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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:56:16 -0700 |
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diff --git a/31705-h/31705-h.htm b/31705-h/31705-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2d17039 --- /dev/null +++ b/31705-h/31705-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,7176 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Social Direction, by William E. Kellicott. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Direction of Evolution, by +William E. Kellicott + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Social Direction of Evolution + An Outline of the Science of Eugenics + +Author: William E. Kellicott + +Release Date: March 20, 2010 [EBook #31705] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOCIAL DIRECTION OF EVOLUTION *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<h2>THE SOCIAL DIRECTION<br /> +OF HUMAN EVOLUTION</h2> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h1>THE SOCIAL DIRECTION<br /> +OF HUMAN EVOLUTION</h1> + +<h3><small>AN OUTLINE OF THE SCIENCE OF</small><br /> +EUGENICS</h3> + +<h4><small>BY</small><br /> +WILLIAM E. KELLICOTT</h4> +<h6>PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, GOUCHER COLLEGE</h6> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 15%;"> +<img src="images/pubicon.png" width="100%" alt="Publisher Icon" title="Publisher Icon" /> +</div> + +<h4>NEW YORK AND LONDON<br /> +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br /> +1919</h4> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1911, by</span><br /> +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br /><br /> +Printed in the United States of America</h5> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>This small volume is based upon three lectures +on Eugenics delivered at Oberlin College +in April, 1910. In preparing them for publication +many extensions and a few additions +have been made in order to present the subject +more adequately and to include some very recent +results of eugenic investigation.</p> + +<p>Few subjects have come into deserved prominence +more rapidly than has Eugenics. Biologists, +social workers, thoughtful students and +observers of human life everywhere, have felt +the growing necessity for some kind of action +leading to what are now recognized as eugenic +ends. Hitherto the lack of guiding principles +has left us in the dark as to where to take hold +and what methods to pursue. To-day, however, +progress in the human phases of biological +science clearly gives us clews regarding modes +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span> +of attack upon many of the fundamental problems +of human life and social improvement and +progress, and suggests concrete methods of +work.</p> + +<p>The present essay does not represent an +original contribution to the subject of Eugenics. +It is not a complete statement of the facts and +foundations of Eugenics in any particular. It +is rather an attempt to state briefly and suggestively, +in simple, matter-of-fact terms the +present status of this science. While Eugenics +is a social topic in practice, in its fundamentals, +in its theory, it is biological. It is therefore +necessary that the subject be approached primarily +from the biological point of view and +with some familiarity with biological methods +and results. The control of human evolution—physical, +mental, moral—is a serious subject of +supremest importance and gravest consequents. +It must be considered without excitement—thoughtfully, +not emotionally.</p> + +<p>It is hardly necessary to add that no one can +speak of the subject of Eugenics without feeling +the immensity of his debt to Sir Francis +Galton and to Professor Karl Pearson. From +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span> +the writings of these pioneers I have drawn +heavily in this essay. The recent summary of +the Whethams, and Davenport's valuable essay +on Eugenics have also served as the sources of +quotation.</p> + +<p style='text-align:right;'>W. E. K.</p> + +<p><span style='margin-left:2em;'><small>Baltimore, Md., November, 1910.</small></span></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents"> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#I">I</a>.—</td> + <td><span class="smcap">The Sources and Aims of the Science Of Eugenics</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#II">II</a>.—</td> + <td><span class="smcap">The Biological Foundations of Eugenics</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#III">III</a>.—</td> + <td><span class="smcap">Human Heredity and the Eugenic Program</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Illustrations"> +<tr> + <td><small>FIG.</small></td> + <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 1.—Increase of population in the United States and the principal countries of Europe from 1800 to 1900</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 2.—Relative and absolute numbers of prisoners in the United States from 1850 to 1904</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 3.—Recorded measurements of the stature of 1052 mothers</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 4.—Model to illustrate the law of probability or "chance"</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 5.—Plinth to illustrate the difference between variability (fluctuation) and variation (mutation)</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 6.—Curves illustrating the relation between the pure line and the species or other large group</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 7.—Diagram showing the course of color heredity in the Andalusian fowl</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 8.—Diagram showing the course of color heredity in the guinea-pig</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> 9.—Diagram illustrating the relation of the germ cells in a simple case of Mendelian heredity</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>10.—Diagram illustrating the phenomenon of regression</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>11.—Diagrams showing the relation between order of birth and incidence of pathological defect</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>12.—Coefficients of heredity of physical and psychical characters in school children</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>13.—Family history showing brachydactylism. Farabee's data</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>14.—Family history showing polydactylism</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>15.—Mother and daughters showing "split hand" <i>Facing</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>16.—Two family histories showing "split foot" <i>Facing</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>17.—Family history showing congenital cataract</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>18.—Family history showing a form of night blindness</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>19.—Family history showing a form of night blindness</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>20.—Family history showing Huntington's chorea</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>21.—Family history showing deaf-mutism</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>22.—Family history showing feeble-mindedness</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>23.—Family history showing angio-neurotic œdema</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>24.—Family history showing tuberculosis</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>25.—Family history showing infertility</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>26.—Family history showing ability</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>27.—Family history showing ability</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>28.—History of three markedly able families</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>29.—History of <i>Die Familie Zero</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I<br /><br /> +THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE<br /> +SCIENCE OF EUGENICS</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<h2>I</h2> + +<h3>THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +"Bravas to all impulses sending sane children to the next age!"<br /> +</p></div> + + +<p>Eugenics has been defined as "the science of being well born." In the +words of Sir Francis Galton, who may fairly be claimed as the founder +of this newest of sciences, "Eugenics is the study of the agencies +under social control, that may improve or impair the racial qualities +of future generations, either physically or mentally."</p> + + +<p>The idea of definitely undertaking to improve the innate +characteristics of the human race has been expressed repeatedly +through centuries—fancifully, seriously, hopefully, and now +scientifically. Since the times of Theognis and of Plato the +student of animate Nature has been aware of the possibility +of the degradation or of the elevation of the human +race-characters. The conditions under which life exists +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +gradually change: the customs and ideals of +societies change rapidly. Times inevitably +come when, if we are to maintain or to advance +our racial position, we find it necessary to +change in an adaptive way our attitude toward +these changing social relations and conditions +of life. If we neglect to do this we go down in +the racial struggle, as history so clearly and so +repeatedly warns us.</p> + +<p>In the opinion of many biologists and sociologists +such a time has now arrived. The suspension +of many forms of natural selection in +human society, the currency of the "rabbit +theory" of racial prosperity—based upon the +idea of mere numerical increase of the population, +the complacent disregard of the increase +of the pauper, insane, and criminal elements of +our population, the dearth of individuals of +high ability—even of competent workmen, all +are resulting in evil and will result disastrously +unless deliberately controlled. It is hoped +that this control, though at first conscious, +"artificial," may later become fixed as an element +of social custom and conscience and thus operate +automatically and the more effectively. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +result will be not only the restoration of our +race to its original vigor, mental and physical, +but further the carrying on of the race to a surpassing +vigor and supremacy.</p> + +<p>The aim of Eugenics is the production of a +more healthy, more vigorous, more able humanity. +Again in the words of Galton "The aim +of Eugenics is to represent each class ... by +its best specimens; that done to leave them to +work out their common civilization in their own +way.... To bring as many influences as can +be reasonably employed to cause the useful +classes in the community to contribute more +than their present proportion to the next generation"; +and further, we might add, to cause +the useless, vicious classes to contribute to the +next generation less than their present proportion.</p> + +<p>With this definition of Eugenics and preliminary +statement of its aims before us we may +proceed to a somewhat fuller statement of the +facts within this field. First let us consider the +relation of the science of Eugenics to its parent +sciences, biology and sociology, then after mentioning +some of the steps in the development of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +the present eugenic movement, we may describe +some of the conditions which give us human +beings pause and lead us to appreciate the +necessity for a reconsideration of much that enters +into our present social organization and +conduct.</p> + +<p>Shortly before the publication of "The +Origin of Species," Darwin was asked by Alfred +Russell Wallace whether he proposed to +include any reference to the evolution of man. +Darwin's reply was: "You ask whether I shall +discuss man. I think I shall avoid the whole +subject, as so surrounded with prejudices; +though I fully admit that it is the highest and +most interesting problem for the naturalist." +This prejudice which Darwin knew would preclude +a just consideration of the subject of +man's origin and evolution, grew out of the +former and long current conception of the position +occupied by man in the whole scheme of +Nature—of "Man's Place in Nature."</p> + +<p>This conception, happily obsolete now among +thinkers, though occasionally seen lurking in +out of the way corners shaded from the light +of modern philosophy and science, placed Man +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +and the rest of the universe in separate categories. +Man was one, all the rest another. It +was for Man's benefit or pleasure that the rains +descended, that the corn grew and ripened, that +the sun shone, the birds sang, the landscape +was spread before the view. For Man's warning +or punishment the lightning struck, comets +appeared, disease ravaged, insects tormented +and destroyed. It was certainly very natural +that Man should regard himself as a thing +apart, particularly since he was able to control +and to regulate Nature, and to take tribute +from her so extensively. But the scientist regarded +man differently; from him the world +learned to recognize man as an integral factor +in Nature—as one with Nature, possessing the +same structures, performing the same activities, +as other animals; subject to much the same +control and with much the same purposes +in life and in Nature as other living things. There +is to-day no necessity to enlarge upon this view. +As Ray Lankester puts it: "Man is held to be +a part of Nature; a being, resulting from and +driven by the one great nexus of mechanism +which we call Nature."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +But the echoes of the older naïve view of Man +and his Nature sounded long after the rational +scientific conception had become dominant. It +is not so very long ago that psychology was little +more than human psychology; nor has sociology +long since gone outside the purely human +for explanations of the facts of human +society. Nowadays, however, psychology has +a firm comparative basis and sociology finds +much that is illuminating and helpful in the +purely biological aspects of the human animal. +Very naturally, then, we have had social science +studying man as Man, with a capital M: +biological science studying man as a natural +animal.</p> + +<p>But now that modern trend of scientific synthesis +which has brought forth a Physical-Chemistry +and a Chemical-Physiology and a +Bio-Chemistry, is combining the purely social +and the purely biological studies of man into +a new Bio-Sociology. And as one phase of this +new partnership we have the subject of Eugenics—the +science of racial integrity and progress, +built upon the overlapping fields of Biology +and Sociology.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +We can trace the idea, perhaps better the +hope, of Eugenics from the modern times of +ancient Greece. Plato laid stress upon the idea +of the "purification of the State." In his Republic +he pointed out that the quality of the +herd or flock could be maintained only by breeding +from the best, consciously selected for that +purpose by the shepherd, and by the destruction +of the weaklings; and that when one was +concerned with the quality of his hunting dogs +or horses or pet birds, he was careful to utilize +this knowledge. He drew attention to the necessity +in the State for a functionary corresponding +to the shepherd to weed out the undesirables +and to prevent them from multiplying +their kind. Plato stated clearly the essential +idea of the inheritance of individual qualities +and the danger to the State of a large and increasing +body of degenerates and defectives. +He called upon the legislators to purify the +State. But the legislators paid no heed. The +able-bodied and able-minded continued to be +sacrificed to the God of War; the degenerates +and defectives—not fit to fight—were the ones +left at home to become parents of the next generation. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +And to-day Greece remains an awful +warning.</p> + +<p>We cannot describe or even enumerate the +wrecks of the many plans for race improvement +that are strewn from Plato to our day. +Sporadic, emotional, visionary, often it must +be confessed suggested by possibilities of material +gain to the "leader"—they have all passed. +They failed because they were unscientific; because +there was available no solid foundation +of determined fact upon which to build. One +need suggest only the Oneida Community, as +it was originally planned, or the Parisian society +of <i>L'Elite</i>—in both of which the selection +of mates was to be carefully controlled—or +some of the fantasies of Bernard Shaw, to indicate +the character of these failures. Only +recently have we become able to suggest the +possibility of race improvement by scientific +methods, and only very recently has the possibility +appeared in the light of a necessity, the +alternative being the universal reward of the +unsuccessful.</p> + +<p>The present eugenic movement may be said +to date from 1865 when Francis Galton showed +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +that mental qualities are inherited just as are +physical qualities, and pointed out that this +opened the way to an improvement of the race +in all respects. The data in support of this +pregnant conclusion were included in Galton's +work on "Hereditary Genius" published in +1869, when he again emphasized definitely the +possibility and desirability of improving the +natural qualities of the human race. His suggestions +fell upon the stony ground of ignorance +even of the most elementary facts of +heredity. The subject was raised again in his +"Inquiries into the Human Faculty" in 1883, +and the word "Eugenics" was then coined. +The ground was still non-receptive.</p> + +<p>Then followed a period of rapid increase in +our knowledge of heredity in animals and +plants and in 1901 Galton returned again to +the subject, this time in a more direct and elaborate +way, and his Huxley Lecture of that year +before the Anthropological Institute was upon +"The Possible Improvement of the Human +Breed under the Existing Conditions of Law +and Sentiment." This time he received a real +hearing, partly on account of recent disclosures +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +regarding the state of human society and its +trends in Great Britain, chiefly because there +was at last a real scientific basis for such a proposal. +In this lecture, after declaring that the +possibility of human race culture is no longer +to be considered an academical or impractical +problem, Galton proceeded to show that we +have a sufficient biological knowledge of man to +furnish a working basis. We know of man's +variability and heredity—that some men are +worth more than others in the community, and +that individual traits are also family possessions. +This he followed up with definite suggestions +as to possible means of the "augmentation +of favored stock."</p> + +<p>The then recently organized Sociological Society +of London took up the subject enthusiastically, +and in 1904 and 1905 Galton was invited +to deliver addresses before the Society +upon this topic. In his first address he spoke +upon "Eugenics: its Definition, Scope, and +Aims." This proved to be a statement of the +elementary principles of the subject—a sort of +eugenic creed. Here Galton struck fire. The +reading of his paper was followed by very extended +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +discussion and criticism, and he received +some enthusiastic support. A few of these enthusiastic +supporters brought forth, on the spur +of the moment, wonderful, visionary schemes +for eugenic progress; much of the adverse criticism +went wide of the mark; and, on the whole, +Galton must have felt that at least he had demonstrated +fully one need for which he had +spoken, that of developing a race of able thinkers. +Galton's second address before the same +society the year following was partly directed +at some of this hasty criticism and partly devoted +to the setting forth of the possibly ultimate +place of the ideals of race improvement +in the conscience of the community, and to +showing how the whole subject is fraught with +"the greatest spiritual dignity and the utmost +social importance."</p> + +<p>The subject was now fairly launched. Magazine +articles appeared on "The New National +Patriotism," "Breeding Better Men," <i>et cetera</i>. +Meanwhile the bio-sociologist settled down to +work. And during the five years that have +since passed an immense amount of knowledge +has been gained, and a large number of excellent +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +workers recruited. Interest in the subject +is now general, and its importance recognized +as vital. Karl Pearson, known as a good +fighter, is Galton's "beak and claws," performing +for him much the same kind of service that +Huxley performed for Darwin nearly fifty +years ago. Galton himself has established a +Eugenics Laboratory under the direction of +Professor Pearson in the Biometric Laboratory +of the University of London and has +endowed a Research Fellowship and Research +Scholarships. This laboratory is publishing +a series of Memoirs and a series of Lectures +upon eugenic topics. The University +of London is publishing, with the assistance +of the Drapers' Company, a series of "Studies +in National Deterioration." A periodical, +<i>The Eugenics Review</i>, is established +and appearing regularly. A Eugenics Education +Society has been founded to popularize +and disseminate the technical information contained +in the memoirs and special papers. +England remains the seat of greatest activity +and interest, but much is being done now in +this country. In America the subject is largely +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +under the auspices of the American Breeders +Association, which has organized an extremely +efficient Committee on Eugenics with which a +large number of biological and medical workers +are coöperating. This committee has coöperated +in the establishment of a Eugenics Record +Office, at Cold Spring Harbor, under the direction +of H. H. Laughlin. Relevant facts are +beginning to pour in from many directions; +eugenic ideals are being given practical expression, +and the science is rapidly gaining +headway.</p> + +<p>It may be asked: "Well, what is it all about; +are we as a nation not doing well—well +enough?" Is it not true, as some have suggested, +that this eugenic movement is but one +more expression of England's temporary national +hysteria transferred to this country? In +answer to such queries let us state some of the +conditions which have suggested to so many +sober thinkers and observers that the time is +arriving, has in fact arrived, when we must +begin to think of the future of our communities +and nations and of our race, rather than +contentedly to read of and meditate upon the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +great achievements of our past, or to parade +with self-satisfied air through our glass houses +of Anglo-Saxon supremacy. Even were we +unthreatened, were we amply holding our own, +the mere fact of the possibility of a natural increase +of human capacity would make it a practical +subject of the utmost importance. We +may be sure that somewhere a nation will avail +itself of such a possibility as the increase of +inherent native talent, physical, mental, moral, +and will tend to become a strong and dominant +people. Why should not <i>we</i> be that +people?</p> + +<p>It seems that the facts that lead us to think +of the future in this matter are of two quite distinct +classes. First, we have a great mass of +data relative to the composition of our societies +and to the changing character of our population, +social data of deep significance when +broadly viewed and thoughtfully considered. +Second, there are certain biological considerations, +which all apart from existing social conditions +should warn us to be on the lookout. +First let us review briefly some of the latter, +some of those biological considerations which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +lead us to regard thoughtfully the problem +of the future evolution of man and his societies.</p> + +<p>As with other species of animals, each of us +comes into the world equipped with a physical +constitution and a few simple fundamental instincts. +But unlike all other animals, the possession +of these alone does not enable us to take +and maintain our positions in the community +life. Man's life to-day is subject to a great +social heritage which, unlike his natural heritage, +can be realized only as a result of his own +activity and acquisition. Civilized man is the +result of Nature plus Nurture. Civilization +has been defined as "the sum of human contrivances +which enable human beings to advance +independently of heredity." The knowledge of +fact, historic and scientific, of literature, of art, +of custom, and manner, and all that goes to +make up the culture and education which are +the distinctive traits of our human lives—all +this is no possession of ours when we make our +first bow to society. Nor do these things become +ours through a simple process of growth +and development while we remain the passive +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +subjects. All of these things represent +the active individual acquirement of the racial +accumulation of tradition and learning—what +the biologist would call the results +of modification. Our troubles begin when +we realize that in the acquisition of this load +each generation does not begin where the +preceding left off, not at all—but we begin +where our parents did. The first thing we do +toward advancing our places in the world is +to absorb what we can of the same kind of thing +our forbears absorbed, learn over again their +lessons, repeat their experiences; and then we +proceed straightway to increase the difficulties +for the next generation by writing more books, +discovering more facts, making a little more +history, and so it goes: the load of tradition +increases with every successive generation, and +so it has gone since the beginning of man's civilization. +It is declared that the modern +schoolboy knows more than did Aristotle. We +cannot resist the inquiry, Has the modern +schoolboy better native ability than had Aristotle? +Here is the whole point of this matter; +are we any better endowed mentally now that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +the amount to be mentally absorbed and accomplished +is so many times greater? Has our +capacity for mental accumulation kept pace +with the amount to be accumulated, and with +the necessity for such accumulation as a fitting +for human life of the civilized variety?</p> + +<p>Madison Bentley has recently put it nicely in +this way. Does talent grow with knowledge? +"May we not suppose that the men and women +of some distant glacial age, who dwelt upon the +ice, wore the skin of the seal, and ate raw fish, +had as much brain and as generous a measure +of talent as have their remote descendants who +wear sealskins, and eat ices and caviar?" He +continues that we have little or nothing to show +that the hereditary or innate growth of the +mind has kept pace with the growing social +heritage; that as regards mental endowment we +begin where our distant ancestors began. The +chief difference between us and them is that we +proceed at once to burden ourselves with information +and obligation which for them did +not exist. To compass our languages, sciences, +histories, arts, the complicated social, political, +moral régime, we are supplied with virtually +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> +the same minds that primitive man used for his +primitive needs. Is it any wonder, he asks, +that "education" is the central problem for +our or any other advanced civilization?</p> + +<p>The biologist asks whether it is not high time +to look beyond this artificial bolster of education, +to the possibility of actual improvement +of the innate mental abilities of man. The student +of heredity and evolution looking at this +problem has two contributions to make. First, +if the mental capabilities of the present race are +too limited, increase them; if our minds are +too weak to carry the burdens which now must +be carried, do not give up the task—strengthen +the racial mind. Second, if we should seem to +be in danger of developing a stock which is well +fitted and able to carry the load of mental acquirement +and to push on intellectually, but +which is at the same time physically deficient, +weak, or sterile, or susceptible to disease, do +not let the intellectual capabilities diminish, but +build up the physical constitution to a higher +supporting level. These are not idle suggestions +nor whimsical schemes. The biologist +makes them knowing that these things are possible; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +not only possible, they must be accomplished. +We are foolishly building our civilization +in the form of an inverted pyramid of +individually acquired characteristics. This +structure can be made stable only by supplying +a broader basis of innate ability which can +safely carry the load. This is the first biological +warning to sociology.</p> + +<p>The second warning we may put in the form +in which Ray Lankester in his "Kingdom of +Man" has recently presented it so strikingly +and which we may abstract freely and with +some interpolation. "In Nature's struggle for +existence, death ... is the fate of the vanquished, +while the only reward to the victors +... is the permission to reproduce their kind—to +carry on by heredity to another generation, +the specific qualities by which they triumphed." +The <i>origin</i> of man, partly, at any +rate, by such a process of natural selection, is +one chapter in his history. Another begins +with the development of his mental qualities, +which are of such unprecedented power in Nature. +These qualities so dominate all else in his +"living" activities that they largely cut him +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +off from the general operations of natural selection. +Perhaps the only direction in which +natural selection is the chiefly operative factor +in human evolution to-day is in the development +of immunity from infectious disease. Just +as man is a new departure in the unfolding +scheme of the world, so his presence and characteristics +lead to new methods of evolution, of +survival, and the like. Knowledge, reason, self-consciousness, +will, are new processes in Nature, +and it is these which have largely determined +the direction of man's history. Nature's +discipline of death is more or less successfully +resisted by the will of man. Man is Nature's +Rebel. "Where Nature says 'Die'! Man says +'I will live.'" By his wits and his will man has +overcome many of Nature's bounds and difficulties +without changing, as other organisms +would, his innate characteristics. Not only this +but man has obtained control of his surroundings +and at every step of his development he +has receded farther from the rule of Nature. +Now "he has advanced so far and become so +unfitted to the earlier rule, that to suppose that +Man can 'return to Nature' is as unreasonable +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +as to suppose that an adult animal can return +to its mother's womb."</p> + +<p>But at present man puts into operation no +real substitute for natural selection. "The +standard raised by the rebel man is not that of +fitness to the conditions proffered by extra-human +Nature, but is one of ideal comfort, prosperity, +and conscious joy of life—imposed by +the will of man and involving a control, and in +important respects a subversion, of what were +Nature's methods of dealing with life before +she had produced her insurgent son." Progress +in the control of Nature has been going on +with enormous rapidity during the last two centuries +particularly—the "nature searchers" +have placed almost limitless power in the hands +of men. And yet the builders of society and +governments and nations have failed to profit +by this increase in natural knowledge. In our +social and national organization we remain +fixed in the old paths of ignorance. Lankester +says: "I speak for those who would urge the +conscious and deliberate assumption of his +kingdom by Man—not as a matter of markets +and of increased opportunity for the cosmopolitan +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +dealers in finance—but as an absolute duty, +the fulfillment of Man's destiny." The purpose +of his essay is "to point out that civilized man +has proceeded so far in his interference with +extra-human Nature, has produced for himself +and for the living organisms associated with +him such a special state of things, by his rebellion +against natural selection and his defiance +of pre-human dispositions, that he must either +go on and acquire firmer control of the conditions, +or perish miserably by the vengeance certain +to fall on the half-hearted meddler in great +affairs." Man is a fighting rebel who at every +forward step lays himself open to the liabilities +of greater penalties should his attack +prove unsuccessful. Moreover, while emancipating +himself from the destructive and progressive +methods of Nature, man has accumulated +a new series of dangers and difficulties +with which he must incessantly contend and +which he must finally control. Man has taken +a tremendous step—created desperate conditions +by the exercise of his will—further control +is essential in order that he should escape +from final misery and destruction.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +Nor is this idle, academic invective. The biologist +knows that this is true. It is not idle, for man +has the means at his command—it is +merely a question of their employment. This, +then, is the second biological warning to sociology +and to statecraft.</p> + +<p>Now we may return to consider briefly the +nature of those social data which we suggested +force us to think seriously of the problem of man's +future.</p> + +<p>As a primary datum we may note the increasing +population of the countries of Europe +and North America (Fig. 1). The countries +whose population is increasing most rapidly +are the United States, Russia, and the German +Empire. We know that one important factor +of the increase in this country is that of immigration, +but this is not sufficient to account for +the total. There is continued multiplication +of the native population, and of the immigrant +after he is here. We wish only to point out in +connection with this diagram the steady trend +of the population upward, and the fact that obviously +somewhere there must be a limit. This +cannot go on without end.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<img src="images/fig1.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 1." title="Fig. 1." /> +<span class="caption">(From "Statistical Atlas," Twelfth Census of the United States.)<br /> +<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> INCREASE OF POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND +THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1900</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +An extremely pertinent fact here has been +disclosed by Pearson and is based upon very +extensive observations among several different +classes and nations. It is this—that one fourth +of the married population of the present generation +produce one half of the next generation. +The death rate and the ratio of unmarried to +married being what they are, this relation may +be stated in this way—twelve per cent of all +the individuals born in the last generation produced +one half of the present generation. +"This is not only a general law, but it is practically +true for each class in the community." +This conclusion is based upon data from the +English, Danish, and Welsh peoples of professional, +domestic, commercial, industrial, and +pastoral classes, and the per cent of married +persons found to be producing one half of each +generation varies from twenty-three to twenty-seven +with an average of twenty-five per cent. +We must ask at once—what is the source of this +fourth which is contributing double its quota +to the next generation? Is this twenty-five +per cent drawn proportionately from all classes +of society or are some groups contributing relatively +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +more than others? Is there any relation +between this superfertility and the possession +of desirable or undesirable characteristics? +We may answer at once—there is a distinct and +positive relation between civic undesirability +and high fertility. We shall return to this +subject at the close of the next chapter; only +the bare fact is to be mentioned at this time.