away. So far there is no material discrepancy in the various +versions of this dismal story. What followed is matter of conflicting +testimony. One side alleged that a furious throng rushed after the police, +attacked the barrack, and half murdered a constable outside, and that the +constables inside in order to save their comrade and to beat off the +assailing force, opened fire from an upper window. The other side declared +that no crowd followed the retreating police at all, that the assault on +the barrack was a myth, and that the police fired without orders from any +responsible officer, in mere blind panic and confusion. One old man was +shot dead, two others were mortally wounded and died within a week. + +Three days later the affray was brought before the House of Commons. Any +one could see from the various reports that the conduct of the police, the +resistance of the crowd, and the guilt or justification of the bloodshed, +were all matters in the utmost doubt and demanding rigorous inquiry. Mr. +Balfour pronounced instant and peremptory judgment. The thing had happened +on the previous Friday. The official report, however rapidly prepared, +could not have reached him until the morning of Sunday. His officers at +the Castle had had no opportunity of testing their official report by +cross-examination of the constables concerned, nor by inspection of the +barrack, the line of fire, and other material elements of the case. Yet on +the strength of this hastily drawn and unsifted report received by him +from Ireland on Sunday, and without even waiting for any information that +eye-witnesses in the House might have to lay before him in the course of +the discussion, the Irish minister actually told parliament once for all, +on the afternoon of Monday, that he was of opinion, "looking at the matter +in the most impartial spirit, that the police were in no way to blame, and +that no responsibility rested upon any one except upon those who convened +the meeting under circumstances which they knew would lead to excitement +and might lead to outrage."(238) The country was astounded to see the most +critical mind in all the House swallow an untested police report whole; to +hear one of the best judges in all the country of the fallibility of human +testimony, give offhand, in what was really a charge of murder, a verdict +of Not Guilty, after he had read the untested evidence on one side. + +The rest was all of a piece. The coroner's inquest was held in due course. +The proceedings were not more happily conducted than was to be expected +where each side followed the counsels of ferocious exasperation. The jury, +after some seventeen days of it, returned a verdict of wilful murder +against the chief police officer and five of his men. This inquisition was +afterwards quashed (February 10, 1888) in the Queen's bench, on the ground +that the coroner had perpetrated certain irregularities of form. Nobody +has doubted that the Queen's bench was right; it seemed as if there had +been a conspiracy of all the demons of human stupidity in this tragic +bungle, from the first forcing of the reporter through the crowd, down to +the inquest on the three slain men and onwards. The coroner's inquest +having broken down, reasonable opinion demanded that some other public +inquiry should be held. Even supporters of the government demanded it. If +three men had been killed by the police in connection with a public +meeting in England or Scotland, no home secretary would have dreamed for +five minutes of resisting such a demand. Instead of a public inquiry, what +the chief secretary did was to appoint a (M138) confidential departmental +committee of policemen privately to examine, not whether the firing was +justified by the circumstances, but how it came about that the police were +so handled by their officers that a large force was put to flight by a +disorderly mob. The three deaths were treated as mere accident and +irrelevance. The committee was appointed to correct the discipline of the +force, said the Irish minister, and in no sense to seek justification for +actions which, in his opinion, required no justification.(239) Endless +speeches were made in the House and out of it; members went over to +Mitchelstown to measure distances, calculate angles, and fire imaginary +rifles out of the barrack window; all sorts of theories of ricochet shots +were invented, photographs and diagrams were taken. Some held the police +to be justified, others held them to be wholly unjustified. But without a +judicial inquiry, such as had been set up in the case of Belfast in 1886, +all these doings were futile. The government remained stubborn. The +slaughter of the three men was finally left just as if it had been the +slaughter of three dogs. No other incident of Irish administration stirred +deeper feelings of disgust in Ireland, or of misgiving and indignation in +England. + +Here was, in a word, the key to the new policy. Every act of Irish +officials was to be defended. No constable could be capable of excess. No +magistrate could err. No prison rule was over harsh. Every severity +technically in order must be politic. + + + +VI + + +Among other remarkable incidents, the Pope came to the rescue, and sent an +emissary to inquire into Irish affairs. The government had lively hopes of +the emissary, and while they beat the Orange drum in Ulster with one hand, +with the other they stealthily twitched the sleeve of Monsignor Persico. +It came to little. The Congregation at Rome were directed by the Pope to +examine whether it was lawful to resort to the plan of campaign. They +answered that it was contrary both to natural justice and Christian +charity. The papal rescript, embodying this conclusion, was received in +Ireland with little docility. Unwisely the cardinals had given reasons, +and the reasons, instead of springing in the mystic region of faith and +morals, turned upon issues of fact as to fair rents. But then the Irish +tenant thought himself a far better judge of a fair rent, than all the +cardinals that ever wore red hats. If he had heard of such a thing as +Jansenism, he would have known that he was in his own rude way taking up a +position not unlike that of the famous teachers of Port Royal two hundred +and thirty years before, that the authority of the Holy See is final as to +doctrine, but may make a mistake as to fact. + +Mr. Parnell spoke tranquilly of "a document from a distant country," and +publicly left the matter to his catholic countrymen.(240) Forty catholic +members of parliament met at the Mansion House in Dublin, and signed a +document in which they flatly denied every one of the allegations and +implications about fair rents, free contract, the land commission and all +the rest, and roundly declared the Vatican circular to be an instrument of +the unscrupulous foes both of the Holy See and of the people of Ireland. +They told the Pope, that while recognising unreservedly as catholics the +spiritual jurisdiction of the Holy See, they were bound solemnly to affirm +that Irish catholics recognise no rights in Rome to interfere in their +political affairs. A great meeting in the Phoenix Park ratified the same +position by acclamation. At Cork, under the presidency of the mayor, and +jealously watched by forces of horse and foot, a great gathering in a +scene of indescribable excitement protested that they would never allow +the rack-renters of Ireland to grind them down at the instigation of +intriguers at Rome. Even in many cities in the United States the same +voice was heard. The bishops knew well that the voice was strongly marked +by the harsh accent of their Fenian adversaries. They issued a declaration +of their own, protesting to their flocks that the rescript was confined +within the spiritual sphere, and that his holiness was far from wishing to +prejudice the nationalist movement. In the closing week of the year, the +Pope himself judged that the time had come for him to make known (M139) +that the action which had been "so sadly misunderstood," had been prompted +by the desire to keep the cause in which Ireland was struggling from being +weakened by the introduction of anything that could justly be brought in +reproach against it.(241) The upshot of the intervention was that the +action condemned by the rescript was not materially affected within the +area already disturbed; but the rescript may have done something to +prevent its extension elsewhere. + + + +VII + + +Among the entries for 1887 there occur:-- + + + _Sandringham, Jan. 29._--A large party. We were received with the + usual delicacy and kindness. Much conversation with the Prince of + Wales.... Walk with ----, who charmed me much. _Jan. 31._--Off by 11 + A.M. to Cambridge.... Dined with the master of Trinity in hall. + Went over the Newnham buildings: greatly pleased. Saw Mr. + Sidgwick. Evening service at King's.... _Feb. 2._--Hawarden at + 5.30. Set to work on papers. Finished Greville's Journals. _Feb. + 3._--Wrote on Greville. _Feb. 5._--Felled a chestnut. _Feb. + 27._--Read Lord Shaftesbury's _Memoirs_--an excellent discipline for + me. _March 5._-- Dollis Hill [a house near Willesden often lent to + him in these times by Lord and Lady Aberdeen] a refuge from my + timidity, unwilling at 77 to begin a new London house. _March + 9._--Windsor [to dine and sleep]. The Queen courteous as always; + somewhat embarrassed, as I thought. _March 29._--Worked on Homer, + Apollo, etc. Then turned to the Irish business and revolved much, + with extreme difficulty in licking the question into shape. Went + to the House and spoke 1-1/2 hours as carefully and with as much + measure as I could. Conclave on coming course of business. _April + 5._--Conversation with Mr. Chamberlain--ambiguous result, but some + ground made. _April 18._--H. of C. 4-1/2-8-1/4 and 10-2. Spoke 1-1/4 h. + My voice did its duty but with great effort. _April 25._--Spoke for + an hour upon the budget. R. Churchill excellent. Conclave on the + forged letters. _May 4._--Read earlier speeches of yesterday with + care, and worked up the subject of Privilege. Spoke 1-1/4 h. + + +In June (1887) Mr. Gladstone started on a political campaign in South +Wales, where his reception was one of the most triumphant in all his +career. Ninety-nine hundredths of the vast crowds who gave up wages for +the sake of seeing him and doing him honour were strong protestants, yet +he said to a correspondent, "they made this demonstration in order to +secure firstly and mainly justice to catholic Ireland. It is not after all +a bad country in which such things take place." + +It was at Swansea that he said what he had to say about the Irish members. +He had never at any time from the hour when he formed his government, set +up their exclusion as a necessary condition of home rule. All that he ever +bargained for was that no proposal for inclusion should be made a ground +for impairing real and effective self-government. Subject to this he was +ready to adjourn the matter and to leave things as they were, until +experience should show the extent of the difficulty and the best way of +meeting it. Provisional exclusion had been suggested by a member of great +weight in the party in 1886. The new formula was provisional inclusion. +This announcement restored one very distinguished adherent to Mr. +Gladstone, and it appeased the clamour of the busy knot who called +themselves imperial federationists. Of course it opened just as many new +difficulties as it closed old ones, but both old difficulties and new fell +into the background before the struggle in Ireland. + + + _June 2, 1887._--Off at 11.40. A tumultuous but interesting journey + to Swansea and Singleton, where we were landed at 7.30. Half a + dozen speeches on the way. A small party to dinner. 3.--A "quiet + day." Wrote draft to the associations on the road, as model. Spent + the forenoon in settling plans and discussing the lines of my + meditated statement to-morrow with Sir Hussey Vivian, Lord + Aberdare, and Mr. Stuart Rendel. In the afternoon we went to the + cliffs and the Mumbles, and I gave some hours to writing + preliminary notes on a business where all depends on the manner of + handling. Small party to dinner. Read Cardiff and Swansea guides. + 4.--More study and notes. 12-4-1/2 the astonishing procession. Sixty + thousand! Then spoke for near an hour. Dinner at 8, near an + hundred, arrangements perfect. Spoke for nearly another hour; got + through a most difficult business as well as I could expect. + 5.--Church 11 A.M., notable sermon and H. C. (service long), again + 6-1/2 P.M., good sermon. Wrote to Sir W. Harcourt, Mr. Morley, etc. + Walked in the garden. Considered the question of a non-political + address "in council"; we all decided against it. 6.--Surveys in the + house, then 12-4 to Swansea for the freedom and opening the town + library. I was rather jealous of a non-political affair at such a + time, but could not do less than speak for thirty or thirty-five + minutes for the two occasions. 4-8 to Park Farm, the beautiful + vales, breezy common and the curious chambered cairn. Small + dinner-party. 7.--Off at 8.15 and a hard day to London, the + occasion of processions, hustles, and speeches; that at Newport in + the worst atmosphere known since the Black Hole. Poor C. too was + an invalid. Spoke near an hour to 3000 at Cardiff; about 1/4 hour at + Newport; more briefly at Gloucester and Swindon. Much enthusiasm + even in the English part of the journey. Our party was reduced at + Newport to the family, at Gloucester to our two selves. C. H. + Terrace at 6.20. Wrote to get off the House of Commons. It has + really been a "progress," and an extraordinary one. + + +In December 1887, under the pressing advice of his physician, though "with +a great lazy reluctance," Mr. Gladstone set his face with a family party +towards Florence. He found the weather more northern than at Hawarden, but +it was healthy. He was favourably impressed by all he saw of Italian +society (English being cultivated to a degree that surprised him), but he +did his best to observe Sir Andrew Clark's injunction that he should +practise the Trappist discipline of silence, and the condition of his +voice improved in consequence. He read Scartazzini's book on Dante, and +found it fervid, generally judicial, and most unsparing in labour; and he +was much interested in Beugnot's _Chute du Paganisme_. And as usual, he +returned homeward as unwillingly as he had departed. During the session he +fought his Irish battle with unsparing tenacity, and the most conspicuous +piece of his activity out of parliament was a pilgrimage to Birmingham +(November 1888). It was a great gathering of lieutenants and leading +supporters from, every part of the country. Here is a note of mine:-- + + + On the day of the great meeting in Bingley Hall, somebody came to + say that Mr. Gladstone wanted to know if I could supply him with a + certain passage from a speech of Lord Hartington's. I found him in + his dressing-gown, conning his notes and as lively as youth. He + jumped up and pressed point after point on me, as if I had been a + great public meeting. I offered to go down to the public library + and hunt for the passage; he deprecated this, but off I went, and + after some search unearthed the passage, and copied it out. In the + evening I went to dine with him before the meeting. He had been + out for a short walk to the Oratory in the afternoon to call on + Cardinal Newman. He was not allowed, he told me, to see the + cardinal, but he had had a long talk with Father Neville. He found + that Newman was in the habit of reading with a reflector candle, + but had not a good one. "So I said I had a good one, and I sent it + round to him." He was entirely disengaged in mind during dinner, + ate and drank his usual quantity, and talked at his best about all + manner of things. At the last moment he was telling us of John + Hunter's confirmation, from his own medical observation, of + Homer's remark about Dolon; a bad fellow, whose badness Homer + explains by the fact that he was a brother brought up among + sisters only:-- + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.(242) + + Oliver Cromwell, by the way, was an only surviving boy among seven + sisters, so we cannot take either poet or surgeon for gospel. Time + was up, and bore us away from Homer and Hunter. He was perfectly + silent in the carriage, as I remembered Bright had been when years + before I drove with him to the same hall. The sight of the vast + meeting was almost appalling, from fifteen to seventeen thousand + people. He spoke with great vigour and freedom; the fine passages + probably heard all over; many other passages certainly not heard, + but his gestures so strong and varied as to be almost as + interesting as the words would have been. The speech lasted an + hour and fifty minutes; and he was not at all exhausted when he + sat down. The scene at the close was absolutely indescribable and + incomparable, overwhelming like the sea. + + +He took part in parliamentary business at the beginning of December. On +December 3rd he spoke on Ireland with immense fervour and passion. He was +roused violently by the chairman's attempt to rule out strong language +from debate, and made a vehement passage on that point. The substance of +the speech was rather thin and not new, but the delivery magnificent. The +Irish minister rose to reply at 7.50, and Mr. Gladstone reluctantly made +up his mind to dine in the House. A friend by his side said No, and at +8.40 hurried him down the back-stairs to a hospitable board in Carlton +Gardens. He was nearly voiceless, until it was time for the rest of us to +go back. A speedy meal revived him, and he was soon discoursing on +O'Connell and many other persons and things, with boundless force and +vivacity. + +A few days later he was carried off to Naples. Hereto, he told Lord Acton, +"we have been induced by three circumstances. First, a warm invitation +from the Dufferins to Rome; as to which, however, there are _cons_ as well +as _pros_ for a man who like me is neither Italian nor Curial in the view +of present policies. Secondly, our kind friend Mr. Stuart Rendel has +actually offered to be our conductor thither and back, to perform for us +the great service which you rendered us in the trip to Munich and Saint +Martin. Thirdly, I have the hope that the stimulating climate of Naples, +together with an abstention from speech greater than any I have before +enjoyed, may act upon my 'vocal cord,' and partially at least restore it." + + + + +Chapter III. The Special Commission. (1887-1890) + + + My Lords, it appears to me that the measure is unfortunate in its + origin, unfortunate in its scope and object, and unfortunate in + the circumstances which accompanied its passage through the other + House. It appears to me to establish a precedent most novel, and + fraught with the utmost danger.--LORD HERSCHELL.(243) + + + +I + + +Mr. Gladstone's ceaseless attention to the many phases of the struggle +that was now the centre of his public life, was especially engaged on what +remains the most amazing of them. I wish it were possible to pass it over, +or throw it into a secondary place; but it is too closely connected with +the progress of Mr. Gladstone's Irish policy in British opinion at a +critical stage, and it is still the subject of too many perversions that +affect his name. Transactions are to be found in our annals where wrong +was done by government to individuals on a greater scale, where a powerful +majority devised engines for the proscription of a weak minority with +deadlier aim, and where the omnipotence of parliament was abused for the +purpose of faction with more ruthless result. But whether we look at the +squalid fraud in which the incident began, or at the tortuous +parliamentary pretences by which it was worked out, or at the perversion +of fundamental principles of legal administration involved in sending men +to answer the gravest charges before a tribunal specially constituted at +the absolute discretion of their bitterest political opponents--at the +moment engaged in a fierce contest with them in another field--from +whatever point of view we approach, the erection of the Special Commission +of 1888 stands out as one of the ugliest things done in the name and under +the forms of law in this island during the century. + +(M140) In the spring of 1887 the conductors of _The Times_, intending to +strengthen the hands of the government in their new and doubtful struggle, +published a series of articles, in which old charges against the Irish +leader and his men were served up with fresh and fiery condiments. The +allegations of crime were almost all indefinite; the method was by +allusion, suggestion, innuendo, and the combination of ingeniously +selected pieces, to form a crude and hideous mosaic. Partly from its +extravagance, partly because it was in substance stale, the thing missed +fire. + +On the day on which the division was to be taken on the second reading of +the Coercion bill, a more formidable bolt was shot. On that morning (April +18th, 1887), there appeared in the newspaper, with all the fascination of +facsimile, a letter alleged to be written by Mr. Parnell. It was dated +nine days after the murders in the Phoenix Park, and purported to be an +apology, presumably to some violent confederate, for having as a matter of +expediency openly condemned the murders, though in truth the writer +thought that one of the murdered men deserved his fate.(244) Special point +was given to the letter by a terrible charge, somewhat obliquely but still +unmistakably made, in an article five or six weeks before, that Mr. +Parnell closely consorted with the leading Invincibles when he was +released on parole in April 1882; that he probably learned from them what +they were about; and that he recognised the murders in the Phoenix Park as +their handiwork.(245) The significance of the letter therefore was that, +knowing the bloody deed to be theirs, he wrote for his own safety to +qualify, recall, and make a humble apology for the condemnation which he +had thought it politic publicly to pronounce. The town was thrown into a +great ferment. At the political clubs and in the lobbies, all was +complacent jubilation on the one side, and consternation on the other. +Even people with whom politics were a minor interest were shocked by such +an exposure of the grievous depravity of man. + +Mr. Parnell did not speak until one o'clock in the morning, immediately +before the division on the second reading of the bill. He began amid the +deepest silence. His denial was scornful but explicit. The letter, he +said, was an audacious fabrication. It is fair to admit that the +ministerialists were not without some excuse of a sort for the incredulous +laughter with which they received this repudiation. They put their trust +in the most serious, the most powerful, the most responsible, newspaper in +the world; greatest in resources, in authority, in universal renown. +Neglect of any possible precaution against fraud and forgery in a document +to be used for the purpose of blasting a great political opponent would be +culpable in no common degree. Of this neglect people can hardly be blamed +for thinking that the men of business, men of the world, and men of honour +who were masters of the _Times_, must be held absolutely incapable. + +Those who took this view were encouraged in it by the prime minister. +Within four-and-twenty hours he publicly took the truth of the story, with +all its worst innuendoes, entirely for granted. He went with rapid stride +from possibility to probability, and from probability to certainty. In a +speech, of which precipitate credulity was not the only fault, Lord +Salisbury let fall the sentence: "When men who knew gentlemen who +intimately knew Mr. Parnell murdered Mr. Burke." He denounced Mr. +Gladstone for making a trusted friend of such a man--one who had "mixed on +terms of intimacy with those whose advocacy of assassination was well +known." Then he went further. "You may go back," he said, "to the +beginning of British government, you may go back from decade to decade, +and from leader to leader, but you will never find a man who has accepted +a position, in reference to an ally tainted with the strong presumption of +conniving at assassination, which has been accepted by Mr. Gladstone at +the present time."(246) Seldom has party spirit led eminent personages to +greater lengths of dishonouring absurdity. + +Now and afterwards people asked why Mr. Parnell did not promptly bring his +libellers before a court of law. The answer was simple. The case would +naturally have been tried in London. In other words, not only the +plaintiff's own character, but the whole movement that he represented, +would have been submitted to a Middlesex jury, with all the national and +political prejudices inevitable in such a body, and with all the twelve +chances of a disagreement, that would be almost as disastrous to Mr. +Parnell as an actual verdict for his assailants. The issues were too great +to be exposed to the hazards of a cast of the die. Then, why not lay the +venue in Ireland? It was true that a favourable verdict might just as +reasonably be expected from the prepossessions of Dublin, as an +unfavourable one from the prepossessions of London. But the moral effect +of an Irish verdict upon English opinion would be exactly as worthless, as +the effect of an English verdict in a political or international case +would be upon the judgment and feeling of Ireland. To procure a +condemnation of the _Times_ at the Four Courts, as a means of affecting +English opinion, would not be worth a single guinea. Undoubtedly the +subsequent course of this strange history fully justified the advice that +Mr. Parnell received in this matter from the three persons in the House of +Commons with whom on this point he took counsel. + + + +II + + +The prudent decision against bringing a fierce political controversy +before an English judge and jury was in a few months brought to nought, +from motives that have remained obscure, and with results that nobody +could foresee. The next act in the drama was the institution of +proceedings for libel against the _Times_ in November 1887, by an Irishman +who had formerly sat in parliament as a political follower of Mr. Parnell. +The newspaper met him by denying that the articles on _Parnellism and +Crime_ related to him. It went on to plead that the statements in the +articles were true in substance and in fact. The action was tried before +Lord Coleridge in July 1888, and the newspaper was represented by the +advocate who happened to be the principal law officer of the crown. The +plaintiff's counsel picked out certain passages, said that his client was +one of the persons intended to be libelled, and claimed damages. He was +held to have made an undoubted _prima facie_ case on the two libels in +which he had been specifically named. This gave the enemy his chance. The +attorney general, speaking for three days, opened the whole case for the +newspaper; repeated and enlarged upon the charges and allegations in its +articles; stated the facts which he proposed to give in evidence; sought +to establish that the fac-simile letter was really signed by Mr. Parnell; +and finally put forward other letters, now produced for the first time, +which carried complicity and connivance to a further point. These charges +he said that he should prove. On the third day he entirely changed his +tack. Having launched this mass of criminating imputation, he then +suddenly bethought him, so he said, of the hardships which his course +would entail upon the Irishmen, and asked that in that action he should +not be called upon to prove anything at all. The Irishmen and their leader +remained under a load of odium that the law officer of the crown had cast +upon them, and declined to substantiate. + +The production of this further batch of letters stirred Mr. Parnell from +his usual impassiveness. His former determination to sit still was shaken. +The day after the attorney general's speech, he came to the present writer +to say that he thought of sending a paragraph to the newspapers that +night, with an announcement of his intention to bring an action against +the _Times_, narrowed to the issue of the letters. The old arguments +against an action were again pressed upon him. He insisted, on the other +side, that he was not afraid of cross-examination; that they might +cross-examine as much as ever they pleased, either about the doings of the +land league or the letters; that his hands would be found to be clean, and +the letters to be gross (M141) forgeries. The question between us was +adjourned; and meanwhile he fell in with my suggestion that he should the +next day make a personal statement to the House. The personal statement +was made in his most frigid manner, and it was as frigidly received. He +went through the whole of the letters, one by one; showed the palpable +incredibility of some of them upon their very face, and in respect of +those which purported to be written by himself, he declared, in words free +from all trace of evasion, that he had never written them, never signed +them, never directed nor authorised them to be written. + +So the matter was left on the evening of Friday (July 6, 1888). On Monday +Mr. Parnell came to the House with the intention to ask for a select +committee. The feeling of the English friend to whom he announced his +intention in the lobby, still was that the matter might much better be +left where it stood. The new batch of letters had strengthened his +position, for the Kilmainham letter was a fraud upon the face of it, and a +story that he had given a hundred pounds to a fugitive from justice after +the murders, had been demolished. The press throughout the country had +treated the subject very coolly. The government would pretty certainly +refuse a select committee, and what would be the advantage to him in the +minds of persons inclined to think him guilty, of making a demand which he +knew beforehand would be declined? Such was the view now pressed upon Mr. +Parnell. This time he was not moved. He took his own course, as he had a +paramount right to do. He went into the House and asked the ministers to +grant a select committee to inquire into the authenticity of the letters +read at the recent trial. Mr. Smith replied, as before, that the House was +absolutely incompetent to deal with the charges. Mr. Parnell then gave +notice that he would that night put on the paper the motion for a +committee, and on Thursday demand a day for its discussion. + +When Thursday arrived, either because the hot passion of the majority was +irresistible, or from a cool calculation of policy, or simply because the +situation was becoming intolerable, a new decision had been taken, itself +far more intolerable than the scandal that it was to dissipate. The +government met the Irish leader with a refusal and an offer. They would +not give a committee, but they were willing to propose a commission to +consist wholly or mainly of judges, with statutory power to inquire into +"the allegations and charges made against members of parliament by the +defendants in the recent action." If the gentlemen from Ireland were +prepared to accept the offer, the government would at once put on the +paper for the following Monday, notice of motion for leave to bring in a +bill.(247) + +When the words of the notice of motion appeared in print, it was found +amid universal astonishment that the special commission was to inquire +into the charges and allegations generally, not only against certain +members of parliament, but also against "other persons." The enormity of +this sudden extension of the operation was palpable. A certain member is +charged with the authorship of incriminating letters. To clear his +character as a member of parliament, he demands a select committee. We +decline to give a committee, says the minister, but we offer you a +commission of judges, and you may take our offer or refuse, as you please; +only the judges must inquire not merely into your question of the letters, +but into all the charges and allegations made against all of you, and not +these only, but into the charges and allegations made against other people +as well. This was extraordinary enough, but it was not all. + +It is impossible to feel much surprise that Mr. Parnell was ready to +assent to any course, however unconstitutional that course might be, if +only it led to the exposure of an insufferable wrong. The credit of +parliament and the sanctity of constitutional right were no supreme +concern of his. He was burning to get at any expedient, committee or +commission, which should enable him to unmask and smite his hidden foes. +Much of his private language at this time was in some respects vague and +ineffectual, but he was naturally averse to any course that might, in his +own words, look like backing down. "Of course," he said, "I am not sure +that we shall come off with flying colours. But I think we shall. I am +never sure of anything." He was still confident that he had the clue. + +On the second stage of the transaction, Mr. Smith, in answer to various +questions in the early part of the sitting, made a singular declaration. +The bill, he said, of which he had given notice, was a bill to be +introduced in accordance with the offer already made. "I do not desire to +debate the proposal; and I have put it in this position on the Order Book, +in order that it may be rejected or accepted by the honourable member in +the form in which it stands." Then in the next sentence, he said, "If the +motion is received and accepted by the House, the bill will be printed and +circulated, and I will then name a day for the second reading. But I may +say frankly that I do not anticipate being able to make provision for a +debate on the second reading of a measure of this kind. It was an offer +made by the government to the honourable gentleman and his friends, to be +either accepted or rejected."(248) The minister treated his bill as +lightly as if it were some small proposal of ordinary form and of even +less than ordinary importance. It is not inconceivable that there was +design in this, for Mr. Smith concealed under a surface of plain and +homely worth a very full share of parliamentary craft, and he knew well +enough that the more extraordinary the measure, the more politic it always +is to open with an air of humdrum. + +The bill came on at midnight July 16, in a House stirred with intense +excitement, closely suppressed. The leader of the House made the motion +for leave to introduce the most curious innovation of the century, in a +speech of half-a-minute. It might have been a formal bill for a +provisional order, to be taken as of course. Mr. Parnell, his ordinary +pallor made deeper by anger, and with unusual though very natural +vehemence of demeanour, at once hit the absurdity of asking him whether he +accepted or rejected the bill, not only before it was printed but without +explanation of its contents. He then pressed in two or three weighty +sentences the deeper absurdity of leaving him any option at all. The +attorney general had said of the story of the fac-simile letter, that if +it was not genuine, it was the worst libel ever launched on a public man. +If the first lord believed his attorney, said Mr. Parnell, instead of +talking about making a bargain with me, he ought to have come down and +said, "The government are determined to have this investigation, whether +the honourable member, this alleged criminal, likes it or not."(249) + +That was in fact precisely what the government had determined. The +profession that the bill was a benevolent device for enabling the alleged +criminals to extricate themselves was very soon dropped. The offer of a +boon to be accepted or declined at discretion was transformed into a grand +compulsory investigation into the connection of the national and land +leagues with agrarian crime, and the members of parliament were virtually +put into the dock along with all sorts of other persons who chanced to be +members of those associations. The effect was certain. Any facts showing +criminality in this or that member of the league would be taken to show +criminality in the organisation as a whole, and especially in the +political leaders. And the proceeding could only be vindicated by the +truly outrageous principle that where a counsel in a suit finds it his +duty as advocate to make grave charges against members of parliament in +court, then it becomes an obligation on the government to ask for an Act +to appoint a judicial commission to examine those charges, if only they +are grave enough. + +The best chance of frustrating the device was lost when the bill was +allowed to pass its first reading unopposed. Three of the leaders of the +liberal opposition--two in the Commons, one in the Lords--were for making a +bold stand against the bill from the first. Mr. Gladstone, on the +contrary, with his lively instinct for popular feeling out of doors, +disliked any action indicative of reluctance to face inquiry; and though +holding a strong view that no case had been made out for putting aside the +constitutional and convenient organ of a committee, yet he thought that an +(M142) inquiry under thoroughly competent and impartial judges, after the +right and true method of proceeding had been refused, was still better +than no proceeding at all. This much of assent, however, was qualified. "I +think," he said, "that an inquiry under thoroughly competent and impartial +judges is better than none. But that inquiry must, I think, be put into +such a shape as shall correspond with the general law and principles of +justice." As he believed, the first and most indispensable conditions of +an effective inquiry were wanting, and without them he "certainly would +have no responsibility whatever."(250) + +For the first few days politicians were much adrift. They had moments of +compunction. Whether friends or foes of the Irish, they were perplexed by +the curious double aspect of the measure. Mr. Parnell himself began to +feel misgivings, as he came to realise the magnitude of the inquiry, its +vast expense, its interminable length, its unfathomable uncertainties. On +the day appointed for the second reading of the bill appointing the +commission (July 23), some other subject kept the business back until +seven o'clock. Towards six, Mr. Parnell who was to open the debate on his +own side, came to an English friend, to ask whether there would be time +for him to go away for an hour; he wished to examine some new furnace for +assaying purposes, the existence of gold in Wicklow being one of his fixed +ideas. So steady was the composure of this extraordinary man. The English +friend grimly remarked to him that it would perhaps be rather safer not to +lose sight of the furnace in which at any moment his own assaying might +begin. His speech on this critical occasion was not one of his best. +Indifference to his audience often made him meagre, though he was scarcely +ever other than clear, and in this debate there was only one effective +point which it was necessary for him to press. The real issue was whether +the reference to the judges should be limited or unlimited; should be a +fishing inquiry at large into the history of an agrarian agitation ten +years old, or an examination into definite and specified charges against +named members of parliament. The minister, in moving the second reading, +no longer left it to the Irish members to accept or reject; it now rested, +he said, with the House to decide. It became evident that the acuter +members of the majority, fully awakened to the opportunities for +destroying the Irishmen which an unlimited inquisition might furnish, had +made up their minds that no limit should be set to the scope of the +inquisition. Boldly they tramped through a thick jungle of fallacy and +inconsistency. They had never ceased to insist, and they insisted now, +that Mr. Parnell ought to have gone into a court of law. Yet they fought +as hard as they could against every proposal for making the procedure of +the commission like the procedure of a law court. In a court there would +have been a specific indictment. Here a specific indictment was what they +most positively refused, and for it they substituted a roving inquiry, +which is exactly what a court never undertakes. They first argued that +nothing but a commission was available to test the charges against members +of parliament. Then, when they had bethought themselves of further +objects, they argued round that it was unheard of and inconceivable to +institute a royal commission for members of parliament alone. + +All arguments, however unanswerable, were at this stage idle, because Mr. +Parnell had reverted to his original resolution to accept the bill, and at +his request the radicals sitting below him abandoned their opposition. The +bill passed the second reading without a division. This circumstance +permitted the convenient assertion, made so freely afterwards, that the +bill, irregular, unconstitutional, violent, as it might be, at any rate +received the unanimous assent of the House of Commons. + +Stormy scenes marked the progress of the bill through committee. Seeing +the exasperation produced by their shifting of the ground, and the delay +which it would naturally entail, ministers resolved on a bold step. It was +now August. Government remembered the process by which they had carried +the Coercion bill, and they improved upon it. After three days of +committee, they moved that at one o'clock in the morning on the fourth +sitting the (M143) chairman should break off discussion, put forthwith the +question already proposed from the chair, then successively put forthwith +all the remaining clauses, and so report the bill to the House. This +process shut out all amendments not reached at the fatal hour, and is the +most drastic and sweeping of all forms of closure. In the case of the +Coercion bill, resort to the guillotine was declared to be warranted by +the urgency of social order in Ireland. That plea was at least plausible. +No such plea of urgency could be invoked for a measure, which only a few +days before the government had considered to be of such secondary +importance, that the simple rejection of it by Mr. Parnell was to be +enough to induce them to withdraw it. The bill that had been proffered as +a generous concession to Irish members, was now violently forced upon them +without debate. Well might Mr. Gladstone speak of the most extraordinary +series of proceedings that he had ever known.(251) + + + +III + + +The three judges first met on September 17, 1888, to settle their +procedure. They sat for one hundred and twenty-eight days, and rose for +the last time on November 22, 1889. More than four hundred and fifty +witnesses were examined. One counsel spoke for five days, another for +seven, and a third for nearly twelve. The mammoth record of the +proceedings fills eleven folio volumes, making between seven and eight +thousand pages. The questions put to witnesses numbered ninety-eight +thousand. + +It was a strange and fantastic scene. Three judges were trying a social +and political revolution. The leading actors in it were virtually in the +dock. The tribunal had been specially set up by their political opponents, +without giving them any effective voice either in its composition or upon +the character and scope of its powers. For the first time in England since +the Great Rebellion, men were practically put upon their trial on a +political charge, without giving them the protection of a jury. For the +first time in that period judges were to find a verdict upon the facts of +crime. The charge placed in the forefront was a charge of conspiracy. But +to call a combination a conspiracy does not make it a conspiracy or a +guilty combination, unless the verdict of a jury pronounces it to be one. +A jury would have taken all the large attendant circumstances into +account. The three judges felt themselves bound expressly to shut out +those circumstances. In words of vital importance, they said, "We must +leave it for politicians to discuss, and for statesmen to determine, in +what respects the present laws affecting land in Ireland are capable of +improvement. _We have no commission to consider whether the conduct of +which they are accused can be palliated by the circumstances of the time, +or whether it should be condoned in consideration of benefits alleged to +have resulted from their action._"(252) When the proceedings were over, +Lord Salisbury applauded the report as "giving a very complete view of a +very curious episode of our internal history."(253) A very complete view +of an agrarian rising--though it left out all palliating circumstances and +the whole state of agrarian law! + +Instead of opening with the letters, as the country expected, the accusers +began by rearing a prodigious accumulation of material, first for the +Irish or agrarian branch of their case, and then for the American branch. +The government helped them to find their witnesses, and so varied a host +was never seen in London before. There was the peasant from Kerry in his +frieze swallow-tail and knee-breeches, and the woman in her scarlet +petticoat who runs barefoot over the bog in Galway. The convicted member +of a murder club was brought up in custody from Mountjoy prison or +Maryborough. One of the most popular of the Irish representatives had been +fetched from his dungeon, and was to be seen wandering through the lobbies +in search of his warders. Men who had been shot by moonlighters limped +into the box, and poor women in their blue-hooded cloaks told pitiful +tales of midnight horror. The sharp spy was there, who disclosed sinister +secrets from cities across the Atlantic, and the uncouth informer who +betrayed or invented the history of rude and ferocious plots hatched at +the country cross-roads (M144) or over the peat fire in desolate cabins in +western Ireland. Divisional commissioners with their ledgers of agrarian +offences, agents with bags full of figures and documents, landlords, +priests, prelates, magistrates, detectives, smart members of that famous +constabulary force which is the arm, eye, and ear of the Irish +government--all the characters of the Irish melodrama were crowded into the +corridors, and in their turn brought out upon the stage of this surprising +theatre. + +The proceedings speedily settled down into the most wearisome drone that +was ever heard in a court of law. The object of the accusers was to show +the complicity of the accused with crime by tracing crime to the league, +and making every member of the league constructively liable for every act +of which the league was constructively guilty. Witnesses were produced in +a series that seemed interminable, to tell the story of five-and-twenty +outrages in Mayo, of as many in Cork, of forty-two in Galway, of +sixty-five in Kerry, one after another, and all with immeasurable detail. +Some of the witnesses spoke no English, and the English of others was +hardly more intelligible than Erse. Long extracts were read out from four +hundred and forty speeches. The counsel on one side produced a passage +that made against the speaker, and then the counsel on the other side +found and read some qualifying passage that made as strongly for him. The +three judges groaned. They had already, they said plaintively, ploughed +through the speeches in the solitude of their own rooms. Could they not be +taken as read? No, said the prosecuting counsel; we are building up an +argument, and it cannot be built up in a silent manner. In truth it was +designed for the public outside the court,(254) and not a touch could be +spared that might deepen the odium. Week after week the ugly tale went +on--a squalid ogre let loose among a population demoralised by ages of +wicked neglect, misery, and oppression. One side strove to show that the +ogre had been wantonly raised by the land league for political objects of +their own; the other, that it was the progeny of distress and wrong, that +the league had rather controlled than kindled its ferocity, and that crime +and outrage were due to local animosities for which neither league nor +parliamentary leaders were answerable. + +On the forty-fourth day (February 5) came a lurid glimpse from across the +Atlantic. The Irish emigration had carried with it to America the deadly +passion for the secret society. A spy was produced, not an Irishman this +time for a wonder, but an Englishman. He had been for eight-and-twenty +years in the United States, and for more than twenty of them he had been +in the pay of Scotland Yard, a military spy, as he put it, in the service +of his country. There is no charge against him that he belonged to that +foul species who provoke others to crime and then for a bribe betray them. +He swore an oath of secrecy to his confederates in the camps of the +Clan-na-Gael, and then he broke his oath by nearly every post that went +from New York to London. It is not a nice trade, but then the dynamiter's +is not a nice trade either.(255) The man had risen high in the secret +brotherhood. Such an existence demanded nerves of steel; a moment of +forgetfulness, an accident with a letter, the slip of a phrase in the two +parts that he was playing, would have doomed him in the twinkling of an +eye. He now stood a rigorous cross-examination like iron. There is no +reason to think that he told lies. He was perhaps a good deal less trusted +than he thought, for he does not appear on any occasion to have forewarned +the police at home of any of the dynamite attempts that four or five years +earlier had startled the English capital. The pith of his week's evidence +was his account of an interview between himself and Mr. Parnell in the +corridors of the House of Commons in April 1881. In this interview, Mr. +Parnell, he said, expressed his desire to bring the Fenians in Ireland +into line with his own constitutional movement, and to that end requested +the spy to invite a notorious leader of the physical force party in +America to come over to Ireland, to arrange a harmonious understanding. +Mr. Parnell had no recollection of the interview, (M145) though he thought +it very possible that an interview might have taken place. It was +undoubtedly odd that the spy having once got his line over so big a fish, +should never afterwards have made any attempt to draw him on. The judges, +however, found upon a review of "the probabilities of the case," that the +conversation in the corridor really took place, that the spy's account was +correct, and that it was not impossible that in conversation with a +supposed revolutionist, Mr. Parnell may have used such language as to +leave the impression that he agreed with his interlocutor. Perhaps a more +exact way of putting it would be that the spy talked the Fenian doctrine +of physical force, and that Mr. Parnell listened. + + + +IV + + +At last, on the fiftieth day (February 14, 1889), and not before, the +court reached the business that had led to its own creation. Three batches +of letters had been produced by the newspaper. The manager of the +newspaper told his story, and then the immediate purveyor of the letters +told his. Marvellous stories they were. + +The manager was convinced from the beginning, as he ingenuously said, +quite independently of handwriting, that the letters were genuine. Why? he +was asked. Because he felt they were the sort of letters that Mr. Parnell +would be likely to write. He counted, not wholly without some reason, on +the public sharing this inspiration of his own indwelling light. The day +was approaching for the division on the Coercion bill. Every journalist, +said the manager, must choose his moment. He now thought the moment +suitable for making the public acquainted with the character of the +Irishmen. So, with no better evidence of authority than his firm faith +that it was the sort of letter that Mr. Parnell would be likely to write, +on the morning of the second reading of the Coercion bill, he launched the +fac-simile letter. In the early part of 1888 he received from the same +hand a second batch of letters, and a third batch a few days later. His +total payments amounted to over two thousand five hundred pounds. He still +asked no questions as to the source of these expensive documents. On the +contrary he particularly avoided the subject. So much for the cautious and +experienced man of business. + +The natural course would have been now to carry the inquiry on to the +source of the letters. Instead of that, the prosecutors called an expert +in handwriting. The court expostulated. Why should they not hear at once +where the letters came from; and then it might be proper enough to hear +what an expert had to say? After a final struggle the prolonged tactics of +deferring the evil day, and prejudicing the case up to the eleventh hour, +were at last put to shame. The second of the two marvellous stories was +now to be told. + +The personage who had handed the three batches of letters to the +newspaper, told the Court how he had in 1885 compiled a pamphlet called +_Parnellism Unmasked_, partly from materials communicated to him by a +certain broken-down Irish journalist. To this unfortunate sinner, then in +a state of penury little short of destitution, he betook himself one +winter night in Dublin at the end of 1885. Long after, when the game was +up and the whole sordid tragi-comedy laid bare, the poor wretch wrote: "I +have been in difficulties and great distress for want of money for the +last twenty years, and in order to find means of support for myself and my +large family, I have been guilty of many acts which must for ever disgrace +me."(256) He had now within reach a guinea a day, and much besides, if he +would endeavour to find any documents that might be available to sustain +the charges made in the pamphlet. After some hesitation the bargain was +struck, a guinea a day, hotel and travelling expenses, and a round price +for documents. Within a few months the needy man in clover pocketed many +hundreds of pounds. Only the author of the history of _Jonathan Wild the +Great_ could do justice to such a story of the Vagabond in Luck--a jaunt to +Lausanne, a trip across the Atlantic, incessant journeys backward and +forward to Paris, the jingling of guineas, the rustle of hundred-pound +notes, and now and then perhaps a humorous thought of simple and solemn +people in newspaper offices in London, or a moment's meditation on that +perplexing law of human affairs by which the weak things (M146) of the +world are chosen to confound the things that are mighty. + +The moment came for delivering the documents in Paris, and delivered they +were with details more grotesque than anything since the foolish baronet +in Scott's novel was taken by Dousterswivel to find the buried treasure in +Saint Ruth's. From first to last not a test or check was applied by +anybody to hinder the fabrication from running its course without a hitch +or a crease. When men have the demon of a fixed idea in their cerebral +convolutions, they easily fall victims to a devastating credulity, and the +victims were now radiant as, with microscope and calligraphic expert by +their side, they fondly gazed upon their prize. About the time when the +judges were getting to work, clouds arose on this smiling horizon. It is +good, says the old Greek, that men should carry a threatening shadow in +their hearts even under the full sunshine. Before this, the manager +learned for the first time, what was the source of the letters. The +blessed doctrine of intrinsic certainty, however, which has before now +done duty in far graver controversy, prevented him from inquiring as to +the purity of the source. + +The toils were rapidly enclosing both the impostor and the dupes. He was +put into the box at last (Feb. 21). By the end of the second day, the +torture had become more than he could endure. Some miscalled the scene +dramatic. That is hardly the right name for the merciless hunt of an +abject fellow-creature through the doublings and windings of a thousand +lies. The breath of the hounds was on him, and he could bear the chase no +longer. After proceedings not worth narrating, except that he made a +confession and then committed his last perjury, he disappeared. The police +traced him to Madrid. When they entered his room with their warrant (March +1), he shot himself dead. They found on his corpse the scapulary worn by +devout catholics as a visible badge and token of allegiance to the +heavenly powers. So in the ghastliest wreck of life, men still hope and +seek for some mysterious cleansing of the soul that shall repair all. + +This damning experience was a sharp mortification to the government, who +had been throughout energetic confederates in the attack. Though it did +not come at once formally into debate, it exhilarated the opposition, and +Mr. Gladstone himself was in great spirits, mingled with intense +indignation and genuine sympathy for Mr. Parnell as a man who had suffered +an odious wrong. + + + +VI + + +The report of the commission was made to the crown on February 13, 1890. +It reached the House of Commons about ten o'clock the same evening. The +scene was curious,--the various speakers droning away in a House otherwise +profoundly silent, and every member on every bench, including high +ministers of state, plunged deep and eager into the blue-book. The general +impression was that the findings amounted to acquittal, and everybody went +home in considerable excitement at this final explosion of the damaged +blunderbuss. The next day Mr. Gladstone had a meeting with the lawyers in +the case, and was keen for action in one form or another; but on the whole +it was agreed that the government should be left to take the initiative. + +The report was discussed in both Houses, and strong speeches were made on +both sides. The government (Mar. 3) proposed a motion that the House +adopted the report, thanked the judges for their just and impartial +conduct, and ordered the report to be entered on the journals. Mr. +Gladstone followed with an amendment, that the House deemed it to be a +duty to record its reprobation of the false charges of the gravest and +most odious description, based on calumny and on forgery, that had been +brought against members of the House; and, while declaring its +satisfaction at the exposure of these calumnies, the House expressed its +regret at the wrong inflicted and the suffering and loss endured through a +protracted period by reason of these acts of flagrant iniquity. After a +handsome tribute to the honour and good faith of the judges, he took the +point that some of the opinions in the report were in no sense and no +degree judicial. How, for instance, could three judges, sitting ten years +after the fact (1879-80), determine better than anybody (M147) else that +distress and extravagant rents had nothing to do with crime? Why should +the House of Commons declare its adoption of this finding without question +or correction? Or of this, that the rejection of the Disturbance bill by +the Lords in 1880 had nothing to do with the increase of crime? Mr. +Forster had denounced the action of the Lords with indignation, and was +not he, the responsible minister, a better witness than the three judges +in no contact with contemporary fact? How were the judges authorised to +affirm that the Land bill of 1881 had not been a great cause in mitigating +the condition of Ireland? Another conclusive objection was that--on the +declaration of the judges themselves, rightly made by them--what we know to +be essential portions of the evidence were entirely excluded from their +view. + +He next turned to the findings, first of censure, then of acquittal. The +findings of censure were in substance three. First, seven of the +respondents had joined the league with a view of separating Ireland from +England. The idea was dead, but Mr. Gladstone was compelled to say that in +his opinion to deny the moral authority of the Act of Union was for an +Irishman no moral offence whatever. Here the law-officer sitting opposite +to him busily took down a note. "Yes, yes," Mr. Gladstone exclaimed, "you +may take my words down. I heard you examine your witness from a pedestal, +as you felt, of the greatest elevation, endeavouring to press home the +monstrous guilt of an Irishman who did not allow moral authority to the +Act of Union. In my opinion the Englishman has far more cause to blush for +the means by which that Act was obtained." As it happened, on the only +occasion on which Mr. Gladstone paid the Commission a visit, he had found +the attorney general cross-examining a leading Irish member, and this +passage of arms on the Act of Union between counsel and witness then +occurred. + +The second finding of censure was that the Irish members incited to +intimidation by speeches, knowing that intimidation led to crime. The +third was that they never placed themselves on the side of law and order; +they did not assist the administration, and did not denounce the party of +physical force. As if this, said Mr. Gladstone, had not been the subject +of incessant discussion and denunciation in parliament at the time ten +years ago, and yet no vote of condemnation was passed upon the Irish +members then. On the contrary, the tory party, knowing all these charges, +associated with them for purposes of votes and divisions; climbed into +office on Mr. Parnell's shoulders; and through the viceroy with the +concurrence of the prime minister, took Mr. Parnell into counsel upon the +devising of a plan for Irish government. Was parliament now to affirm and +record a finding that it had scrupulously abstained from ever making its +own, and without regard to the counter-allegation that more crime and +worse crime was prevented by agitation? It was the duty of parliament to +look at the whole of the facts of the great crisis of 1880-1--to the +distress, to the rejection of the Compensation bill, to the growth of +evictions, to the prevalence of excessive rents. The judges expressly shut +out this comprehensive survey. But the House was not a body with a limited +commission; it was a body of statesmen, legislators, politicians, bound to +look at the whole range of circumstances, and guilty of misprision of +justice if they failed so to do. "Suppose I am told," he said in notable +and mournful words, "that without the agitation Ireland would never have +had the Land Act of 1881, are you prepared to deny that? I hear no +challenges upon that statement, for I think it is generally and deeply +felt that without the agitation the Land Act would not have been passed. +As the man responsible more than any other for the Act of 1881--as the man +whose duty it was to consider that question day and night during nearly +the whole of that session--I must record my firm opinion that it would not +have become the law of the land, if it had not been for the agitation with +which Irish society was convulsed."