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diff --git a/31641.txt b/31641.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0cc06a7 --- /dev/null +++ b/31641.txt @@ -0,0 +1,19403 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4 + "Cincinnatus" to "Cleruchy" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 14, 2010 [EBook #31641] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6, SL 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. + +(2) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(3) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x]. + +(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + Article CISTERCIANS: "and tried to reproduce the life exactly as it + had been in St Benedict's time." 'life' amended from 'lire'. + + Article CITHARA: "This characteristic box sound-chest (fig. 1) + consisted of two resonating tables, either flat or delicately + arched." 'characteristic' amended from 'characteristc'. + + Article CIUDAD REAL: "and the trade of the town consists chiefly in + the weekly sales of agricultrural produce and live-stock." + 'agricultrural' amended from 'agricultrual'. + + Article CIVIL SERVICE: "The chief, if not the only, test of fitness + for office in many cases has been party loyalty, honesty and + capacity being seldom more than secondary considerations." 'party' + amended from 'partly'. + + Article CLAIRON: "Hainaut, on the 25th of January 1723, the natural + daughter of an army sergeant." 'an' amended from 'any'. + + Article CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE: "Cape Corso and other Dutch + possessions on the coast of Africa, and New Amsterdam in America." + 'coast' amended from 'cost'. + + Article CLARETIE, JULES ARSENE ARNAUD: "He was elected a member of + the Academy in 1888, and took his seat in February 1889, being + received by Ernest Renan." 'February' amended from 'Feburary'. + + Article CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS: "verse translation of Il Ratto di + Proserpina , by L. Garces de Diez (1889)." 'Proserpina' amended + from 'Prosperpina'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME VI, SLICE IV + + Cincinnatus to Cleruchy + + + + +Articles in This Slice: + + + CINCINNATUS LUCIUS QUINCTIUS CLARINA + CINDERELLA CLARINET + CINEAS CLARK, SIR ANDREW + CINEMATOGRAPH CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD + CINERARIA CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS + CINGOLI CLARK, SIR JAMES + CINNA (Roman family) CLARK, JOHN BATES + CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER + CINNABAR CLARK, THOMAS + CINNAMIC ACID CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE + CINNAMON CLARKE, ADAM + CINNAMON-STONE CLARKE, SIR ANDREW + CINNAMUS CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN + CINNOLIN CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL + CINO DA PISTOIA CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE + CINQ-MARS, D'EFFIAT CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN + CINQUE CENTO CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER + CINQUE PORTS CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP + CINTRA CLARKE, MARY ANNE + CIPHER CLARKE, SAMUEL + CIPPUS CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS + CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE + CIRCAR CLARKSON, THOMAS + CIRCASSIA CLARKSVILLE + CIRCE CLASSICS + CIRCEIUS MONS CLASSIFICATION + CIRCLE CLASTIDIUM + CIRCLEVILLE CLAUBERG, JOHANN + CIRCUIT CLAUDE, JEAN + CIRCULAR NOTE CLAUDE OF LORRAINE + CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN + CIRCUMCISION CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS + CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF CLAUDIUS (Nero Germanicus) + CIRCUS CLAUDIUS (famous Roman gens.) + CIRENCESTER CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS + CIRILLO, DOMENICO CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS + CIRQUE CLAUSEL + CIRTA CLAUSEN, GEORGE + CISSEY, ERNEST COURTOT DE CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON + CISSOID CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF EMMANUEL + CIS-SUTLEJ STATES CLAUSTHAL + CIST CLAVECIN + CISTERCIANS CLAVICEMBALO + CITATION CLAVICHORD + CITEAUX CLAVICYTHERIUM + CITHAERON CLAVIE, BURNING THE + CITHARA CLAVIERE, ETIENNE + CITIUM CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE + CITIZEN CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSE + CITOLE CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS + CITRIC ACID CLAY, CHARLES + CITRON CLAY, FREDERIC + CITTADELLA CLAY, HENRY + CITTA DELLA PIEVE CLAY (substance) + CITTA DI CASTELLO CLAY CROSS + CITTA VECCHIA CLAYMORE + CITTERN CLAYS, PAUL JEAN + CITY CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON + CIUDAD BOLIVAR CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY + CIUDAD DE CURA CLAY-WITH-FLINTS + CIUDAD JUAREZ CLAZOMENAE + CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ CLEANTHES + CIUDAD REAL (province of Spain) CLEARCHUS + CIUDAD REAL (city in Spain) CLEARFIELD + CIUDAD RODRIGO CLEARING-HOUSE + CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO CLEAT + CIVET CLEATOR MOOR + CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI CLEAVERS + CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS CLEBURNE + CIVILIZATION CLECKHEATON + CIVIL LAW CLEETHORPES + CIVIL LIST CLEFT PALATE + CIVIL SERVICE CLEISTHENES + CIVITA CASTELLANA CLEITARCHUS + CIVITA VECCHIA CLEITHRAL + CLACKMANNAN CLEITOR + CLACKMANNANSHIRE CLELAND, WILLIAM + CLACTON-ON-SEA CLEMATIS + CLADEL, LEON CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES + CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM CLEMENCIN, DIEGO + CLAIRAULT CLEMENT (popes) + CLAIRON, LA CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA + CLAIRVAUX CLEMENT, FRANCOIS + CLAIRVOYANCE CLEMENT, JACQUES + CLAMECY CLEMENTI, MUZIO + CLAN CLEMENTINE LITERATURE + CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH (Earl) CLEOBULUS + CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH (Marquess) CLEOMENES + CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS CLEON + CLAPAREDE, JEAN LOUIS CLEOPATRA + CLAPPERTON, HUGH CLEPSYDRA + CLAQUE CLERESTORY + CLARA, SAINT CLERFAYT + CLARE (English family) CLERGY + CLARE, JOHN (English poet) CLERGY, BENEFIT OF + CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON CLERGY RESERVES + CLARE (county in Ireland) CLERK + CLAREMONT CLERKE, AGNES MARY + CLARENCE, DUKES OF CLERKENWELL + CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS + CLARENDON, GEORGE VILLIERS CLERMONT-FERRAND + CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON + CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF CLERMONT-L'HERAULT + CLARES, POOR CLERMONT-TONNERRE (French family) + CLARET CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS + CLARETIE, JULES ARNAUD CLERUCHY + CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA + + + + +CINCINNATUS,[1] LUCIUS QUINCTIUS (b. c. 519 B.C.), one of the heroes of +early Rome, a model of old Roman virtue and simplicity. A persistent +opponent of the plebeians, he resisted the proposal of Terentilius Arsa +(or Harsa) to draw up a code of written laws applicable equally to +patricians and plebeians. He was in humble circumstances, and lived and +worked on his own small farm. The story that he became impoverished by +paying a fine incurred by his son Caeso is an attempt to explain the +needy position of so distinguished a man. Twice he was called from the +plough to the dictatorship of Rome in 458 and 439. In 458 he defeated +the Aequians in a single day, and after entering Rome in triumph with +large spoils returned to his farm. The story of his success, related +five times under five different years, possibly rests on an historical +basis, but the account given in Livy of the achievements of the Roman +army is obviously incredible. + + See Livy iii. 26-29; Dion. Halic. x. 23-25; Florus i. 11. For a + critical examination of the story see Schwegler, _Roemische + Geschichte_, bk. xxviii. 12; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, _Credibility of + early Roman History_, ch. xii. 40; W. Ihne, _History of Rome_, i.; E. + Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 4 (1898). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] I.e. the "curly-haired." + + + + +CINDERELLA (i.e. little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost universal +fairy-tale. Its essential features are (1) the persecuted maiden whose +youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy of her step-mother and +sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or other supernatural +instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who falls in love with and +marries her. In the English version, a translation of Perrault's +_Cendrillon_, the _glass_ slipper which she drops on the palace stairs +is due to a mistranslation of _pantoufle en vair_ (a _fur_ slipper), +mistaken for _en verre_. It has been suggested that the story originated +in a nature-myth, Cinderella being the dawn, oppressed by the +night-clouds (cruel relatives) and finally rescued by the sun (prince). + + See Marian Rolfe Cox, _Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five + Variants_ (1893); A Lang, _Perrault's Popular Tales_ (1888). + + + + +CINEAS, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He +studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the most eloquent man of +his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus from invading Italy, and after the +defeat of the Romans at Heraclea (280 B.C.) was sent to Rome to discuss +terms of peace. These terms, which are said by Appian (_De Rebus +Samniticis_, 10, 11) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy +and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of all that +had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through the vehement and +patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius Caecus the censor. The +withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was demanded, and Cineas returned to +his master with the report that Rome was a temple and its senate an +assembly of kings. Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations +with Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities, +and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for Pyrrhus's +campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is said to have made an +epitome of the _Tactica_ of Aeneas, probably referred to by Cicero, who +speaks of a Cineas as the author of a treatise _De Re Militari_. + + See Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12; + Cicero, _Ad Fam._ ix. 25. + + + + +CINEMATOGRAPH, or KINEMATOGRAPH (from [Greek: khinema], motion, and +[Greek: graphein], to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views +representing closely successive phases of a moving object are exhibited +in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to persistence of +vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous motion. It is a +development of the zoetrope or "wheel of life," described by W.G. Horner +about 1833, which consists of a hollow cylinder turning on a vertical +axis and having its surface pierced with a number of slots. Round the +interior is arranged a series of pictures representing successive stages +of such a subject as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated +an observer looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently +in motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photography was +afterwards applied to their production. E. Muybridge about 1877 obtained +successive pictures of a running horse by employing a row of cameras, +the shutters of which were opened and closed electrically by the passage +of the horse in front of them, and in 1883 E.J. Marey of Paris +established a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar +photographic methods. + +The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the invention of the +celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1890), on which the serial +pictures are impressed by instantaneous photography, a long sensitized +film being moved across the focal plane of a camera and exposed +intermittently. In one apparatus for making the exposures a cam jerks +the film across the field once for each picture, the slack being +gathered in on a drum at a constant rate. In another four lenses are +rotated so as to give four images for each rotation, the film travelling +so as to present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place. +Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films are +developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric light may be +fixed to enable the process to be watched. A positive is made from the +negative thus obtained, and is passed through an optical lantern, the +images being thus successively projected through an objective lens upon +a distant screen. For an hour's exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures +are needed. To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the +film for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in +position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the picture +dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another method of exhibiting +cinematographic effects is to bind the pictures together in book form by +one edge, and then release them from the other in rapid succession by +means of the thumb or some mechanical device as the book is bent +backwards. In this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but +directly, either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass. + +Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic processes, being +in black and white only, fail to reproduce the colouring of the subjects +they represent. To some extent this defect has been remedied by painting +them by hand, but this method is too expensive for general adoption, and +moreover does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt +three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films, each with +a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining the three images +on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties in regard to +maintenance of register, because very minute errors of adjustment +between the pictures on the films are magnified to an intolerable extent +by projection. In a process devised by G.A. Smith, the results of which +were exhibited at the Society of Arts, London, in December 1908, the +number of colour records was reduced to two. The films were specially +treated to increase their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were +taken through two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the +film; both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition +specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and the +other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and violet. The +camera was arranged to take not less than 16 pictures a second through +each filter, or 32 a second in all. The positive transparency made from +the negative thus obtained was used in a lantern so arranged that beams +of red (composed of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow +and blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting the +pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those made with +the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary shutter was provided +to introduce violet and blue, to compensate for the deficiency in those +colours caused by the necessity of cutting them out in the camera owing +to the over-sensitiveness of the film to them, and the result was that +the successive pictures, blending on the screen by persistence of +vision, gave a reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which +were sensibly the same as those of the original. + +The cinematograph enables "living" or "animated pictures" of such +subjects as an army on the march, or an express train at full speed, to +be presented with marvellous distinctness and completeness of detail. +Machines of this kind have been devised in enormous numbers and used for +purposes of amusement under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope, +mutograph, &c.) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin +words for life, movement, change, &c., with suffixes taken from such +words as [Greek: skopein], to see, [Greek: graphein], to depict; they +have also been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for +example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer are +simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they are used in +public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme inflammability of +the celluloid film and its employment in close proximity to a powerful +source of light and heat, such as is required if the pictures are to +show brightly on the screen, precautions must be taken to prevent, as +far as possible, the heat rays from reaching it, and effective means +must be provided to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of +films composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the +attention of inventors. + + See H.V. Hopwood, _Living Pictures_ (London, 1899), containing a + bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is + supplemented in the _Optician_, vol. xviii. p. 85; Eugene Trutat, _La + Photographie animee_ (1899), which contains a list of the French + patents. For the camera see also PHOTOGRAPHY: _Apparatus_. + + + + +CINERARIA. The garden plants of this name have originated from a species +of _Senecio_, _S. cruentus_ (nat. ord. Compositae), a native of the +Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at Kew in 1777. It was +known originally as _Cineraria cruenta_, but the genus _Cineraria_ is +now restricted to a group of South African species, and the Canary +Island species has been transferred to the large and widespread genus +_Senecio_. Cinerarias can be raised freely from seeds. For spring +flowering in England the seeds are sown in April or May in well-drained +pots or pans, in soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with +one-sixth sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the +surface firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them +out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot them +singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They should be +grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so situated that the +sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the day, they must be +slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never allow them to get dry. +When well established with roots, shift them into 6-in. pots, which +should be liberally supplied with manure water as they get filled with +roots. In winter remove to a pit or house, where a little heat can be +supplied whenever there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should +stand on a moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts. +When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every alternate +watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown on in this way, will be in +bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of from 40 deg. to 45 deg. +at night, with a little more warmth in the day; and those sown in April +and May will succeed them during the early spring months, the latter set +of plants being subjected to a temperature of 38 deg. or 40 deg. during +the night. If grown much warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make +its appearance in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and +lower surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such +affected leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a great pest +on young plants, and can only be kept down by fumigating or vaporizing +the houses, and syringing with a solution of quassia chips, soft soap and +tobacco. + + + + +CINGOLI (anc. _Cingulum_), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the province +of Macerata, about 14 m. N.W. direct, and 17 m. by road, from the town +of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The Gothic church of S. Esuperanzio +contains interesting works of art. The town occupies the site of the +ancient Cingulum, a town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by +Caesar's lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier +village) in 63 B.C. at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft.) +made it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is +heard of it. Under the empire it was a _municipium_. + + + + +CINNA, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The most prominent +member was Lucius CORNELIUS CINNA, a supporter of Marius in his contest +with Sulla. After serving in the war with the Marsi as praetorian +legate, he was elected consul in 87 B.C. Breaking the oath he had sworn +to Sulla that he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna +allied himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took +possession of the city. Soon after his triumphant entry and the massacre +of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his vengeance, Marius +died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna's colleague, and on the murder of +Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo. In 84, however, Cinna, who was still +consul, was forced to advance against Sulla; but while embarking his +troops to meet him in Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter +Cornelia was the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, L. +CORNELIUS CINNA, praetor in 44 B.C., nevertheless sided with the +murderers of Caesar and publicly extolled their action. + +The hero of Corneille's tragedy _Cinna_ (1640) was Cn. Cornelius Cinna, +surnamed _Magnus_ (after his maternal grandfather Pompey), who was +magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for conspiring against him. + + + + +CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian age. +Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was the friend +of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the suite of the praetor +Memmius. The circumstances of his death have given rise to some +discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus, Appian and Dio Cassius all +state that, at Caesar's funeral, a certain Helvius Cinna was killed by +mistake for Cornelius Cinna, the conspirator. The last three writers +mentioned above add that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch, +referring to the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna +who was killed by the mob was a poet. This points to the identity of +Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet. The chief +objection to this view is based upon two lines in the 9th eclogue of +Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 B.C. Here reference is +made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such importance that Virgil +deprecates comparison with him; it is argued that the manner in which +this Cinna, who could hardly have been any one but Helvius Cinna, is +spoken of implies that he was then alive; if so, he could not have been +killed in 44. But such an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by +no means absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a +reference to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that +it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at Caesar's +funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities. Cinna's chief +work was a mythological epic poem called _Smyrna_, the subject of which +was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or Myrrha) for her father Cinyras, +treated after the manner of the Alexandrian poets. It is said to have +taken nine years to finish. A _Propempticon Pollionis_, a send-off to +[Asinius] Pollio, is also attributed to him. In both these poems, the +language of which was so obscure that they required special +commentaries, his model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea. + + See A. Weichert, _Poetarum Latinorum Vitae_ (1830); L. Mueller's + edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna's poems are + printed; A. Kiessling, "De C. Helvio Cinna Poeta" in _Commentationes + Philologicae in honorem T. Mommsen_ (1878); O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte + der roemischen Dichtung_, i. (1887); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman + Lit._ (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5); Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909). + + + + +CINNABAR (Ger. _Zinnober_), sometimes written cinnabarite, a name +applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native vermilion, the common +ore of mercury. The name comes from the Greek [Greek: kinnabari], used +by Theophrastus, and probably applied to several distinct substances. +Cinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of +bright red colour, but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a +metallic adamantine lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system, +and are generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar +presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and optical +characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization, and A. Des +Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the rotatory power of +quartz (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT). Cinnabar has higher refractive power +than any other known mineral, its mean index for sodium light being +3.02, whilst the index for diamond--a substance of remarkable +refraction--is only 2.42 (see REFRACTION). The hardness of cinnabar is +3, and its specific gravity 8.998. + +Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver, notably +Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria (Austria), Landsberg, +near Ober-Moschel in the Palatinate, Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps +(Tuscany), the mountain Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the +province of Kweichow in China, whence very fine crystals have been +obtained. Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from +the hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat Springs, +Nevada. + +Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola, in which +the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy matter. + +Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this compound +being dimorphous. + + For a general description of cinnabar, see G.F. Becker's _Geology of + the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope_, U.S. Geol. Surv. + Monographs, No. xiii. (1888). (F. W. R.*) + + + + +CINNAMIC ACID, or PHENYLACRYLIC ACID, C9H8O2 or C6H6.CH:CH.COOH, an acid +found in the form of its benzyl ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in +storax and in some gum-benzoins. It can be prepared by the reduction of +phenyl propiolic acid with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal +malonic acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde in +the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called "Perkin reaction"; +the latter being the method commonly employed. In making the acid by +this process benzaldehyde, acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate +are heated for some hours to about 1800 C, the resulting product is made +alkaline with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed +by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and acidified +with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipitated, +C6H5CHO+CH3COONa = C6H5CH:CH.COONa+H2O. It may be purified by +recrystallization from hot water. Considerable controversy has taken +place as to the course pursued by this reaction, but the matter has been +definitely settled by the work of R. Fittig and his pupils (_Annalen_, +1883, 216, pp. 100, 115; 1885, 227, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown +that the aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt of the +fatty acid, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of a +dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or prisms, +melting at 133 deg. C; on reduction it gives _phenyl propionic acid_, +C6H5.CH2.CH2.COOH. Nitric acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid and acetic +acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic and acetic acids. Being +an unsaturated acid it combines directly with hydrochloric acid, +hydrobromic acid, bromine, &c. On nitration it gives a mixture of ortho +and para nitrocinnamic acids, the former of which is of historical +importance, as by converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A. +Baeyer was enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo +(_q.v._). Reduction of orthonitrocinnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic +acid, C6H4(NH2)CH:CH.COOH, which is of theoretical importance, as it +readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of cinnamic acid known +as _allo-cinnamic acid_ is also known. + + For the oxy-cinnamic adds see COUMARIN. + + + + +CINNAMON, the inner bark of _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_, a small evergreen +tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae, native to Ceylon. The +leaves are large, ovate-oblong in shape, and the flowers, which are +arranged in panicles, have a greenish colour and a rather disagreeable +odour. Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity, and it was so +highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a present +fit for monarchs and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod. +xxx. 23, where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon +(_Kinnamon_) and cassia, and it is alluded to by Herodotus under the +name [Greek: Kinnamomon], and by other classical writers. The tree is +grown at Tellicherry, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil and Egypt, but +the produce of none of these places approaches in quality that grown in +Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon of fine quality is a very thin smooth bark, with +a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly fragrant odour, and a +peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing aromatic taste. Its flavour is due +to an aromatic oil which it contains to the extent of from 0.5 to 1%. +This essential oil, as an article of commerce, is prepared by roughly +pounding the bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly +distilling the whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the peculiar +odour of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. It consists essentially +of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the absorption of oxygen as it becomes old +it darkens in colour and develops resinous compounds. Cinnamon is +principally employed in cookery as a condiment and flavouring material, +being largely used in the preparation of some kinds of chocolate and +liqueurs. In medicine it acts like other volatile oils and has a +reputation as a cure for colds. Being a much more costly spice than +cassia, that comparatively harsh-flavoured substance is frequently +substituted for or added to it. The two barks when whole are easily +enough distinguished, and their microscopical characters are also quite +distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine, little +effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality, but when +cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the intensity of the +coloration depending on the proportion of the cassia. + + + + +CINNAMON-STONE, a variety of garnet, belonging to the lime-alumina type, +known also as essonite or hessonite, from the Gr. [Greek: esson], +"inferior," in allusion to its being less hard and less dense than most +other garnet. It has a characteristic red colour, inclining to orange, +much like that of hyacinth or jacinth. Indeed it was shown many years +ago, by Sir A.H. Church, that many gems, especially engraved stones, +commonly regarded as hyacinth, were really cinnamon-stone. The +difference is readily detected by the specific gravity, that of +hessonite being 3.64 to 3.69, whilst that of hyacinth (zircon) is about +4.6. Hessonite is rather a soft stone, its hardness being about that of +quartz or 7, whilst the hardness of most garnet reaches 7.5. +Cinnamon-stone comes chiefly from Ceylon, where it is found generally as +pebbles, though its occurrence in its native matrix is not unknown. + + + + +CINNAMUS [KINNAMOS], JOHN, Byzantine historian, flourished in the second +half of the 12th century. He was imperial secretary (probably in this +case a post connected with the military administration) to Manuel I. +Comnenus (1143-1180), whom he accompanied on his campaigns in Europe and +Asia Minor. He appears to have outlived Andronicus I., who died in 1185. +Cinnamus was the author of a history of the period 1118-1176, which thus +continues the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena, and embraces the reigns of John +II. and Manuel I., down to the unsuccessful campaign of the latter +against the Turks, which ended with the disastrous battle of +Myriokephalon and the rout of the Byzantine army. Cinnamus was probably +an eye-witness of the events of the last ten years which he describes. +The work breaks off abruptly; originally it no doubt went down to the +death of Manuel, and there are indications that, even in its present +form, it is an abridgment. The text is in a very corrupt state. The +author's hero is Manuel; he is strongly impressed with the superiority +of the East to the West, and is a determined opponent of the pretensions +of the papacy. But he cannot be reproached with undue bias; he writes +with the straightforwardness of a soldier, and is not ashamed on +occasion to confess his ignorance. The matter is well arranged, the +style (modelled on that of Xenophon) simple, and on the whole free from +the usual florid bombast of the Byzantine writers. + + _Editio princeps_, C. Tollius (1652); in Bonn, _Corpus Scriptorum + Hist. Byz._, by A. Meineke (1836), with Du Cange's valuable notes; + Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, cxxxiii.; see also C. Neumann, + _Griechische Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert_ (1888); H. von + Kap-Herr, _Die abendlaendische Politik Kaiser Manuels_ (1881); C. + Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897). + + + + +CINNOLIN, C8H6N2, a compound isomeric with phthalazine, prepared by +boiling dihydrocinnolin dissolved in benzene with freshly precipitated +mercuric oxide. The solution is filtered and the hydrochloride of the +base precipitated by alcoholic hydrochloric acid; the free base is +obtained as an oil by adding caustic soda. It may be obtained in white +silky needles, melting at 24-25 deg. C. and containing a molecule of +ether of crystallization by cooling the oil dissolved in ether. The free +base melts at 39 deg. C. It is a strong base, forming stable salts with +mineral acids, and is easily soluble in water and in the ordinary organic +solvents. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate, and leaves +a sharp irritation for some time on the tongue; it is also very +poisonous (M. Busch and A. Rast, _Berichte_, 1897, 30, p. 521). Cinnolin +derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin carboxylic acid, which is +formed by digesting orthophenyl propiolic acid diazo chloride with +water. Oxycinnolin carboxylic acid on heating gives oxycinnolin, melting +at 225 deg., which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin. +This substance is reduced by iron filings and sulphuric acid to +dihydrocinnolin. + +The relations of these compounds are here shown:-- + + C-OH C-OH CH + ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ + / \_C:C.COOH / \ / \\ / \ / \\ / \ / \\ + | | | | C.COOH | | CH | | CH + | | ---> | | | ---> | | | ---> | | | + | |_ | | N | | N | | N + \ / N:N.OH \ / \ // \ / \ // \ / \ // + v v N v N v N + + O-phenyl propiolic Oxycinnolin Oxycinnolin Cinnolin + acid diazo hydroxide carboxylic acid + + + + +CINO DA PISTOIA (1270-1336), Italian poet and jurist, whose full name +was GUITTONCINO DE' SINIBALDI, was born in Pistoia, of a noble family. +He studied law at Bologna under Dinus Muggelanus (Dino de Rossonis: d. +1303) and Franciscus Accursius, and in 1307 is understood to have been +assessor of civil causes in his native city. In that year, however, +Pistoia was disturbed by the Guelph and Ghibelline feud. The +Ghibellines, who had for some time been the stronger party, being +worsted by the Guelphs, Cino, a prominent member of the former faction, +had to quit his office and the city of his birth. Pitecchio, a +stronghold on the frontiers of Lombardy, was yet in the hands of Filippo +Vergiolesi, chief of the Pistoian Ghibellines; Selvaggia, his daughter, +was beloved by Cino (who was probably already the husband of Margherita +degli Unghi); and to Pitecchio did the lawyer-poet betake himself. It is +uncertain how long he remained at the fortress; it is certain, however, +that he was not with the Vergiolesi at the time of Selvaggia's death, +which happened three years afterwards (1310), at the Monte della +Sambuca, in the Apennines, whither the Ghibellines had been compelled to +shift their camp. He visited his mistress's grave on his way to Rome, +after some time spent in travel in France and elsewhere, and to this +visit is owing his finest sonnet. At Rome Cino held office under Louis +of Savoy, sent thither by the Ghibelline leader Henry of Luxemburg, who +was crowned emperor of the Romans in 1312. In 1313, however, the emperor +died, and the Ghibellines lost their last hope. Cino appears to have +thrown up his party, and to have returned to Pistoia. Thereafter he +devoted himself to law and letters. After filling several high judicial +offices, a doctor of civil law of Bologna in his forty-fourth year, he +lectured and taught from the professor's chair at the universities of +Treviso, Siena, Florence and Perugia in succession; his reputation and +success were great, his judicial experience enabling him to travel out +of the routine of the schools. In literature he continued in some sort +the tradition of Dante during the interval dividing that great poet from +his successor Petrarch. The latter, besides celebrating Cino in an +obituary sonnet, has coupled him and his Selvaggia with Dante and +Beatrice in the fourth _capitolo_ of his _Trionfi d' Amore_. + +Cino, the master of Bartolus, and of Joannes Andreae the celebrated +canonist, was long famed as a jurist. His commentary on the statutes of +Pistoia, written within two years, is said to have great merit; while +that on the code (_Lectura Cino Pistoia super codice_, Pavia, 1483; +Lyons, 1526) is considered by Savigny to exhibit more practical +intelligence and more originality of thought than are found in any +commentary on Roman law since the time of Accursius. As a poet he also +distinguished himself greatly. He was the friend and correspondent of +Dante's later years, and possibly of his earlier also, and was +certainly, with Guido Cavalcanti and Durante da Maiano, one of those who +replied to the famous sonnet _A ciascun' alma presa e gentil core_ of +the _Vita Nuova_. In the treatise _De Vulgari Eloquio_ Dante refers to +him as one of "those who have most sweetly and subtly written poems in +modern Italian," but his works, printed at Rome in 1559, do not +altogether justify the praise. Strained and rhetorical as many of his +outcries are, however, Cino is not without moments of true passion and +fine natural eloquence. Of these qualities the sonnet in memory of +Selvaggia, _Io fui in sull' alto e in sul beato monte_, and the canzone +to Dante, _Avegnache di omaggio piu per tempo_, are interesting +examples. + + The text-book for English readers is D.G. Rossetti's _Early Italian + Poets_, wherein will be found not only a memoir of Cino da Pistoia, + but also some admirably translated specimens of his verse--the whole + wrought into significant connexion with that friendship of Cino's + which is perhaps the most interesting fact about him. See also Ciampi, + _Vita e poesie di messer Cino da Pistoia_ (Pisa, 1813). + + + + +CINQ-MARS, HENRI COIFFIER RUZE D'EFFIAT, MARQUIS DE (1620-1642), French +courtier, was the second son of Antoine Coiffier Ruze, marquis d'Effiat, +marshal of France (1581-1632), and was introduced to the court of Louis +XIII. by Richelieu, who had been a friend of his father and who hoped he +would counteract the influence of the queen's favourite Mlle. de +Hautefort. Owing to his handsome appearance and agreeable manners he +soon became a favourite of the king, and was made successively master of +the wardrobe and master of the horse. After distinguishing himself at +the siege of Arras in 1640, Cinq-Mars wished for a high military +command, but Richelieu opposed his pretensions and the favourite talked +rashly about overthrowing the minister. He was probably connected with +the abortive rising of the count of Soissons in 1641; however that may +be, in the following year he formed a conspiracy with the duke of +Bouillon and others to overthrow Richelieu. This plot was under the +nominal leadership of the king's brother Gaston of Orleans. The plans of +the conspirators were aided by the illness of Richelieu and his absence +from the king, and at the siege of Narbonne Cinq-Mars almost induced +Louis to agree to banish his minister. Richelieu, however, recovered, +became acquainted with the attempt of Cinq-Mars to obtain assistance +from Spain, and laid the proofs of his treason before the king, who +ordered his arrest. Cinq-Mars was brought to trial, admitted his guilt, +and was condemned to death. He was executed at Lyons on the 12th of +September 1642. It is possible that Cinq-Mars was urged to engage in +this conspiracy by his affection for Louise Marie de Gonzaga +(1612-1667), afterwards queen of Poland, who was a prominent figure at +the court of Louis XIII.; and this tradition forms part of the plot of +Alfred de Vigny's novel _Cinq-Mars_. + + See Le P. Griffet, _Histoire de Louis XIII_; A. Bazin, _Histoire de + Louis XIII_ (1846); L. D'Astarac de Frontrailles, _Relations des + choses particulieres de la cour pendant la faveur de M. de Cinq-Mars_. + + + + +CINQUE CENTO (Italian for five hundred; short for 1500), in +architecture, the style which became prevalent in Italy in the century +following 1500, now usually called "16th-century work." It was the +result of the revival of classic architecture known as Renaissance, but +the change had commenced already a century earlier, in the works of +Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture, and of Brunelleschi and Alberti in +architecture. + + + + +CINQUE PORTS, the name of an ancient jurisdiction in the south of +England, which is still maintained with considerable modifications and +diminished authority. As the name implies, the ports originally +constituting the body were only five in number--Hastings, Romney, Hythe, +Dover and Sandwich; but to these were afterwards added the "ancient +towns" of Winchelsea and Rye with the same privileges, and a good many +other places, both corporate and non-corporate, which, with the title of +limb or member, held a subordinate position. To Hastings were attached +the corporate members of Pevensey and Seaford, and the non-corporate +members of Bulvarhythe, Petit Iham (Yham or Higham), Hydney, Bekesbourn, +Northeye and Grenche or Grange; to Romney, Lydd, and Old Romney, +Dengemarsh, Orwaldstone, and Bromehill or Promehill; to Dover, +Folkestone and Faversham, and Margate, St John's, Goresend (now +Birchington), Birchington Wood (now Woodchurch), St Peter's, Kingsdown +and Ringwould; to Sandwich, Fordwich and Deal, and Walmer, Ramsgate, +Reculver, Stonor (Estanor), Sarre (or Serre) and Brightlingsea (in +Essex). To Rye was attached the corporate member of Tenterden, and to a +Hythe the non-corporate member of West Hythe. The jurisdiction thus +extends along the coast from Seaford in Sussex to Birchington near +Margate in Kent; and it also includes a number of inland districts, at a +considerable distance from the ports with which they are connected. The +non-incorporated members are within the municipal jurisdiction of the +ports to which they are attached; but the corporate members are as free +within their own liberties as the individual ports themselves. + +The incorporation of the Cinque Ports had its origin in the necessity +for some means of defence along the southern seaboard of England, and in +the lack of any regular navy. Up to the reign of Henry VII. they had to +furnish the crown with nearly all the ships and men that were needful +for the state; and for a long time after they were required to give +large assistance to the permanent fleet. The oldest charter now on +record is one belonging to the 6th year of Edward I.; and it refers to +previous documents of the time of Edward the Confessor and William the +Conqueror. In return for their services the ports enjoyed extensive +privileges. From the Conquest or even earlier they had, besides various +lesser rights--(1) exemption from tax and tallage; (2) soc and sac, or +full cognizance of all criminal and civil cases within their liberties; +(3) tol and team, or the right of receiving toll and the right of +compelling the person in whose hands stolen property was found to name +the person from whom he received it; (4) blodwit and fledwit, or the +right to punish shedders of blood and those who were seized in an +attempt to escape from justice; (5) pillory and tumbrel; (6) +infangentheof and outfangentheof, or power to imprison and execute +felons; (7) mundbryce (the breaking into or violation of a man's _mund_ +or property in order to erect banks or dikes as a defence against the +sea); (8) waives and strays, or the right to appropriate lost property +or cattle not claimed within a year and a day; (9) the right to seize +all flotsam, jetsam, or ligan, or, in other words, whatever of value was +cast ashore by the sea; (10) the privilege of being a gild with power to +impose taxes for the common weal; and (11) the right of assembling in +portmote or parliament at Shepway or Shepway Cross, a few miles west of +Hythe (but afterwards at Dover), the parliament being empowered to make +by-laws for the Cinque Ports, to regulate the Yarmouth fishery, to hear +appeals from the local courts, and to give decision in all cases of +treason, sedition, illegal coining or concealment of treasure trove. The +ordinary business of the ports was conducted in two courts known +respectively as the court of brotherhood and the court of brotherhood +and guestling,--the former being composed of the mayors of the seven +principal towns and a number of jurats and freemen from each, and the +latter including in addition the mayors, bailiffs and other +representatives of the corporate members. The court of brotherhood was +formerly called the brotheryeeld, brodall or brodhull; and the name +guestling seems to owe its origin to the fact that the officials of the +"members" were at first in the position of invited guests. + +The highest office in connexion with the Cinque Ports is that of the +lord warden, who also acts as governor of Dover Castle, and has a +maritime jurisdiction (_vide infra_) as admiral of the ports. His power +was formerly of great extent, but he has now practically no important +duty to exercise except that of chairman of the Dover harbour board. The +emoluments of the office are confined to certain insignificant admiralty +droits. The patronage attached to the office consists of the right to +appoint the judge of the Cinque Ports admiralty court, the registrar of +the Cinque Ports and the marshal of the court; the right of appointing +salvage commissioners at each Cinque Port and the appointment of a +deputy to act as chairman of the Dover harbour board in the absence of +the lord warden. Walmer Castle was for long the official residence of +the lord warden, but has, since the resignation of Lord Curzon in 1903, +ceased to be so used, and those portions of it which are of historic +interest are now open to the public. George, prince of Wales (lord +warden, 1903-1907), was the first lord warden of royal blood since the +office was held by George, prince of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne. + +_Admiralty Jurisdiction._--The court of admiralty for the Cinque Ports +exercises a co-ordinate but not exclusive admiralty jurisdiction over +persons and things found within the territory of the Cinque Ports. The +limits of its jurisdiction were declared at an inquisition taken at the +court of admiralty, held by the seaside at Dover in 1682, to extend from +Shore