</p> + +<p>It is a matter of common notice and remark +that to-day, in England at any rate, there is a +dearth of youthful ability. It exists in commerce, +science, literature, politics, the bar, the +church. We cannot dismiss as merely fashionable +the statements that the able classes are not +replacing themselves, that men of ability are +less able than formerly. Whether or not this +is also the condition in America to-day, we +know that it soon will be the condition unless +steps are taken to bring about a positive relation +between civic desirability and ability and +the numerical production of offspring.</p> + +<p>Let us turn to data of a somewhat different +kind. The United States Census Reports for +the decades from 1850 to 1900 (1904) include +data relative to the number of prisoners in this +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +country. The returns for 1904 omitted certain +classes previously enumerated so that for comparative +purposes the figures given have to be +corrected. On the corrected basis these reports +show that the total number of prisoners in the +United States increased from 6,737 in 1850 to +about 100,000 in 1904, while the total population +increased during the same time only from +twenty-three to eighty millions (Fig. 2). The +ratio of prisoners to the total population is +of course the significant relation here, and +this increased from 29 per 100,000 in 1850 to +125 per 100,000 in 1904. Not all of this increase +can be attributed to more rigid enforcement of +the law or raised standards of morality; there +is some reason for thinking that whatever +change there has been in these respects has +tended to have the opposite effect. We should +note, in considering such data as these, that the +penologist generally assumes that of the total +number of offenders, actually only about ten +per cent are in prison at any one time.</p> + +<p>During the last century, in France, many +parts of Germany, and in Spain the increase in +criminality was terrifying. In the United States +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +the number of murders and homicides per million +of the entire population has nearly trebled +in the last fifteen years (Fig. 2). The average +for the five years from 1885 to 1889 inclusive +was 38.5 per million, and for the five years +from 1902 to 1906 it became 110 per million.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<img src="images/fig2.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 2." title="Fig. 2." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>—Relative and absolute numbers of prisoners in the +United States from 1850 to 1904.</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +England's "defective" classes during the 22 +years between 1874 and 1896 increased from +5.4 to 11.6 per thousand of the total; that is, +more than doubled in that brief period. Rentoul +has collected careful information regarding +the number of insane or mentally defective +and degenerate in Great Britain. In England +the number of "officially certified" insane, +which is far less than the actual number, increased +from one to every 319 of the total +population, to one to 285, in the nine years preceding +1905. In Ireland comparison of the +years 1851 and 1896—a period of 45 years intervening—shows +an increase in the corresponding +ratio from 1:657 to 1:178. The census +of 1901 showed in Great Britain 484,507 mental +defectives of all kinds; this is one to 85 of the +total population, and probably if the whole +truth were known the ratio would approximate +1:50, according to Rentoul's calculation. The +ratio of known insane just doubled in the decade +preceding 1901. The Scottish Commission +reports an increase in insane of 190 per cent +since 1858, the total population increasing +meanwhile by only 52 per cent.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +The worst side of these British statistics follows. +In 1901, of the 60,000 and more, idiots, +imbeciles, and feeble-minded, nearly 19,000—roughly +one third—were married and free to +multiply; and as for that matter a great many +of those unmarried are known to have been +prolific. In 1901, of the 117,000 lunatics, nearly +47,000—considerably more than one third—were +married. 65,700 idiots and lunatics legally +multiplying their kind and worse! Rentoul +rightly says: "The hand that wrecks the cradle +wrecks the nation."</p> + +<p>In the United States the census of 1880 reported +40,942 insane in hospitals, and 51,017 +not in hospitals—a total of 91,959 known insane. +In 1903 the number in hospitals had increased +to 150,151. The number not in hospitals was +not given and cannot be determined accurately, +but it is conservatively estimated as certainly +not less than 30,000, and probably it is far +greater than this. In many states it is known +that about one fourth of the insane are not in +hospitals. But taking the total of 180,000 as a +conservative figure, the ratio of known insane +in the total population was 225 per 100,000 +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> +in 1903 as compared with 183 per 100,000 in +1880.</p> + +<p>The methods of the collection of such data +vary in different countries so that the results +are not comparable. In a single country there +is less, though still some, lack of uniformity, so +that the exact rate of increase in the ratio of +the insane is still somewhat doubtful. Moreover, +it is doubtless true that some of this apparent +increase results from improved methods +in the collection of data, and from more complete +registration of these defectives. But suppose +we disregard entirely the idea of an increase +in the ratio of these defectives, the bare +fact of the existence of nearly 200,000 insane +in this country is sufficiently alarming; and it +is disgraceful to any nation, because it is unnecessary. +The Superintendent of the Ohio Institution +for the Feeble Minded wrote in 1902: +"Unless preventive measures against the progressive +increase of the defective classes are +adopted, such a calamity as the gradual eclipse, +slow decay and final disintegration of our present +form of society and government is not only +possible, but probable."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +The latest census reports for the United +States give data relative to the dependents and +defectives in institutions. The numbers not +in institutions can only be guessed at. But +from the available sources we can gain an approximate +conception of the numbers in our +country to-day as follows:—insane and feeble +minded, at least 200,000; blind, 100,000; deaf, +and deaf and dumb, 100,000; paupers in institutions, +80,000, two thirds of whom have +children, and are also physically or mentally +deficient, and to say that one half of the whole +number of paupers are in institutions is to give +a ridiculously low estimate; prisoners, 100,000, +and several hundred thousand more that should +be prisoners; juvenile delinquents, 23,000 in institutions; +the number cared for by hospitals, +dispensaries, "homes" of various kinds, in the +year 1904 was in excess of 2,000,000. From +these figures we get a rough total of nearly +3,000,000. Must we define a civilized and enlightened +nation as one in which only one person +in every thirty can be classed as defective +or dependent?</p> + +<p>It is needless to continue descriptions of this +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +kind. The foregoing are representative data; +they are published by the volume. It is always +the same story—rapid increase of the unfit, defective, +insane, criminal; slow increase, even +decrease of the fit, normal, or gifted stocks. It +is with such conditions in mind that Whetham +writes: "Although this suppression of the best +blood of the country is a new disease in modern +Europe, it is an old story in the history of nations +and has been the prelude to the ruin of +states and the decline and fall of empires."</p> + +<p>The ultimate aim of Sociology is doubtless +the working out of the laws according to which +stable communities are formed and maintained, +and in which each component individual may +enjoy and contribute the maximum of pleasure +and profit. So the primary purpose of Statecraft +is to produce a nation which shall be stable +and enduring. This is all familiar ground. +The objects of the nation's immediate activities +and concern, protection from enemy, development +of commerce and manufacture, agriculture, +and education, all these are for the real +purpose of establishing and promoting national +integrity. No nation exists long without ideals +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +and traditions, without teachers, artists, poets, +and yet the primary condition of the existence of +all these is a great body of citizens characterized +by physical and mental soundness—vigor +and sanity. In searching for guiding principles +in their great endeavors the sociologist +and statesman have sought aid from many +sources. But, as Pearson points out, Philosophy +has thus far given no law by the aid of +which we can understand how a nation becomes +physically and mentally vigorous. Anthropology +has done little to show wherein exists human +fitness as a social organism. Political +Economists object that they are not listened to +with respectful consideration in legislative +chambers. History is the favorite hunting +ground of the statesman searching for guidance; +but unfortunately history teaches chiefly +by example and analogy, rarely by true explanation. +And just as some gifted persons are able +to give an apt Biblical quotation touching any +occurrence whatever, so, many statesmen can +cite some historical analogue which they offer +as evidence for their views, whatever they are. +These men are sincere, in their ignorance of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +nature of scientific proof. Finally, although +the Statesman still holds rather aloof, the Sociologist +comes now to the Biologist, inquiring +whether by any chance he may be in possession +of data or guiding principles which may be +somehow of service in the building of stable +societies. The Biologist does not send him +away without contribution. The Sociologist +makes known his needs, the Biologist displays +his possessions, and it is at once evident to both +that they have much in common, and that each +is able to supply the other with some needed +wares. Each may learn from the other; and +best of all, the Biologist seems to have information +which can be of the greatest service in their +common work of building sound societies.</p> + +<p>And the biologist is grateful to the sociologist +for reminding him that he, too, has sacred +duties in this direction. He is too often forgetful +that the real aim of his own, as of any science, +is to be useful in real human life. It is +pleasing to the biologist to feel that he is at last +in possession of facts of value to the student +of human society, for to him his debt is great. +From the sociologist he has drawn the inspirations +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +which have led to some of his greatest discoveries. +It was Malthus who suggested to +Darwin the great principle of the struggle for +existence among men which Darwin so successfully +applied to other organisms, and used so +profitably in building up his great theory of +natural selection. It was from the sociologist +that the biologist derived his idea of the physiological +division of labor which has proved +so fruitful a conception; and from the same +source he has drawn many of his conceptions +of organic individuality.</p> + +<p>We might suggest here some of the topics +upon which biology has information of value +in this bio-social field; many of these we shall +discuss later on from our present and special +point of view. First of all come the facts regarding +the variability and variation of human +beings, not alone in physical characteristics, but +in respect to psychic traits as well. Here as in +all organisms we must distinguish between true +variations and bodily modifications; that is, we +must be careful to make, as far as possible, the +biological distinction between innate and acquired +traits, particularly in considering mental +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +characteristics. Next must come consideration +of the facts of heredity. This is undoubtedly +the field of greatest importance to the +Eugenist; facts of no other kind are of equal +significance in determining the course of eugenic +practice. We now have a fairly extensive +working basis here from which to discuss heredity +in man. The various phases of human selection +should be noticed, in particular that +known as selective fertility or differential fertility +in different social groups or classes. Another +evolutionary factor of importance here +is that of "isolation" in the many and varied +forms which it assumes in human society, especially +those which result from assortative and +preferential mating, and from the operation +of social convention, restrictions in marriage, +and the like.</p> + +<p>Before discussing any of these subjects let us +offer here just a word of caution to the enthusiast. +The results gained in one field of science +cannot be transferred <i>in toto</i> to another field +and there be found to fit. Biology has learned +much from Physics and Chemistry, but the biological +applications of the laws of these sciences +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +must be carried out with the greatest +care. Such transference has often been premature +and attended by results retardative to +progress in the field of Biology. Any formula +borrowed from one science and applied in another +must be rigorously tested under the new +conditions. The indiscriminating application +of biological laws in the field of sociology may +result in confusion and retardation in the progress +of both sciences, or at any rate in their +practical applications. As Thomson points out +in writing on this topic, human society is not +only a complex of individual activities of a +strictly biological character, but also and further +it involves an integration and regulation +of those activities which are not yet, at least, +susceptible of concrete biological analysis. +Thomson says: "The biological ideal of a +healthful, self-sustaining, evolving human +breed is as fundamental as the social ideal of a +harmoniously integrated society is supreme." +The great danger here lies in forgetting the +fundamental and general character of the biological +principles. The ideals of biology and +sociology need not coincide, often they do not, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +but they must not conflict. In practice Eugenics +must be largely a social matter; but in its +theory, its fundamentals, it must be largely biological.</p> + +<p>The coming together of biology and sociology, +and their common search for guiding principles +in their common endeavor is likely to +have results of several kinds. It is likely to +bring out more clearly than has yet been done +the distinction, in human life and society, between +that which is fundamentally biological +or animal, and that which is distinctly social. +Such information will prove of especial value +later when the time comes for the suggestion +and carrying out of a definite eugenic program, +when the time comes for the real eugenic organization +of society. And further the close +<i>rapprochement</i> of the two subjects will doubtless +result in mutual aid and suggestion in the +development of each subject in its own stricter +field, outside the limits of their common meeting +ground.</p> + +<p>Before bringing this introductory chapter +to a conclusion we should suggest one further +caution which must be borne in mind. There +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +may at times seem to be suggestions of antagonism +between the biological and the social conceptions +of what is eugenic and what is not. +Much of this apparent discord will disappear +if we recognize that after all the overlapping +areas of the two subjects which have fused into +the subject of Eugenics are relatively small +portions of either whole subject. Sociology has +for one of its aims, perhaps its chief aim, the +improvement of the present condition of society. +The sociologist is interested in the +improvement of social conditions to-day and +to-morrow. He wants to improve housing conditions, +food and milk supplies, to reduce the +curses of alcoholism, poverty, and crime, to +take the children out of the factory and their +mothers out of the sweatshop and put them +into schools or under humane conditions of +labor. And so on through a long list. The biologist +or Eugenist is of course heartily with the +sociologist in these endeavors, but as a human +being, not as a biologist or Eugenist. For the +Eugenist is, as such, by deliberate assumption +and definition, directly interested in only such +conditions as affect the innate characteristics +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +of the race, conditions which may not have direct +reference to the present generation at all, +but to the next and to future generations. As +a Eugenist he is not concerned with factory +legislation, alcoholism, or play grounds, unless +it can be shown that there is a relation between +these things and the innate mental and physical +properties of the race. If there is such a +relation, of improvement or impairment, these +are eugenic topics; if there is no such relation +they are purely social topics, and the Eugenist +does not deal with them, not because they are +not worth dealing with, but because they are +then by definition outside his field. In the end +the Eugenist hopes, with the Sociologist, to accomplish +these social betterments, but he believes +that these will come as by-products in the +process of innate racial improvement—improvement +in the inherent, physical, mental, and moral +qualities of the human kind, and that accomplished +in this way the results will be more +stable and permanent than any accomplished by +attacking the problems as such and separately, +largely leaving out of account the real and +fundamental cause—bad human protoplasm.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +Eugenics is not offered as a universal cure +for social ills: no single cure exists. But +the Eugenist believes that no other single factor +in determining social conditions and practices +approaches in importance that of racial +structural integrity and sanity. The Eugenist +would oppose only those social activities, if +such there be, that conflict with his ideal of +genuine, progressive, human evolution. The +main question which the Eugenist would raise +here is largely that of the economy of effort—whether +it were not better by concentrating +upon a few activities, known to give permanent +results, once for all to end an intolerable social +condition, rather than to attempt the Sisyphean +task.</p> + +<p>In conclusion let us quote a few sentences +from Francis Galton. "Charity refers to the +individual; Statesmanship to the nation; Eugenics +cares for both.... I take Eugenics +very seriously, feeling that its principles ought +to become one of the dominant motives in a civilized +nation, much as if they were one of its +religious tenets.... Man is gifted with pity +and other kindly feelings; he has also the power +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +of preventing many kinds of suffering. I conceive +it to fall well within his province to replace +Natural Selection by other processes that +are more merciful and not less effective. This +is precisely the aim of Eugenics. Its first +object is to check the birth rate of the Unfit instead +of allowing them to come into being, +though doomed in large numbers to perish prematurely. +The second object is the improvement +of the race by furthering the productivity +of the Fit, by early marriages and the healthful +rearing of their children. Natural Selection +rests upon excessive production and wholesale +destruction; Eugenics on bringing no more individuals +into the world than can be properly +cared for, and those only of the best stock."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II<br /><br /> + +THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF<br /> +EUGENICS</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p> +<h2>II</h2> + +<h3>THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EUGENICS</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"The gist of histories and statistics as far back as the records +reach, is in you this hour,..."</p></div> + + +<p>We must now proceed to consider +briefly and with only the necessary +detail the modes of application of +certain biological principles and data in this +special field of Eugenics. First of all a clear +understanding of the basic ideas of variability +and heredity must be had as a primary condition +of an appreciation of their significance +for the subject before us.</p> + +<p>Like any other organism a human being is +a bundle of characteristics, physical and psychical. +Each person has a definite stature and +span, possesses fingers and toes, a head, eyes, +ears, hair of a certain color, and so on through +a long list of physical traits. Physiological +characteristics has he also, such as muscular +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +strength, resistance to fatigue or to disease of +many kinds, digestive and assimilative powers, +a rate of heart beat, a blood pressure, an habitual +gait, posture, a characteristic way of +clasping the hands or of twirling the thumbs—and +so almost <i>ad infinitum</i>. He also possesses +certain physiological traits more closely related +with the action of the central nervous +system—keenness of vision, or hearing, or +smell, memory, vivacity, cheerfulness, self-assertiveness, +self-consciousness, reasoning power, +determination, and the like.</p> + +<p>There is a period during the existence of each +human being when he does not seem to possess +these traits or anything resembling them. For +at the beginning of his existence as a new and +separate creature, every individual, among the +groups of higher organisms, has the form of a +single organic cell—the germ. This germ may +be, as it is in man, of microscopic dimensions, +and it always shows a comparatively slight degree +of differentiation of structure. Moreover, +the parts and organs of the germ bear no actual +or visible resemblance at all to the organs +and parts of the organism into which the germ +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +rapidly develops. In other words, in the germ +of an organism we have a structure, partly material, +partly dynamic, the components of which +in some way represent the adult characteristics +without resembling them. During the period +of the development of the individual, that is to +say, during its "ontogeny," these characteristics +of the germ become expressed in their final +or adult form.</p> + +<p>For our purpose it is not necessary to inquire +precisely how it is that the structure of the +germ can thus represent or determine the structures +growing out of it. It must suffice to see +that somehow the characteristics of the germ +lead to the formation or development of other +characters, and these in turn to still others until +at last a period of comparative changelessness +is reached, when we say that development is +completed. It is important to recognize, however, +that this development is fundamentally +a process of reaction, the reaction between +the germ and its surrounding conditions. The +characteristics of the adult organism are <i>determined</i> +primarily by the structure of the +germ; they <i>appear</i> gradually and successively, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +as the growing organism reacts to its environing +conditions.</p> + +<p>An adult organism is continually doing certain +things—performing certain movements, +producing certain secretions, undergoing a +great variety of physical and chemical changes. +Just what the organism does at any given moment +is in reality determined by two groups of +factors: first, it depends, obviously, upon the +structure of the organism acting, upon the organs +it has to act with, and upon the precise +condition of these organs and of the whole +individual; and second, it depends upon the +nature of those conditions outside of and affecting +the organism which lead it to act at all. +Either group of factors taken alone will not +lead to any activity; activity of an organism +must be a reaction between organismal structure +and environing conditions—an irritable +substance and stimuli to activity. And the +character or quality of an act is affected by +circumstances within either set of factors.</p> + +<p>In much the same way the germ acts, and +its action is similarly a reaction between the +structure of the germ and its environing conditions. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +The germ reacts by producing certain +parts, differentiating certain structures, in +short, by developing. The normal activities or +reactions of the adult organism we call in general +its "behavior." The normal activities or +reactions of the germ and embryo we call "development"; +the normal behavior of the germ +is development. And in the latter, as well as +in the former, changes in either set of factors +lead to changes in the nature of the result of +their interaction, i. e., to changes in the characteristics +actually appearing as the result of development.</p> + +<p>In their fully developed state some of the +traits or characteristics of organisms are single, +simple, fundamental characters, not analyzable +into more elementary factors. Such +are the number of fingers, or of joints in the +fingers, absence of pigments of several kinds +from the eyes or hair, presence of cataract, <i>et +cetera</i>. These so-called "unit characters" are +roughly analogous to the chemical elements +which may, as units, be combined and recombined +in diverse ways, but which always maintain +their integrity as elements although different +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +combinations produce wholes that are +unlike. Each unit character in the adult is the +result of a series of reactions between the environing +conditions of development and a +germinal structural unit, as yet hypothetical +and provisionally called the "determiner," +which in some way not yet understood represents +this adult trait.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, there are many of these +things which we call characteristics which seem +to be composite, capable of being analyzed or +factored into a group of simpler components +or unit characters. Such apparently are stature, +span, resistance to fatigue, and probably +most psychic traits. Each of these complexes +results apparently from a series of reactions +between the conditions of development and a +group of hypothetical germinal determiners +that tend to be associated within the germ.</p> + +<p>The presence or absence of a determiner in +a germ is thus the primary cause of the corresponding +presence or absence of a certain +characteristic in the adult organism.</p> + +<p>But whatever the essential nature of the +characteristic in this respect, whether simple +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +or complex, we know further that every organismal +characteristic is subject to variation. In +any group of human individuals, for example, +we can find persons of different stature, different +weight, with fingers of different length +and form, with heads of different size and +shape, hair and eyes of different shades, different +blood pressures, pulse rates, digestive +possibilities, different degrees of determination, +cheerfulness, alertness, and so forth. This +fact of variation is not limited to the comparison +of the individuals of a given group or +generation among themselves, but successive +generations considered as the units of comparison +show the same sort of thing. And +further successive broods from the same parents +exhibit this same phenomenon of variation +when compared with one another. Variation +is a universal fact—not only among organic +things but in the inorganic world as well. The +variation which any company of persons shows +in stature is paralleled by the variation in the +diameter of the grains in a handful of sand, +or of the drops in a rainstorm.</p> + +<p>When we examine the phenomena of variation +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +carefully we find that they are of two quite +distinct categories. The first kind of variation, +that which we most frequently think of as +"variation," should properly be termed <i>variability</i>. +Differences of this type are small +<i>fluctuations</i> in any and every character, centering +about an average or mean, which is itself +fairly definite and fixed—less subject to variation +in different groups or through successive +generations. For example, if we measure by +inches the stature of a thousand or more persons +chosen at random we find that they may +vary from fifty-four to seventy-six inches; the +most frequent heights might be about sixty-nine +and sixty-four inches among the men and +women respectively. The results of such a +measurement may be expressed graphically as +in Figure 3, which is an expression of the measurement +of 1,052 mothers. The measurement +of almost any characteristic in a large group +of any organisms usually gives a result of the +kind figured. The most significant fact here is +that this normal variability exhibited by the +traits of living organisms follows closely the +laws of chance or probability. That is to say, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> +the number of individuals occurring in any +class which has a certain deviation above or +below the average, is directly related to, or +dependent upon (in mathematical terms, "is a +function of"), the extent of the deviation of +the value of that class from the average of the +whole group. The significance of this is that +the precise fluctuation which we find in any +individual is the result of the operation of a +large number of causes or factors, each contributing +slightly and variably to the total +result.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<img src="images/fig3.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 3." title="Fig. 3." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>—Recorded measurements of the stature of 1,052 +mothers. The height of each rectangle is proportional to the number of +individuals of each given height. The curve connecting the tops of the +rectangles is the normal frequency curve. The most frequent height is +between 62 and 63 inches. Average height—62.5 inches. Standard +deviation, 2.39 inches. Coefficient of variability, 3.8 (2.39=3.8+ % +of 62.5 inches). (From Pearson.)</span></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +Many of the most important facts about +variability can be illustrated by a simple model +such as that suggested by Galton. This is a +modification of the familiar bagatelle board, +covered with glass and arranged as shown in +Fig. 4. A funnel-shaped container at the top +of the board is filled with peas or similar objects +(Fig. 4, <i>A</i>). Below this is a regular +series of obstacles symmetrically arranged, and +below these, at the bottom of the board, is a +row of vertical compartments also arranged +symmetrically with reference to the chief axis +of the whole system. If we allow the peas +to escape from the bottom of the container +and to fall among the obstacles into the compartments +below we find that their distribution +there follows certain laws capable of precise +mathematical description, so that it might be +predicted with fair accuracy (Fig. 4, <i>B</i>). The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +middle compartment will receive the most; +the compartments next the middle somewhat +fewer; those farther from the middle still +fewer; and the end compartments fewest. If +we connect the top of each column of peas by +a curved line we get just such a curve as +that given by the stature measurements above +(Fig. 3), i. e., the normal frequency curve. A +curve of the same essential character would result +from plotting the dimensions of a thousand +cobblestones, the deviations from the bull's-eye +in a target-shooting contest, or by plotting +the variability of any organismal character—whether +it be the stature or strength of men, +the spread of sparrows' wings, the number of +rays on scallop shells, or of ray-flowers of +daisies.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig4.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 4." title="Fig. 4." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>—Model to illustrate the law of probability or "chance." Description in the text. +<i>A</i>, Peas held in container at top of board. <i>B</i>, Peas after having fallen through the obstructions +into the vertical compartments below. The curve connecting the tops of the columns of +peas is the normal probability curve.</span></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +With this model we may illustrate many +other essential facts about variability which +must be borne in mind when approaching the +problems of Eugenics. Before we allow the +peas to fall we know quite definitely what the +general distribution of them all will be, but we +do not know at all the future position of any +single pea. Of this we can speak only in terms +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> +of probability; the chances are very high that +it will fall in one of the three middle compartments, +very low that it will be in one of the extreme +compartments. But the chances are +equal, whatever they are, that it will fall above +or below the average or middle position. We +see then that in any group there are many more +individuals near the average, i. e., mediocre, +than there are in the classes removed from the +average and the farther the remove of a class +from the average the smaller the number of +individuals in that class. Yet all the individuals +belong to the same whole group. This +leads to the very important fact that <i>an individual +may belong to a group without representing +it fairly</i>. The average individuals are +the most representative. But in order to get a +correct idea of the whole group we must know, +first, to what <i>extent</i> deviations occur in each +direction, above and below the group average, +and, second, the average <i>amount</i> by which each +individual of the group deviates from this +group average. That is, we must know the +amount of variability as well as the extent of +the greatest divergence from the average. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +best measure of the amount of variability exhibited +by any group of objects or organisms +is not the simple average or mean of all the +individual deviations from the average of the +group; it is the square root of the mean squared +deviations from the group average. This is +called the <i>index</i> of variability or "standard +deviation." In order to make possible the comparison +of the variabilities of characteristics +measured in unlike units, such as weight and +stature, this index must be converted into an +equivalent abstract quantity. This is done by +reducing the index of variability to per cents +of the group average, giving what is called the +<i>coefficient</i> of variability. Thus, for example, +in stature the index of variability (standard +deviation) of certain classes of men is approximately +2.7 inches; that is, in a large group of +men the amount of individual variation from +the average height of 69 inches amounts to 2.7 +inches. This gives an abstract <i>coefficient</i> of +about 4.0 per cent, for 2.7 equals 3.9 per cent +of 69. Similarly the index of variability of the +weight of a group of university students has +been found to be about 16.5 pounds; the average +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +weight is about 153 pounds, and the coefficient +of variability is therefore about 10.8 +per cent (16.5 equals 10.78 per cent of 153). +Although pounds and inches may not be compared, +these two abstract coefficients may be, +and we may say that men are more than twice +as variable in weight as in stature.</p> + +<p>Turning now to variation of the second type +we find what are ordinarily called <i>mutations</i>, +or differences quite properly termed <i>variations</i>, +in a strict sense, as distinguished from +the preceding fluctuations or variability phenomena. +Mutations or variations are abrupt +changes of the average or type condition to a +new condition or value which then becomes a +new center of fluctuating variability. The difference +between variability and variation may +be illustrated through an analogy suggested by +Galton (Fig. 5). A polygonal plinth, or better +a polyhedron, resting upon one face is easily +tipped slightly back and forth, but after slight +disturbance it always returns to its first position +of stable equilibrium. Each face of the +plinth or polyhedron represents an organismal +characteristic; these slight backward and forward +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +movements represent fluctuations, always +centering about the average condition. An unusually +hard push sends the plinth over upon +another face in which it has a new position of +stability; this represents true variation or +mutation. In this new position it is again +stable, may again be rocked back and forth +showing fluctuations about its new average +position.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<img src="images/fig5.