(257) + +This bare table of his leading points does nothing to convey the +impression made by an extraordinarily fine performance. When the speaker +came to the findings of acquittal, to the dismissal of the infamous +charges of the forged letters, of intimacy with the Invincibles, of being +(M148) accessory to the assassinations in the Park, glowing passion in +voice and gesture reached its most powerful pitch, and the moral appeal at +its close was long remembered among the most searching words that he had +ever spoken. It was not forensic argument, it was not literature; it had +every note of true oratory--a fervid, direct and pressing call to his +hearers as "individuals, man by man, not with a responsibility diffused +and severed until it became inoperative and worthless, to place himself in +the position of the victim of this frightful outrage; to give such a +judgment as would bear the scrutiny of the heart and of the conscience of +every man when he betook himself to his chamber and was still." + +The awe that impressed the House from this exhortation to repair an +enormous wrong soon passed away, and debate in both Houses went on the +regular lines of party. Everything that was found not to be proved against +the Irishmen, was assumed against them. Not proven was treated as only an +evasive form of guilty. Though the three judges found that there was no +evidence that the accused had done this thing or that, yet it was held +legitimate to argue that evidence must exist--if only it could be found. +The public were to nurse a sort of twilight conviction and keep their +minds in a limbo of beliefs that were substantial and alive--only the light +was bad. + +In truth, the public did what the judges declined to do. They took +circumstances into account. The general effect of this transaction was to +promote the progress of the great unsettled controversy in Mr. Gladstone's +sense. The abstract merits of home rule were no doubt untouched, but it +made a difference to the concrete argument, whether the future leader of +an Irish parliament was a proved accomplice of the Park murderers or not. +It presented moreover the chameleon Irish case in a new and singular +colour. A squalid insurrection awoke parliament to the mischiefs and +wrongs of the Irish cultivators. Reluctantly it provided a remedy. Then in +the fulness of time, ten years after, it dealt with the men who had roused +it to its duty. And how? It brought them to trial before a special +tribunal, invented for the purpose, and with no jury; it allowed them no +voice in the constitution of the tribunal; it exposed them to long and +harassing proceedings; and it thereby levied upon them a tremendous +pecuniary fine. The report produced a strong recoil against the flagrant +violence, passion, and calumny, that had given it birth; and it affected +that margin of men, on the edge of either of the two great parties by whom +electoral decisions are finally settled. + + + + +Chapter IV. An Interim. (1889-1891) + + + The nobler a soul is, the more objects of compassion it hath. + + --BACON. + + + +I + + +At the end of 1888 Mr. Gladstone with his wife and others of his house was +carried off by Mr. Rendel's friendly care to Naples. Hereto, he told Lord +Acton, "we have been induced by three circumstances. First, a warm +invitation from the Dufferins to Rome; as to which, however, there are +_cons_ as well as _pros_, for a man who like me is neither Italian nor +Curial in the view of present policies. Secondly, our kind friend Mr. +Stuart Rendel has actually offered to be our conductor thither and back, +to perform for us the great service which you rendered us in the trip to +Munich and Saint-Martin. Thirdly, I have the hope that the stimulating +climate of Naples, together with an abstention from speech greater than +any I have before enjoyed, might act upon my 'vocal cord,' and partially +at least restore it." + +At Naples he was much concerned with Italian policy. + + + _To Lord Granville._ + + _Jan. 13, 1889._--My stay here where the people really seem to + regard me as not a foreigner, has brought Italian affairs and + policy very much home to me, and given additional force and + vividness to the belief I have always had, that it was sadly + impolitic for Italy to make enemies for herself beyond the Alps. + Though I might try and keep back this sentiment in Rome, even my + silence might betray it and I could not promise to keep silence + altogether. I think the impolicy amounts almost to madness + especially for a country which carries with her, nestling in her + bosom, the "standing menace" of the popedom.... + + ------------------------------------- + + _To J. Morley._ + + _Jan. 10._--I hope you have had faith enough not to be troubled + about my supposed utterances on the temporal power.... I will not + trouble you with details, but you may rest assured I have never + said the question of the temporal power was anything except an + Italian question. I have a much greater anxiety than this about + the Italian alliance with Germany. It is in my opinion an awful + error and constitutes the great danger of the country. It may be + asked, "What have you to do with it?" More than people might + suppose. I find myself hardly regarded here as a foreigner. They + look upon me as having had a real though insignificant part in the + Liberation. It will hardly be possible for me to get through the + affair of this visit without making my mind known. On this account + mainly I am verging towards the conclusion that it will be best + for me not to visit Rome, and my wife as it happens is not anxious + to go there. If you happen to see Granville or Rosebery please let + them know this. + + We have had on the whole a good season here thus far. Many of the + days delicious. We have been subjected here as well as in London + to a course of social kindnesses as abundant as the waters which + the visitor has to drink at a watering place, and so enervating + from the abstraction of cares that I am continually thinking of + the historical Capuan writer. I am in fact totally demoralised, + and cannot wish not to continue so. Under the circumstances + Fortune has administered a slight, a very slight physical + correction. A land-slip, or rather a Tufo rock-slip of 50,000 + tons, has come down and blocked the proper road between us and + Naples. + + ------------------------------------- + + _To Lord Acton._ + + _Jan. 23, 1889._--Rome is I think definitely given up. I shall be + curious to know your reasons for approving this _gran rifiuto_. + Meantime I will just glance at mine. I am not so much afraid of + the Pope as of the Italian government and court. My sentiments are + so very strong about the present foreign policy. The foreign + policy of the government but not I fear of the government only. If + I went to Rome, and saw the King and the minister, as I must, I + should be treading upon eggs all the time with them. I could not + speak out uninvited; and it is not satisfactory to be silent in + the presence of those interested, when the feelings are very + strong.... + + +These feelings broke out in time in at least one anonymous article.(258) +He told Lord Granville how anxious he was that no acknowledgment of +authorship, direct or indirect, should come from any of his friends. "Such +an article of necessity lectures the European states. As one of a public +of three hundred and more millions, I have a right to do this, but not in +my own person." This strange simplicity rather provoked his friends, for +it ignored two things--first, the certainty that the secret of authorship +would get out; second, if it did not get out, the certainty that the +European states would pay no attention to such a lecture backed by no name +of weight--perhaps even whether it were so backed or not. Faith in +lectures, sermons, articles, even books, is one of the things most easily +overdone. + + + Most of my reading, he went on to Acton, has been about the Jews + and the Old Testament. I have not looked at the books you kindly + sent me, except a little before leaving Hawarden; but I want to + get a hold on the broader side of the Mosaic dispensation and the + Jewish history. The great historic features seem to me in a large + degree independent of the critical questions which have been + raised about the _redaction_ of the Mosaic books. Setting aside + Genesis, and the Exodus proper, it seems difficult to understand + how either Moses or any one else could have advisedly published + them in their present form; and most of all difficult to believe + that men going to work deliberately after the captivity would not + have managed a more orderly execution. My thoughts are always + running back to the parallel question about Homer. In that case, + those who hold that Peisistratos or some one of his date was the + compiler, have at least this to say, that the poems in their + present form are such as a compiler, having liberty of action, + might have aimed at putting out from his workshop. Can that be + said of the Mosaic books? Again, are we not to believe in the + second and third Temples as centres of worship because there was a + temple at Leontopolis, as we are told? Out of the frying-pan, into + the fire. + + +When he left Amalfi (Feb. 14) for the north, he found himself, he says, in +a public procession, with great crowds at the stations, including Crispi +at Rome, who had once been his guest at Hawarden. + +After his return home, he wrote again to Lord Acton:-- + + + _April 28, 1889._--I have long been wishing to write to you. But as + a rule I never can write any letters that I wish to write. My + volition of that kind is from day to day exhausted by the worrying + demand of letters that I do not wish to write. Every year brings + me, as I reckon, from three to five thousand new correspondents, + of whom I could gladly dispense with 99 per cent. May you never be + in a like plight. + + Mary showed me a letter of recent date from you, which referred to + the idea of my writing on the Old Testament. The matter stands + thus: An appeal was made to me to write something on the general + position and claims of the holy scriptures for the working men. I + gave no pledge but read (what was for me) a good deal on the laws + and history of the Jews with only two results: first, deepened + impressions of the vast interest and importance attaching to them, + and of their fitness to be made the subject of a telling popular + account; secondly, a discovery of the necessity of reading much + more. But I have never in this connection thought much about what + is called the criticism of the Old Testament, only seeking to + learn how far it impinged upon the matters that I really was + thinking of. It seems to me that it does not impinge much.... It + is the fact that among other things I wish to make some sort of + record of my life. You say truly it has been very full. I add + fearfully full. But it has been in a most remarkable degree the + reverse of self-guided and self-suggested, with reference I mean + to all its best known aims. Under this surface, and in its daily + habit no doubt it has been selfish enough. Whether anything of + this kind will ever come off is most doubtful. Until I am released + from politics by the solution of the Irish problem, I cannot even + survey the field. + + I turn to the world of action. It has long been in my mind to + found something of which a library would be the nucleus. I incline + to begin with a temporary building here. Can you, who have built a + library, give me any advice? On account of fire I have half a mind + to corrugated iron, with felt sheets to regulate the temperature. + + Have you read any of the works of Dr. Salmon? I have just finished + his volume on Infallibility, which fills me with admiration of its + easy movement, command of knowledge, singular faculty of + disentanglement, and great skill and point in argument; though he + does not quite make one love him. He touches much ground trodden + by Dr. Doellinger; almost invariably agreeing with him. + + + +II + + +July 25, 1889, was the fiftieth anniversary of his marriage. The Prince +and Princess of Wales sent him what he calls a beautiful and splendid +gift. The humblest were as ready as the highest with their tributes, and +comparative strangers as ready as the nearest. Among countless others who +wrote was Bishop Lightfoot, great master of so much learning:-- + + + I hope you will receive this tribute from one who regards your + private friendship as one of the great privileges of his life. + + +And Doellinger:-- + + + If I were fifteen years younger than I am, how happy I would be to + come over to my beloved England once more, and see you surrounded + by your sons and daughters, loved, admired, I would almost say + worshipped, by a whole grateful nation. + + +On the other side, a clever lady having suggested to Browning that he +should write an inscription for her to some gift for Mr. Gladstone, +received an answer that has interest, both by the genius and fame of its +writer, and as a sign of widespread feeling in certain circles in those +days:-- + + + Surely your kindness, even your sympathy, will be extended to me + when I say, with sorrow indeed, that I am unable now + conscientiously to do what, but a few years ago, I would have at + least attempted with such pleasure and pride as might almost + promise success. I have received much kindness from that + extraordinary personage, and what my admiration for his + transcendent abilities was and ever will be, there is no need to + speak of. But I am forced to altogether deplore his present + attitude with respect to the liberal party, of which I, the + humblest unit, am still a member, and as such grieved to the heart + by every fresh utterance of his which comes to my knowledge. Were + I in a position to explain publicly how much the personal feeling + is independent of the political aversion, all would be easy; but I + am a mere man of letters, and by the simple inscription which + would truly testify to what is enduring, unalterable in my esteem, + I should lead people--as well those who know me as those who do + not--to believe my approbation extended far beyond the bounds which + unfortunately circumscribe it now. All this--even more--was on my + mind as I sat, last evening, at the same table with the + brilliantly-gifted man whom once--but that "once" is too sad to + remember. + + +At a gathering at Spencer House in the summer of 1888, when this year of +felicitation opened, Lord Granville, on behalf of a number of subscribers, +presented Mr. and Mrs. Gladstone with two portraits, and in his address +spoke of the long span of years through, which, they had enjoyed "the +unclouded blessings of the home." The expression was a just one. The +extraordinary splendour and exalted joys of an outer life so illustrious +were matched in the inner circle of the hearth by a happy order, +affectionate reciprocal attachments, a genial round of kindliness and +duty, that from year to year went on untarnished, unstrained, unbroken. +Visitors at Hawarden noticed that, though the two heads of the house were +now old, the whole atmosphere seemed somehow to be alive with the +freshness and vigour of youth; it was one of the youngest of households in +its interests and activities. The constant tension of his mind never +impaired his tenderness and wise solicitude for family and kinsfolk, and +for all about him; and no man ever had such observance of decorum with +such entire freedom from pharisaism. + +Nor did the order and moral prosperity of his own home (M149) leave him +complacently forgetful of fellow-creatures to whom life's cup had been +dealt in another measure. On his first entry upon the field of responsible +life, he had formed a serious and solemn engagement with a friend--I +suppose it was Hope-Scott--that each would devote himself to active service +in some branch of religious work.(259) He could not, without treason to +his gifts, go forth like Selwyn or Patteson to Melanesia to convert the +savages. He sought a missionary field at home, and he found it among the +unfortunate ministers to "the great sin of great cities." In these humane +efforts at reclamation he persevered all through his life, fearless of +misconstruction, fearless of the levity or baseness of men's tongues, +regardless almost of the possible mischiefs to the public policies that +depended on him. Greville(260) tells the story how in 1853 a man made an +attempt one night to extort money from Mr. Gladstone, then in office as +chancellor of the exchequer, by threats of exposure; and how he instantly +gave the offender into custody, and met the case at the police office. +Greville could not complete the story. The man was committed for trial. +Mr. Gladstone directed his solicitors to see that the accused was properly +defended. He was convicted and sent to prison. By and by Mr. Gladstone +inquired from the governor of the prison how the delinquent was conducting +himself. The report being satisfactory, he next wrote to Lord Palmerston, +then at the home office, asking that the prisoner should be let out. There +was no worldly wisdom in it, we all know. But then what are people +Christians for? + +We have already seen(261) his admonition to a son, and how much importance +he attached to the dedication of a certain portion of our means to +purposes of charity and religion. His example backed his precept. He kept +detailed accounts under these heads from 1831 to 1897, and from these it +appears that from 1831 to the end of 1890 he had devoted to objects of +charity and religion upwards of seventy thousand pounds, and in the +remaining years of his life the figure in this account stands at thirteen +thousand five hundred--this besides thirty thousand pounds for his +cherished object of founding the hostel and library at Saint Deiniol's. +His friend of early days, Henry Taylor, says in one of his notes on life +that if you know how a man deals with money, how he gets it, spends it, +keeps it, shares it, you know some of the most important things about him. +His old chief at the colonial office in 1846 stands the test most nobly. + + + +III + + +Near the end of 1889 among the visitors to Hawarden was Mr. Parnell. His +air of good breeding and easy composure pleased everybody. Mr. Gladstone's +own record is simple enough, and contains the substance of the affair as +he told me of it later:-- + + + _Dec. 18, 1889._--Reviewed and threw into form all the points of + possible amendment or change in the plan of Irish government, + etc., for my meeting with Mr. Parnell. He arrived at 5.30, and we + had two hours of satisfactory conversation; but he put off the + _gros_ of it. 19.--Two hours more with Mr. P. on points in Irish + government plans. He is certainly one of the very best people to + deal with that I have ever known. Took him to the old castle. He + seems to notice and appreciate everything. + + +Thinking of all that had gone before, and all that was so soon to come +after, anybody with a turn for imaginary dialogue might easily upon this +theme compose a striking piece. + +In the spring of 1890 Mr. Gladstone spent a week at Oxford of which he +spoke with immense enthusiasm. He was an honorary fellow of All Souls, and +here he went into residence in his own right with all the zest of a +virtuous freshman bent upon a first class. Though, I daresay, pretty +nearly unanimous against his recent policies, they were all fascinated by +his simplicity, his freedom from assumption or parade, his eagerness to +know how leading branches of Oxford study fared, his naturalness and +pleasant manners. He wrote to Mrs. Gladstone (Feb. 1):-- + + + Here I am safe and sound, and launched anew on my university + career, all my days laid out and occupied until the morning of + this day week, when I am to return to London. They press me to + stay over the Sunday, but this cannot be thought of. I am received + with infinite kindness, and the rooms they have given me are + delightful. Weather dull, and light a medium between London and + Hawarden. I have seen many already, including Liddon and Acland, + who goes up to-morrow for a funeral early on Monday. Actually I + have engaged to give a kind of Homeric lecture on Wednesday to the + members of the union. The warden and his sisters are courteous and + hospitable to the last degree. He is a unionist. The living here + is very good, perhaps some put on for a guest, but I like the tone + of the college; the fellows are men of a high class, and their + conversation is that of men with work to do. I had a most special + purpose in coming here which will be more than answered. It was to + make myself safe so far as might be, in the articles(262) which + eighteen months ago I undertook to write about the Old Testament. + This, as you know perhaps, is now far more than the New, the + battle-ground of belief. There are here most able and instructed + men, and I am already deriving great benefit. + + +Something that fell from him one morning at breakfast in the common room +led in due time to the election of Lord Acton to be also an honorary +member of this distinguished society. "If my suggestion," Mr. Gladstone +wrote to one of the fellows, "really contributed to this election, then I +feel that in the dregs of my life I have at least rendered one service to +the college. My ambition is to visit it and Oxford in company with him." + + + +IV + + +In 1890 both Newman and Doellinger died. + + + I have been asked from many quarters, Mr. Gladstone said to Acton, + to write about the Cardinal. But I dare not. First, I do not know + enough. Secondly, I should be puzzled to use the little knowledge + that I have. I was not a friend of his, but only an acquaintance + treated with extraordinary kindness whom it would ill become to + note what he thinks defects, while the great powers and qualities + have been and will be described far better by others. Ever since + he published his University Sermons in 1843, I have thought him + unsafe in philosophy, and no Butlerian though a warm admirer of + Butler. No; it was before 1843, in 1841 when he published Tract + XC. The _general_ argument of that tract was unquestionable; but + he put in sophistical matter without the smallest necessity. What + I recollect is about General Councils: where in treating the + declaration that they may err he virtually says, "No doubt they + may--unless the Holy Ghost prevents them." But he was a wonderful + man, a holy man, a very refined man, and (to me) a most kindly + man. + + +Of Dr. Doellinger he contributed a charming account to a weekly print,(263) +and to Acton he wrote:-- + + + I have the fear that my Doellinger letters will disappoint you. + When I was with him, he spoke to me with the utmost freedom; and + so I think he wrote, but our correspondence was only occasional. I + think nine-tenths of my intercourse with him was oral; with + Cardinal Newman nothing like one-tenth. But with neither was the + mere _corpus_ of my intercourse great, though in D.'s case it was + very precious, most of all the very first of it in 1845.... With + my inferior faculty and means of observation, I have long adopted + your main proposition. His attitude of mind was more historical + than theological. When I first knew him in 1845, and he honoured + me with very long and interesting conversations, they turned very + much upon theology, and I derived from him what I thought very + valuable and steadying knowledge. Again in 1874 during a long + walk, when we spoke of the shocks and agitation of our time, he + told me how the Vatican decrees had required him to reperuse and + retry the whole circle of his thought. He did not make known to me + any general result; but he had by that time found himself wholly + detached from the Council of Trent, which was indeed a logical + necessity from his preceding action. The Bonn Conference appeared + to show him nearly at the standing-point of anglican theology. I + thought him more liberal as a theologian than as a politician. On + the point of church establishment he was as impenetrable as if he + had been a Newdegate. He would not see that there were two sides + to the question. I long earnestly to know what progress he had + made at the last towards redeeming the pledge given in one of his + letters to me, that the evening of his life was to be devoted to a + great theological construction.... I should have called him an + anti-Jesuit, but in _no_ other sense, that is in no sense, a + Jansenist. I never saw the least sign of leaning in that + direction. + + + +V + + +Here the reader may care to have a note or two of talk with him in these +days:-- + + + _At Dollis Hill, Sunday, Feb. 22, 1891_.... A few minutes after + eight Mr. and Mrs. Gladstone came in from church, and we three sat + down to dinner. A delightful talk, he was in full force, plenty of + energy without vehemence. The range of topics was pretty wide, yet + marvellous to say, we had not a single word about Ireland. + Certainly no harm in that. + + _J. M._--A friend set me on a hunt this morning through Wordsworth + for the words about France standing on the top of golden hours. I + did not find them, but I came across a good line of Hartley + Coleridge's about the Thames:-- + + "And the thronged river toiling to the main." + + _Mr. G._--Yes, a good line. Toiling to the main recalls Dante:-- + + "Su la marina, dove'l Po discende, + Per aver pace co' seguaci sui."(264) + + _J. M._--Have you seen Symonds's re-issued volume on Dante? 'Tis + very good. Shall I lend it to you? + + _Mr. G._--Sure to be good, but not in the session. I never look at + Dante unless I can have a great continuous draught of him. He's + too big, he seizes and masters you. + + _J. M._--Oh, I like the picturesque bits, if it's only for + half-an-hour before dinner; the bird looking out of its nest for + the dawn, the afternoon bell, the trembling of the water in the + morning light, and the rest that everybody knows. + + _Mr. G._--No, I cannot do it. By the way, ladies nowadays keep + question books, and among other things ask their friends for the + finest line in poetry. I think I'm divided between three, perhaps + the most glorious is Milton's--[_Somehow this line slipped from + memory, but the reader might possibly do worse than turn over + Milton in search for his finest line._] Or else Wordsworth's--"Or + hear old Triton blow his wreathed horn." Yet what so splendid as + Penelope's about not rejoicing the heart of anybody less than + Odysseus? + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}.(265) + + He talked a great deal to-night about Homer; very confident that + he had done something to drive away the idea that Homer was an + Asiatic Greek. Then we turned to Scott, whom he held to be by far + the greatest of his countrymen. I suggested John Knox. No, the + line must be drawn firm between the writer and the man of action; + no comparisons there. + + _J. M._--Well, then, though I love Scott so much that if any man + chooses to put him first, I won't put him second, yet is there not + a vein of pure gold in Burns that gives you pause? + + _Mr. G._--Burns very fine and true, no doubt; but to imagine a + whole group of characters, to marshal them, to set them to work, + to sustain the action--I must count that the test of highest and + most diversified quality. + + We spoke of the new Shakespeare coming out. I said I had been + taking the opportunity of reading vol. i., and should go over it + all in successive volumes. _Mr. G._--"Falstaff is wonderful--one of + the most wonderful things in literature." + + Full of interest in _Hamlet_, and enthusiasm for it--comes closer + than any other play to some of the strangest secrets of human + nature--what _is_ the key to the mysterious hold of this play on + the world's mind? I produced my favourite proposition that + _Measure for Measure_ is one of the most modern of all the plays; + the profound analysis of Angelo and his moral catastrophe, the + strange figure of the duke, the deep irony of our modern time in + it all. But I do not think he cared at all for this sort of + criticism. He is too healthy, too objective, too simple, for all + the complexities of modern morbid analysis. + + Talked of historians; Lecky's two last volumes he had not yet + read, but--had told him that, save for one or two blots due to + contemporary passion, they were perfectly honourable to Lecky in + every way. Lecky, said Mr. G., "has real insight into the motives + of statesmen. Now Carlyle, so mighty as he is in flash and + penetration, has no eye for motives. Macaulay, too, is so caught + by a picture, by colour, by surface, that he is seldom to be + counted on for just account of motive." + + He had been reading with immense interest and satisfaction + Sainte-Beuve's _History of Port Royal_, which for that matter + deserves all his praise and more, though different parts of it are + written from antagonistic points of view. Vastly struck by + Saint-Cyran. When did the notion of the spiritual director make + its appearance in Europe? Had asked both Doellinger and Acton on + this curious point. For his own part, he doubted whether the + office existed before the Reformation. + + _J. M._--Whom do you reckon the greatest Pope? + + _Mr. G._--I think on the whole, Innocent III. But his greatness was + not for good. What did he do? He imposed the dogma of + transubstantiation; he is responsible for the Albigensian + persecutions; he is responsible for the crusade which ended in the + conquest of Byzantium. Have you ever realised what a deadly blow + was the ruin of Byzantium by the Latins, how wonderful a fabric + the Eastern Empire was? + + _J. M._--Oh, yes, I used to know my Finlay better than most books. + Mill used to say a page of Finlay was worth a chapter of Gibbon: + he explains how decline and fall came about. + + _Mr. G._--Of course. Finlay has it all. + + He tried then to make out that the eastern empire was more + wonderful than anything done by the Romans; it stood out for + eleven centuries, while Rome fell in three. I pointed out to him + that the whole solid framework of the eastern empire was after all + built up by the Romans. But he is philhellene all through past and + present. + + + + +Chapter V. Breach With Mr. Parnell. (1890-1891) + + + Fortuna vitrea est,--tum quum splendet frangitur.--PUBLIL. SYRUS. + Brittle like glass is fortune,--bright as light, and then the + crash. + + + +I + + +It would have been a miracle if the sight of all the methods of coercion, +along with the ignominy of the forged letters, had not worked with strong +effect upon the public mind. Distrust began to creep at a very rapid pace +even into the ministerial ranks. The tory member for a large northern +borough rose to resent "the inexpedient treatment of the Irishmen from a +party point of view," to protest against the 'straining and stretching of +the law' by the resident magistrates, to declare his opinion that these +gentlemen were not qualified to exercise the jurisdiction entrusted to +them, "and to denounce the folly of making English law unpopular in +Ireland, and provoking the leaders of the Irish people by illegal and +unconstitutional acts."(266) These sentiments were notoriously shared to +the full by many who sat around him. Nobody in those days, discredited as +he was with his party, had a keener scent for the drift of popular feeling +than Lord Randolph Churchill, and he publicly proclaimed that this sending +of Irish members of parliament to prison in such numbers was a feature +which he did not like. Further, he said that the fact of the government +not thinking it safe for public meetings of any sort to be held, excited +painful feelings in English minds.(267) All this was after the system had +been in operation for two years. Even strong unionist organs in the Irish +press could not stand it.(268) They declared that if (M150) the Irish, +government wished to make the coercive system appear as odious as +possible, they would act just as they were acting. They could only explain +all these doings, not by "wrong-headedness or imbecility," but by a +strange theory that there must be deliberate treachery among the +government agents. + +Before the end of the year 1889 the electoral signs were unmistakable. +Fifty-three bye-elections had been contested since the beginning of the +parliament. The net result was the gain of one seat for ministers and of +nine to the opposition. The Irish secretary with characteristic candour +never denied the formidable extent of these victories, though he mourned +over the evils that such temporary successes might entail, and was +convinced that they would prove to be dearly bought.(269) A year later the +tide still flowed on; the net gain of the opposition rose to eleven. In +1886 seventy-seven constituencies were represented by forty-seven +unionists and thirty liberals. By the beginning of October in 1890 the +unionist members in the same constituencies had sunk to thirty-six, and +the liberals had risen to forty-one. Then came the most significant +election of all. + +There had been for some months a lull in Ireland. Government claimed the +credit of it for coercion; their adversaries set it down partly to the +operation of the Land Act, partly to the natural tendency in such +agitations to fluctuate or to wear themselves out, and most of all to the +strengthened reliance on the sincerity of the English liberals. Suddenly +the country was amazed towards the middle of September by news that +proceedings under the Coercion Act had been instituted against two +nationalist leaders, and others. Even strong adherents of the government +and their policy were deeply dismayed, when they saw that after three +years of it, the dreary work was to begin over again. The proceedings +seemed to be stamped in every aspect as impolitic. In a few days the two +leaders would have been on their way to America, leaving a half-empty war +chest behind them and the flame of agitation burning low. As the offences +charged had been going on for six months, there was clearly no pressing +emergency. + +A critical bye-election was close at hand at the moment in the Eccles +division of Lancashire. The polling took place four days after a vehement +defence of his policy by Mr. Balfour at Newcastle. The liberal candidate +at Eccles expressly declared from his election address onwards, that the +great issue on which he fought was the alternative between conciliation +and coercion. Each candidate increased the party vote, the tory by rather +more than one hundred, the liberal by nearly six hundred. For the first +time the seat was wrested from the tories, and the liberal triumphed by a +substantial majority.(270) This was the latest gauge of the failure of the +Irish policy to conquer public approval, the last indication of the +direction in which the currents of public opinion were steadily +moving.(271) Then all at once a blinding sandstorm swept the ground. + + + +II + + +One of those events now occurred that with their stern irony so mock the +statesman's foresight, and shatter political designs in their most +prosperous hour. As a mightier figure than Mr. Parnell remorsefully said +on a grander stage, a hundred years before, cases sometimes befall in the +history of nations where private fault is public disaster. + +At the end of 1889, the Irish leader had been made a party in a suit for +divorce. He betrayed no trace in his demeanour, either to his friends or +to the House, of embarrassment at the position. His earliest appearance +after the evil news, was in the debate on the first night of the session +(February 11, '90), upon a motion about the publication of the forged +letter. Some twenty of (M151) his followers being absent, he wished the +discussion to be prolonged into another sitting. Closely as it might be +supposed to concern him, he listened to none of the debate. He had a +sincere contempt for speeches in themselves, and was wont to set down most +of them to vanity. A message was sent that he should come upstairs and +speak. After some indolent remonstrance, he came. His speech was +admirable; firm without emphasis, penetrating, dignified, freezing, and +unanswerable. Neither now nor on any later occasion did his air of +composure in public or in private give way. + +Mr. Gladstone was at Hawarden, wide awake to the possibility of peril. To +Mr. Arnold Morley he wrote on November 4:--"I fear a thundercloud is about +to burst over Parnell's head, and I suppose it will end the career of a +man in many respects invaluable." On the 13th he was told by the present +writer that there were grounds for an impression that Mr. Parnell would +emerge as triumphantly from the new charge, as he had emerged from the +obloquy of the forged letters. The case was opened two days later, and +enough came out upon the first day of the proceedings to point to an +adverse result. A Sunday intervened, and Mr. Gladstone's self-command +under storm-clouds may be seen in a letter written on that day to me:-- + + + _Nov. 16, 1890._--1. It is, after all, a thunder-clap about + Parnell. Will he ask for the Chiltern Hundreds? He cannot continue + to lead? What could he mean by his language to you? The Pope has + now clearly got a commandment under which to pull him up. It + surely cannot have been always thus; for he represented his + diocese in the church synod. 2. I thank you for your kind scruple, + but in the country my Sundays are habitually and largely invaded. + 3. Query, whether if a bye-seat were open and chanced to have a + large Irish vote W---- might not be a good man there. 4. I do not + think my Mem. is worth circulating but perhaps you would send it + to Spencer. I sent a copy to Harcourt. 5. [A small parliamentary + point, not related to the Parnell affair, nor otherwise + significant.] 6. Most warmly do I agree with you about the Scott + _Journal_. How one loves him. 7. Some day I hope to inflict on you + a talk about Homer and Homerology (as I call it). + + +The court pronounced a condemnatory decree on Monday, November 17th. +Parliament was appointed to meet on Tuesday, the 25th. There was only a +week for Irish and English to resolve what effect this condemnation should +have upon Mr. Parnell's position as leader of one and ally of the other. +Mr. Parnell wrote the ordinary letter to his parliamentary followers. The +first impulses of Mr. Gladstone are indicated in a letter to me on the day +after the decree:-- + + + _Nov. 18, 1890._--Many thanks for your letter. I had noticed the + Parnell circular, not without misgiving. I read in the _P. M. G._ + this morning a noteworthy article in the _Daily Telegraph_,(272) + or rather from it, with which I very much agree. But I think it + plain that we have nothing to say and nothing to do in the matter. + The party is as distinct from us as that of Smith or Hartington. I + own to some surprise at the apparent facility with which the R. C. + bishops and clergy appear to take the continued leadership, but + they may have tried the ground and found it would not _bear_. It + is the Irish parliamentary party, and that alone to which we have + to look.... + + +Such were Mr. Gladstone's thoughts when the stroke first fell. + + + +III + + +In England and Scotland loud voices were speedily lifted up. Some treated +the offence itself as an inexpiable disqualification. Others argued that, +even if the offence could be passed over as lying outside of politics, it +(M152) had been surrounded by incidents of squalor and deceit that +betrayed a character in which no trust could ever be placed again. In some +English quarters all this was expressed with a strident arrogance that set +Irishmen on fire. It is ridiculous, if we remember what space Mr. Parnell +filled in Irish imagination and feeling, how popular, how mysterious, how +invincible he had been, to blame them because in the first moment of shock +and bewilderment they did not instantly plant themselves in the judgment +seat, always so easily ascended by Englishmen with little at stake. The +politicians in Dublin did not hesitate. A great meeting was held at +Leinster Hall in Dublin on the Thursday (November 20th). The result was +easy to foresee. Not a whisper of revolt was heard. The chief nationalist +newspaper stood firm for Mr. Parnell's continuance. At least one +ecclesiastic of commanding influence was supposed to be among the +journal's most ardent prompters. It has since been stated that the bishops +were in fact forging bolts of commination. No lurid premonitory fork or +sheet flashed on the horizon, no rumble of the coming thunders reached the +public ear. + +Three days after the decree in the court, the great English liberal +organization chanced to hold its annual meeting at Sheffield (November +20-21). In reply to a request of mine as to his views upon our position, +Mr. Gladstone wrote to me as follows:-- + + + _Nov. 19, 1890._--Your appeal as to your meeting of to-morrow gives + matter for thought. I feel (1) that the Irish have abstractedly a + right to decide the question; (2) that on account of Parnell's + enormous services--he has done for home rule something like what + Cobden did for free trade, set the argument on its legs--they are + in a position of immense difficulty; (3) that we, the liberal + party as a whole, and especially we its leaders, have for the + moment nothing to say to it, that we must be passive, must wait + and watch. But I again and again say to myself, I say I mean in + the interior and silent forum, "It'll na dee." I should not be + surprised if there were to be rather painful manifestations in the + House on Tuesday. It is yet to be seen what our Nonconformist + friends, such a man as ----, for example, or such a man as ---- will + say.... If I recollect right, Southey's _Life of Nelson_ was in my + early days published and circulated by the Society for Promoting + Christian Knowledge. It would be curious to look back upon it and + see how the biographer treats his narrative at the tender points. + What I have said under figure 3 applies to me beyond all others, + and notwithstanding my prognostications I shall maintain an + extreme reserve in a position where I can do no good (in the + present tense), and might by indiscretion do much harm. You will + doubtless communicate with Harcourt and confidential friends only + as to anything in this letter. The thing, one can see, is not a + _res judicata_. It may ripen fast. Thus far, there is a total want + of moral support from this side to the Irish judgment. + + +A fierce current was soon perceived to be running. All the elements so +powerful for high enthusiasm, but hazardous where an occasion demands +circumspection, were in full blast. The deep instinct for domestic order +was awake. Many were even violently and irrationally impatient that Mr. +Gladstone had not peremptorily renounced the alliance on the very morrow +of the decree. As if, Mr. Gladstone himself used to say, it could be the +duty of any party leader to take into his hands the intolerable burden of +exercising the rigours of inquisition and private censorship over every +man with whom what he judged the highest public expediency might draw him +to co-operate. As if, moreover, it could be the duty of Mr. Gladstone to +hurry headlong into action, without giving Mr. Parnell time or chance of +taking such action of his own as might make intervention unnecessary. Why +was it to be assumed that Mr. Parnell would not recognise the facts of the +situation? "I determined," said Mr. Gladstone "to watch the state of +feeling in this country. I made no public declaration, but the country +made up its mind. I was in some degree like the soothsayer Shakespeare +introduces into one of his plays. He says, 'I do not make the facts; I +only foresee them.' I did not foresee the facts even; they were present +before me."(273) + +(M153) The facts were plain, and Mr. Gladstone was keenly alive to the +full purport of every one of them. Men, in whose hearts religion and +morals held the first place, were strongly joined by men accustomed to +settle political action by political considerations. Platform-men united +with pulpit-men in swelling the whirlwind. Electoral calculation and moral +faithfulness were held for once to point the same way. The report from +every quarter, every letter to a member from a constituent, all was in one +sense. Some, as I have said, pressed the point that the misconduct itself +made co-operation impossible; others urged the impossibility of relying +upon political understandings with one to whom habitual duplicity was +believed to have been brought home. We may set what value we choose upon +such arguments. Undoubtedly they would have proscribed some of the most +important and admired figures in the supreme doings of modern Europe. +Undoubtedly some who have fallen into shift and deceit in this particular +relation, have yet been true as steel in all else. For a man's character +is a strangely fitted mosaic, and it is unsafe to assume that all his +traits are of one piece, or inseparable in fact because they ought to be +inseparable by logic. But people were in no humour for casuistry, and +whether all this be sophistry or sense, the volume of hostile judgment and +obstinate intention could neither be mistaken, nor be wisely breasted if +home rule was to be saved in Great Britain. + +Mr. Gladstone remained at Hawarden during the week. To Mr. Arnold Morley +he wrote (Nov. 23): "I have a bundle of letters every morning on the +Parnell business, and the bundles increase. My own opinion has been the +same from the first, and I conceive that the time for action has now come. +All my correspondents are in unison." Every post-bag was heavy with +admonitions, of greater cogency than such epistles sometimes possess; and +a voluminous bundle of letters still at Hawarden bears witness to the +emotions of the time. Sir William Harcourt and I, who had taken part in +the proceedings at Sheffield, made our reports. The acute manager of the +liberal party came to announce that three of our candidates had bolted +already, that more were sure to follow, and that this indispensable +commodity in elections would become scarcer than ever. Of the general +party opinion, there could be no shadow of doubt. It was no application of +special rigour because Mr. Parnell was an Irishman. Any English politician +of his rank would have fared the same or worse, and retirement, temporary +or for ever, would have been inevitable. Temporary withdrawal, said some; +permanent withdrawal, said others; but for withdrawal of some sort, almost +all were inexorable. + + + +IV + + +Mr. Gladstone did not reach London until the afternoon of Monday, November +24. Parliament was to assemble on the next day. Three members of the +cabinet of 1886, and the chief whip of the party,(274) met him in the +library of Lord Rendel's house at Carlton Gardens. The issue before the +liberal leaders was a plain one. It was no question of the right of the +nationalists to choose their own chief. It was no question of inflicting +political ostracism on a particular kind of moral delinquency. The +question was whether the present continuance of the Irish leadership with +the silent assent of the British leaders, did not involve decisive +abstention at the polls on the day when Irish policy could once more be +submitted to the electors of Great Britain? At the best the standing +difficulties even to sanguine eyes, and under circumstances that had +seemed so promising, were still formidable. What chance was there if this +new burden were superadded? Only one conclusion was possible upon the +state of facts, and even those among persons responsible for this decision +who were most earnestly concerned in the success of the Irish policy, +reviewing all the circumstances of the dilemma, deliberately hold to this +day that though a catastrophe followed, a worse catastrophe was avoided. +It is one of the commonest of all secrets of cheap misjudgment in human +affairs, to start by assuming that there is always some good way out of a +bad case. Alas for us all, this is not so. Situations arise alike (M154) +for individuals, for parties, and for states, from which no good way out +exists, but only choice between bad way and worse. Here was one of those +situations. The mischiefs that followed the course actually taken, we see; +then, as is the wont of human kind, we ignore the mischiefs that as surely +awaited any other. + +Mr. Gladstone always steadfastly resisted every call to express an opinion +of his own that the delinquency itself had made Mr. Parnell unfit and +impossible. It was vain to tell him that the party would expect such a +declaration, or that his reputation required that he should found his +action on moral censure all his own. "What!" he cried, "because a man is +what is called leader of a party, does that constitute him a censor and a +judge of faith and morals? I will not accept it. It would make life +intolerable." He adhered tenaciously to political ground. "I have been for +four years," Mr. Gladstone justly argued, "endeavouring to persuade voters +to support Irish autonomy. Now the voter says to me, 'If a certain thing +happens--namely, the retention of the Irish leadership in its present +hands--I will not support Irish autonomy.' How can I go on with the work? +We laboriously rolled the great stone up to the top of the hill, and now +it topples down to the bottom again, unless Mr. Parnell sees fit to go." +From the point of view of Irish policy this was absolutely unanswerable. +It would have been just as unanswerable, even if all the dire confusion +that afterwards came to pass had then been actually in sight. Its force +was wholly independent, and necessarily so, of any intention that might be +formed by Mr. Parnell. + +As for that intention, let us turn to him for a moment. Who could dream +that a man so resolute in facing facts as Mr. Parnell, would expect all to +go on as before? Substantial people in Ireland who were preparing to come +round to home rule at the prospect of a liberal victory in Great Britain, +would assuredly be frightened back. Belfast would be more resolute than +ever. A man might estimate as he pleased either the nonconformist +conscience in England, or the catholic conscience in Ireland. But the most +cynical of mere calculators,--and I should be slow to say that this was Mr. +Parnell,--could not fall a prey to such a hallucination as to suppose that +a scandal so frightfully public, so impossible for even the most mild-eyed +charity to pretend not to see, and which political passion was so +interested in keeping in full blaze, would instantly drop out of the mind +of two of the most religious communities in the world; or that either of +these communities could tolerate without effective protest so impenitent +an affront as the unruffled continuity of the stained leadership. All this +was independent of anything that Mr. Gladstone might do or might not do. +The liberal leaders had a right to assume that the case must be as obvious +to Mr. Parnell as it was to everybody else, and unless loyalty and good +faith have no place in political alliances, they had a right to look for +his spontaneous action. Was unlimited consideration due from them to him +and none from him to them? + +The result of the consultation was the decisive letter addressed to me by +Mr. Gladstone, its purport to be by me communicated to Mr. Parnell. As any +one may see, its language was courteous and considerate. Not an accent was +left that could touch the pride of one who was known to be as proud a man +as ever lived. It did no more than state an unquestionable fact, with an +inevitable inference. It was not written in view of publication, for that +it was hoped would be unnecessary. It was written with the expectation of +finding the personage concerned in his usual rational frame of mind, and +with the intention of informing him of what it was right that he should +know. The same evening Mr. McCarthy was placed in possession of Mr. +Gladstone's views, to be laid before Mr. Parnell at the earliest moment. + + + _1 Carlton Gardens, Nov. 24, 1890._--MY DEAR MORLEY.--Having arrived + at a certain conclusion with regard to the continuance, at the + present moment, of Mr. Parnell's leadership of the Irish party, I + have seen Mr. McCarthy on my arrival in town, and have inquired + from him whether I was likely to receive from Mr. Parnell himself + any communication on the subject. Mr. McCarthy replied that he was + unable to give me any information on the subject. I mentioned to + him that in 1882, after the terrible murder in the Phoenix Park, + Mr. Parnell, although totally removed from any idea of + responsibility, had spontaneously written to me, and offered to + take the Chiltern Hundreds, an offer much to his honour but one + which I thought it my duty to decline. + + While clinging to the hope of a communication from Mr. Parnell, to + whomsoever addressed, I thought it necessary, viewing the + arrangements for the commencement of the session to-morrow, to + acquaint Mr. McCarthy with the conclusion at which, after using + all the means of observation and reflection in my power, I had + myself arrived. It was that notwithstanding the splendid services + rendered by Mr. Parnell to his country, his continuance at the + present moment in the leadership would be productive of + consequences disastrous in the highest degree to the cause of + Ireland. I think I may be warranted in asking you so far to expand + the conclusion I have given above, as to add that the continuance + I speak of would not only place many hearty and effective friends + of the Irish cause in a position of great embarrassment, but would + render my retention of the leadership of the liberal party, based + as it has been mainly upon the prosecution of the Irish cause, + almost a nullity. This explanation of my views I begged Mr. + McCarthy to regard as confidential, and not intended for his + colleagues generally, if he found that Mr. Parnell contemplated + spontaneous action; but I also begged that he would make known to + the Irish party, at their meeting to-morrow afternoon, that such + was my conclusion, if he should find that Mr. Parnell had not in + contemplation any step of the nature indicated. I now write to + you, in case Mr. McCarthy should be unable to communicate with Mr. + Parnell, as I understand you may possibly have an opening + to-morrow through another channel. Should you have such an + opening, I beg you to make known to Mr. Parnell the conclusion + itself, which I have stated in the earlier part of this letter. I + have thought it best to put it in terms simple and direct, much as + I should have desired had it lain within my power, to alleviate + the painful nature of the situation. As respects the manner of + conveying what my public duty has made it an obligation to say, I + rely entirely on your good feeling, tact, and judgment.--Believe me + sincerely yours, W. E. GLADSTONE. + + +No direct communication had been possible, though every effort to open it +was made. Indirect information had been received. Mr. Parnell's purpose +was reported to have shifted during the week since the decree. On the +Wednesday he had been at his stiffest, proudest, and coldest, bent on +holding on at all cost. He thought he saw a way of getting something done +for Ireland; the Irish people had given him a commission; he should stand +to it, so long as ever they asked him. On the Friday, however (Nov. 21), +he appeared, so I had been told, to be shaken in his resolution. He had +bethought him that the government might possibly seize the moment for a +dissolution; that if there were an immediate election, the government +would under the circumstances be not unlikely to win; if so, Mr. Gladstone +might be thrown for four or five years into opposition; in other words, +that powerful man's part in the great international transaction would be +at an end. In this mood he declared himself alive to the peril and the +grave responsibility of taking any course that could lead to consequences +so formidable. That was the last authentic news that reached us. His Irish +colleagues had no news at all. After this glimpse the curtain had fallen, +and all oracles fell dumb. + +If Mr. Gladstone's decision was to have the anticipated effect, Mr. +Parnell must be made aware of it before the meeting of the Irish party +(Nov. 25). This according to custom was to be held at two o'clock in the +afternoon, to choose their chairman for the session. Before the choice was +made, both the leader and his political friends should know the view and +the purpose that prevailed in the camp of their allies. Mr. Parnell kept +himself invisible and inaccessible alike to English and Irish friends +until a few minutes before the meeting. The Irish member who had seen Mr. +Gladstone the previous evening, at the last moment was able to deliver the +message that had been confided to him. Mr. Parnell replied that he should +stand to his guns. The other members of the Irish party came together, +and, wholly ignorant of the attitude taken by Mr. Gladstone, promptly and +with hardly a word of discussion re-elected their leader to his usual +post. The gravity of the unfortunate error (M155) committed in the failure +to communicate the private message to the whole of the nationalist +members, with or without Mr. Parnell's leave, lay in the fact that it +magnified and distorted Mr. Gladstone's later intervention into a +humiliating public ultimatum. The following note, made at the time, +describes the fortunes of Mr. Gladstone's letter:-- + + + _Nov. 25._--I had taken the usual means of sending a message to Mr. + Parnell, to the effect that Mr. Gladstone was coming to town on + the following day, and that I should almost certainly have a + communication to make to Mr. Parnell on Tuesday morning. It was + agreed at my interview with his emissary on Sunday night (November + 23) that I should be informed by eleven on Tuesday forenoon where + I should see him. I laid special stress on my seeing him before + the party met. At half-past eleven, or a little later, on that day + I received a telegram from the emissary that he could not reach + his friend.