Beacon in Essex to Redcliff, near Seaford, in Sussex; and with +regard to salvage, they comprise all the sea between Seaford in Sussex +to a point five miles off Cape Grisnez on the coast of France, and the +coast of Essex. An older inquisition of 1526 is given by R.G. Marsden in +his _Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty_, II. xxx. The court is an +ancient one. The judge sits as the official and commissary of the lord +warden, just as the judge of the high court of admiralty sat as the +official and commissary of the lord high admiral. And, as the office of +lord warden is more ancient than the office of lord high admiral (_The +Lord Warden_ v. _King in his office of Admiralty_, 1831, 2 Hagg. Admy. +Rep. 438), it is probable that the Cinque Ports court is the more +ancient of the two. + +The jurisdiction of the court has been, except in one matter of mere +antiquarian curiosity, unaffected by statute. It exercises only, +therefore, such jurisdiction as the high court of admiralty exercised, +apart from restraining statutes of 1389 and 1391 and enabling statutes +of 1840 and 1861. Cases of collision have been tried in it (the "Vivid," +1 _Asp. Maritime Law Cases_, 601). But salvage cases (the "Clarisse," +_Swabey_, 129; the "Marie," _Law. Rep. 7 P.D._ 203) are the principal +cases now tried. It has no prize jurisdiction. The one case in which +jurisdiction has been given to it by statute is to enforce forfeitures +under the statute of 1538. + +Dr (afterwards the Right Hon. Robert Joseph) Phillimore succeeded his +father as judge of the court from 1855 to 1875, being succeeded by Mr +Arthur Cohen, K.C. As Sir R. Phillimore was also the last judge of the +high court of admiralty, from 1867 (the date of his appointment to the +high court) to 1875, the two offices were, probably for the first time +in history, held by the same person. Dr Phillimore's patent had a grant +of the "place or office of judge official and commissary of the court of +admiralty of the Cinque Ports, and their members and appurtenances, and +to be assistant to my lieutenant of Dover castle in all such affairs and +business concerning the said court of admiralty wherein yourself and +assistance shall be requisite and necessary." Of old the court sat +sometimes at Sandwich, sometimes at other ports. But the regular place +for the sitting of the court has for a long time been, and still is, the +aisle of St James's church, Dover. For convenience the judge often sits +at the royal courts of justice. The office of marshal in the high court +is represented in this court by a serjeant, who also bears a silver oar. +There is a registrar, as in the high court. The appeal is to the king in +council, and is heard by the judicial committee of the privy council. +The court can hear appeals from the Cinque Ports salvage commissioners, +such appeals being final (Cinque Ports Act 1821). Actions may be +transferred to it, and appeals made to it, from the county courts in all +cases, arising within the jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports as defined by +that act. At the solemn installation of the lord warden the judge as the +next principal officer installs him. + +The Cinque Ports from the earliest times claimed to be exempt from the +jurisdiction of the admiral of England. Their early charters do not, +like those of Bristol and other seaports, express this exemption in +terms. It seems to have been derived from the general words of the +charters which preserve their liberties and privileges. + +The lord warden's claim to prize was raised in, but not finally decided +by, the high court of admiralty in the "Ooster Ems," 1 _C. Rob._ 284, +1783. + + See S. Jeake, _Charters of the Cinque Ports_ (1728); Boys, _Sandwich + and Cinque Ports_; Knocker, _Grand Court of Shepway_ (1862); M, + Burrows, _Cinque Ports_ (1895); F.M. Hueffer, _Cinque Ports_ (1900); + _Indices of the Great White and Black Books of the Cinque Ports_ + (1905). + + + + +CINTRA, a town of central Portugal, in the district of Lisbon, formerly +included in the province of Estramadura; 17 m. W.N.W. of Lisbon by the +Lisbon-Cacem-Cintra railway, and 6 m. N. by E. of Cape da Roca, the +westernmost promontory of the European mainland. Pop. (1900) 5914. +Cintra is magnificently situated on the northern slope of the Serra da +Cintra, a rugged mountain mass, largely overgrown with pines, +eucalyptus, cork and other forest trees, above which the principal +summits rise in a succession of bare and jagged grey peaks; the highest +being Cruz Alta (1772 ft.), marked by an ancient stone cross, and +commanding a wonderful view southward over Lisbon and the Tagus estuary, +and north-westward over the Atlantic and the plateau of Mafra. Few +European towns possess equal advantages of position and climate; and +every educated Portuguese is familiar with the verses in which the +beauty of Cintra is celebrated by Byron in _Childe Harold_ (1812), and +by Camoens in the national epic _Os Lusiadas_ (1572). One of the highest +points of the Serra is surmounted by the Palacio da Pena, a fantastic +imitation of a medieval fortress, built on the site of a Hieronymite +convent by the prince consort Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (d. 1885); while +an adjacent part of the range is occupied by the Castello des Mouros, an +extensive Moorish fortification, containing a small ruined mosque and a +very curious set of ancient cisterns. The lower slopes of the Serra are +covered with the gardens and villas of the wealthier inhabitants of +Lisbon, who migrate hither in spring and stay until late autumn. + +In the town itself the most conspicuous building is a 14th-15th-century +royal palace, partly Moorish, partly debased Gothic in style, and +remarkable for the two immense conical chimneys which rise like towers +in the midst. The 18th-century Palacio de Seteaes, built in the French +style then popular in Portugal, is said to derive its name ("Seven +_Ahs_") from a sevenfold echo; here, on the 22nd of August 1808, was +signed the convention of Cintra, by which the British and Portuguese +allowed the French army to evacuate the kingdom without molestation. +Beside the road which leads for 31/2 m. W. to the village of Collares, +celebrated for its wine, is the Penha Verde, an interesting country +house and chapel, founded by Joao de Castro (1500-1548), fourth viceroy +of the Indies. De Castro also founded the convent of Santa Cruz, better +known as the Convento de Cortica or Cork convent, which stands at the +western extremity of the Serra, and owes its name to the cork panels +which formerly lined its walls. Beyond the Penha Verde, on the Collares +road, are the palace and park of Montserrate. The palace was originally +built by William Beckford, the novelist and traveller (1761-1844), and +was purchased in 1856 by Sir Francis Cook, an Englishman who afterwards +obtained the Portuguese title viscount of Montserrate. The palace, which +contains a valuable library, is built of pure white stone, in Moorish +style; its walls are elaborately sculptured. The park, with its tropical +luxuriance of vegetation and its variety of lake, forest and mountain +scenery, is by far the finest example of landscape gardening in the +Iberian Peninsula, and probably among the finest in the world. Its +high-lying lawns, which overlook the Atlantic, are as perfect as any in +England, and there is one ravine containing a whole wood of giant +tree-ferns from New Zealand. Other rare plants have been systematically +collected and brought to Montserrate from all parts of the world by Sir +Francis Cook, and afterwards by his successor, Sir Frederick Cook, the +second viscount. The Praia das Macas, or "beach of apples," in the +centre of a rich fruit-bearing valley, is a favourite sea-bathing +station, connected with Cintra by an extension of the electric tramway +which runs through the town. + + + + +CIPHER, or CYPHER (from Arab, _[.s]ifr_, void), the symbol 0, nought, or +zero; and so a name for symbolic or secret writing (see CRYPTOGRAPHY), +or even for shorthand (q.v.), and also in elementary education for doing +simple sums ("ciphering"). + + + + +CIPPUS (Lat. for a "post" or "stake"), in architecture, a low pedestal, +either round or rectangular, set up by the Romans for various purposes +such as military or mile stones, boundary posts, &c. The inscriptions on +some in the British Museum show that they were occasionally funeral +memorials. + + + + +CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1727-1785), Italian painter and engraver, +Pistoiese by descent, was born in Florence in 1727. His first lessons +were given him by an Englishman, Ignatius Heckford or Hugford, and under +his second master, Antonio Domenico Gabbiani, he became a very clever +draughtsman. He was in Rome from 1750 to 1753, where he became +acquainted with Sir William Chambers, the architect, and Joseph Wilton, +the sculptor, whom he accompanied to England in August 1755. He had +already painted two pictures for the abbey of San Michele in Pelago, +Pistoia, which had brought him reputation, and on his arrival in England +he was patronized by Lord Tilney, the duke of Richmond and other +noblemen. His acquaintance with Sir William Chambers no doubt helped him +on, for when Chambers designed the Albany in London for Lord Holland, +Cipriani painted a ceiling for him. He also painted part of a ceiling in +Buckingham Palace, and a room with poetical subjects at Standlynch in +Wiltshire. Some of his best and most permanent work was, however, done +at Somerset House, built by his friend Chambers, upon which he lavished +infinite pains. He not only prepared the decorations for the interior of +the north block, but, says Joseph Baretti in his _Guide through the +Royal Academy_ (1780), "the whole of the carvings in the various fronts +of Somerset Place--excepting Bacon's bronze figures--were carved from +finished drawings made by Cipriani." These designs include the five +masks forming the keystones to the arches on the courtyard side of the +vestibule, and the two above the doors leading into the wings of the +north block, all of which are believed to have been carved by Nollekens. +The grotesque groups flanking the main doorways on three sides of the +quadrangle and the central doorway on the terrace appear also to have +been designed by Cipriani. The apartments in Sir William Chambers's +stately palace that were assigned to the Royal Academy, into which it +moved in 1780, owed much to Cipriani's graceful, if mannered, pencil. +The central panel of the library ceiling was painted by Sir Joshua +Reynolds, but the four compartments in the coves, representing Allegory, +Fable, Nature and History, were Cipriani's. These paintings still remain +at Somerset House, together with the emblematic painted ceiling, also +his work, of what was once the library of the Royal Society. It was +natural that Cipriani should thus devote himself to adorning the +apartments of the academy, since he was an original member (1768) of +that body, for which he designed the diploma so well engraved by +Bartolozzi. In recognition of his services in this respect the members +presented him in 1769 with a silver cup with a commemorative +inscription. He was much employed by the publishers, for whom he made +drawings in pen and ink, sometimes coloured. His friend Bartolozzi +engraved most of them. Drawings by him are in both the British Museum +and Victoria and Albert Museum. His best autograph engravings are "The +Death of Cleopatra," after Benvenuto Cellini; "The Descent of the Holy +Ghost," after Gabbiani; and portraits for Hollis's memoirs, 1780. He +painted allegorical designs for George III.'s state coach--which is +still in use--in 1782, and repaired Verrio's paintings at Windsor and +Rubens's ceiling in the Banqueting House at Whitehall. If his pictures +were often weak, his decorative treatment of children was usually +exceedingly happy. Some of his most pleasing work was that which, +directly or indirectly, he executed for the decoration of furniture. He +designed many groups of nymphs and _amorini_ and medallion subjects to +form the centre of Pergolesi's bands of ornament, and they were +continually reproduced upon the elegant