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>—Plinth to illustrate the difference between variability +(fluctuation) and variation (mutation).</span></div> + +<p>The essential difference between true variation +and fluctuation or variability of an extreme +nature, is with reference to the inheritance of +such divergence. In the second generation the +offspring of extreme variates or fluctuations +have not the same average as their own parents +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> +but an average much nearer that of the +whole group to which their parents belonged; +the average stature of the children of unusually +short or tall parents is respectively greater +or less than that of their own parents—that is, +is nearer the average of the whole group of +parents, provided the shortness or tallness of +the parents is a fluctuation. When the shortness +or tallness is a true variation or mutational +character, offspring have approximately +the same average stature as their immediate +parents, although the children of course show +fluctuation in height so that some are slightly +above and others slightly below the parental +height.</p> + +<p>Mutations may occur through the addition or +the subtraction of single characters of the simple +or unit type. Such are the variations from +brown or blue eyes to albino, five fingers to six, +and the like. These are the familiar "sports" +of the horticulturalist and breeder. They are +of the greatest value in evolution, for it seems +quite likely that it is only through the permanent +racial fixation of these mutations that +permanent changes in the characters of a breed +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +may be effected, i. e., evolution occurs primarily +through mutation.</p> + +<p>In connection with the general subject of +variation we should mention briefly certain +aspects of the recent work of Johannsen and +Jennings, showing that many organic specific +groups or "species," whose characters, when +measured accurately give what is called a normal +variability curve similar to that of stature +illustrated in Fig. 3, are not really homogeneous +groups of fluctuating individuals as the +curves would indicate superficially, but that +each gross group or species is actually composed +of a blend of a number of smaller groups, +each with its own average and fluctuating variability. +It is only when these are taken all +together as a lump that they fuse into a single +and apparently simple curve.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<img src="images/fig6.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>—Curves illustrating the relation between the pure +line and the species or other large group. <i>A</i>, a "species" curve +composed of three pure lines. <i>B</i>, the separate elements of the larger +curve each with its own average and variability.</span></p></div> + +<p>For example, the curve shown in Fig. 6, A, +which is approximately that of a normal distribution, +in some cases might be shown by +experimentation to consist in reality of several +truly distinct elements, say three for purposes +of illustration, as shown in Fig. 6, B. Each of +these sub-groups has its own average and its +own amount and extent of variability (fluctuation) +and it is only by adding them together +that we get the larger group. Each of these +elementary groups is called a "pure line," +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +which is defined as a group of organisms, all +of which are the progeny of a single individual. +The characteristics of each pure line remain +stable through successive generations, each +about its own average; and it is chiefly this +fact that enables us to identify the different +lines. Transition from the condition of one +pure line to another occurs only as a mutation. +At present the theory of the pure line is strictly +applicable only to organisms reproducing asexually +or to self-fertilizing forms where the +group observed is actually composed of the +progeny of a single organism. It is hardly +possible to say as yet whether or not this extremely +important theory is essentially applicable +to the human species or any species where +two organisms are involved in the establishment +of a race or line, but there are some indications +of a circumstantial nature that it is +thus applicable in its essentials and so modified +as to include this fact of biparental inheritance.</p> + +<p>With this bare skeleton of the subject of variation +before us let us see how facts of this kind +may have any significance for the subject of +Eugenics, any bearing upon the possibility of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> +racial improvement. When any of the varying +human traits, and they all vary, is measured +carefully and the results tabulated we find that +they give us a curve approximating the normal +frequency curve, such as we have described +above and illustrated in Fig. 3. The coefficients +of variability of a great many human traits are +known and a few representative coefficients +are given in Table I. This type of variability +is given then, by measurements of physical +characteristics of all kinds, and, what is of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +greater importance, physiological traits, including +mental and moral characteristics, so far +as they can be measured by present methods, +vary in just the same way. Annual individual +earnings give us a curve closely similar to that +of a normal frequency curve with an approximate +minimum limiting value. Even the tabulation +of citizens according to their social +standing or "civic worth" gives the same sort +of thing. This has been brought out nicely in +Galton's discussion of Booth's classification of +the population of London.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Table I"> +<caption><span class="smcap">Table I</span><br /> +<i>Coefficients of Variability of Certain Human Traits</i></caption> +<tr><td>Adult Stature</td><td align="right">3.6 to 4.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Length at Birth</td><td align="right">5.8 to 6.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Length of Limb Bones</td><td align="right">4.5 to 5.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cephalic Index</td><td align="right">3.7 to 4.8</td></tr> +<tr><td>Skull Capacity</td><td align="right">7.0 to 8.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Weight (University Students)</td><td align="right">10.0 to 11.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Weight at Birth</td><td align="right">14.2 to 15.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Weight of Brain</td><td align="right">7.0 to 10.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>Weight of Heart</td><td align="right">17.4 to 20.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Weight of Liver</td><td align="right">14.3 to 22.2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Weight of Kidney</td><td align="right">16.8 to 22.5</td></tr> +<tr><td>Lung Capacity</td><td align="right">16.6 to 20.4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Squeeze of Hand</td><td align="right">13.4 to 21.4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Strength of Pull</td><td align="right">15.0 to 22.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>Swiftness of Blow</td><td align="right">17.1 to 19.4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Dermal Sensitivity</td><td align="right">35.7 to 45.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Keenness of Eyesight</td><td align="right">28.7 to 34.7</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It is not so easy to answer the question whether +mutations or true variations are occurring +frequently in the human species. Usually it is +impossible to distinguish between an extreme +fluctuation and a true variation without experimental +test and the observation of the behavior +of the varying trait through several generations. +In most instances this has been impossible +with human beings. From collateral evidence +it seems quite probable that man is +mutating with considerable frequency, especially +with respect to psychic traits.</p> + +<p>The evolution of the race could be directed +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +more easily and permanent results attained +more rapidly through taking advantage of valuable +mutations than in any other way. A race +truly desiring to progress would foster carefully +anything resembling mutation in a favorable +direction. As a matter of fact, however, +our social custom leads us to look with disfavor +upon most youthful traits that seem unusual +or out of the ordinary. It would be difficult +to devise a system of "education" which +could more effectively repress than does our +own the development of unusual mental traits. +In this connection "abnormal" or "eccentric" +may often mean a mutation in a profitable +direction, a getting away from the average of +mediocrity in the direction of improvement.</p> + +<p>It is clear that we have the raw materials +for race improvement. There are some individuals +with more and some with less than +the average in any respect—physical, mental, +moral. The average of a whole social group +can be shifted by subtraction at one end or +addition at the other, or more easily and more +effectively by both together. In order to raise +the general average of the value of any of these +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +traits it is not necessary to strive to exceed the +known maximum value in any respect. The +study of the "pure line," as mentioned above, +shows that this may for a long time remain impossible, +or at any rate difficult, pending the +appearance of a mutation in a favorable direction. +We can, however, raise the general average +of physical strength or of mental or moral +ability by increasing the relative number of +individuals in the upper groups or by diminishing +the number in the lower groups, most easily +of course and most effectively by doing both +of these things. By increasing the numbers +composing the lines which form the upper elements +of a social group we not only add immensely +to the total value of the group but we +do actually change somewhat the general average. +On the other hand numerical increase in the lines in +the lower part of the group will +actually lower the average of the whole, though +it does not actually affect the number of individuals +in the more able and valuable classes.</p> + +<p>Another consideration is of great importance +here. The average is affected only slightly by +the change of individuals from class to class +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +near the average. But the shifting of even one +or two per cent of the individuals into or out +of extreme positions has a very marked effect +upon the character of the total group and upon +the average. In the life of the State the character +of the general average of the citizens is +of the greatest importance, and comparatively +small deviations in the average of civic worth +may mean much as regards the history of a +democracy. Of course the average individuals +in a social group may not be those of greatest +influence; even when taken all together they +may not determine the trend of the life of the +society; but that does not alter the essential +fact that the condition of the average of the +population is of very great moment to a democratic +state.</p> + +<p>Many of our social endeavors to-day serve in +effect to raise individuals from one of the lower +groups up to or toward the average. Millions +of dollars and an incalculable amount of time +and energy are spent annually in striving to +accomplish this kind of result. How immeasurably +greater would be the benefit to society +if the same amount of energy and money were +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +spent in moving individuals from the middle +classes on up toward the higher. In the development +of our societies we need to use every possible +means to carry individuals from positions +near the average to positions above the +average, and the farther this remove is above +the average both in its starting point and its +stopping point, the better for the social group. +Elevation from mediocrity to superiority has +far greater effect upon the social constitution +than has elevation from inferiority to mediocrity.</p> + +<p>As the Whethams have written recently: "Of +late years, the duty of the State to support the +falling and fallen has been so much emphasized +that its still more important duty to the able +and competent has been obscured. Yet it is +they who are the real national asset of worth, +and it is essential to secure that their action +should not be hampered, and their value sterilized, +by the jealousy and obstruction of the +social failures, and of others whom pity for +the failures has blinded. Mankind has been +shrewdly divided into those who do things +and those who must get out of the way while things +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +are being done, and if the latter class do not +recognize their true function in life, they themselves +will suffer the most. The incompetent +have to be supported partially or wholly by the +competent, and, even for their own good, it +would be worth while for the incompetent to +encourage the freedom of action and the preponderant +reproduction of the abler and more +successful stocks. It is only where such stocks +abound that the nation is able to support and +carry along the heavy load of incompetence +kept alive by modern civilization."</p> + +<p>In discussing the general subject of variation +and variability in this connection, we must take +always into account the biological distinction +between variation and functional modification, +between innate and acquired traits. Only the +former are of real and primary value in evolution. +The distinction is familiar and we cannot +dwell upon it here; but it is of particular importance +in dealing with social improvement +and we shall return to it in the next chapter. +Many "social variations" are in reality not +variations at all, but modifications; although +these may be of the greatest value to the in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>dividual +modified, they are artificial things +without permanent value to the race. So many +of the distinguishing personal traits are the +results of nurture rather than of nature. They +represent the result of the incidence of special +factors in the environment. It is extremely +difficult and at times impossible to distinguish +between variations and modifications in adult +characters, but in general the distinction is +usually clear upon careful analysis.</p> + +<p>The changing of the innate characters of the +human race is a slow process, depending chiefly +upon the advantage taken of the appearance +of real mutational variations. On the other +hand, it is comparatively easy to improve the +condition of the individual by improving his +environing conditions—cleaning him, educating +him, leading him to higher ideals in his physical +and mental and moral life. But as this is +easy, so it is impermanent. All this is modificational +and has no influence upon the stock. +This is not opposed by the Eugenist; it simply +is no part of his province, for its effect is not +racial. By releasing a deforming pressure it +may permit the individual to come back to his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +real structurally determined condition, but the +structural condition itself is not thus affected. +It is temporary and must be done over with +each generation, or on account of the unfortunate +habit of "backsliding," even at intervals +shorter than that of a generation.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>Let us now turn to another phase of our subject +and consider the biological methods of the +description and measurement of heredity, as a +preliminary to our next chapter in which we +shall discuss the bearings of the facts of human +heredity upon the possibility of the formation +of a permanently improved human breed.</p> + +<p>The fact of heredity is one of the most familiar +and patent things about organisms. +"Do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of +thistles?" For we may define heredity as the +fact of general resemblance between parent and +offspring. This simple definition is disappointing +to many persons. "Heredity" is so often +supposed popularly to refer only to some occasional, +striking, and unusual similarity within +a family respecting certain traits or peculiarities. +Very often the idea of heredity seems +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +shrouded in mystery: it is some uncanny relation +which explains peculiarities and helps the +novelist out of difficulties, but is itself inexplicable. +In truth, however, the fact that a boy, +like his father, has a head and a heart and +hands and feet, physical traits characteristic of +the human species, that he begins to walk and +talk and shave at about the same age as his +father did—all this is the fact of heredity. The +fact that guinea pigs produce guinea pigs and +not rabbits is the fact of heredity. Often it is +true that this resemblance is strikingly particular. +All know of family traits; we may have +our father's eyes or nose, our mother's hair or +disposition, a grandfather's determination or +a grandmother's patience. But these particular +individual resemblances are no more and +no less illustrations of heredity than the fact +that on the whole children are more like their +parents than like other human beings.</p> + +<p>The subject of heredity is of supreme importance +in the practice of Eugenics. The facts of +no other department of biological inquiry are +of equal value, and at the same time there is +probably no biological subject regarding which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +there is so much misunderstanding. Of the +many phases of this extremely fascinating subject +there are chiefly two with which we are +particularly concerned as Eugenists. These +are the questions: first, how completely are all +the distinguishing traits of either or both parents +represented in the offspring; and, second, +how completely is each trait inherited that is +inherited at all? In other words, what we are +chiefly interested to know, as bearing upon the +subject in hand, is whether all or only some of +the characteristics of our parents are heritable, +and whether the offspring show each inherited +trait with the same intensity shown in the parent, +or more, or less.</p> + +<p>One of the leading British students of heredity +has said that no one should undertake +the study of this subject unless he can instantly +detect and explain the fallacy involved in the +familiar conundrum, "Why do white sheep eat +more than black ones?" It is perhaps the elasticity +of our language that makes possible the +mental confusion involved in this question, but +yet it is certainly true that we do tend to confuse +individual and statistical statements. We +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +must remember, in connection with this subject +particularly, that an individual may belong to +a group without representing it, and that within +a group there are many more individuals +with average than with exceptional characteristics. +The mediocre is common, the extremes +are rare. And yet an unusual individual may +really be an outlying member of a normal +group.</p> + +<p>In describing the facts of hereditary resemblance +between successive generations two +formulas are available. One deals ostensibly +with the individual—the Mendelian formula: +the other deals with the group—the statistical +formula. It seems entirely probable that these +are not formulas for describing two essentially +different processes or forms of heredity, but +that in reality these are two ways of describing +the same facts seen from two different points +of view. The Mendelian formula regards each +individual separately and describes its heredity +thus. The statistical formula regards the whole +group as the unit and considers the individual +not as such, but as one of the crowd, concerning +which statements can be made only in terms +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +of averages and probabilities; black sheep and +white. Of these two formulas the Mendelian is +obviously of much the greater importance on +account of its more exact, more particular character; +its greater definiteness gives it a value +in the treatment of eugenic problems that statistical +statements must inherently lack. While +much has been written of late regarding the +Mendelian formula of heredity, we shall find it +profitable to repeat here its general outlines +and to recall a few of the essential features of +this important law that we shall make much use +of later.</p> + +<p>Let us have a concrete illustration. One of +the simplest cases is that of the heredity of +color in the Andalusian fowl which has been so +clearly described by Bateson. There are two +established color varieties of this fowl, one with +a great deal of black and one that is white with +some black markings or "splashes"; for convenience +we may refer to these as the black and +white varieties respectively. Each of these +breeds true by itself. Black mated with black +produce none but black offspring, white mated +with white produce none but white offspring. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> +Crossing black and white, however, results in +the production of fowls with a sort of grayish +color, called "blue" by the fancier, though in +reality it is a fine mixture of black and white. +At first sight we seem to have a gray hybrid +race through the mixture of the black and the +white races. Not so: for if we continue to breed +successive generations from these blue hybrid +fowls we get three differently colored forms. +Some will be blue like the parents, some black +like one grandparent, some white like the other +grandparent. Not only this but we get certain +definite proportions among these three classes +of descendants. Of the total number of the immediate +offspring of the hybrid blues, approximately +one half will be blue like the parents, +approximately one fourth black, and one fourth +white like each of the grandparents. Now +comes the most important fact of all. These +blacks, bred together produce only blacks, the +whites similarly produce only whites; the blues, +on the other hand, when bred together produce +progeny sorting into the same original classes +and in the same proportions as were produced +by the blues of the original hybrid generation. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> +Their blacks and whites each breed true, their +blues repeat the history of the preceding blues. +No race of the hybrid character can be established: +blues always produce blacks and whites, +as well as blues. A summary of this history +in graphic and diagrammatic form is given in +Fig. 7.</p> + + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<img src="images/fig7.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.—Diagram showing the course of color heredity in +the Andalusian fowl, in which one color does not completely +dominate another. <i>P</i>, parental generation. The +offspring of this cross constitute <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>, the first filial +or hybrid generation. <i>F<sub>2</sub></i>, the second filial generation. +Bottom row, third filial generation.</span></p></div> + +<p>This law of heredity was first discovered +about forty-five years ago by Gregor Mendel, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> +working with peas in the garden of the Augustinian +monastery in Brünn, Austria. His work +curiously failed to arouse the interest of contemporary +scientists and his results were soon +completely lost sight of. The independent rediscovery +of Mendel's formulas of heredity, +about ten years ago, was probably the most +important event in the history of biology and +evolution since the publication of "The Origin +of Species."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<img src="images/fig8.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>—Diagram showing the course of color heredity in the +guinea pig, in which one color (black) completely dominates +another (white). Reference letters as in Fig. 7.</span></p></div> + +<p>In most cases of Mendelian heredity the progeny +are less easily classified than in the case +above, because the hybrid individuals resemble +one or the other of the parents, quite or very +closely. For instance the crossing of the black +and white varieties of guinea pigs gives hybrids +that are all black like one parent. That is, when +the black and white characters are brought together +these do not appear to blend into a +gray or "blue," as in the case of the Andalusian +fowl, but one character alone appears; the +black seems to cover up or wipe out the white. +This illustrates the frequent phenomenon of +<i>dominance</i>; one of the two contrasting characters, +in this case the black color is said to dominate +over the other and the two traits are described +as <i>dominant</i> and <i>recessive</i> respectively. +Fig. 8 gives a graphic representation of the +history of such a cross. When the black looking +hybrids are crossed together the progeny +fall into but two groups, one resembling each +of the grandparental forms. Three fourths of +the progeny now resemble superficially the +hybrid form and at the same time one of +the grandparents—the dominating black form, +while the remaining fourth resembles the other +white grandparent. However, we know that +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +the black three fourths do not in reality constitute +a homogeneous class but that this includes +two distinct groups; one group of one +fourth of the whole number of progeny (i. e., +one third of all the blacks) are truly black like +their black grandparents and in successive generations +will, if bred together, produce none but +blacks of the same character, i. e., pure blacks: +the remaining two fourths of the whole number +of progeny (two thirds of all the blacks) in this +generation are actually hybrids and in the next +generation, if bred together, will give the same +proportions of the two colors as were found in +the whole of the present generation, i. e., three +fourths black, one fourth white. Of these the +whites always produce whites, the blacks always +produce blacks and whites in the approximate +proportions of 3:1; a certain proportion +of these—one third (one fourth of the whole generation) +always remain blacks, the other two +thirds (one half of the whole generation) again +produce blacks and whites. In such cases as +this where the phenomenon of dominance appears, +and this is the usual course of events, it +is impossible to say which individuals <i>are</i> the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +hybrids. Only after their progeny are studied +can we say which <i>were</i> the hybrids.</p> + +<p>In the crossing of the black and white Andalusian +fowls described above the phenomenon +of dominance does not appear; when the two +color characters are brought into a single individual +neither appears alone, neither overcomes +nor is overcome by the other. In the +crossing of the black and white guinea pigs +dominance is complete; when the two color +characters are brought into a single individual +only one color appears, the second becomes recessive, +that is, it remains present as we know +from the later history of such hybrids, but it +is not visibly indicated. Besides the Andalusian +fowls there are known several other instances +of the absence of dominance and there +are many cases where dominance is incomplete, +i. e., where one character merely tends to dominate +the other. And in a few instances dominance +is irregular, i. e., sometimes one character +dominates, at other times or under other +circumstances it does not, as with certain forms +of the comb or the feathering of the legs in the +common fowl, or with the presence of an extra +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +toe in the domestic cat, the rabbit, and guinea +pig. And even in those cases where dominance +is said to be complete the trained eye of the +breeder can frequently distinguish between the +hybrid and the pure bred dominant individuals. +The phenomenon of dominance, therefore, is not +an essential of the Mendelian theory although +it is a frequent, we may say usual, relation.</p> + +<p>It does not come within our province to attempt +an explanation of this formula of heredity +by describing some of the more fundamental +conditions upon which it depends. In +fact, no complete explanation is yet possible, +although several explanatory hypotheses have +been suggested. We may outline briefly that +which seems the most satisfactory in that it +serves to account for most of the facts in Mendelian +heredity in a comparatively simple manner. +The germ of an organism, we have seen, +somehow contains dispositions of materials +which primarily determine the characteristics +of the organism developed from that germ. To +these dispositions or configurations the term of +"determiners" has been applied. In a pure +variety like the black Andalusians, all the germ +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +cells of each fowl are alike in having this determiner +for black color. When two such fowls +are mated together their descendants will result +from the fusion of two germ cells, <i>each</i> containing +the determiner for black color; that is, +the germ of the new individual comes to have +a double determiner, one from each parent, for +this trait. In the white variety all the germ +cells are alike in <i>lacking</i> this determiner; blackness +is entirely absent and all their descendants +are formed from germ cells entirely without +black determiners. When the single germ cell +of a black fowl with its single black determiner +is fertilized by a germ cell from a white fowl +without any determiner for black the resulting +hybrid has a color produced by only a single +determiner, that from the black parent, and in +this case the blackness is not as fully expressed +because produced by only this single determiner +and the fowl appears gray or "blue"; +that is, the black produced by a single determiner +is in this case not as black as that produced +by the double determiner. Now of +course this hybrid fowl forms germ cells containing +determiners for color, but these cells, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +instead of being all alike and with semi-black +determiners corresponding with the semi-black +characteristics of the individual, are of two +different kinds—some are like those of each of +the grandparents which fused to give origin to +the parent forms, and these are formed in approximately +equal numbers—one half with the +black determiner, one half without it. When +two such fowls are bred together the chances +are equal for certain combinations of germ +cells; the chances are equal that the "black" +or "white" germ cell of the one individual +shall meet and conjugate with the "black" or +"white" germ cell of the other individual. The +result may be expressed algebraically as follows, +using the letters <i>B</i> and <i>W</i> to indicate respectively +germ cells with and without the black +color determiner.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Germ Combos"> +<tr><td>Germ cells of first parent</td><td align="right"><i>B</i> </td><td>+</td><td><i>W</i> </td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Germ cells of second parent</td><td align="right"><i>B</i> </td><td>+</td><td><i>W</i> </td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">———————</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align="right"><i>BB</i> </td><td>+</td><td><i>BW</i></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><i>BW</i></td><td>+</td><td><i>WW</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="5">——————————————</td></tr> +<tr><td>Combinations in the germ of the offspring</td><td align="right">1<i>BB</i> </td><td>+</td><td>2<i>BW</i></td><td>+</td><td>1<i>WW</i> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +That is, one fourth are pure black (<i>BB</i>), one +fourth pure white (<i>WW</i>), and the remaining +half are hybrids, black and white (<i>BW</i>). The +pure blacks again form germ cells, all possessing +the determiner for blackness; the pure +whites form germ cells all lacking the determiner +for blackness; the hybrid blues produce +again equal numbers of germ cells possessing +and lacking the determiner for blackness. The +relation of the germ cells and the organisms +forming them and developing from them is +shown in the diagram in Fig. 9.</p> + +<p>In the more common cases where the phenomenon +of dominance appears, as in the guinea +pig, this is explained by saying that here a single +determiner for blackness is somehow sufficient +to produce the color. In such cases the +black color observed may result either from a +single (<i>BW</i>) or from a double (<i>BB</i>) black determiner +in the germ which forms the organism. +Only when the black determiner is entirely +absent (<i>WW</i>) does the white color appear in +the developed organism and the individual is +then said to exhibit the recessive characteristic.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<img src="images/fig9.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>—Diagram +illustrating the relation of the germ cells in a simple case of +Mendelian heredity, such as that of color as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. +The spaces between the large circles represent the bodies of the +individuals while the small circles within each represent the germ +cells formed by those individuals. <i>P</i>, parental generation; each +individual forms a single kind of germ cells. <i>G</i>. <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>, germs of the +first filial or hybrid generation, each composed of two different +kinds of germ cells, one from each parent. <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>, individuals of the +first filial or hybrid generation, developed from <i>G</i>. <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>. Each member +of this generation forms two kinds of germ cells in approximately +equal numbers. <i>G. C. F<sub>1</sub></i>, germ cells of <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>, showing possible +combinations resulting from the mating of two members of <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>. Each of +these combinations occurs with equal probability. <i>G. F<sub>2</sub></i>, germs of +second filial generation resulting from the above random combinations. +<i>F<sub>2</sub></i>, individuals of second filial generation. Each now forms germ +cells like those which constituted its own germ.</span></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +Another possible type of mating is that between +a member of a pure race, either dominant +or recessive, and a hybrid individual. This +form of mating is very common in some of the +pedigrees that we shall examine later. The results +of such a mating, first between a hybrid +and a recessive individual can be most easily +described by considering a cross between black +and white forms and expressing the result +algebraically.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="White Germ Combos"> +<tr><td>Germ cells of first parent (white or recessive)</td><td align="center"><i>W</i> </td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center"><i>W</i> </td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Germ cells of second parent (hybrid)</td><td align="center"><i>B</i> </td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center"><i>W</i> </td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">—————————</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align="center"><i>BW</i> </td><td align="center">+</td><td><i>BW</i></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><i>WW</i></td><td align="center">+</td><td><i>WW</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="5">————————————————</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td align="center">2<i>BW</i> </td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center">2<i>WW</i></td><td></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>That is, returning to the example of the Andalusian +fowls, the progeny will be one half hybrid +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +blues and one half whites—no black at all. +If the cross had been between black hybrid +guinea pigs and white recessive specimens the +result would have been half hybrid blacks and +half pure whites.</p> + +<p>Or supposing the mating to have occurred +between the pure dominant (black) and the +hybrid the result would have been, in the fowls +half pure black and half hybrid blue; in the +guinea pig all the progeny would have been +black, half pure blacks and half hybrid blacks.