(275) I had no difficulty in interpreting this. It + meant that Mr. Parnell had made up his mind to fight it out, + whatever line we might adopt; that he guessed that my wish to see + him must from his point of view mean mischief; and that he would + secure his re-election as chairman before the secret was out. Mr. + McCarthy was at this hour also entirely in the dark, and so were + all the other members of the Irish party supposed to be much in + Mr. Parnell's confidence. When I reached the House a little after + three, the lobby was alive with the bustle and animation usual at + the opening of a session, and Mr. Parnell was in the thick of it, + talking to a group of his friends. He came forward with much + cordiality. "I am very sorry," he said, "that I could not make an + appointment, but the truth is I did not get your message until I + came down to the House, and then it was too late." I asked him to + come round with me to Mr. Gladstone's room. As we went along the + corridor he informed me in a casual way that the party had again + elected him chairman. When we reached the sunless little room, I + told him I was sorry to hear that the election was over, for I had + a communication to make to him which might, as I hoped, still make + a difference. I then read out to him Mr. Gladstone's letter. As he + listened, I knew the look on his face quite well enough to see + that he was obdurate. The conversation did not last long. He said + the feeling against him was a storm in a teacup, and would soon + pass. I replied that he might know Ireland, but he did not half + know England; that it was much more than a storm in a teacup; that + if he set British feeling at defiance and brazened it out, it + would be ruin to home rule at the election; that if he did not + withdraw for a time, the storm would not pass; that if he withdrew + from the actual leadership now as a concession due to public + feeling in this country, this need not prevent him from again + taking the helm when new circumstances might demand his presence; + that he could very well treat his re-election as a public vote of + confidence by his party; that, having secured this, he would + suffer no loss of dignity or authority by a longer or shorter + period of retirement. I reminded him that for two years he had + been practically absent from active leadership. He answered, in + his slow dry way, that he must look to the future; that he had + made up his mind to stick to the House of Commons and to his + present position in his party, until he was convinced, and he + would not soon be convinced, that it was impossible to obtain home + rule from a British parliament; that if he gave up the leadership + for a time, he should never return to it; that if he once let go, + it was all over. There was the usual iteration on both sides in a + conversation of the kind, but this is the substance of what + passed. His manner throughout was perfectly cool and quiet, and + his unresonant voice was unshaken. He was paler than usual, and + now and then a wintry smile passed over his face. I saw that + nothing would be gained by further parley, so I rose and he + somewhat slowly did the same. "Of course," he said, as I held the + door open for him to leave, "Mr. Gladstone will have to attack me. + I shall expect that. He will have a right to do that." So we + parted. + + I waited for Mr. Gladstone, who arrived in a few minutes. It was + now four o'clock. "Well?" he asked eagerly the moment the door was + closed, and without taking off cape or hat. "Have you seen him?" + "He is obdurate," said I. I told him shortly what had passed. He + stood at the table, dumb for some instants, looking at me as if he + could not believe what I had said. Then he burst out that we must + at once publish his letter to me; at once, that very afternoon. I + said, "'Tis too late now." "Oh, no," said he, "the _Pall Mall_ + will bring it out in a special edition." "Well, but," I persisted, + "we ought really to consider it a little." Reluctantly he yielded, + and we went into the House. Harcourt presently joined us on the + bench, and we told him the news. It was by and by decided that the + letter should be immediately published. Mr. Gladstone thought that + I should at once inform Mr. Parnell of this. There he was at that + moment, pleasant and smiling, in his usual place on the Irish + bench. I went into our lobby, and sent somebody to bring him out. + Out he came, and we took three or four turns in the lobby. I told + him that it was thought right, under the new circumstances, to + send the letter to the press. "Yes," he said amicably, as if it + were no particular concern of his, "I think Mr. Gladstone will be + quite right to do that; it will put him straight with his party." + + +The debate on the address had meanwhile been running its course. Mr. +Gladstone had made his speech. One of the newspapers afterwards described +the liberals as wearing pre-occupied countenances. "We were pre-occupied +with a vengeance," said Mr. Gladstone, "and even while I was speaking I +could not help thinking to myself, Here am I talking about Portugal and +about Armenia, while every single creature in the House is absorbed in one +thing only, and that is an uncommonly long distance from either Armenia or +Portugal." News of the letter, which had been sent to the reporters about +eight o'clock, swiftly spread. Members hurried to ex-ministers in the +dining-room to ask if the story of the letter were true. The lobbies were +seized by one of those strange and violent fevers to which on such +occasions the House of Commons is liable. Unlike the clamour of the Stock +Exchange or a continental Chamber, there is little noise, but the +perturbation is profound. Men pace the corridors in couples and trios, or +flit from one knot to another, listening to an oracle of the moment +modestly retailing a rumour false on the face of it, or evolving monstrous +hypotheses to explain incredible occurrences. This, however, was no common +crisis of lobby or gallery. + +One party quickly felt that, for them at least, it was an affair of life +or death. It was no wonder that the Irish members were stirred to the very +depths. For five years they had worked on English platforms, made active +friendships with English and Scottish liberals in parliament and out of +it, been taught to expect from their aid and alliance that deliverance +which without allies must remain out of reach and out of sight; above all, +for nearly five years they had been taught to count on the puissant voice +and strong right arm of the leader of all the forces of British +liberalism. + +They suddenly learned that if they took a certain step in respect of the +leadership of their own party, the alliance was broken off, the most +powerful of Englishmen could help them no more, and that all the dreary +and desperate marches since 1880 were to be faced once again in a blind +and endless campaign, against the very party to whose friendship they had +been taught to look for strength, encouragement, and victory. Well might +they recoil. More astounded still, they learned at the same time that they +had already taken the momentous step in the dark, and that the knowledge +of what they were doing, the pregnant meanings and the tremendous +consequences of it, had been carefully concealed from them. Never were +consternation, panic, distraction, and resentment better justified. + +The Irishmen were anxious to meet at once. Their leader sat moodily in the +smoking-room downstairs. His faculty of concentrated vision had by this +time revealed to him the certainty of a struggle, and its intensity. He +knew in minute detail every element of peril both at Westminster and in +Ireland. A few days before, he mentioned to the present writer his +suspicion of designs on foot in ecclesiastical quarters, though he +declared that he had no fear of them. He may have surmised that the +demonstration at the Leinster Hall was superficial and impulsive. On the +other hand, his confidence in the foundations of his dictatorship was +unshaken. This being so, if deliberate calculation were the universal +mainspring of every statesman's action--as it assuredly is not nor can ever +be--he would have spontaneously withdrawn for a season, in the (M156) +assurance that if signs of disorganisation were to appear among his +followers, his prompt return from Elba would be instantly demanded in +Ireland, whether or no it were acquiesced in by the leaders and main army +of liberals in England. That would have been both politic and decent, even +if we conceive his mind to have been working in another direction. He may, +for instance, have believed that the scandal had destroyed the chances of +a liberal victory at the election, whether he stayed or withdrew. Why +should he surrender his position in Ireland and over contending factions +in America, in reliance upon an English party to which, as he was well +aware, he had just dealt a smashing blow? These speculations, however, +upon the thoughts that may have been slowly moving through his mind, are +hardly worth pursuing. Unluckily, the stubborn impulses of defiance that +came naturally to his temperament were aroused to their most violent pitch +and swept all calculations of policy aside. He now proceeded passionately +to dash into the dust the whole fabric of policy which he had with such +infinite sagacity, patience, skill, and energy devised and reared. + +Two short private memoranda from his own hand on this transaction, I find +among Mr. Gladstone's papers. He read them to me at the time, and they +illustrate his habitual practice of shaping and clearing his thought and +recollection by committal to black and white:-- + + + _Nov. 26, 1890._--Since the month of December 1885 my whole + political life has been governed by a supreme regard to the Irish + question. For every day, I may say, of these five, we have been + engaged in laboriously rolling up hill the stone of Sisyphus. Mr. + Parnell's decision of yesterday means that the stone is to break + away from us and roll down again to the bottom of the hill. I + cannot recall the years which have elapsed. It was daring, + perhaps, to begin, at the age I had then attained, a process which + it was obvious must be a prolonged one. + + Simply to recommence it now, when I am within a very few weeks of + the age at which Lord Palmerston, the marvel of parliamentary + longevity, succumbed, and to contemplate my accompanying the cause + of home rule to its probable triumph a rather long course of years + hence, would be more than daring; it would be presumptuous. My + views must be guided by rational probabilities, and they exclude + any such anticipation. My statement, therefore, that my leadership + would, under the contemplated decision of Mr. Parnell, be almost a + nullity, is a moderate statement of the case. I have been + endeavouring during all these years to reason with the voters of + the kingdom, and when the voter now tells me that he cannot give a + vote for making the Mr. Parnell of to-day the ruler of Irish + affairs under British sanction, I do not know how to answer him, + and I have yet to ask myself formally the question what under + those circumstances is to be done. I must claim entire and + absolute liberty to answer that question as I may think right. + + _Nov. 28, 1890._--The few following words afford a key to my + proceedings in the painful business of the Irish leadership. + + It was at first my expectation, and afterwards my desire, that Mr. + Parnell would retire by a perfectly spontaneous act. As the + likelihood of such a course became less and less, while time ran + on, and the evidences of coming disaster were accumulated, I + thought it would be best that he should be impelled to withdraw, + but by an influence conveyed to him, at least, from within the + limits of his own party. I therefore begged Mr. Justin McCarthy to + acquaint Mr. Parnell of what I thought as to the consequences of + his continuance; I also gave explanations of my meaning, including + a reference to myself; and I begged that my message to Mr. Parnell + might be made known to the Irish party, in the absence of a + spontaneous retirement. + + This was on Monday afternoon. But there was no certainty either of + finding Mr. Parnell, or of an impression on him through one of his + own followers. I therefore wrote the letter to Mr. Morley, as a + more delicate form of proceeding than a direct communication from + myself, but also as a stronger measure than that taken through Mr. + McCarthy, because it was more full, and because, as it was in + writing, it admitted of the ulterior step of immediate + publication. Mr. Morley could not find Mr. Parnell until after the + first meeting of the Irish party on Monday. When we found that Mr. + McCarthy's representation had had no effect, that the Irish party + had not been informed, and that Mr. Morley's making known the + material parts of my letter was likewise without result, it at + once was decided to publish the letter; just too late for the + _Pall Mall Gazette_, it was given for publication to the morning + papers, and during the evening it became known in the lobbies of + the House. + + + +V + + +Mr. Parnell took up his new ground in a long manifesto to the Irish people +(November 29). It was free of rhetoric and ornament, but the draught was +skilfully brewed. He charged Mr. Gladstone with having revealed to him +during his visit at Hawarden in the previous December, that in a future +scheme of home rule the Irish members would be cut down from 103 to 32, +land was to be withdrawn from the competency of the Irish legislature, and +the control of the constabulary would be reserved to the Imperial +authority for an indefinite period, though Ireland would have to find the +money all the time. This perfidious truncation of self-government by Mr. +Gladstone was matched by an attempt on my part as his lieutenant only a +few days before, to seduce the Irish party into accepting places in a +liberal government, and this gross bribe of mine was accompanied by a +despairing avowal that the hapless evicted tenants must be flung +overboard. In other words, the English leaders intended to play Ireland +false, and Mr. Parnell stood between his country and betrayal. Such a +story was unluckily no new one in Irish history since the union. On that +theme Mr. Parnell played many adroit variations during the eventful days +that followed. Throw me to the English wolves if you like, he said, but at +any rate make sure that real home rule and not its shadow is to be your +price, and that they mean to pay it. This was to awaken the spectre of old +suspicions, and to bring to life again those forces of violence and +desperation which it had been the very crown of his policy to exorcise. + +The reply on the Hawarden episode was prompt. Mr. Gladstone asserted that +the whole discussion was one of those informal exchanges of view which go +to all political action, and in which men feel the ground and discover the +leanings of one another's minds. No single proposal was made, no +proposition was mentioned to which a binding assent was sought. Points of +possible improvement in the bill of 1886 were named as having arisen in +Mr. Gladstone's mind, or been suggested by others, but no positive +conclusions were asked for or were expected or were possible. Mr. Parnell +quite agreed that the real difficulty lay in finding the best form in +which Irish representation should be retained at Westminster, but both saw +the wisdom and necessity of leaving deliberation free until the time +should come for taking practical steps. He offered no serious objection on +any point; much less did he say that they augured any disappointment of +Irish aspirations. Apart from this denial, men asked themselves how it was +that if Mr. Parnell knew that the cause was already betrayed, he yet for a +year kept the black secret to himself, and blew Mr. Gladstone's praise +with as loud a trumpet as before?(276) As for my own guilty attempt at +corruption in proposing an absorption of the Irish party in English +politics by means of office and emolument, I denied it with reasonable +emphasis at the time, and it does not concern us here, nor in fact +anywhere else. + + + +VI + + +We now come to what was in its day the famous story of Committee Room +Fifteen, so called from the chamber in which the next act of this dismal +play went on.(277) The proceedings between the leader and his party were +watched with an eagerness that has never been surpassed in this kingdom or +in America. They were protracted, intense, dramatic, and the issue for a +time hung in poignant doubt. The party interest of the scene was supreme, +for if the Irishmen should rally to their chief, then the English alliance +was at an end, Mr. Gladstone would virtually close (M157) his illustrious +career, the rent in the liberal ranks might be repaired, and leading men +and important sections would all group themselves afresh. "Let us all keep +quiet," said one important unionist, "we may now have to revise our +positions." Either way, the serpent of faction would raise its head in +Ireland, and the strong life of organised and concentrated nationalism +would perish in its coils. The personal interest was as vivid as the +political,--the spectacle of a man of infinite boldness, determination, +astuteness, and resource, with the will and pride of Lucifer, at bay with +fortune and challenging a malignant star. Some talked of the famous Ninth +Thermidor, when Robespierre fought inch by inch the fierce struggle that +ended in his ruin. Others talked of the old mad discord of Zealot and +Herodian in face of the Roman before the walls of Jerusalem. The great +veteran of English politics looked on, wrathful and astounded at a +preternatural perversity for which sixty years of public life could +furnish him no parallel. The sage public looked on, some with the same +interest that would in ancient days have made them relish a combat of +gladiators; others with glee at the mortification of political opponents; +others again with honest disgust at what threatened to be the ignoble rout +of a beneficent policy. + +It was the fashion for the moment in fastidious reactionary quarters to +speak of the actors in this ordeal as "a hustling group of yelling +rowdies." Seldom have terms so censorious been more misplaced. All depends +upon the point of view. Men on a raft in a boiling sea have something to +think of besides deportment and the graces of serenity. As a matter of +fact, even hostile judges then and since agreed that no case was ever +better opened within the walls of Westminster than in the three speeches +made on the first day by Mr. Sexton and Mr. Healy on the one side, and Mr. +Redmond on the other. In gravity, dignity, acute perception, and that good +faith which is the soul of real as distinct from spurious debate, the +parliamentary critic recognises them as all of the first order. So for the +most part things continued. It was not until a protracted game had gone +beyond limits of reason and patience, that words sometimes flamed high. +Experience of national assemblies gives no reason to suppose that a body +of French, German, Spanish, Italian, or even of English, Scotch, Welsh, or +American politicians placed in circumstances of equal excitement, arising +from an incident in itself at once so squalid and so provocative, would +have borne the strain with any more self-control. + +Mr. Parnell presided, frigid, severe, and lofty, "as if," said one +present, "it were we who had gone astray, and he were sitting there to +judge us." Six members were absent in America, including Mr. Dillon and +Mr. O'Brien, two of the most important of all after Mr. Parnell himself. +The attitude of this pair was felt to be a decisive element. At first, +under the same impulse as moved the Leinster Hall meeting, they allowed +their sense of past achievement to close their eyes; they took for granted +the impossible, that religious Britain and religious Ireland would blot +what had happened out of their thoughts; and so they stood for Mr. +Parnell's leadership. The grim facts of the case were rapidly borne in +upon them. The defiant manifesto convinced them that the leadership could +not be continued. Travelling from Cincinnati to Chicago, they read it, +made up their minds, and telegraphed to anxious colleagues in London. They +spoke with warmth of Mr. Parnell's services, but protested against his +unreasonable charges of servility to liberal wirepullers; they described +the "endeavours to fasten the responsibility for what had happened upon +Mr. Gladstone and Mr. Morley" as reckless and unjust; and they foresaw in +the position of isolation, discredit, and international ill-feeling which +Mr. Parnell had now created, nothing but ruin for the cause. This +deliverance from such a quarter (November 30) showed that either +abdication or deposition was inevitable. + +The day after Mr. Parnell's manifesto, the bishops came out of their +shells. Cardinal Manning had more than once written most urgently to the +Irish prelates the moment the decree was known, that Parnell could not be +upheld in London, and that no political expediency could outweigh the +moral sense. He knew well enough that the bishops in (M158) Ireland were +in a very difficult strait, but insisted "that plain and prompt speech was +safest." It was now a case, he said to Mr. Gladstone (November 29), of +_res ad triarios_, and it was time for the Irish clergy to speak out from +the housetops. He had also written to Rome. "Did I not tell you," said Mr. +Gladstone when he gave me this letter to read, "that the Pope would now +have one of the ten commandments on his side?" "We have been slow to act," +Dr. Walsh telegraphed to one of the Irish members (November 30), "trusting +that the party will act manfully. Our considerate silence and reserve are +being dishonestly misinterpreted." "All sorry for Parnell," telegraphed +Dr. Croke, the Archbishop of Cashel--a manly and patriotic Irishman if ever +one was--"but still, in God's name, let him retire quietly and with good +grace from the leadership. If he does so, the Irish party will be kept +together, the honourable alliance with Gladstonian liberals maintained, +success at general election secured, home rule certain. If he does not +retire, alliance will be dissolved, election lost, Irish party seriously +damaged if not wholly broken up, home rule indefinitely postponed, +coercion perpetuated, evicted tenants hopelessly crushed, and the public +conscience outraged. Manifesto flat and otherwise discreditable." This was +emphatic enough, but many of the flock had already committed themselves +before the pastors spoke. To Dr. Croke, Mr. Gladstone wrote (Dec. 2): "We +in England seem to have done our part within our lines, and what remains +is for Ireland itself. I am as unwilling as Mr. Parnell himself could be, +to offer an interference from without, for no one stands more stoutly than +I do for the independence of the Irish national party as well as for its +unity." + +A couple of days later (Dec. 2) a division was taken in Room Fifteen upon +a motion made in Mr. Parnell's interest, to postpone the discussion until +they could ascertain the views of their constituents, and then meet in +Dublin. It was past midnight. The large room, dimly lighted by a few lamps +and candles placed upon the horse-shoe tables, was more than half in +shadow. Mr. Parnell, his features barely discernible in the gloom, held a +printed list of the party in his hand, and he put the question in cold, +unmoved tones. The numbers were 29 for the motion--that is to say, for him, +and 44 against him. Of the majority, many had been put on their trial with +him in 1880; had passed months in prison with him under the first Coercion +Act and suffered many imprisonments besides; they had faced storm, +obloquy, and hatred with him in the House of Commons, a place where +obloquy stings through tougher than Hibernian skins; they had undergone +with him the long ordeal of the three judges; they had stood by his side +with unswerving fidelity from the moment when his band was first founded +for its mortal struggle down to to-day, when they saw the fruits of the +struggle flung recklessly away, and the policy that had given to it all +its reason and its only hope, wantonly brought to utter foolishness by a +suicidal demonstration that no English party and no English leader could +ever be trusted. If we think of even the least imaginative of them as +haunted by such memories of the past, such distracting fears for the +future, it was little wonder that when they saw Mr. Parnell slowly casting +up the figures, and heard his voice through the sombre room announcing the +ominous result, they all sat, both ayes and noes, in profound and painful +stillness. Not a sound was heard, until the chairman rose and said without +an accent of emotion that it would now be well for them to adjourn until +the next day. + +This was only the beginning. Though the ultimate decision of the party was +quite certain, every device of strategy and tactics was meanwhile +resolutely employed to avert it. His supple and trenchant blade was still +in the hands of a consummate swordsman. It is not necessary to +recapitulate all the moves in Mr. Parnell's grand manoeuvre for turning the +eyes of Ireland away from the question of leadership to the question of +liberal good faith and the details of home rule. Mr. Gladstone finally +announced that only after the question of leadership had been disposed +of--one belonging entirely to the competence of the Irish party--could he +renew former relations, and once more enter into confidential +communications with any of them. There was only one guarantee, he said, +that could be of any (M159) value to Ireland, namely the assured and +unalterable fact that no English leader and no party could ever dream of +either proposing or carrying any scheme of home rule which had not the +full support of Irish representatives. This was obvious to all the world. +Mr. Parnell knew it well enough, and the members knew it, but the members +were bound to convince their countrymen that they had exhausted compliance +with every hint from their falling leader, while Mr. Parnell's only object +was to gain time, to confuse issues, and to carry the battle over from +Westminster to the more buoyant and dangerously charged atmosphere of +Ireland. + +The majority resisted as long as they could the evidence that Mr. Parnell +was audaciously trifling with them and openly abusing his position as +chairman. On the evening of Friday (December 5) Mr. Sexton and Mr. Healy +went to Mr. Parnell after the last communication from Mr. Gladstone. They +urged him to bend to the plain necessities of the case. He replied that he +would take the night to consider. The next morning (December 6) they +returned to him. He informed them that his responsibility to Ireland would +not allow him to retire. They warned him that the majority would not +endure further obstruction beyond that day, and would withdraw. As they +left, Mr. Parnell wished to shake hands, "if it is to be the last time." +They all shook hands, and then went once more to the field of action. + +It was not until after some twelve days of this excitement and stress that +the scene approached such disorder as has often before and since been +known in the House of Commons. The tension at last had begun to tell upon +the impassive bronze of Mr. Parnell himself. He no longer made any +pretence of the neutrality of the chair. He broke in upon one speaker more +than forty times. In a flash of rage he snatched a paper from another +speaker's hand. The hours wore away, confusion only became worse +confounded, and the conclusion on both sides was foregone. Mr. McCarthy at +last rose, and in a few moderate sentences expressed his opinion that +there was no use in continuing a discussion that must be barren of +anything but reproach, bitterness, and indignity, and he would therefore +suggest that those who were of the same mind should withdraw. Then he +moved from the table, and his forty-four colleagues stood up and silently +followed him out of the room. In silence they were watched by the minority +who remained, in number twenty-six.(278) + + + +VII + + +A vacancy at Bassetlaw gave Mr. Gladstone an opportunity of describing the +grounds on which he had acted. His speech was measured and weighty, but +the result showed the effect of the disaster. The tide, that a few weeks +before had been running so steadily, now turned. The unionist vote +remained almost the same as in 1885; the liberal vote showed a falling off +of over 400 and the unionist majority was increased from 295 to 728. + +About this time having to go to Ireland, on my way back I stopped at +Hawarden, and the following note gives a glimpse of Mr. Gladstone at this +evil moment (Dec. 17):-- + + + I found him in his old corner in the "temple of peace." He was + only half recovered from a bad cold, and looked in his worsted + jacket, and dark tippet over his shoulders, and with his white, + deep-furrowed face, like some strange Ancient of Days: so + different from the man whom I had seen off at King's Cross less + than a week before. He was cordial as always, but evidently in + some perturbation. I sat down and told him what I had heard from + different quarters about the approaching Kilkenny election. I + mentioned X. as a Parnellite authority. "What," he flamed up with + passionate vehemence, "X. a Parnellite! Are they mad, then? Are + they clean demented?" etc. etc. + + I gave him my general impression as to the future. The bare idea + that Parnell might find no inconsiderable following came upon him + as if it had been a thunder-clap. He listened, and catechised, and + knit his brow. + + _Mr. G._--What do you think we should do in case (1) of a divided + Ireland, (2) of a Parnellite Ireland? + + _J. M._--It is too soon to settle what to think. But, looking to + Irish interests, I think a Parnellite Ireland infinitely better + than a divided Ireland. Anything better than an Ireland divided, + so far as she is concerned. + + _Mr. G._--Bassetlaw looks as if we were going back to 1886. For me + that is notice to quit. Another five years' agitation at my age + would be impossible--_ludicrous_ (with much emphasis). + + _J. M._--I cannot profess to be surprised that in face of these + precious dissensions men should have misgivings, or that even + those who were with us, should now make up their minds to wait a + little. + + I said what there was to be said for Parnell's point of view; + that, in his words to me of Nov. 25, he "must look to the future"; + that he was only five and forty; that he might well fear that + factions would spring up in Ireland if he were to go; that he + might have made up his mind, that whether he went or stayed, we + should lose the general election when it came. The last notion + seemed quite outrageous to Mr. G., and he could not suppose that + it had ever entered Parnell's head. + + _Mr. G._--You have no regrets at the course we took? + + _J. M._--None--none. It was inevitable. I have never doubted. That + does not prevent lamentation that it was inevitable. It is the old + story. English interference is always at the root of mischief in + Ireland. But how could we help what we did? We had a right to + count on Parnell's sanity and his sincerity.... + + Mr. G. then got up and fished out of a drawer the memorandum of + his talk with Parnell at Hawarden on Dec. 18, 1889, and also a + memorandum written for his own use on the general political + position at the time of the divorce trial. The former contained + not a word as to the constabulary, and in other matters only put a + number of points, alternative courses, etc., without a single + final or definite decision. While he was fishing in his drawer, he + said, as if speaking to himself, "It looks as if I should get my + release even sooner than I had expected." + + "That," I said, "is a momentous matter which will need immense + deliberation." So it will, indeed. + + _Mr. G._--Do you recall anything in history like the present + distracted scenes in Ireland? + + _J. M._--Florence, Pisa, or some other Italian city, with the + French or the Emperor at the gates? + + _Mr. G._--I'll tell you what is the only thing that I can think of + as at all like it. Do you remember how it was at the siege of + Jerusalem--the internecine fury of the Jewish factions, the + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}, and the rest--while Titus and the legions were marching on + the city! + + We went in to luncheon. Something was said of our friend ----, and + the new found malady, Renault's disease. + + _J. M._--Joseph de Maistre says that in the innocent primitive ages + men died of diseases without names. + + _Mr. G._--Homer never mentions diseases at all. + + _J. M._--Not many of them die a natural death in Homer. + + _Mr. G._--Do you not recollect where Odysseus meets his mother + among the shades, and she says:-- + + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} ... + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER OMICRON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PERISPOMENI~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH OXIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}.(279) + + _J. M._--Beautiful lines. {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} such a tender word, and it is + untranslatable. + + _Mr. G._--Oh, _desiderium_. + + "Quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus + Tam cari capitis."(280) + + _J. M._--The Scotch word "_wearying_" for somebody. And + _Sehnsucht_. + + Then Mr. G. went off to his library to hunt up the reference, and + when I followed him, I found the worn old _Odyssey_ open at the + passage in the eleventh book. As he left the room, he looked at me + and said, "Ah, this is very different stuff for talking about, + from all the wretched work we were speaking of just now. Homer's + fellows would have cut a very different figure, and made short + work in that committee room last week!" We had a few more words on + politics.... So I bade him good-bye.... #/ + + +(M160) In view of the horrors of dissension in Ireland, well-meaning +attempts were made at the beginning of the year to bring about an +understanding. The Irish members, returning from America where the schism +at home had quenched all enthusiasm and killed their operations, made +their way to Boulogne, for the two most important among them were liable +to instant arrest if they were found in the United Kingdom. They thought +that Mr. Parnell was really desirous to withdraw on such terms as would +save his self-respect, and if he could plead hereafter that before giving +way he had secured a genuine scheme of home rule. Some suspicion may well +have arisen in their minds when a strange suggestion came from Mr. Parnell +that the liberal leaders should enter into a secret engagement about +constabulary and the other points. He had hardly given such happy evidence +of his measure of the sanctity of political confidences, as to encourage +further experiments. The proposal was absurd on the face of it. These +suspicions soon became certainties, and the Boulogne negotiations came to +an end. I should conjecture that those days made the severest ordeal +through which Mr. Gladstone, with his extreme sensibility and his +abhorrence of personal contention, ever passed. Yet his facility and +versatility of mood was unimpaired, as a casual note or two of mine may +show:-- + + + ... Mr. G.'s confabulation [with an Irish member] proved to have + been sought for the purpose of warning him that Parnell was about + to issue a manifesto in which he would make all manner of + mischief. Mr. G. and I had a few moments in the room at the back + of the chair; he seemed considerably perturbed, pale, and + concentrated. We walked into the House together; he picked up the + points of the matter in hand (a motion for appropriating all the + time) and made one of the gayest, brightest, and most delightful + speeches in the world--the whole House enjoying it consumedly. Who + else could perform these magic transitions? + + ------------------------------------- + + Mr. G. came into the House, looking rather anxious; gave us an + account of his interview with the Irish deputation; and in the + midst of it got up to say his few sentences of condolence with the + Speaker on the death of Mrs. Peel--the closing phrases admirably + chosen, and the tones of his voice grave, sincere, sonorous, and + compassionate. When he sat down, he resumed his talk with H. and + me. He was so touched, he said, by those "poor wretches" on the + deputation, that he would fain, if he could, make some + announcement that would ease their unlucky position. + + [A question of a letter in reply to some application prompted by + Mr. Parnell. Mr. Gladstone asked two of us to try our hands at a + draft.] At last we got it ready for him and presently we went to + his room. It was now six o'clock. Mr. G. read aloud in full deep + voice the letter he had prepared on the base of our short draft. + We suggested this and that, and generally argued about phrases for + an hour, winding up with a terrific battle on two prodigious + points: (1) whether he ought to say, "after this statement of my + views," or "I have now fully stated my views on the points you + raise"; (2) "You will _doubtless_ concur," or "_probably_ concur." + Most characteristic, most amazing. It was past seven before the + veteran would let go--and then I must say that he looked his full + years. Think what his day had been, in mere intellectual strain, + apart from what strains him far more than that--his strife with + persons and his compassion for the unlucky Irishmen. I heard + afterwards that when he got home, he was for once in his life done + up, and on the following morning he lay in bed. All the same, in + the evening he went to see _Antony and Cleopatra_, and he had a + little ovation. As he drove away the crowd cheered him with cries + of "Bravo, don't you mind Parnell!" Plenty of race feeling left, + in spite of union of hearts! + + +No leader ever set a finer example under reverse than did Mr. Gladstone +during these tedious and desperate proceedings. He was steadfastly loyal, +considerate, and sympathetic towards the Irishmen who had trusted him; his +firm patience was not for a moment worn out; in vain a boisterous wave now +and again beat upon him from one quarter or another. Not for a moment was +he shaken; even under these starless skies his faith never drooped. "The +public mischief," he wrote to Lord Acton (Dec. 27, 1890), "ought to put +out of view every private thought. But the blow to me is very heavy--the +heaviest I ever have received. It is a great and high call to work by +faith and not by sight." + +Occasion had already offered for testing the feeling of Ireland. There was +a vacancy in the representation of Kilkenny, and the Parnellite candidate +had been defeated. + + + _To J. Morley._ + + _Hawarden, Dec. 23, 1890._--Since your letter arrived this morning, + the Kilkenny poll has brightened the sky. It will have a great + effect in Ireland, although it is said not to be a representative + constituency, but one too much for us. It is a great gain; and yet + sad enough to think that even here one-third of the voters should + be either rogues or fools. I suppose the ballot has largely + contributed to save Kilkenny. It will be most interesting to learn + how the tories voted. + + I return your enclosure.... I have ventured, without asking your + leave, on keeping a copy of a part. Only in one proposition do I + differ from you. I would rather see Ireland disunited than see it + Parnellite. + + I think that as the atmosphere is quiet for the moment we had + better give ourselves the benefit of a little further time for + reflection. Personally, I am hard hit. My course of life was + daring enough as matters stood six weeks ago. How it will shape in + the new situation I cannot tell. But this is the selfish part. + Turning for a moment to the larger outlook, I am extremely + indisposed to any harking back in the matter of home rule; we are + now, I think, freed from the enormous danger of seeing P. master + in Ireland; division and its consequences in diminishing force, + are the worst we have to fear. What my mind leans to in a way + still vague is to rally ourselves by some affirmative legislation + taken up by and on behalf of the party. Something of this kind + would be the best source to look to for reparative strength. + + _To Lord Acton._ + + _Jan. 9, 1891._--To a greybeard in a hard winter the very name of + the south is musical, and the kind letters from you and Lord + Hampden make it harmony as well as melody. But I have been and am + chained to the spot by this Parnell business, and every day have + to consider in one shape or other what ought to be said by myself + or others.... I consider the Parnell chapter of politics finally + closed for us, the British liberals, at least during my time. He + has been even worse since the divorce court than he was in it. The + most astounding revelation of my lifetime. + + ------------------------------------- + + _To J. Morley._ + + _Hawarden, Dec. 30, 1890._--I must not longer delay thanking you + for your most kind and much valued letter on my birthday--a + birthday more formidable than usual, on account of the recent + disasters, which, however, may all come to good. If I am able to + effect in the world anything useful, be assured I know how much of + it is owed to the counsel and consort of my friends. + + It is not indeed the common lot of man to make serious additions + to the friendships which so greatly help us in this pilgrimage, + after seventy-six years old; but I rejoice to think that in your + case it has been accomplished for me. + + + +VIII + + +A few more sentences will end this chapter in Mr. Gladstone's life. As we +have seen, an election took place in the closing days of December 1890. +Mr. Parnell flung himself into the contest with frantic activity. A fierce +conflict ended in the defeat of his candidate by nearly two to one.(281) +Three months later a contest occurred in Sligo. Here again, though he had +strained every nerve in the interval as well as in the immediate struggle, +his candidate was beaten.(282) Another three months, then a third election +at Carlow,--with the same result, the rejection of Mr. Parnell's man by a +majority of much more than two to one.(283) It was in vain that his +adherents denounced those who had left him as mutineers and helots, and +exalted him as "truer than Tone, abler than Grattan, greater than +O'Connell, full of love for Ireland as Thomas Davis himself." On the other +side, he encountered antagonism in every key, from pathetic remonstrance +or earnest reprobation, down to an unsparing fury that savoured (M161) of +the ruthless factions of the Seine. In America almost every name of +consideration was hostile. + +Yet undaunted by repulse upon repulse, he tore over from England to +Ireland and back again, week after week and month after month, hoarse and +haggard, seamed by sombre passions, waving the shreds of a tattered flag. +Ireland must have been a hell on earth to him. To those Englishmen who +could not forget that they had for so long been his fellow-workers, though +they were now the mark of his attack, these were dark and desolating days. +No more lamentable chapter is to be found in all the demented scroll of +aimless and untoward things, that seem as if they made up the history of +Ireland. It was not for very long. The last speech that Mr. Parnell ever +made in England was at Newcastle-on-Tyne in July 1891, when he told the +old story about the liberal leaders, of whom he said that there was but +one whom he trusted. A few weeks later, not much more than ten months +after the miserable act had opened, the Veiled Shadow stole upon the +scene, and the world learned that Parnell was no more.(284) + + + + +Chapter VI. Biarritz. (1891-1892) + + + Omnium autem ineptiarum, quae sunt innumerabiles, haud sciam an + nulla sit major, quam, ut illi solent, quocunque in loco, + quoscunque inter homines visum est, de rebus aut difficillimis aut + non necessariis argutissime disputare.--CICERO. + + Of all the numberless sorts of bad taste and want of tact, perhaps + the worst is to insist, no matter where you are or with whom you + are, on arguing about the hardest subjects to the full pitch of + elaboration and detail. + + + +I + + +We have seen how in 1889 Mr. and Mrs. Gladstone celebrated the fiftieth +anniversary of one of the most devoted and successful marriages that ever +was made, and the unbroken felicity of their home. In 1891, after the +shadows of approaching calamity had for many months hung doubtfully over +them, a heavy blow fell, and their eldest son died. Not deeply concerned +in ordinary politics, he was a man of many virtues and some admirable +gifts; he was an accomplished musician, and I have seen letters of his to +his father, marked by a rare delicacy of feeling and true power of +expression. "I had known him for nearly thirty years," one friend wrote, +"and there was no man, until his long illness, who had changed so little, +or retained so long the best qualities of youth, and my first thought was +that the greater the loss to you, the greater would be the consolation." + +To Archbishop Benson, Mr. Gladstone wrote (July 6):-- + + + It is now forty-six years since we lost a child,(285) and he who + has now passed away from our eyes, leaves to us only blessed + recollections. I suppose all feel that those deaths which reverse + the order of nature have a sharpness of their own. But setting + this apart, there is nothing lacking to us in consolations human + or divine. I can only wish that I may become less unworthy to have + been his father. + + +To me he wrote (July 10):-- + + + We feel deeply the kindness and tenderness of your letter. It + supplies one more link in a long chain of recollection which I + deeply prize. Yes, ours is a tribulation, and a sore one, but yet + we feel we ought to find ourselves carried out of ourselves by + sympathy with the wife whose noble and absorbing devotion had + become like an entire life of itself, and who is now face to face + with the void. The grief of children too, which passes, is very + sharp while it remains. The case has been very remarkable. Though + with abatement of some powers, my son has not been without many + among the signs and comforts of health during a period of nearly + two and a half years. All this time the terrible enemy was lodged + in the royal seat, and only his healthy and unyielding + constitution kept it at defiance, and maintained his mental and + inward life intact.... And most largely has human, as well as + divine compassion, flowed in upon us, from none more conspicuously + than from yourself, whom we hope to count among near friends for + the short remainder of our lives. + + +To another correspondent who did not share his own religious beliefs, he +said (July 5):-- + + + When I received your last kind note, I fully intended to write to + you with freedom on the subject of _The Agnostic Island_. But + since then I have been at close quarters, so to speak, with the + dispensations of God, for yesterday morning my dearly beloved + eldest son was taken from the sight of our eyes. At this moment of + bleeding hearts, I will only say what I hope you will in + consideration of the motives take without offence, namely this: I + would from the bottom of my heart that whenever the hour of + bereavement shall befall you or those whom you love, you and they + may enjoy the immeasurable consolation of believing, with all the + mind and all the heart, that the beloved one is gone into eternal + rest, and that those who remain behind may through the same mighty + Deliverer hope at their appointed time to rejoin him. + + All this language on the great occasions of human life was not + with him the tone of convention. Whatever the synthesis, as they + call it,--whatever the form, whatever the creed and faith may be, + he was one of that high and favoured household who, in Emerson's + noble phrase, "live from a great depth of being." + + +Earlier in the year Lord Granville, who so long had been his best friend, +died. The loss by his death was severe. As Acton, who knew of their +relations well and from within, wrote to Mr. Gladstone (April 1):-- + + + There was an admirable fitness in your union, and I had been able + to watch how it became closer and easier, in spite of so much to + separate you, in mental habits, in early affinities, and even in + the form of fundamental convictions, since he came home from your + budget, overwhelmed, thirty-eight years ago. I saw all the + connections which had their root in social habit fade before the + one which took its rise from public life and proved more firm and + more enduring than the rest. + + + +II + + +In September he paid a visit to his relatives at Fasque, and thence he +went to Glenalmond--spots that in his tenacious memory must have awakened +hosts of old and dear associations. On October 1, he found himself after a +long and busy day, at Newcastle-on-Tyne, where he had never stayed since +his too memorable visit in 1862.(286) Since the defeat of the Irish policy +in 1886, he had attended the annual meeting of the chief liberal +organisation at Nottingham (1887), Birmingham (1888), and Manchester +(1889). This year it was the turn of Newcastle. On October 2, he gave his +blessing to various measures that afterwards came to be known as the +Newcastle programme. After the shock caused by the Irish quarrel, every +politician knew that it would be necessary to balance home rule by reforms +expected in England and Scotland. No liberal, whatever his particular +shade, thought that it would be either honourable or practical to throw +the Irish policy overboard, and if there (M162) were any who thought such +a course honourable, they knew it would not be safe. The principle and +expediency of home rule had taken a much deeper root in the party than it +suited some of the trimming tribe later to admit. On the other hand, after +five years of pretty exclusive devotion to the Irish case, to pass by the +British case and its various demands for an indefinite time longer, would +have been absurd. + + + +III + + +In the eighties Mr. Gladstone grew into close friendship with one who had +for many years been his faithful supporter in the House of Commons as +member for Dundee. Nobody ever showed him devotion more considerate, +loyal, and unselfish than did Mr. Armitstead, from about the close of the +parliament of 1880 down to the end of this story.(287) In the middle of +December 1891 Mr. Armitstead planned a foreign trip for his hero, and +persuaded me to join. Biarritz was to be our destination, and the +expedition proved a wonderful success. Some notes of mine, though intended +only for domestic consumption, may help to bring Mr. Gladstone in his +easiest moods before the reader's eye. No new ideas struck fire, no +particular contribution was made to grand themes. But a great statesman on +a holiday may be forgiven for not trying to discover brand-new keys to +philosophy, history, and "all the mythologies." As a sketch from life of +the veteran's buoyancy, vigour, genial freshness of heart and brain, after +four-score strenuous years, these few pages may be found of interest. + + ------------------------------------- + +We left Paris at nine in the morning (Dec. 16), and were listening to the +swell of the mighty Bay resounding under our windows at Biarritz soon +after midnight. + +The long day's journey left no signs of fatigue on either Mr. or Mrs. +Gladstone, and his only regret was that we had not come straight through +instead of staying a night in Paris. I'm always for going straight on, he +said. For some odd reason in spite of the late hour he was full of stories +of American humour, which he told with extraordinary verve and enjoyment. +I contributed one that amused him much, of the Bostonian who, having read +Shakespeare for the first time, observed, "I call that a very clever book. +Now, I don't suppose there are twenty men in Boston to-day who could have +written that book!" + +_Thursday, Dec. 17._--Splendid morning for making acquaintance with a new +place. Saw the western spur of the Pyrenees falling down to the Bidassoa +and the first glimpse of the giant wall, beyond which, according to +Michelet, Africa begins, and our first glimpse of Spain. + +After breakfast we all sallied forth to look into the shops and to see the +lie of the land. Mr. G. as interested as a child in all the objects in the +shops--many of them showing that we are not far from Spain. The consul very +polite, showed us about, and told us the hundred trifles that bring a +place really into one's mind. Nothing is like a first morning's stroll in +a foreign town. By afternoon the spell dissolves, and the mood comes of +Dante's lines, "_Era gia l'ora_," etc.(288) + +Some mention was made of Charles Austin, the famous lawyer: it brought up +the case of men who are suddenly torn from lives of great activity to +complete idleness. + +_Mr. G._--I don't know how to reconcile it with what I've always regarded +as the foundation of character--Bishop Butler's view of habit. How comes it +that during the hundreds of years in which priests and fellows of Eton +College have retired from hard work to college livings and leisure, not +one of them has ever done anything whatever for either scholarship or +divinity--not one? + +Mr. G. did not know Mazzini, but Armellini, another of the Roman +triumvirs, taught him Italian in 1832. (M163) I spoke a word for Gambetta, +but he would not have it. "Gambetta was _autoritaire_; I do not feel as if +he were a true liberal in the old and best sense. I cannot forget how +hostile he was to the movement for freedom in the Balkans." + +Said he only once saw Lord Liverpool. He went to call on Canning at +Glos'ter House (close to our Glos'ter Road Station), and there through a +glass door he saw Canning and Lord Liverpool talking together. + +_Peel._--Had a good deal of temper; not hot; but perhaps sulky. Not a +farsighted man, but fairly clear-sighted. "I called upon him after the +election in 1847. The Janissaries, as Bentinck called us, that is the men +who had stood by Peel, had been 110 before the election; we came back only +50. Peel said to me that what he looked forward to was a long and fierce +struggle on behalf of protection. I must say I thought this foolish. If +Bentinck had lived, with his strong will and dogged industry, there might +have been a wide rally for protection, but everybody knew that Dizzy did +not care a straw about it, and Derby had not constancy and force enough." + +Mr. G. said Disraeli's performances against Peel were quite as wonderful +as report makes them. Peel altogether helpless in reply. Dealt with them +with a kind of "righteous dulness." The Protectionist secession due to +three men: Derby contributed prestige; Bentinck backbone; and Dizzy +parliamentary brains. + +The golden age of administrative reform was from 1832 to the Crimean War; +Peel was always keenly interested in the progress of these reforms. + +_Northcote._--"He was my private secretary; and one of the very best +imaginable; pliant, ready, diligent, quick, acute, with plenty of humour, +and a temper simply perfect. But as a leader, I think ill of him; you had +a conversation; he saw the reason of your case; and when he left, you +supposed all was right. But at the second interview, you always found that +he had been unable to persuade his friends. What could be weaker than his +conduct on the Bradlaugh affair! You could not wonder that the rank and +file of his men should be caught by the proposition that an atheist ought +not to sit in parliament. But what is a leader good for, if he dare not +tell his party that in a matter like this they are wrong, and of course +nobody knew better than N. that they were wrong. A clever, quick man with +fine temper. By the way, how is it that we have no word, no respectable +word, for backbone?" + +_J. M._--Character? + +_Mr. G._--Well, character; yes; but that's vague. It means will, I suppose. +(I ought to have thought of Novalis's well-known definition of character +as "a completely fashioned will.") + +_J. M._--Our inferiority to the Greeks in discriminations of language shown +by our lack of precise equivalents for {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}, etc., +of which we used to hear so much when coached in the _Ethics_. + +Mr. G. went on to argue that because the Greeks drew these fine +distinctions in words, they were superior in conduct. "You cannot beat the +Greeks in noble qualities." + +_Mr. G._--I admit there is no Greek word of good credit for the virtue of +humility. + +_J. M._--{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~}? But that has an association of meanness. + +_Mr. G._--Yes; a shabby sort of humility. Humility as a sovereign grace is +the creation of Christianity. + +_Friday, December 18._--Brilliant sunshine, but bitterly cold; an east wind +blowing straight from the Maritime Alps. Walking, reading, talking. Mr. G. +after breakfast took me into his room, where he is reading Heine, Butcher +on Greek genius, and Marbot. Thought Thiers's well-known remark on Heine's +death capital,--"To-day the wittiest Frenchman alive has died." + +_Mr. G._--We have talked about the best line in poetry, etc. How do you +answer this question--Which century of English history produced the +greatest men? + +_J. M._--What do you say to the sixteenth? + +_Mr. G._--Yes, I think so. Gardiner was a great man. Henry VIII. was great. +But bad. Poor Cranmer. Like Northcote, he'd no backbone. Do you remember +Jeremy Collier's sentence about his bravery at the stake, which (M164) I +count one of the grandest in English prose--"He seemed to repel the force +of the fire and to overlook the torture, by strength of thought."