satin-wood furniture which was +growing popular in his later days and by the end of the 18th century +became a rage. Sometimes these designs were inlaid in marqueterie, but +most frequently they were painted upon the satin-wood by other hands +with delightful effect, since in the whole range of English furniture +there is nothing more enchanting than really good finished satin-wood +pieces. There can be little doubt that some of the beautiful furniture +designed by the Adams was actually painted by Cipriani himself. He also +occasionally designed handles for drawers and doors. Cipriani died at +Hammersmith in 1785 and was buried at Chelsea, where Bartolozzi erected +a monument to his memory. He had married an English lady, by whom he had +two sons. + + + + +CIRCAR, an Indian term applied to the component parts of a _subah_ or +province, each of which is administered by a deputy-governor. In English +it is principally employed in the name of the NORTHERN CIRCARS, used to +designate a now obsolete division of the Madras presidency, which +consisted of a narrow slip of territory lying along the western side of +the Bay of Bengal from 15 deg. 40' to 20 deg. 17' N. lat. These Northern +Circars were five in number, Chicacole, Rajahmundry, Ellore, Kondapalli +and Guntur, and their total area was about 30,000 sq. m. + +The district corresponds in the main to the modern districts of Kistna, +Godavari, Vizagapatam, Ganjam and a part of Nellore. It was first +invaded by the Mahommedans in 1471; in 1541 they conquered Kondapalli, +and nine years later they extended their conquests over all Guntur and +the districts of Masulipatam. But the invaders appear to have acquired +only an imperfect possession of the country, as it was again wrested +from the Hindu princes of Orissa about the year 1571, during the reign +of Ibrahim, of the Kutb Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad or Golconda. In 1687 +the Circars were added, along with the empire of Hyderabad, to the +extensive empire of Aurangzeb. Salabat Jang, the son of the nizam ul +mulk Asaf Jah, who was indebted for his elevation to the throne to the +French East India Company, granted them in return for their services the +district of Kondavid or Guntur, and soon afterwards the other Circars. +In 1759, by the conquest of the fortress of Masulipatam, the dominion of +the maritime provinces on both sides, from the river Gundlakamma to the +Chilka lake, was necessarily transferred from the French to the British. +But the latter left them under the administration of the nizam, with the +exception of the town and fortress of Masulipatam, which were retained +by the English East India Company. In 1765 Lord Clive obtained from the +Mogul emperor Shah Alam a grant of the five Circars. Hereupon the fort +of Kondapalli was seized by the British, and on the 12th of November +1766 a treaty of alliance was signed with Nizam Ali by which the +Company, in return for the grant of the Circars, undertook to maintain +troops for the nizam's assistance. By a second treaty, signed on the 1st +of March 1768, the nizam acknowledged the validity of Shah Alam's grant +and resigned the Circars to the Company, receiving as a mark of +friendship an annuity of L50,000. Guntur, as the personal estate of the +nizam's brother Basalat Jang, was excepted during his lifetime under +both treaties. He died in 1782, but it was not till 1788 that Guntur +came under British administration. Finally, in 1823, the claims of the +nizam over the Northern Circars were bought outright by the Company, and +they became a British possession. + + + + +CIRCASSIA, a name formerly given to the north-western portion of the +Caucasus, including the district between the mountain range and the +Black Sea, and extending to the north of the central range as far as the +river Kuban. Its physical features are described in the article on the +Russian province of KUBAN, with which it approximately coincides. The +present article is confined to a consideration of the ethnographical +relations and characteristics of the people, their history being treated +under CAUCASIA. + +The Cherkesses or Circassians, who gave their name to this region, of +which they were until lately the sole inhabitants, are a peculiar race, +differing from the other tribes of the Caucasus in origin and language. +They designate themselves by the name of Adigheb, that of Cherkesses +being a term of Russian origin. By their long-continued struggles with +the power of Russia, during a period of nearly forty years, they +attracted the attention of the other nations of Europe in a high degree, +and were at the same time an object of interest to the student of the +history of civilization, from the strange mixture which their customs +exhibited of chivalrous sentiment with savage customs. For this reason +it may be still worth while to give a brief summary of their national +characteristics and manners, though these must now be regarded as in +great measure things of the past. + +In the patriarchal simplicity of their manners, the mental qualities +with which they were endowed, the beauty of form and regularity of +feature by which they were distinguished, they surpassed most of the +other tribes of the Caucasus. At the same time they were remarkable for +their warlike and intrepid character, their independence, their +hospitality to strangers, and that love of country which they manifested +in their determined resistance to an almost overwhelming power during +the period of a long and desolating war. The government under which they +lived was a peculiar form of the feudal system. The free Circassians +were divided into three distinct ranks, the princes or _pshi_, the +nobles or _uork_ (Tatar _usden_), and the peasants or _hokotl_. Like the +inhabitants of the other regions of the Caucasus, they were also divided +into numerous families, tribes or clans, some of which were very +powerful, and carried on war against each other with great animosity. +The slaves, of whom a large proportion were prisoners of war, were +generally employed in the cultivation of the soil, or in the domestic +service of some of the principal chiefs. + +The will of the people was acknowledged as the supreme source of +authority; and every free Circassian had a right to express his opinion +in those assemblies of his tribe in which the questions of peace and +war, almost the only subjects which engaged their attention, were +brought under deliberation. The princes and nobles, the leaders of the +people in war and their rulers in peace, were only the administrators of +a power which was delegated to them. As they had no written laws, the +administration of justice was regulated solely by custom and tradition, +and in those tribes professing Mahommedanism by the precepts of the +Koran. The most aged and respected inhabitants of the various _auls_ or +villages frequently sat in judgment, and their decisions were received +without a murmur by the contending parties. The Circassian princes and +nobles were professedly Mahommedans; but in their religious services +many of the ceremonies of their former heathen and Christian worship +were still preserved. A great part of the people had remained faithful +to the worship of their ancient gods--Shible, the god of thunder, of war +and of justice; Tleps, the god of fire; and Seosseres, the god of water +and of winds. Although the Circassians are said to have possessed minds +capable of the highest cultivation, the arts and sciences, with the +exception of poetry and music, were completely neglected. They possessed +no written language. The wisdom of their sages, the knowledge they had +acquired, and the memory of their warlike deeds were preserved in +verses, which were repeated from mouth to mouth and descended from +father to son. + +The education of the young Circassian was confined to riding, fencing, +shooting, hunting, and such exercises as were calculated to strengthen +his frame and prepare him for a life of active warfare. The only +intellectual duty of the _atalik_ or instructor, with whom the young men +lived until they had completed their education, was that of teaching +them to express their thoughts shortly, quickly and appropriately. One +of their marriage ceremonies was very strange. The young man who had +been approved by the parents, and had paid the stipulated price in +money, horses, oxen, or sheep for his bride, was expected to come with +his friends fully armed, and to carry her off by force from her father's +house. Every free Circassian had unlimited right over the lives of his +wife and children. Although polygamy was allowed by the laws of the +Koran, the custom of the country forbade it, and the Circassians were +generally faithful to the marriage bond. The respect for superior age +was carried to such an extent that the young brother used to rise from +his seat when the elder entered an apartment, and was silent when he +spoke. Like all the other inhabitants of the Caucasus, the Circassians +were distinguished for two very opposite qualities--the most generous +hospitality and implacable vindictiveness. Hospitality to the stranger +was considered one of the most sacred duties. Whatever were his rank in +life, all the members of the family rose to receive him on his entrance, +and conduct him to the principal seat in the apartment. The host was +considered responsible with his own life for the security of his guest, +upon whom, even although his deadliest enemy, he would inflict no injury +while under the protection of his roof. The chief who had received a +stranger was also bound to grant him an escort of horse to conduct him +in safety on his journey, and confide him to the protection of those +nobles with whom he might be on friendly terms. The law of vengeance was +no less binding on the Circassian. The individual who had slain any +member of a family was pursued with implacable vengeance by the +relatives, until his crime was expiated by death. The murderer might, +indeed, secure his safety by the payment of a certain sum of money, or +by carrying off from the house of his enemy a newly-born child, bringing +it up as his own, and restoring it when its education was finished. In +either case, the family of the slain individual might discontinue the +pursuit of vengeance without any stain upon its honour. The man closely +followed by his enemy, who, on reaching the dwelling of a woman, had +merely touched her hand, was safe from all other pursuit so long as he +remained under the protection of her roof. The opinions of the +Circassians regarding theft resembled those of the ancient Spartans. The +commission of the crime was not considered so disgraceful as its +discovery; and the punishment of being compelled publicly to restore the +stolen property to its original possessor, amid the derision of his +tribe, was much dreaded by the Circassian who would glory in a +successful theft. The greatest stain upon the Circassian character was +the custom of selling their children, the Circassian father being always +willing to part with his daughters, many of whom were bought by Turkish +merchants for the harems of Eastern monarchs. But no degradation was +implied in this transaction, and the young women themselves were +generally willing partners in it. Herds of cattle and sheep constituted +the chief riches of the inhabitants. The princes and nobles, from whom +the members of the various tribes held the land which they cultivated, +were the proprietors of the soil. The Circassians carried on little or +no commerce, and the state of perpetual warfare in which they lived +prevented them from cultivating any of the arts of peace. + + + + +CIRCE (Gr. [Greek: Kirke]), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, the +daughter of Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. Having murdered her +husband, the prince of Colchis, she was expelled by her subjects and +placed by her father on the solitary island of Aeaea on the coast of +Italy. She was able by means of drugs and incantations to change human +beings into the forms of wolves or lions, and with these beings her +palace was surrounded. Here she was found by Odysseus and his +companions; the latter she changed into swine, but the hero, protected +by the herb _moly_ (q.v.), which he had received from Hermes, not only +forced her to restore them to their original shape, but also gained her +love. For a year he relinquished himself to her endearments, and when he +determined to leave, she instructed him how to sail to the land of +shades which lay on the verge of the ocean stream, in order to learn his +fate from the prophet Teiresias. Upon his return she also gave him +directions for avoiding the dangers of the journey home (Homer, +_Odyssey_, x.