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Black Germ Combos"> +<tr><td>Germ cells of first parent (black or dominant)</td><td align="center"><i>B</i> </td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center"><i>B</i> </td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Germ cells of second parent (hybrid)</td><td align="center"><i>B</i> </td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center"><i>W</i> </td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">—————————</td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td align="center"><i>BB</i> </td><td align="center">+</td><td><i>BB</i></td><td></td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><i>BW</i></td><td align="center">+</td><td><i>BW</i> </td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td colspan="5">————————————————</td></tr> +<tr><td></td><td></td><td align="center">2<i>BB</i> </td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center">2<i>BW</i></td><td></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In the case of the guinea pigs, although the +progeny all look alike (black) their history +would show that they were fundamentally unlike, +for if crossed with white again the result +would be the production of all black looking +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> +guinea pigs from the cross with the <i>BB</i> forms, +and half black and half white from the <i>BW</i> +cross.</p> + +<p>On account of the fact of variation every individual +is in a certain sense a hybrid. One's +two parents have the species characters in common +but there are certain distinctive traits that +hybridize and follow Mendel's law of heredity. +By no means is it to be understood that all +individual distinctive traits follow this rule in +heredity. Many individual characteristics are +what we have learned to call fluctuations—small +deviations above or below an average condition +of a group. Such differences play no part in +Mendelian heredity. Other characteristics may +be bodily modifications resulting from the direct +reaction between the body tissues and the +environing conditions; such traits would not +be represented in the organization of the germ +cells and consequently would not be inherited +at all. At present it seems that the only characteristics +that "Mendelize" are those known as +"unit characters." Such characters seem to +have their origin in real variations or mutations +and though each may show fluctuations, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +these fluctuations in themselves are not hereditary.</p> + +<p>This conception of the unit character is an +extremely important element in the whole Mendelian +theory and it has extended beyond the +field of heredity and led to a radical change in +our notions of what an organism really is. It +is, of course, true in a sense that an organism +is a unit, an organism is one thing; but at the +same time it is true that an organism is fundamentally +a collection of units, of structural and +functional characteristics which are really separable +things. A few of these units were mentioned +in the first pages of this chapter and +others are mentioned on a later page. They +serve as the building blocks of organisms: individuals +of the same species may be made up +of similar combinations or of different combinations. +One unit or a group of units may be +taken out and replaced by others.</p> + +<p>From the standpoint of heredity, and particularly +from our eugenic point of view, the +most important results of the unit composition +of the organism lie in the fact that these units +remain units throughout successive generations +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +and throughout successive and varying combinations, +whatever their associations may be +from generation to generation. It is a fact of +the greatest eugenic significance that a pure +bred individual may be produced by a hybrid +mated either with a pure bred or with another +hybrid; and that the pure bred resulting will +be just as pure bred as any. "Pure bred" now +means pure bred with respect to certain traits +only. An individual may be pure bred in certain +of its characteristics, hybrid in others. +Practically there is no such thing as an individual +which is either pure bred or hybrid in <i>all</i> +its traits. One of the chief contributions, then, +of Mendelism to the subjects of Heredity and +Eugenics is this—that a pure bred may be derived +from a hybrid in one generation: the pure +bred produced by a long series of hybrid individuals +is just as pure as the pure bred which +has never had a hybrid in its ancestry. Another +important consequent is, that among the +offspring of the same parents some individuals +may be pure bred and others hybrid. Community +of parentage does not necessarily denote +community of characteristics among the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +offspring. Yet by knowing the ancestry for +one or two generations we can know the qualities +of the individual. Guesswork is eliminated +and the importance of the qualities of the individual +is enormously emphasized. It is necessary +only to suggest the social and eugenic +significance of such facts relating to characteristics +that are of social or racial importance.</p> + +<p>We shall have occasion in the next chapter +to enumerate some of the human unit characters +whose heredity has been traced and which +have been found to Mendelize, but we may mention +here a few Mendelizing units in other organisms +in order to give some idea of the kind +of character which behaves as a unit and of the +range of the forms which have been found to +show Mendelian phenomena in their heredity. +Among the higher animals one might mention +the absence of horns in cattle and sheep; the +"waltzing" habit of mice and the pacing gait +of the horse; length of hair and smoothness of +coat in the rabbit and guinea pig; presence of +an extra toe in the cat, guinea pig, rabbit, fowl; +length of tail in the cat; and in the common fowl +such characters as the shape and size of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +comb, presence of a crest or a "muff," a high +nostril, rumplessness, feathering of the legs, +"frizzling" of the feathers, certain characters +of the voice, and a tendency to brood. Among +plants may be mentioned such characters as +dwarfness in garden peas, sweet peas, and some +kinds of beans; smoothness or prickliness of +stem in the jimson weed and crowfoot; leaf +characters in a great variety of plants; in the +cotton plant a half dozen characters have been +found to Mendelize; seed characters such as +form and amount of starch, sugar, or gluten; +flat or hooded standard in the sweet pea; annual +or biennial habit in the henbane; susceptibility +to a rust disease in wheat. We should not +fail to mention that scores of color characters +are known to Mendelize, such as hair or coat +color and eye color in animals and the colors +of flowers, stems, seeds, seed-coats, etc., in +plants. The list of Mendelizing traits in different +organisms now extends into the hundreds +and is increasing almost weekly.</p> + +<p>Before leaving the subject of Mendelism we +should say that the phenomena, as described +above in the Andalusian fowl and guinea pig, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +are among the simplest known. And while +such simple formulas serve to describe the phenomena +of heredity in a large number of instances, +yet in a great many other cases the +descriptive formulas are more complicated. +We cannot in this place describe any of these +complications. For a full discussion of these +and of the whole subject of Mendelism the interested +reader is referred to Professor Bateson's +work on "Mendel's Principles of Heredity" +(1909). It must suffice to say here that +in color heredity, for example, such ratios as +9:3:4 or 12:3:1 in the second filial generation +instead of the more frequent 1:2:1 or 3:1 are +explainable upon essentially the same relations +as these simpler and more typical ratios. And +further, many less usual Mendelian phenomena, +which we cannot undertake to describe here, are +associated with what the specialist technically +terms "sex limitation," "gametic coupling," +and the like.</p> + +<p>It is often said that the Mendelian formula +has a very limited applicability to human heredity. +This is probably true if we consider +carefully the grammatical tense in which this +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +statement is made. And yet it is almost certainly +true that heredity in man is to be described +by this law. This apparent paradox is +easily explained. The only characters whose +history in heredity follows this formula are the +unit characters. A complex trait is not heritable, +as a whole, but its components behave in +heredity as the separate units. It is perfectly +well known that we are deeply ignorant regarding +this phase of human structure. Our ignorance +here is not the necessary kind, however, it +is merely due to the newness of the subject—we +have not had time to find out. How can we +say that a complex trait is or is not inherited +according to some form of Mendel's law when +we do not know the nature of the units of which +it is composed? We can make no statements +about the Mendelian inheritance of such a trait +until it is factored into its units. A considerable +number of human characteristics are +really known to be heritable according to this +formula, enough so that several general rules +of human heredity have been formulated. But +it is also quite within the range of possibility +that some traits really do not follow this law, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +although it cannot yet be said definitely that +this is or is not the case. On the whole, then, +we cannot, for the next few years, expect too +much from the application of Mendel's laws to +human heredity, however much this is to be +regretted.</p> + +<p>Shall we then decline to say anything about +the heredity of the great bulk of human characteristics? +By no means: we have seen that +in our bagatelle board we talk very definitely +about the distribution of all the peas, though +only about the probable history of one pea. +Mendel's law deals with individual inheritance. +When we cannot apply this formula we have +left still the possibility of talking about human +heredity in the group as a whole. That is to +say, we have left the opportunity of describing +heredity by the statistical methods, with the +crowd, not the individual, as the unit. Since +we are forced into extensive use of this formula +by our present and temporary ignorance of the +applicability of Mendel's rule we must get a +clear notion of how the statistical method is +applied in this matter.</p> + +<p>The method is the same as that employed by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> +the statistician in measuring the relatedness of +any two series of varying phenomena. If two +quantities or characteristics are so related that +fluctuations in the one are accompanied in a +regular manner by fluctuations in the other, the +two quantities or characters are said to be correlated. +For instance, the temperature and the +rate of growth of sprouting beans are related +in such a way that increase in the former is accompanied +in a regular way by increase in the +latter; or the width and height of the head, or +the total stature and the length of the femur +similarly vary regularly together so that they +are said to be correlated to a certain extent +which can be measured. This correlation may +result from the fact that one condition is a +cause, either direct or indirect, of the other; or +there may be no such causal relation between +the two phenomena, both resulting more or less +independently from a common antecedent condition +or cause.</p> + +<p>This phenomenon of correlation is not limited +among organisms to the comparison of two +or more different characters in a single series +of individuals; it is applicable also to the comparison +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +of two series of individuals with respect +to the same characteristic. Thus we may +compare the stature of a series of fathers with +the same measurement in their sons. It is this +form of correlation with which we are particularly +to deal here. While it is not necessary to +understand just how this subject is dealt with +by the statistician we should know one or two +of the elementary principles involved, in order +to appreciate the statistical form of many +statements about heredity.</p> + +<p>The stature of men may be said to vary +usually between limits of 62 and 76 inches, +the average height being about 69 inches. In +the complete absence of heredity in stature we +should find that fathers of any given height, +say 62 or 63 or 76 inches would have sons of +no particular height but of all heights with an +average of 69 inches, the same as in the whole +group. Or if stature were completely heritable +from one generation to the next the <i>total generations +being the units compared</i>, then 62 or +63 or 76 inch fathers would have respectively +sons all 62, 63, and 76 inches tall. When we +examine the actual details of the resemblance +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +we find, as a matter of fact, that neither of +these possibilities is actually realized. What +we do find is that fathers below or above the +average height have sons whose average height +is also below or above the general average but +not so far below or above the general average +as were the fathers. If we measured a large +number of pairs of fathers and sons with respect +to stature we should find each generation +with a variability such as that illustrated in +Fig. 3 of the stature of mothers, the limits here, +however, being about 62 and 76 inches. But if +we measured all the sons of 62-inch fathers +they would be found to vary say from 62 to +only 69 inches, averaging about 66 inches. +Similarly 63-inch fathers would have sons from +62 to 70 inches tall, averaging about 66.5 inches, +or 76-inch fathers might have sons from 69 to +76 inches in height, averaging about 72 inches, +and so on for fathers of all heights. In general, +then, we may say that fathers with a +characteristic of a certain plus or minus deviation +from the average of the whole group +have sons who on the whole deviate in the same +direction but less widely than the fathers, although +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +the fact of variability comes in so that +some few of the sons deviate as widely as, or +even more widely than, the fathers, others deviate +less widely than the fathers from the +average of the whole group. This is the general +and very important statistical fact of +<i>regression</i>.</p> + +<p>The phenomenon of regression may be made +somewhat clearer by the aid of a simple diagram—Fig. +10. Here are plotted first the +heights, by inches, of a group of fathers, giving +the series of dots joined by the diagonal <i>AB</i>. +Next are plotted the average heights of the +sons of each class of fathers: 62-inch fathers +give 66-inch sons, 63-inch fathers 66.5-inch sons, +64-inch fathers 67-inch sons, and so for all the +classes of fathers. These dots are then joined +by the line <i>EF</i>. This is the <i>regression line</i>. +Had it been the case that there was no regression +in stature the different classes of fathers +would have had sons averaging just the same +as themselves and the line representing the +heights of the sons would have coincided with +the line <i>AB</i>. Or if regression had been complete +the fathers of any class would have had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> +sons averaging about 69 inches—just the same +as the average of the whole group—and the line +representing their heights would have had the +position of <i>CD</i> in the diagram. As a matter of +fact, however, neither of these possibilities is +actually realized and the regression line <i>EF</i> is +approximated in an actual series of data. A +similar relation has been found for many characters +other than stature.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<img src="images/fig10.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>—Diagram illustrating the phenomenon of regression.<br /> +Explanation in text.</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +The fact of regression is of considerable importance +for the theory of evolution as well as +for the subject of Eugenics when describing +the phenomena of heredity in this statistical +manner in whole groups without paying attention +to particular individuals. Regression is +found in all characteristics observed in this +way, psychic as well as purely physical. "The +father [i. e., fathers] with a great excess of the<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">character contributes [contribute] sons with</span><br /> +an excess, but a less excess of it; the father +[fathers] with a great defect of the character +contributes [contribute] sons with a defect, but +less defect of it."</p> + +<p>Now, whatever the actual extent of this regression +is in a group we need to know how +uniformly it occurs for all the classes of different<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">deviations from the general average,</span><br /> +that is, we need to know whether the extreme +groups regress to the same relative extent as +do those nearer the general average; and, further, +we need to know how nearly the sons of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +fathers of any certain height are grouped about +their own average. In other words, we should +know, first, whether the regression of the sons +of 62 and 76 or 67 and 71 inch fathers is proportionately +the same in each case, and, second, +to what extent the sons of 62-inch fathers +vary, whether they vary as do the fathers of +62-inch sons, and so for each group. This kind +of information we get by calculating what is +called the <i>coefficient of heredity</i>. The calculation +of this coefficient is a complicated process +which it is unnecessary to describe here. It +must suffice to say that a numerical coefficient +can readily be determined, which will express +the average closeness and regularity of the relationship +between all the plus and minus deviations +from the group average in fathers and +the corresponding plus and minus deviations +from the group average of their sons with respect +to a given characteristic. This coefficient +of heredity may vary between 0.0 and 1.0. +When it is 0.0 there is, on the whole, no regularity +in the relationship, i. e., no heredity; +when it is 1.0 there is, on the whole, complete +regularity, i. e., heredity is complete. Neither +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> +of these values is ever actually found in determining +coefficients of heredity in the parental +relation; these are usually between 0.3 and 0.5. +It should be emphasized again that this comparison +is between whole groups and not between +individuals, and that it fails to allow for +the distinction between fluctuations and true +variations. And, further, it should be noted +that the information derived from such a coefficient +is defective in that it takes into account +only the relationship between the son and one +parent; the maternal relation is just as important +but this has to be determined separately. +There is no satisfactory method of determining +the relation between children and both parents +at the same time.</p> + +<p>The coefficient of heredity is, therefore, an +abstract numerical value which gives us a +fairly precise estimate as to the probable closeness +of the relation between deviations from +the group average of any character in two +groups of relatives. The coefficient of <i>correlation</i> +is, in general, a measure of the relation +between two different characteristics or conditions +in a single group of individuals. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +method of its determination and its limiting +values are the same as for the coefficient of +heredity.</p> + +<p>By experience the coefficients of heredity and +correlation in general are found to have the following +significance:</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Correlation Table"> +<tr><td align="left">0.00-</td><td>no relation.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">0.00-0.10—</td><td>no significant relation.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">0.10-0.25—</td><td>low; relation slight though appreciable.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">0.25-0.50—</td><td>moderate; relation considerable.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">0.50-0.75—</td><td>high; relation marked.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">0.75-0.90—</td><td>very high; relation very marked.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">0.90-1.00—</td><td>nearly complete.</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1.00—</td><td>complete relation.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>One further point remains to be considered, +which applies not so much to coefficients of +heredity as to coefficients of correlation in general, +i. e., to the relatedness of two different +characters or series of events in a single group +of cases or individuals. This is that coefficients +of correlation may be either positive or negative. +That is, the real limits of the value of +the coefficient are plus one and minus one. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +example given above of stature of fathers and +sons gives a positive coefficient. Whenever the +deviation from the average of one group is accompanied +in the second group by a deviation +in the same direction, the coefficient is positive. +A negative correlation means that deviation +from the average in a given direction in the +first group is accompanied in the second group +by a deviation in the opposite direction. If we +imagine that as one measurement increased +above its average a second related measurement +decreased below its average the correlation +in such a case would be negative. For instance, +if we measured the relation between the +number of berry pickers employed and the +quantity of berries remaining unpicked, in a +number of different fields we would get a negative +correlation coefficient. Some organisms +are formed in such a way that increase in one +dimension, such as length, is associated with +decrease in another, such as breadth; measurement +of the relatedness of these dimensions +would give a coefficient of correlation that +might be very high, indicating a considerable +relation in the deviations, but it would be negative. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +In an instance of negative correlation +the relation is that of "the more the fewer." +As we shall see presently, a negative correlation +may be just as important and significant +as a positive correlation.</p> + +<p>The application of the principles of heredity +to our subject of Eugenics is of such great +importance that it is reserved for separate +consideration in the next chapter. We may, +therefore, devote the remainder of this chapter +to the consideration of data of another +kind, which are commonly treated by this same +method of determining correlation coefficients +between two sets of varying phenomena in +order to determine whether there is any actual +relation between them or not. This will serve +to illustrate the use of this method.</p> + +<p>We shall turn then to the subject of differential +or selective fertility in human beings and +consider its relation to Eugenics. As a starting +point we may take the self-evident statement +that a group of organisms will tend to +maintain constant characteristics through successive +generations only when all parts of the +group are equally fertile. If exceptional fertility +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +is associated with the presence or absence +of any characteristic the number of individuals +with or without that trait will either increase or +diminish in successive generations, and the +character of the distribution of the group as a +whole will gradually become altered, the average +moving in the direction of the more fertile +group. Or if infertility is so associated, then +the average of the whole group moves away +from that condition. Eugenically, then, we +should ask whether in human society there is at +present any such association of superfertility or +infertility with desirable or undesirable traits. +It is obviously the aim of Eugenics to bring +about an association of a high degree of fertility +with desirable traits and a low degree of +fertility with undesirable characteristics.</p> + +<p>First, let us look at certain data gathered +relative to the size of the family in both normal +and pathological stocks (Table II). In +order that a stock or family should just maintain +its numbers undiminished through successive +generations and under average conditions, +at least four children should be born to +each marriage that has any children at all. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +The table given shows clearly what stocks are +maintaining, what increasing, and what diminishing +their numbers.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="Table II"> +<caption><span class="smcap">Table II</span><br /> +<i>Fertility in Pathological and Normal Stocks.</i> (From Pearson)</caption> +<tr><th></th><th><span class="smcap">Authority.</span></th><th><span class="smcap">Nature of Marriage.</span><br />(Reproductive period.)</th><th><span class="smcap">No. in<br />Family.</span></th></tr> +<tr><td>Deaf-mutes, England</td><td>Schuster</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">6.2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Deaf-mutes, America</td><td>Schuster</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">6.1</td></tr> +<tr><td>Tuberculous stock</td><td>Pearson</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">5.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Albinotic stock</td><td>Pearson</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">5.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>Insane stock</td><td>Heron</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">6.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Edinburgh degenerates</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">6.1</td></tr> +<tr><td>London mentally defective</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">7.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>Manchester mentally defective</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">6.3</td></tr> +<tr><td>Criminals</td><td>Goring</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">6.6</td></tr> +<tr><td>English middle class</td><td>Pearson</td><td>15 years at least, begun before 35</td><td align="center">6.4</td></tr> +<tr><td>Family records—normals</td><td>Pearson</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">5.3</td></tr> +<tr><td>English intellectual class</td><td>Pearson</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">4.7</td></tr> +<tr><td>Working class N. S. W.</td><td>Powys</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">5.3</td></tr> +<tr><td>Danish professional class</td><td>Westergaard</td><td>15 years at least</td><td align="center">5.2</td></tr> +<tr><td>Danish working class</td><td>Westergaard</td><td>25 years at least</td><td align="center">5.3</td></tr> +<tr><td>Edinburgh normal artisan</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">5.9</td></tr> +<tr><td>London normal artisan</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">5.1</td></tr> +<tr><td>American graduates</td><td>Harvard</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">2.0</td></tr> +<tr><td>English intellectuals</td><td>Webb</td><td>Said to be complete</td><td align="center">1.5</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>All childless marriages are excluded except in the last two cases. +Inclusion of such marriages usually reduces the average by 0.5 to 1.0 +child.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +This subject has been investigated recently +in a rather extensive way by David Heron, for +the London population. Heron concentrated +his attention upon the relation of fertility in +man to social status. He used as indices to +social status such marks as the relative number +of professional men in a community, or the +relative number of servants employed, or of +lowest type of male laborers, or of pawn-brokers; +also the amount of child employment +pauperism, overcrowding in the home, +tuberculosis, and pauper lunacy. Twenty-seven +metropolitan boroughs of London were +canvassed on these bases, which are certainly +significant, though not infallible, indices to +the character of a community. His results +are shown in the briefest possible form in +Table III.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table III"> +<caption><span class="smcap">Table III</span><br /> +<i>Correlation of the Birth Rate with Social and Physical Characters of London Population.</i> (From Heron.)</caption> +<tr><th></th><th><span class="smcap">Correlation<br />Coefficient.</span></th></tr> +<tr><td>With number of males engaged in professions </td><td align="right">-.78</td></tr> +<tr><td>With female domestics per 100 females </td><td align="right">-.80</td></tr> +<tr><td>With female domestics per 100 families </td><td align="right">-.76</td></tr> +<tr><td>With general laborers per 1,000 males </td><td align="right">+.52</td></tr> +<tr><td>With pawnbrokers and general dealers per 1,000 males </td><td align="right">+.62</td></tr> +<tr><td>With children employed, ages 10 to 14 </td><td align="right">+.66</td></tr> +<tr><td>With persons living more than two in a room </td><td align="right">+.70</td></tr> +<tr><td>With infants under one year dying per 1,000 births </td><td align="right">+.50</td></tr> +<tr><td>With deaths from pulmonary tuberculosis per 100,000 inhabitants </td><td align="right">+.59</td></tr> +<tr><td>With total number of paupers per 1,000 inhabitants </td><td align="right">+.20</td></tr> +<tr><td>With number of lunatic paupers per 1,000 inhabitants </td><td align="right">+.34</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>This table gives the results of the calculation +of coefficients of correlation between the birth +rates and the conditions enumerated. We may +just recall that this coefficient is a measure of +the regularity with which the changes in two +varying conditions or phenomena are associated: +and further that a coefficient of 1.0 indicates +perfectly regular association, 0.75 a very +high degree of regularity. The first line of the +table then, for example, means that when these +twenty-seven districts were sorted out, first, +with reference to the number of professional +men dwelling in them, and then with reference +to their respective birth rates, there was found +a very high degree of regularity (coefficient of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +correlation=-.78) in the association of these +two conditions—birth rate and number of professional +men. Here is a very close relation, +<i>but</i>, the sign of the coefficient is <i>negative</i>. The +significance of this negative sign is that among +the communities studied those where the number +of professional men is the larger show +always, at the same time, the lower birth rates. +Coming to the second line of the table, it seems +fair to assume that the number of servants employed +in a district in proportion to the total +number of residents or families there, gives a +fairly though not wholly satisfactory indication +of the social character of the community. +Measurement of the actual relation between the +proportional number of servants employed in +a community and the birth rate in that community, +gave practically the same result as in +the case of the number of professional men. +The more servants employed in a district the +lower its birth rate. Two methods of measuring +this relation gave essentially the same result; +comparison of the birth rate with the ratio +of domestics, first to the number of families, +second to the number of females, gave -.76 and -.80 +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +respectively—very high coefficients and +both negative.</p> + +<p>But the sign changes and becomes positive +when we come to other comparisons. When we +count the relative number of pawnbrokers and +general dealers, of "general laborers" (that is, +men without a trade and without regularity of +occupation and employment), of employed children +between the ages of ten and fourteen, of +persons living more than two in a room, when +we consider the infant death rate, the death +rate from pulmonary tuberculosis, and the relative +number of paupers,—then we find the signs +of the coefficients are all positive, and on the +average the coefficients are more than 0.50—a +moderate to high degree of regularity of the +relation. The districts characterized by the +larger numbers of such individuals or by higher +death rates of these kinds, are at the same time +the districts where the birth rates are the +higher.</p> + +<p>In a word, then, Heron found that the greater +the number of professional men, or of servants +employed in a community, the lower the birth +rate—a very high degree of negative correlation. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> +On the other hand, the more pawn-brokers, +child laborers, pauper lunatics, the +more overcrowding and tuberculosis, the higher +the birth rate—a high degree of positive correlation. +Little doubt here as to which elements +of the city are making the greater contributions +to the next generation. There may +be some doubt, however, so let us consider two +possible qualifications of these results. First, +is not the death rate also higher among these +least desirable classes? Yes, it is. Is it not +enough higher to compensate for the difference +in the birth rates, so that after all the least +desirable classes are not more than replacing +themselves? No, it is not. After calculating +the effect of the differential death rate among +these different social groups it still remains +true that the <i>net</i> fertility of the undesirables +is greater than the <i>net</i> fertility of the desirables: +the worst classes are in reality more +than replacing themselves numerically in such +communities; the most valuable classes are not +even replacing themselves. Second, is not this +the same condition that has always existed in +these districts? Why any cause for supposing +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> +that this is going to bring new results to this +society? Has not such a condition always been +present and always been compensated for somehow? +Fortunately, Heron is able to compare +with these data of 1901 similar data for 1851, +and is able to show that every one of these relations +has changed in sign since that date—in +fifty years. The significance of this change in +sign is probably clear. It means here that in +London sixty years ago there was a high degree +of regularity in the relation such that the +more professional men and well-to-do families +the community contained, the higher the birth +rate; that ten years ago this had all become +changed so that the more of these desirable +families found in a district the lower is the +birth rate. It means that sixty years ago the +relation was such that the more undesirables +numbered in a district, the lower its birth rate; +ten years ago the more undesirables, the higher +the birth rate, and the coefficients of 1901 are +unusually high, indicating great closeness and +regularity in this relation. Heron is further +able to show that as regards number of servants +employed, professional men, general laborers, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> +and pawnbrokers in a district, the +intensity of the relationship has <i>doubled</i>, +besides changing in sign, in the period observed. +It is not necessary to review the history +of this change nor to discuss the causes +involved, but it is necessary to take into account +for the immediate future the fact of the +change.</p> + +<p>Sidney Webb has recently published an account +of the birth-rate investigations undertaken +by the Fabian Society with a view to determine +the causes leading to the rapidly falling +birth rate in England. During the decade +previous to 1901 the number of children in London +actually diminished by about 5,000, while +the total population increased by about 300,000. +As far as they bear upon this phase of the subject +his results fully confirm these we have +been considering. The falling off is chiefly in +the upper and middle classes, in the classes of +thrift and independence, and it has occurred +chiefly during the last fifty years. Webb cannot +find that this is due to any physical deterioration +in these classes; it is due to a conscious +and deliberate limitation of the size of the family +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span> +for what are thought prudential and economic +reasons.</p> + +<p>An actual reduction in the number of children +may not be an unmixed evil. A falling +birth rate may be a good sign. This is partly +a question for the political economist. "Suicide" +may be a socially fortunate end for some +strains. But when, in either a rising or a falling +birth rate, we find a differential or selective +relation, then the subject is eugenic. If the +higher birth rate is among the socially valuable +elements of each different class the Eugenist +can only approve; to bring about such a relation +is one of his aims. What we really find, +however, is the undesirable elements increasing +with the greatest rapidity, the better elements +not even holding their own.