(289) +Thucydides could not beat that. + +The old man twice declaimed the sentence with deep sonorous voice, and his +usual incomparable modulation. + +Mr. G. talked of a certain General ----. He was thought to be a first-rate +man; neglected nothing, looked to things himself, conceived admirable +plans, and at last got an important command. Then to the universal +surprise, nothing came of it; ---- they said, "could do everything that a +commander should do, except say, _Quick march_." There are plenty of +politicians of that stamp, but Mr. G. decidedly not one of them. I +mentioned a farewell dinner given to ---- in the spring, by some rich man or +other. It cost L560 for forty-eight guests! Flowers alone L150. Mr. G. on +this enormity, recalled a dinner to Talfourd about copyright at the old +Clarendon Hotel in Bond Street, and the price was L2, 17s. 6d. a head. The +old East India Company used to give dinners at a cost of seven guineas a +head. He has a wonderfully lively interest for these matters, and his +curiosity as to the prices of things in the shop-windows is inexhaustible. +We got round to Goethe. Goethe, he said, never gave prominence to duty. + +_J. M._--Surely, surely in that fine psalm of life, _Das Goettliche_? + +_Mr. G._--Doellinger used to confront me with the _Iphigenie_ as a great +drama of duty. + +He wished that I had known Doellinger--"a man thoroughly from beginning to +end of his life _purged of self_." Mistook the nature of the Irish +questions, from the erroneous view that Irish Catholicism is ultramontane, +which it certainly is not. + +_Saturday, Dec. 19._-- + +What is extraordinary is that all Mr. G.'s versatility, buoyancy, and the +rest goes with the most profound accuracy and intense concentration when +any point of public business is raised. Something was said of the salaries +of bishops. He was ready in an instant with every figure and detail, and +every circumstance of the history of the foundation of the Ecclesiastical +Commission in 1835-6. Then his _savoir faire_ and wisdom of parliamentary +conduct. "I always made it a rule in the H. of C. to allow nobody to +suppose that I did not like him, and to say as little as I could to +prevent anybody from liking me. Considering the intense friction and +contention of public life, it is a saving of wear and tear that as many as +possible even among opponents should think well of one." + +_Sunday, Dec. 20._--At table, a little discussion as to the happiness and +misery of animal creation. Outside of man Mr. G. argued against Tennyson's +description of Nature as red in tooth and claw. Apart from man, he said, +and the action of man, sentient beings are happy and not miserable. But +Fear? we said. No; they are unaware of impending doom; when hawk or kite +pounces on its prey, the small bird has little or no apprehension; 'tis +death, but death by appointed and unforeseen lot. + +_J. M._--There is Hunger. Is not the probability that most creatures are +always hungry, not excepting Man? + +To this he rather assented. Of course optimism like this is indispensable +as the basis of natural theology. + +Talked to Mr. G. about Michelet's Tableau de la France, which I had just +finished in vol. 2 of the history. A brilliant tour de force, but strains +the relations of soil to character; compels words and facts to be the +slaves of his phantasy; the modicum of reality overlaid with violent +paradox and foregone conclusion. Mr. G. not very much interested--seems +only to care for political and church history. + +_Monday, Dec. 31._--Mr. G. did not appear at table to-day, suffering from a +surfeit of wild strawberries the day before. But he dined in his dressing +gown, and I had some chat with him in his room after lunch. + +_Mr. G._--"'Tis a hard law of political things that if a man shows special +competence in a department, that is the very thing most likely to keep him +there, and prevent his promotion." + +(M165) _Mr. G._--I consider Burke a tripartite man: America, France, +Ireland--right as to two, wrong in one. + +_J. M._--Must you not add home affairs and India? His _Thoughts on the +Discontents_ is a masterpiece of civil wisdom, and the right defence in a +great constitutional struggle. Then he gave fourteen years of industry to +Warren Hastings, and teaching England the rights of the natives, princes +and people, and her own duties. So he was right in four out of five. + +_Mr. G._--Yes, yes--quite true. Those two ought to be added to my three. +There is a saying of Burke's from which I must utterly dissent. "Property +is sluggish and inert." Quite the contrary. Property is vigilant, active, +sleepless; if ever it seems to slumber, be sure that one eye is open. + +_Marie Antoinette._ I once read the three volumes of letters from Mercy +d'Argenteau to Maria Theresa. He seems to have performed the duty imposed +upon him with fidelity. + +_J. M._--Don't you think the Empress comes out well in the correspondence? + +_Mr. G._--Yes, she shows always judgment and sagacity. + +_J. M._--Ah, but besides sagacity, worth and as much integrity as those +slippery times allowed. + +_Mr. G._--Yes (but rather reluctantly, I thought). As for Marie Antoinette, +she was not a striking character in any senses she was horribly frivolous; +and, I suppose, we must say she was, what shall I call it--a very +considerable flirt? + +_J. M._--The only case with real foundation seems to be that of the _beau +Fersen_, the Swedish secretary. He too came to as tragic an end as the +Queen. + +_Tuesday, Dec. 22._--Mr. G. still somewhat indisposed--but reading away all +day long. Full of Marbot. Delighted with the story of the battle of +Castiglione: how when Napoleon held a council of war, and they all said +they were hemmed in, and that their only chance was to back out, Augereau +roughly cried that they might all do what they liked, but he would attack +the enemy cost what it might. "Exactly like a place in the _Iliad_; when +Agamemnon and the rest sit sorrowful in the assembly arguing that it was +useless to withstand the sovereign will of Zeus, and that they had better +flee into their ships, Diomed bursts out that whatever others think, in +any event he and Sthenelus, his squire, will hold firm, and never desist +from the onslaught until they have laid waste the walls of Troy."(290) A +large dose of Diomed in Mr. G. himself. + +Talk about the dangerous isolation in which the monarchy will find itself +in England if the hereditary principle goes down in the House of Lords; +"it will stand bare, naked, with no shelter or shield, only endured as the +better of two evils." "I once asked," he said, "who besides myself in the +party cares for the hereditary principle? The answer was, That perhaps ---- +cared for it!!"--naming a member of the party supposed to be rather sapient +than sage. + +News in the paper that the Comte de Paris in his discouragement was about +to renounce his claims, and break up his party. Somehow this brought us +round to Tocqueville, of whom Mr. G. spoke as the nearest French approach +to Burke. + +_J. M._--But pale and without passion. Who was it that said of him that he +was an aristocrat who accepted his defeat? That is, he knew democracy to +be the conqueror, but he doubted how far it would be an improvement, he +saw its perils, etc. + +_Mr. G._--I have not much faith in these estimates, whether in favour of +progress or against it. I don't believe in comparisons of age with age. +How can a man strike a balance between one government and another? How can +he place himself in such an attitude, and with such comprehensive sureness +of vision, as to say that the thirteenth century was better or higher or +worse or lower than the nineteenth? + +_Thursday, Dec. 24._--At lunch we had the news of the Parnellite victory at +Waterford. A disagreeable reverse for us. Mr. G. did not say many words +about it, only that it would give heart to the mischief makers--only too +certain. But we said no more about it. He and I took a walk on the sands +in the afternoon, and had a curious talk (considering), about the +prospects of the church of England. He was (M166) anxious to know about my +talk some time ago with the Bishop of ---- whom I had met at a feast at +Lincoln's Inn. I gave him as good an account as I could of what had +passed. Mr. G. doubted that this prelate was fundamentally an Erastian, as +Tait was. Mr. G. is eager to read the signs of the times as to the +prospects of Anglican Christianity, to which his heart is given; and he +fears the peril of Erastianism to the spiritual life of the church, which +is naturally the only thing worth caring about. Hence, he talked with much +interest of the question whether the clever fellows at Oxford and +Cambridge now take orders. He wants to know what kind of defenders his +church is likely to have in days to come. Said that for the first time +interest has moved away both from politics and theology, towards the vague +something which they call social reform; and he thinks they won't make +much out of that in the way of permanent results. The establishment he +considers safer than it has been for a long time. + +As to Welsh disestablishment, he said it was a pity that where the +national sentiment was so unanimous as it was in Wales, the operation +itself should not be as simple as in Scotland. In Scotland sentiment is +not unanimous, but the operation is easy. In Wales sentiment is all one +way, but the operation difficult--a good deal more difficult than people +suppose, as they will find out when they come to tackle it. + +[Perhaps it may be mentioned here that, though we always talked freely and +abundantly together upon ecclesiastical affairs and persons, we never once +exchanged a word upon theology or religious creed, either at Biarritz or +anywhere else.] + +_Pitt._--A strong denunciation of Pitt for the French war. People don't +realise what the French war meant. In 1812 wheat at Liverpool was 20s. (?) +the imperial bushel of 65 pounds (?)! Think of that, when you bring it +into figures of the cost of a loaf. And that was the time when Eaton, +Eastnor, and other great palaces were built by the landlords out of the +high rents which the war and war prices enabled them to exact. + +Wished we knew more of Melbourne. He was in many ways a very fine fellow. +"In two of the most important of all the relations of a prime minister, he +was perfect; I mean first, his relations to the Queen, second to his +colleagues." + +Somebody at dinner quoted a capital description of the perverse fashion of +talking that prevailed at Oxford soon after my time, and prevails there +now, I fancy--"hunting for epigrammatic ways of saying what you don't +think." ---- was the father of this pestilent mode. + +Rather puzzled him by repeating a saying of mine that used to amuse +Fitzjames Stephen, that Love of Truth is more often than we think only a +fine name for Temper. I think Mr. G. has a thorough dislike for anything +that has a cynical or sardonic flavour about it. I wish I had thought, by +the way, of asking him what he had to say of that piece of Swift's, about +all objects being insipid that do not come by delusion, and everything +being shrunken as it appears in the glass of nature, so that if it were +not for artificial mediums, refracted angles, false lights, varnish and +tinsel, there would be pretty much of a level in the felicity of mortal +man. + +Am always feeling how strong is his aversion to seeing more than he can +help of what is sordid, mean, ignoble. He has not been in public life all +these years without rubbing shoulders with plenty of baseness on every +scale, and plenty of pettiness in every hue, but he has always kept his +eyes well above it. Never was a man more wholly free of the starch of the +censor, more ready to make allowance, nor more indulgent even; he enters +into human nature in all its compass. But he won't linger a minute longer +than he must in the dingy places of life and character. + +_Christmas Day, 1891._--A divine day, brilliant sunshine, and mild spring +air. Mr. G. heard what he called an admirable sermon from an English +preacher, "with a great command of his art." A quietish day, Mr. G. no +doubt engaged in {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}. + +_Saturday, Dec. 26._--Once more a noble day. We started in a couple of +carriages for the Negress station, a couple of miles away or more, I with +the G.'s. Occasion produced the Greek epitaph of the nameless drowned +sailor (M167) who wished for others kinder seas.(291) Mr. G. felt its +pathos and its noble charm--so direct and simple, such benignity, such a +good lesson to men to forget their own misdeeds and mischance, and to pray +for the passer-by a happier star. He repaid me by two epigrams of a +different vein, and one admirable translation into Greek, of Tennyson on +Sir John Franklin, which I do not carry in my mind; another on a +boisterous Eton fellow-- + + + Didactic, dry, declamatory, dull, + The bursar ---- bellows like a bull. + + +Just in the tone of Greek epigram, a sort of point, but not too much +point. + +_Parliamentary Wit._--Thought Disraeli had never been surpassed, nor even +equalled, in this line. He had a contest with General Grey, who stood upon +the general merits of the whig government, after both Lord Grey and +Stanley had left it. D. drew a picture of a circus man who advertised his +show with its incomparable team of six grey horses. One died, he replaced +it by a mule. Another died, and he put in a donkey, still he went on +advertising his team of greys all the same. Canning's wit not to be found +conspicuously in his speeches, but highly agreeable pleasantries, though +many of them in a vein which would jar horribly on modern taste. + +Some English redcoats and a pack of hounds passed us as we neared the +station. They saluted Mr. G. with a politeness that astonished him, but +was pleasant. Took the train for Irun, the fields and mountain slopes +delightful in the sun, and the sea on our right a superb blue such as we +never see in English waters. At Irun we found carriages waiting to take us +on to Fuentarabia. From the balcony of the church had a beautiful view +over the scene of Wellington's operations when he crossed the Bidassoa, in +the presence of the astonished Soult. A lovely picture, made none the +worse by this excellent historic association. The alcalde was extremely +polite and intelligent. The consul who was with us showed a board on the +old tower, in which _v_ in some words was _b_, and I noted that the +alcalde spoke of Viarritz. I reminded Mr. G. of Scaliger's epigram-- + + + Haud temere antiquas mutat Vasconia voces, + Cui nihil est alind vivere quam bibere. + + +Pretty cold driving home, but Mr. G. seemed not to care. He found both the +churches at St. Jean and at Fuentarabia very noteworthy, though the latter +very popish, but both, he felt, "had a certain association with grandeur." + +_Sunday, Dec. 27._--After some quarter of an hour of travellers' topics, we +plunged into one of the most interesting talks we have yet had. _Apropos_ +of I do not know what, Mr. G. said that he had not advised his son to +enter public life. "No doubt there are some men to whom station, wealth, +and family traditions make it a duty. But I have never advised any +individual, as to whom I have been consulted, to enter the H. of C." + +_J. M._--But isn't that rather to encourage self-indulgence? Nobody who +cares for ease or mental composure would seek public life? + +_Mr. G._--Ah, I don't know that. Surely politics open up a great field for +the natural man. Self-seeking, pride, domination, power--all these passions +are gratified in politics. + +_J. M._--You cannot be sure of achievement in politics, whether personal or +public? + +_Mr. G._--No; to use Bacon's pregnant phrase, they are too immersed in +matter. Then as new matter, that is, new details and particulars, come +into view, men change their judgment. + +_J. M._--You have spoken just now of somebody as a thorough good tory. You +know the saying that nobody is worth much who has not been a bit of a +radical in his youth, and a bit of a tory in his fuller age. + +_Mr. G._ (laughing)--Ah, I'm afraid that hits me rather hard. But for +myself, I think I can truly put up all the change that has come into my +politics into a sentence; I (M168) was brought up to distrust and dislike +liberty, I learned to believe in it. That is the key to all my changes. + +_J. M._--According to my observation, the change in my own generation is +different. They have ceased either to trust or to distrust liberty, and +have come to the mind that it matters little either way. Men are +disenchanted. They have got what they wanted in the days of their youth, +yet what of it, they ask? France has thrown off the Empire, but the +statesmen of the republic are not a great breed. Italy has gained her +unity, yet unity has not been followed by thrift, wisdom, or large +increase of public virtue or happiness. America has purged herself of +slavery, yet life in America is material, prosaic,--so say some of her own +rarest sons. Don't think that I say all these things. But I know able and +high-minded men who suffer from this disenchantment. + +_Mr. G._--Italy would have been very different if Cavour had only lived--and +even Ricasoli. Men ought not to suffer from disenchantment. They ought to +know that _ideals in politics are never realised_. And don't let us forget +in eastern Europe the rescue in our time of some ten millions of men from +the harrowing domination of the Turk. (On this he expatiated, and very +justly, with much energy.) + +We turned to our own country. Here he insisted that democracy had +certainly not saved us from a distinct decline in the standard of public +men.... Look at the whole conduct of opposition from '80 to '85--every +principle was flung overboard, if they could manufacture a combination +against the government. For all this deterioration one man and one man +alone is responsible, Disraeli. He is the grand corrupter. He it was who +sowed the seed. + +_J. M._--Ought not Palmerston to bear some share in this? + +_Mr. G._--No, no; Pam. had many strong and liberal convictions. On one +subject Dizzy had them too--the Jews. There he was much more than rational, +he was fanatical. He said once that Providence would deal good or ill +fortune to nations, according as they dealt well or ill by the Jews. I +remember once sitting next to John Russell when D. was making a speech on +Jewish emancipation. "Look at him," said J. R., "how manfully he sticks to +it, tho' he knows that every word he says is gall and wormwood to every +man who sits around him and behind him." A curious irony, was it not, that +it should have fallen to me to propose a motion for a memorial both to +Pam. and Dizzy? + +A superb scene upon the ocean, with a grand wind from the west. Mr. G. and +I walked on the shore; he has a passion for tumultuous seas. I have never +seen such huge masses of water shattering themselves among the rocks. + +In the evening Mr. G. remarked on our debt to Macaulay, for guarding the +purity of the English tongue. I recalled a favourite passage from Milton, +that next to the man who gives wise and intrepid counsels of government, +he places the man who cares for the purity of his mother tongue. Mr. G. +liked this. Said he only knew Bright once slip into an error in this +respect, when he used "transpire" for "happen." Macaulay of good example +also in rigorously abstaining from the inclusion of matter in footnotes. +Hallam an offender in this respect. I pointed out that he offended in +company with Gibbon. + +_Monday, Dec. 28._--We had an animated hour at breakfast. + +_Oxford and Cambridge._--Curious how, like two buckets, whenever one was +up, the other was down. Cambridge has never produced four such men of +action in successive ages as Wolsey, Laud, Wesley, and Newman. + +_J. M._--In the region of thought Cambridge has produced the greatest of +all names, Newton. + +_Mr. G._--In the earlier times Oxford has it--with Wycliff, Occam, above all +Roger Bacon. And then in the eighteenth century, Butler. + +_J. M._--But why not Locke, too, in the century before? + +This brought on a tremendous tussle, for Mr. G. was of the same mind, and +perhaps for the same sort of reason, as Joseph de Maistre, that contempt +for Locke is the beginning of knowledge. All very well for De Maistre, but +not for a man in line with European liberalism. I pressed the very obvious +point that you must take into account not only a man's intellectual +product or his general stature, but also (M169) his influence as a +historic force. From the point of view of influence Locke was the origin +of the emancipatory movement of the eighteenth century abroad, and laid +the philosophic foundations of liberalism in civil government at home. Mr. +G. insisted on a passage of Hume's which he believed to be in the history, +disparaging Locke as a metaphysical thinker.(292) "That may be," said I, +"though Hume in his _Essays_ is not above paying many compliments to 'the +great reasoner,' etc., to whom, for that matter, I fancy that he stood in +pretty direct relation. But far be it from me to deny that Hume saw deeper +than Locke into the metaphysical millstone. That is not the point. I'm +only thinking of his historic place, and, after all, the history of +philosophy is itself a philosophy." To minds nursed in dogmatic schools, +all this is both unpalatable and incredible. + +Somehow we slid into the freedom of the will and Jonathan Edwards. I told +him that Mill had often told us how Edwards argued the necessarian or +determinist case as keenly as any modern. + +_Tuesday, Dec. 29._--Mr. G. 82 to-day. I gave him Mackail's Greek Epigrams, +and if it affords him half as much pleasure as it has given me, he will be +very grateful. Various people brought Mr. G. bouquets and addresses. Mr. +G. went to church in the morning, and in the afternoon took a walk with +me.... _Land Question._ As you go through France you see the soil +cultivated by the population. In our little dash into Spain the other day, +we saw again the soil cultivated by the population. In England it is +cultivated by the capitalist, for the farmer is capitalist. Some +astonishing views recently propounded by D. of Argyll on this matter. +Unearned increment--so terribly difficult to catch it. Perhaps best try to +get at it through the death duties. Physical condition of our +people--always a subject of great anxiety--their stature, colour, and so on. +Feared the atmosphere of cotton factories, etc., very deleterious. As +against bad air, I said, you must set good food; the Lancashire operative +in decent times lives uncommonly well, as he deserves to do. He agreed +there might be something in this. + +The day was humid and muggy, but the tumult of the sea was most majestic. +Mr. G. delighted in it. He has a passion for the sound of the sea; would +like to have it in his ear all day and all night. Again and again he +recurred to this. + +After dinner, long talk about Mazzini, of whom Mr. G. thought poorly in +comparison with Poerio and the others who for freedom sacrificed their +lives. I stood up for Mazzini, as one of the most morally impressive men I +had ever known, or that his age knew; he breathed a soul into democracy. + +Then we fell into a discussion as to the eastern and western churches. He +thought the western popes by their proffered alliance with the mahometans, +etc., had betrayed Christianity in the east. I offered De Maistre's view. + +Mr. G. strongly assented to old Chatham's dictum that vacancy is worse +than even the most anxious work. He has less to reproach himself with than +most men under that head. + +He repeated an observation that I have heard him make before, that he +thought politicians are more _rapid_ than other people. I told him that +Bowen once said to me on this that he did not agree; that he thought +rapidity the mark of all successful men in the practical line of life, +merchants and stockbrokers, etc. + +_Wednesday, Dec. 30._--A very muggy day. A divine sunset, with the +loveliest pink and opal tints in the sky. Mr. G. reading Gleig's +_Subaltern_. Not a very entertaining book in itself, but the incidents +belong to Wellington's Pyrenean campaign, and, for my own part, I rather +enjoyed it on the principle on which one likes reading _Romola_ at +Florence, _Transformation_ at Rome, _Sylvia's Lovers_ at Whitby, and +_Hurrish_ on the northern edge of Clare. + +_Thursday, Dec. 31._--Down to the pier, and found all the party watching +the breakers, and superb they were. Mr. G. exulting in the huge force of +the Atlantic swell and the beat of the rollers on the shore, like a +Titanic pulse. + +After dinner Mr. G. raised the question of payment of members. He had been +asked by somebody whether he meant at Newcastle to indicate that everybody +should be paid, or only those who chose to take it or to ask (M170) for +it. He produced the same extraordinary plan as he had described to me on +the morning of his Newcastle speech--_i.e._ that the Inland Revenue should +ascertain from their own books the income of every M.P., and if they found +any below the limit of exemption, should notify the same to the Speaker, +and the Speaker should thereupon send to the said M.P. below the limit an +annual cheque for, say, L300, the name to appear in an annual return to +Parliament of all the M.P.'s in receipt of public money on any grounds +whatever. I demurred to this altogether, as drawing an invidious +distinction between paid and unpaid members; said it was idle to ignore +the theory on which the demand for paid members is based, namely, that it +is desirable in the public interest that poor men should have access to +the H. of C.; and that the poor man should stand there on the same footing +as anybody else. + +_Friday, Jan. 1, 1892._--After breakfast Mrs. Gladstone came to my room and +said how glad she was that I had not scrupled to put unpleasant points; +that Mr. G. must not be shielded and sheltered as some great people are, +who hear all the pleasant things and none of the unpleasant; that the +perturbation from what is disagreeable only lasts an hour. I said I hoped +that I was faithful with him, but of course I could not be always putting +myself in an attitude of perpetual controversy. She said, "He is never +made angry by what you say." And so she went away, and ---- and I had a good +and most useful set-to about Irish finance. + +At luncheon Mr. G. asked what we had made out of our morning's work. When +we told him he showed a good deal of impatience and vehemence, and, to my +dismay, he came upon union finance and the general subject of the +treatment of Ireland by England.... + +In the afternoon we took a walk, he and I, afterwards joined by the rest. +He was as delighted as ever with the swell of the waves, as they bounded +over one another, with every variety of grace and tumultuous power. He +wondered if we had not more and better words for the sea than the +French--"breaker," "billow," "roller," as against "flot," "vague," "onde," +"lame," etc. + +At dinner he asked me whether I had made up my mind on the burning +question of compulsory Greek for a university degree. I said, No, that as +then advised I was half inclined to be against compulsory Greek, but it is +so important that I would not decide before I was obliged. "So with me," +he said, "the question is one with many subtle and deep-reaching +consequences." He dwelt on the folly of striking Italian out of the course +of modern education, thus cutting European history in two, and setting an +artificial gulf between the ancient and modern worlds. + +_Saturday, Jan. 2._--Superb morning, and all the better for being much +cooler. At breakfast somebody started the idle topic of quill pens. When +they came to the length of time that so-and-so made a quill serve, "De +Retz," said I, "made up his mind that Cardinal Chigi was a poor creature, +_maximus in minimis_, because at their first interview Chigi boasted that +he had used one pen for three years." That recalled another saying of +Retz's about Cromwell's famous dictum, that nobody goes so far as the man +who does not know where he is going. Mr. G. gave his deep and eager Ah! to +this. He could not recall that Cromwell had produced many dicta of such +quality. "I don't love him, but he was a mighty big fellow. But he was +intolerant. He was intolerant of the episcopalians." + +_Mr. G._--Do you know whom I find the most tolerant churchman of that time? +_Laud!_ Laud got Davenant made Bishop of Salisbury, and he zealously +befriended Chillingworth and Hales. (There was some other case, which I +forget.) + +_The execution of Charles._--I told him of Gardiner's new volume which I +had just been reading. "Charles," he said, "was no doubt a dreadful liar; +Cromwell perhaps did not always tell the truth; Elizabeth was a tremendous +liar." + +_J. M._--Charles was not wholly inexcusable, being what he was, for +thinking that he had a good game in his hands, by playing off the +parliament against the army, etc. + +_Mr. G._--There was less excuse for cutting off his head than in the case +of poor Louis XVI., for Louis was the excuse for foreign invasion. + +(M171) _J. M._--Could you call foreign invasion the intervention of the +Scotch? + +_Mr. G._--Well, not quite. I suppose it is certain that it was Cromwell who +cut off Charles's head? Not one in a hundred in the nation desired it. + +_J. M._--No, nor one in twenty in the parliament. But then, ninety-nine in +a hundred in the army. + +In the afternoon we all drove towards Bayonne to watch the ships struggle +over the bar at high water. As it happened we only saw one pass out, a +countryman for Cardiff. A string of others were waiting to go, but a +little steamer from Nantes came first, and having secured her station, +found she had not force enough to make the bar, and the others remained +swearing impatiently behind her. The Nantes steamer was like Ireland. The +scene was very fresh and fine, and the cold most exhilarating after the +mugginess of the last two or three days. Mr. G., who has a dizzy head, did +not venture on the jetty, but watched things from the sands. He and I +drove home together, at a good pace. "I am inclined," he said laughingly, +"to agree with Dr. Johnson that there is no pleasure greater than sitting +behind four fast-going horses."(293) Talking of Johnson generally, "I +suppose we may take him as the best product of the eighteenth century." +Perhaps so, but is he its most characteristic product? + +_Wellington._--Curious that there should be no general estimate of W.'s +character; his character not merely as a general but as a man. No love of +freedom. His sense of duty very strong, but military rather than civil. + +_Montalembert._--Had often come into contact with him. A very amiable and +attractive man. But less remarkable than Rio. + +_Latin Poets._--Would you place Virgil first? + +_J. M._--Oh, no, Lucretius much the first for the greatest and sublimest of +poetic qualities. Mr. G. seemed to assent to this, though disposed to make +a fight for the second _Aeneid_ as equal to anything. He expressed his +admiration for Catullus, and then he was strong that Horace would run +anybody else very hard, breaking out with the lines about Regulus-- + + + "Atqui sciebat quae sibi barbarus + Tortor pararet;" etc.(294) + + +_Blunders in Government._--How right Napoleon was when he said, reflecting +on all the vast complexities of government, that the best to be said of a +statesman is that he has avoided the biggest blunders. + +It is not easy to define the charm of these conversations. Is charm the +right word? They are in the highest degree stimulating, bracing, widening. +That is certain. I return to my room with the sensations of a man who has +taken delightful exercise in fresh air. He is so wholly free from the +_ergoteur_. There's all the difference between the _ergoteur_ and the +great debater. He fits his tone to the thing; he can be as playful as +anybody. In truth I have many a time seen him in London and at Hawarden +not far from trivial. But here at Biarritz all is appropriate, and though, +as I say, he can be playful and gay as youth, he cannot resist rising in +an instant to the general point of view--to grasp the elemental +considerations of character, history, belief, conduct, affairs. There he +is at home, there he is most himself. I never knew anybody less guilty of +the tiresome sin of arguing for victory. It is not his knowledge that +attracts; it is not his ethical tests and standards; it is not that +dialectical strength of arm which, as Mark Pattison said of him, could +twist a bar of iron to its purpose. It is the combination of these with +elevation, with true sincerity, with extraordinary mental force. + +_Sunday, Jan. 3._--Vauvenargues is right when he says that to carry through +great undertakings, one must act as though one could never die. My +wonderful companion is a wonderful illustration. He is like M. Angelo, +who, just before he died on the very edge of ninety, made an allegorical +figure, and inscribed upon it, _ancora impara_, "still learning." + +At dinner he showed in full force. + +(M172) _Heroes of the Old Testament._--He could not honestly say that he +thought there was any figure in the O. T. comparable to the heroes of +Homer. Moses was a fine fellow. But the others were of secondary +quality--not great high personages, of commanding nature. + +_Thinkers._--Rather an absurd word--to call a man a thinker (and he repeated +the word with gay mockery in his tone). When did it come into use? Not +until quite our own times, eh? I said, I believed both Hobbes and Locke +spoke of thinkers, and was pretty sure that _penseur_, as in _libre +penseur_, had established itself in the last century. [Quite true; +Voltaire used it, but it was not common.] + +_Dr. Arnold._--A high, large, impressive figure--perhaps more important by +his character and personality than his actual work. I mentioned M. A.'s +poem on his father, _Rugby Chapel_, with admiration. Rather to my +surprise, Mr. G. knew the poem well, and shared my admiration to the full. +This brought us on to poetry generally, and he expatiated with much +eloquence and sincerity for the rest of the talk. The wonderful continuity +of fine poetry in England for five whole centuries, stretching from +Chaucer to Tennyson, always a proof to his mind of the soundness, the sap, +and the vitality of our nation and its character. What people, beginning +with such a poet as Chaucer 500 years ago, could have burst forth into +such astonishing production of poetry as marked the first quarter of the +century, Byron, Wordsworth, Shelley, etc. + +_J. M._--It is true that Germany has nothing, save Goethe, Schiller, Heine, +that's her whole list. But I should say a word for the poetic movement in +France: Hugo, Gautier, etc. Mr. G. evidently knew but little, or even +nothing, of modern French poetry. He spoke up for Leopardi, on whom he had +written an article first introducing him to the British public, ever so +many years ago--in the _Quarterly_. + +_Mr. G._--Wordsworth used occasionally to dine with me when I lived in the +Albany. A most agreeable man. I always found him amiable, polite, and +sympathetic. Only once did he jar upon me, when he spoke slightingly of +Tennyson's first performance. + +_J. M._--But he was not so wrong as he would be now. Tennyson's Juvenilia +are terribly artificial. + +_Mr. G._--Yes, perhaps. Tennyson has himself withdrawn some of them. I +remember W., when he dined with me, used on leaving to change his silk +stockings in the anteroom and put on grey worsted. + +_J. M._--I once said to M. Arnold that I'd rather have been Wordsworth than +anybody [not exactly a modest ambition]; and Arnold, who knew him well in +the Grasmere country, said, "Oh no, you would not; you would wish you were +dining with me at the Athenaeum. He was too much of the peasant for you." + +_Mr. G._--No, I never felt that; I always thought him a polite and an +amiable man. + +Mentioned Macaulay's strange judgment in a note in the _History_, that +Dryden's famous lines, + + + "... Fool'd with hope, men favour the deceit; + Trust on, and think to-morrow will repay. + To-morrow's falser than the former day; + Lies worse, and while it says we shall be blest + With some new joys, cuts off what we possest. + Strange cozenage!..." + + +are as fine as any eight lines in Lucretius. Told him of an excellent +remark of ---- on this, that Dryden's passage wholly lacks the mystery and +great superhuman air of Lucretius. Mr. G. warmly agreed. + +He regards it as a remarkable sign of the closeness of the church of +England to the roots of life and feeling in the country, that so many +clergymen should have written so much good poetry. Who, for instance? I +asked. He named Heber, Moultrie, Newman (_Dream of Gerontius_), and Faber +in at least one good poem, "The poor Labourer" (or some such title), +Charles Tennyson. I doubt if this thesis has much body in it. He was for +Shelley as the most musical of all our poets. I told him that I had once +asked M. to get Tennyson to write an autograph line for a friend of mine, +and Tennyson had sent this:-- + + + "Coldly on the dead volcano sleeps the gleam of dying day." + + +So I suppose the poet must think well of it himself. 'Tis (M173) from the +second _Locksley Hall_, and describes a man after passions have gone cool. + +_Mr. G._--Yes, in melody, in the picturesque, and as apt simile, a fine +line. + +Had been trying his hand at a translation of his favourite lines of +Penelope about Odysseus. Said that, of course, you could translate similes +and set passages, but to translate Homer as a whole, impossible. He was +inclined, when all is said, to think Scott the nearest approach to a +model. + +_Monday, Jan. 4._--At luncheon, Mr. Gladstone recalled the well-known story +of Talleyrand on the death of Napoleon. The news was brought when T. +chanced to be dining with Wellington. "Quel evenement!" they all cried. +"Non, ce n'est pas un evenement," said Talleyrand, "c'est une +nouvelle"--'Tis no event, 'tis a piece of news. "Imagine such a way," said +Mr. G., "of taking the disappearance of that colossal man! Compare it with +the opening of Manzoni's ode, which makes the whole earth stand still. Yet +both points of view are right. In one sense, the giant's death was only +news; in another, when we think of his history, it was enough to shake the +world." At the moment, he could not recall Manzoni's words, but at dinner +he told me that he had succeeded in piecing them together, and after +dinner he went to his room and wrote them down for me on a piece of paper. +Curiously enough, he could not recall the passage in his own splendid +translation.(295) + +Talk about handsome men of the past; Sidney Herbert one of the handsomest +and most attractive. But the Duke of Hamilton bore away the palm, as +glorious as a Greek god. "One day in Rotten Row, I said this to the +Duchess of C. She set up James Hope-Scott against my Duke. No doubt he had +an intellectual element which the Duke lacked." Then we discussed the +best-looking man in the H. of C. to-day.... + +_Duke of Wellington._--Somebody was expatiating on the incomparable +position of the Duke; his popularity with kings, with nobles, with common +people. Mr. G. remembered that immediately after the formation of +Canning's government in 1827, when it was generally thought that he had +been most unfairly and factiously treated (as Mr. G. still thinks, always +saving Peel) by the Duke and his friends, the Duke made an expedition to +the north of England, and had an overwhelming reception. Of course, he was +then only twelve years from Waterloo, and yet only four or five years +later he had to put up his iron shutters. + +Approved a remark that a friend of ours was not simple enough, not ready +enough to take things as they come. + +_Mr. G._--Unless a man has a considerable gift for taking things as they +come, he may make up his mind that political life will be sheer torment to +him. He must meet fortune in all its moods. + +_Tuesday, Jan. 5._--After dinner to-day, Mr. G. extraordinarily gay. He had +bought a present of silver for his wife. She tried to guess the price, and +after the manner of wives in such a case, put the figure provokingly low. +Mr. G. then put on the deprecating air of the tradesman with wounded +feelings--and it was as capital fun as we could desire. That over, he fell +to his backgammon with our host. + +_Wednesday, Jan. 6._--Mrs. Gladstone eighty to-day! What a marvel.... + +Leon Say called to see Mr. G. Long and most interesting conversation about +all sorts of aspects of French politics, the concordat, the schools, and +all the rest of it. + +He illustrated the ignorance of French peasantry as to current affairs. +Thiers, long after he had become famous, went on a visit to his native +region; and there met a friend of his youth. "Eh bien," said his friend, +"tu as fait ton chemin." "Mais oui, j'ai fait un peu mon chemin. J'ai ete +ministre meme." "Ah, tiens! je ne savais pas que tu etais protestant." + +I am constantly struck by his solicitude for the well-being and right +doing of Oxford and Cambridge--"the two eyes of the country." This +connection between the higher education and the general movement of the +national mind engages his profound attention, and no doubt deserves such +attention (M174) in any statesman who looks beyond the mere surface +problems of the day. To perceive the bearings of such matters as these, +makes Mr. G. a statesman of the highest class, as distinguished from men +of clever expedients. + +Mr. G. had been reading the Greek epigrams on religion in Mackail; quoted +the last of them as illustrating the description of the dead as the +inhabitants of the more populous world:-- + + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ZETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER XI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}.(296) + + +A more impressive epigram contains the same thought, where the old man, +leaning on his staff, likens himself to the withered vine on its dry pole, +and goes on to ask himself what advantage it would be to warm himself for +three or four more years in the sun; and on that reflection without +heroics put off his life, and changed his home to the greater company, + + + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND PERISPOMENI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + +All the rest of the evening he kept us alive by a stock of infinite +drolleries. A scene of a dish of over-boiled tea at West Calder after a +meeting, would have made the fortune of a comedian. + +I said that in the all-important quality of co-operation, ---- was only good +on condition of being in front. Mr. G. read him in the same sense. +Reminded of a mare he once had--admirable, provided you kept off spur, +curb, or whip; show her one of these things, and she would do nothing. Mr. +G. more of a judge of men than is commonly thought. + +Told us of a Chinese despatch which came under his notice when he was at +the board of trade, and gave him food for reflection. A ship laden with +grain came to Canton. The administrator wrote to the central government at +Pekin to know whether the ship was to pay duty and land its cargo. The +answer was to the effect that the central government of the Flowery Land +was quite indifferent as a rule to the goings and comings of the +Barbarians; whether they brought a cargo or brought no cargo was a thing +of supreme unconcern. "But this cargo, you say, is food for the people. +There ought to be no obstacle to the entry of food for the people. So let +it in. Your Younger Brother commends himself to you, etc. etc." + +_Friday, Jan. 8._--A quiet evening. We were all rather piano at the end of +an episode which had been thoroughly delightful. When Mr. G. bade me +good-night, he said with real feeling, "More sorry than I can say that +this is our last evening together at Biarritz." He is painfully grieved to +lose the sound of the sea in his ears. + +_Saturday, Jan. 9._--Strolled about all the forenoon. "What a time of +blessed composure it has been," said Mr. G. with a heavy sigh. The distant +hills covered with snow, and the voice of the storm gradually swelling. +Still the savage fury of the sea was yet some hours off, so we had to +leave Biarritz without the spectacle of Atlantic rage at its fiercest. + +Found comfortable saloon awaiting us at Bayonne, and so under weeping +skies we made our way to Pau. The landscape must be pretty, weather +permitting. As it was, we saw but little. Mr. G. dozed and read Max +Mueller's book on Anthropological Religions. + +Arrived at Pau towards 5.30; drenching rain: nothing to be seen. + +At tea time, a good little discussion raised by a protest against Dante +being praised for a complete survey of human nature and the many phases of +human lot. Intensity he has, but insight over the whole field of character +and life? Mr. G. did not make any stand against this, and made the curious +admission that Dante was too optimist to be placed on a level with +Shakespeare, or even with Homer. + +Then we turned to lighter themes. He had once said to Henry Taylor, "I +should have thought he was the sort of man to have a good strong grasp of +a subject," speaking of Lord Grey, who had been one of Taylor's many +chiefs at the Colonial Office. "I should have thought," replied Taylor +slowly and with a dreamy look, "he was the sort of man to have a good +strong _nip_ of a subject." Witty, and very applicable to many men. + +Wordsworth once gave Mr. G. with much complacency, as an example of his +own readiness and resource, this story. A man came up to him at Rydal and +said, "Do you happen to have seen my wife." "Why," replied the Sage, "I +did not know you had a wife!" This peculiarly modest attempt at pointed +repartee much tickled Mr. G., as well it might. + +_Tuesday, Jan. 12._--Mr. G. completely recovered from two days of +indisposition. We had about an hour's talk on things in general, including +policy in the approaching session. He did not expect a dissolution, at the +same time a dissolution would not surprise him. + +At noon they started for Perigord and Carcassonne, Nismes, Arles, and so +on to the Riviera full of kind things at our parting. + + + + +Chapter VII. The Fourth Administration. (1892-1894) + + + {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH PERISPOMENI AND YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA AND PERISPOMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH DASIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER PHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~} + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK CAPITAL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMEGA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH YPOGEGRAMMENI~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}. + + _Iliad_, i. 250. + + Two generations of mortal men had he already seen pass away, who + with him of old had been born and bred in sacred Pylos, and among + the third generation he held rule. + + + +I + + +In 1892 the general election came, after a session that was not very long +nor at all remarkable. Everybody knew that we should soon be dismissed, +and everybody knew that the liberals would have a majority, but the size +of it was beyond prognostication. Mr. Gladstone did not talk much about +it, but in fact he reckoned on winning by eighty or a hundred. A leading +liberal-unionist at whose table we met (May 24) gave us forty. That +afternoon by the way the House had heard a speech of great power and +splendour. An Irish tory peer in the gallery said afterwards, "That old +hero of yours is a miracle. When he set off in that high pitch, I said +that won't last. Yet he kept it up all through as grand as ever, and came +in fresher and stronger than when he began." His sight failed him in +reading an extract, and he asked me to read it for him, so he sat down +amid sympathetic cheers while it was read out from the box. + +After listening to a strong and undaunted reply from Mr. Balfour, he asked +me to go with him into the tea-room; he was fresh, unperturbed, and in +high spirits. He told me he had once sat at table with Lord Melbourne, but +regretted that he had never known him. Said that of the sixty men or so +who had been his colleagues in cabinet, the (M175) very easiest and most +attractive was Clarendon. Constantly regretted that he had never met nor +known Sir Walter Scott, as of course he might have done. Thought the +effect of diplomacy to be bad on the character; to train yourself to +practise the airs of genial friendship towards men from whom you are doing +your best to hide yourself, and out of whom you are striving to worm that +which they wish to conceal. Said that he was often asked for advice by +young men as to objects of study. He bade them study and ponder, first, +the history and working of freedom in America; second, the history of +absolutism in France from Louis XIV. to the Revolution. It was suggested +that if the great thing with the young is to attract them to fine types of +character, the Huguenots had some grave, free, heroic figures, and in the +eighteenth century Turgot was the one inspiring example: when Mill was in +low spirits, he restored himself by Condorcet's life of Turgot. This +reminded him that Canning had once praised Turgot in the House of Commons, +though most likely nobody but himself knew anything at all about Turgot. +Talking of the great centuries, the thirteenth, and the sixteenth, and the +seventeenth, Mr. Gladstone let drop what for him seems the remarkable +judgment that "Man as a type has not improved since those great times; he +is not so big, so grand, so heroic as he has been." This, the reader will +agree, demands a good deal of consideration. + +Then he began to talk about offices, in view of what were now pretty +obvious possibilities. After discussing more important people, he asked +whether, after a recent conversation, I had thought more of my own office, +and I told him that I fancied like Regulus I had better go back to the +Irish department. "Yes," he answered with a flash of his eye, "I think so. +The truth is that we're both chained to the oar; I am chained to the oar; +you are chained." + + + +II + + +The electoral period, when it arrived, he passed once more at Dalmeny. In +a conversation the morning after I was allowed to join him there, he +seemed already to have a grand majority of three figures, to have kissed +hands, and to be installed in Downing Street. This confidence was +indispensable to him. At the end of his talk he went up to prepare some +notes for the speech that he was to make in the afternoon at Glasgow. Just +before the carriage came to take him to the train, I heard him calling +from the library. In I went, and found him hurriedly thumbing the leaves +of a Horace. "Tell me," he cried, "can you put your finger on the passage +about Castor and Pollux? I've just thought of something; Castor and Pollux +will finish my speech at Glasgow." "Isn't it in the Third Book?" said I. +"No, no; I'm pretty sure it is in the First Book"--busily turning over the +pages. "Ah, here it is," and then he read out the noble lines with +animated modulation, shut the book with a bang, and rushed off exultant to +the carriage. This became one of the finest of his perorations.(297) His +delivery of it that afternoon, they said, was most majestic--the picture of +the wreck, and then the calm that gradually brought down the towering +billows to the surface of the deep, entrancing the audience like magic. + +Then came a depressing week. The polls flowed in, all day long, day after +day. The illusory hopes of many months faded into night. The three-figure +majority by the end of the week had vanished so completely, that one +wondered how it could ever have been thought of. On July 13 his own +Midlothian poll was declared, and instead of his old majority of 4000, or +the 3000 on which he counted, he was only in by 690. His chagrin was +undoubtedly intense, for he had put forth every atom of his strength in +the campaign. But with that splendid suppression of vexation which is one +of the good lessons that men learn in public life, he put a brave face on +it, was perfectly cheery all through the luncheon, and afterwards took me +to the music-room, where instead of constructing a triumphant cabinet with +a majority of a hundred, he had to try to adjust an Irish policy to a +parliament with hardly a majority at all. These topics exhausted, with a +curiously quiet gravity of tone he told me (M176) that cataract had formed +over one eye, that its sight was gone, and that in the other eye he was +infested with a white speck. "One white speck," he said, almost laughing, +"I can do with, but if the one becomes many, it will be a bad business. +They tell me that perhaps the fresh air of Braemar will do me good." To +Braemar the ever loyal Mr. Armitstead piloted them, in company with Lord +Acton of whose society Mr. Gladstone could never have too much. + + + +III + + +It has sometimes been made a matter of blame by friends no less than foes, +that he should have undertaken the task of government, depending on a +majority not large enough to coerce the House of Lords. One or two short +observations on this would seem to be enough. How could he refuse to try +to work his Irish policy through parliament, after the bulk of the Irish +members had quitted their own leader four years before in absolute +reliance on the sincerity and good faith of Mr. Gladstone and his party? +After all the confidence that Ireland had shown in him at the end of 1890, +how could he in honour throw up the attempt that had been the only object +of his public life since 1886? To do this would have been to justify +indeed the embittered warnings of Mr. Parnell in his most reckless hour. +How could either refusal of office or the postponement of an Irish bill +after taking office, be made intelligible in Ireland itself? Again, the +path of honour in Ireland was equally the path of honour and of safety in +Great Britain. Were British liberals, who had given him a majority, partly +from disgust at Irish coercion, partly from faith that he could produce a +working plan of Irish government, and partly from hopes of reforms of +their own--were they to learn that their leaders could do nothing for any +of their special objects? + +Mr. Gladstone found some consolation in a precedent. In 1835, he argued, +"the Melbourne government came in with a British minority, swelled into a +majority hardly touching thirty by the O'Connell contingent of forty. And +they staid in for six years and a half, the longest lived government since +Lord Liverpool's.(298) But the Irish were under the command of a master; +and Ireland, scarcely beginning her political life, had to be content with +small mercies. Lastly, that government was rather slack, and on this +ground perhaps could not well be taken as a pattern." In the present case, +the attitude of the Parnellite group who continued the schism that began +in the events of the winter of 1890, was not likely to prove a grave +difficulty in parliament, and in fact it did not. The mischief here was in +the effect of Irish feuds upon public opinion in the country. As Mr. +Gladstone put it in the course of a letter that he had occasion to write +to me (November 26, 1892):-- + + + Until the schism arose, we had every prospect of a majority + approaching those of 1868 and 1880. With the death of Mr. Parnell + it was supposed that it must perforce close. But this expectation + has been disappointed. The existence and working of it have to no + small extent puzzled and bewildered the English people. They + cannot comprehend how a quarrel, to them utterly unintelligible + (some even think it discreditable), should be allowed to divide + the host in the face of the enemy; and their unity and zeal have + been deadened in proportion. Herein we see the main cause why our + majority is not more than double what it actually numbers, and the + difference between these two scales of majority represents, as I + apprehend, the difference between power to carry the bill as the + Church and Land bills were carried into law, and the default of + such power. The main mischief has already been done; but it + receives additional confirmation with the lapse of every week or + month. + + +In forming his fourth administration Mr. Gladstone found one or two +obstacles on which he had not reckoned, and perhaps could not have been +expected to reckon. By that forbearance of which he was a master, they +were in good time surmounted. New men, of a promise soon amply fulfilled, +were taken in, including, to Mr. Gladstone's own particular satisfaction, +the son of the oldest (M177) of all the surviving friends of his youth, +Sir Thomas Acland.(299) + +Mr. Gladstone remained as head of the government for a year and a few +months (Aug. 1892 to March 3, 1894). In that time several decisions of +pith and moment were taken, one measure of high importance became law, +operations began against the Welsh establishment, but far the most +conspicuous biographic element of this short period was his own +incomparable display of power of every kind in carrying the new bill for +the better government of Ireland through the House of Commons. + +In foreign affairs it was impossible that he should forget the case of +Egypt. Lord Salisbury in 1887 had pressed forward an arrangement by which +the British occupation was under definite conditions and at a definite +date to come to an end. If this convention had been accepted by the +Sultan, the British troops would probably have been home by the time of +the change of government in this country. French diplomacy, however, at +Constantinople, working as it might seem against its own professed aims, +hindered the ratification of the convention, and Lord Salisbury's policy +was frustrated. Negotiations did not entirely drop, and they had not +passed out of existence when Lord Salisbury resigned. In the autumn of +1892 the French ambassador addressed a friendly inquiry to the new +government as to the reception likely to be given to overtures for +re-opening the negotiations. The answer was that if France had suggestions +to offer, they would be received in the same friendly spirit in which they +were tendered. When any communications were received, Mr. Gladstone said +in the House of Commons, there would be no indisposition on our part to +extend to them our friendly consideration. Of all this nothing came. A +rather serious ministerial crisis in Egypt in January 1893, followed by a +ministerial crisis in Paris in April, arrested whatever projects of +negotiation France may have entertained.(300) + + + +IV + + +In December (1892), at Hawarden, Mr. Gladstone said to me one day after we +had been working for five or six hours at the heads of the new Home Rule +bill, that his general health was good and sound, but his sight and his +hearing were so rapidly declining, that he thought he might almost any day +have to retire from office. It was no moment for banal deprecation. He sat +silently pondering this vision in his own mind, of coming fate. It seemed +like Tennyson's famous simile-- + + + So dark a forethought rolled about his brain, + As on a dull day in an ocean cave + The blind wave feeling round his long sea-hall + In silence. + + +It would have been preternatural if he had shown the same overwhelming +interest that had animated him when the Irish policy was fresh in 1886. +Yet the instinct of a strong mind and the lifelong habit of ardent +industry carried him through his Sisyphean toil. The routine business of +head of a government he attended to, with all his usual assiduity, and in +cabinet he was clear, careful, methodical, as always. + +The preparation of the bill was carefully and elaborately worked by Mr. +Gladstone through an excellent committee (M178) of the cabinet.(301) Here +he was acute, adroit, patient, full of device, expedient, and the art of +construction; now and then vehement and bearing down like a three-decker +upon craft of more modest tonnage. But the vehemence was rare, and here as +everywhere else he was eager to do justice to all the points and arguments +of other people. He sought opportunities of deliberation in order to +deliberate, and not under that excellent name to cultivate the art of the +harangue, or to overwork secondary points, least of all to treat the many +as made for one. That is to say, he went into counsel for the sake of +counsel, and not to cajole, or bully, or insist on his own way because it +was his own way. In the high article of finance, he would wrestle like a +tiger. It was an intricate and difficult business by the necessity of the +case, and among the aggravations of it was the discovery at one point that +a wrong figure had been furnished to him by some department. He declared +this truly heinous crime to be without a precedent in his huge experience. + +The crucial difficulty was the Irish representation at Westminster. In the +first bill of 1886, the Irish members were to come no more to the imperial +parliament, except for one or two special purposes. The two alternatives +to the policy of exclusion were either inclusion of the Irish members for +all purposes, or else their inclusion for imperial purposes only. In his +speech at Swansea in 1887, Mr. Gladstone favoured provisional inclusion, +without prejudice to a return to the earlier plan of exclusion if that +should be recommended by subsequent experience.