-xii.; Hyginus, _Fab._ 125). The Roman poets associated her +with the most ancient traditions of Latium, and assigned her a home on +the promontory of Circei (Virgil, _Aeneid_, vii. 10). The metamorphoses +of Scylla and of Picus, king of the Ausonians, by Circe, are narrated in +Ovid (_Metamorphoses_, xiv.). + + _The Myth of Kirke_, by R. Brown (1883), in which Circe is explained + as a moon-goddess of Babylonian origin, contains an exhaustive summary + of facts, although many of the author's speculations may be proved + untenable (review by H. Bradley in _Academy_, January 19, 1884); see + also J.E. Harrison, _Myths of the Odyssey_ (1882); C. Seeliger in W.H. + Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_. + + + + +CIRCEIUS MONS (mod. _Monte Circeo_), an isolated promontory on the S.W. +coast of Italy, about 80 m. S.E. of Rome. It is a ridge of limestone +about 31/2 m. long by 1 m. wide at the base, running from E. to W. and +surrounded by the sea on all sides except the N. The land to the N. of +it is 53 ft. above sea-level, while the summit of the promontory is 1775 +ft. The origin of the name is uncertain: it has naturally been connected +with the legend of Circe, and Victor Berard (in _Les Pheniciens et +l'Odyssee_, ii. 261 seq.) maintains in support of the identification +that [Greek: Ahiaie], the Greek name for the island of Circe, is a +faithful transliteration of a Semitic name, meaning "island of the +hawk," of which [Greek: nesos Kirkes] is the translation. The difficulty +has been raised, especially by geologists, that the promontory ceased to +be an island at a period considerably before the time of Homer; but +Procopius very truly remarked that the promontory has all the appearance +of an island until one is actually upon it. Upon the E. end of the ridge +of the promontory are the remains of an enceinte, forming roughly a +rectangle of about 200 by 100 yds. of very fine polygonal work, on the +outside, the blocks being very carefully cut and jointed and right +angles being intentionally avoided. The wall stands almost entirely +free, as at Arpinum--polygonal walls in Italy are as a rule embanking +walls--and increases considerably in thickness as it descends. The +blocks of the inner face are much less carefully worked both here and at +Arpinum. It seems to have been an acropolis, and contains no traces of +buildings, except for a subterranean cistern, circular, with a beehive +roof of converging blocks. The modern village of S. Felice Circeo seems +to occupy the site of the ancient town, the citadel of which stood on +the mountain top, for its medieval walls rest upon ancient walls of +Cyclopean work of less careful construction than those of the citadel, +and enclosing an area of 200 by 150 yds. + +Circei was founded as a Roman colony at an early date--according to some +authorities in the time of Tarquinius Superbus, but more probably about +390 B.C. The existence of a previous population, however, is very likely +indicated by the revolt of Circei in the middle of the 4th century B.C., +so that it is doubtful whether the walls described are to be attributed +to the Romans or the earlier Volscian inhabitants. At the end of the +republic, however, or at latest at the beginning of the imperial period, +the city of Circei was no longer at the E. end of the promontory, but on +the E. shores of the Lago di Paola (a lagoon--now a considerable +fishery--separated from the sea by a line of sandhills and connected +with it by a channel of Roman date: Strabo speaks of it as a small +harbour) one mile N. of the W. end of the promontory. Here are the +remains of a Roman town, belonging to the 1st and 2nd centuries, +extending over an area of some 600 by 500 yards, and consisting of fine +buildings along the lagoons, including a large open _piscina_ or basin, +surrounded by a double portico, while farther inland are several very +large and well-preserved water-reservoirs, supplied by an aqueduct of +which traces may still be seen. An inscription speaks of an +amphitheatre, of which no remains are visible. The transference of the +city did not, however, mean the abandonment of the E. end of the +promontory, on which stand the remains of several very large villas. An +inscription, indeed, cut in the rock near S. Felice, speaks of this part +of the _promunturium Veneris_ (the only case of the use of this name) as +belonging to the city of Circei. On the S. and N. sides of the +promontory there are comparatively few buildings, while, at the W. end +there is a sheer precipice to the sea. The town only acquired municipal +rights after the Social War, and was a place of little importance, +except as a seaside resort. For its villas Cicero compares it with +Antium, and probably both Tiberius and Domitian possessed residences +there. The beetroot and oysters of Circei had a certain reputation. The +view from the highest summit of the promontory (which is occupied by +ruins of a platform attributed with great probability to a temple of +Venus or Circe) is of remarkable beauty; the whole mountain is covered +with fragrant shrubs. From any point in the Pomptine Marshes or on the +coast-line of Latium the Circeian promontory dominates the landscape in +the most remarkable way. + + See T. Ashby, "Monte Circeo," in _Melanges de l'ecole francaise de + Rome_, XXV. (1905) 157 seq. (T. As.) + + + + +CIRCLE (from the Lat. _circulus_, the diminutive of _circus_, a ring; +the cognate Gr. word is [Greek: kirkos], generally used in the form +[Greek: krikos]), a plane curve definable as the locus of a point which +moves so that its distance from a fixed point is constant. + +The form of a circle is familiar to all; and we proceed to define +certain lines, points, &c., which constantly occur in studying its +geometry. The fixed point in the preceding definition is termed the +"centre" (C in fig. 1); the constant distance, e.g. CG, the "radius." +The curve itself is sometimes termed the "circumference." Any line +through the centre and terminated at both extremities by the curve, e.g. +AB, is a "diameter"; any other line similarly terminated, e.g. EF, a +"chord." Any line drawn from an external point to cut the circle in two +points, e.g. DEF, is termed a "secant"; if it touches the circle, e.g. +DG, it is a "tangent." Any portion of the circumference terminated by +two points, e.g. AD (fig. 2), is termed an "arc"; and the plane figure +enclosed by a chord and arc, e.g. ABD, is termed a "segment"; if the +chord be a diameter, the segment is termed a "semicircle." The figure +included by two radii and an arc is a "sector," e.g. ECF (fig. 2). +"Concentric circles" are, as the name obviously shows, circles having +the same centre; the figure enclosed by the circumferences of two +concentric circles is an "annulus" (fig. 3), and of two non-concentric +circles a "lune," the shaded portions in fig. 4; the clear figure is +sometimes termed a "lens." + +[Illustration: FIG. 1] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +The circle was undoubtedly known to the early civilizations, its +simplicity specially recommending it as an object for study. Euclid +defines it (Book I. def. 15) as a "plane figure enclosed by one line, +all the straight lines drawn to which from one point within the figure +are equal to one another." In the succeeding three definitions the +centre, diameter and the semicircle are defined, while the third +postulate of the same book demands the possibility of describing a +circle for every "centre" and "distance." Having employed the circle for +the construction and demonstration of several propositions in Books I. +and II. Euclid devotes his third book entirely to theorems and problems +relating to the circle, and certain lines and angles, which he defines +in introducing the propositions. The fourth book deals with the circle +in its relations to inscribed and circumscribed triangles, +quadrilaterals and regular polygons. Reference should be made to the +article GEOMETRY: _Euclidean_, for a detailed summary of the Euclidean +treatment, and the elementary properties of the circle. + + +_Analytical Geometry of the Circle._ + + Cartesian co-ordinates. + +In the article GEOMETRY: _Analytical_, it is shown that the general +equation to a circle in rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates is +x^2+y^2+2gx+2fy+c=0, i.e. in the general equation of the second degree +the co-efficients of x^2 and y^2 are equal, and of xy zero. The +co-ordinates of its centre are -g/c, -f/c; and its radius is +(g^2+f^2-c)^1/2. The equations to the chord, tangent and normal are +readily derived by the ordinary methods. + +Consider the two circles:-- + + x^2+y^2+2gx+2fy+c=0, x^2+y^2+2g'x+2f'y+c'=0. + + Obviously these equations show that the curves intersect in four + points, two of which lie on the intersection of the line, 2(g - g')x + + 2(f - f')y + c - c' = 0, the radical axis, with the circles, and the + other two where the lines x squared + y squared = (x + iy) (x - iy) = 0 (where i = + sqrt -1) intersect the circles. The first pair of intersections may be + either real or imaginary; we proceed to discuss the second pair. + + The equation x squared + y squared = 0 denotes a pair of perpendicular imaginary + lines; it follows, therefore, that circles always intersect in two + imaginary points at infinity along these lines, and since the terms + x squared + y squared occur in the equation of every circle, it is seen that all + circles pass through two fixed points at infinity. The introduction of + these lines and points constitutes a striking achievement in geometry, + and from their association with circles they have been named the + "circular lines" and "circular points." Other names for the circular + lines are "circulars" or "isotropic lines." Since the equation to a + circle of zero radius is x squared + y squared = 0, i.e. identical with the circular + lines, it follows that this circle consists of a real point and the + two imaginary lines; conversely, the circular lines are both a pair of + lines and a circle. A further deduction from the principle of + continuity follows by considering the intersections of concentric + circles. The equations to such circles may be expressed in the form + x squared + y squared = [alpha] squared, x squared + y squared = [beta] squared. These equations show that the + circles touch where they intersect the lines x squared + y squared = 0, i.e. + concentric circles have double contact at the circular points, the + chord of contact being the line at infinity. + +In various systems of triangular co-ordinates the equations to circles +specially related to the triangle of reference assume comparatively +simple forms; consequently they provide elegant algebraical +demonstrations of properties concerning a triangle and the circles +intimately associated with its geometry. In this article the equations +to the more important circles--the circumscribed, inscribed, escribed, +self-conjugate--will be given; reference should be made to the article +TRIANGLE for the consideration of other circles (nine-point, Brocard, +Lemoine, &c.); while in the article GEOMETRY: _Analytical_, the +principles of the different systems are discussed. + + + Trilinear co-ordinates. + + The equation to the circumcircle assumes the simple form + a[beta][gamma] + b[gamma][alpha] + c[alpha][beta] = 0, the centre + being cos A, cos B, cos C. The inscribed circle is cos 1/2A sqrt([alpha]) + cos 1/2B sqrt([beta]) + cos 1/2C sqrt([gamma]) = 0, with centre [alpha] = + [beta] = [gamma]; while the escribed circle opposite the angle A is + cos 1/2A sqrt(-[alpha]) + sin 1/2B sqrt([beta]) + sin 1/2C sqrt([gamma]) = + 0, with centre -[alpha] = [beta] = [gamma]. The