</p> + +<p>One further aspect of the result of the +smaller family remains to be considered. Are +the various members of a single family approximately +similar in their characteristics or +are the earlier born more or less likely to be +particularly gifted or particularly liable to disease +or abnormal condition? Or is there no +rule at all in this matter? There is much evidence +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +that the incidence of pathological defect +falls heaviest upon the earlier members of a +family. Consider, for example, the presence +of tuberculosis. We should ask, in families +of two or more, are the tubercular members, +if any, as likely to be the second born or third +or tenth as to be the first born? The data +are tabulated in Fig. 11, <i>A</i>. The distribution +of family sizes being what it is in the number +of families investigated and tabulated, +we should expect that there would be about 65 +tubercular first born, 60 tubercular second born, +and so forth, on the basis of its average frequency +in the whole community, provided the +chances are equal that any member of the family +should be affected with tuberculosis. What +we actually find, however, is that 112 first born +are affected, about 80 second born, and after +that no relation between order of birth and susceptibility +to tuberculosis. That is, susceptibility +to tuberculosis is double the normal +among first born children. The same thing is +true for gross mental defect. Fig. 11, <i>B</i>, shows +that the ratio of observed to expected insane +first born children is about 4 to 3. Such a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +relation has long been known to criminologists +and frequently commented upon. Fig. 11, <i>C</i>, +gives a definite expression to the facts here. +Whereas, in the number of families observed +about 56 criminal first born were to be expected, +the number actually found is about 120; for +the second born the corresponding numbers are +about 54 and 78, and after that no marked relation +is found between order of birth and criminality. +For albinism (Fig. 11, <i>D</i>) the expected +and observed numbers among first born are +about 185 and 265, second born 165 and 190, +and thereafter no definite relation. It remains +to be seen whether a similar relation holds for +the unusually able and valuable members of a +family; something has been said on both sides +here, but there are available at present no data +sufficiently exact to be worthy of consideration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<img src="images/fig11.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 11." title="Fig. 11." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>—Diagrams showing the relation between order of birth +and incidence of pathological defect. (From Pearson).</span></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> +We have here a result that has very important +bearings upon the value to the race of the +large family and of the danger of the small +family. The small family of one, two, or three +children contributes on the average much more +than its share of pathological and defective persons. +No matter just now what the causes are, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +they seem to be more or less beyond remedy. +The result for the future, however, must be +reckoned with. This relation has important +bearings upon the custom of primogeniture as +well as upon the eugenic values of the large +family.</p> + +<p>In conclusion let us give a few sentences only +slightly modified from Pearson's "Grammar of +Science." The subject of differential fertility +is not only vitally important for the theory of +evolution, but it is crucial for the stability of +civilized societies. If the type of maximum fertility +is not identical with the type fittest to survive +in a given environment, then only intensive +selection can keep the community stable. +If natural selection be suspended there results +a progressive change; the most fertile, whoever +they are, tend to multiply at an increasing rate. +In our modern societies natural selection has +been to some extent suspended; what test have +we then of the identity of the most fertile and +the most fit? It wants but very few generations +to carry the type from the fit to the unfit. The +aristocracy of the intellectual and artizan +classes are not equally fertile with the mediocre +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +and least valuable portions of those +classes and of society as a whole. Hence if the +professional and intellectual classes are to be +maintained in due proportions they must be +recruited from below. This is much more serious +than would appear at first sight. The upper +middle class is the backbone of a nation, +supplying its thinkers, leaders, and organizers. +This class is not a mushroom growth, but the +result of a long process of selecting the abler +and fitter members of society. The middle +classes produce relatively to the working +classes a vastly greater proportion of ability; +<i>it is not want of education, it is the want of +stock which is at the basis of this difference</i>. +A healthy society would have its maximum of +fertility in this class and recruit the artizan +class from the middle class rather than <i>vice +versa</i>. But what do we actually find? A growing +decrease in the birth rate of the middle and +upper classes; a strong movement for restraint +of fertility, and limitation of the family, touching +only the intellectual classes and the aristocracy +of the hand workers! Restraint and +limitation may be most social and at the same +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +time most eugenic if they begin in the first +place to check the fertility of the unfit; but if +they start at the wrong end of society they are +worse than useless, they are nationally disastrous +in their effects. The dearth of ability +at a time of crisis is the worst ill that can happen +to a people. Sitting quietly at home, a +nation may degenerate and collapse, simply +because it has given full play to selective reproduction +and not bred from its best. From the +standpoint of the patriot, no less than from +that of the evolutionist and Eugenist, differential +fertility is momentous; we must unreservedly +condemn all movements for restraint +of fertility which do not discriminate between +the fertility of the physically and mentally fit +and that of the unfit. Our social instincts have +reduced to a minimum the natural elimination +of the socially dangerous elements; they must +now lead us consciously to provide against the +worst effects of differential fertility—a survival +of the most fertile, when the most fertile +are not the socially fittest.</p> + +<p>The subject before us illustrates the direct +bearing of science upon moral conduct and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +upon statecraft. The scientific study of man is +not merely a passive intellectual viewing of +nature. It teaches us the art of living, of building +up stable and dominant nations, and it is +of no greater importance for the scientist in his +laboratory, than for the statesman in council +and the philanthropist in society.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III<br /><br /> +HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC<br /> +PROGRAM</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p> +<h2>III</h2> + +<h3>HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC PROGRAM</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +"A breed whose proof is in time and deeds;<br /> +What we are, we are—nativity is answer enough to objections."<br /> +</p></div> + + +<p>A few years ago official recognition was +taken of the disturbing fact that the +annual wheat yield of Great Britain +was grossly deficient in both quantity and +quality. In 1900 The National Association of +British and Irish Millers, with almost unprecedented +sagacity, raised a fund to provide for a +series of experiments under the direction of a +competent biologist, in order to discover if possible +some means of restoring the former yield +and quality of the native wheats. The story of +the result reads like a romance. The experimenter—Prof. +R. H. Biffen—collected many +different varieties of wheat, native and foreign, +each of which had some desirable qualities, and +studied their mode of inheritance. Now, after +only a few years of experimentation a wheat +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +has been produced and is being grown upon a +large scale in which have been united this desirable +character of one variety, that character of +another. From each variety has been taken +some valuable trait, and these have all been +combined into one variety possessing the characteristics +of a short full head, beardlessness, +high gluten content, immunity to the devastating +rust, a strong supporting straw, and a high +yield per acre. A wheat made to order and fulfilling +the "details and specifications" of the +growers.</p> + +<p>Manitoba and British Columbia opened up +whole new lands of the finest wheat-growing +capacity, but the season there is too short for +the ripening of what were the finest varieties. +This new specification was promptly met and +the early ripening quality of some inferior +variety was transferred to the varieties showing +other highly desirable qualities, and these +countries are now producing enormous quantities +of the finest wheat in the world.</p> + +<p>All of this has been made possible by the discovery, +mentioned in the preceding chapter, +that many characteristics of organisms are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +units and behave as such in heredity; they can +be added to races or subtracted from them +almost at will. Pure varieties breeding true +can be established permanently by taking into +account the Mendelian laws of heredity. Similar +results have been accomplished in many +other plants and in many animals. A cotton +has been produced which combines early +growth, by which it escapes the ravages of the +boll weevil, with the long fiber of the finest Sea +Island varieties. Corn of almost any desired +percentage of sugar or starch, within limits, +can be produced to order in a few seasons. The +hornless character of certain varieties of cattle +can be transferred to any chosen breed. Sheep +have been produced combining the excellent +mutton qualities of one breed with the hornlessness +of another, and with the fine wool +qualities of still a third. And so on from canary +birds to draft horses. New races can be +built up to meet almost any demand, with +almost any desired combination of known characters, +and these races remain stable. Possibilities +in this direction seem to be limited only +by our present and rapidly lessening ignorance +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +of the facts of Mendelian heredity in organisms—facts +to be had for the looking.</p> + +<p>What is man that we should not be mindful +of him? Why should we utilize all this new +knowledge, all these immense possibilities of +control and of creation, only for our pigs and +cabbages? In this era of conservation should +not our profoundest concern be the conservation +of human protoplasm? "The State has +no material resources at all comparable with +its citizens, and no hope of perpetuity except +in the intelligence and integrity of its people." +As Saleeby puts it: "There is no wealth but +life; and if the inherent quality of life fails, +neither battle-ships, nor libraries, nor symphonies, +nor Free Trade, nor Tariff Reform, nor +anything else will save a nation."</p> + +<p>In this work of the creation and establishment +of new and valuable varieties, two essential +biological facts are made use of. The raw +materials are furnished by variation—by the +fact that there are individual and racial differences. +The means of accomplishing results are +furnished by heredity—the fact that offspring +resemble the parents, not only in generalities, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +but even in particulars, and according to certain +definite formulas.</p> + +<p>And, further, in the formation and establishment +of a new race of plant or animal a conscious +and ideal process is involved. The will +of some organism guides the process, carefully +doing away with hit and miss methods, and +proceeding as directly as may be possible to +an end <i>desired</i>. The facts of variation and +heredity are sufficiently demonstrated for all +organisms other than man; are they true of +man also? Have we available the possibilities +for the improvement of the human breed? If +not, Eugenics is merely an interesting speculation. +We have mentioned already the facts +of variation in man; we undoubtedly do have +the raw materials. What about heredity, and +what about the directive agency? Let us look +now at some of the facts of human heredity +and consider some of the possibilities in the +way of directive agencies. Is it going to be +possible to breed a stable human race permanently +with or without definite characteristics +which now appear only in certain groups, or +sporadically as variations?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> +At the outset we should say that the knowledge +of human heredity is as yet largely of the +statistical sort. We know how a great many +characters are inherited, on the average. The +subject of Mendelian heredity is so new that +there has been hardly time to investigate more +than a few human characteristics from this +point of view. Certain conditions add to the +difficulties here. First, many, probably most, +of the more important human traits are complexes, +not units, and it is a long and difficult +process to analyze them into their units, with +which alone Mendelism deals. Second, in human +society we cannot carry on definite experiments +under controlled conditions, directed +toward the solution of some concrete problem +in heredity. It is true that Nature herself is +making such experiments constantly, but at +random, and rarely under ideal conditions of +what the experimenter calls control or check. +We have first to seek and find them out, and +when they are found we often discover that +there are lacking many of the facts essential +to a complete or satisfactory analysis of the +facts displayed. The comparatively small size +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +of the human family sometimes makes it difficult +to get data sufficiently extensive to be +really significant. And the long period that +elapses between successive human generations +adds to the difficulty of getting precise information, +for in dealing with the heredity of some +traits comparisons must be made with individuals +of the same ages, and the period of +observation of a single observer seldom exceeds +the duration of a single generation. Yet +in spite of all these difficulties we have a fairly +broad and exact knowledge of human heredity +in respect to some characteristics.</p> + +<p>Human heredity involves both physical and +psychical characters—both the body and the +mind are concerned. Among other animals +little if anything is known regarding psychic +inheritance, but the physical traits of men are +inherited in just the same ways and to the same +degrees as in animals. This degree or intensity +of inheritance may be expressed in coefficients +of heredity between the groups of relatives +being compared. To mention a few +examples of coefficients for physical traits we +have the following:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="Character Table"> +<tr><th>CHARACTER OBSERVED</th><th colspan="2">PARENTAL<br />COEFFICIENT</th><th colspan="2">FRATERNAL<br />COEFFICIENT</th></tr> +<tr><td>Stature</td><td align="right">.49-.51 }</td><td></td><td align="right">.51-.55 }</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Span</td><td align="right">.45 }</td><td></td><td align="right">.55 }</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Fore Arm</td><td align="right">.42 }</td><td>.47</td><td align="right">.49 }</td><td>.53</td></tr> +<tr><td>Eye Color</td><td align="right">.55 }</td><td></td><td align="right">.52 }</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Hair Color</td><td></td><td></td><td align="right">.57</td><td> —Average</td></tr> +<tr><td>Hair Curliness</td><td></td><td></td><td align="right">.52</td><td></td></tr> +<tr><td>Head Measurements-three</td><td></td><td></td><td align="right">.55</td><td> — "</td></tr> +<tr><td>Cephalic Index (Ratio between breadth<br />and length of cranium)</td><td></td><td></td><td align="right">.49</td><td></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>We might give many others, but it is unnecessary. +Notice that these parental and fraternal +coefficients group about an average value of +about .50 or slightly less. Similar coefficients +have been worked out for other degrees of relationship; +thus grandparental coefficients are +about .25.</p> + +<p>Stated briefly, in less exact terms, these coefficients +mean that, with respect to such traits +as deviate from the group average, the resemblance +of brothers and sisters to each other or +of children to their parents is, on the whole, +approximately mid-way between being complete +in its deviation from the average and in +not deviating at all from the average in the +direction of the fraternal or parental characteristic. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +Grandchildren tend to deviate from +the group average only about one fourth as far +as their grandparents. It should be remembered +that these are statistical and not individual +statements, and that as many "exceptions" +will be found in the direction of greater resemblance +as in that of lesser resemblance.</p> + +<p>One of the present objects of the student of +heredity, perhaps his chief object, is to be able +to state the facts of human heredity in Mendelian +terms, reducing many of the complex human +traits to their simpler elements. Some of +the chief objections to the use of the statistical +formula of heredity are that apparently it is +applicable only to the fluctuating variabilities +of organisms; that it rarely takes into account +the presence of (and therefore the heredity of) +true variations or mutations—and we have +seen that it is just these characters that are of +the greatest value in evolution; and that heredity +is after all fundamentally an individual relation +which loses much of its definiteness and +significance when we merge the individual in +with a crowd. To some these seem fatal objections +to any use of the statistical formula and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +it is certainly true that they greatly limit its +value. But for the present at least the statistical +statement of certain facts of heredity is still +useful in this bio-social field. We may therefore +use the statistical formulas of heredity as +a kind of temporary expedient, enabling us to +make statements regarding inheritance of certain +characters in the group or class, pending +the time when we shall be able to give the facts +a more precise and more "final" expression in +Mendelian formulas. Many human traits are +indeed already known to Mendelize. Most of +these are, however, "abnormal" traits or +pathological conditions; we are still in the dark +regarding the actually Mendelian or non-Mendelian +inheritance of most of man's normal +characteristics. We might enumerate the following +Mendelizing human characters—eye +color, color blindness, hair color and curliness, +albinism (absence of pigment), brachydactylism +(two joints instead of three in fingers and +toes), syndactylism (union of certain fingers +and toes), polydactylism (one or more additional +fingers or toes in each hand or foot), +keratosis (unusually thick and horny skin), +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +hæmophilia (lack of clotting property in the +blood), nightblindness (ability to see only in +strong light—a retinal defect usually), certain +forms of deaf mutism and cataract, imbecility, +Huntington's chorea (a form of dementia).</p> + +<p>In observing Mendelian heredity we should +bear in mind that a given character may be due +either to the presence or to the absence of a +"determiner" in the germ. Long hair such +as is characteristic of many "Angora" varieties +of the guinea pig and cat, for example, is +believed to be due to the absence of a determiner +which stops its growth. Blue eyes are +due to the absence of a brown pigment determiner, +<i>et cetera</i>. The presence or absence in +the offspring of such characters as we know +do Mendelize can be predicted when we know +the parental history for two generations.</p> + +<p>Turning now to the inheritance of mental +traits and including, of course, moral traits +here as well, we find that we are almost entirely +limited to the statistical statement of results. +Pearson found upon examining data from a +large number of school children, brothers and +sisters, that the coefficients of heredity between +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +them were the same as for their physical traits. +His results are summarized in Figure 12. The +physical traits measured were, in the order +plotted in the figure—health, eye color, hair +color, hair curliness, cephalic index (ratio between +breadth and length of cranium), head +length, head breadth, head height. These gave +an average of .54 in brothers, .53 in sisters, and +.51 in brothers and sisters. The psychical +traits in order were—vivacity, assertiveness, +introspection, popularity, conscientiousness, +temper, ability, handwriting. The corresponding +averages were .52, .51, .52.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<img src="images/fig12.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>—Coefficients of heredity of physical and psychical characters +in school children. Characters enumerated in text. (From Pearson.)</span></p></div> + +<p>Galton's pioneer works on "Hereditary Genius," +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +"English Men of Science," and "Natural +Inheritance" showed with great clearness the +fact of mental and moral heredity. Wood's +recent extensive study of "Mental and Moral +Heredity in Royalty" shows the same thing, +although not all the results of these investigations +are given in mathematical form. Little +can be said regarding Mendelian heredity of +mental traits because the psychologist has not +yet told us how to analyze even the common +and simpler psychic characters into their fundamental +units; since we do not know what +the mental hereditary units are, obviously we +cannot work with them. Much of our knowledge +in this field does not permit of very accurate +summary, though pointing indisputably +to the fact of mental inheritance in spite of +the very great influences of training and education, +environment and tradition, in moulding +the mental and moral characteristics—influences +with much greater effect here than in +connection with physical characters.</p> + +<p>Galton studied the parentage of 207 Fellows +of the Royal Society, a Fellowship which is a +real mark of distinction. He assumed that one +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> +per cent of the individuals represented by the +class from which his observations were drawn, +that is the higher intellectual classes, might be +expected to be "noteworthy": among the general +population the average is really about one +in 4,000 or one fortieth of one per cent. On +the one per cent basis Galton found that Fellows +of the Royal Society had noteworthy +fathers with 24 times the frequency to be expected +in the absence of heredity; noteworthy +brothers with 31 times the expected frequency; +noteworthy grandfathers 12 times; and so on +through various grades of relationship.</p> + +<p>Schuster examined the class lists of Oxford +covering a period of 92 years and found that +first honor men had 36 per cent first or second +honor fathers; second honor men had 32 per +cent first or second honor fathers; ordinary degree +men 14 per cent first or second honor +fathers. These percentages are far in excess +of that to be expected—perhaps 0.5 per cent—on +the assumption that ability is not inherited. +Schuster also determined the coefficients of +heredity between fathers and sons as regards +intellectual ability, the evidence being class +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +marks in Oxford and Harrow; these he found +to be about .3 for the parental relation and .4 +for the fraternal. The intensity of heredity +in many forms of insanity has been determined +and this runs up much higher—.57 parental +and .50 fraternal.</p> + +<p>It is clear I take it, that the fact of human +heredity does not concern only physical traits +but extends to psychical traits as well, and with +about the same intensity. This fact has been +found true also for still less analyzable characters +such as length of life, fertility or infertility +and the like, and again about the same intensity +of resemblance is found.</p> + +<p>Human heredity is a fact then just as human +variability is a fact. We have truly the raw +materials and the means for racial improvement. +The ability to direct the evolution of +the human race makes this our supremest duty.</p> + +<p>The facts of human heredity can more easily +be brought home to us by the examination of +some actual pedigrees and family histories. +We may look at a few representative cases +which will serve to bring out some additional +aspects of the significance to society of the demonstrated +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +fact of heredity. In the examination +of single family histories we should remember +that a single pedigree may not accurately illustrate +a general law of heredity—again, an +individual case may belong to a group of cases +without representing them fairly. Even in observing +illustrations of Mendel's laws allowance +has to be made for the variability due +to "chance" meetings of germ cells. It +is only when large numbers of individuals +are observed that the typical Mendelian +fractions and ratios can be strictly observed. +It must be borne in mind then that the +histories given below illustrate the nature of +the facts of heredity rather than the laws of +heredity. Some special cautions in the interpretation +of certain pedigrees will be suggested +in particular cases. Many of the figures are +taken from the extremely valuable "Treasury +of Human Inheritance," now being published by +the Eugenics Laboratory of the University of +London. In these figures and some others a +uniform series of symbols is used. Successive +horizontal lines designated by Roman numerals +indicate generations; within a single generation +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +the individuals are numbered consecutively +simply for purposes of reference. The meaning +of the more common symbols is as shown in +Table IV. We may first consider a few pedigrees +showing the heredity of physical abnormalities +or defects.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<span class="caption">HUMAN HEREDITY<br /><br /> +Table IV.</span> +<img src="images/tableiv.png" width="100%" alt="Table IV" title="Table IV" /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;"> +<img src="images/fig13.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 13." title="Fig. 13." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>—Family history showing brachydactylism. +Farabee's data. (From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div> + +<p>Fig. 13 illustrates a family history where +brachydactylism (an abnormality of the digits +commonly called shortfingeredness, due to the +lack of one joint in each digit) is present and +frequently associated with dwarfism. We may +describe this case rather fully because it illustrates +nicely the heredity of a trait according +to the Mendelian formula. The parentage +of the affected female (II, 1) who started this +line is uncertain. The marriage was with a +normal male whose parentage is unknown but +evidently normal. This pair produced 11 children, +the character of 8 of whom is known; 4 +were affected, 4 unaffected, a Mendelian ratio +resulting from the mating of a normal with a +hybrid individual, the observed character dominating +(i. e., the abnormality appearing in the +hybrid individuals). According to Mendelian +laws, the normal offspring of affected hybrids +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +when mated with normals should produce all +normal offspring; this result is shown clearly +through generations IV-VI, where no affected +individuals are produced by two normal parents, +although one or two of the grandparents were +affected. Marriage of a normal person with +one affected parent is fit because this individual +is wholly without germinal determiners for this +character. Marriage between a normal and an +affected person is unfit (or it would be if the +observed character were a serious defect) because +approximately one half their offspring +will be affected like the one parent. Thus in +IV, 7-21, we see 12 children from one such +marriage, 7 of whom are affected, 5 unaffected. +All of the 11 children of the 5 unaffected are +normal, while of the 16 children of the affected +persons, all of whom that married at all married +normal individuals, 9 were affected, 7 unaffected. +Similar relations are found in generation +VI, where the 9 affected persons in V +married normals, producing 33 children, 15 of +whom were affected, 18 unaffected. Taking +all the offspring of marriages between unaffected +and affected (hybrid) persons through +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +the four generations III-VI, we find 35 affected +and 33 unaffected, with the condition of +3 unknown. There is no instance in this pedigree +of the marriage of two affected persons, +but such a marriage would be highly unfit +(again in the case of a serious defect) because +we know that all their offspring would be affected. +Mating of two unaffected persons, +even though each had one affected parent, +would be fit because the offspring would all be +unaffected, barring the possibility of a new variation +or mutation to this character, which +would be extremely unlikely. Such a pedigree +as this illustrates very well how a knowledge of +Mendelian heredity may be of the greatest +value practically, in determining the fitness or +unfitness of marriages in families where an abnormality +or defect is known to occur. The +course of the inheritance here illustrates the +simplest form of Mendelism. We have already +indicated that there are many other forms +which we have not described and which we cannot +undertake to describe here on account of +their complexity; in such cases, however, it is +still possible to predict with fair accuracy the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +characters of the offspring of parents whose +history is known for one or two generations.</p> + +<p>The defect we have just been considering is +dominant. Many defects are recessive, i. e., +transmitted though not exhibited by a hybrid +individual. Viewed from the standpoint of the +character of the offspring, mating with such a +person would be unfit only when both persons +were similarly recessives. Such a chance similarity +would be likely only in cases of blood +relationship. Here lies the scientific basis for +many of the legal restrictions against cousin +marriage or the marriage of closer relatives, +for here, although both persons may appear +normal, the chances for latent ills appearing in +the progeny in a pure and permanently fixed +condition are greatly increased. Of course the +same relation holds for characteristics which +are not defects but really valuable traits. Marriage +of cousins possessing valuable characters, +whether apparent or not, might be allowed or +encouraged as a means of rendering permanent +a rare and valuable family trait which +might otherwise be much less likely to become +an established characteristic. Some discrimination +should be exercised in the control, legal +or otherwise, of such marriages.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<img src="images/fig14.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 14." title="Fig. 14." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>—Family history showing polydactylism. +(From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +Fig. 14 gives a brief pedigree of a family +in which polydactylism occurs. This is a condition +in which one or more additional or supernumerary +fingers or toes are present in the +extremities. The Mendelian character of the +heredity of this defect is less clear than in the +preceding, yet there are many indications that +this is really an illustration of a complex Mendelian +formula. Probably if the parentage of the +individuals marrying into this family were +known we should be able to give a complete +formula. At any rate the pedigree illustrates +the unfit character of the matings with affected +persons, for in no instance has such a marriage +resulted in the production of fewer than one +half affected offspring.</p> + +<p>Fig. 15 illustrates a form of what is known +as "split hand" or "lobster claw," where certain +digits may be absent in the hands and feet. +In this case all the digits are absent except the +fifth. This is frequently associated with syndactylism +or the fusion of the remaining digits +into one or two groups. When present this +usually affects all four extremities. Two pedigrees +of this defect are illustrated in Fig. +16. Here again we have a defect whose inheritance +follows quite closely the Mendelian formula, +although the character of the matings is +not fully known; it is unnecessary to describe +the details—the histories speak for themselves.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<img src="images/fig15.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>—Mother and two daughters showing "split hand." +(From Pearson.)</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +Fig. 17 illustrates a pedigree of congenital +cataract. This history is less satisfactory because +the matings are given in only three instances. +It is known from other data that this +defect follows simple Mendelian laws. Normal +individuals produce only normals, while +affected persons produce one half or all affected +offspring according to the character of +the mating.</p> + +<p>Fig. 18 illustrates the heredity of another defect +of the eye called night blindness. This is +a retinal defect, the affected being able to see +only in strong illumination. The particular +form of the disease in this family resulted in +total blindness later in life. Little is known +definitely concerning the character of the matings; +no mating is known to have been with an +affected person and some are known to have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +been with unaffected. Of the 42 descendants of +the first affected person only 6 are known to +have been unaffected. Can there be any doubt +regarding the unfitness of these matings? In +generation III a single mating led to a family +of 10 children <i>all</i> affected by this serious defect, +rendering them dependents.</p> + +<p>One of the most complete pedigrees of a defect +on record is given in condensed form in +Fig. 19. This summarizes the extraordinarily +complete data of Nettleship covering nine, and +in one branch ten, consecutive generations. +The defect is another form of night blindness +as it existed in a French family. The inheritance +is obviously Mendelian: no affected persons +are produced by unaffected parents, although +their own brothers or sisters or one +parent may have been affected. The pedigree +gives the history of 2,040 persons, all descended +from one affected individual. Of these 135 +were known to have been affected, and all were +children of affected parentage. Of the total +number of progeny of affected persons mated +with normals, 130 were reported as affected +and 242 as unaffected.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig16.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 16." title="Fig. 16." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>—Two family histories showing split foot. +(From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +We may consider next the hereditary history +of some forms of nervous defect, the exact +nature of the causes of which can be less +definitely stated than in all of the preceding +instances of defect. Fig. 20 gives a brief +history of the heredity of Huntington's chorea—a +form of insanity which here resulted in +the death of all but one of the affected persons +in the first four generations; the fifth +generation is the present and is incomplete. +Although the matings were with normals in +every case, yet in four of the eight marriages +all of the offspring were affected. From one +affected male 23 affected persons descended +in four generations and their multiplication +is still going on. There can be no doubt +as to the unfitness of marriage into such a +family.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig18.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>—Family history showing a form of night blindness. +Character of matings incompletely known. (Data from Bordley.)