(302) In the bill now +introduced (Feb. 13, 1893), eighty representatives from Ireland were to +have seats at Westminster, but they were not to vote upon motions or bills +expressly confined to England or Scotland, and there were other +limitations. This plan was soon found to be wholly intolerable to the +House of Commons. Exclusion having failed, and inclusion of reduced +numbers for limited purposes having failed, the only course left open was +what was called _omnes omnia_, or rather the inclusion of eighty Irish +members, with power of voting on all purposes. + +Each of the three courses was open to at least one single, but very +direct, objection. Exclusion, along with the exaction of revenue from +Ireland by the parliament at Westminster, was taxation without +representation. Inclusion for all purposes was to allow the Irish to +meddle in our affairs, while we were no longer to meddle in theirs. +Inclusion for limited purposes still left them invested with the power of +turning out a British government by a vote against it on an imperial +question. Each plan, therefore, ended in a paradox. There was a fourth +paradox, namely, that whenever the British supporters of a government did +not suffice to build up a decisive majority, then the Irish vote +descending into one or other scale of the parliamentary balance might +decide who should be our rulers. This paradox--the most glaring of them +all--habit and custom have made familiar, and familiarity might almost seem +to have actually endeared it to us. In 1893 Mr. Gladstone and his +colleagues thought themselves compelled to change clause 9 of the new +bill, just as they had thought themselves forced to drop clause 24 of the +old bill. + + + +V + + +It was Mr. Gladstone's performances in the days of committee on the bill, +that stirred the wonder and admiration of the House. If he had been fifty +they would have been astonishing; at eighty-four they were indeed a +marvel. He made speeches of powerful argument, of high constitutional +reasoning, of trenchant debating force. No emergency arose for which he +was not ready, no demand that his versatility was not adequate to meet. +His energy never flagged. When the bill came on, he would put on his +glasses, pick up the paper of amendments, and running through them like +lightning, would say, "Of course, that's absurd--that will never do--we can +never accept that--is there any harm in this?" Too many concessions made on +the spur of the (M179) moment to the unionists stirred resentment in the +nationalists, and once or twice they exploded. These rapid splendours of +his had their perils. I pointed out to him the pretty obvious drawbacks of +settling delicate questions as we went along with no chance of sounding +the Irishmen, and asked him to spare me quarter of an hour before +luncheon, when the draftsman and I, having threshed out the amendments of +the day, could put the bare points for his consideration. He was horrified +at the very thought. "Out of the question. Do you want to kill me? I must +have the whole of the morning for general government business. Don't ask +me."(303) + +Obstruction was freely practised and without remorse. The chief fighting +debater against the government made a long second-reading speech, on the +motion that the clause stand part of the bill. A little before eight +o'clock when the fighting debater was winding up, Mr. Gladstone was +undecided about speaking. "What do you advise?" he asked of a friend. "I +am afraid it will take too much out of you," the friend replied; "but +still, speak for twenty minutes and no more." Up he rose, and for half an +hour a delighted House was treated to one of the most remarkable +performances that ever was known. "I have never seen Mr. Gladstone," says +one observer, "so dramatic, so prolific of all the resources of the +actor's art. The courage, the audacity, and the melodrama of it were +irresistible" (May 11). + + + For ten minutes, writes another chronicler, Mr. Gladstone spoke, + holding his audience spell-bound by his force. Then came a sudden + change, and it seemed that he was about to collapse from sheer + physical exhaustion. His voice failed, huskiness and + indistinctness took the place of clearness and lucidity. Then + pulling himself together for a great effort, Mr. Gladstone + pointing the deprecatory finger at Mr. Chamberlain, warned the + Irishmen to beware of him; to watch the fowler who would inveigle + them in his snare. Loud and long rang the liberal cheers. In plain + words he told the unionists that Mr. Chamberlain's purpose was + none other than obstruction, and he conveyed the intimation with a + delicate expressiveness, a superabundant good feeling, a dramatic + action and a marvellous music of voice that conspired in their + various qualities to produce a _tour de force_. By sheer strength + of enthusiasm and an overflowing wealth of eloquence, Mr. + Gladstone literally conquered every physical weakness and secured + an effect electric in its influence even on seasoned "old hands." + Amidst high excitement and the sound of cheering that promised + never to die away the House gradually melted into the lobbies. Mr. + Gladstone, exhausted with his effort, chatted to Mr. Morley on the + treasury bench. Except for these two the government side was + deserted, and the conservatives had already disappeared. The + nationalists sat shoulder to shoulder, a solid phalanx. They eyed + the prime minister with eager intent, and as soon as the venerable + statesman rose to walk out of the House, they sprang to their feet + and rent the air with wild hurrahs. + + +No wonder if the talk downstairs at dinner among his colleagues that +night, all turned upon their chief, his art and power, his union of the +highest qualities of brain and heart with extraordinary practical +penetration, and close watchfulness of incident and trait and personality, +disclosed in many a racy aside and pungent sally. The orator was fatigued, +but full of keen enjoyment. This was one of the three or four occasions +when he was induced not to return to the House after dinner. It had always +been his habit in taking charge of bills to work the ship himself. No +wonder that he held to this habit in this case. + +On another occasion ministers had taken ground that, as the debate went +on, everybody saw they could not hold. An official spokesman for the bill +had expressed an opinion, or intention, that, as very speedily appeared, +Irish opposition would not allow to be maintained. There was no great +substance in the point, but even a small dose of humiliation will make a +parliamentary dish as bitter to one side as it is savoury to the other. +The opposition grew more and more radiant, as it grew more certain that +the official spokesman (M180) must be thrown over. The discomfiture of the +ministerialists at the prospect of the public mortification of their +leaders was extreme in the same degree. "I suppose we must give it up," +said Mr. Gladstone. This was clear; and when he rose, he was greeted with +mocking cheers from the enemy, though the enemy's chief men who had long +experience of his Protean resources were less confident. Beginning in a +tone of easy gravity and candour, he went on to points of pleasant banter, +got his audience interested and amused and a little bewildered; carried +men with him in graceful arguments on the merits; and finally, with +bye-play of consummate sport, showed in triumph that the concession that +we consented to make was so right and natural, that it must have been +inevitable from the very first. Never were tables more effectively turned; +the opposition watched first with amazement, then with excitement and +delight as children watch a wizard; and he sat down victorious. Not +another word was said or could be said. "Never in all my parliamentary +years," said a powerful veteran on the front bench opposite, as he passed +behind the Speaker's chair, "never have I seen so wonderful a thing done +as that." + +The state of the county of Clare was a godsend to the obstructive. Clare +was not at that moment quite as innocent as the garden of Eden before the +fall, but the condition was not serious; it had been twenty times worse +before without occupying the House of Commons five minutes. Now an evening +a week was not thought too much for a hollow debate on disorder in Clare. +It was described as a definite matter of urgent importance, though it had +slept for years, and though three times in succession the judge of assize +(travelling entirely out of his proper business) had denounced the state +of things. It was made to support five votes of censure in eight weeks. + +On one of these votes of censure on Irish administration, moved by Mr. +Balfour (March 27), Mr. Gladstone listened to the debate. At 8 we begged +him not to stay and not to take the trouble to speak, so trumpery was the +whole affair. He said he must, if only for five minutes, to show that he +identified himself with his Irish minister. He left to dine, and then +before ten was on his feet, making what Lord Randolph Churchill rightly +called "a most impressive and entrancing speech." He talked of Pat this +and Michael that, and Father the other, as if he had pondered their cases +for a month, clenching every point with extraordinary strength as well as +consummate ease and grace, and winding up with some phrases of wonderful +simplicity and concentration. + +A distinguished member made a motion for the exclusion of Irish cabinet +ministers from their chamber. Mr. Gladstone was reminded on the bench just +before he rose, that the same proposal had been inserted in the Act of +Settlement, and repealed in 1705. He wove this into his speech with a +skill, and amplified confidence, that must have made everybody suppose +that it was a historic fact present every day to his mind. The attention +of a law-officer sitting by was called to this rapid amplification. "I +never saw anything like it in all my whole life," said the law-officer; +and he was a man who had been accustomed to deal with some of the +strongest and quickest minds of the day as judges and advocates. + +One day when a tremendous afternoon of obstruction had almost worn him +down, the adjournment came at seven o'clock. He was haggard and depressed. +On returning at ten we found him making a most lively and amusing speech +upon procedure. He sat down as blithe as dawn. "To make a speech of that +sort," he said in deprecation of compliment, "a man does best to dine out; +'tis no use to lie on a sofa and think about it." + +Undoubtedly Mr. Gladstone's method in this long committee carried with it +some disadvantages. His discursive treatment exposed an enormous surface. +His abundance of illustration multiplied points for debate. His fertility +in improvised arguments encouraged improvisation in disputants without the +gift. Mr. Gladstone always supposed that a great theme needs to be +copiously handled, which is perhaps doubtful, and indeed is often an exact +inversion of the true state of things. However that may be, copiousness is +a game at which two can play, as a patriotic opposition now and at other +times has effectually disclosed. Some thought in these days that a man +like Lord Althorp, for (M181) instance, would have given the obstructives +much more trouble in their pursuits than did Mr. Gladstone. + +That Mr. Gladstone's supporters should become restive at the slow motion +of business was natural enough. They came to ministers, calling out for a +drastic closure, as simple tribes might clamour to a rain-maker. It was +the end of June, and with a reasonable opposition conducted in decent good +faith, it was computed that the bill might be through committee in +nineteen days. But the hypothesis of reason and good faith was not thought +to be substantial, and the cabinet resolved on resort to closure on a +scale like that on which it had been used by the late government in the +case of the Crimes Act of 1887, and of the Special Commission. It has been +said since on excellent authority, that without speaking of their good +faith, Mr. Gladstone's principal opponents were now running absolutely +short of new ammunition, and having used the same arguments and made the +same speeches for so many weeks, they were so worn out that the guillotine +was superfluous. Of these straits, however, there was little evidence. Mr. +Gladstone entered into the operation with a good deal of chagrin. He saw +that the House of Commons in which he did his work and rose to glory was +swiftly fading out of sight, and a new institution of different habits of +responsibility and practice taking its place. + +The stage of committee lasted for sixty-three sittings. The whole +proceedings occupied eighty-two. It is not necessary to hold that the time +was too long for the size of the task, if it had been well spent. The +spirit of the debate was aptly illustrated by the plea of a brilliant +tory, that he voted for a certain motion against a principle that he +approved, because he thought the carrying of the motion "would make the +bill more detestable." Opposition rested on a view of Irish character and +Irish feeling about England, that can hardly have been very deeply thought +out, because ten years later the most bitter opponents of the Irish claim +launched a policy, that was to make Irish peasants direct debtors to the +hated England to the tune of one hundred million pounds, and was to +dislodge by imperial cash those who were persistently called the only +friends of the imperial connection. The bill passed its second reading by +347 against 304, or a majority of 43. In some critical divisions, the +majority ran down to 27. The third reading was carried by 301 against 267, +or a majority of 34. It was estimated that excluding the Irish, there was +a majority against the bill of 23. If we counted England and Wales alone, +the adverse majority was 48. When it reached them, the Lords incontinently +threw it out. The roll of the Lords held 560 names, beyond the peers of +the royal house. Of this body of 560, no fewer than 419 voted against the +bill, and only 41 voted for it. + + + +VI + + +The session was protracted until it became the longest in the history of +parliament. The House was sitting when Mr. Gladstone's eighty-fourth +birthday arrived. "Before putting a question," said Mr. Balfour in a tone +that, after the heat and exasperations of so many months, was refreshing +to hear, "perhaps the right honourable gentleman will allow me, on my own +part and on that of my friends, to offer him our most sincere +congratulations." "Allow me to thank him," said Mr. Gladstone, "for his +great courtesy and kindness." The government pressed forward and carried +through the House of Commons a measure dealing with the liability of +employers for accidents, and a more important measure setting up elective +bodies for certain purposes in parishes. Into the first the Lords +introduced such changes as were taken to nullify all the advantages of the +bill, and the cabinet approved of its abandonment. Into the second they +forced back certain provisions that the Commons had with full deliberation +decisively rejected. + +Mr. Gladstone was at Biarritz, he records, when this happened in January +of 1894. He had gone there to recruit after the incomparable exertions of +the session, and also to consider at a cool distance and in changed scenes +other topics that had for some weeks caused him some agitation. He now +thought that there was a decisive case against the House of Lords. Apart +from the Irish bill to which the (M182) Commons had given eighty-two days, +the Lords had maimed the bill for parish councils, to which had gone the +labour of forty-one days. Other bills they had mutilated or defeated. Upon +the whole, he argued, it was not too much to say that for practical +purposes the Lords had destroyed the work of the House of Commons, +unexampled as that work was in the time and pains bestowed upon it. "I +suggested dissolution to my colleagues in London, where half, or more than +half, the cabinet were found at the moment. I received by telegraph a +hopelessly adverse reply." Reluctantly he let the idea drop, always +maintaining, however, that a signal opportunity had been lost. Even in my +last conversation with him in 1897, he held to his text that we ought to +have dissolved at this moment. The case, he said, was clear, thorough, and +complete. As has been already mentioned, there were four occasions on +which he believed that he had divined the right moment for a searching +appeal to public opinion on a great question.(304) The renewal of the +income tax in 1853 was the first; the proposal of religious equality for +Ireland in 1868 was the second; home rule was the third, and here he was +justified by the astonishing and real progress that he had made up to the +catastrophe at the end of 1890. The fourth case was this, of a dissolution +upon the question of the relations of the two Houses. + + + + +Chapter VIII. Retirement From Public Life. (1894) + + + O, 'tis a burden, Cromwell, 'tis a burden + Too heavy for a man that hopes for heaven. + + _Henry VIII._ iii. 2. + + + +I + + +"Politics," wrote Mr. Gladstone in one of his private memoranda in March +1894, "are like a labyrinth, from the inner intricacies of which it is +even more difficult to find the way of escape, than it was to find the way +into them. My age did something but not enough. The deterioration of my +hearing helped, but insufficiently. It is the state of my sight which has +supplied me with effectual aid in exchanging my imperious public +obligations for what seems to be a free place on 'the breezy common of +humanity.' And it has only been within the last eight months, or +thereabouts, that the decay of working sight has advanced at such a pace +as to present the likelihood of its becoming stringently operative at an +early date. It would have been very difficult to fix that date at this or +that precise point, without the appearance of making an arbitrary choice; +but then the closing of the parliamentary session (1893-4) offered a +natural break between the cessation and renewal of engagements, which was +admirably suited to the design. And yet I think it, if not certain, yet +very highly probable at the least, that any disposition of mine to profit +by this break would--but for the naval scheme of my colleagues in the naval +estimates--have been frustrated by their desire to avoid the inconveniences +of a change, and by the pressure which they would have brought to bear +upon me in consequence. The effect of that scheme was not to bring about +the construction of an artificial cause, or pretext rather, of +resignation, but to compel me to act upon one that was rational, +sufficient, and ready to hand." + +This is the short, plain, and intelligible truth as to what now happened. +There can be no reason to-day for not stating what was for a long time +matter of common surmise, if not of common knowledge, that Mr. Gladstone +did not regard the naval estimates, opened but not settled in December +1893, as justified by the circumstances of the time. He made a speech that +month in parliament in reply to a motion from the front bench opposite, +and there he took a position undoubtedly antagonistic to the new scheme +that found favour with his cabinet, though not with all its members. The +present writer is of course not free to go into details, beyond those that +anybody else not a member of the cabinet would discover from Mr. +Gladstone's papers. Nor does the public lose anything of real interest by +this necessary reserve. Mr. Gladstone said he wished to make me "his +depositary" as things gradually moved on, and he wrote me a series of +short letters from day to day. If they could be read aloud in Westminster +Hall, no harm would be done either to surviving colleagues or to others; +they would furnish no new reason for thinking either better or worse of +anybody; and no one with a decent sense of the value of time would concern +himself in all the minor detail of an ineffectual controversy. The central +facts were simple. Two things weighed with him, first his infirmities, and +second his disapproval of the policy. How, he asked himself, could he turn +his back on his former self by becoming a party to swollen expenditure? +True he had changed from conservative to liberal in general politics, but +when he was conservative, that party was the economic party, "Peel its +leader being a Cobdenite." To assent to this new outlay in time of peace +was to revolutionise policy. Then he would go on--"Owing to the part which +I was drawn to take, first in Italy, then as to Greece, then on the +eastern question, I have come to be considered not only an English but a +European statesman. My name stands in Europe as a symbol of the policy of +peace, moderation, and non-aggression. What would be said of my active +participation in a policy that will be taken as plunging England into the +whirlpool of militarism? Third, I have been in active public life for a +period nearly as long as the time between the beginning of Mr. Pitt's +first ministry and the close of Sir Robert Peel's; between 1783 and +1846--sixty-two years and a half. During that time I have uniformly opposed +militarism." Thus he would put his case. + +After the naval estimates were brought forward, attempts were naturally +made at accommodation, for whether he availed himself of the end of the +session as a proper occasion of retirement or not, he was bound to try to +get the estimates down if he could. He laboured hard at the task of +conversion, and though some of his colleagues needed no conversion, with +the majority he did not prevail. He admitted that he had made limited +concessions to scares in 1860 and in 1884, and that he had besides been +repeatedly responsible for extraordinary financial provisions having +reference to some crisis of the day:-- + + + I did this, (1) By a preliminary budget in 1854; (2) By the final + budget of July 1859; by the vote of credit in July 1870; and again + by the vote of credit in 1884. Every one of these was special, and + was shown in each case respectively to be special by the sequel: + no one of them had reference to the notion of establishing + dominant military or even naval power in Europe. Their amounts + were various, but were adapted to the view taken, at least by me, + of the exigency actually present.(305) + + + +II + + +While the House after so many months of toil was still labouring manfully +upon English bills, two of them of no secondary importance, it was decided +by his family and their advisers that Mr. Gladstone should again try the +effects of Biarritz, and thither they went on January 13. Distance, +however, could not efface from his mind all thought of the decision that +the end of the session would exact from him. (M183) Rumours began to fly +about in London that the prime minister upon his return intended to +resign, and they were naturally clad with intrinsic probability. From +Biarritz a communication was made to the press with his authority. It was +to this effect, that the statement that Mr. Gladstone had definitely +decided, or had decided at all, on resigning office was untrue. It was +true that for many months past his age and the condition of his sight and +hearing had in his judgment made relief from public cares desirable, and +that accordingly his tenure of office had been at any moment liable to +interruption from these causes, in their nature permanent. + +Nature meanwhile could not set back the shadow on the dial. On his coming +back from Biarritz (February 10) neither eyes nor ears were better. How +should they be at eighty-five? The session was ending, the prorogation +speech was to be composed, and the time had come for that "natural break" +between the cessation and renewal of his official obligations, of which we +have already heard him speak. His colleagues carried almost to importunity +their appeals to him to stay; to postpone what one of them called, and +many of them truly felt to be, this "moment of anguish." The division of +opinion on estimates remained, but even if that could have been bridged, +his sight and hearing could not be made whole. The rational and sufficient +cause of resignation, as he only too justly described it, was strong as +ever. Whether if the cabinet had come to his view on estimates, he would +in spite of his great age and infirmities have come to their view of the +importance of his remaining, we cannot tell. According to his wont, he +avoided decision until the time had come when decision was necessary, and +then he made up his mind, "without the appearance of an arbitrary choice," +that the time had come for accepting the natural break, and quitting +office. + +On Feb. 27, arriving in the evening at Euston from Ireland, I found a +messenger with a note from Mr. Gladstone begging me to call on my way +home. I found him busy as usual at his table in Downing Street. "I suppose +'tis the long habit of a life," he said cheerily, "but even in the midst +of these passages, if ever I have half or quarter of an hour to spare, I +find myself turning to my Horace translation." He said the prorogation +speech would be settled on Thursday; the Queen would consider it on +Friday; the council would be held on Saturday, and on that evening or +afternoon he should send in his letter of resignation. + +The next day he had an audience at Buckingham Palace, and indirectly +conveyed to the Queen what she might soon expect to learn from him. His +rigorous sense of loyalty to colleagues made it improper and impossible to +bring either before the Queen or the public his difference of judgment on +matters for which his colleagues, not he, would be responsible, and on +which they, not he, would have to take action. He derived certain +impressions at his audience, he told me, one of them being that the +Sovereign would not seek his advice as to a successor. + +He wrote to inform the Prince of Wales of the approaching event:-- + + + In thus making it known to your royal Highness, he concluded, I + desire to convey, on my own and my wife's part our fervent thanks + for the unbounded kindness which we have at all times received + from your royal Highness and not less from the beloved Princess of + Wales. The devotion of an old man is little worth; but if at any + time there be the smallest service which by information or + suggestion your royal Highness may believe me capable of + rendering, I shall remain as much at your command as if I had + continued to be an active and responsible servant of the Queen. I + remain with heartfelt loyalty and gratitude, etc. + + +The Prince expressed his sincere regret, said how deeply the Princess and +he were touched by the kind words about them, and how greatly for a long +number of years they had valued his friendship and that of Mrs. Gladstone. +Mr. Balfour, to whom he also confidentially told the news, communicated +among other graceful words, "the special debt of gratitude that was due to +him for the immense public service he had performed in fostering and +keeping alive the great traditions of the House of Commons." The day after +that (March 1) was his last cabinet council, and a painful day it (M184) +was. The business of the speech and other matters were discussed as usual, +then came the end. In his report to the Queen--his last--he said:-- + + + Looking forward to the likelihood that this might be the last + occasion on which Mr. Gladstone and his colleagues might meet in + the cabinet, Lord Kimberley and Sir William Harcourt on their own + part and on that of the ministers generally, used words + undeservedly kind of acknowledgment and farewell. Lord Kimberley + will pray your Majesty to appoint a council for Saturday, at as + early an hour as may be convenient. + + +Mr. Gladstone sat composed and still as marble, and the emotion of the +cabinet did not gain him for an instant. He followed the "words of +acknowledgment and farewell" in a little speech of four or five minutes, +his voice unbroken and serene, the tone low, grave, and steady. He was +glad to know that he had justification in the condition of his senses. He +was glad to think that notwithstanding difference upon a public question, +private friendships would remain unaltered and unimpaired. Then hardly +above a breath, but every accent heard, he said "God bless you all." He +rose slowly and went out of one door, while his colleagues with minds +oppressed filed out by the other. In his diary he enters--"A really moving +scene." + +A little later in the afternoon he made his last speech in the House of +Commons. It was a vigorous assault upon the House of Lords. His mind had +changed since the day in September 1884 when he had declared to an +emissary from the court that he hated organic change in the House of +Lords, and would do much to avert that mischief.(306) Circumstances had +now altered the case; we had come to a more acute stage. Were they to +accept the changes made by the Lords in the bill for parish councils, or +were they to drop it? The question, he said, is whether the work of the +House of Lords is not merely to modify, but to annihilate the whole work +of the House of Commons, work which has been performed at an amount of +sacrifice--of time, of labour, of convenience, and perhaps of health--but at +any rate an amount of sacrifice totally unknown to the House of Lords. The +government had resolved that great as were the objections to acceptance of +the changes made by the Lords, the arguments against rejection were still +weightier. Then he struck a note of passion, and spoke with rising fire:-- + + + We are compelled to accompany that acceptance with the sorrowful + declaration that the differences, not of a temporary or casual + nature merely, but differences of conviction, differences of + prepossession, differences of mental habit, and differences of + fundamental tendency, between the House of Lords and the House of + Commons, appear to have reached a development in the present year + such as to create a state of things of which we are compelled to + say that, in our judgment, it cannot continue. Sir, I do not wish + to use hard words, which are easily employed and as easily + retorted--it is a game that two can play at--but without using hard + words, without presuming to judge of motives, without desiring or + venturing to allege imputations, I have felt it a duty to state + what appeared to me to be indisputable facts. The issue which is + raised between a deliberative assembly, elected by the votes of + more than 6,000,000 people, and a deliberative assembly occupied + by many men of virtue, by many men of talent, of course with + considerable diversities and varieties, is a controversy which, + when once raised, must go forward to an issue. + + +Men did not know that they were listening to his last speech, but his +words fell in with the eager humour of his followers around him, and he +sat down amid vehement plaudits. Then when the business was at an end, he +rose, and for the last time walked away from the House of Commons. He had +first addressed it sixty-one years before. + + + +III + + +The following day (March 2) he busied himself in packing his papers, and +working at intervals on his translation of Horace. He told me that he had +now reason to suppose that the Queen might ask him for advice as to his +successor. After some talk, he said that if asked he should advise her to +send for Lord Spencer. As it happened, his advice was not sought. That +evening he went to Windsor to dine and (M185) sleep. The next day was to +be the council. Here is his memorandum of the last audience on Saturday, +March 3(307):-- + + + As I crossed the quadrangle at 10.20 on my way to St. George's + Chapel, I met Sir H. Ponsonby, who said he was anxious to speak to + me about the future. He was much impressed with the movement among + a body of members of parliament against having any peer for prime + minister. I signified briefly that I did not think there should be + too ready a submission to such a movement. There was not time to + say a great deal, and I had something serious to say, so we + adjourned the conversation till half past eleven, when I should + return from St. George's. + + He came at that time and opened on the same lines, desiring to + obtain from me whatever I thought proper to say as to persons in + the arrangements for the future. I replied to him that this was in + my view a most serious matter. All my thoughts on it were + absolutely at the command of the Queen. And I should be equally at + his command, if he inquired of me from her and in her name; but + that otherwise my lips must be sealed. I knew from him that he was + in search of information to report to the Queen, but this was a + totally different matter. + + I entered, however, freely on the general question of the movement + among a section of the House of Commons. I thought it impossible + to say at the moment, but I should not take for granted that it + would be formidable or regard it as _in limine_ disposing of the + question. Up to a certain point, I thought it a duty to strengthen + the hands of our small minority and little knot of ministers in + the Lords, by providing these ministers with such weight as + attaches to high office. All this, or rather all that touched the + main point, namely the point of a peer prime minister, he without + doubt reported. + + The council train came down and I joined the ministers in the + drawing-room. I received various messages as to the time when I + was to see the Queen, and when it would be most convenient to me. + I interpret this variety as showing that she was nervous. It ended + in fixing the time after the council and before luncheon. I + carried with me a box containing my resignation, and, the council + being over, handed it to her immediately, and told her that it + contained my tender of resignation. She asked whether she ought + then to read it. I said there was nothing in the letter to require + it. It repeated my former letter of notice, with the requisite + additions. + + I must notice what, though slight, supplied the only incident of + any interest in this perhaps rather memorable audience, which + closed a service that would reach to fifty-three years on + September 3, when I was sworn privy councillor before the Queen at + Claremont. When I came into the room and came near to take the + seat she has now for some time courteously commanded, I did think + she was going to "break down." If I was not mistaken, at any rate + she rallied herself, as I thought, by a prompt effort, and + remained collected and at her ease. Then came the conversation, + which may be called neither here nor there. Its only material + feature was negative. There was not one syllable on the past, + except a repetition, an emphatic repetition, of the thanks she had + long ago amply rendered for what I had done, a service of no great + merit, in the matter of the Duke of Coburg, and which I assured + her would not now escape my notice if occasion should arise. There + was the question of eyes and ears, of German _versus_ English + oculists, she believing in the German as decidedly superior. Some + reference to my wife, with whom, she had had an interview and had + ended it affectionately,--and various nothings. No touch on the + subject of the last Ponsonby conversation. Was I wrong in not + tendering orally my best wishes? I was afraid that anything said + by me should have the appearance of _touting_. A departing servant + has some title to offer his hopes and prayers for the future; but + a servant is one who has done, or tried to do, service in the + past. There is in all this a great sincerity. There also seems to + be some little mystery as to my own case with her. I saw no sign + of embarrassment or preoccupation. The Empress Frederick was + outside in the corridor. She bade me a most kind and warm + farewell, which I had done nothing to deserve. + + +The letter tendered to the Queen in the box was this:-- + + + Mr. Gladstone presents his most humble duty to your Majesty. The + close of the session and the approach of a new one have offered + Mr. Gladstone a suitable opportunity for considering the condition + of his sight and hearing, both of them impaired, in relation to + his official obligations. As they now place serious and also + growing obstacles in the way of the efficient discharge of those + obligations, the result has been that he has found it his duty + humbly to tender to your Majesty his resignation of the high + offices which your Majesty has been pleased to intrust to him. His + desire to make this surrender is accompanied with a grateful sense + of the condescending kindnesses, which your Majesty has graciously + shown him on so many occasions during the various periods for + which he has had the honour to serve your Majesty. Mr. Gladstone + will not needlessly burden your Majesty with a recital of + particulars. He may, however, say that although at eighty-four + years of age he is sensible of a diminished capacity for prolonged + labour, this is not of itself such as would justify his praying to + be relieved from the restraints and exigencies of official life. + But his deafness has become in parliament, and even in the + cabinet, a serious inconvenience, of which he must reckon on more + progressive increase. More grave than this, and more rapid in its + growth, is the obstruction of vision which arises from cataract in + both his eyes. It has cut him off in substance from the + newspapers, and from all except the best types in the best lights, + while even as to these he cannot master them with that ordinary + facility and despatch which he deems absolutely required for the + due despatch of his public duties. In other respects than reading + the operation of the complaint is not as yet so serious, but this + one he deems to be vital. Accordingly he brings together these two + facts, the condition of his sight and hearing, and the break in + the course of public affairs brought about in the ordinary way by + the close of the session. He has therefore felt that this is the + fitting opportunity for the resignation which by this letter he + humbly prays your Majesty to accept. + + +In the course of the day the Queen wrote what I take to be her last letter +to him:-- + + + _Windsor Castle, March 3, 1894._--Though the Queen has already + accepted Mr. Gladstone's resignation, and has taken leave of him, + she does not like to leave his letter tendering his resignation + unanswered. She therefore writes these few lines to say that she + thinks that after so many years of arduous labour and + responsibility he is right in wishing to be relieved at his age of + these arduous duties. And she trusts he will be able to enjoy + peace and quiet with his excellent and devoted wife in health and + happiness, and that his eyesight may improve. + + The Queen would gladly have conferred a peerage on Mr. Gladstone, + but she knows he would not accept it. + + +His last act in relation to this closing scene of the great official drama +was a letter to General Ponsonby (March 5):-- + + + The first entrance of a man to Windsor Castle in a responsible + character, is a great event in his life; and his last departure + from it is not less moving. But in and during the process which + led up to this transaction on Saturday, my action has been in the + strictest sense sole, and it has required me in circumstances + partly known to harden my heart into a flint. However, it is not + even now so hard, but that I can feel what you have most kindly + written; nor do I fail to observe with pleasure that you do not + speak absolutely in the singular. If there were feelings that made + the occasion sad, such feelings do not die with the occasion. But + this letter must not be wholly one of egotism. I have known and + have liked and admired all the men who have served the Queen in + your delicate and responsible office; and have liked most, + probably because I knew him most, the last of them, that most + true-hearted man, General Grey. But forgive me for saying you are + "to the manner born"; and such a combination of tact and temper + with loyalty, intelligence, and truth I cannot expect to see + again. Pray remember these are words which can only pass from an + old man to one much younger, though trained in a long experience. + + +It is hardly in human nature, in spite of Charles V., Sulla, and some +other historic persons, to lay down power beyond recall, without a secret +pang. In Prior's lines that came to the mind of brave Sir Walter Scott, as +he saw the curtain falling on his days,-- + + + The man in graver tragic known, + (Though his best part long since was done,) + Still on the stage desires to tarry.... + Unwilling to retire, though weary. + + +Whether the departing minister had a lingering thought that in the +dispensations of the world, purposes and services would still arise to +which even yet he might one day be summoned, we do not know. Those who +were nearest to him believe not, and assuredly he made no outer sign. + + + + +Chapter IX. The Close. (1894-1898) + + + Natural death is as it were a haven and a rest to us after long + navigation. And the noble Soul is like a good mariner; for he, + when he draws near the port, lowers his sails and enters it softly + with gentle steerage.... And herein we have from our own nature a + great lesson of suavity; for in such a death as this there is no + grief nor any bitterness: but as a ripe apple is lightly and + without violence loosened from its branch, so our soul without + grieving departs from the body in which it hath been.--DANTE, + _Convito_.(308) + + + +I + + +After the first wrench was over, and an end had come to the demands, +pursuits, duties, glories, of powerful and active station held for a long +lifetime, Mr. Gladstone soon settled to the new conditions of his +existence, knowing that for him all that could be left was, in the figure +of his great Italian poet,"to lower sails and gather in his ropes."(309) +He was not much in London, and when he came he stayed in the pleasant +retreat to which his affectionate and ever-attached friends, Lord and Lady +Aberdeen, so often invited him at Dollis Hill. Much against his will, he +did not resign his seat in the House, and he held it until the dissolution +of 1895.(310) In June (1895) he took a final cruise in one of Sir Donald +Currie's ships, visiting Hamburg, the new North Sea canal, and Copenhagen +once more. His injured sight was a far deadlier breach in the habit of his +days than withdrawal from office or from parliament. His own tranquil +words written in the year in which he laid down his part in the shows of +the world's huge stage, tell the story:-- + + + _July 25, 1894._--For the first time in my life there has been + given to me by the providence of God a period of comparative + leisure, reckoning at the present date to four and a half months. + Such a period drives the mind in upon itself, and invites, almost + constrains, to recollection, and the rendering at least internally + an account of life; further it lays the basis of a habit of + meditation, to the formation of which the course of my existence, + packed and crammed with occupation outwards, never stagnant, + oft-times overdriven, has been extremely hostile. As there is no + life which in its detail does not seem to afford intervals of + brief leisure, or what is termed "waiting" for others engaged with + us in some common action, these are commonly spent in murmurs and + in petulant desire for their termination. But in reality they + supply excellent opportunities for brief or ejaculatory prayer. + + As this new period of my life has brought with it my retirement + from active business in the world, it affords a good opportunity + for breaking off the commonly dry daily journal, or ledger as it + might almost be called, in which for seventy years I have recorded + the chief details of my outward life. If life be continued I + propose to note in it henceforward only principal events or + occupations. This first breach since the latter part of May in + this year has been involuntary. When the operation on my eye for + cataract came, it was necessary for a time to suspend all use of + vision. Before that, from the beginning of March, it was only my + out-of-door activity or intercourse that had been paralysed.... + For my own part, _suave mari magno_ steals upon me; or at any + rate, an inexpressible sense of relief from an exhausting life of + incessant contention. A great revolution has been operated in my + correspondence, which had for many years been a serious burden, + and at times one almost intolerable. During the last months of + partial incapacity I have not written with my own hand probably so + much as one letter per day. Few people have had a smaller number + of _otiose_ conversations probably than I in the last fifty years; + but I have of late seen more friends and more freely, though + without practical objects in view. Many kind friends have read + books to me; I must place Lady Sarah Spencer at the head of the + proficients in that difficult art; in distinctness of + articulation, with low clear voice, she is supreme. Dearest + Catherine has been my chaplain from morning to morning. My + church-going has been almost confined to mid-day communions, which + have not required my abandonment of the reclining posture for long + periods of time. Authorship has not been quite in abeyance; I have + been able to write what I was not allowed to read, and have + composed two theological articles for the _Nineteenth Century_ of + August and September respectively.(311) + + Independently of the days of blindness after the operation, the + visits of doctors have become a noticeable item of demand upon + time. Of physic I incline to believe I have had as much, in 1894 + as in my whole previous life. I have learned for the first time + the extraordinary comfort of the aid which the attendance of a + nurse can give. My health will now be matter of little interest + except to myself. But I have not yet abandoned the hope that I may + be permitted to grapple with that considerable armful of work, + which had been long marked out for my old age; the question of my + recovering sight being for the present in abeyance. + + _Sept. 13._--I am not yet thoroughly accustomed to my new stage of + existence, in part because the remains of my influenza have not + yet allowed me wholly to resume the habits of health. But I am + thoroughly content with my retirement; and I cast no longing, + lingering look behind. I pass onward from it _oculo irretorto_. + There is plenty of work before me, peaceful work and work directed + to the supreme, _i.e._ the spiritual cultivation of mankind, if it + pleases God to give me time and vision to perform it. + + _Oct. 1._--As far as I can at present judge, all the signs of the + eye being favourable, the new form of vision will enable me to get + through in a given time about half the amount of work which would + have been practicable under the old. I speak of reading and + writing work, which have been principal with me when I had the + option. In conversation there is no difference, although there are + various drawbacks in what we call society. On the 20th of last + month when I had gone through my crises of trials, Mr. Nettleship, + [the oculist], at once declared that any further operation would + be superfluous. + + I am unable to continue attendance at the daily morning service, + not on account of the eyesight but because I may not rise before + ten at the earliest. And so a Hawarden practice of over fifty + years is interrupted; not without some degree of hope that it may + be resumed. Two evening services, one at 5 P.M. and the other at + 7, afford me a limited consolation. I drive almost every day, and + thus grow to my dissatisfaction more burdensome. My walking powers + are limited; once I have exceeded two miles by a little. A large + part of the day remains available at my table; daylight is + especially precious; my correspondence is still a weary weight, + though I have admirable help from children. Upon the whole the + change is considerable. In early and mature life a man walks to + his daily work with a sense of the duty and capacity of + self-provision, a certain {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER KAPPA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~} [independence] (which the + Greeks carried into the moral world). Now that sense is reversed; + it seems as if I must, God knows how reluctantly, lay burdens upon + others; and as if capacity were, so to speak, dealt out to me + mercifully--but by armfuls. + + +Old age until the very end brought no grave changes in physical +conditions. He missed sorely his devoted friend, Sir Andrew Clark, to +whose worth as man and skill as healer he had borne public testimony in +May 1894. But for physician's service there was no special need. His +ordinary life, though of diminished power, suffered little interruption. +"The attitude," he wrote, "in which I endeavoured to fix myself was that +of a soldier on parade, in a line of men drawn up ready to march and +waiting for the word of command. I sought to be in preparation for prompt +obedience, feeling no desire to go, but on the other hand without +reluctance because firmly convinced that whatever He ordains for us is +best, best both for us and for all." + +He worked with all his old zest at his edition of Bishop Butler, and his +volume of studies subsidiary to Butler. He wrote to the Duke of Argyll +(Dec. 5, 1895):-- + + + I find my Butler a weighty undertaking, but I hope it will be + useful at least for the important improvements of form which I am + making. + + It is very difficult to keep one's temper in dealing with M. + Arnold when he touches on religious matters. His patronage of a + Christianity fashioned by himself is to me more offensive and + trying than rank unbelief. But I try, or seem to myself to try, to + shrink from controversy of which I have had so much. Organic + evolution sounds to me a Butlerish idea, but I doubt if he ever + employed either term, certainly he has not the phrase, and I + cannot as yet identify the passage to which you may refer. + + _Dec. 9._--Many thanks for your letter. The idea of evolution is + without doubt deeply ingrained in Butler. The case of the animal + creation had a charm for him, and in his first chapter he opens, + without committing himself, the idea of their possible elevation + to a much higher state. I have always been struck by the glee with + which negative writers strive to get rid of "special creation," as + if by that method they got the idea of God out of their way, + whereas I know not what right they have to say that the small + increments effected by the divine workman are not as truly special + as the large. It is remarkable that Butler has taken such hold + both on nonconformists in England and outside of England, + especially on those bodies in America which are descended from + English non-conformists. + + +He made progress with his writings on the Olympian Religion, without +regard to Acton's warnings and exhortations to read a score of volumes by +learned explorers with uncouth names. He collected a new series of his +_Gleanings_. By 1896 he had got his cherished project of hostel and +library at St. Deiniol's in Hawarden village, near to its launch. He was +drawn into a discussion on the validity of anglican orders, and even wrote +a letter to Cardinal Rampolla, in his effort to realise the dream of +Christian unity. The Vatican replied in such language as might have been +expected by anybody with less than Mr. Gladstone's inextinguishable faith +in the virtues of argumentative persuasion. Soon he saw the effects of +Christian disunion upon a bloodier stage. In the autumn of this year he +was roused to one more vehement protest like that twenty years before +against the abominations of Turkish rule, this time in Armenia. He had +been induced to address a meeting in Chester in August 1895, and now a +year later he travelled to Liverpool (Sept. 24) to a non-party gathering +at Hengler's Circus. He always described this as the place most agreeable +to the speaker of all those with which he was acquainted. "Had I the years +of 1876 upon me," he said to one of his sons, "gladly would I start +another campaign, even if as long as that." + +To discuss, almost even to describe, the course of his policy and +proceedings in the matter of Armenia, would bring us into a mixed +controversy affecting statesmen now living, who played an unexpected part, +and that controversy may well stand over for another, and let us hope a +very distant, day. Whether we had a right to interfere single-handed; +whether we were bound as a duty to interfere under the Cyprus Convention; +whether our intervention would provoke hostilities on the part of other +Powers and even kindle a general conflagration in Europe; whether our +severance of diplomatic relations with the Sultan or our withdrawal from +the concert of Europe would do any good; what possible form armed +intervention could take--all these are questions on which both liberals and +tories vehemently differed from one another then, and will vehemently +differ again. Mr. Gladstone was bold and firm in his replies. As to the +idea, he said, that all independent action on the part of this great +country was to be made chargeable for producing war in Europe, "that is in +my opinion a mistake almost more deplorable than almost any committed in +the history of diplomacy." We had a right under the convention. We had a +duty under the responsibilities incurred at Paris in 1856, at Berlin in +1878. The upshot of his arguments at Liverpool was that we should break +off relations with the Sultan; that we should undertake not to turn +hostilities to our private advantage; that we should limit our proceedings +to the suppression of mischief in its aggravated form; and if Europe +threatened us with war it might be necessary to recede, as France had +receded under parallel circumstances from her individual policy on the +eastern question in 1840,--receded without loss either of honour or power, +believing that she had been right and wise and others wrong and unwise. + +If Mr. Gladstone had still had, as he puts it, "the years of 1876," he +might have made as deep a mark. As it was, his speech at Liverpool was his +last great deliverance to a public audience. As the year ended this was +his birthday entry:-- + + + _Dec. 29, 1896._--My long and tangled life this day concludes its + 87th year. My father died four days short of that term. I know of + no other life so long in the Gladstone family, and my profession + has been that of politician, or, more strictly, minister of state, + an extremely short-lived race when their scene of action has been + in the House of Commons, Lord Palmerston being the only complete + exception. In the last twelve months eyes and ears may have + declined, but not materially. The occasional contraction of the + chest is the only inconvenience that can be called new. I am not + without hope that Cannes may have a [illegible] to act upon it. + The blessings of family life continue to be poured in the largest + measure upon my unworthy head. Even my temporal affairs have + thriven. Still old age is appointed for the gradual loosening and + succeeding snapping of the threads. I visited Lord Stratford when + he was, say, 90 or 91 or thereabouts. He said to me, "It is not a + blessing." As to politics, I think the basis of my mind is laid + principally in finance and philanthropy. The prospects of the + first are darker than I have ever known them. Those of the second + are black also, but with more hope of some early dawn. I do not + enter on interior matters. It is so easy to write, but to write + honestly nearly impossible. Lady Grosvenor gave me to-day a + delightful present of a small crucifix. I am rather too + independent of symbol. + + +This is the last entry in the diaries of seventy years. + +At the end of January 1897, the Gladstones betook themselves once more to +Lord Rendel's _palazzetto_, as they called it, at Cannes. + + + I had hoped during this excursion, he journalises, to make much + way with my autobiographica. But this was in a large degree + frustrated, first by invalidism, next by the eastern question, on + which I was finally obliged to write something.(312) Lastly, and + not least, by a growing sense of decline in my daily amount of + brain force available for serious work. My power to read (but to + read very slowly indeed since the cataract came) for a + considerable number of hours daily, thank God, continues. This is + a great mercy. While on my outing, I may have read, of one kind + and another, twenty volumes. Novels enter into this list rather + considerably. I have begun seriously to ask myself whether I shall + ever be able to face "The Olympian Religion." + + +The Queen happened to be resident at Cimiez at this time, and Mr. +Gladstone wrote about their last meeting:-- + + + A message came down to us inviting us to go into the hotel and + take tea with the Princess Louise. We repaired to the hotel, and + had our tea with Miss Paget, who was in attendance. The Princess + soon came in, and after a short delay we were summoned into the + Queen's presence. No other English people were on the ground. We + were shown into a room tolerably, but not brilliantly lighted, + much of which was populated by a copious supply of Hanoverian + royalties. The Queen was in the inner part of the room, and behind + her stood the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Cambridge. + Notwithstanding my enfeebled sight, my vision is not much impaired + for practical purposes in cases such as this, where I am + thoroughly familiar with the countenance and whole contour of any + person to be seen. My wife preceded, and Mary followed me. The + Queen's manner did not show the old and usual vitality. It was + still, but at the same time very decidedly kind, such as I had not + seen it for a good while before my final resignation. She gave me + her hand, a thing which is, I apprehended, rather rare with men, + and which had never happened with me during all my life, though + that life, be it remembered, had included some periods of rather + decided favour. Catherine sat down near her, and I at a little + distance. For a good many years she had habitually asked me to + sit. My wife spoke freely and a good deal to the Queen, but the + answers appeared to me to be very slight. As to myself, I + expressed satisfaction at the favourable accounts I had heard of + the accommodation at Cimiez, and perhaps a few more words of + routine. To speak frankly, it seemed to me that the Queen's + peculiar faculty and habit of conversation had disappeared. It was + a faculty, not so much the free offspring of a rich and powerful + mind, as the fruit of assiduous care with long practice and much + opportunity. After about ten minutes, it was signified to us that + we had to be presented to all the other royalties, and so passed + the remainder of this meeting. + + +In the early autumn of 1897 he found himself affected by (M186) what was +supposed to be a peculiar form of catarrh. He went to stay with Mr. +Armitstead at Butterstone in Perthshire. I saw him on several occasions +afterwards, but this was the last time when I found him with all the +freedom, full self-possession, and kind geniality of old days. He was +keenly interested at my telling him that I had seen James Martineau a few +days before, in his cottage further north in Inverness-shire; that +Martineau, though he had now passed his ninety-second milestone on life's +road, was able to walk five or six hundred feet up his hillside every day, +was at his desk at eight each morning, and read theology a good many hours +before he went to bed at night. Mr. Gladstone's conversation was varied, +glowing, full of reminiscence. He had written me in the previous May, +hoping among other kind things that "we may live more and more in sympathy +and communion." I never saw him more attractive than in the short pleasant +talks of these three or four days. He discussed some of the sixty or +seventy men with whom he had been associated in cabinet life,(313) freely +but charitably, though he named two whom he thought to have behaved worse +to him than others. He repeated his expression of enormous admiration for +Graham. Talked about his own voice. After he had made his long budget +speech in 1860, a certain member, supposed to be an operatic expert, came +to him and said, "You must take great care, or else you will destroy the +_colour_ in your voice." He had kept a watch on general affairs. The +speech of a foreign ruler upon divine right much incensed him. He thought +that Lord Salisbury had managed to set the Turk up higher than he had +reached since the Crimean war; and his policy had weakened Greece, the +most liberal of the eastern communities. We fought over again some old +battles of 1886 and 1892-4. Mr. Armitstead had said to him--"Oh, sir, +you'll live ten years to come." "I do trust," he answered as he told me +this, "that God in his mercy will spare me that." + + + +II + + +Then came months of distress. The facial annoyance grew into acute and +continued pain, and to pain he proved to be exceedingly sensitive. It did +not master him, but there were moments that seemed almost of collapse and +defeat. At last the night was gathering + + + About the burning crest + Of the old, feeble, and day-wearied sun.