</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +A very complete family history showing deaf-mutism +is given in Fig. 21. It cannot be said +that in every case here the defect is innate, +i. e., hereditary, and it is not known that the +cause of the defect was the same in every family +concerned, for deaf-mutism may result from +several different causes. In most cases in this +history, however, the defect behaves like a +Mendelian dominant. In certain other cases +it is clearly known to follow the Mendelian formula. +Such pedigrees as this show how dangerous +it is to marry into a family in which this +defect exists.</p> + +<p>Goddard has recently published several family +histories showing feeble-mindedness. One +of the most significant of these—significant +both socially and eugenically—is summarized +here in Fig. 22. Of this Goddard writes: +"Here we have a feeble-minded woman [IV, 3] +who has had three husbands (including one +'who was not her husband'), and the result +has been nothing but feeble-minded children. +The story may be told as follows:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig19.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 19." title="Fig. 19." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>—Family history showing a form of night blindness. +(Condensed form of Nettleship's data.)</span></div> + +<p>"This woman was a handsome girl, apparently +having inherited some refinement from her +mother, although her father was a feeble-minded, +alcoholic brute. Somewhere about the +age of seventeen or eighteen she went out to do +housework in a family in one of the towns of +this State [New Jersey]. She soon became the +mother of an illegitimate child. It was born +in an almshouse to which she fled after she had +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +been discharged from the home where she had +been at work. After this, charitably disposed +people tried to do what they could for her, giving +her a home for herself and her child in +return for the work which she could do. However, +she soon appeared in the same condition. +An effort was then made to discover the father +of this second child, and when he was found to +be a drunken, feeble-minded epileptic living in +the neighborhood, in order to save the legitimacy +of the child, her friends [<i>sic</i>] saw to it +that a marriage ceremony took place. Later +another feeble-minded child was born to them. +Then the whole family secured a home with an +unmarried farmer in the neighborhood. They +lived there together until another child was +forthcoming which the husband refused to own. +When, finally, the farmer acknowledged this +child to be his, the same good friends [<i>sic</i>] interfered, +went into the courts and procured a +divorce from the husband, and had the woman +married to the father of the expected fourth +child. This proved to be feeble-minded, and +they have had four other feeble-minded children, +making eight in all, born of this woman. +There have also been one child stillborn and +one miscarriage.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig20.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 20." title="Fig. 20." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>—Family history showing Huntington's chorea. +Last generation incomplete. (Data from Hamilton.)</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> +"As will be seen from the chart, this woman +had four feeble-minded brothers and sisters +[IV, 6, 10, 15, 16]. These are all married and +have children. The older of the two sisters +had a child by her own father, when she was +thirteen years old. The child died at about +six years of age. This woman has since married. +The two brothers have each at least one +child of whose mental condition nothing is +known. The other sister married a feeble-minded +man and had three children. Two of +these are feeble-minded and the other died in +infancy. There were six other brothers and +sisters that died in infancy."</p> + +<p>The paternal ancestry of this unfortunate +woman is hardly less interesting, as may be +seen from the diagram. All told, this family +history, as far as it is known, includes 59 persons; +the mental character of 12 of these is unknown; +10 died in infancy or before their characteristics +were known; of the remaining 37, 30 were feeble-minded.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig21.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 21." title="Fig. 21." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>—Family history showing deaf-mutism. +(From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +Turning now to defects of other kinds, an +interesting history is illustrated in Fig. 23. Here +a single individual fatally affected with angio-neurotic +œdema gave rise, in four completed +generations, to 113 persons, 43 of whom were +affected. In 11 this disease was the direct +cause of death. The Mendelian character of +the heredity here can be neither asserted nor +denied. In generations II-V matings between +normal and affected gave 42 affected and 35 +unaffected offspring.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig22.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 22." title="Fig. 22." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span> Family history showing feeble-mindedness. Data from Goddard. <i>A</i>, alcoholic; <i>d.i.</i>, died in infancy; <i>E</i>, +epileptic; <i>ill.</i>, illegitimate; <i>in.</i>, incest; *, same individual as <i>III</i>, 6; <i>n.m.</i>, not married; <i>S</i>, sexual pervert; <i>T</i>, tuberculous.</span></p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig23.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 23." title="Fig. 23." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>—Family history showing angio-neurotic œdema. +(From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<img src="images/fig24.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 24." title="Fig. 24." /> +<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>—Family history showing tuberculosis. +(Data from Klebs, after Whetham in "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></p></div> + +<p>Fig. 24 gives a brief family history showing +pulmonary tuberculosis. In the history given +susceptibility to this disease behaves as a Mendelian +dominant. We cannot as yet say +whether this is or is not a general rule. In +describing the heredity of diseases primarily +due to infection, one or two important cautions +must be observed. Of course the source of the +infection cannot be "hereditary," and apparently +it is only in comparatively few instances +that infection occurs during fetal life. To +some infections certain persons are susceptible, +others are not; some when susceptible are capable +of developing immunity, others are not. +When an infection is of such character and +prevalence that practically all persons in approximately +similar environments of a given +character are infected, susceptibility or the +power of developing immunity will determine +whether or not an individual will exhibit the +disease caused by the infective agent. Practically +all persons living in the denser communities +are infected with tuberculosis; those who +are susceptible and incapable of developing immunity +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +succumb, the insusceptible and those +developing immunity do not. These conditions +are heritable; but in speaking of the heredity of +such a disease as tuberculosis it should be clear +that the heredity concerned is really that of susceptibility +and the power of developing immunity. +Yet the person who is really susceptible +can, by taking sufficient precaution, escape serious +infection, and thus the result for that person +would be the same as if he were insusceptible, +but his offspring would have to take +similar precautions if they were to escape the +disease.</p> + + +<p>We cannot speak of heredity in connection +with diseases to which all are susceptible and +incapable of developing immunity. The presence +or absence of such a disease is determined +solely by the presence or absence of infection. +Many physical and mental defects result from +infection as the primary cause. If the infection +is one to which all exposed are susceptible +and incapable of developing immunity we cannot +speak of the defect as in any way hereditary; +if the infection is one to which some are +susceptible, others not, to which some can develop +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +immunity, others cannot, then we may +speak of the defect as hereditary. Thus certain +forms of blindness or insanity are due primarily +to gonorrheal or syphilitic infection, insusceptibility +to which is rare or unknown. +Such defects cannot be considered as affording +evidence of heredity though they reappear in +successive generations.</p> + +<p>In general the subject of the heredity of immunity +and susceptibility forms one of the most +important eugenic aspects of this whole subject. +In a few cases it is known that immunity or insusceptibility +to specific forms of infection is a +unit character which follows Mendelian laws in +heredity. It can be added to races or subtracted +from them and pure bred immune races +built up. So far this has not been demonstrated +for man. There is some circumstantial +evidence that immunity to specific forms of infection +has been a great, although hitherto neglected, +factor in man's evolution, and even in +the history of his civilization and conquest. It +is at once obvious that here is a great field for +the common labor of the students of heredity +and of medicine and of Eugenics.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +Fig. 25 illustrates a family history of infertility. +This is apparently hereditary, but before +that could be asserted definitely to be so +here or in any similar case, we should know +that the infertility were not the result of an +infection to which immunity is rare or unknown. +That infertility is really hereditary in this instance +is indicated, first, by the fact that the person +marked A later, by a second marriage into +fertile stock, had a large family, and second, by +the fact that the individual B and his child by +marriage into fertile stocks produced in the last +generation again a large family and so saved +this whole family from extinction.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig25.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 25." title="Fig. 25." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>—Family history showing infertility. +(From Whetham.)</span></div> + +<p>Before leaving the subject of the heredity of +the kinds of traits we have been using as illustrations, +we should add just a word. It is +often objected that one cannot properly speak +of the heredity of such general things as "insanity" +or "deaf-mutism" or "blindness" or +"heart disease," because each of these includes +a great variety of specific forms of these disorders +which cannot strictly, medically, be compared. +But the student of heredity replies +that when he speaks of the heredity of insanity +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +or heart disease, that is often just what he +means. He means that often no particular +form of these defects is necessarily strictly +heritable as such, but that in a family there +may be a general instability of nervous system +or circulatory system, which may take any one +of several possible specific forms, the form actually +appearing depending upon particular +conditions which are frequently environmental +and beyond determination. In some cases specific +forms of disorder are actually heritable as +such.</p> + +<p>Such an inclusive thing as "ability" may depend +upon many different specific conditions. +Yet there are families in which persons of exceptional +ability are unusually frequent. The +fact that persons of ability are more frequent +in certain families than in the general population +of the same social class and with about the +same opportunity for the demonstration of inherent +ability, gives evidence of its heredity, +although we may not be able to summarize the +facts under any particular law but must adhere +to their statistical expression.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig26.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 26." title="Fig. 26." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>—Family history showing ability. +(From Whetham.)</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +Figs. 26 and 27 illustrate two such pedigrees +of ability. In each of these histories there is +also a line of "unsoundness" the descent of +which it is interesting to trace. It is instructive +to compare here the progeny of matings +of different kinds. In generation IV of +Fig. 26, the 9th and 10th persons are brother +and sister. The sister was of considerable ability +and married into a family of ability, producing +8 offspring, 5 of whom were able. The +brother was a "normal" person and married +a similar individual, producing 10 "normal" +children. It would be interesting to know the +details regarding these two large families of +cousins. Another interesting comparison is +found in this pedigree. The four able brothers +in generation III, coming from a stock of demonstrated +ability, married women of undemonstrated +ability and all told had 13 children (IV) +of whom only 3 showed ability and all of these +were in a single family. In this family of the +fourth brother two of the able members married +into able families, and among their 11 children +(second and fifth families in generation +V) 8 showed ability; the third able member of +this family, however, married as her uncles +had, a person not known as able, and none of +their 6 children showed unusual ability (sixth +family in generation V). Fig. 27 affords other +illustrations of this same kind. Thus in generation +III the 5th and 7th persons are able +cousins of able parentage. The former married +a normal and 1 of their 5 children showed +ability; the latter married a person of ability +and 5 of their 8 children showed ability. In +both pedigrees the "careers" of those in the +last generation are partly incomplete.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig27.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 27." title="Fig. 27." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>—Family history showing ability. +Paternal ancestry of family shown in Fig. 26. (From Whetham.)</span></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +In discussing pedigrees of ability it should +be borne in mind that the larger proportion of +able males as compared with females is hardly +significant for the study of heredity; it may +merely reflect the unfortunate fact that women +have not had the same opportunity to demonstrate +inherent ability as have men; or it may +evidence the still more unfortunate fact that +the distinguished achievements of able women +have not been socially recognized as such and +recorded as they have been for the other sex.</p> + +<p>Fig. 28 gives an interesting, though abbreviated, +pedigree of three very able and well-known +families. In this history only persons whose +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +ability is in science are marked as able. +Charles Darwin is the third individual in the +third generation. His cousin, Francis Galton, +the founder of Eugenics, is the next to the last +person in the same generation.</p> + +<p>Many similar cases of the unusual frequency +of individuals of musical or religious ability in +certain families have been published by Galton +and are well known. "As long as ability marries +ability, a large proportion of able offspring +is a certainty, and ability is a more valuable +heirloom in a family than mere material wealth, +which, moreover, will follow ability sooner or +later."</p> + +<p>We might contrast with such families as have +been recorded in the three preceding figures +some well-known families at the other pole of +society. As an interesting example we have the +family described by Poellmann. This was established +by two daughters of a woman drunkard +who in five or six generations produced all +told 834 descendants. The histories of 709 of +these are known. Of the 709, 107 were of illegitimate +birth; 64 were inmates of almshouses; +162 were professional beggars; 164 were prostitutes +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +and 17 procurers; 76 had served sentences +in prison aggregating 116 years; 7 were +condemned for murder. This family is still a +fertile one and the cost to the State, i. e., the +taxpayers, already a million and a quarter dollars, +is still increasing.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig28.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 28." title="Fig. 28." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>—History (condensed and incomplete) +of three markedly able families. (From Whetham.)</span></div> + +<p>One of the best known families of this type is +the so-called "Jukes" family of New York +State so carefully investigated by Dugdale. +This family is traced from the five daughters of +a lazy and irresponsible fisherman born in 1720. +In five generations this family numbered about +1,200 persons, including nearly 200 who married +into it. The histories of 540 of these are well +known and about 500 more are partly known. +This family history was easier to follow than +are some others because there was very little +marriage with the foreign-born—"a distinctively +American family." Of these 1,200 idle, +ignorant, lewd, vicious, pauper, diseased, imbecile, +insane, and criminal specimens of humanity, +about 300 died in infancy. Of the remaining +900, 310 were professional paupers in +almshouses a total of 2,300 years (at whose expense?); +440 were physically wrecked by their +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> +own diseased wickedness; more than half of the +women were prostitutes; 130 were convicted +criminals; 60 were habitual thieves; 7 were murderers. +Not one had even a common school education. +Only 20 learned a trade, and 10 of these +learned it in State prison! They have cost the +State over a million and a quarter dollars, and +the cost is still going on. Who pays this +bill? What right had an intelligent and humane +society to allow these poor unfortunates +to be born into the kind of lives they had to +lead, not by choice but by the disadvantage of +birth? Darwin wrote long ago "... except +in the case of man himself, hardly anyone +is so ignorant as to allow his worst animals +to breed."</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;"> +<img src="images/fig29.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 29." title="Fig. 29." /> +<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>—History of <i>Die Familie Zero</i>. +(Condensed from Jörger's data, partly after Davenport.)</span></div> + +<p>Probably the most complete family history of +this kind ever worked out is that of the "Familie +Zero"—a Swiss family whose pedigree has +been recently unraveled in a splendid manner +by Jörger. In the seventeenth century this family +divided into three lines; two of these have +ever since remained valued and highly respected +families, while the third has descended to the +depths. This third line was established by a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +man who was himself the result of two generations +of intermarriage, the second tainted with +insanity. He was of roving disposition, and in +the Valla Fontana found an Italian vagrant wife +of vicious character. Their son inherited fully +his parental traits and himself married a member +of a German vagabond family—Marcus, +known to this day as a vagabond family. This +marriage sealed the fate of their hundreds of +descendants. This pair had seven children, all +characterized by vagabondage, thievery, drunkenness, +mental and physical defect, and immorality. +Their history for the three succeeding +generations is incompletely summarized in +Fig. 29. In 1905, 190 members of this family +were known to be living, and probably many +living are unknown on account of illegitimate +birth.</p> + +<p>In 1861 a sympathetic and charitable priest +attempted to save from their obvious fate many +of these "Zero" children and others who resided +in and near his village, by placing them +in industrious and respectable families to be +reared under more favorable auspices. The +attempt failed utterly, for every one of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +"Zero" children either ran away or was enticed +away by his relatives.</p> + +<p>The blame for such an atrocity as this family +or the Jukes does not rest with these persons +themselves; it must be placed squarely +upon the shoulders and consciences of the intelligent +members of society who have permitted +these predetermined degenerates to be brought +into the world, and who are to-day taking no +broadly sympathetic view of their treatment by +exercising preventive measures. <i>Laissez faire?</i></p> + +<p>At the risk of easing the conscience, let us +finally return to the other side of society and +look at a summarized statement of the Edwards +Family given by Boies and drawn from Winship's +account of the descendants of Jonathan +Edwards. "1,394 of his descendants were identified +in 1900, of whom 295 were college graduates; +13 presidents of our greatest colleges; 65 +professors in colleges, besides many principals +of other important educational institutions; 60 +physicians, many of whom were eminent; 100 +and more clergymen, missionaries, or theological +professors; 75 were officers in the army and +navy; 60 prominent authors and writers, by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +whom 135 books of merit were written and published +and 18 important periodicals edited; 33 +American States and several foreign countries, +and 92 American cities and many foreign cities, +have profited by the beneficent influence of +their eminent activity; 100 and more were lawyers, +of whom one was our most eminent professor +of law; 30 were judges; 80 held public +office, of whom one was Vice President of the +United States; 3 were United States Senators; +several were governors, members of Congress, +framers of State constitutions, mayors of cities, +and ministers to foreign courts; one was president +of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; +15 railroads, many banks, insurance companies, +and large industrial enterprises have been indebted +to their management. Almost if not +every department of social progress and of the +public weal has felt the impulse of this healthy +and long-lived family. It is not known that any +one of them was ever convicted of crime."</p> + +<p>The serious consideration of bodies of facts +like those contained in some of these pedigrees +leads every thoughtful and sympathetic, every +humanely minded, human being to ask—What +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +<i>can</i> we <i>do</i> about it? The display of such conditions +stimulates us to measures of relief. It is +greatly to be regretted that the honest desire to +do good often leads to the performance of ill-considered +or unconsidered acts which may +result in positive injury to the constitution of +society, or at any rate at best merely in the amelioration +of the immediate situation without reference +to ultimate profit or penalty, or to the +necessity for interminable amelioration. Such +relief leaves out of account the fact that modifications +are not heritable—not permanent, practically +without effect in the long run. "Good +intentions" have a certain well-known value as +paving material, but not as building material.</p> + +<p>The science of Eugenics includes not only the +study of the data in this field, but further the +formulation of definite courses of procedure; +but it insists that these be based upon scientific +principles and not upon emotional states. Philanthropic +relief has become a serious business—is +becoming a science. Eugenics is a science +and it aims to put the human race upon such a +level that the need for philanthropic relief will +be less and continually less. We shall then be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +able to devote more of the resources of our time +and money and energy to the production of permanent +results. The Eugenist pleads in this +work for more sympathetic consideration of the +problems of relief—for a sympathy which is +wider, which transcends the individual person +and reaches the social group, even the nation +or race. For just as a society is something +more than the sum of its individual parts when +taken separately, so the consideration of all the +component individuals of a society taken separately +and by themselves, results in something +less than social consideration. Again "Charity +refers to the individual; Statesmanship to the +nation; Eugenics cares for both."</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>What, then, does the Eugenist propose to do? +What is the eugenic program? Eugenics is +not an academic matter—not an armchair science. +It is intensely practical—so very practical, +indeed, that the Eugenist hesitates to +make many suggestions of a definite nature looking +directly and immediately toward specific action. +Something must precede action. The +Eugenist has been ridiculed as one responsible +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +for the absurd schemes proposed in his name, +perhaps seriously, by the unscientific but well-intentioned +sympathizer. Many persons have +been led to object to what they believed to be a +eugenic program which is not a eugenic program +at all. Thus the willingness of some to +offer adverse criticism of the subject and its +aims has grown largely out of a common misconception +of the matter and has led Galton to +say, "As in most other cases of novel views, the +wrongheadedness of objectors to Eugenics has +been curious." As a scientist the Eugenist +realizes clearly and fully that his new science +is in a very early stage of its development. It +is just entering upon what are the first stages +in the history of any science, namely, the periods +of the formulation of elementary ideas and +the collection of facts. There are certain groups +of facts, however, of glaring significance and +undoubted meaning, and upon these as a basis +the Eugenist already has a few, a very few, concrete +suggestions for eugenic practice. In conclusion, +then, we may outline tentatively and +briefly a conservative eugenic program somewhat +as follows:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +First of all there must be an extensive collection +of exact data—of the facts regarding all +the varied aspects of racial history and evolution. +These facts must be collected with great +care and under the strictest scientific conditions. +In this matter particularly must we "desert +verbal discussion for statistical facts." +Figures can't lie, but liars can figure. What +we need first of all is the accumulation of masses +of cold, hard facts, uncolored by any point of +view, untinged by any propaganda: facts regarding +the net fertility of all classes; facts +regarding the racial effects of all sorts of environmental +and occupational conditions; facts +regarding variability and variation in the race; +facts regarding human heredity of normal and +pathological conditions, of physical and psychical +traits. We have merely scratched the surface +of the great masses of such data to be had +for the looking. As Davenport has recently put +it in his valuable essay on "Eugenics"—</p> + +<p>"While the acquisition of new data is desirable, +much can be done by studying the extant +records of institutions. The amount of such +data is enormous. They lie hidden in records of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +our numerous charity organizations, our 42 institutions +for the feeble-minded, our 115 schools +and homes for the deaf and blind, our 350 hospitals +for the insane, our 1,200 refuge homes, our +1,300 prisons, our 1,500 hospitals and our 2,500 +almshouses. Our great insurance companies +and our college gymnasiums have tens of thousands +of records of the characters of human +blood lines. These records should be studied, +their hereditary data sifted out and ... placed +in their proper relations" that we may learn of +"the great strains of human protoplasm that +are coursing through the country." Thus shall +we learn "not only the method of heredity of +human characteristics but we shall identify +those lines which supply our families of great +men: ... We shall also learn whence come our +300,000 insane and feeble-minded, our 160,000 +blind or deaf, the 2,000,000 that are annually +cared for by our hospitals and Homes, our +80,000 prisoners and the thousands of criminals +that are not in prison, and our 100,000 paupers +in almshouses and out.</p> + +<p>"This three or four per cent of our population +is a fearful drag on our civilization. Shall +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +we as an intelligent people, proud of our control +of nature in other respects, do nothing but vote +more taxes or be satisfied with the great gifts +and bequests that philanthropists have made +for the support of the delinquent, defective, and +dependent classes? Shall we not rather take +the steps that scientific study dictates as necessary +to dry up the springs that feed the torrent +of defective and degenerate protoplasm?</p> + +<p>"Greater tasks than those contemplated in +the broadest scheme of the Eugenics committee +have been carried out in this country. If only +one half of one per cent of the 30 million dollars +annually spent on hospitals, 20 millions on +insane asylums, 20 millions for almshouses, 13 +millions on prisons, and 5 millions on the feeble-minded, +deaf and blind were spent on the study +of the bad germ plasm that makes necessary +the annual expenditure of nearly 100 millions +in the care of its produce we might hope to +learn just how it is being reproduced and the +best way to diminish its further spread. A <i>new</i> +plague that rendered four per cent of our population, +chiefly at the most productive age, not +only incompetent, but a burden costing 100 million +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +dollars yearly to support, would instantly +attract universal attention, and millions would +be forthcoming for its study as they have been +for the study of cancer. But we have become +so used to crime, disease and degeneracy that +we take them as necessary evils. That they +were, in the world's ignorance, is granted. +That they must remain so, is denied."</p> + +<p>Of course one should not jump from this to +the conclusion that the fact of heredity is responsible +for all of this defect. Disease is so +often the result of infections to which none is +immune, and defect is frequently the result of +such disease. Warbasse has recently stated +that "At least one fourth of our public institutions +for caring for defectives is made necessary +by venereal disease." Doubtless an appreciable +share of this fourth is the result of hereditary +tendencies, the expression of which gives the +opportunity for such infection. Here as elsewhere +no single factor accounts for all of the +facts, although when, as the result of the increase +of knowledge, we shall become able to +make more definite statements, we no doubt shall +find that heredity is the most important single +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +factor in the disgraceful prevalence of crime, +disease, and defect in our communities: indeed +this is practically demonstrated to-day. These +are questions of the most fundamental importance +in our national life-history: our only +"hope of perpetuity" lies in the right solution +of such problems. And the crying need is for +facts, always more facts.</p> + +<p>The Galton Laboratory for Eugenics is already +doing much in this direction and is publishing +in the "Treasury of Human Inheritance" +scores of human pedigrees. An agency +is already in operation in this country. The +American Breeders Association has appointed +a Committee and Sub-Committees under highly +competent leaders for the collection of exact +data of human heredity upon a large scale. +There is opportunity for everyone to help in +this work in connection with the Eugenics Record +Office already referred to.</p> + +<p>The second great element in the eugenic +program is Research. It is not enough to collect +the known facts; new facts must be forthcoming. +We cannot, perhaps, undertake definite +experiments upon human evolution, but we +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +can and must take advantage of the wealth of +experiment which Nature is carrying out +around us and before our eyes could we but +learn to read her results. We need to know +more about the process of differential fertility, +of human variability, of the effects of Nurture +as well as of the conditions of Nature.</p> + +<p>We do know pretty well the effects, upon the +individual, of training, education, good and ill +housing conditions and conditions of labor, of +disease, alcoholism, underfeeding. We need +now to know, not to guess at, the effects of these +things upon the race, upon human stock. A +mere beginning has been made here in the way +of a scientific treatment of this question, although +many persons have their minds already +made up, firmly and fully, as to the "effects of +the environment." But all that we have guessed +here may be wrong.</p> + +<p>The discussion of this subject is filled with +pitfalls. The common form of the query as to +which is of the greater importance, "heredity +or environment," in determining individual +characteristics betrays a completely erroneous +view of what heredity is, and of the organism's +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +relation to its environment. The living organism +reacts to its environment at every stage of +its existence, whether as an egg, an embryo, or +an adult. In this reaction both factors are essential, +the environment as essential as the organism. +The result of this continued reaction +is the development on the part of the organism +of certain physiological processes and structural +conditions or characteristics. The nature +of these resulting states, depending upon the +two factors—organism and environment—can be +changed by altering either factor. In general, +organisms develop under pretty much the same +conditions as their parents and general ancestry +did, and their germinal substances are directly +continuous, and therefore very similar. Consequently, +primary organic structure and environing +conditions of development being alike +through successive generations, the results of +their interaction are alike. This alikeness is +heredity—the fact of similarity between parent +and offspring. The usually indefinite question +as to the effect of the environment ordinarily +has a real meaning however, and this is, or +should be, whether the alteration of particular +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +elements of the environment, the presence of +special, unusual factors which cannot be said to +be "normally" present—whether these produce +any effect upon the organism which is truly +heritable.</p> + +<p>This is in reality the old question of the "inheritance +of acquired characteristics," or, in a +word, of modifications—a question which has +been debated heatedly and at length. And as +in many similar instances the number of essays +and the length and heat of the debate have been +inversely as the number and clearness of the +pertinent facts. The large majority of biologists +have long felt that the great bulk of the +evidence was on one side, namely, that acquired +traits were not heritable. At the same time they +have recognized the difficulty of explaining certain +apparently demonstrated contradictory +facts. Some recent experimental work has +largely cleared away the theoretical difficulties +in this field, and the present status of the old and +really fundamental question may be stated as +follows: External conditions—climate, temperature, +moisture, nutritional conditions, results +of unusual activity, and the like—incidences of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +the environment, undoubtedly produce effects +upon the structure and behavior of the organism, +but these effects must be clearly grouped +into two distinct classes.</p> + +<p>In the first place the effect of "external" conditions +may be to bring about a reaction between +the <i>bodily</i> parts affected and the environing +conditions. Here the body alone is modified +and not the germinal substance for the next +generation within this body. Such responses to +environing conditions do not affect nor involve +the structure of the germ, and are therefore unrepresented +in that series of reactions that result +in the production of an individual of the +next generation. In this class are found most +of the instances of "functional modification" +or acquired characteristics. In this category +belong most of the stock illustrations—from +the blacksmith's arm and the pianist's fingers, +to the giraffe's neck and the fox's cunning. +Here also belong the results of training and +education; we can train and educate brain cells +but not germ cells.