(314) + + +They took him at the end of November (1897) to Cannes, to the house of +Lord Rendel. + +Sometimes at dinner he talked with his host, with Lord Welby, or Lord +Acton, with his usual force, but most of the time he lay in extreme +suffering and weariness, only glad when they soothed him with music. It +was decided that he had better return, and in hope that change of air +might even yet be some palliative, he went to Bournemouth, which he +reached on February 22. For weeks past he had not written nor read, save +one letter that he wrote in his journey home to Lady Salisbury upon a +rather narrow escape of her husband's in a carriage accident. On March 18 +his malady was pronounced incurable, and he learned that it was likely to +end in a few weeks. He received the verdict with perfect serenity and with +a sense of unutterable relief, for his sufferings had been cruel. Four +days later he started home to die. On leaving Bournemouth before stepping +into the train, he turned round, and to those who were waiting on the +platform to see him off, he said with quiet gravity, "God bless you and +this place, and the land you love." At Hawarden he bore the dreadful +burden of his pain with fortitude, supported by the ritual ordinances of +his church and faith. Music soothed him, the old composers being those he +liked best to hear. Messages of sympathy were read to him, and he listened +silently or with a word of thanks. + +"The retinue of the whole world's good wishes" flowed to the "large upper +chamber looking to the sunrising, where the aged pilgrim lay." Men and +women of every communion offered up earnest prayers for him. Those who +were of no communion thought with pity, sympathy, and sorrow of + + + A Power passing from the earth + To breathless Nature's dark abyss. + + +(M187) From every rank in social life came outpourings in every key of +reverence and admiration. People appeared--as is the way when death +comes--to see his life and character as a whole, and to gather up in his +personality, thus transfigured by the descending shades, all the best +hopes and aspirations of their own best hours. A certain grandeur +overspread the moving scene. Nothing was there for tears. It was "no +importunate and heavy load." The force was spent, but it had been nobly +spent in devoted and effective service for his country and his fellow-men. + +From the Prince of the Black Mountain came a telegram: "Many years ago, +when Montenegro, my beloved country, was in difficulties and in danger, +your eloquent voice and powerful pen successfully pleaded and worked on +her behalf. At this time vigorous and prosperous, with a bright future +before her, she turns with sympathetic eye to the great English statesman +to whom she owes so much, and for whose present sufferings she feels so +deeply." And he answered by a message that "his interest in Montenegro had +always been profound, and he prayed that it might prosper and be blessed +in all its undertakings." + +Of the thousand salutations of pity and hope none went so much to his +heart as one from Oxford--an expression of true feeling, in language worthy +of her fame:-- + + + At yesterday's meeting of the hebdomadal council, wrote the + vice-chancellor, an unanimous wish was expressed that I should + convey to you the message of our profound sorrow and affection at + the sore trouble and distress which you are called upon to endure. + While we join in the universal regret with which the nation + watches the dark cloud which has fallen upon the evening of a + great and impressive life, we believe that Oxford may lay claim to + a deeper and more intimate share in this sorrow. Your brilliant + career in our university, your long political connection with it, + and your fine scholarship, kindled in this place of ancient + learning, have linked you to Oxford by no ordinary bond, and we + cannot but hope that you will receive with satisfaction this + expression of deep-seated kindliness and sympathy from us. + + We pray that the Almighty may support you and those near and dear + to you in this trial, and may lighten the load of suffering which + you bear with such heroic resignation. + + +To this he listened more attentively and over it he brooded long, then he +dictated to his youngest daughter sentence by sentence at intervals his +reply:-- + + + There is no expression of Christian sympathy that I value more + than that of the ancient university of Oxford, the God-fearing and + God-sustaining university of Oxford. I served her, perhaps + mistakenly, but to the best of my ability. My most earnest prayers + are hers to the uttermost and to the last. + + +When May opened, it was evident that the end was drawing near. On the 13th +he was allowed to receive visits of farewell from Lord Rosebery and from +myself, the last persons beyond his household to see him. He was hardly +conscious. On the early morning of the 19th, his family all kneeling +around the bed on which he lay in the stupor of coming death, without a +struggle he ceased to breathe. Nature outside--wood and wide lawn and +cloudless far-off sky--shone at her fairest. + + + +III + + +On the day after his death, in each of the two Houses the leader made the +motion, identical in language in both cases save the few final words about +financial provision in the resolution of the Commons:-- + + + That an humble Address be presented to her Majesty praying that + her Majesty will be graciously pleased to give directions that the + remains of the Right Hon. William Ewart Gladstone be interred at + the public charge, and that a monument be erected in the + Collegiate Church of St. Peter, Westminster, with an inscription + expressive of the public admiration and attachment and of the high + sense entertained of his rare and splendid gifts, and of his + devoted labours to parliament and in great offices of state, and + to assure her Majesty that this House will make good the expenses + attending the same. + + +The language of the movers was worthy of the British parliament at its +best, worthy of the station of those who (M188) used it, and worthy of the +figure commemorated. Lord Salisbury was thought by most to go nearest to +the core of the solemnity:-- + + + What is the cause of this unanimous feeling? Of course, he had + qualities that distinguished him from all other men; and you may + say that it was his transcendent intellect, his astonishing power + of attaching men to him, and the great influence he was able to + exert upon the thought and convictions of his contemporaries. But + these things, which explain the attachment, the adoration of those + whose ideas he represented, would not explain why it is that + sentiments almost as fervent are felt and expressed by those whose + ideas were not carried out by his policy. My Lords, I do not think + the reason is to be found in anything so far removed from the + common feelings of mankind as the abstruse and controversial + questions of the policy of the day. They had nothing to do with + it. Whether he was right, or whether he was wrong, in all the + measures, or in most of the measures which he proposed--those are + matters of which the discussion has passed by, and would certainly + be singularly inappropriate here; they are really remitted to the + judgment of future generations, who will securely judge from + experience what we can only decide by forecast. It was on account + of considerations more common to the masses of human beings, to + the general working of the human mind, than any controversial + questions of policy that men recognised in him a man + guided--whether under mistaken impressions or not, it matters + not--but guided in all the steps he took, in all the efforts that + he made, by a high moral ideal. What he sought were the + attainments of great ideals, and, whether they were based on sound + convictions or not, they could have issued from nothing but the + greatest and the purest moral aspirations; and he is honoured by + his countrymen, because through so many years, across so many + vicissitudes and conflicts, they had recognised this one + characteristic of his action, which has never ceased to be felt. + He will leave behind him, especially to those who have followed + with deep interest the history of the later years--I might almost + say the later months of his life--he will leave behind him the + memory of a great Christian statesman. Set up necessarily on + high--the sight of his character, his motives, and his intentions + would strike all the world. They will have left a deep and most + salutary influence on the political thought and the social thought + of the generation in which he lived, and he will be long + remembered not so much for the causes in which he was engaged or + the political projects which he favoured, but as a great example, + to which history hardly furnishes a parallel, of a great Christian + man. + + +Mr. Balfour, the leader in the Commons, specially spoke of him as "the +greatest member of the greatest deliberative assembly that the world has +seen," and most aptly pointed to Mr. Gladstone's special service in +respect of that assembly. + + + One service he did, in my opinion incalculable, which is + altogether apart from the judgment that we may be disposed to pass + upon particular opinions, or particular lines of policy which Mr. + Gladstone may from time to time have advocated. Sir, he added a + dignity, as he added a weight, to the deliberations of this House + by his genius, which I think it is impossible adequately to + replace. It is not enough for us to keep up simply a level, though + it be a high level, of probity and of patriotism. The mere average + of civic virtue is not sufficient to preserve this Assembly from + the fate that has overcome so many other Assemblies, products of + democratic forces. More than this is required; more than this was + given to us by Mr. Gladstone. He brought to our debates a genius + which compelled attention, he raised in the public estimation the + whole level of our proceedings, and they will be most ready to + admit the infinite value of his service who realise how much of + public prosperity is involved in the maintenance of the worth of + public life, and how perilously difficult most democracies + apparently feel it to be to avoid the opposite dangers into which + so many of them have fallen. + + +Sir William Harcourt spoke of him as friend and official colleague:-- + + + I have heard men who knew him not at all, who have asserted that + the supremacy of his genius and the weight of his authority + oppressed and overbore those who lived with him and those who + worked under him. Nothing could be more untrue. Of all chiefs he + was the least exacting. He was the most kind, the most tolerant, + he was the most placable. How seldom in this House was the voice + of personal anger heard from his lips. These are the true marks of + greatness. + + +Lord Rosebery described his gifts and powers, his concentration, the +multiplicity of his interests, his labour of every day, and almost of +every hour of every day, in fashioning an intellect that was mighty by +nature. And besides this panegyric on the departed warrior, he touched +with felicity and sincerity a note of true feeling in recalling to his +hearers + + + the solitary and pathetic figure, who for sixty years, shared all + the sorrows and all the joys of Mr. Gladstone's life, who received + his confidence and every aspiration, who shared his triumphs with + him and cheered him under his defeats; who by her tender + vigilance, I firmly believe, sustained and prolonged his years. + + +When the memorial speeches were over the House of Commons adjourned. The +Queen, when the day of the funeral came, telegraphed to Mrs. Gladstone +from Balmoral:-- + + + My thoughts are much with you to-day, when your dear husband is + laid to rest. To-day's ceremony will be most trying and painful + for you, but it will be at the same time gratifying to you to see + the respect and regret evinced by the nation for the memory of one + whose character and intellectual abilities marked him as one of + the most distinguished statesmen of my reign. I shall ever + gratefully remember his devotion and zeal in all that concerned my + personal welfare and that of my family. + + + +IV + + +It was not at Westminster only that his praise went forth. Famous men, in +the immortal words of Pericles to his Athenians, have the whole world for +their tomb; they are commemorated not only by columns and inscriptions in +their own land; in foreign lands too a memorial of them is graven in the +hearts of men. So it was here. No other statesman on our famous roll has +touched the imagination of so wide a world. + +The colonies through their officers or more directly, sent to Mrs. +Gladstone their expression of trust that the worldwide admiration and +esteem of her honoured and illustrious husband would help her to sustain +her burden of sorrow. The ambassador of the United States reverently +congratulated her and the English race everywhere, upon the glorious +completion of a life filled with splendid achievements and consecrated to +the noblest purposes. The President followed in the same vein, and in +Congress words were found to celebrate a splendid life and character. The +President of the French republic wished to be among the first to associate +himself with Mrs. Gladstone's grief: "By the high liberality of his +character," he said, "and by the nobility of his political ideal, Mr. +Gladstone had worthily served his country and humanity." The entire French +government requested the British ambassador in Paris to convey the +expression of their sympathy and assurance of their appreciation, +admiration, and respect for the character of the illustrious departed. The +Czar of Russia telegraphed to Mrs. Gladstone: "I have just received the +painful news of Mr. Gladstone's decease, and consider it my duty to +express to you my feelings of sincere sympathy on the occasion of the +cruel and irreparable bereavement which has befallen you, as well as the +deep regret which this sad event has given me. The whole of the civilised +world will beweep the loss of a great statesman, whose political views +were so widely humane and peaceable." + +In Italy the sensation was said to be as great as when Victor Emmanuel or +Garibaldi died. The Italian parliament and the prime minister telegraphed +to the effect that "the cruel loss which had just struck England, was a +grief sincerely shared by all who are devoted to liberty. Italy has not +forgotten, and will never forget, the interest and sympathy of Mr. +Gladstone in events that led to its independence." In the same key, +Greece: the King, the first minister, the university, the chamber, +declared that he was entitled to the gratitude of the Greek people, and +his name would be by them for ever venerated. From Roumania, Macedonia, +Norway, Denmark, tributes came "to the great memory of Gladstone, one of +the glories of mankind." Never has so wide and honourable a pomp all over +the globe followed an English statesman to the grave. + + + +IV + + +On May 25, the remains were brought from Hawarden, and in the middle of +the night the sealed coffin was placed in Westminster Hall, watched until +the funeral by the piety of relays of friends. For long hours each day +great multitudes filed past the bier. It was a striking demonstration of +national feeling, for the procession contained every rank, and contingents +came from every part of the kingdom. On Saturday, May 28, the body was +committed to the grave in Westminster Abbey. No sign of high honour was +absent. The heir to the throne and his son were among those who bore the +pall. So were the prime minister and the two leaders of the parties in +both Houses. The other pall-bearers were Lord Rosebery who had succeeded +him as prime minister, the Duke of Rutland who had half a century before +been Mr. Gladstone's colleague at Newark, and Mr. Armitstead and Lord +Rendel, who were his private friends. Foreign sovereigns sent their +representatives, the Speaker of the House of Commons was there in state, +and those were there who had done stout battle against him for long years; +those also who had sat with him in council and stood by his side in +frowning hours. At the head of the grave was "the solitary and pathetic +figure" of his wife. Even men most averse to all pomps and shows on the +occasions and scenes that declare so audibly their nothingness, here were +only conscious of a deep and moving simplicity, befitting a great citizen +now laid among the kings and heroes. Two years later, the tomb was opened +to receive the faithful and devoted companion of his life. + + + + +Chapter X. Final. + + +Anybody can see the host of general and speculative questions raised by a +career so extraordinary. How would his fame have stood if his political +life had ended in 1854, or 1874, or 1881, or 1885? What light does it shed +upon the working of the parliamentary system; on the weakness and strength +of popular government; on the good and bad of political party; on the +superiority of rule by cabinet or by an elected president; on the +relations of opinion to law? Here is material for a volume of +disquisition, and nobody can ever discuss such speculations without +reference to power as it was exercised by Mr. Gladstone. Those thronged +halls, those vast progresses, those strenuous orations--what did they +amount to? Did they mean a real moulding of opinion, an actual impression, +whether by argument or temper or personality or all three, on the minds of +hearers? Or was it no more than the same kind of interest that takes men +to stage-plays with a favourite performer? This could hardly be, for his +hearers gave him long spells of power and a practical authority that was +unique and supreme. What thoughts does his career suggest on the relations +of Christianity to patriotism, or to empire, or to what has been called +neo-paganism? How many points arise as to the dependence of ethics on +dogma? These are deep and living and perhaps burning issues, not to be +discussed at the end of what the reader may well have found a long +journey. They offer themselves for his independent consideration. + + + +I + + +Mr. Gladstone's own summary of the period in which he (M189) had been so +conspicuous a figure was this, when for him the drama was at an end:-- + + + Of his own career, he says, it is a career certainly chargeable + with many errors of judgment, but I hope on the whole, governed at + least by uprightness of intention and by a desire to learn. The + personal aspect may now readily be dismissed as it concerns the + past. But the public aspect of the period which closes for me with + the fourteen years (so I love to reckon them) of my formal + connection with Midlothian is too important to pass without a + word. I consider it as beginning with the Reform Act of Lord + Grey's government. That great Act was for England improvement and + extension, for Scotland it was political birth, the beginning of a + duty and a power, neither of which had attached to the Scottish + nation in the preceding period. I rejoice to think how the + solemnity of that duty has been recognised, and how that power has + been used. The three-score years offer us the pictures of what the + historian will recognise as a great legislative and administrative + period--perhaps, on the whole, the greatest in our annals. It has + been predominantly a history of emancipation--that is of enabling + man to do his work of emancipation, political, economical, social, + moral, intellectual. Not numerous merely, but almost numberless, + have been the causes brought to issue, and in every one of them I + rejoice to think that, so far as my knowledge goes, Scotland has + done battle for the right. + + Another period has opened and is opening still--a period possibly + of yet greater moral dangers, certainly a great ordeal for those + classes which are now becoming largely conscious of power, and + never heretofore subject to its deteriorating influences. These + have been confined in their actions to the classes above them, + because they were its sole possessors. Now is the time for the + true friend of his country to remind the masses that their present + political elevation is owing to no principles less broad and noble + than these--the love of liberty, of liberty for all without + distinction of class, creed or country, and the resolute + preference of the interests of the whole to any interest, be it + what it may, of a narrower scope.(315) + + +A year later, in bidding farewell to his constituents "with sentiments of +gratitude and attachment that can never be effaced," he proceeds:-- + + + Though in regard to public affairs many things are disputable, + there are some which belong to history and which have passed out + of the region of contention. It is, for example as I conceive, + beyond question that the century now expiring has exhibited since + the close of its first quarter a period of unexampled activity + both in legislative and administrative changes; that these + changes, taken in the mass, have been in the direction of true and + most beneficial progress; that both the conditions and the + franchises of the people have made in relation to the former state + of things, an extraordinary advance; that of these reforms an + overwhelming proportion have been effected by direct action of the + liberal party, or of statesmen such as Peel and Canning, ready to + meet odium or to forfeit power for the public good; and that in + every one of the fifteen parliaments the people of Scotland have + decisively expressed their convictions in favour of this wise, + temperate, and in every way remarkable policy.(316) + + +To charge him with habitually rousing popular forces into dangerous +excitement, is to ignore or misread his action in some of the most +critical of his movements. "Here is a man," said Huxley, "with the +greatest intellect in Europe, and yet he debases it by simply following +majorities and the crowd." He was called a mere mirror of the passing +humours and intellectual confusions of the popular mind. He had nothing, +said his detractors, but a sort of clever pilot's eye for winds and +currents, and the rising of the tide to the exact height that would float +him and his cargo over the bar. All this is the exact opposite of the +truth. What he thought was that the statesman's gift consisted in insight +into the facts of a particular era, disclosing the existence of material +for forming public opinion and directing public opinion to a given +purpose. In every one of his achievements of high mark--even in his last +marked failure of achievement--he expressly formed, or endeavoured to form +and create, the public opinion upon which he knew that in the last resort +he must depend. + +(M190) We have seen the triumph of 1853.(317) Did he, in renewing the most +hated of taxes, run about anxiously feeling the pulse of public opinion? +On the contrary, he grappled with the facts with infinite labour--and half +his genius was labour--he built up a great plan; he carried it to the +cabinet; they warned him that the House of Commons would be against him; +the officials of the treasury told him the Bank would be against him; that +a strong press of commercial interests would be against him. Like the bold +and sinewy athlete that he always was, he stood to his plan; he carried +the cabinet; he persuaded the House of Commons; he vanquished the Bank and +the hostile interests; and in the words of Sir Stafford Northcote, he +changed and turned for many years to come, a current of public opinion +that seemed far too powerful for any minister to resist. In the +tempestuous discussions during the seventies on the policy of this country +in respect of the Christian races of the Balkan Peninsula, he with his own +voice created, moulded, inspired, and kindled with resistless flame the +whole of the public opinion that eventually guided the policy of the +nation with such admirable effect both for its own fame, and for the good +of the world. Take again the Land Act of 1881, in some ways the most +deep-reaching of all his legislative achievements. Here he had no flowing +tide, every current was against him. He carried his scheme against the +ignorance of the country, against the prejudice of the country, and +against the standing prejudices of both branches of the legislature, who +were steeped from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot in the +strictest doctrines of contract. + +Then his passion for economy, his ceaseless war against public profusion, +his insistence upon rigorous keeping of the national accounts--in this +great department of affairs he led and did not follow. In no sphere of his +activities was he more strenuous, and in no sphere, as he must well have +known, was he less likely to win popularity. For democracy is spendthrift; +if, to be sure, we may not say that most forms of government are apt to be +the same. + +In a survey of Mr. Gladstone's performances, some would place this of +which I have last spoken, as foremost among his services to the country. +Others would call him greatest in the associated service of a skilful +handling and adjustment of the burden of taxation; or the strengthening of +the foundations of national prosperity and well-being by his reformation +of the tariff. Yet others again choose to remember him for his share in +guiding the successive extensions of popular power, and simplifying and +purifying electoral machinery. Irishmen at least, and others so far as +they are able to comprehend the history and vile wrongs and sharp needs of +Ireland, will have no doubt what rank in legislation they will assign to +the establishment of religious equality and agrarian justice in that +portion of the realm. Not a few will count first the vigour with which he +repaired what had been an erroneous judgment of his own and of vast hosts +of his countrymen, by his courage in carrying through the submission of +the Alabama claims to arbitration. Still more, looking from west to east, +in this comparison among his achievements, will judge alike in its result +and in the effort that produced it, nothing equal to the valour and +insight with which he burst the chains of a mischievous and degrading +policy as to the Ottoman empire. When we look at this exploit, how in face +of an opponent of genius and authority and a tenacity not inferior to his +own, in face of strongly rooted tradition on behalf of the Turk, and an +easily roused antipathy against the Russian, by his own energy and +strength of arm he wrested the rudder from the hand of the helmsman and +put about the course of the ship, and held England back from the enormity +of trying to keep several millions of men and women under the yoke of +barbaric oppression and misrule,--we may say that this great feat alone was +fame enough for one statesman. Let us make what choice we will of this or +that particular achievement, how splendid a list it is of benefits +conferred and public work effectually performed. Was he a good +parliamentary tactician, they ask? Was his eye sure, his hand firm, his +measurement of forces, distances, and possibilities of change in wind and +tide accurate? Did he usually hit the proper moment for a magisterial +intervention? Experts did not (M191) always agree on his quality as +tactician. At least he was pilot enough to bring many valuable cargoes +safely home. + +He was one of the three statesmen in the House of Commons of his own +generation who had the gift of large and spacious conception of the place +and power of England in the world, and of the policies by which she could +maintain it. Cobden and Disraeli were the other two. Wide as the poles +asunder in genius, in character, and in the mark they made upon the +nation, yet each of these three was capable of wide surveys from high +eminence. But Mr. Gladstone's performances in the sphere of active +government were beyond comparison. + +Again he was often harshly judged by that tenacious class who insist that +if a general principle be sound, there can never be a reason why it should +not be applied forthwith, and that a rule subject to exceptions is not +worth calling a rule; and the worst of it is that these people are mostly +the salt of the earth. In their impatient moments they dismissed him as an +opportunist, but whenever there was a chance of getting anything done, +they mostly found that he was the only man with courage and resolution +enough to attempt to do it. In thinking about him we have constantly to +remember, as Sir George Lewis said, that government is a very rough affair +at best, a huge rough machine, not the delicate springs, wheels, and +balances of a chronometer, and those concerned in working it have to be +satisfied with what is far below the best. "Men have no business to talk +of disenchantment," Mr. Gladstone said; "ideals are never realised." That +is no reason, he meant, why men should not persist and toil and hope, and +this is plainly the true temper for the politician. Yet he did not feed +upon illusions. "The history of nations," he wrote in 1876, "is a +melancholy chapter; that is, the history of governments is one of the most +immoral parts of human history." + + + +II + + +It might well be said that Mr. Gladstone took too little, rather than too +much trouble to be popular. His religious conservatism puzzled and +irritated those who admired and shared his political liberalism, just as +churchmen watched with uneasiness and suspicion his radical alliances. +Neither those who were churchmen first, nor those whose interests were +keenest in politics, could comprehend the union of what seemed +incompatibles, and because they could not comprehend they sometimes in +their shallower humours doubted his sincerity. Mr. Gladstone was never, +after say 1850, really afraid of disestablishment; on the contrary he was +much more afraid of the perils of establishment for the integrity of the +faith. Yet political disestablishers often doubted him, because they had +not logic enough to see that a man may be a fervent believer in anglican +institutions and what he thinks catholic tradition, and yet be as ready as +Cavour for the principle of free church in free state. + +It is curious that some of the things that made men suspicious, were in +fact the liveliest tokens of his sincerity and simplicity. With all his +power of political imagination, yet his mind was an intensely literal +mind. He did not look at an act or a decision from the point of view at +which it might be regarded by other people. Ewelme, the mission to the +Ionian Islands, the royal warrant, the affair of the judicial committee, +vaticanism, and all the other things that gave offence, and stirred +misgivings even in friends, showed that the very last question he ever +asked himself was how his action would look; what construction might be +put upon it, or even would pretty certainly be put upon it; whom it would +encourage, whom it would estrange, whom it would perplex. Is the given end +right, he seemed to ask; what are the surest means; are the means as right +as the end, as right as they are sure? But right--on strict and literal +construction. What he sometimes forgot was that in political action, +construction is part of the act, nay, may even be its most important +part.(318) + +The more you make of his errors, the more is the need to explain his vast +renown, the long reign of his authority, the substance and reality of his +powers. We call men great for many reasons apart from service wrought or +eminence of intellect or even from force and depth of character. To (M192) +have taken a leading part in transactions of decisive moment; to have +proved himself able to meet demands on which high issues hung; to combine +intellectual qualities, though moderate yet adequate and sufficient, with +the moral qualities needed for the given circumstance--with daring, +circumspection, energy, intrepid initiative; to have fallen in with one of +those occasions in the world that impart their own greatness even to a +mediocre actor, and surround his name with a halo not radiating from +within but shed upon him from without--in all these and many other ways men +come to be counted great. Mr. Gladstone belongs to the rarer class who +acquired authority and fame by transcendent qualities of genius within, in +half independence of any occasions beyond those they create for +themselves. + + + +III + + +Of his attitude in respect of church parties, it is not for me to speak. +He has himself described at least one aspect of it in a letter to an +inquirer, which would be a very noble piece by whomsoever written, and in +the name of whatsoever creed or no-creed, whether Christian or Rationalist +or Nathan the Wise Jew's creed. It was addressed to a clergyman who seems +to have asked of what section Mr. Gladstone considered himself an +adherent:-- + + + _Feb. 4, 1865._--It is impossible to misinterpret either the + intention or the terms of your letter; and I thank you for it + sincerely. But I cannot answer the question which you put to me, + and I think I can even satisfy you that with my convictions I + should do wrong in replying to it in any manner. Whatever reason I + may have for being painfully and daily conscious of every kind of + unworthiness, yet I am sufficiently aware of the dignity of + religious belief to have been throughout a political life, now in + its thirty-third year, steadily resolved never by my own voluntary + act to make it the subject of any compact or assurance with a view + to a political object. You think (and pray do not suppose I make + this matter of complaint) that I have been associated with one + party in the church of England, and that I may now lean rather + towards another.... There is no one about whom information can be + more easily had than myself. I have had and have friends of many + colours, churchmen high and low, presbyterians, Greeks, Roman + catholics, dissenters, who can speak abundantly, though perhaps + not very well of me. And further, as member for the university, I + have honestly endeavoured at all times to put my constituents in + possession of all I could convey to them that could be considered + as in the nature of a fact, by answering as explicitly as I was + able all questions relating to the matters, and they are numerous + enough, on which I have had to act or speak. Perhaps I shall + surprise you by what I have yet further to say. I have never by + any conscious act yielded my allegiance to any person or party in + matters of religion. You and others may have called me (without + the least offence) a churchman of some particular kind, and I have + more than once seen announced in print my own secession from the + church of England. These things I have not commonly contradicted, + for the atmosphere of religious controversy and contradiction is + as odious as the atmosphere of mental freedom is precious, to me; + and I have feared to lose the one and be drawn into the other, by + heat and bitterness creeping into the mind. If another chooses to + call himself, or to call me, a member of this or that party, I am + not to complain. But I respectfully claim the right not to call + myself so, and on this claim, I have I believe acted throughout my + life, without a single exception; and I feel that were I to waive + it, I should at once put in hazard that allegiance to Truth, which + is at once the supreme duty and the supreme joy of life. I have + only to add the expression of my hope that in what I have said + there is nothing to hurt or to offend you; and, if there be, very + heartily to wish it unsaid. + + +Yet there was never the shadow of mistake about his own fervent faith. As +he said to another correspondent:-- + + + _Feb. 5, 1876._--I am in principle a strong denominationalist. "One + fold and one shepherd" was the note of early Christendom. The + shepherd is still one and knows his sheep; but the folds are many; + and, without condemning any others, I am of opinion that it is + best for us all that we should all of us be jealous for the honour + of whatever we have and hold as positive truth, appertaining to + the Divine Word and the foundation and history of the Christian + community. I admit that this question becomes one of circumstance + and degree, but I take it as I find it defined for myself by and + in my own position. + + + +IV + + +Of Mr. Gladstone as orator and improvisatore, enough has been said and +seen. Besides being orator and statesman he was scholar and critic. +Perhaps scholar in his interests, not in abiding contribution. The most +copious of his productions in this delightful but arduous field was the +three large volumes on _Homer and the Homeric Age_, given to the world in +1858. Into what has been well called the whirlpool of Homeric +controversies, the reader shall not here be dragged. Mr. Gladstone himself +gave them the go-by, with an indifference and disdain such as might have +been well enough in the economic field if exhibited towards a +protectionist farmer, or a partisan of retaliatory duties on manufactured +goods, but that were hardly to the point in dealing with profound and +original critics. What he too contemptuously dismissed as Homeric +"bubble-schemes," were in truth centres of scientific illumination. At the +end of the eighteenth century Wolf's famous _Prolegomena_ appeared, in +which he advanced the theory that Homer was no single poet, nor a name for +two poets, nor an individual at all; the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ were +collections of independent lays, folk-lore and folk-songs connected by a +common set of themes, and edited, redacted, or compacted about the middle +of the sixth century before Christ. A learned man of our own day has said +that F. A. Wolf ought to be counted one of the half dozen writers that +within the last three centuries have most influenced thought. This would +bring Wolf into line with Descartes, Newton, Locke, Kant, Rousseau, or +whatever other five master-spirits of thought from then to now the +judicious reader may select. The present writer has assuredly no +competence to assign Wolf's place in the history of modern criticism, but +straying aside for a season from the green pastures of Hansard, and +turning over again the slim volume of a hundred and fifty pages in which +Wolf discusses his theme, one may easily discern a fountain of broad +streams of modern thought (apart from the particular thesis) that to Mr. +Gladstone, by the force of all his education and his deepest +prepossessions, were in the highest degree chimerical and dangerous. + +He once wrote to Lord Acton (1889) about the Old Testament and Mosaic +legislation:-- + + + Now I think that the most important parts of the argument have in + a great degree a solid standing ground apart from the destructive + criticism on dates and on the text: and I am sufficiently aware of + my own rawness and ignorance in the matter not to allow myself to + judge definitely, or condemn. I feel also that I have a + prepossession derived from the criticisms in the case of Homer. Of + them I have a very bad opinion, not only in themselves, but as to + the levity, precipitancy, and shallowness of mind which they + display; and here I do venture to speak, because I believe myself + to have done a great deal more than any of the destructives in the + examination of the text, which is the true source of the materials + of judgment. They are a soulless lot; but there was a time when + they had possession of the public ear as much I suppose as the Old + Testament destructives now have, within their own precinct. It is + only the constructive part of their work on which I feel tempted + to judge; and I must own that it seems to me sadly wanting in the + elements of rational probability. + + +This unpromising method is sufficiently set out when he says: "I find in +the plot of the _Iliad_ enough of beauty, order, and structure, not merely +to sustain the supposition of its own unity, but to bear an independent +testimony, should it be still needed, to the existence of a personal and +individual Homer as its author."(319) From such a method no permanent +contribution could come. + +Yet scholars allow that Mr. Gladstone in these three volumes, as well as +in _Juventus Mundi_ and his _Homeric Primer_, has added not a little to +our scientific knowledge of the Homeric poems,(320) by his extraordinary +mastery of the text, the result of unwearied and prolonged industry, aided +(M193) by a memory both tenacious and ready. Taking his own point of view, +moreover, anybody who wishes to have his feeling about the _Iliad_ and +_Odyssey_ as delightful poetry refreshed and quickened, will find +inspiring elements in the profusion, the eager array of Homer's own lines, +the diligent exploration of aspects and bearings hitherto unthought of. +The "theo-mythology" is commonly judged fantastic, and has been compared +by sage critics to Warburton's _Divine Legation_--the same comprehensive +general reading, the same heroic industry in marshalling the particulars +of proof, the same dialectical strength of arm, and all brought to prove +an unsound proposition.(321) Yet the comprehensive reading and the +particulars of proof are by no means without an interest of their own, +whatever we may think of the proposition; and here, as in all his literary +writing distinguished from polemics, he abounds in the ethical elements. +Here perhaps more than anywhere else he impresses us by his love of beauty +in all its aspects and relations, in the human form, in landscape, in the +affections, in animals, including above all else that sense of beauty +which made his Greeks take it as one of the names for nobility in conduct. +Conington, one of the finest of scholars, then lecturing at Oxford on +Latin poets and deep in his own Virgilian studies, which afterwards bore +such admirable fruit, writes at length (Feb. 14, 1857) to say how grateful +he is to Mr. Gladstone for the care with which he has pursued into details +a view of Virgil that they hold substantially in common, and proceeds with +care and point to analyse the quality of the Roman poet's art, as some +years later he defended against Munro the questionable proposition of the +superiority in poetic style of the graceful, melodious, and pathetic +Virgil to Lucretius's mighty muse. + +No field has been more industriously worked for the last forty years than +this of the relations of paganism to the historic religion that followed +it in Europe. The knowledge and the speculations into which Mr. Gladstone +was thus initiated in the sixties may now seem crude enough; but he +deserves some credit in English, though not in view of German, speculation +for an early perception of an unfamiliar region of comparative science, +whence many a product most unwelcome to him and alien to his own beliefs +has been since extracted. When all is said, however, Mr. Gladstone's place +is not in literary or critical history, but elsewhere. + +His style is sometimes called Johnsonian, but surely without good ground. +Johnson was not involved and he was clear, and neither of these things can +always be said of Mr. Gladstone. Some critic charged him in 1840 with +"prolix clearness." The old charge, says Mr. Gladstone upon this, was +"obscure compression. I do not doubt that both may be true, and the former +may have been the result of a well-meant effort to escape from the +latter." He was fond of abstract words, or the nearer to abstract the +better, and the more general the better. One effect of this was +undoubtedly to give an indirect, almost a shifty, air that exasperated +plain people. Why does he beat about the bush, they asked; why cannot he +say what he means? A reader might have to think twice or thrice or twenty +times before he could be sure that he interpreted correctly. But then +people are so apt to think once, or half of once; to take the meaning that +suits their own wish or purpose best, and then to treat that as the only +meaning. Hence their perplexity and wrath when they found that other doors +were open, and they thought a mistake due to their own hurry was the +result of a juggler's trick. On the other hand a good writer takes all the +pains he can to keep his reader out of such scrapes. + +His critical essays on Tennyson and Macaulay are excellent. They are +acute, discriminating, generous. His estimate of Macaulay, apart from a +piece of polemical church history at the end, is perhaps the best we have. +"You make a very just remark," said Acton to him, "that Macaulay was +afraid of contradicting his former self, and remembered all he had written +since 1825. At that time his mind was formed, and so it remained. What +literary influences acted on the formation of his political opinions, what +were his religious sympathies, and what is his exact place among +historians, you have rather avoided discussing. There is still something +to say on these points." To Tennyson Mr. Gladstone believed himself to +have been unjust, especially in the passages of _Maud_ devoted to the +war-frenzy, and when he came to reprint the article he admitted that he +had not sufficiently remembered that he was dealing with a dramatic and +imaginative composition.(322) As he frankly said of himself, he was not +strong in the faculties of the artist, but perhaps Tennyson himself in +these passages was prompted much more by politics than by art. Of this +piece of retractation the poet truly said, "Nobody but a noble-minded man +would have done that."(323) Mr. Gladstone would most likely have chosen to +call his words a qualification rather than a recantation. In either case, +it does not affect passages that give the finest expression to one of the +very deepest convictions of his life,--that war, whatever else we may +choose to say of it, is no antidote for Mammon-worship and can never be a +cure for moral evils:-- + + + It is, indeed, true that peace has its moral perils and + temptations for degenerate man, as has every other blessing, + without exception, that he can receive from the hand of God. It is + moreover not less true that, amidst the clash of arms, the noblest + forms of character may be reared, and the highest acts of duty + done; that these great and precious results may be due to war as + their cause; and that one high form of sentiment in particular, + the love of country, receives a powerful and general stimulus from + the bloody strife. But this is as the furious cruelty of Pharaoh + made place for the benign virtue of his daughter; as the + butchering sentence of Herod raised without doubt many a mother's + love into heroic sublimity; as plague, as famine, as fire, as + flood, as every curse and every scourge that is wielded by an + angry Providence for the chastisement of man, is an appointed + instrument for tempering human souls in the seven-times heated + furnace of affliction, up to the standard of angelic and + archangelic virtue. + + War, indeed, has the property of exciting much generous and noble + feeling on a large scale; but with this special recommendation it + has, in its modern forms especially, peculiar and unequalled + evils. As it has a wider sweep of desolating power than the rest, + so it has the peculiar quality that it is more susceptible of + being decked in gaudy trappings, and of fascinating the + imagination of those whose proud and angry passions it inflames. + But it is, on this very account, a perilous delusion to teach that + war is a cure for moral evil, in any other sense than as the + sister tribulations are. The eulogies of the frantic hero in + _Maud_, however, deviate into grosser folly. It is natural that + such vagaries should overlook the fixed laws of Providence. Under + these laws the mass of mankind is composed of men, women, and + children who can but just ward off hunger, cold, and nakedness; + whose whole ideas of Mammon-worship are comprised in the search + for their daily food, clothing, shelter, fuel; whom any casualty + reduces to positive want; and whose already low estate is yet + further lowered and ground down, when "the blood-red blossom of + war flames with its heart of fire."... + + Still war had, in times now gone by, ennobling elements and + tendencies of the less sordid kind. But one inevitable + characteristic of modern war is, that it is associated throughout, + in all particulars, with a vast and most irregular formation of + commercial enterprise. There is no incentive to Mammon-worship so + remarkable as that which it affords. The political economy of war + is now one of its most commanding aspects. Every farthing, with + the smallest exceptions conceivable, of the scores or hundreds of + millions which a war may cost, goes directly, and very violently, + to stimulate production, though it is intended ultimately for + waste or for destruction. Even apart from the fact that war + suspends, _ipso facto_, every rule of public thrift, and tends to + sap honesty itself in the use of the public treasure for which it + makes such unbounded calls, it therefore is the greatest feeder of + that lust of gold which we are told is the essence of commerce, + though we had hoped it was only its occasional besetting sin. It + is, however, more than this; for the regular commerce of peace is + tameness itself compared with the gambling spirit which war, + through the rapid shiftings and high prices which it brings, + always introduces into trade. In its moral operation it more + resembles, perhaps the finding of a new gold-field, than anything + else. + + +More remarkable than either of these two is his piece on Leopardi (1850), +the Italian poet, whose philosophy and (M194) frame of mind, said Mr. +Gladstone, "present more than any other that we know, more even than that +of Shelley, the character of unrelieved, unredeemed desolation--the very +qualities in it which attract pitying sympathy, depriving it of all +seductive power." It is curious that he should have selected one whose +life lay along a course like Leopardi's for commemoration, as a man who in +almost every branch of mental exertion seems to have had the capacity for +attaining, and generally at a single bound, the very highest excellence. +"There are many things," he adds, "in which Christians would do well to +follow him: in the warmth of his attachments; in the moderation of his +wants; in his noble freedom from the love of money; in his all-conquering +assiduity."(324) Perhaps the most remarkable sentence of all is this: "... +what is not needful, and is commonly wrong, namely, is to pass a judgment +on our fellow-creatures. Never let it be forgotten that there is scarcely +a single moral action of a single man of which other men can have such a +knowledge, in its ultimate grounds, its surrounding incidents, and the +real determining causes of its merits, as to warrant their pronouncing a +conclusive judgment upon it." + +The translation of poetry into poetry, as Coleridge said, is difficult +because the translator must give brilliancy without the warmth of original +conception, from which such brilliancy would follow of its own accord. But +we must not judge Mr. Gladstone's translation either of Horace's odes or +of detached pieces from Greek or Italian, as we should judge the professed +man of letters or poet like Coleridge himself. His pieces are the +diversions of the man of affairs, with educated tastes and interest in +good literature. Perhaps the best single piece is his really noble +rendering of Manzoni's noble ode on the death of Napoleon; for instance:-- + + + From Alp to farthest Pyramid, + From Rhine to Mansanar, + How sure his lightning's flash foretold + His thunderbolts of war! + To Don from Scilla's height they roar, + From North to Southern shore. + And this was glory? After-men, + Judge the dark problem. Low + We to the Mighty Maker bend + The while, Who planned to show + What vaster mould Creative Will + With him could fill. + + ------------------------------------- + + As on the shipwrecked mariner + The weltering wave's descent-- + The wave, o'er which, a moment since, + For distant shores he bent + And bent in vain, his eager eye; + So on that stricken head + Came whelming down the mighty Past. + How often did his pen + Essay to tell the wondrous tale + For after times and men, + And o'er the lines that could not die + His hand lay dead. + + How often, as the listless day + In silence died away, + He stood with lightning eye deprest, + And arms across his breast, + And bygone years, in rushing train, + Smote on his soul amain: + The breezy tents he seemed to see, + And the battering cannon's course, + And the flashing of the infantry, + And the torrent of the horse, + And, obeyed as soon as heard, + Th' ecstatic word. + + +Always let us remember that his literary life was part of the rest of his +life, as literature ought to be. He was no mere reader of many books, used +to relieve the strain of mental anxiety or to slake the thirst of literary +or intellectual curiosity. Reading with him in the days of his full vigour +was a habitual communing with the master spirits of mankind, as a +vivifying and nourishing part of life. As we have seen, he would not read +Dante in the session, nor unless he could have a large draught. Here as +elsewhere in the ordering of his days he was methodical, systematic, full. + + + +V + + +(M195) Though man of action, yet Mr. Gladstone too has a place by +character and influences among what we may call the abstract, moral, +spiritual forces that stamped the realm of Britain in his age. In a new +time, marked in an incomparable degree by the progress of science and +invention, by vast mechanical, industrial, and commercial development, he +accepted it all, he adjusted his statesmanship to it all, nay, he revelled +in it all, as tending to ameliorate the lot of the "mass of men, women, +and children who can just ward off hunger, cold, and nakedness." He did +not rail at his age, he strove to help it. Following Walpole and Cobden +and Peel in the policies of peace, he knew how to augment the material +resources on which our people depend. When was Britain stronger, richer, +more honoured among the nations--I do not say always among the diplomatic +chanceries and governments--than in the years when Mr. Gladstone was at the +zenith of his authority among us? When were her armed forces by sea and +land more adequate for defence of every interest? When was her material +resource sounder? When was her moral credit higher? Besides all this, he +upheld a golden lamp. + +The unending revolutions of the world are for ever bringing old phases +uppermost again. Events from season to season are taken to teach sinister +lessons, that the Real is the only Rational, force is the test of right +and wrong, the state has nothing to do with restraints of morals, the +ruler is emancipated. Speculations in physical science were distorted for +alien purposes, and survival of the fittest was taken to give brutality a +more decent name. Even new conceptions and systems of history may be +twisted into release of statesmen from the conscience of Bishop Butler's +plain man. This gospel it was Mr. Gladstone's felicity to hold at bay. +Without bringing back the cosmopolitanism of the eighteenth century, +without sharing all the idealisms of the middle of the nineteenth, he +resisted with his whole might the odious contention that moral progress in +the relations of nations and states to one another is an illusion and a +dream. + +This vein perhaps brings us too near to the regions of dissertation. Let +us rather leave off with thoughts and memories of one who was a vivid +example of public duty and of private faithfulness; of a long career that +with every circumstance of splendour, amid all the mire and all the +poisons of the world, lighted up in practice even for those who have none +of his genius and none of his power his own precept, "Be inspired with the +belief that life is a great and noble calling; not a mean and grovelling +thing, that we are to shuffle through as we can, but an elevated and lofty +destiny." + + + + + +APPENDIX + + + + +Irish Local Government, 1883. (Page 103) + + + _Mr. Gladstone to Lord Granville_ + + _Cannes, Jan. 22, 1883._--Today I have been a good deal distressed + by a passage as reported in Hartington's very strong and able + speech, for which I am at a loss to account, so far does it travel + out into the open, and so awkward are the intimations it seems to + convey. I felt that I could not do otherwise than telegraph to you + in cipher on the subject. But I used words intended to show that, + while I thought an immediate notification needful, I was far from + wishing to hasten the reply, and desired to leave altogether in + your hands the mode of touching a delicate matter. Pray use the + widest discretion. + + I console myself with thinking it is hardly possible that + Hartington can have meant to say what nevertheless both _Times_ + and _Daily News_ make him seem to say, namely, that we recede + from, or throw into abeyance, the declarations we have constantly + made about our desire to extend local government, properly so + called, to Ireland on the first opportunity which the state of + business in parliament would permit. We announced our intention to + do this at the very moment when we were preparing to suspend the + Habeas Corpus Act. Since that time we have seen our position in + Ireland immensely strengthened, and the leader of the agitation + has even thought it wise, and has dared, to pursue a somewhat + conciliatory course. Many of his coadjutors are still as vicious, + it may be, as ever, but how can we say (for instance) to the + Ulster men, you shall remain with shortened liberties and without + local government, because Biggar & Co. are hostile to British + connection? + + There has also come prominently into view a new and powerful set + of motives which, in my deliberate judgment, require us, for the + sake of the United Kingdom even more than for the sake of Ireland, + to push forward this question. Under the present highly + centralised system of government, every demand which can be + started on behalf of a poor and ill-organised country, comes + directly on the British government and treasury; if refused it + becomes at once a head of grievance, if granted not only a new + drain but a certain source of political complication and + embarrassment. The peasant proprietary, the winter's distress, the + state of the labourers, the loans to farmers, the promotion of + public works, the encouragement of fisheries, the promotion of + emigration, each and every one of these questions has a sting, and + the sting can only be taken out of it by our treating it in + correspondence with a popular and responsible Irish body, + competent to act for its own portion of the country. + + Every consideration which prompted our pledges, prompts the + recognition of them, and their extension, rather than curtailment. + The Irish government have in preparation a Local Government bill. + Such a bill may even be an economy of time. By no other means that + I can see shall we be able to ward off most critical and + questionable discussions on questions of the class I have + mentioned. The argument that we cannot yet trust Irishmen with + popular local institutions is the mischievous argument by which + the conservative opposition to the Melbourne government resisted, + and finally crippled, the reform of municipal corporations in + Ireland. By acting on principles diametrically opposite, we have + broken down to thirty-five or forty what would have been a party, + in this parliament, of sixty-five home rulers, and have thus + arrested (or at the very least postponed) the perilous crisis, + which no man has as yet looked in the face; the crisis which will + arise when a large and united majority of Irish members demand + some fundamental change in the legislative relations of the two + countries. I can ill convey to you how dear are my thoughts, or + how earnest my convictions, on this important subject.... + + + + +General Gordon's Instructions. (Page 153) + + +_The following is the text of General Gordon's Instructions (Jan. 18, +1884)_:-- + + + Her Majesty's government are desirous that you should proceed at + once to Egypt, to report to them on the military situation in the + Soudan, and on the measures it may be advisable to take for the + security of the Egyptian garrisons still holding positions in that + country, and for the safety of the European population in + Khartoum. You are also desired to consider and report upon the + best mode of effecting the evacuation of the interior of the + Soudan, and upon the manner in which the safety and good + administration by the Egyptian government of the ports on the sea + coast can best be secured. In connection with this subject you + should pay especial consideration to the question of the steps + that may usefully be taken to counteract the stimulus which it is + feared may possibly be given to the slave trade by the present + insurrectionary movement, and by the withdrawal of the Egyptian + authority from the interior. You will be under the instructions of + Her Majesty's agent and consul-general at Cairo, through whom your + reports to Her Majesty's government should be sent under flying + seal. You will consider yourself authorised and instructed to + perform such other duties as the Egyptian government may desire to + entrust to you, and as may be communicated to you by Sir E. + Baring. You will be accompanied by Colonel Stewart, who will + assist you in the duties thus confided to you. On your arrival in + Egypt you will at once communicate with Sir E. Baring, who will + arrange to meet you and will settle with you whether you should + proceed direct to Suakin or should go yourself or despatch Colonel + Stewart _via_ the Nile. + + + + +The Military Position In The Soudan, April 1885. (Page 179) + + +_This Memorandum, dated April 9, 1885, was prepared by Mr. Gladstone for +the cabinet_:-- + + + The commencement of the hot season appears, with other + circumstances, to mark the time for considering at large our + position in the Soudan. Also a declaration of policy is now + demanded from us in nearly all quarters.... When the betrayal of + Khartoum had been announced, the desire and intention of the + cabinet were to reserve for a later decision the question of an + eventual advance upon that place, should no immediate movement on + it be found possible. The objects they had immediately in view + were to ascertain the fate of Gordon, to make every effort on his + behalf, and to prevent the extension of the area of disturbance. + + But Lord Wolseley at once impressed upon the cabinet that he + required, in order to determine his immediate military movements, + to know whether they were to be based upon the plan of an eventual + advance on Khartoum, or whether the intention of such an advance + was to be abandoned altogether. If the first plan were adopted, + Lord Wolseley declared his power and intention to take Berber, and + even gave a possible date for it, in the middle of March. The + cabinet, adopting the phrase which Lord Wolseley had used, decided + upon the facts as they then stood before it: (_a_) Lord Wolseley + was to calculate upon proceeding to Khartoum after the hot season, + to overthrow the power of the Mahdi there; (_b_) and, + consequently, on this decision, they were to commence the + construction of a railway from Suakin to Berber, in aid of the + contemplated expedition; (_c_) an expedition was also to be sent + against Osman Digna, which would open the road to Berber; but Lord + Wolseley's demand for this expedition applied alike to each of the + two military alternatives which he had laid before the cabinet. + + There was no absolute decision to proceed to Khartoum at any time; + and the declarations of ministers in parliament have treated it as + a matter to be further weighed; but all steps have thus far been + taken to prepare for it, and it has been regarded as at least + probable. In approaching the question whether we are still to + proceed on the same lines, it is necessary to refer to the motives + which under the directions of the cabinet were stated by Lord + Granville and by me, on the 19th of February, as having + contributed to the decision, I copy out a part of the note from + which he and I spoke:-- + + Objects in the Soudan which we have always deemed fit for + consideration as far as circumstances might allow:-- + + 1. The case of those to whom Gordon held himself bound in honour. + + 2. The possibility of establishing an orderly government at + Khartoum. + + 3. Check to the slave trade. + + 4. The case of the garrisons. + + A negative decision would probably have involved the abandonment + at a stroke of all these objects. And also (we had to consider) + whatever dangers, proximate or remote, in Egypt or in the East + might follow from the triumphant position of the Mahdi; hard to + estimate, but they may be very serious. + + Two months, which have passed since the decision of the government + (Feb. 5), have thrown light, more or less, upon the several points + brought into view on the 19th February. 1. We have now no + sufficient reason to assume that any of the population of Khartoum + felt themselves bound to Gordon, or to have suffered on his + account; or even that any large numbers of men in arms perished in + the betrayal of the town, or took his part after the enemy were + admitted into it. 2. We have had no tidings of anarchy at + Khartoum, and we do not know that it is governed worse, or that + the population is suffering more, than it would be under a Turkish + or Egyptian ruler. 3. It is not believed that the possession of + Khartoum is of any great value as regards the slave trade. 4. Or, + after the failure of Gordon with respect to the garrisons, that + the possession of Khartoum would, without further and formidable + extensions of plan, avail for the purpose of relieving them. But + further, what knowledge have we that these garrisons are unable to + relieve themselves? There seems some reason to believe that the + army of Hicks, when the action ceased, fraternised with the + Mahdi's army, and that the same thing happened at Khartoum. Is + there ground to suppose that they are hateful unless as + representatives of Egyptian power? and ought they not to be + released from any obligation to present themselves in that + capacity? + + With regard to the larger question of eventual consequences in + Egypt or the East from the Mahdi's success at Khartoum, it is open + to many views, and cannot be completely disposed of. But it may be + observed--1. That the Mahdi made a trial of marching down the Nile + and speedily abandoned it, even in the first flush of his success. + 2. That cessation of operations in the Soudan does not at this + moment mean our military inaction in the East. 3. That the + question is one of conflict, not with the arms of an enemy, but + with Nature in respect of climate and supply. 4. There remains + also a grave question of justice, to which I shall revert. + + Should the idea of proceeding to Khartoum be abandoned, the + railway from Suakin, as now projected, would fall with it, since + it was adopted as a military measure, subsidiary to the advance on + Khartoum. The prosecution of it as a civil or commercial + enterprise would be a new proposal, to be examined on its merits. + + The military situation appears in some respects favourable to the + re-examination of the whole subject. The general has found himself + unable to execute his intention of taking Berber, and this failure + alters the basis on which the cabinet proceeded in February, and + greatly increases the difficulty of the autumn enterprise. On the + one hand Wolseley's and Graham's forces have had five or six + considerable actions, and have been uniformly victorious. On the + other hand, the Mahdi has voluntarily retired from Khartoum, and + Osman Digna has been driven from the field, but cannot, as Graham + says, be followed into the mountains.(325) While the present + situation may thus seem opportune, the future of more extended + operations is dark. In at least one of his telegrams, Wolseley has + expressed a very keen desire to get the British army out of the + Soudan.(326) He has now made very large demands for the autumn + expedition, which, judging from previous experience and from + general likelihood, are almost certain to grow larger, as he comes + more closely to confront the very formidable task before him; + while in his letter to Lord Hartington he describes this affair to + be _the greatest __"__since 1815,__"_ and expresses his hope that + all the members of the cabinet clearly understand this to be the + case. He also names a period of between two or three years for the + completion of the railway, while he expresses an absolute + confidence in the power and resources of this country with vast + effort to insure success. He means without doubt military success. + Political success appears much more problematical. + + There remains, however, to be considered a question which I take + to be of extreme importance. I mean the moral basis of the + projected military operations. I have from the first regarded the + rising of the Soudanese against Egypt as a justifiable and + honourable revolt. The cabinet have, I think, never taken an + opposite view. Mr. Power, in his letter from Khartoum before + Gordon's arrival, is decided and even fervent in the same sense. + + We sent Gordon on a mission of peace and liberation. From such + information as alone we have possessed, we found this missionary + of peace menaced and besieged, finally betrayed by some of his + troops, and slaughtered by those whom he came to set free. This + information, however, was fragmentary, and was also one-sided. We + have now the advantage of reviewing it as a whole, of reading it + in the light of events, and of some auxiliary evidence such as + that of Mr. Power. + + I never understood how it was that Gordon's mission of peace + became one of war. But we knew the nobleness of his philanthropy, + and we trusted him to the uttermost, as it was our duty to do. He + never informed us that he had himself changed the character of the + mission. It seemed strange that one who bore in his hands a + charter of liberation should be besieged and threatened; but we + took everything for granted in his favour, and against his + enemies; and we could hardly do otherwise. Our obligations in this + respect were greatly enhanced by the long interruption of + telegraphic communication. It was our duty to believe that, if we + could only know what he was prevented from saying to us, + contradictions would be reconciled, and language of excess + accounted for. We now know from the letters of Mr. Power that when + he was at Khartoum with Colonel de Coetlogon before Gordon's + arrival, a retreat on Berber had been actually ordered; it was + regarded no doubt as a serious work of time, because it involved + the removal of an Egyptian population;(327) but it was deemed + feasible, and Power expresses no doubt of its accomplishment.(328) + As far as, amidst its inconsistencies, a construction can be put + on Gordon's language, it is to the effect that there was a + population and a force attached to him, which he could not remove + and would not leave.(329) But De Coetlogon did not regard this + removal as impracticable, and was actually setting about it. Why + Gordon did not prosecute it, why we hear no more of it from Power + after Gordon's arrival, is a mystery. Instructed by results we now + perceive that Gordon's title as governor-general might naturally + be interpreted by the tribes in the light of much of the language + used by him, which did not savour of liberation and evacuation, + but of powers of government over the Soudan; powers to be used + benevolently, but still powers of government. Why the Mahdi did + not accept him is not hard to understand, but why was he not + accepted by those local sultans, whom it was the basis of his + declared policy to re-invest with their ancient powers, in spite + of Egypt and of the Mahdi alike? Was he not in short interpreted + as associated with the work of Hicks, and did he not himself give + probable colour to this interpretation? It must be borne in mind + that on other matters of the gravest importance--on the use of + Turkish force--on the use of British force--on the employment of + Zobeir--Gordon announced within a very short time contradictory + views, and never seemed to feel that there was any need of + explanation, in order to account for the contradictions. There is + every presumption, as well as every sign, that like fluctuation + and inconsistency crept into his words and acts as to the + liberation of the country; and this, if it was so, could not but + produce ruinous effects. Upon the whole, it seems probable that + Gordon, perhaps insensibly to himself, and certainly without our + concurrence, altered the character of his mission, and worked in a + considerable degree against our intentions and instructions. + + There does not appear to be any question now of the security of + the army, but a most grave question whether we can demonstrate a + necessity (nothing less will suffice) for making war on a people + who are struggling against a foreign and armed yoke, not for the + rescue of our own countrymen, not for the rescue _so far as we + know_ of an Egyptian population, but with very heavy cost of + British life as well as treasure, with a serious strain on our + military resources at a most critical time, and with the most + serious fear that if we persist, we shall find ourselves engaged + in an odious work of subjugation. The discontinuance of these + military operations would, I presume, take the form of a + suspension _sine die,_ leaving the future open; would require + attention to be paid to defence on the recognised southern + frontier of Egypt, and need not involve any precipitate + abandonment of Suakin. + + + + +Home Rule Bill, 1886. (Page 308) + + +(M196) _The following summary of the provisions of the Home Rule bill of +1886 supplements the description of the bill given in Chapter V. Book +X._:-- + + + One of the cardinal difficulties of all free government is to make + it hard for majorities to act unjustly to minorities. You cannot + make this injustice impossible but you may set up obstacles. In + this case, there was no novelty in the device adopted. The + legislative body was to be composed of two orders. The first order + was to consist of the twenty-eight representative peers, together + with seventy-five members elected by certain scheduled + constituencies on an occupation franchise of twenty-five pounds + and upwards. To be eligible for the first order, a person must + have a property qualification, either in realty of two hundred + pounds a year, or in personalty of the same amount, or a capital + value of four thousand pounds. The representative peers now + existing would sit for life, and, as they dropped off, the crown + would nominate persons to take their place up to a certain date, + and on the exhaustion of the twenty-eight existing peers, then the + whole of the first order would become elective under the same + conditions as the seventy-five other members. + + The second order would consist of 206 members, chosen by existing + counties and towns under the machinery now operative. The two + orders were to sit and deliberate together, but either order could + demand a separate vote. This right would enable a majority of one + order to veto the proposal of the other. But the veto was only to + operate until a dissolution, or for three years, whichever might + be the longer interval of the two. + + The executive transition was to be gradual. The office of viceroy + would remain, but he would not be the minister of a party, nor + quit office with an outgoing government. He would have a privy + council; within that council would be formed an executive body of + ministers like the British cabinet. This executive would be + responsible to the Irish legislature, just as the executive + government here is responsible to the legislature of this country. + If any clause of a bill seemed to the viceroy to be _ultra vires_, + he could refer it to the judicial committee of the privy council + in London. The same reference, in respect of a section of an Irish + Act, lay open either to the English secretary of state, or to a + suitor, defendant, or other person concerned. + + Future judges were to hold the same place in the Irish system as + English judges in the English system; their office was to be + during good behaviour; they were to be appointed on the advice of + the Irish government, removable only on the joint address of the + two orders, and their salaries charged on the Irish consolidated + fund. The burning question of the royal Irish constabulary was + dealt with provisionally. Until a local force was created by the + new government, they were to remain at the orders of the lord + lieutenant. Ultimately the Irish police were to come under the + control of the legislative body. For two years from the passing of + the Act, the legislative body was to fix the charge for the whole + constabulary of Ireland. + + In national as in domestic housekeeping, the figure of available + income is the vital question. The total receipts of the Irish + exchequer would be L8,350,000, from customs, excise, stamps, + income-tax, and non-tax revenue. On a general comparison of the + taxable revenues of Ireland and Great Britain, as tested more + especially by the property passing under the death duties, the + fair proportion due as Ireland's share for imperial purposes, such + as interest on the debt, defence, and civil charge, was fixed at + one-fifteenth. This would bring the total charge properly imperial + up to L3,242,000. Civil charges in Ireland were put at L2,510,000, + and the constabulary charge on Ireland was not to exceed + L1,000,000, any excess over that sum being debited to England. The + Irish government would be left with a surplus of L404,000. This + may seem a ludicrously meagre amount, but, compared with the total + revenue, it is equivalent to a surplus on our own budget of that + date of something like five millions. + + The true payment to imperial charges was to be L1,842,000 because + of the gross revenue above stated of L1,400,000 though paid in + Ireland in the first instance was really paid by British consumers + of whisky, porter, and tobacco. This sum, deducted from + L3,342,000, leaves the real Irish contribution, namely L1,842,000. + + A further sum of uncertain, but substantial amount, would go to + the Irish exchequer from another source, to which we have now to + turn. With the proposals for self-government were coupled + proposals for a settlement of the land question. The ground-work + was an option offered to the landlords of being bought out under + the terms of the Act. The purchaser was to be an Irish state + authority, as the organ representing the legislative body. The + occupier was to become the proprietor, except in the congested + districts, where the state authority was to be the proprietor. The + normal price was to be twenty years' purchase of the net rental. + The most important provision, in one sense, was that which + recognised the salutary principle that the public credit should + not be resorted to on such a scale as this merely for the benefit + of a limited number of existing cultivators of the soil, without + any direct advantage to the government as representing the + community at large. That was effected by making the tenant pay an + annual instalment, calculated on the gross rental, while the state + authority would repay to the imperial treasury a percentage + calculated on the net rental, and the state authority would pocket + the difference, estimated to be about 18 per cent. on the sum + payable to the selling landlord. How was all this to be secured? + Principally, on the annuities paid by the tenants who had + purchased their holdings, and if the holdings did not satisfy the + charge, then on the revenues of Ireland. All public revenues + whatever were to be collected by persons appointed by the Irish + government, but these collectors were to pay over all sums that + came into their hands to an imperial officer, to be styled a + receiver-general. Through him all rents and Irish revenues + whatever were to pass, and not a shilling was to be let out for + Irish purposes until their obligations to the imperial exchequer + had been discharged. + + + + +On The Place Of Italy. (Page 415) + + + By the provisions of nature, Italy was marked out for a + conservative force in Europe. As England is cut off by the + channel, so is Italy by the mountains, from the continental + mass.... If England commits follies they are the follies of a + strong man who can afford to waste a portion of his resources + without greatly affecting the sum total.... She has a huge free + margin, on which she might scrawl a long list of follies and even + crimes without damaging the letterpress. But where and what is the + free margin in the case of Italy, a country which has contrived in + less than a quarter of a century of peace, from the date of her + restored independence, to treble (or something near it) the + taxation of her people, to raise the charge of her debt to a point + higher than that of England, and to arrive within one or two short + paces of national bankruptcy?... + + Italy by nature stands in alliance neither with anarchy nor with + Caesarism, but with the cause and advocates of national liberty + and progress throughout Europe. Never had a nation greater + advantages from soil and climate, from the talents and + dispositions of the people, never was there a more smiling + prospect (if we may fall back upon the graceful fiction) from the + Alpine tops, even down to the Sicilian promontories, than that + which for the moment has been darkly blurred. It is the heart's + desire of those, who are not indeed her teachers, but her friends, + that she may rouse herself to dispel once and for ever the evil + dream of what is not so much ambition as affectation, may + acknowledge the true conditions under which she lives, and it + perhaps may not yet be too late for her to disappoint the + malevolent hopes of the foes of freedom, and to fulfil every + bright and glowing prediction which its votaries have ever uttered + on her behalf.--_"__The Triple Alliance and Italy's Place in + it__"__ (Contemporary Review, Oct. 1889)._ + + + + +The Glasgow Peroration. (Page 492) + + +_After describing the past history of Ireland as being for more than five +hundred years 'one almost unbroken succession of political storm and +swollen tempest, except when those tempests were for a time interrupted by +a period of servitude and by the stillness of death,' Mr. Gladstone went +on_:-- + + + Those storms are in strong contrast with the future, with the + present. The condition of the Irish mind justifies us in + anticipating. It recalls to my mind a beautiful legend of ancient + paganism--for that ancient paganism, amongst many legends false and + many foul, had also some that were beautiful. There were two + Lacedaemonian heroes known as Castor and Pollux, honoured in their + life and more honoured in their death, when a star was called + after them, and upon that star the fond imagination of the people + fastened lively conceptions; for they thought that when a ship at + sea was caught in a storm, when dread began to possess the minds + of the crew, and peril thickened round them, and even alarm was + giving place to despair, that if then in the high heavens this + star appeared, gradually and gently but effectually the clouds + disappeared, the winds abated, the towering billows fell down to + the surface of the deep, calm came where there had been uproar, + safety came where there had been danger, and under the beneficent + influence of this heavenly body the terrified and despairing crew + came safely to port. The proposal which the liberal party of this + country made in 1886, which they still cherish in their mind and + heart, and which we trust and believe, they are about now to carry + forward, that proposal has been to Ireland and the political + relations of the two countries what the happy star was believed to + be to the seamen of antiquity. It has produced already + anticipations of love and good will, which are the first fruits of + what is to come. It has already changed the whole tone and temper + of the relations, I cannot say yet between the laws, but between + the peoples and inhabitants of these two great islands. It has + filled our hearts with hope and with joy, and it promises to give + us in lieu of the terrible disturbances of other times, with their + increasing, intolerable burdens and insoluble problems, the + promise of a brotherhood exhibiting harmony and strength at home, + and a brotherhood which before the world shall, instead of being + as it hitherto has been for the most part, a scandal, be a model + and an example, and shall show that we whose political wisdom is + for so many purposes recognised by the nations of civilised Europe + and America have at length found the means of meeting this oldest + and worst of all our difficulties, and of substituting for + disorder, for misery, for contention, the actual arrival and the + yet riper promise of a reign of peace.--_Theatre Royal, Glasgow, + July 2, 1892._ + + + + +The Naval Estimates Of 1894. + + +(M197) _The first paragraph of this memorandum will be found on p. 508_:-- + + + This might be taken for granted as to 1854, 1870, and 1884. That + it was equally true in my mind of 1859 may be seen by any one who + reads my budget speech of July 18, 1859. I defended the provision + as required by and for the time, and for the time only. The + occasion in that year was the state of the continent. It was + immediately followed by the China war (No. 3) and by the French + affair (1861-2), but when these had been disposed of economy + began; and, by 1863-4, the bulk of the new charge had been got rid + of. + + There is also the case of the fortifications in 1860, which would + take me too long to state fully. But I will state briefly (1) my + conduct in that matter was mainly or wholly governed by regard to + peace, for I believed, and believe now, that in 1860 there were + only two alternatives; one of them, the French treaty, and the + other, war with France. And I also believed in July 1860 that the + French treaty must break down, unless I held my office. (2) The + demand was reduced from nine millions to about five (has this been + done now?) (3) I acted in concert with my old friend and + colleague, Sir James Graham. We were entirely agreed. + + _Terse figures of new estimates_ + + The "approximate figure" of charge involved in the new plan of the + admiralty is L4,240,000, say 4-1/2 millions. Being an increase + (subject probably to some further increase in becoming an act) + + 1. On the normal navy estimate 1888-9 (_i.e._ before the Naval + Defence Act) of, in round numbers, 4-1/4 millions + + 2. On the first year's total charge under the Naval Defence Act of + (1,979,000), 2 millions + + 3. On the estimates of last year 1893-94 of 3 millions + + 4. On the total charge of 1893-4 of (1,571,000), 1-1/2 million + + 5. On the highest amount ever defrayed from the year's revenue + (1892-3), 1-1/2 million + + 6. On the highest expenditure of any year under the Naval Defence + Act which included 1,150,000 of borrowed money, 359,000 + + + + +Mr. Gladstone's Cabinet Colleagues. (Page 525) + + +_The following is the list of the seventy ministers who served in cabinets +of which Mr. Gladstone was a member_:-- + +1843-45. Peel. + Wellington. + Lyndhurst. + Wharncliffe. + Haddington. + Buccleuch. + Aberdeen. + Graham. + Stanley. + Ripon. + Hardinge. + Goulburn. + Knatchbull. +1846. Ellenborough. + S. Herbert. + Granville Somerset. + Lincoln. +1852-55. Cranworth. + Granville. + Argyll. + Palmerston. + Clarendon. + C. Wood. + Molesworth. + Lansdowne. + Russell. + G. Grey. +1855. Panmure. + Carlisle. +1859-65. Campbell. + G. C. Lewis. + Duke of Somerset. + Milner Gibson. + Elgin. + C. Villiers. +1859-65. Cardwell. + Westbury. + Ripon. + Stanley of Alderley. +1865-66. Hartington. + Goschen. +1868-74. Hatherley. + Kimberley. + Bruce. + Lowe. + Childers. + Bright. + C. Fortescue. + Stansfeld. + Selborne. + Forster. +1880-85. Spencer. + Harcourt. + Northbrook. + Chamberlain. + Dodson. + Dilke. + Derby. + Trevelyan. + Lefevre. + Rosebery. +1886. Herschell. + C. Bannerman. + Mundella. + John Morley. +1892. Asquith. + Fowler. + Acland. + Bryce. + A. Morley. + + + + + +CHRONOLOGY + + +All speeches unless otherwise stated were made in the House of Commons. + +1880. + +Feb. "Free trade, railways and the growth of commerce," in _Nineteenth +Century_. + +Feb. 27. At St. Pancras on obstruction, liberal unity and errors of +government. + +Feb. 27. On rules dealing with obstruction. + +March "Russia and England," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +March 5. On motion in favour of local option. + +March 11. Issues address to electors of Midlothian. + +March 15. Criticises budget. + +March 17. At Music Hall, Edinburgh, on government's eastern policy. + +March 18. At Corstorphine on Anglo-Turkish convention. + +March 18. At Ratho on neglect of domestic legislation. + +March 19. At Davidson's Mains on indictment of the government. At Dalkeith +on the government and class interests. + +March 20. At Juniper Green, and at Balerno, replies to tory criticism of +liberal party. At Midcalder on abridgment of rights of parliament. + +March 22. At Gilmerton on church disestablishment. At Loanhead on the +eastern policy of liberal and tory parties. + +March 23. At Gorebridge and at Pathhead. + +March 25. At Penicuik on Cyprus. + +March 30. At Stow on finance. + +April "Religion, Achaian and Semitic," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +April 2. At West Calder on liberal record and shortcomings of the +government. + +April 5. Elected for Midlothian: Mr. Gladstone, 1579; Lord Dalkeith, 1368. + +April 7. Returns to Hawarden. + +April 28. Second administration formed. + +May. Anonymous article, "The Conservative Collapse," in _Fortnightly +Review_. + +May 8. Returned unopposed for Midlothian. + +May 11. Publication of correspondence with Count Karolyi, Austrian +ambassador. + +May 16. Receives deputation of farmers on agricultural reform. + +May 20. On government's Turkish policy. + +May 21. Moves reference to committee of Mr. Bradlaugh's claim to take his +seat in parliament. + +May 25. On South African federation. + +June 1. On government's policy regarding Cyprus. + +June 10. Introduces supplementary budget. + +June 16. On reduction of European armaments. + +June 18. On resolution in favour of local option. Moves second reading of +Savings Banks bill. + +June 22. On resolution that Mr. Bradlaugh be allowed to make a +declaration. + +July 1. On Mr. Bradlaugh's case. + +July 5, 26. On Compensation for Disturbances (Ireland) bill. + +July 23. Explains government's policy regarding Armenia. + +July 30-Aug. 9. Confined to room by serious illness. + +Aug. 26-Sept. 4. Makes sea trip in the _Grantully Castle_ round England +and Scotland. + +Sept. 4. On government's Turkish policy. + +Nov. 9. At lord mayor's banquet on Ireland and foreign and colonial +questions. + +1881. + +Jan. 6. On Ireland. + +Jan. 21. On annexation of Transvaal. + +Jan. 28. On Irish Protection of Person and Property bill. + +Feb. 3. Brings in closure resolution. + +Feb. 23. Falls in garden at Downing Street. + +March 15. Moves vote of condolence on assassination of Alexander II. + +March 16. On grant in aid of India for expenses of Afghan war. + +March 28. On county government and local taxation. + +April 4. Introduces budget. + +April 7. Brings in Land Law (Ireland) bill. + +April 26 and 27. On Mr. Bradlaugh's case. + +May 2. Resigns personal trusteeship of British Museum. + +May 4. Supports Welsh Sunday Closing bill. + +May 5. Supports vote of thanks on military operations in Afghanistan. + +May 9. Tribute to Lord Beaconsfield. + +May 16. On second reading of Irish Land bill. + +June 10. On the law of entail. + +June 24. On Anglo Turkish convention. + +July 25. On vote of censure on Transvaal. + +July 29. On third reading of Irish Land bill. + +Aug. 6. At Mansion House on fifteen months' administration. + +Aug. 18. On Mr. Parnell's vote of censure on the Irish executive. + +Oct. 7. Presented with an address by corporation of Leeds: on land and +"fair trade." At banquet in Old Cloth Hall on Ireland. + +Oct. 8. Presented with address by Leeds Chamber of Commerce: on free +trade. Mass meeting of 25,000 persons in Old Cloth Hall on foreign and +colonial policy. + +Oct. 13. Presented with address by city corporation at Guildhall: on +Ireland and arrest of Mr. Parnell. + +Oct. 27. At Knowsley on the aims of the Irish policy. + +Nov. 9. At lord mayor's banquet on government's Irish policy and +parliamentary procedure. + +1882. + +Jan. 12. At Hawarden on agriculture. + +Jan. 31. On local taxation to deputation from chambers of agriculture. + +Feb. 7. On Mr. Bradlaugh's claim. + +Feb. 9. On home rule amendment to address. + +Feb. 16. On the Irish demand for home rule. + +Feb. 20. Moves first of new procedure rules. + +Feb. 21. On local taxation. + +Feb. 21 and 22. On Mr. Bradlaugh's case. + +Feb. 27. Meeting of liberal party at Downing Street. On House of Lords' +committee to inquire into Irish Land Act. + +Feb. 27. Moves resolution declaring parliamentary inquiry into Land Act +injurious to interests of good government. + +March 3. On persecution of Jews in Russia. + +March 6. Supports resolution for legislation on parliamentary oaths. + +March 10. On proposed state acquisition of Irish railways. + +March 17. On British North Borneo Company's charter. + +March 21. On parliamentary reform. + +March 23. On grant to Duke of Albany. + +March 30. On closure resolution. + +March 31. On inquiry into ecclesiastical commission. + +April 17. Opposes motion for release of Cetewayo. + +April 18. On diplomatic communications with Vatican. + +April 24. Introduces budget. + +April 26. On the Irish Land Act Amendment bill. + +May 2. Statement of Irish policy, announces release of "suspects," and +resignation of Mr. Forster. + +May 4. On Mr. Forster's resignation. + +May 8. Moves adjournment of the House on assassination of Lord F. +Cavendish and Mr. Burke. + +May 15. Brings in Arrears of Rent (Ireland) bill. + +May 19. On second reading of Prevention of Crime (Ireland) bill. + +May 22. On Arrears bill. + +May 24. On Prevention of Crime bill. + +May 26-June 1. On government's Egyptian policy. + +June 14. On Egyptian crisis. + +June 17. On Mr. Bright's resignation. + +July 12. On bombardment of Alexandria. + +July 21. On third reading of Arrears bill. + +July 24. Asks for vote of credit for L2,300,000. + +July 27. Concludes debate on vote of credit. + +July 28. On national expenditure. + +Aug. 8. On Lords' amendments to Arrears bill. + +Aug. 9. On suspension of Irish members, July 1. + +Aug. 16. On events leading to Egyptian war. + +Oct. 25-31, and Dec. 1. On twelve new rules of procedure. + +Oct. 26. Moves vote of thanks to forces engaged in Egyptian campaign. + +Nov. 24. Opposes demand for select committee on release of Mr. Parnell. + +Dec. 13. Celebrates political jubilee. + +1883. + +Jan. 6-16. Suffers from sleeplessness at Hawarden. + +Jan. 17. Leaves England for south of France. + +March 2. Returns to London. + +March 14. On Irish Land Law (1881) Amendment bill. + +March 16. On Boer invasion of Bechuanaland. + +April 3. On Channel tunnel. + +April 6. On increase in national expenditure. + +April 17. On local taxation. + +April 19. On Lords Alcester and Wolseley's annuity bills. + +April 26. On Parliamentary Oaths Act (1866) Amendment bill. + +May 2. At National Liberal club on conservative legacy of 1880 and work of +liberal administration, 1880-1883. + +May 7. On Contagious Diseases Acts. + +May 25. On reforms in Turkey. + +May 29. Meeting of liberal party at foreign office: on state of public +business. + +June 2. At Stafford House: tribute to Garibaldi. + +June 12. On revision of purchase clauses of Land Act. + +June 23. On withdrawal of provisional agreement for second Suez canal. + +July 27. On India and payment for Egyptian campaign. + +July 30. On future negotiations with Suez canal company. + +Aug. 6. On government's Transvaal and Zululand policies. + +Aug. 6-7. On British occupation of Egypt. + +Aug. 18. Protests against violent speeches of Irish members. + +Aug. 21. On work of the session. + +Sept. Italian translation of Cowper's hymn: "Hark my soul! It is the +Lord," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Aug. 8-21. In _Pembroke Castle_ round coast of Scotland to Norway and +Copenhagen. + +Aug. 13. At Kirkwall: on changes during half century of his political +life. + +Sept. 18. Entertains the Emperor and Empress of Russia, the King and Queen +of Denmark, at dinner on board _Pembroke Castle_ in Copenhagen harbour. + +Dec. 22. At Hawarden, to deputation of liberal working men on reform of +the franchise. + +1884. + +Jan. 5. At Hawarden on condition of agriculture. + +Jan 31. Receives deputations from Leeds conference, etc., on Franchise +bill. + +Feb. 11 and 21. On Mr. Bradlaugh's attempt to take the oath. + +Feb. 12. On Egyptian and Soudan policy in reply to vote of censure. + +Feb. 13. On re-establishment of grand committees. + +Feb. 25. Moves resolution of thanks to Speaker Brand on his retirement. + +Feb. 28. Explains provisions of Representation of the People (Franchise) +bill. + +March 3. In defence of retention of Suakin. + +March 6. On government's Egyptian policy. + +March 10-19. Confined to his room by a chill. + +March 19 to April 7. Recuperates at Coombe Warren. + +March 31. On death of Duke of Albany. + +April 3. On General Gordon's mission in Soudan. + +April 7. On second reading of Franchise bill. + +May 12. On vote of censure regarding General Gordon. + +May 27. On Egyptian financial affairs. + +June 10. Opposes amendment to Franchise bill granting suffrage to women. + +June 23. On terms of agreement with France on Egypt. + +June 26. On third reading of Franchise bill. + +July 8. On second reading of London Government bill. + +July 10. Meeting of the liberal party: on rejection of Franchise bill by +House of Lords. + +July 11. On negotiations with Lord Cairns on Franchise bill. + +July 18. At Eighty club on relation of politics of the past to politics of +the future. + +Aug. 2. On failure of conference on Egyptian finance. + +Aug. 11. On Lord Northbrook's mission to Egypt. + +Aug. 30. At Corn Exchange, Edinburgh, on Lords and Franchise bill. + +Sept. 1. At Corn Exchange, Edinburgh, in defence of his administration. + +Sept. 2. In Waverley Market on demand of Lords for dissolution. + +Sept. 26. Returns to Hawarden. + +Oct. 16. Cuts first sod on Wirral railway: on railway enterprise. + +Oct. 23. On Franchise bill. + +Oct. 28. Defends Lord Spencer's Irish administration. + +Nov. 4. Lays foundation stone of National Liberal club: on liberal +administrations of past half century. + +Nov. 6 and 10. On second reading of Franchise bill. + +Nov. 21. On Mr. Labouchere's motion for reform of House of Lords. + +Dec. 1. Brings in Redistribution bill. + +Dec. 4. On second reading of Redistribution bill. + +1885. + +Feb. 23. On vote of censure on Soudan policy. + +March 26. Moves ratification of Egyptian financial agreement. + +April 9. Announces occupation of Penjdeh by Russians. + +April 16. In defence of Egyptian Loan bill. + +April 21. Asks for vote of credit for war preparations. + +April 27. On Soudan and Afghanistan. + +May 4. Announces agreement with Russia on Afghan boundary dispute. + +May 14. On Princess Beatrice's dowry. + +June 8. Defends increase of duties on beer and spirits. + +June 9. Resignation of government. + +June 24. Reads correspondence on crisis. + +July 6. On legislation on parliamentary oaths. + +July 7. On intentions of the new government. + +Aug. 8-Sept. 1. In Norway. + +Sept. 17. Issues address to Midlothian electors. + +Nov. "Dawn of Creation and of Worship," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Nov. 9. At Albert Hall, Edinburgh, on proposals of Irish party. + +Nov. 11. At Free Assembly Hall, Edinburgh, on disestablishment. + +Nov. 17. At West Calder on Ireland, foreign policy, and free trade. + +Nov. 21. At Dalkeith on finance and land reform. + +Nov. 23. At inauguration of Market Cross, Edinburgh: on history of the +cross. + +Nov. 24. At Music Hall, Edinburgh, on tory tactics and Mr. Parnell's +charges. + +Nov. 27. Elected for Midlothian: Mr. Gladstone, 7879; Mr. Dalrymple, 3248. + +1886. + +Jan. "Proem to Genesis: a Plea for a Fair Trial," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Jan. 21. On government's policy in India, the Near East and Ireland. + +Jan. 26. In support of amendment for allotments. + +Feb. 3. Third administration formed. + +Feb. 4. Issues address to electors of Midlothian. + +Feb. 10. Returned unopposed for Midlothian. + +Feb. 22. On comparative taxation of England and Ireland. On annexation of +Burmah. + +Feb. 23. On Ireland's contribution to imperial revenue. + +March 4. On condition of Ireland. + +March 6-12. Confined to his room by a cold. + +April 6. On death of Mr. W. E. Forster. + +April 8. Brings in Government of Ireland (Home Rule) bill. + +April 13. On first reading of Home Rule bill. + +April 16. Explains provisions of Irish Land Purchase bill. + +May 1. Issues address to electors of Midlothian on Home Rule bill. + +May 10. Moves second reading of Home Rule bill. + +May 27. Meeting of liberal party at the foreign office: on the Home Rule +bill. + +May 28. Explains intentions regarding the Home Rule bill. + +June 7-8. Concludes debate on Home Rule bill. + +June 10. Announces dissolution of parliament. + +June 14. Issues address to electors of Midlothian. + +June 18. At Music Hall, Edinburgh, on home rule. + +June 21. At Music Hall, Edinburgh, on home rule. + +June 22. At Glasgow on home rule. + +June 25. At Free Trade Hall, Manchester, on home rule. + +June 28. At Liverpool on Ulster and home rule. + +July 2. Returned unopposed for Midlothian and Leith. + +July 20. Resignation of third administration. + +Aug. 19-24. On government's Irish, policy. + +Aug. 25. Leaves England for Bavaria. + +Aug 28. "_The Irish Question: (1) History of an Idea; (2) Lessons of the +Election_," published. + +Sept. 19. Returns to London. + +Sept. 20. On Tenants Relief (Ireland) bill. + +Oct. 4. At Hawarden. Receives address signed by 400,000 women of Ireland: +on home rule. + +1887. + +Jan. "_Locksley Hall_ and the Jubilee," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Jan. 27. Tribute to memory of Lord Iddesleigh. + +Jan. 27. On Lord Randolph Churchill's retirement and Ireland. + +Feb. "Notes and Queries on the Irish Demand," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +March "The Greater Gods of Olympus: (1) Poseidon," in _Nineteenth +Century_. + +Match 17. To the liberal members for Yorkshire: on home rule. + +March 24. On the exaction of excessive rents. + +March 29. On Criminal Law Amendment (Ireland) bill. + +April "The History of 1852-60 and Greville's Latest Journals," in _English +Historical Review_. + +April 18. On second reading of Criminal Law Amendment bill. + +April 19. At Eighty club on liberal unionist grammar of dissent. + +April 25. Criticise Mr. Goschen's budget. + +May "The Greater Gods of Olympus: (2) Apollo," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +May 5. Moves for select committee to inquire into the _Times_ articles on +"Parnellism and Crime." + +May 11. At Dr. Parker's house on Ireland. + +May 31. On Crimes bill at Hawarden. + +June Reviews Mr. Lecky's _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_ in +_Nineteenth Century_. + +June "The Great Olympian Sedition," in _Contemporary Review_. + +June 4. At Swansea, on Welsh nationality, Welsh grievances, and the Irish +Crimes bill. + +June 6. At Singleton Abbey on home rule and retention of Irish members. + +June 7. At Cardiff on home rule. + +July "The Greater Gods of Olympus: (3) Athene," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +June 2. To the liberal members for Durham on Lord Hartington's Irish +record. + +June 7. Moves rejection of Irish Criminal Law Amendment bill. + +June 9. Presented at Dollis Hill with address signed by 10,689 citizens of +New York. + +June 14. On second reading of the Irish Land bill. + +June 16. At National Liberal club: on Ireland and home rule movement in +Scotland and Wales. + +June 29. At Memorial Hall on the lessons of bye-elections. + +Aug. "Mr. Lecky and Political Morality," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Aug. 16. Lays first cylinder of railway bridge over the Dee: on railway +enterprise and the Channel tunnel. + +Aug. 25. On proclamation of Irish land league. + +Aug. 30. At Hawarden on Queen Victoria's reign. + +Sept. "Electoral Facts of 1887," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Sept. 12. On riot at Mitchelstown, Ireland. + +Oct. "Ingram's History of the Irish Union," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Oct. 4. At Hawarden on the absolutist methods of government. + +Oct. 18. At National Liberal Federation, Nottingham, on conduct of Irish +police. + +Oct. 19. At Skating Rink, Nottingham, on home rule. + +Oct. 20. At Drill Hall, Derby, on Ireland. + +Nov. "An Olive Branch from America," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Dec. 27. At Dover on free trade and Irish Crimes Act. + +Dec. 28. Leaves England for Italy. + +1888. + +Jan. "A reply to Dr. Ingram," in _Westminster Review_. + +Feb. "The Homeric Here," in _Contemporary Review_. + +Feb. 8. Returns to London. + +Feb. 17. On coercion in Ireland. + +March "Further Notes and Queries on the Irish Demand," in _Contemporary +Review_. + +March 23. On perpetual pensions. + +April 9. On the budget. + +April 11. At National Liberal club on the budget and Local Government +bill. + +April 23. Moves an amendment in favour of equalising the death duties on +real and personal property. + +April 25. On second reading of County Government (Ireland) bill. + +May. "Robert Elsmere, and the Battle of Belief," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +May. A reply to Colonel Ingersoll on "Christianity," in _North American +Review_. + +May 1. On government control of railways. + +May 2. Opens Gladstone library at National Liberal club: on books. + +May 9. At Memorial Hall on Irish question. + +May 26. At Hawarden condemns licensing clauses of Local Government bill. + +May 30. Receives deputation of 1500 Lancashire liberals at Hawarden. + +June 18. On death of German Emperor. + +June 26. Condemns administration of Irish criminal law. + +June 27. On Channel Tunnel bill. + +June 30. At Hampstead on Ireland and the bye-elections. + +July "The Elizabethan Settlement of Religion," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +July 6. On payment of members. + +July 18. To liberal members for Northumberland and Cumberland on Parnell +commission and retention of Irish members. + +July 23. On second reading of Parnell Commission bill. + +July 25. Mr. and Mrs. Gladstone presented with their portraits on entering +on fiftieth year of married life. + +July 30. On composition of Parnell commission. + +Aug. 20. Receives deputation of 1500 liberals at Hawarden: on conservative +government of Ireland. + +Aug. 23. At Hawarden on spade husbandry and the cultivation of fruit. + +Sept. "Mr. Forster and Ireland," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Sept. 4. At Wrexham on Irish and Welsh home rule. + +Sept. 4. At the Eisteddfod on English feeling towards Wales. + +Nov. "Queen Elizabeth and the Church of England," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Nov. 5. At Town Hall, Birmingham, on liberal unionists and one man one +vote. + +Nov. 6. To deputation at Birmingham on labour representation and payment +of members. + +Nov. 7. At Bingley Hall, Birmingham, on Irish question. + +Nov. 8. To deputation of Birmingham Irish National club on Irish +grievances. + +Nov. 19. On Irish Land Purchase bill. + +Dec. 3. On Mr. Balfour's administration of Ireland. + +Dec. 15. At Limehouse Town Hall on necessary English reforms and the Irish +question. + +Dec. 17. On English occupation of Suakin. + +Dec. 19. Leaves England for Naples. + +1889. + +Jan. "Daniel O'Connell," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Feb. Reviews _Divorce_ by Margaret Lee in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Feb. 20. Returns to London. + +March 1. On conciliatory measures in administration of Ireland. + +March 29. On death of John Bright. + +April Reviews _For the Right_ in _Nineteenth Century_. + +April 4. On L21,000,000 for naval defence. + +April 9. On Scotch home rule. + +May "Italy in 1888-89," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +May 15. On second reading of Welsh Education bill. + +May 16. Moves amendment to Mr. Goschen's proposed death duties on estates +above L10,000. + +June 5. At Southampton on lessons of the bye-elections. + +June 7. At Romsey on Lord Palmerston. + +June 8. At Weymouth on shorter parliaments and Ireland. + +June 10. At Torquay on Ireland. + +June 11. At Falmouth and Redruth on Ireland. + +June 12. At Truro, St. Austell, and Bodmin on Ireland, one man one vote, +the death duties, etc. + +June 14. At Launceston on dissentient liberals. + +June 14. At Drill Hall, Plymouth, on home rule. + +June 17. At Shaftesbury and Gillingham on the agricultural labourer. + +July "Plain Speaking on the Irish Union," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +July 6. Presented with freedom of Cardiff; on free trade; on foreign +opinion of English rule in Ireland. + +July 25. Golden wedding celebrated in London. + +July 25. Speech on royal grants. + +Aug. "Phoenician Affinities of Ithaca," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Aug. 22. At Hawarden on cottage gardens and fruit culture. + +Aug. 26. Celebration of golden wedding at Hawarden. + +Sept. 7. Entertained in Paris by Society of Political Economy. + +Sept. 23. At Hawarden on dock strike and bimetallism. + +Sept. "The Triple Alliance and Italy's Place in it," by Outidanos, in +_Contemporary Review_. + +Oct. Reviews _Journal de Marie Bashkirtseff_ in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Oct. 23. At Southport on Ireland. + +Oct. 26. Opens literary institute at Saltney, Chester. + +Nov. "The English Church under Henry the Eighth," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Nov. "The Question of Divorce," in _North American Review_. + +Dec. Reviews _Memorials of a Southern Planter_ in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Dec. 2. At Free Trade Hall, Manchester, on liberal unionists and foreign +policy. + +Dec. 3. In Free Trade Hall on government of Ireland. + +Dec. 4. At luncheon at Town Hall on city of Manchester. + +1890. + +Jan. "A Defence of Free Trade," in _North American Review_. + +Jan. "The Melbourne Government: its Acts and Persons," in _Nineteenth +Century_. + +Jan. 9. At Hawarden on the effect of free trade on agriculture. + +Jan. 22. At Chester on Ireland. + +Feb. 5. At Oxford Union on vestiges of Assyrian mythology in Homer. + +Feb. 11. On motion declaring publication by _Times_ of forged Parnell +letter to be breach of privilege. + +March "On Books and the Housing of Them," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +March 3. On report of Parnell commission. + +March 24. At National Liberal club on report of Parnell commission. + +March 26. At Guy's Hospital on the medical profession. + +April 24. On second reading of Purchase of Land (Ireland) bill. + +May 2. On disestablishment of church of Scotland. + +May 12. On free trade at Prince's Hall, Piccadilly. + +May 15. On Local Taxation Duties bill. + +May 16. At Norwich on Parnell commission, land purchase and licensing +question. + +May 17. At Lowestoft on Siberian atrocities and the agricultural labourer. + +April 27. Receives 10,000 liberals at Hawarden: on Mitchelstown, Irish +Land bill, and Licensing bill. + +June 5. On Channel Tunnel bill. + +June 13. On Local Taxation Duties bill. + +June 18. To depositors in railways' savings banks: on thrift. + +July 17. At Burlington School, London, on the education of women. + +July 24. On Anglo-German Agreement bill. + +July 30. To Wesleyans at National Liberal club on Maltese marriage +question, and Ireland. + +Aug. 21. At Hawarden on cottage gardening and fruit farming. + +July 30. "Dr. Doellinger's Posthumous Remains," in the _Speaker_. + +Sept. 12. At Dee iron works on industrial progress. + +Oct. 21. At Corn Exchange, Edinburgh, on government's Irish +administration. + +Oct. 23. At West Calder on condition of working classes and Ireland. + +Oct. 25. At Dalkeith on home rule for Scotland and Ireland. + +Oct. 27. At Music Hall, Edinburgh, on retention of Irish members, +procedure and obstruction. + +Oct. 29. At Dundee on free trade and the McKinley tariff. Opens Victorian +Art Gallery: on appreciation of beauty. + +Nov. "Mr. Carnegie's Gospel of Wealth," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Nov. 24. Letter to Mr. Morley on Mr. Parnell and leadership of Irish +party. + +Dec. 1. Publishes reply to Mr. Parnell's manifesto to Irish people. + +Dec. 2. On Purchase of Land (Ireland) bill. + +Dec. 11. At Retford on Mr. Parnell and the home rule cause. + +Publishes _The Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture_, a reprint of articles +in _Good Words_. + +_Landmarks of Homeric Study, together with an Essay on the Points of +Contact between the Assyrian Tablets and the Homeric Text._ + +1891. + +Jan. 27. Supports motion to expunge from journals of the House the +Bradlaugh resolution (1881). + +Feb. "Professor Huxley and the Swine-Miracle," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Feb. 4. Moves second reading of Religious Disabilities Removal bill. + +Feb. 13. Opens free library in St. Martin's Lane: on free libraries. + +Feb. 16. Condemns action of Irish executive in Tipperary trials. + +Feb. 20. On disestablishment of church in Wales. + +Feb. 27. On taxation of land. + +March 3. On registration reform. + +March 14. At Eton College on Homeric Artemis. + +March 17. At Hastings on Mr. Goschen's finance, Irish policy, and the +career of Mr. Parnell. + +May "A Memoir of John Murray," in _Murray's Magazine_. + +June 19. At St. James's Hall, at jubilee of Colonial Bishoprics Fund, on +development of colonial church. + +July 4. Death of W. H. Gladstone. + +July 15. At Hawarden on fifty years of progress. + +Sept. "Electoral Facts, No. III.," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Oct. "On the Ancient Beliefs in a Future State," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Oct. 1. At jubilee of Glenalmond College on study of nature and the +clerical profession. + +Oct. 2. At Newcastle on the liberal programme. + +Nov. 3. At Newcastle on local self-government and freedom of trade. + +Nov. 28. At Wirral on home rule. At Sunlight Soap works on profit-sharing +and cooperation. + +Dec. 11. At Holborn Restaurant to conference of labourers on rural +reforms. + +Dec. 15. Leaves London for Biarritz. + +1892. + +Feb.