</p> + +<p>It is characteristic of most of these bodily +reactions to external conditions that they are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +adaptive; that is, when a body reacts to such +a condition it does so by undergoing a change +which makes the organism better fitted to the +new condition—better able to exist. The increased +keenness of vision, the strengthened +muscle, the thickened fur—all such changes +meet new or unusual demands in such a way +that the organism has better chances of survival +than it would have had unmodified.</p> + +<p>But in the second place there are certain environmental +circumstances which do affect the +structure of the germinal substance within the +body of an organism. An unusually high temperature +acting at a certain period in the life-history +may bring about a change in the color +of insects which is heritable—i. e., racial; but +such a change results from the action of temperature +upon the germ directly and not alone +upon the body, which then itself affects the +germ. It is essential to recognize that in all +such cases it is not the structural change in the +body that affects the germ, but it is the external +condition itself that affects the germ directly. +This is not the half of a hair; it is an extremely +important and significant difference. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +The effects of this kind of action are not visible +until the generation following that acted upon. +They become expressed in the bodies of the organisms +developed from the affected germs.</p> + +<p>It is characteristic of such changes as these +that they may not, usually do not, have an adaptive +relation to the condition bringing about the +change. There is no correspondence between +the bodily and the germinal modifications resulting +from the action of the same condition. +Furthermore, there seems to be no adaptive +relation between the general character of the +germinal disturbance and the environmental +disturbance. Rarely some of the organismal +characters resulting from such germinal modification +may be in the direction of greater +adaptedness; usually they are neutral or in the +direction of utter unfitness.</p> + +<p>But such effects are heritable, whatever their +nature with respect to adaptedness, and it becomes +therefore very important to find out what +are the conditions that may thus disturb the normal +structure of the germ. Little more than a +beginning has been made here and practically +nothing can be said definitely with reference to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +the human organism in this respect. Enough +is known, however, to make it clear that it is +only rarely indeed that external conditions can +thus affect the germinal structure. In most +cases the effects of the incidence of environment +are purely bodily. A most fruitful field for +eugenic investigation is open here.</p> + +<p>One of the first problems to be attacked from +this point of view is that of the racial (i. e., heritable) +effects of such poisons as alcohol. It is +frequently said, for instance, that some of the +effects of alcoholism are the weakened, epileptic, +or feeble-minded conditions of the offspring, +who are also particularly liable to disease and +infection. It can hardly be said that this is as +yet thoroughly demonstrated. On account of +the importance of this question we might call +specific attention to some recent investigations +of the problem of the racial influence of alcohol. +The effects of alcohol upon the individual are +fairly well known, although still a matter for +debate in some quarters. But this is not as important +eugenically as the possible effect upon +the offspring of the use and abuse of alcohol by +the parents. An investigation has been carried +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +on recently through the Galton Laboratory for +National Eugenics directed toward ascertaining +the precise relation between alcoholism in parents +and the height, weight, general health, and +intelligence of their children. It was found to +be perfectly true that alcoholism and tuberculosis +show a high degree of association; but considering +the nondrinking members of the same +community just the same high frequency of tuberculosis +was found. And the presence of alcoholism +among parents was found to be practically +without effect upon the height and weight +of their offspring. "These results are certainly +startling and rather upset one's preconceived +ideas, but it is perhaps a consolation that to the +obvious and visible miseries of the children +arising from drink, lowered intelligence and +physique are not added."</p> + +<p>The difficulties surrounding investigation and +the interpretation of the results of investigation +in this particular field are evidenced by the fact +that these results have been adversely criticised, +on the one hand, because "alcoholism" +was taken to mean the continued moderate use +of alcohol, and on the other because "alcoholism" +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +was taken to mean only the occasional excessive +abuse of alcohol. Much of the confusion +surrounding the discussion of the racial effects +of alcohol grows out of the underlying confusion +of statistical and individual statements. It may +be left open, then, whether this result from the +Galton Laboratory is clearly demonstrated and +whether the basis of investigation was sufficiently +broad to make the facts of general applicability.</p> + +<p>The frequent association between alcoholism +and certain forms of insanity is sometimes +taken as evidence of a racial effect. Here again +we find the question really left open when we +appeal to facts taken in large numbers. In a +few cases it seems to have been demonstrated +that saturation of the bodily tissues with alcohol +affects directly the structure of the germ cells +formed at that time, and that this effect is seen +in physical and mental disturbances of the offspring +derived from such germ cells, and thus +becomes hereditary or racial. But these results, +like those mentioned above, need confirmation. +The impairment of the child <i>in utero</i> +through maternal overindulgence in alcohol +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> +would not necessarily denote any corresponding +germinal (i. e., racial) effect.</p> + +<p>It is often the case that alcoholic excess, like +other forms of excess, may be an indication of +a lack of complete mental balance or sanity, sure +to have become expressed in some form. The +lack of balance in the offspring of such persons +is a simple case of heredity and not the result +of the parental use of alcohol. The alcoholism +of the parent was a result, an indication, and +not a cause. There may be instances of the +direct action of external conditions upon the +germ, and in a very true sense the body is a +part of the external environment of the germ, +but to say that such an action has been demonstrated +for alcohol is premature. It should be +easily possible to get real evidence upon this +and similar questions. But at present it is +safest to leave the whole question of the racial +effects of alcohol entirely open pending more +and better evidence.</p> + +<p>To summarize, then, we may say that the evidence +for an inherited effect of the misuse of +alcohol is not as clear as one might wish; it +may be true. There is the greatest need for +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> +the careful scientific investigation of this and +allied problems. Much of the evidence here is +not of the kind that can be used to prove things—it +consists largely of the demonstration of the +fact of association rather than of causation. In +order to show that a changed environment has +produced a change in the innate characters of +the organisms affected it must be demonstrated +that the organismal change continues to be inherited +after the environment has again become +what it was originally, and as yet this has not +been done. Indeed when tested in this way it is +found that a permanently heritable alteration +can thus be produced only rarely and by environmental +changes of the most profound character.</p> + +<p>Research in another direction is greatly +needed. We should examine and reëxamine current +as well as proposed social practices and +reforms from the racial point of view. We +should know before going much farther whether +the extensive social improvements that are annually +effected are to any considerable degree +racially permanent. We should investigate not +only the racial effects of the unfavorable social +conditions themselves, but also the racial effects +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> +of the measures directed toward the relief of +such conditions. It is conceivable that measures +of relief may be practically without permanent +effect or even racially detrimental. It +would seem that the social worker and philanthropist +should welcome any biologically fundamental +truths touching these questions, and +yet it is curiously true that there are some such +persons who seem to prefer not to know the +whole truth here, perhaps because they fear it +may disclose the unwelcome fact that much of +their effort has resulted in amelioration rather +than in correction. It should be remembered +that simple relief is well worth while, even +though often without resulting racial benefit. +When it is not actually detrimental racially, relief +is an economic, social, and moral duty. The +Eugenist, by disclosing the fact that racial +effects can actually be accomplished, enlarges +rather than diminishes the opportunities for relief +and his knowledge should be welcomed and +use made of it.</p> + +<p>Heretofore the social point of view has been +practically the only point of view in much of +this work, and the result is that usually following +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> +when action is based upon half-truth. David +Starr Jordan says: "Charity creates the misery +she tries to relieve; she never relieves half +the misery she creates," and he goes on to say +that <i>unwise</i> charity is responsible for half the +pauperism of the world; that it is the duty of +charity to remove the <i>causes</i> of weakness and +suffering and equally to see that weakness and +suffering are not needlessly perpetuated. In +this connection the following quotation from +Elderton is apt: "... the influence of the parental +environmental factor on the welfare of +children is ... at present and has been in the +past the chief direction of legislative and philanthropic +attack on social evils. Degeneracy of +every form has been attributed to poverty, bad +housing, unhealthy trades, drinking, industrial +occupation of women, and other direct or indirect +environmental influences on offspring. If +we could by education, by legislation, or by social +effort change the environmental conditions, +would the race at once rise to a markedly higher +standard of physique and mentality? Much, if +not the whole battle for social reform, has been +based on the assumption that this question was +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +obviously to be answered in the affirmative. No +direct investigation has really ever been made +of the intensity of the influence of environment +on man. To modify the obviously repellent was +the immediate instinct of the more gently nurtured +and controlling social class. Was this direction +of social reform really capable of effecting +any substantial change? Nay, by lessening +the selective death rate, may it not have contributed +to emphasizing the very evils it was intended +to lessen? These are the problems which +occur to the eugenist and call for investigation +and, if possible, settlement.... It is conceivable +that the relation between children's physique, +for example, and parental occupation is an indirect +result of the inheritance of physique and a +correlation between parents' physique and their +occupation. In other words, what we are attributing +to environment may be a secondary influence +of heredity itself. A weakling may have no +option but to follow an unhealthy trade, a man +is a tailor or shoemaker, because he has not the +physique for smith or navvy. His offspring +may be physically inferior because he is a weakling +and not because he follows an unhealthy +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +trade. Clearly, to solve our problem, we must +know if there be any correlation between the +same character in the parent as we are observing +in the child and the environment we are +correlating with the child's character. Unfortunately +data enabling us to determine the relationship +of any mental or physical character of +the parent with the environment which is supposed +to influence the child is rarely forthcoming."</p> + +<p>Just to suggest one further train of thought, +we might point out that several movements apparently +of high social value have been attended +by a curious and largely unforeseen back action. +Thus the enforcement of certain forms +of Employer's Liability laws has led to discrimination +against married persons by large +employers of labor and a premium thus put upon +nonmarriage. The result of Child Labor legislation +has been in some cases an enormous +rise in the death rate of young children among +the classes concerned, indicating that the children +receive less care, now that they have ceased +to be a prospective family asset and have become +chiefly a burden for many years. In other +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +cases the result has been so serious a limitation +in the birth rate that communities are dying +out and factories are closing for want of sufficient +help. Such problems are not only social +but economic and eugenic, and they cannot be +seen squarely from any single point of view. It +is doubtless shocking to the cultured mind that +the chief reason for bringing children into the +world should be their economic value as contributors +to the family income. But in reality does +this point of view differ fundamentally from +that very commonly taken of the value of a large +family except in the nature of the standard by +which their value is measured? May there not +be a difference of opinion as to whether children +are better or worse off when brought up with +some degree of care to be employed under humane +conditions of labor, than when left uncared +for to die in large proportions of disease +and neglect?</p> + +<p>Finally, studies in heredity, whether on man +or on other animals or on plants, are sure to be +of value here because we know that the fundamental +processes of heredity are the same in all +organisms. Above all, the Eugenist needs to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +know more of Mendelian heredity in man. The +facts of heredity stated in the statistical form +of averages and coefficients do not affect the man +in the street materially—he rather enjoys taking +chances. An extensive eugenic practice can +be established only when we can say definitely +what the individual or family inheritance will +be in a given instance—not what it will be with +such and such a degree of probability, although +that probability be high. We may not be such a +long way off from this ideal, which is an essential +for the inauguration of eugenic practice +upon a large scale. For the Eugenist this is the +richest field for investigation and one which is +certain to yield large results.</p> + +<p>The Eugenist's demand for more facts will +doubtless become an important factor in the +progress of biological science. The practical +application of the knowledge of heredity in +the production of domesticated or cultivated varieties +of animals and plants is becoming annually +more extensive; and with the recognition of +the possibility of the application of this knowledge +to the control of the evolution of man himself, +will come a rapid increase in biological +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +knowledge and in the earnestness of the student +of heredity. And at the same time another result +may be that the science of biology shall +come to be appraised publicly more nearly at its +real value. The biological worker knows that +his science comes into contact with human life +at every point, that a knowledge of the fundamental +principles of the science of life cannot +fail to enrich, enlighten, and ennoble the life of +every human being. But the community does +not yet realize this, to its own great loss. Is it +not possible that the Eugenist, finding his fundamentals +in biology, by emphasizing the facts +of the possibility and the necessity of controlling +human evolution, may be able to bring to +society a vital sense of the importance of this +science with a directness and a vividness which +the bacteriologist and hygienist have not been +able thus far to realize? Is it even too much to +hope that the idea that the "humanities" include +only the study of man's comparatively recent +past, may now more rapidly give place to +a broader conception which shall include not +only the whole of man's past, but the study of +his future as well? Could any ideal be more +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +vitally, more profoundly human or more worthy +of study and devotion, than this of the production +of a race of men, clean and sound in mind +and body? Be that as it may, the development +of this bio-social field can scarcely fail to stimulate +strongly the treatment of all social problems +with a strictly scientific method. Nothing +less than exact methods, and results exactly +stated, will satisfy the genuine and really valuable +social student of the near future. As one +recent writer has feelingly put it: "We have +had essays enough."</p> + +<p>Eugenic practice for the immediate future is +the third part of our program. Must we wait +until more data are collected, more facts uncovered, +before we undertake any definite proposals +for eugenic procedure? Although this is the +most difficult aspect of the subject, largely +through lack of a sufficiently broad fact-basis, +yet we are certainly in possession of enough information +to make plain a few necessary steps. +Most of the concrete proposals directed toward +the reduction of the undesirables and the increase +of the desirables have been visionary, +impractical, or too limited in their view-point. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> +Above all, they have been open to the objection +that they have gone too far in the direction of +that zone which separates the two classes. It +should be said again that most of these proposals +have been those of the amateur enthusiast, +not of the seriously scientific Eugenist; they +have grown out of that common habit of "getting +far from the facts and philosophizing about +them."</p> + +<p>As Pearson points out, we must start from +three fundamental biological ideas. First, +"That the relative weight of nature and nurture +must not <i>a priori</i> be assumed but must be scientifically +measured; and thus far our experience +is that nature dominates nurture, and that inheritance +is more vital than environment." Second, +"That there exists no demonstrable inheritance +of acquired characters. Environment +modifies the bodily characters of the existing +generation, but does not [often] modify the +germ plasms from which the next generation +springs. At most, environment can provide a +selection of which germ plasms among the many +provided shall be potential and which shall remain +latent." Third, "That all human qualities +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span> +are inherited in a marked and probably +equal degree." "If these ideas represent the +substantial truth, you will see how the whole +function of the eugenist is theoretically simplified. +He cannot hope by nurture and by education +to create new germinal types. He can only +hope by selective environment to obtain the +types most conducive to racial welfare and to +national progress. If we see this point clearly +and grasp it to the full, what a flood of light it +sheds on half the schemes for the amelioration +of the people.... The widely prevalent notion +that bettered environment and improved education +mean a <i>progressive</i> evolution of humanity +is found to be without any satisfactory scientific +basis. Improved conditions of life mean better +health for the existing population; greater educational +facilities mean greater capacity for +finding and using existing ability; they do not +connote that the next generation will be either +physically or mentally better than its parents. +Selection of parentage is the sole effective process +known to science by which a race can continuously +progress. The rise and fall of nations +are in truth summed up in the maintenance or +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +cessation of that process of selection. Where +the battle is to the capable and thrifty, where +the dull and idle have no chance to propagate +their kind, there the nation will progress, even +if the land be sterile, the environment unfriendly +and educational facilities small."</p> + +<p>As a concrete example of a most commendable +eugenic practice we should mention the +sterilization of certain classes of criminal and +insane as it is now practiced in the States of +Indiana and Connecticut. For the last four +years (since March, 1907) the laws of Indiana +have permitted the performance of the operation +of vasectomy upon "confirmed criminals, +idiots, rapists, and imbeciles" after rigid scrutiny +of all the mental and physical conditions of +the individual case and upon the concurrent +judgment of three competent and impartial persons. +The title and significant parts of the text +of this law are as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>An Act</i>, entitled, An Act to prevent procreation of confirmed +criminals, idiots, imbeciles, and rapists—providing +that superintendents, or boards of managers, of institutions +where such persons are confined shall have the authority, +and are empowered to appoint a committee of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +experts, consisting of two physicians, to examine into the +mental condition of such inmates.</p> + +<p><i>Whereas</i>, Heredity plays a most important part in the +transmission of crime, idiocy, and imbecility;</p> + +<p><i>Therefore</i>, Be it enacted by the General Assembly of +the State of Indiana, That on and after the passage of +this act it shall be compulsory for each and every institution +in the State, entrusted with the care of confirmed +criminals, idiots, rapists, and imbeciles, to appoint upon +its staff, in addition to the regular institutional physician, +two (2) skilled surgeons of recognized ability, whose +duty it shall be, in conjunction with the chief physician +of the institution, to examine the mental and physical +condition of such inmates as are recommended by the institutional +physician and board of managers. If, in the +judgment of this committee of experts and the board of +managers, procreation is inadvisable, and there is no probability +of improvement of the mental and physical condition +of the inmate, it shall be lawful for the surgeons +to perform such operation for the prevention of procreation +as shall be decided safest and most effective. But +this operation shall not be performed except in cases that +have been pronounced unimprovable: Provided, That in +no case shall the consultation fee be more than three (3) +dollars to each expert, to be paid out of the funds appropriated +for the maintenance of such institution.</p></div> + +<p>This operation of vasectomy, sometimes +known as "Rentoul's operation," consists, in the +male, in the removal of a small portion of each +sperm duct; the individual is thus rendered +sterile in a completely effective and permanent +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> +way. At the same time there are none of the +harmful effects, either physical or mental, such +as usually follow the better known forms of +sterilization which are in reality asexualization +rather than sterilization. Vasectomy is a simple +"office" operation occupying only a few +minutes and requiring at the most the application +of only a local anæsthetic, such as cocaine; +and there are no disturbing nor even inconvenient +after effects. In the female the corresponding +operation of oöphorotomy consists in +removing a small portion of each Fallopian +tube. In Indiana nearly a thousand persons +have already been successfully treated, many +upon their own request—a circumstance entirely +unforeseen. Similar laws have been +passed in Oregon and Connecticut, and are +being carefully considered in several other +States.</p> + +<p>In order that the exact nature of such proposals +may be better known generally we may +give here also the text of the Connecticut law +which is somewhat more inclusive and more flexible +than that of Indiana. The Connecticut +Statute, enacted in August, 1909, is as follows:</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p><i>An Act</i>, concerning operations for the Prevention of +Procreation.—Be it enacted by the Senate and House of +Representatives in General Assembly convened:</p> + +<p><i>Section 1.</i> The directors of the State prison and the +superintendents of State hospitals for the insane at Middletown +and Norwich are hereby authorized and directed +to appoint for each of said institutions, respectively, two +skilled surgeons, who, in conjunction with the physician +or surgeon in charge at each of said institutions, shall +examine such persons as are reported to them by the +warden, superintendent, or the physician or surgeon in +charge, to be persons by whom procreation would be inadvisable.</p> + +<p>Such board shall examine the physical and mental condition +of such persons, and their record and family history +so far as the same can be ascertained, and if in the +judgment of the majority of said board, procreation by +any such person would produce children with an inherited +tendency to crime, insanity, feeble-mindedness, idiocy, or +imbecility, and there is no probability that the condition +of any such person so examined will improve to such an +extent as to render procreation by such person advisable, +or, if the physical and mental condition of any such person +will be substantially improved thereby, then the said +board shall appoint one of its members to perform the +operation of vasectomy or oöphorectomy, as the case may +be, upon such person. Such operation shall be performed +in a safe and humane manner, and the board making such +examination, and the surgeon performing such operation, +shall receive from the State such compensation, for services +rendered, as the warden of the State prison or the +superintendent of either of such hospitals shall deem +reasonable.</p> + +<p><i>Section 2.</i> Except as authorized by this Act, every person +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +who shall perform, encourage, assist in, or otherwise +promote the performance of either of the operations described +in Section 1 of this Act, for the purpose of +destroying the power to procreate the human species; or +any person who shall knowingly permit either of such +operations to be performed upon such person—unless the +same be a medical necessity—shall be fined not more than +one thousand dollars, or imprisoned in the State prison +not more than five years, or both.</p></div> + +<p>These States are to be commended in the highest +possible terms for their enlightened action in +this direction. Who can say how many families +of Jukes and Zeros have already been inhibited +by this simple and humane means? "Could +such a law be enforced in the whole United +States, less than four generations would eliminate +nine tenths of the crime, insanity and sickness +of the present generation in our land. +Asylums, prisons and hospitals would decrease, +and the problems of the unemployed, the indigent +old, and the hopelessly degenerate would +cease to trouble civilization."</p> + +<p>And yet probably for years to come those +mental states and conditions of servitude graciously +termed "conservatism" will continue to +insure an undiminished horde of these unfortunates. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +The situation here is interestingly analogous +to that in connection with certain of the +infectious diseases. Concerning the eradication +of typhoid fever, to mention a single concrete +example, competent authorities declare +that we now possess all of the information +necessary to make typhoid fever as obsolete in +civilized communities as is cholera or smallpox. +"The average third-year medical student knows +enough about typhoid fever to be able to stamp +it out if he were endowed with absolute power." +"Typhoid fever has passed beyond the catalogue +of diseases; it is a crime." Our knowledge +of the causes of many of the conditions +leading to gross physical and mental defect and +criminality has progressed already to such a +point that we could if we would eradicate them +in large proportion from our civilization. The +great horde of defectives, once in the world, +have the right to live and to enjoy as best they +may whatever freedom is compatible with the +lives and freedom of the other members of society. +They have not the right to produce and +reproduce more of their kind for a too generous +and too blindly "charitable" society to contend +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> +against. The greater crime consists in allowing +the hereditary criminal to be born.</p> + +<p>A well-known British alienist, Tredgold, +after pointing out that the duty of medical science +is to fight and relieve disease in every shape +and form, adds: "That if social science does +not keep pace with medical science in this matter +the end will be national disaster. In other +words, I would lay it down as a general principle +that as soon as a nation reaches that stage +of civilization in which medical knowledge and +humanitarian sentiment operate to prolong the +existence of the unfit, then it becomes imperative +upon that nation to devise such social laws +as will insure that these unfit do not propagate +their kind.</p> + +<p>"For, mark you, it is not as if these degenerates +mated solely amongst themselves. Were +that so, it is possible that, even in spite of the +physician, the accumulated morbidity would become +so powerful as to work out its own salvation +by bringing about the sterility and extinction +of its victims. The danger lies in the fact +that these degenerates mate with the <i>healthy</i> +members of the community and thereby constantly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +drag fresh blood into the vortex of disease +and lower the general vigour of the nation."</p> + +<p>Such a practice as vasectomy then represents +nicely the eugenic aim of allowing the individual, +who is himself never to be blamed for his +hereditary constitution, the greatest possible +personal freedom and liberty, of allowing full +play of sympathy for the individual, and at the +same time of exercising the greatest sympathy +to society in prohibiting the hereditary criminal +from procreating a long line of descendants endowed +as badly as he himself was through no +fault of his own, but through the gross neglect +of society.</p> + +<p>Another quotation from Pearson: "To-day +we feed our criminals up, and we feed up our +insane, we let both out of the prison or asylum +'reformed' or 'cured,' as the case may be, only +after a few months to return to State supervision, +leaving behind them the germs of a new +generation of deteriorants. The average number +of crimes due to the convicts in his Majesty's +prisons to-day is ten apiece. We cannot +reform the criminal, nor cure the insane from +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +the standpoint of heredity; the taint varies not +with their mental or moral conduct. These are +the products of the somatic cells; the disease +lies deeper in their germinal constitution. Education +for the criminal, fresh air for the tuberculous, +rest and food for the neurotic—these +are excellent, they may bring control, sound +lungs, and sanity to the individual; but they +will not save the offspring from the need of like +treatment, nor from the danger of collapse when +the time of strain comes. They cannot make +a nation sound in mind and body, they merely +screen degeneracy behind a throng of arrested +degenerates. Our highly developed human +sympathy will no longer allow us to watch the +State purify itself by the aid of crude natural +selection. We see pain and suffering only to relieve +it, without inquiry as to the moral character +of the sufferer or as to his national or racial +value. And this is right—no man is responsible +for his own being; and nature and nurture, +over which he had no control, have made him +the being he is, good or evil. But here science +steps in, crying: Let the reprieve be accepted, +but next remind the social conscience of its duty +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> +to the race ... let there be no heritage if you +would build up and preserve a virile and efficient +people. Here, I hold, we reach the kernel +of the truth which the science of eugenics has +at present revealed."</p> + +<p>It is also a part of eugenic practice to oppose +vigorously and unmistakably any social practice +leading to the reduction in the reproductivity +of the desirable and valuable elements of +society. There is to be included here for censure +a long list of customs and practices, from +the enforced celibacy of the Church to the horror +of horrors—warfare. A moment's reflection +will suggest many reprehensible practices +of this kind more or less current in certain +classes or communities. The requirement of +nonmarriage on the part of women teachers—persons +of tested and demonstrated ability, is a +very general practice of decidedly noneugenic +character. In Great Britain more than 75,000 +nurses, all of whom must have passed physical +examination, are cut off from reproduction by +the same requirement of nonmarriage. Many +less striking but all too common practices have +the final effect of forbidding marriage to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +healthy, physically or mentally capable, helpful, +classes. "Help wanted. Must be unencumbered."</p> + +<p>More vigorously and more unmistakably does +the Eugenist discourage anything that leads to +matings of the unfit and, above all, to their reproduction. +Many countries, from Servia to +the Argentine Republic, have statutes forbidding +the marriage of the insane, idiots, deaf and +dumb, certain classes of criminals, and persons +afflicted with certain contagious diseases. It is +to be hoped that these laws are enforced with +greater effectiveness than that with which our +own less stringent laws of similar character +are administered. After all, it is the reproduction +of these persons that should be limited, and +among many of these classes the fact of nonmarriage +would provide not the slightest barrier +to reproduction.</p> + +<p>It is unfortunately true, but true none the +less, that there are current forms of so-called +philanthropy which, by relieving defective parents +of the care of their defective offspring, +thus encourage them in the production of more +defective offspring; and so the flames are fed. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +Relief is the smallest part of the problem. Any +condition which leads to the multiplication of +the innately defective and dependent classes +must be sternly opposed. No matter how benign +the guise of any form of relief or charity, if it +encourages or permits even indirectly the free +reproduction of these classes, it must be resolutely +opposed and soon abandoned. "It is not +enough to preach with horror and indignation +against normal parents who restrict their families. +Equal reprobation should be the lot of +those who, with inherited insanity, feeble-mindedness, +or disease, bring children into the world +to perpetuate their infirmities. It should not be +overlooked that the realization of the power of +limiting the birth rate, while it has produced +untold harm, when applied blindly and in accordance +with individual caprice, may become +an instrument for good if it extends to the worst +stocks, while the better stocks once more undertake +their natural duties."</p> + +<p>Practical Eugenics need not be limited to its +philanthropic and legislative aspects. There +are other social mechanisms which could be used +to encourage the multiplication of the fitter, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +abler families. In Munich, under the enlightened +leadership of Dr. Alfred Ploetz, a society +for the study and promotion of social and racial +hygiene (Internationale Gesellschaft für Rassen-Hygiene) +has made a most excellent and significant +beginning. This society is doing much +not only to collect data and investigate scientifically +problems within its field, but also to +spread widely the facts of racial integrity. Its +members agree, among other things, to undergo +thorough medical examination prior to marriage +as to their fitness for that state and agree +to abstain from marriage, or at least from parenthood, +if found to be unfit.