-May "On the Olympian Religion," in _North American Review_. + +Feb. 29. Returns to London. + +March 3. Opposes grant of L20,000 for survey of Uganda railway. + +March 16. On Welsh Land Tenure bill. + +March 24. On Small Agricultural Holdings bill. + +March 28. On Indian Councils Act (1861) Amendment bill. + +April Reviews _The Platform, its Rise and Progress_, in _Nineteenth +Century_. + +April 28. On Church Discipline (Immorality) bill. + +May 24. On Local Government (Ireland) bill. + +May 31. At Memorial Hall on London government. + +June "Did Dante Study in Oxford?" in _Nineteenth Century_. + +June 5. At Dalkeith on Scotch home rule and disestablishment. + +June 16. Receives deputation from London trades council on Eight Hours +bill. + +June 18. To nonconformists at Clapham on Ulster and home rule. + +June 21. Issues address to electors of Midlothian. + +June 25. Struck in the eye by piece of gingerbread in Chester. At Liberal +club on the general election, the appeal to religious bigotry, and +disestablishment. + +June 30. At Edinburgh Music Hall on Lord Salisbury's manifesto, home rule, +and retention of Irish members. + +July 2. At Glasgow on Orangeism and home rule. + +July 4. At Gorebridge on labour questions. + +July 6. At Corstorphine on government's record. + +July 7. At West Calder on protection, the hours of labour and home rule. + +July 11. At Penicuik on conservative responsibility for recent wars, +finance, disestablishment, and Irish question. + +July 13. Elected for Midlothian: Mr. Gladstone, 5845; Colonel Wauchope, +5155. + +Aug. 9. On vote of want of confidence. + +Aug. 15. Fourth administration formed. + +Aug. 24. Returned unopposed for Midlothian. + +Aug. 29. Knocked down by heifer in Hawarden Park. + +Sept. 5. A paper on Archaic Greece and the East read before Congress of +Orientalists. + +Sept. 12. At Carnarvon on case of Wales. + +Oct. "A Vindication of Home Rule: a Reply to the Duke of Argyll," in +_North American Review_. + +Oct. 22. Cuts first sod of the new Cheshire railway: on migration of +population and mineral produce of Wales. + +Oct. 24. Delivers Romanes lecture at Oxford on history of universities. + +Dec. 3. Presented with freedom of Liverpool: on history of Liverpool and +Manchester ship canal. + +Dec. 21. Leaves England for Biarritz. + +1893. + +Jan. 10. Returns to England. + +Jan. 31. Replies to Mr. Balfour's criticisms on the address. + +Feb. 3. On Mr. Labouchere's amendment in favour of evacuation of Uganda. + +Feb. 8. On amendment praying for immediate legislation for agricultural +labourers. + +Feb. 11. On motion for restriction of alien immigration. + +Feb. 13. Brings in Government of Ireland (Home Rule) bill. + +Feb. 28. On motion for international monetary conference. + +March 3. Receives deputation from the miners' federation on Eight Hours +bill. + +March 20. On Sir Gerald Portal's mission to Uganda. + +March 27. Meeting of the liberal party at foreign office: on programme for +session. + +March 27. On Mr. Balfour's motion censuring action of Irish executive. + +March 28. Receives deputations from Belfast manufacturers and city of +London merchants protesting against home rule. + +April 6. Moves second reading of Home Rule bill. + +April 19. Receives a deputation from the miners' National Union on Eight +Hours bill. + +April 21. Replies to criticisms on Home Rule bill. + +May 1. On the occupation of Egypt. + +May 2. Receives a deputation of the Mining Association in opposition to +Eight Hours bill. + +May 3. On second reading of Miners' Eight Hours bill. + +May 11. Replies to Mr. Chamberlain's speech on first clause of Home Rule +bill. + +May 23. Opens Hawarden institute: on the working classes. + +May 29. At Chester on Home Rule bill. + +June "Some Eton Translations," in _Contemporary Review_. + +June 16. On arbitration between England and United States. + +June 22. Statement regarding the financial clauses of Home Rule bill. + +June 28. Moves resolution for closing debate on committee stage of Home +Rule bill. + +July 12. Announces government's decision regarding the retention of Irish +members at Westminster. + +July 14. Moves address of congratulation on marriage of Duke of York. + +July 21. Moves a new clause to Home Rule bill regulating financial +relations. + +Aug. 5. At Agricultural Hall, Islington, on industry and art. + +Aug. 30. Moves third reading of Home Rule bill. + +Sept. 27. At Edinburgh on House of Lords and the Home Rule bill. + +Nov. 9. On Matabeleland and the chartered company. + +Dec. 19. On naval policy of the government. + +1894. + +Jan. 13. Leaves England for Biarritz. + +Feb. 10. Returns to England. + +March 1. On the Lords' amendments to Parish Councils bill. + +March 3. Resigns the premiership. + +March 7. Confined to bed by severe cold. + +March 17. At Brighton. Letter to Sir John Cowan--his farewell to +parliamentary life. + +May "The Love Odes of Horace--five specimens," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +May 3. At Prince's Hall on life and work of Sir Andrew Clark. + +May 24. Right eye operated on for cataract. + +July 7. Announces decision not to seek re-election to parliament. + +Aug. "The Place of Heresy and Schism in the Modern Christian Church," in +_Nineteenth Century_. + +Aug. 14. On cottage gardening at Hawarden. + +Aug. 16. Receives deputation of 1500 liberals from Torquay at Hawarden. + +Sept. "The True and False Conception of the Atonement," in _Nineteenth +Century_. + +Dec. 29. Receives deputation from the Armenian national church at +Hawarden. + +1895. + +Jan. 7. Presented with an album by Irish-Americans: in favour of Irish +unity. + +Jan. 8. Leaves England for south of France. + +March Publishes _The Psalter with a concordance_. + +Jan. "The Lord's Day," in _Church Monthly_; concluded in April number. + +Jan. 23. Returns to England from France. + +Jan. 15. At Hawarden to a deputation of Leeds and Huddersfield liberal +clubs: on English people and political power, and on advantages of +libraries. + +June 12-24. Cruise in _Tantallon Castle_ to Hamburg, Copenhagen, and Kiel. + +July 1. Farewell letter to Midlothian constituents. + +Aug. 5. At Hawarden on small holdings and his old age. + +Aug. 6. At Chester on Armenian question. + +Nov. "Bishop Butler and his Censors," in _Nineteenth Century_; concluded +in December number. + +Dec. 28. Leaves England for Biarritz and Cannes. + +1896. + +Feb. Publishes _The Works of Bishop Butler_. + +March 10. Returns to England from Cannes. + +March 28. At Liverpool on the development of the English railway system. + +April "The Future Life and the Condition of Man Therein," in _North +American Review_. + +April Contributes an article on "The Scriptures and Modern Criticism" to +the _People's Bible_. + +May _Soliloquium and Postscript_--a letter to the Archbishop of York, +published. + +June "Sheridan," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +June 1. Letter on Anglican Orders published. + +Aug. 3. At Hawarden horticultural show on rural life. + +Sept. 1. At fete in aid of Hawarden Institute on progress of music. + +Sept. 2. At Hawarden fete on Welsh music. + +Sept. 24. At Hengler's circus, Liverpool, on Armenian question. + +Oct. "The Massacres in Turkey," in _Nineteenth Century_. + +Oct. 16. At Penmaenmawr in praise of seaside resorts. + +1897. + +Jan. 29. Leaves England for Cannes. + +March 19. Letter to the Duke of Westminster on the Cretan question +published. + +March 30. Returns to England from Cannes. + +May 4. At Hawarden on the condition of the clergy. + +June 2. Opens Victoria jubilee bridge over the Dee at Queensferry. + +Aug. 2. At Hawarden horticultural show on small culture. + +Nov. 26. Leaves England for Cannes. + +1898. + +Jan. 5. "Personal Recollections of Arthur H. Hallam," in _Daily +Telegraph_. + +Feb. 18. Returns to London from Cannes. + +Feb. 22. Goes to Bournemouth. + +March 22. Returns to Hawarden. + +May 19. Death of Mr. Gladstone. + +May 26, 27. Lying in state in Westminster Hall. + +May 28. Burial in Westminster Abbey. + + + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + + 1 Above, vol. ii. pp. 563-8. + + M1 The Cabinet A Coalition + M2 Character As Head Of The Cabinet + M3 An Independent House Of Commons + M4 Naval Demonstration + + 2 March 25-6, 1881. + + 3 Bradlaugh, who was a little vain of his legal skill, founded this + claim upon the Evidence Amendment Act, taken in connection with the + Parliamentary Oaths and other Acts. + + M5 The Bradlaugh Case + + 4 See vol. i. p. 138. + + 5 Speech on second reading of Affirmation bill, 1883. + + M6 On Theistic Tests + M7 The Bradlaugh Case + +_ 6 Lord Hampden's Diaries._ + + 7 Perhaps the best equivalent for _begeistert_ here is "_daemonic._" + + M8 Speech On Affirmation Bill + + 8 Lucretius, ii. 646. "For the nature of the gods must ever of itself + enjoy repose supreme through endless time, far withdrawn from all + concerns of ours; free from all our pains, free from all our perils, + strong in resources of its own, needing nought from us, no favours + win it, no anger moves." + + M9 End Of The Struggle + + 9 Religious Disabilities Removal bill, Feb. 4, 1891. + + 10 Vol. ii. p. 583. + + M10 Recall Of Sir Bartle Frere + M11 Annexation Of The Transvaal + + 11 Sir Garnet Wolseley to Sir M. Hicks Beach, Nov. 13, 1879. + + M12 Decision Of The Government + + 12 In H. of C, Jan. 21, 1881. + +_ 13 Speeches in Scotland_, i. pp. 48, 63. + + 14 C, 2586, No. 3. + + 15 Mr. Grant Duff, then colonial under-secretary, said in the House of + Commons, May 21, 1880, "Under the very difficult circumstances of + the case, the plan which seemed likely best to conciliate the + interests at once of the Boers, the natives and the English + population, was that the Transvaal should receive, and receive with + promptitude, as a portion of confederation, the largest possible + measure of local liberties that could be granted, and that was the + direction in which her Majesty's present advisers meant to move." + + 16 At Birmingham, June 1881. + + M13 Decision Of The Government + + 17 C, 2367, p. 55. + +_ 18 Afghanistan and S. Africa:_ A letter to Mr. Gladstone by Sir Bartle + Frere. Murray, 1891, pp. 24-6. Frere, on his return to England, once + more impressed on the colonial office the necessity of speedily + granting the Boers a constitution, otherwise there would be serious + trouble. (_Life_, ii. p. 408.) + + M14 Boer Rising + + 19 Sir George Colley pressed Lord Kimberley in his correspondence with + the reality of this grievance, and the urgency of trying to remove + it. This was after the Boers had taken to arms at the end of 1880. + + 20 Before the Gladstone government came into office, between August + 1879 and April 1880, whilst General Wolseley was in command, the + force in Natal and the Transvaal had been reduced by six batteries + of artillery, three companies of engineers, one cavalry regiment, + eleven battalions of infantry, and five companies of army service + corps. The force at the time of the outbreak was: in Natal 1772, and + in the Transvaal 1759--a total of 3531. As soon as the news of the + insurrection reached London, large reinforcements were at once + despatched to Colley, the first of them leaving Gibraltar on Dec. + 27, 1880. + + 21 Sir B. Frere was recalled on August 1, 1880, and sailed for England + September 15. Sir Hercules Robinson, his successor, did not reach + the Cape until the end of January 1881. In the interval Sir George + Strahan was acting governor. + + M15 Paragraph In The Royal Speech + + 22 Lord Kimberley justified this decision on the ground that it was + impossible to send a commissioner to inquire and report, at a moment + when our garrisons were besieged, and we had collected no troops to + relieve them, and when we had just received the news that the + detachment of the 94th had been cut off on the march from Lydenberg + to Pretoria. "Is it not practically certain," he wrote, "that the + Boers would have refused at that time to listen to any reasonable + terms, and would have simply insisted that we should withdraw our + troops and quit the country?" Of course, the Boer overture, some six + weeks after the rejection by Lord Kimberley of the Cape proposal, + and after continued military success on the side of the Boers, + showed that this supposed practical certainty was the exact reverse + of certain. + + M16 Boer Overtures + + 23 "I do not know whether I am indebted to you or to Mr. Childers or to + both, for the continuance of H.M.'s confidence, but I shall always + feel more deeply grateful than I can express; and can never forget + H.M.'s gracious message of encouragement at a time of great + trouble."--Colley to Kimberley, Jan. 31, 1881. + + 24 "The directions to Colley," says Mr. Bright in a cabinet minute, + "intended to convey the offer of a suspension of hostilities on both + sides, with a proposal that a commissioner should be appointed to + enter into negotiations and arrangements with a view to peace." + +_ 25 Life of Childers_, ii. p. 24. + + M17 Repulse On Majuba Hill + + 26 Colley's letter to Childers, Feb. 23, _Life of Childers_, ii. p. 24. + + M18 Sir Evelyn Wood's View + + 27 See Selborne's _Memorials_, ii. p. 3, and also a speech by Lord + Kimberley at Newcastle, Nov. 14, 1899. + + 28 In a speech at Edinburgh (Sept. 1, 1884), Mr. Gladstone put the same + argument--"The people of the Transvaal, few in number, were in close + and strong sympathy with their brethren in race, language, and + religion. Throughout South Africa these men, partly British subjects + and partly not, were as one man associated in feeling with the + people of the Transvaal; and had we persisted in that dishonourable + attempt, against all our own interests, to coerce the Transvaal as + we attempted to coerce Afghanistan, we should have had the whole + mass of the Dutch population at the Cape and throughout South Africa + rising in arms against us." + + 29 July 25, 1881. + + 30 One of the most determined enemies of the government in 1881, ten + years later, in a visit to South Africa, changed his mind. "The + Dutch sentiment in the Cape Colony, wrote Lord Randolph Churchill, + 'had been so exasperated by what it considered the unjust, + faithless, and arbitrary policy pursued towards the free Dutchmen of + the Transvaal by Frere, Shepstone, and Lanyon, that the final + triumph of the British arms, mainly by brute force, would have + permanently and hopelessly alienated it from Great Britain.... On + the whole, I find myself free to confess, and without reluctance to + admit, that the English escaped from a wretched and discreditable + muddle, not without harm and damage, but perhaps in the best + possible manner." + + M19 Case Considered + M20 The Sequel + + 31 "I apprehend, whether you call it a Protectorate, or a Suzerainty, + or the recognition of England as a Paramount Power, the fact is that + a certain controlling power is retained when the state which + exercises this suzerainty has a right to veto any negotiations into + which the dependent state may enter with foreign powers. Whatever + suzerainty meant in the Convention of Pretoria, the condition of + things which it implied still remains; although the word is not + actually employed, we have kept the substance. We have abstained + from using the word because it was not capable of legal definition, + and because it seemed to be a word which was likely to lead to + misconception and misunderstanding."--_Lord Derby in the House of + Lords_, March 17, 1884. I do not desire to multiply points of + controversy, but the ill-starred raising of the ghost of suzerainty + in 1897-9 calls for the twofold remark that the preamble was struck + out by Lord Derby's own hand, and that alike when Lord Knutsford and + Lord Ripon were at the colonial office, answers were given in the + House of Commons practically admitting that no claim of suzerainty + could be put forward. + +_ 32 Works of T. H. Green_, iii. 382. + + 33 House of Commons, April 4, 1882. + + 34 Edinburgh, Sept. 1, 1884. + + M21 Action Of The Lords + + 35 See vol. ii. book vi. chap. II. + + 36 Proceedings had been instituted in the Dublin courts against Parnell + and others for seditious conspiracy. The jury were unable to agree + on a verdict. + + 37 Tried by Lord Spencer in Westmeath in 1871, it had been successful, + but the area of disturbance was there comparatively insignificant. + + M22 Disturbances In Ireland + + 38 For a plain and precise description of the Coercion Act of 1881, see + Dicey's _Law of the Constitution_, pp. 243-8. + + 39 See vol. ii. p. 284. + + M23 Great Agrarian Law + M24 Its Reception In Ireland + M25 Arrest Of Mr. Parnell + + 40 At the Cloth Hall banquet, Leeds, Oct. 8, 1881. + + 41 Speech to the Leeds Chamber of Commerce, Oct. 8, 1881. + + M26 Mr. Forster's Resignation + + 42 Introduced by Mr. Redmond. + + M27 The Murders In The Phoenix Park + + 43 It had been Mr. Burke's practice to drive from the Castle to the + Park gate, then to descend and walk home, followed by two + detectives. On this occasion he found at the gate that the chief + secretary had passed, and drove forward to overtake him. The + detectives did not follow him as usual. If they had followed, he + would have been saved. + +_ 44 Life of Dean Church_, p. 299. + +_ 45 Nineteenth Century_, August, 1877; _Gleanings_, iv. p. 357. + + M28 Anti-European Rising + + 46 July 27, 1882. + + 47 Granville and Malet, November 4, 1881. + + 48 Before Midlothian, however, Mr. Gladstone had in 1877 drawn an + important distinction: "If I find the Turk incapable of establishing + a good, just, and well-proportioned government over civilised and + Christian races, it does not follow that he is under a similar + incapacity when his task shall only be to hold empire over + populations wholly or principally Orientals and Mahomedans. On this + head I do not know that any verdict of guilty has yet been found by + a competent tribunal."--_Gleanings_, iv. p. 364. + + M29 Policy Of England And France + +_ 49 Fortnightly Review_, July 1882. + + 50 Defining the claims of the European bondholder on revenue. + + M30 Gambetta + +_ 51 Fortnightly Review_, July 1882. + + M31 Diplomatic Labyrinth + + 52 Lord Granville to Lord Dufferin. Oct. 5, 1882. + + M32 Bombardment Of Alexandria + M33 Tel-El-Kebir + + 53 A share of the credit of success is due to the admirable efficiency + of Mr. Childers at the War Office. See Sir Garnet's letter to him, + _Life of Childers_, ii. p. 117. + + 54 Considerate la vostra semenza: + Fatti non foste a viver come bruti, + Ma per seguir virtute e conoscenza. + --_Inferno_, xxvi. 118. + + M34 After Fifty Years + +_ 55 Times_, Dec. 8, 1882. + +_ 56 Standard_, Nov. 16, 1882. + +_ 57 Morning Post_, Oct. 20, 1882. + + M35 Parliamentary Power Unbroken + + 58 Traill's _New Lucian_, pp. 305-6,--in spite of politics, a book of + admirable wit, scholarship, and ingenious play of mind. + + 59 To Mr. Hazzopolo, Dec. 22, 1882. + + M36 Dean Wellesley + M37 Recommendation To Canterbury + +_ 60 Life of Tait_, i. p. 109. + + 61 Bishop Browne writes to a friend (_Life_, p. 457): "Gladstone, I + learned both from himself and others, searched into all precedents + from the Commonwealth to the present day for a primate who began his + work at seventy, and found none but Juxon. Curiously, I have been + reading that he himself, prompted by Bishop Wilberforce, wanted + Palmerston to appoint Sumner (of Winchester) when he was + seventy-two. It was when they feared they could not get Longley (who + was sixty-eight)." + +_ 62 Life and Letters of Dean Church_, p. 307. + + M38 Church Appointments + +_ 63 Life and Letters of Dean Church_, p. 307. + + 64 See vol. i. p. 47. + +_ 65 Gleanings_, ii. p. 287. + + M39 Reconstruction + + 66 Lord Derby had refused office in the previous May. + + M40 Reconstruction + + 67 The matter itself has no importance, but a point of principle or + etiquette at one time connected with it is perhaps worth mentioning. + To a colleague earlier in the year Mr. Gladstone wrote: "I can + affirm with confidence that the notion of a title in the cabinet to + be consulted on the succession to a cabinet office is absurd. It is + a title which cabinet ministers do not possess. During thirty-eight + years since I first entered the cabinet, I have never known more + than a friendly announcement before publicity, and very partial + consultation perhaps with one or two, especially the leaders in the + second House." + + M41 Holiday At Cannes + + 68 See Appendix. + + 69 The lines from Lucretius (in his speech on the Affirmation bill). + See above, p. 19. + + 70 In a party sense, as he told the cabinet, it might be wise enough to + grant it, as it would please the public, displease the tories, and + widen the breach between the fourth party and their front bench. Mr. + Gladstone had suffered an unpleasant experience in another case, of + the relations brought about by the refusal of a political pension + after inquiry as to the accuracy of the necessary statement as to + the applicant's need for it. + + M42 Mr. Bright And The Irishmen + + 71 By an odd coincidence, on the day after my selection of this letter, + I read that the French prime minister, M. Combes, laid down the + doctrine that the government is never committed by a minister's + individual declarations, but only by those of the head of the + government. He alone has the power of making known the direction + given to policy, and each minister individually has authority only + for the administration of his department (September 25, 1902). Of + course this is wholly incompatible with Mr. Gladstone's ideas of + parliamentary responsibility and the cabinet system. + + M43 Official Discipline + M44 Occupation Of Egypt + + 72 Many indications of this could be cited, if there were room. A + parade of the victors of Tel-el-Kebir through the streets of London + stirred little excitement. Two ministers went to make speeches at + Liverpool, and had to report on returning to town that references to + Egypt fell altogether flat. + + M45 Egyptian Finance + + 73 Milner's _England in Egypt_, p. 185. + + M46 County Franchise + +_ 74 Saturday Review_, April 12, 1884. + + M47 Bill Rejected By The Lords + + 75 Edinburgh, August 30, 1884. + + 76 Corn Exchange, Edinburgh, August 30, 1884. + + M48 Negotiation + M49 Negotiation And Persuasion + + 77 Dinner of the Eighty Club, July 11, 1884. + + M50 The Queen's Suggestion + M51 Conferences With Lord Salisbury + M52 The Question Settled + M53 Mr. Plunket's Speech + M54 The Case Of Ireland + + 78 Lord Waterford, July 7, 1884. + + 79 December 11, 1883. + + 80 "I am not at all sure," Mr. Forster rashly said (March 31, 1884), + "that Mr. Parnell will increase his followers by means of this + bill." + + 81 This was only the second occasion on which his party in cardinal + divisions voted with the government. + + M55 The Mahdi + + 82 Wingate, pp. 50, 51. + + 83 The Soudan was conquered in 1819 by Ismail Pasha, the son of Mehemet + Ali, and from that date Egypt had a more or less insecure hold over + the country. In 1870 Sir Samuel Baker added the equatorial provinces + to the Egyptian Soudan. + + 84 Mr. Gladstone said on Nov. 2, 1882: "It is no part of the duty + incumbent upon us to restore order in the Soudan. It is politically + connected with Egypt in consequence of its very recent conquest; but + it has not been included within the sphere of our operations, and we + are by no means disposed to admit without qualification that it is + within the sphere of our responsibility." Lord Granville, May 7, + 1883: "H.M. government are in no way responsible for the operations + in the Soudan, which have been undertaken under the authority of the + Egyptian government, or for the appointment or actions of General + Hicks." + + M56 Policy Of Evacuation + M57 Despatch Of Gordon + + 85 It was a general mistake at that time to suppose that wherever a + garrison fell into the hands of the Mahdi, they were massacred. At + Tokar, for instance, the soldiers were incorporated by the victors. + See Wingate, p. 553. + + 86 Granville to Baring, Dec. 1, 1883; Jan. 10, 1884. + + 87 Gordon had suppressed the Taiping rising in China in 1863. In 1874 + he was appointed by the Egyptian government governor-general of the + equatorial provinces of central Africa. In 1876 he resigned owing to + trouble with the governor-general of the Soudan upon the suppression + of the slave trade, but was appointed (1877) governor-general of the + Soudan, Darfur, the equatorial provinces, and the Red Sea littoral. + He held this position till the end of 1879, suppressing the slave + trade with a strong hand and improving the means of communication + throughout the Soudan. He succeeded in establishing comparative + order. Then the new Egyptian government reversed Gordon's policy, + and the result of his six years' work soon fell to pieces. + + 88 Gordon's Letters to Barnes, 1885. Lord Granville took his ticket, + Lord Wolseley carried the General's bag, and the Duke of Cambridge + held open the carriage door. + + M58 Character Of Gordon + + 89 Baring's Instructions to Gordon (Jan. 25, 1884). + + 90 Gladstone to Granville, Jan. 19, 1884.--"I telegraphed last night my + concurrence in your proceedings about Gordon: but Chester would not + awake and the message only went on this morning." + + 91 Dilke in House of Commons, Feb. 14, 1884. See also Lord Granville to + Sir E. Baring, March 28, 1884. In recapitulating the instructions + given to General Gordon, Lord Granville says: "_His_ (Gordon's) + _first proposal_ was to proceed to Suakin with the object of + reporting from thence on the best method of effecting the evacuation + of the Soudan.... His instructions, _drawn up in accordance with his + own views_, were to report to her Majesty's government on the + military situation in the Soudan," etc. + + M59 Gordon's Instructions + + 92 For the full text of these instructions, see Appendix. + + 93 Baring to Granville, January 28, 1884. + + 94 Dated, _Steamship __"__Tanjore,__"__ at Sea, Jan. 22, 1884_. + + 95 Granville to Baring, March 28. + + M60 Changes Of Policy + + 96 Feb. 23, 1885. + + 97 May 13, 1884. + + M61 Zobeir + + 98 Wingate's _Mahdism_, p. 109. + + 99 Baring to Granville, Jan. 28.--"I had a good deal of conversation + with General Gordon as to the manner in which Zobeir Pasha should be + treated. Gen. Gordon entertains a high opinion of Zobeir Pasha's + energy and ability. He possesses great influence in the Soudan, and + General Gordon is of opinion that _circumstances might arise which + would render it desirable that he should be sent back to the + Soudan_." + + M62 Zobeir + + 100 (_From his diary._) _March 9._--... At night recognised the fact of a + cold, and began to deal with it. 10th. Kept my bed all day. 11th. + The cabinet sat, and Granville came to and fro with the + communications, Clark having prohibited my attendance. Read _Sybil_. + 12th. Bed as yesterday. 13th. Got to my sitting-room in the evening. + It has, however, taken longer this time to clear the chest, and + Clark reports the pulse still too high by ten. Saw Granville. + Conclave, 7-1/2 to 8-1/2, on telegram to Baring for Gordon. I was not + allowed to attend the cabinet. + + 101 The case of the government was stated with all the force and reason + of which it admitted, in Lord Granville's despatch of March 28, + 1884. + + M63 Condition Of The Soudan + + 102 In the light of this proceeding, the following is curious: "There is + one subject which I cannot imagine any one differing about. That is + the impolicy of announcing our intention to evacuate Khartoum. Even + if we were bound to do so we should have said nothing about it. The + moment it is known we have given up the game, every man will go over + to the Mahdi. All men worship the rising sun. The difficulties of + evacuation will be enormously increased, if, indeed, the withdrawal + of our garrison is not rendered impossible."--Interview with General + Gordon, _Pall Mall Gazette_, Jan. 8, 1884. + + ... "In the afternoon of Feb. 13 Gordon assembled all the + influential men of the province and showed them the secret firman. + The reading of this document caused great excitement, but at the + same time its purport was received evidently with much + gratification. It is worthy of note that the whole of the notables + present at this meeting subsequently threw in their cause with the + Mahdi."--Henry William Gordon's _Events in the Life of Charles George + Gordon_, p. 340. + + 103 Wingate, p. 110. + + M64 Question Of An Expedition + + 104 Lord Hartington, House of Commons, May 13, 1884. An admirable + speech, and the best defence of ministers up to this date. + + 105 Address to the electors of Midlothian, September 17, 1885. + + 106 See the official _History of the Soudan Campaign_, by Colonel + Colvile, Part 1. pp. 45-9. + + M65 The Expedition Starts + + 107 February 27, 1885. + + 108 Colvile, II., Appendix 47, p. 274. Apart from the authority of + Kitchener, Gordon's own language shows that he knew himself to be + _in extremis_ by the end of December. + + 109 The story that he went to the theatre the same night is untrue. + + M66 Mr. Gladstone's Vindication + +_ 110 Belford's Magazine_ (New York), Sept. 1890. A French translation of + this letter will be found in _L'Egypte et ses Provinces Perdues_, by + the recipient, Colonel C. Chaille-Long Bey (1892), pp. 196-7. He was + chief of the staff to Gordon in the Soudan, and consular-agent for + the United States at Alexandria. Another book of his, published in + 1884, is _The Three Prophets; Chinese Gordon, El Mahdi, and Arabi + Pasha_. Burton reviewed Gordon's Khartoum Journals, _Academy_, June + 11, 1885. + + M67 Party Prospects + + 111 Above, p. 166. + + M68 The Left Wing + + 112 For the censure, 288; against, 302. + + M69 Narrow Escape In Parliament + + 113 I often tried to persuade him that our retreat was to be explained + apart from pusillanimity, but he would not listen. + + M70 Change Of Soudan Policy + + 114 See Appendix. + + 115 For instance when Mr. Gladstone fell from office in 1874, Lord Odo + Russell wrote to him, "how sorry I feel at your retirement, and how + grateful I am to you for the great advantage and encouragement I + have enjoyed while serving under your great administration, in Rome + and Berlin." + + 116 "We do not depart in any degree from the policy of leaving the + Soudan. As to the civilisation which the noble and gallant earl + [Lord Dundonald] would impose upon us the duty of restoring, it + could only be carried out by a large and costly expedition, + entailing enormous sacrifice of blood and treasure, and for the + present a continuous expenditure, which I do not think the people of + this country would sanction.... The defence of our retention of + Suakin is that it is a very serious obstacle to the renewal and the + conduct of that slave trade which is always trying to pass over from + Africa into Asia. I do not think that the retention of Suakin is of + any advantage to the Egyptian government. If I were to speak purely + from the point of view of that government's own interest, I should + say, 'Abandon Suakin at once.' "--Lord Salisbury, in the House of + Lords, March 16, 1888. + + M71 A Historical Parallel + + 117 Above, vol. ii. p. 49. + + 118 Edinburgh, March 17, 1880. + + 119 In the letter to Mr. Bright (July 14, 1882) already given, Mr. + Gladstone went somewhat nearer to the Manchester school, and + expressed his agreement with Bright in believing most wars to have + been sad errors. + + M72 The Vote Of Credit + + 120 West Calder, November 17, 1885. + + M73 State Of Ireland + M74 Lord Randolph Churchill And The Irishmen + + 121 May 20, 1885. + + 122 The story was told by Lord R. Churchill in a speech at Sheffield, + Sept 4, 1885. + + 123 Mr. McCarthy's speech at Hull, Dec. 15, 1887. + + M75 In The Ministerial Camp + M76 Opinion In The Cabinet + M77 Opinion In The Cabinet + M78 Final Deliberations + M79 Budget Rejected + M80 Resignation Of Office + + 124 Duke of Argyll, July 10, 1885. + + 125 As the reader will remember (vol. i. pp. 436-440), on Dec. 16, 1852, + Mr. Disraeli's motion for imposing a house duty of a shilling in the + pound was rejected by 305 to 286. Mr. Gladstone also referred to the + case of the expulsion of the whigs by Peel. On May 13, 1841, after + eight nights' debate, the government were defeated by a majority of + 36 on their budget proposals in regard to sugar. Ministers not + resigning, Sir Robert Peel moved a vote of want of confidence on May + 27, which was carried by a majority of 1 (312-311), June 4, 1841. + Parliament thereupon was dissolved. + + M81 Ministerial Crisis + + 126 Memo. by Mr. Gladstone, on a sheet of notepaper, June 20, 1885. + + M82 Crisis Prolonged + + 127 Mr. Gladstone was reminded by a colleague that when Sir Robert Peel + resumed office in 1845, at the request of the Queen, he did so + before and without consultation with his colleagues. In the end they + all, excepting Lord Stanley, supported him. + + 128 June 25, 1885. + + 129 The correspondence with the Queen up to June 21 was read by Mr. + Gladstone in the House of Commons on June 24, and Lord Salisbury + made his statement in the House of Lords on the next day. Mr. + Gladstone told the House of Commons that he omitted one or two + sentences from one of his letters, as having hardly any bearing on + the real points of the correspondence. The omitted sentences related + to the Afghan frontier, and the state of the negotiations with + Russia. + + 130 This proceeding was so unusual as to be almost without a precedent. + Lord Mulgrave had addressed the House of Lords in 1837, and Lord + Clarendon in 1850. But on each of these occasions the viceroy's + administration had been the object of vigorous attack, and no one + but the viceroy himself was capable of making an effective + parliamentary defence. + + 131 July 6, 1885. _Hans._ 298, p. 1659. + + M83 The Maamtrasna Debate + + 132 Sir M. H. Beach, July 17, 1885. _Hans._ 299, p. 1085. + +_ 133 Hans._ 299, p. 1098. + +_ 134 Ibid._ p. 1119. + + M84 Change In Situation + + 135 In _The Contemporary Review_, October 1885, p. 491. + + 136 See _Spectator_, Sept. 26, 1885. + + M85 Whigs And Radicals + M86 Party Aspects + + 137 Mr. Chamberlain has been good enough to read these two letters, and + he assents to their substantial accuracy, with a demurrer on two or + three points, justly observing that anybody reporting a very long + and varied conversation is almost certain, however scrupulous in + intention, to insert in places what were thoughts much in his own + mind, rather than words actually spoken. In inserting these two + letters, it may tend to prevent controversy if we print such + corrective hints as are desired. + + 138 In connection with a local government bill for small holdings and + allotments, subsequently passed. + + 139 He suggested, for instance, the appointment of a committee. + + 140 Mr. Chamberlain puts it that he proposed to exclude home rule as + impossible, and to offer a local government bill which he thought + that Parnell might accept. Mr. Gladstone's statement that he and his + visitor were "pretty well agreed" on Ireland, cannot mean therefore + that the visitor was in favour of home rule. + + 141 This is not remembered. + + 142 "Some misunderstanding here." + + 143 That is, in his seventy-sixth year. + + M87 A Remarkable Interview + + 144 This episode was first mentioned in the House of Commons, June 7, + 1886. Lord Carnarvon explained in the Lords, June 10. Mr. Parnell + replied in a letter to the _Times_, June 12. He revived the subject + in the House of Commons, Feb. 13, 1888, and Lord Carnarvon explained + a second time in the Lords on May 3. On Lord Carnarvon's first + explanation, the Duke of Argyll, while placing the utmost reliance + on his personal honour and accuracy, "felt bound to observe that the + statement did not appear to be complete, for he had omitted to + explain what the nature of the communication [with Mr. Parnell] + absolutely was." Neither then nor two years later was the omission + made good. Curiously enough on the first occasion Lord Carnarvon did + not even mention that Lord Salisbury in any way shared his + responsibility for the interview, and in fact his language pointed + the other way. What remains is his asseveration, supported by Lord + Salisbury, that he had made no formal bargain with Mr. Parnell, and + gave him no sort of promise, assurance, or pledge. This is not only + entirely credible, it is certain; for the only body that could carry + out such a promise had not been consulted. "I may at least say this + of what went on outside the cabinet--that I had no communication on + the subject, _no authorisation_, and that I never communicated to + them even that which I had done."--_Hansard_, 306, p. 1258. + +_ 145 E.g._ _Hans._ 306, pp. 1181, 1199. + + 146 Letter to the _Times_, June 12, 1886. + + M88 A Remarkable Interview + +_ 147 Hans._ 332, p. 336. + + 148 August 24, 1885. + + M89 Lord Hartington And Mr. Chamberlain + + 149 Lord Hartington at Waterfoot, August 29. + + 150 June 17, 1885. + + 151 Warrington, September 8. + + M90 Letter To Mr. Childers + +_ 152 Life of Childers_, ii. p. 230. + + 153 Sept. 18, 1885. + + 154 Nov. 9, 1885. + + 155 Midlothian Speeches, p. 49. + +_ 156 Ibid._ p. 39. + + M91 Declarations From Lord Salisbury + + 157 Some of them are set out in Special Commission _Report_, pp. 99, + 100. + + 158 See Mr. Gladstone upon these tactics in his fifth Midlothian speech, + Nov. 24, 1885. Also in the seventh, Nov. 28, pp. 159-60. + + M92 Irish Manifesto + M93 In Midlothian + +_ 159 Nineteenth Century_, November 1885; reprinted in _Later Gleanings_. + + 160 Speech in the Free Assembly Hall, Nov. 11, 1885. + + M94 First Days + + 161 November 26, 1885. + +_ 162 Result of General Election of 1885_:-- + + English and Welsh boroughs and universities, 93 L., 86 C., 1 P. + Metropolis, 26, 36, 0 + English and Welsh counties, 152, 101, 0 + Scottish boroughs, 30, 3, 0 + Scottish counties, 32, 7, 0 + Ireland, 0, 18, 85 + Totals, 333 L., 251 C., 86 P. + + The following figures may also be found interesting:-- + + _Election of 1868_-- + + English and Welsh Liberals, 267 + Tories, 225 + Majority, 42 + + _In 1880_-- + + English and Welsh Liberals, 284 + Tories, 205 + Majority, 79 + + _In 1885_-- + + English and Welsh Liberals, 270 + Tories, 223 + Majority, 47 + + M95 General Result + + 163 Mr. Chamberlain at Leicester, December 3, 1885. + + M96 Extraordinary Results In Ireland + + 164 Macknight's _Ulster as it Is_, ii. p. 108. + + 165 Mr. Forster, March 11, 1881. + + M97 Mr. Parnell As Dictator + + 166 Lord Salisbury, at a dinner given in London to the four conservative + members for Hertfordshire, February 17, 1886. + +_ 167 Special Aspects of the Irish Question_, p. 18. + + M98 Proffer Of Support + M99 Leaders At Hawarden + + 168 These statements first appeared in the _Leeds Mercury_ and the + _Standard_ on Dec. 17, and in a communication from the National + Press Agency issued on the night of Dec. 16. They were not published + in the _Times_ and other London morning papers until Dec. 18. Mr. + Gladstone's telegram was printed in the evening papers on Dec. 17. + + M100 Reports From Hawarden + + 169 Speech on the Address, January 21, 1886. + + M101 Notes Of Conflict + + 170 At the Birmingham Reform Club, Dec. 17, 1885. + + M102 Views Of Mr. Parnell + M103 Changes And Rumours + + 171 Correspondence between Lord Salisbury and Lord Carnarvon, _Times_, + Jan. 16, 1886. + +_ 172 Hans._ 302, pp. 1929-1993, March 4, 1886. See also Lord Randolph + Churchill at Paddington, Feb. 13, 1886. + + 173 Maxwell's _Life of W. H. Smith_, ii. p. 163. + + 174 If this seems hyperbole, let the reader remember an entry in + Macaulay's diary: "I have now finished reading again most of Burke's + works. Admirable! The greatest man since Milton." Trevelyan's + _Life_, ii. p. 377. + + M104 End Of Seventy-Sixth Year + + 175 In 1833 the King's Speech represented the state of Ireland in words + that might be used at the present time, and expressed confidence + that parliament would entrust the King with "such additional powers + as may be necessary for punishing the disturbers of the public peace + and for preserving and strengthening the legislative union between + the two countries, which with your support and under the blessing of + divine Providence I am determined to maintain by all the means in my + power." The Address in answer assured his Majesty that his + confidence should not be disappointed, and that "we shall be ready + to entrust to H.M. such additional measures, etc., for preserving + and strengthening the legislative union which we have determined," + etc. This was the address that Mr. O'Connell denounced as a "bloody + and brutal address," and he moved as an amendment that the House do + resolve itself into a committee of the whole House to consider of an + humble address to his Majesty. Feb. 8. Amendment negatived, Ayes + being 428, Noes 40.--_Memo._ by Sir T. E. May for Mr. Gladstone, Jan. + 18, 1886. O'Connell, that is to say, did not move an amendment in + favour of repeal, but proposed the consideration of the Address in + committee of the whole House. + +_ 176 Hans._ 302, p. 128. + + 177 Lord Carnarvon left Ireland on Jan. 28, and Lord Justices were then + appointed. But the lawyers seem to hold that there cannot be Lord + Justices without a viceroy, and Lord Carnarvon was therefore + technically viceroy out of the kingdom (of Ireland), until Lord + Aberdeen was sworn in upon Feb. 10, 1886. He must, accordingly, have + signed the minute appointing Mr. Smith chief secretary, though of + course Mr. Smith had gone over to reverse the Carnarvon policy. + +_ 178 Hans._ 302, p. 112. + + M105 Coercion Bill Announced + + 179 Mr. Gladstone was often taunted with having got in upon the question + of allotments, and then throwing the agricultural labourer + overboard. "The proposition," he said, "is not only untrue but + ridiculous. If true, it would prove that Lord Grey in 1830 came in + upon the pension list, and Lord Derby in 1852 on the militia.... For + myself, I may say personally that I made my public declaration on + behalf of allotments in 1832, when Mr. Jesse Collings was just + born."--To Mr. C. A. Fyffe, May 6, 1890. + +_ 180 Diary._ + + M106 Again Prime Minister + + 181 "When the matter was finally adjusted by Chamberlain's retirement, + we had against us--Derby, Northbrook, Carlingford, Selborne, Dodson, + Chamberlain, Hartington, Trevelyan, Bright; and for--Granville, + Spencer, Kimberley, Ripon, Rosebery, Harcourt, Childers, Lefevre, + Dilke (unavailable)." Mr. Goschen was not in the cabinet of 1880. + + 182 A few weeks later, Lord Hartington said on the point of Mr. + Gladstone's consistency: "When I look back to the declarations that + Mr. Gladstone made in parliament, which have not been infrequent; + when I look back to the increased definiteness given to these + declarations in his address to the electors of Midlothian and in his + Midlothian speeches; when I consider all these things, I feel that I + have not, and that no one has, any right to complain of the + declaration that Mr. Gladstone has recently made."--Speech at the + Eighty Club, March 5, 1886. + +_ 183 Hans._ 304, p. 1106. + + M107 Position Of Mr. Chamberlain + + 184 January 30, 1886. _Hans._ 304, p. 1185. + + 185 As for the story of my being concerned in Mr. Gladstone's conversion + to home rule, it is, of course, pure moonshine. I only glance at it + because in politics people are ready to believe anything. At the + general election of 1880, I had declined to support home rule. In + the press, however, I had strenuously opposed the Forster Coercion + bill of the following winter, as involving a radical misapprehension + of the nature and magnitude of the case. In the course of that + controversy, arguments pressed themselves forward which led much + further than mere resistance to the policy of coercion. Without + having had the advantage of any communication whatever with Mr. + Gladstone upon Irish subjects for some years before, I had still + pointed out to my constituents at Newcastle in the previous + November, that there was nothing in Mr. Gladstone's electoral + manifesto to prevent him from proposing a colonial plan for Ireland, + and I had expressed my own conviction that this was the right + direction in which to look. A few days before the fall of the tory + government, I had advocated the exclusion of Irish members from + Westminster, and the production of measures dealing with the + land.--Speech at Chelmsford, January 7, 1886. + + 186 The cabinet was finally composed as follows:-- + + Mr. Gladstone, _First lord of the treasury_. + Lord Herschell, _Lord chancellor_. + Lord Spencer, _President of council_. + Sir W. Harcourt, _Chancellor of exchequer_. + Mr. Childers, _Home secretary_. + Lord Rosebery, _Foreign secretary_. + Lord Granville, _Colonial secretary_. + Lord Kimberley, _Indian secretary_. + Mr. Campbell-Bannerman, _War secretary_. + Lord Ripon, _Admiralty_. + Mr. Chamberlain, _Local government_. + Mr. Morley, _Irish secretary_. + Mr. Trevelyan, _Scotch secretary_. + Mr. Mundella, _Board of trade_. + + The Lord chancellor, Mr. C.-Bannerman, Mr. Mundella, and myself now + sat in cabinet for the first time. After the two resignations at the + end of March, Mr. Stansfeld came in as head of the Local government + board, and we sat with the ominous number of thirteen at table. + + M108 On Procedure By Resolution + + 187 See Mr. Chamberlain's speech, June 1, 1886. _Hans._ 306, p. 677. + Also Lord Hartington at Bradford, May 18, 1886. + + 188 June 1, 1833. _Hans._ 18, p. 186. + + 189 June 13, 1833. _Ibid._ p. 700. + + 190 May 14, 1833. _Hans._ 17, p. 1230. + + 191 There is also the case of the Reform bill of 1867. Disraeli laid + thirteen resolutions on the table. Lowe and Bright both agreed in + urging that the resolutions should be dropped and the bill at once + printed. A meeting of liberal members at Mr. Gladstone's house + unanimously resolved to support an amendment setting aside the + resolutions. Disraeli at once abandoned them. + + M109 Two Branches Of The Policy + + 192 Lord Hartington's argument on the second reading shows how a + resolution would have fared. _Hans._ 305, p. 610. + +_ 193 Hans._ 304, p. 1116. + +_ 194 Hans._ 304, p. 1190. + + M110 Important Resignations + + 195 Faint hopes were nourished that Mr. Bright might be induced to join, + but there was unfortunately no ground for them. Mr. Whitbread was + invited, but preferred to lend staunch and important support + outside. Lord Dalhousie, one of the truest hearts that ever was + attracted to public life, too early lost to his country, took the + Scottish secretaryship, not in the cabinet. + + M111 Mr. Parnell + M112 The Bill On The Anvil + + 196 See Appendix. + + M113 Forces For And Against + M114 Scene In Parliament + M115 Character Of The Debate + + 197 First reading, April 13. Motion made for second reading and + amendment, May 10. Land bill introduced and first reading, April 16. + + 198 April 9, May 10. + + M116 Stroke And Counter-Stroke + +_ 199 Hans._ 304, pp. 1204-6. + + M117 Lord Salisbury + +_ 200 Hans._ 306, p. 697. + +_ 201 Hans._ 304, p. 1202. + + 202 May 15, 1886. + + 203 See for instance, _Irish Times_, May 8, and _Belfast Newsletter_, + May 17, 18, 21, 1886. + +_ 204 Hans._ 304, p. 1134. Also 305, p. 1252. + + 205 When the bill was practically settled, he asked if he might have a + draft of the main provisions, for communication to half a dozen of + his confidential colleagues. After some demur, the Irish secretary + consented, warning him of the damaging consequences of any premature + divulgation. The draft was duly returned, and not a word leaked out. + Some time afterwards Mr. Parnell recalled the incident to me. "Three + of the men to whom I showed the draft were newspaper men, and they + were poor men, and any newspaper would have given them a thousand + pounds for it. No very wonderful virtue, you may say. But how many + of your House of Commons would believe it?" + + 206 For this point, see the _Times_ report of the famous proceedings in + Committee-room Fifteen, collected in the volume entitled _The + Parnellite Split_ (1891). + + M118 Subterranean Activity + M119 Strength And Weakness + M120 Correspondence With Mr. Bright + + 207 Letter to Mr. T. H. Bolton, M.P. _Times_, May 8, 1886. + +_ 208 Hans._ 306, p. 698. + + M121 Few Secondary Arguments + +_ 209 Hans._ 306, p. 1218. + + 210 In the end exactly 93 liberals did vote against the bill. + + M122 Party Meeting + +_ 211 Hans._ 306, p. 322. + + M123 Death-Warrant Of The Bill + M124 End Of The Debate + M125 Dissolution Of Parliament + M126 At Edinburgh + + 212 He was returned without opposition. + + M127 Cabinet Resign + M128 At Tegernsee + + 213 On the Irish Question.--"The History of an Idea and the Lesson of the + Elections," a fifty-page pamphlet prepared before leaving England. + +_ 214 Speaker_, Jan. 1, 1890. + +_ 215 Conversations of Doellinger._ By L. von Koebell, pp. 100, 102. + +_ 216 Nineteenth Century_, January 1887. See also speech at Hawarden, on + the Queen's Reign, August 30, 1887. The reader will remember Mr. + Gladstone's contrast between poet and active statesman at Kirkwall + in 1883. + +_ 217 Robert Elsmere: the Battle of Belief_ (1888). Republished from the + _Nineteenth Century_ in _Later Gleanings_, 1898. + + 218 May 2, 1888. + + M129 Dissentient Position + + 219 See vol. i. p. 423. + + 220 Sir W. Harcourt, Mr. Chamberlain, Lord Herschell, Sir George + Trevelyan, and myself. + + M130 Round Table Conference + + 221 See speeches at Hawick, Jan. 22, and at Birmingham, Jan. 29, 1887. + +_ 222 Baptist_ article, in _Times_, Feb. 25, 1887. + + 223 If anybody should ever wish further to disinter the history of this + fruitless episode, he will find all the details in a speech by Sir + William Harcourt at Derby, Feb, 27, 1889. See also Sir G. O. + Trevelyan, _Times_, July 26, 1887, Mr. Chamberlain's letter to Mr. + Evelyn Ashley, _Times_, July 29, 1887, and a speech of my own at + Wolverhampton, April 19, 1887. + + M131 State Of Ireland + +_ 224 Hans._ 309, Sept. 21, 1886. + + 225 See _United Ireland_, Oct. 23, 1886. + + M132 Plan Of Campaign + + 226 Lord Randolph had encouraged a plan of campaign in Ulster against + home rule. + + 227 Speech at the Memorial Hall, July 29, 1887. + + 228 Report, p. 8, sect. 15. + +_ 229 Freeman_, Jan. 1887. + + 230 Questions 16, 473-5. + + M133 Ministerial Vacillations + +_ 231 Hans._ August 19, 1886. + +_ 232 Ibid._ 313, March 22, 1887. + +_ 233 Ibid._ 312, April 22, 1887. + + M134 Singular Operations + + 234 Speech on Criminal Law Amendment (Ireland) bill, March 29, 1887. + + 235 This vital feature of the bill was discussed in the report stage, on + a motion limiting the operation of the Act to three years. June 27, + 1887. _Hans._ 316, p. 1013. The clause was rejected by 180 to 119, + or a majority of 61. + + 236 See Palles, C. B., in Walsh's case. _Judgments of Superior Courts in + cases under the Criminal Law and Procedure Amendment Act_, 1887, p. + 110. + + M135 New Crimes Act + M136 First Guillotine Closure + + 237 On September 9, 1887. + + M137 Mitchelstown + + 238 Sept. 12, 1887. _Hans._ 321, p. 327. + + M138 Intervention From Rome + + 239 Dec. 3, 1888. _Hans._ 331, p. 916. + + 240 May 8, 1888. + + M139 At Sandringham And Windsor + +_ 241 Tablet_, Jan. 5, 1889. + +_ 242 Iliad_, X. 317. See _Homer and Homeric Age_, iii. 467 n. + + 243 House of Lords, August 10, 1888. + + M140 The Facsimile Letter + + 244 Here is the text of this once famous piece:-- + + '15/5/82. + + "DEAR SIR,--I am not surprised at your friend's anger, but he and you + should know that to denounce the murders was the only course open to + us. To do that promptly was plainly our best policy. But you can + tell him and all others concerned, that though I regret the accident + of Lord F. Cavendish's death, I cannot refuse to admit that Burke + got no more than his deserts. You are at liberty to show him this, + and others whom you can trust also, but let not my address be known. + He can write to the House of Commons.--Yours very truly, + + "CHAS. S. PARNELL." + + 245 The three judges held this to be a correct interpretation of the + language used in the article of March 10th, 1887. Report, pp. 57-8. + + 246 April 20, 1887. + + M141 Demand For A Committee + +_ 247 Hans._ July 12, 1888, p. 1102. + +_ 248 Hans._ July 16, p. 1410. + +_ 249 Hans._ July 16, 1888, p. 1495. + + M142 The Bill + +_ 250 Hans._ 329, July 23, 1888, p. 263. + + M143 The Tribunal Opened + +_ 251 Hans._ Aug. 2, 1888, p. 1282. + +_ 252 Report_, p. 5. + +_ 253 Hans._ 342, p. 1357. + + M144 Proceedings In Court + +_ 254 Evidence_, iv. p. 219. + + 255 The common-sense view of the employment of such a man seems to be + set out in the speech of Sir Henry James (Cassell and Co.), pp. + 149-51, and 494-5. + + M145 The Letters Reached + + 256 Feb. 24, 1889. _Evidence_, vi. p. 20. + + M146 The Forgeries Exploded + M147 On The Report + + 257 See above, vol. iii. p. 56. + + M148 On The Report + + 258 "The Triple Alliance and Italy's Place in It." By Outidanos. + _Contemporary Review_, October 1889. See Appendix. + + M149 Blessings Of The Home + + 259 See above, vol. i. pp. 99, 568. + + 260 Third Part, vol. i. p. 62. + + 261 Vol. i. p. 206. + + 262 These articles appeared in _Good Words_ (March-November 1900), and + were subsequently published in volume form under the title of _The + Impregnable Rock of Holy Scripture_. + +_ 263 Speaker_, Aug. 30, 1890. + +_ 264 Inf._ v. 98: "Where Po descends for rest with his tributary + streams." + +_ 265 Od._ xx. 82. + + 266 Mr. Hanbury, August 1, 1889. _Hans._ 339, p. 98. + + 267 At Birmingham, July 30, 1889. + +_ 268 E.g._ _Northern Whig_, February 21, 1889. + + M150 Advance Of Home Rule + + 269 Mr. Balfour at Manchester. _Times_, October 21, 1889. + + 270 October 22, 1890. + + 271 See Mr. Roby's speech at the Manchester Reform Club, Oct. 24, and + articles in _Manchester Guardian_, Oct. 16 and 25, 1890. The _Times_ + (Oct. 23), while denying the inference that the Irish question was + the question most prominent in the minds of large numbers of the + electors, admitted that this was the vital question really before + the constituency, and says generally, "The election, like so many + other bye-elections, has been decided by the return to their party + allegiance of numbers of Gladstonians who in 1886 absented + themselves from the polling booths." + + M151 The Catastrophe + + 272 "That the effect of this trial will be to relegate Mr. Parnell for a + time, at any rate, to private life, must we think be assumed.... + Special exemptions from penalties which should apply to all public + men alike cannot possibly be made in favour of exceptionally + valuable politicians to suit the convenience of their parties. He + must cease, for the present at any rate, to lead the nationalist + party; and conscious as we are of the loss our opponents will + sustain by his resignation, we trust that they will believe us when + we say that we are in no mood to exult in it.... It is no + satisfaction to us to feel that a political adversary whose + abilities and prowess it was impossible not to respect, has been + overthrown by irrelevant accident, wholly unconnected with the + struggle in which we are engaged."--_Daily Telegraph_, Nov. 17, 1890. + + M152 Opinion In Ireland + + 273 Speech at Retford, Dec. 11, 1890. _Antony and Cleopatra_, Act I. Sc. + 2. + + M153 Judgments In Great Britain + + 274 Lord Granville, Sir W. Harcourt, Mr. Arnold Morley, and myself. + + M154 The Liberal Leaders + M155 The Irish Leader Obdurate + + 275 If anybody cares to follow all this up, he may read a speech of Mr. + Parnell's at Kells, Aug. 16, 1891, and a full reply of mine sent to + the press, Aug. 17. + + M156 Mr. Parnell's Decision + + 276 On the day after leaving Hawarden Mr. Parnell spoke at Liverpool, + calling on Lancashire to rally to their "grand old leader." "My + countrymen rejoice," he said, "for we are on the safe path to our + legitimate freedom and our future prosperity." December 19, 1889. + + 277 See _The Parnell Split_, reprinted from the _Times_ in 1891. + Especially also _The Story of Room 15_, by Donal Sullivan, M.P., the + accuracy of which seems not to have been challenged. + + M157 Committee Room Fifteen + M158 The Irish Bishops + M159 Break-Up Of The Irish Party + + 278 The case for the change of mind which induced the majority who had + elected Mr. Parnell to the chair less than a fortnight before, now + to depose him, was clearly put by Mr. Sexton at a later date. To the + considerations adduced by him nobody has ever made a serious + political answer. The reader will find Mr. Sexton's argument in the + reports of these proceedings already referred to. + +_ 279 Od._ xi. 200. "It was not sickness that came upon me; it was + wearying for thee and thy lost counsels, glorious Odysseus, and for + all thy gentle kindness, this it was that broke the heart within + me." + + 280 Hor. _Carm._ i. 24. + + M160 Severe Ordeal + + 281 December 23, 1890. + + 282 April 3, 1891. + + 283 July 8, 1891. + + M161 Death Of Mr. Parnell + + 284 October 6. He was in his forty-sixth year (_b._ June 1846), and had + been sixteen years in parliament. + + 285 Vol. i. p. 387. + + 286 See above, vol. ii. p. 76. + + M162 At Newcastle + + 287 Once Mr. Gladstone presented him with a piece of plate, and set upon + it one of those little Latin inscriptions to which he was so much + addicted, and which must serve here instead of further commemoration + of a remarkable friendship: Georgio Armitstead, Armigero, D.D. Gul. + E. Gladstone. Amicitiae Benevolentiae Beneficiorum delatorum Valde + memor Mense Augusti A.D., 1894. + + 288 Era gia l'ora, che volge 'l disio + A' naviganti, e 'ntenerisce 'l cuore + Lo di ch' han detto a' dolci amici addio, etc. + + _Purg._ viii. + + Byron's rendering is well enough known. + + M163 Opinions On Statesmen + M164 Table-Talk + + 289 On some other occasion he set this against Macaulay's praise of a + passage in Barrow mentioned above, ii. p. 536. + + M165 Table-Talk + +_ 290 Iliad_, ix. 32. + + M166 Ecclesiastical + M167 Fuentarabia + + 291 {~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}, {~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA WITH VARIA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH DASIA AND OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER DELTA~}{~GREEK KORONIS~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER MU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER IOTA WITH OXIA~}, + {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER LAMDA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH PSILI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH VARIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER FINAL SIGMA~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER PI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER GAMMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ALPHA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER NU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON~} {~GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER ETA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER SIGMA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER TAU~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER EPSILON WITH OXIA~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER RHO~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER OMICRON~}{~GREEK SMALL LETTER UPSILON~}. + + "Ask not, mariner, whose tomb I am here, but be thine own fortune a + kinder sea."--MACKAIL. + + M168 Disenchantment A Mistake + M169 Table-Talk + + 292 I have not succeeded in hitting on the passage in the _History_. + + M170 Payment Of Members + M171 At Bayonne + + 293 Boswell, March 21, 1776. Repeated, with a very remarkable + qualification, Sept. 19, 1777. Birkbeck Hill's edition, iii. p. 162. + +_ 294 Carm._ iii. 5. + + M172 Table-Talk + M173 Table-Talk + +_ 295 Translations by Lyttelton and Gladstone_, p. 166. + + M174 Table-Talk + + 296 Thou shalt possess thy soul without care among the living, and + lighter when thou goest to the place where most are. + + M175 Conversations + + 297 See Appendix, Hor. _Carm._ i. 12, 25. + + M176 Question Of Undertaking Government + + 298 Lord Palmerston's government of 1859 was shorter by only a few days. + + M177 The Cabinet + + 299 Here is the Fourth Cabinet:-- + + _First lord of the treasury and privy seal_, W. E. Gladstone. + _Lord chancellor_, Lord Herschell. + _President of the council and Indian secretary_, Earl of Kimberley. + _Chancellor of the exchequer_, Sir W. V. Harcourt. + _Home secretary_, H. H. Asquith. + _Foreign secretary_, Earl of Rosebery. + _Colonial secretary_, Marquis of Ripon. + _Secretary for war_, H. Campbell-Bannerman. + _First lord of the admiralty_, Earl Spencer. + _Chief secretary for Ireland_, John Morley. + _Secretary for Scotland_, Sir G. O. Trevelyan. + _President of the board of trade_, A. J. Mundella. + _President of the local government board_, H. H. Fowler. + _Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster_, James Bryce. + _Postmaster-general_, Arnold Morley. + _First commissioner of works_, J. G. Shaw Lefevre. + _Vice-president of the council_, A. H. D. Acland. + + 300 See Mr. Gladstone's speeches and answers to questions in the House + of Commons, Jan. 1, Feb. 3, and May 1, 1893. See also the French + Yellow Book for 1893, for M. Waddington's despatches of Nov. 1, + 1892, May 5, 1893, and Feb. 1, 1893. + + M178 Preparation Of The Bill + + 301 I hope I am not betraying a cabinet secret if I mention that this + committee was composed of Mr. Gladstone, Lord Spencer, Lord + Herschell, Mr. Campbell-Bannermann, Mr. Bryce, and myself. + + 302 See above, p. 386. + + M179 Achievements In Debate + + 303 One poor biographic item perhaps the tolerant reader will not grudge + me leave to copy from Mr. Gladstone's diary:--"_October 6, 1892._ Saw + J. Morley and made him envoy to ----. He is on the whole ... about the + best stay I have." + + M180 Obstruction + M181 The Guillotine + M182 Question Of Dissolution + + 304 See above, ii. p. 241. + + 305 See Appendix for further elucidation. + + M183 Again At Biarritz + M184 Last Cabinet + + 306 Above, p. 130. + + M185 Last Audience + + 307 Written down, March 5. + + 308 Dr. Carlyle's translation. + +_ 309 Inferno_, xxvii. 81. + + 310 On July 1, 1895, he announced his formal withdrawal in a letter to + Sir John Cowan, so long the loyal chairman of his electoral + committee. + + 311 "The Place of Heresy and Schism in the Modern Christian Church" and + "The True and False Conception of the Atonement." + +_ 312 Letter to the Duke of Westminster._ + + M186 Last Meeting With The Queen + + 313 For the list see Appendix. + +_ 314 King John._ + + M187 Last Illness + M188 Parliamentary Tributes + M189 His Summary Of The Period + + 315 Letter to Sir John Cowan, March 17, 1894. + + 316 July 1, 1895. + + M190 Leader, Not Follower + + 317 See vol. i. p. 457. + + M191 Achievements Compared + + 318 See _Guardian_, Feb. 25, 1874. + + M192 Attitude To Church Parties + + 319 iii. p. 396. + + 320 For instance, Geddes, _Problem of the Homeric Poems_, 1878, p. 16. + + M193 On Homer + + 321 Pattison, ii. p. 166. + +_ 322 Gleanings_, ii. p. 147. + +_ 323 Life_, i. p. 398. + + M194 Leopardi Translations + +_ 324 Gleanings_, ii. p. 129. + + M195 A Golden Lamp + + 325 Telegram of April 4. + + 326 Despatch, March 9. + + 327 Power, p. 73 A. + +_ 328 Ibid._ 75 B. + + 329 Egypt, No. 18, p. 34, 1884 (April); Egypt, No. 35, p. 122 (July 30). + + M196 Home Rule Bill, 1886 + M197 Naval Estimates Of 1894 + + + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE LIFE OF WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE (VOL 3 OF 3)*** + + + +CREDITS + + +March 20, 2010 + + Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1 + Produced by Paul Murray, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + + + +A WORD FROM PROJECT GUTENBERG + + +This file should be named 31711.txt or 31711.zip. + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + + + http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/1/7/1/31711/ + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one -- the old editions will be +renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no one +owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and +you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission +and without paying copyright royalties. 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