</p> + +<p>Much can be done by suggestion and suasion +regarding the choice of mates and the rearing +of large families. When one touches upon this +subject he is pretty likely to be met with the +objection that the selection of mates is so largely +an impulsive, emotional affair that it is quite +beyond control. "Marriages," they say, "are +made in heaven." But when we consider the +number that can scarcely be said to be completed +there the statement seems open to some +question. As a matter of fact, it is perfectly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +clear, as Galton, Ellis, and others have shown, +that all peoples, from the Kaffir and the Dyak to +the Hindu and the modern European or American, +are surrounded with restrictions in marriage +often of the greatest stringency. And yet, +since these are matters of established social custom, +even of religious observance, we submit +almost without knowing it.</p> + +<p>That results can be really accomplished in +this direction and by this method is clearly +shown by the history of the Jewish people, and +by the Roman Catholics, among whom there are +distinctly fewer divorces and childless marriages +than among Protestants. In many countries +and communities the organized Church +still exercises an immense influence over the +whole subject of marriage: the Church could +easily become a powerful factor in eugenic practice. +Such a control can and should be given +eugenic direction by the establishment of a more +discriminative attitude, looking toward a reduction +in the reproductivity of the dependent or +defective as well as to the increased reproductivity +of the valuable and able. In all of the +discussion of "race suicide" and the value to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +the State of the large family, how seldom do we +hear any mention of quality! To plan the organization +and conduct of a State without regulating +and controlling the quality of its membership +is like adopting plans and elevations for a +costly building without making any specifications +as to materials.</p> + +<p>In concrete eugenic practice it seems probable +that most can be accomplished for the present +by striving to limit the multiplication of the +undesirable, dependent, or dangerous elements +of the social group. There can be less uncertainty +here. The social organization has already +marked certain kinds of individuals as +unfit and unworthy, whose liberty must be limited +in many directions for the social welfare. +This aspect of the matter can be put upon a +dollars and cents basis very clearly, and this is +apparently the only relation that affects a good +many people. Why should the able and worthy +and thrifty members of society be compelled to +pay, as they are in this country alone, $100,000,000 +annually, not to mention the vast sums voluntarily +contributed toward "charitable" purposes, +for the support of the criminal and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +pauper and defective classes who themselves +contribute nothing of value and whose very existence +is evidence of criminal disregard of the +right of every individual to be well born, into a +healthy and sane life? The only answer, if it +be an answer, is—because the competent are +willing to foot the bill. Millions for tribute but +not one cent for defense. And yet a penny's +worth of defense outweighs a million's worth of +cure.</p> + +<p>In the practice of Eugenics the greatest caution +must be exercised. All eugenic practice +must be tested by the most careful and scrutinizing +scientific methods. Mendelian heredity +gives a different answer from Job's to his own +query: "Who can bring a clean thing out of an +unclean?" It also makes clear how it may often +happen that it needs but three generations to go +from Fifth Avenue to the Bowery, and back +again. Many so-called criminals may be anachronisms, +some only modificationally bad. +But there are many cases, many practices, regarding +which there can be no doubt: the Eugenist +says, treat these, and let the doubtful +cases alone until as a result of the increase of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> +knowledge there is no doubt. And while it is +easy to say that we <i>believe</i> the criminal or the +insane are the products of a wrong environment, +it is also easy to say that we believe they +are not. What the Eugenist demands is <i>knowledge</i>, +then belief, and action based thereon.</p> + +<p>Finally, the eugenic program calls for the +spread of the facts, far and wide, through all +classes of society. Bring forcibly before the +people the facts of human heredity. Teach +them to understand the force of the eugenic +ideal of good breeding. "The prevalent opinion +that almost anybody is good enough to +marry is chiefly due to the fact that in this case, +cause and effect, marriage and the feebleness of +offspring, are so distant from each other that +the near-sighted eye does not distinctly perceive +the connection between them." By education +we must produce first of all a thoughtfulness +in the community regarding the racial responsibilities +of marriage and reproduction. Human +beings are frequently rational creatures; placing +before them clear and truthful ideas regarding +fit and unfit matings cannot fail of an ultimate +effect. "The virtue of repetition, the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +summation of suggestion, which sells pills and +pickles, which makes Free Trade or Tariff Reform +a national issue, this force operating as a +slight but persistent influence when linked to +eugenic proposals will in a few years' time make +these proposals a living force to the common +man." By talking and teaching, in season and +out, the community will be compelled to think +on these things; they will be forced into the +public conscience and the pressure of public +opinion will rise for the eugenic and against +the noneugenic ideals of mating and the rearing +of families. And the rest will come in due season +and more effective and permanent results +will follow than are likely to come from any +amount of premature legislation. As Galton +writes: "The enlightenment of the individual +is a necessary preamble to practical Eugenics, +but social opinion by praise or blame constantly +influences individual conduct." "Public +opinion is commonly far in advance of private +morality, because society as a whole keenly appreciates +acts that tend to its advantage, and +condemns those that do not. It applauds acts +of heroism that perhaps not one of the applaud +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>ers +would be disposed to emulate." "The first +and main point is to secure the general intellectual +acceptance of Eugenics as a hopeful and +most important study. Then let its principles +work into the heart of the nation, who will gradually +give practical effect to them in ways that +we may not wholly foresee."</p> + +<p>In this educational part of the eugenic program, +and particularly in the encouragement +of research directed toward the solution +of eugenic problems and the establishment of +eugenic practices, there lies one of the greatest +opportunities ever opened to the philanthropist. +The genuine philanthropist is he who +would at this moment make possible the rapid +solution of many of the still baffling problems +of human heredity and who would help to +spread and teach the gospel of true racial integrity. +But while it has been easy to interest +philanthropists in the relief of social disorders, +few can be interested in the causes at work +which make the necessity for relief seem so imperative.</p> + +<p>The patient unraveler of the Jukes family +history has said, "I am informed that $28,000 +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +was raised in two days to purchase a rare collection +of antique jewelry and bronze recently +discovered in classic ground forty feet below +the <i>débris</i>. I do not hear of as many pence being +offered to fathom the <i>débris</i> of our civilization—however +rich the yield!" Possibly one +reason for this neglect or omission has heretofore +been the lack of evidence that real results +could be accomplished in this field. Now that +it is so obvious that we have a real foundation +of fact from which to work we may expect soon +some degree of recognition of the supreme importance +of the need for investigation in subjects +allied to Eugenics, and of devotion to eugenic +aims.</p> + +<p>"Whether or no the importance of the issues +at stake comes to be recognized fully by the nation +at large, individuals and families have it in +their power to act on the knowledge they have +acquired.... When once more the importance +of good birth comes to be recognized in a new +sense, ... it will be understood to be more important +to marry into a family with a good +hereditary record of physical, mental, and moral +qualities than it ever has been considered to be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> +allied to one with sixteen quarterings." "Families +in which good and noble qualities of mind +and body have become hereditary form a natural +aristocracy, and, if such families take pride +in recording their pedigrees, marry among +themselves, and establish a predominant fertility, +they can assure success and position to +the majority of their descendants in any political +future. They can become the guardians +and trustees of a sound inborn heritage, which, +incorruptible and undefiled, they can preserve +in purity and vigour throughout whatever period +of ignorance and decay may be in store for +the nation at large. Neglect to hand on undimmed +the priceless germinal qualities which +such families possess, can be regarded only as +the betrayal of a sacred trust....</p> + +<p>"We look, then, for a day in the near future, +when, in some circles at any rate, a comparison +of scientific pedigrees will replace, or at all +events precede, the discussion of settlements in +the preliminaries to a marriage; when birth and +good-breeding (in its wide sense), character +and ability will be the qualities most prized in +the choice of mates; when a bad ancestral strain +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> +likely to reappear in succeeding generations +will suppress an incipient passion as effectually +as it is now cured by a deficiency of education +or a superfluity of accent." (Whetham.)</p> + +<p>As matters are at present it is all too often +the case that marriage is <i>followed</i> by the disclosure +or discovery of a family history of sterility, +or criminality, or insanity. In a truly enlightened +society the failure to make known +such conditions in the antecedents to a marriage +will be regarded as evidence of the greatest +moral obliquity, if not of criminal misdemeanor.</p> + +<p>The wise and honored founder of Eugenics +looks forward to the inclusion of eugenic ideals +as a factor in religion. "Eugenics," Galton +writes, "strengthens the sense of social duty +in so many important particulars that the conclusions +derived from its study ought to find a +welcome home in every tolerant religion." +"Eugenic belief extends the function of philanthropy +to future generations; it renders its action +more pervading than hitherto, by dealing +with families and societies in their entirety; +and it enforces the importance of the marriage +covenant, by directing serious attention to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> +probable quality of the future offspring. It +strongly forbids all forms of sentimental charity +that are harmful to the race, while it eagerly +seeks opportunity for acts of personal kindness +as some equivalent to the loss of what it forbids. +It brings the tie of kinship into prominence, +and strongly encourages love and interest +in family and race. In brief, eugenics is a +virile creed, full of hopefulness, and appealing +to many of the noblest feelings of our nature."</p> + +<p>And Whetham adds: "Hitherto the development +of our race has been unconscious, and we +have been allowed no responsibility for its right +course. Now, in the fulness of time ... we +are treated as children no more, and the conscious +fashioning of the human race is given +into our hands. Let us put away childish +things, stand up with open eyes, and face our responsibilities."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p> +<h2>INDEX</h2> + + +<p> +Ability, heredity of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heredity and pedigrees of, <a href="#Page_176">176-181</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Acquired characteristics, relation of, to heredity, <a href="#Page_199">199-207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Adaptedness, <a href="#Page_200">200-202</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Albinism, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Alcoholism, heritable effects of, <a href="#Page_203">203-207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +American Breeders' Association, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Andalusian fowl, heredity of color in, <a href="#Page_81">81-83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Angio-neurotic œdema, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Aristotle, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Bagatelle board, to illustrate variability, <a href="#Page_58">58-60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bateson, William, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bentley, Madison, quoted, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Biffen, R. H., <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Biology, and Sociology, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35-45</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eugenic applications of, <a href="#Page_38">38-40</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>et seq.</i></span><br /> +<br /> +Biometric Laboratory, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Bio-Sociology, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Birth rate, and social status, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decreasing, in England, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Boies, abstract of Winship's data of Edwards family, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Booth, classification of London population, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Brachydactylism, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_150">150-153</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Cataract, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cephalic index, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chance, law of, <a href="#Page_56">56-58</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Child labor laws, effect of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Chorea, Huntington's, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Church, influence and opportunities of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Civic worth, variability of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Coefficient of correlation, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span><br /> +Coefficient of correlation between birth rate and social status, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">positive and negative, <a href="#Page_111">111-113</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">significance of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Coefficient of heredity, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">human, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Coefficient of variability, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">human, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Color blindness, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Connecticut, vasectomy statute of, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Conservation of human protoplasm, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Correlation, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coefficient of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social status and birth rate, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Cousin marriage, regulation of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Criminality, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">increase in, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Darwin, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Data, need for and collection of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Davenport, quoted, <a href="#Page_192">192-195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Deaf, United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Deaf and dumb, United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Deaf-mutism, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Deaf-mutism, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Defect, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_123">123-126</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Defectives, number of, in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dependents, United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Determiners, absence of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in germ, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mendelian heredity, <a href="#Page_88">88-95</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Development of the individual, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as a form of reaction, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Die Familie Zero</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Differential fertility, <a href="#Page_113">113-121</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dominance, in Mendelian heredity, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irregular and incomplete, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Dominant characteristics, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Drapers' Company, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Dugdale, account of "Jukes" family, <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Education, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heritable effects of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Edwards, Jonathan, descendants of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Elderton, quoted, <a href="#Page_209">209-211</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Employer's liability laws, effects of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span><br /> +England, falling birth rate in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of defectives in, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Environment, effects of, <a href="#Page_197">197-207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Eugenics, aims of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42-45</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as a factor in religion, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">encouragement of ideals of, <a href="#Page_234">234-240</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#Page_10">10-13</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objections to, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">practice of, <a href="#Page_215">215-234</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">program of, <a href="#Page_189">189-240</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Eugenics Committee of American Breeders' Association, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Eugenics Education Society, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Eugenics Laboratory, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Eugenics Record Office, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Eugenics Review</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> +<br /> +External conditions, effects of, <a href="#Page_199">199-203</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Eye color, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Fabian Society, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<i>Familie Zero</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Family histories. <i>See</i> <a href="#Pedigrees">Pedigrees</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Feeble-minded, in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in United States, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Feeble-mindedness, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_162">162-169</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fellows of the Royal Society, mental heredity in, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fertility, and social status, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">differential (selective), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in normal and pathological stocks, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of various classes, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Fluctuation, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Forearm, heredity in length of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Fowl, color heredity in Andalusian, <a href="#Page_81">81-83</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Functional modification, non-inheritance of, <a href="#Page_199">199-207</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Galton, Sir Francis, illustrations of variability, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in history of Eugenics, <a href="#Page_9">9-13</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on mental heredity, <a href="#Page_144">144-146</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_181">181-183</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Gametic coupling, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Germ, relation of, to adult structure, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Germ cells, relation of, to Mendel's law, <a href="#Page_88">88-94</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Goddard, account of feeble-minded family, <a href="#Page_162">162-169</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span><br /> +Great Britain, number of defectives, etc., <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Greece, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Guinea-pig, heredity of color in, <a href="#Page_84">84-87</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Hæmophilia, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Hair color and curliness, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Harrow, mental heredity in students of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Head measurements, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Heredity" id="Heredity">Heredity</a>, coefficient of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">human, <a href="#Page_137">137-188</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mendelian formula of, <a href="#Page_80">80-102</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in human traits, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">need for studies in, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of acquired characters (modifications), <a href="#Page_199">199-207</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychic characters, <a href="#Page_143">143-147</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation of, to Eugenics, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">statistical formula of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102-113</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Heron, David, birth rate, and net fertility of social classes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Homicides, number of, in United States, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Huntington's chorea, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Idiots, statistics of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Imbeciles, statistics of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Imbecility, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Immunity, relation of, to heredity of disease, <a href="#Page_168">168-173</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Index of variability, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Indiana, vasectomy statute of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Infection, heredity of, diseases and defects due to, <a href="#Page_168">168-173</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Infertility, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Inheritance. <i>See</i> <a href="#Heredity">Heredity</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Insane, statistics of, <a href="#Page_31">31-34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Insanity, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_124">124-126</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">associated with alcoholism, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>Internationale Gesellschaft für Rassen-Hygiene</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Jennings, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Johannsen, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jordan, David Starr, quoted, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Jörger, <i>Die Familie Zero</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>.<br /> +<br /> +"Jukes" family, <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Keratosis, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Lankester, Sir E. Ray, "Kingdom of Man," <a href="#Page_21">21-24</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span><br /> +<i>L'Elite</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<a name="Lobster" id="Lobster">Lobster claw</a>, heredity of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +London, number of children in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">university of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Man's place in Nature, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Marriage, antecedents to, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictions in, <a href="#Page_228">228-232</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mediocrity, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mendel, Gregor, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mendelian formula of heredity, <a href="#Page_80">80-102</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mendelism and eugenic practice, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mendel's law, and unit characters, <a href="#Page_95">95-99</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics inherited according to, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;">human, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complications of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">present limitations of, <a href="#Page_100">100-102</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Mental ability, pedigrees of, <a href="#Page_176">176-181</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mental defect, heredity of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162-169</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mental traits, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143-147</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Models, illustrating variability and variation, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-64</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Murders, number of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Mutation, <a href="#Page_63">63-66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +National Association of British and Irish Millers, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Natural selection, <a href="#Page_21">21-23</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nettleship, pedigree of night blindness, <a href="#Page_158">158-163</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Night blindness, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigrees of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Normal frequency curve, <a href="#Page_56">56-60</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Nurture, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Œdema, pedigree of angio-neurotic, <a href="#Page_168">168-170</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ohio Institution for the Feeble-Minded, superintendent quoted, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oneida community, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ontogeny, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oöphorectomy (oöphorotomy), <a href="#Page_218">218-222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Order of birth and pathological defect, <a href="#Page_123">123-126</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Oxford, mental heredity in graduates of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Paupers, United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pearson, Karl, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heredity in school children, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_127">127-130</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216-218</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225-227</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<a name="Pedigrees" id="Pedigrees"></a>Pedigrees of ability, <a href="#Page_176">176-181</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span><br /> +Pedigrees of angio-neurotic œdema, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of brachydactylism, <a href="#Page_150">150-153</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of cataract, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of deaf-mutism, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_162">162-169</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Huntington's chorea, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of infertility, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of lobster claw or split hand, <a href="#Page_155">155-157</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of night blindness, <a href="#Page_157">157-163</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of polydactylism, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_168">168-171</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Plato, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Ploetz, Dr. Alfred, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Poellman, family described by, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Polydactylism, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Population, of Europe and North America, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Practice of Eugenics, <a href="#Page_192">192-240</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Prisoners, number of, in United States, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Probability, law of, <a href="#Page_56">56-59</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pure bred, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Pure line, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Recessive characteristics, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Regression, <a href="#Page_105">105-108</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Regression line, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rentoul, statistics of defectives, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Rentoul's operation, <a href="#Page_218">218-222</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Research, in the eugenic program, and need for, <a href="#Page_196">196-215</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Restrictions in marriage, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Royal Society, mental heredity in Fellows of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +School children, heredity in, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Schuster, on mental heredity, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Scottish Commission, statistics of insane, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Selective fertility, <a href="#Page_113">113-122</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sex limited heredity, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Size of family, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and relative proportion of defectives, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Social practices, investigation of, <a href="#Page_207">207-212</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposed to Eugenics, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Social status, and birth rate, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Social variation, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Society for social and racial hygiene (Munich), <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sociological Society, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sociology, aims of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Biology, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35-45</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Span, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span><br /> +Species, relation of, to pure line, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Split hand. <i>See</i> <a href="#Lobster">Lobster claw</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Sports, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Standard deviation, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Statistical formula of heredity, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102-113</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Stature, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of mothers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Sterilization, eugenic value of, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">statutes permitting, <a href="#Page_218">218-223</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +"Studies in National Deterioration," <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Symbols used in pedigrees, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Syndactylism, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Theognis, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Thomson, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br /> +<br /> +"Treasury of Human Inheritance," <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">symbols used by, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Tredgold, quoted, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Tuberculosis, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">associated with alcoholism, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of pulmonary, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Typhoid fever, eradication of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Unit characters, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Unit characters, relation of, to Mendel's law, <a href="#Page_95">95-99</a>.<br /> +<br /> +United States Census Reports, statistics of defectives, etc., <a href="#Page_28">28-34</a>.<br /> +<br /> +University of London, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Variability, <a href="#Page_56">56-63</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">measure (coefficient) of, <a href="#Page_61">61-63</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of human traits, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Variation, <a href="#Page_55">55-70</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and modification, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">application of, in Eugenics, <a href="#Page_70">70-77</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from variability, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +Vasectomy, <a href="#Page_218">218-225</a>.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Connecticut statute permitting, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a>.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indiana statute permitting, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Wallace, Alfred Russell, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Warbasse, quoted, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Webb, Sidney, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Wheat, new varieties of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Whetham, quoted, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237-239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Winship, data regarding Edwards family, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br /> +<br /> +Woods, heredity in royalty, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<i>Zero, Die Familie</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>.<br /> +</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h4>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h4> +<p>1. Images and tables have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to +the closest paragraph break.</p> + +<p>2. Figure 17 is missing from the scanned pages even though there is no +break in the continuity of page numbers.</p> + +<p>3. The following misprints have been corrected:<br /> + "stattistical" corrected to "statistical" (page 81)<br /> + Removed stray bracket in "second parent)" (page 93)<br /> + Added period at end of abbreviation "N.S.W" (page 115)<br /> + "conditons" corrected to "conditions" (page 245)</p> + +<p>4. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies +in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been +retained.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Direction of Evolution, by +William E. 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