self-conjugate circle + is [alpha] squared sin 2A + [beta] squared sin 2B + [gamma] squared sin 2C = 0, or the + equivalent form a cos A [alpha] squared + b cos B [beta] squared + c cos C [gamma] squared = + 0, the centre being sec A, sec B, sec C. + + The general equation to the circle in trilinear co-ordinates is + readily deduced from the fact that the circle is the only curve which + intersects the line infinity in the circular points. Consider the + equation + + a[beta][gamma] + b[gamma][alpha] + C[alpha][beta] + (l[alpha] + + m[beta] + n[gamma]) (a[alpha] + b[beta] + c[gamma]) = 0 (1). + + This obviously represents a conic intersecting the circle + a[beta][gamma] + b[gamma][alpha] + c[alpha][beta] = 0 in points on the + common chords l[alpha] + m[beta] + n[gamma] = 0, a[alpha] + b[beta] + + c[gamma] = 0. The line l[alpha] + m[beta] + n[gamma] is the radical + axis, and since a[alpha] + b[beta] + c[gamma] = 0 is the line + infinity, it is obvious that equation (1) represents a conic passing + through the circular points, i.e. a circle. If we compare (1) with the + general equation of the second degree u[alpha] squared + v[beta] squared + w[gamma] squared + + 2u'[beta][gamma] + 2v'[gamma][alpha] + 2w'[alpha][beta] = 0, it is + readily seen that for this equation to represent a circle we must have + + -kabc = vc squared + wb squared - 2u'bc = wa squared + uc squared - 2v'ca = ub squared + va squared - 2w'ab. + + + Areal co-ordinates. + + The corresponding equations in areal co-ordinates are readily derived + by substituting x/a, y/b, z/c for [alpha], [beta], [gamma] + respectively in the trilinear equations. The circumcircle is thus seen + to be a squaredyz + b squaredzx + c squaredxy = 0, with centre sin 2A, sin 2B, sin 2C; the + inscribed circle is sqrt(x cot 1/2A) + sqrt(y cot 1/2B) + sqrt(z cot 1/2C) = + 0, with centre sin A, sin B, sin C; the escribed circle opposite the + angle A is sqrt(-x cot 1/2A) + sqrt(y tan 1/2B) + sqrt(z tan 1/2C)=0, with + centre - sin A, sin B, sin C; and the self-conjugate circle is x squared cot + A + y squared cot B + z squared cot C = 0, with centre tan A, tan B, tan C. Since in + areal co-ordinates the line infinity is represented by the equation x + + y + z = 0 it is seen that every circle is of the form a squaredyz + b squaredzx + + c squaredxy + (lx + my + nz)(x + y + z) = 0. Comparing this equation with ux squared + + vy squared + wz squared + 2u'yz + 2v'zx + 2w'xy = 0, we obtain as the condition + for the general equation of the second degree to represent a + circle:-- + + (v + w - 2u')/a squared = (w + u - 2v')/b squared = (u + v - 2w')/c squared. + + + Tangential co-ordinates. + + In tangential (p, q, r) co-ordinates the inscribed circle has for its + equation (s - a)qr + (s - b)rp + (s - c)pq = 0, s being equal to 1/2(a + + b + c); an alternative form is qr cot 1/2A + rp cot 1/2B + pq cot 1/2C = 0; + the centre is ap + bq + cr = 0, or p sin A + q sin B + r sin C = 0. + The escribed circle opposite the angle A is -sqr + (s - c)rp + (s - + b)pq = 0 or -qr cot 1/2A + rp tan 1/2B + pq tan 1/2C = 0, with centre -ap + + bq + cr = 0. The circumcircle is a sqrt(p) + b sqrt(q) + c sqrt(r) = + 0, the centre being p sin 2A + q sin 2B + r sin 2C = 0. The general + equation to a circle in this system of co-ordinates is deduced as + follows: If [rho] be the radius and lp + mq + nr = 0 the centre, we + have [rho] = (lp1 + mq1 + nr1)/(l + m + n), in which p1, q1, r1 is a + line distant [rho] from the point lp + mq + nr = 0. Making this + equation homogeneous by the relation [Sigma]a squared(p - q) (p - r) = + 4[Delta] squared (see GEOMETRY: _Analytical_), which is generally written + {ap, bq, cr} squared = 4[Delta] squared, we obtain {ap, bq, cr} squared[rho] squared = + 4[Delta] squared{(lp + mq + nr)/(l + m + n)} squared, the accents being dropped, and + p, q, r regarded as current co-ordinates. This equation, which may be + more conveniently written {ap, bq, cr} squared = ([lambda]p + [mu]q + + [nu]r) squared, obviously represents a circle, the centre being [lambda]p + + [mu]q + [nu]r = 0, and radius 2[Delta]/([lambda] + [mu] + [nu]). If we + make [lambda] = [mu] = [nu] = 0, [rho] is infinite, and we obtain {ap, + bq, cr} squared = 0 as the equation to the circular points. + + +_Systems of Circles._ + +_Centres and Circle of Similitude._--The "centres of similitude" of two +circles may be defined as the intersections of the common tangents to +the two circles, the direct common tangents giving rise to the "external +centre," the transverse tangents to the "internal centre." It may be +readily shown that the external and internal centres are the points +where the line joining the centres of the two circles is divided +externally and internally in the ratio of their radii. + +The circle on the line joining the internal and external centres of +similitude as diameter is named the "circle of similitude." It may be +shown to be the locus of the vertex of the triangle which has for its +base the distance between the centres of the circles and the ratio of +the remaining sides equal to the ratio of the radii of the two circles. + +With a system of three circles it is readily seen that there are six +centres of similitude, viz. two for each pair of circles, and it may be +shown that these lie three by three on four lines, named the "axes of +similitude." The collinear centres are the three sets of one external +and two internal centres, and the three external centres. + +_Coaxal Circles._--A system of circles is coaxal when the locus of +points from which tangents to the circles are equal is a straight line. +Consider the case of two circles, and in the first place suppose them to +intersect in two real points A and B. Then by Euclid iii. 36 it is seen +that the line joining the points A and B is the locus of the +intersection of equal tangents, for if P be any point on AB and PC and +PD the tangents to the circles, then PA.PB = PC squared = PD squared, and therefore PC += PD. Furthermore it is seen that AB is perpendicular to the line +joining the centres, and divides it in the ratio of the squares of the +radii. The line AB is termed the "radical axis." A system coaxal with +the two given circles is readily constructed by describing circles +through the common points on the radical axis and any third point; the +minimum circle of the system is obviously that which has the common +chord of intersection for diameter, the maximum is the radical +axis--considered as a circle of infinite radius. In the case of two +non-intersecting circles it may be shown that the radical axis has the +same metrical relations to the line of centres. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5] + + There are several methods of constructing the radical axis in this + case. One of the simplest is: Let P and P' (fig. 5) be the points of + contact of a common tangent; drop perpendiculars PL, P'L', from P and + P' to OO', the line joining the centres, then the radical axis bisects + LL' (at X) and is perpendicular to OO'. To prove this let AB, AB1 be + the tangents from any point on the line AX. Then by Euc. i. 47, AB squared = + AO squared - OB squared = AX squared + OX squared + OP squared; and OX squared = OD squared - DX squared = OP squared + PD squared - DX squared. + Therefore AB squared = AX squared - DX squared + PD squared. Similarly AB' squared = AX squared - DX squared + DP' squared. + Since PD = PD', it follows that AB = AB'. + + To construct circles coaxal with the two given circles, draw the + tangent, say XR, from X, the point where the radical axis intersects + the line of centres, to one of the given circles, and with centre X + and radius XR describe a circle. Then circles having the intersections + of tangents to this circle and the line of centres for centres, and + the lengths of the tangents as radii, are members of the coaxal + system. + +In the case of non-intersecting circles, it is seen that the minimum +circles of the coaxal system are a pair of points I and I', where the +orthogonal circle to the system intersects the line of centres; these +points are named the "limiting points." In the case of a coaxal system +having real points of intersection the limiting points are imaginary. +Analytically, the Cartesian equation to a coaxal system can be written +in the form x squared + y squared + 2ax +- k squared = 0, where a varies from member to +member, while k is a constant. The radical axis is x = 0, and it may be +shown that the length of the tangent from a point (0, h) is h squared +- k squared, +i.e. it is independent of a, and therefore of any particular member of +the system. The circles intersect in real or imaginary points according +to the lower or upper sign of k squared, and the limiting points are real for +the upper sign and imaginary for the lower sign. The fundamental +properties of coaxal systems may be summarized:-- + + 1. The centres of circles forming a coaxal system are collinear; + + 2. A coaxal system having real points of intersection has imaginary + limiting points; + + 3. A coaxal system having imaginary points of intersection has real + limiting points; + + 4. Every circle through the limiting points cuts all circles of the + system orthogonally; + + 5. The limiting points are inverse points for every circle of the + system. + +The theory of centres of similitude and coaxal circles affords elegant +demonstrations of the famous problem: To describe a circle to touch +three given circles. This problem, also termed the "Apollonian problem," +was demonstrated with the aid of conic sections by Apollonius in his +book on _Contacts_ or _Tangencies_; geometrical solutions involving the +conic sections were also given by Adrianus Romanus, Vieta, Newton and +others. The earliest analytical solution appears to have been given by +the princess Elizabeth, a pupil of Descartes and daughter of Frederick +V. John Casey, professor of mathematics at the Catholic university of +Dublin, has given elementary demonstrations founded on the theory of +similitude and coaxal circles which are reproduced in his _Sequel to +Euclid_; an analytical solution by Gergonne is given in Salmon's _Conic +Sections_. Here we may notice that there are eight circles which solve +the problem. + + +_Mensuration of the Circle._ + +All exact relations pertaining to the mensuration of the circle involve +the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. This ratio, invariably +denoted by [pi], is constant for all circles, but it does not admit of +exact arithmetical expression, being of the nature of an incommensurable +number. Very early in the history of geometry it was known that the +circumference and area of a circle of radius r could be expressed in the +forms 2[pi]r and [pi]r squared. The exact geometrical evaluation of the second +quantity, viz. [pi]r squared, which, in reality, is equivalent to determining a +square equal in area to a circle, engaged the attention of +mathematicians for many centuries. The history of these attempts, +together with modern contributions to our knowledge of the value and +nature of the number [pi], is given below (_Squaring of the Circle_). + + The following table gives the values of this constant and several + expiessions involving it:-- + + +--------------+-----------+-----------+ + | | Number. | Logarithm.| + +--------------+-----------+-----------+ + | [pi] | 3.1415927 | 0.4971499 | + | 2 [pi] | 6.2831858 | 0.7981799 | + | 4 [pi] |12.5663706 | 1.0992099 | + | (1/2) [pi] | 1.5707963 | 0.1961199 | + | (1/3) [pi] | 1.0471976 | 0.0200286 | + | (1/4) [pi] | 0.7853982 | 1.8950899 | + | (1/6) [pi] | 0.5235988 | 1.7189986 | + | (1/8) [pi] | 0.3926991 | 1.5940599 | + | (1/12) [pi] | 0.2617994 | 1.4179686 | + | (4/3) [pi] | 4.1887902 | 0.6220886 | + | | | | + | [pi] | | | + | ------ | 0.0174533 | 2.2418774 | + | 180 | | | + | | | | + | 1 | | | + | ------ | 0.3183099 | 1.5028501 | + | [pi] | | | + | | | | + | 4 | | | + | ------ | 1.2732395 | 0.1049101 | + | [pi] | | | + | | | | + | 1 | | | + | ------ | 0.0795775 | 2.9097901 | + | 4 [pi] | | | + | | | | + | 180 | | | + | ------ |57.2957795 | 1.7581226 | + | [pi] | | | + | | | | + | [pi] squared | 9.8696044 | 0.9942997 | + | | | | + | 1 | | | + | -------- | 0.0168869 | 2.2275490 | + | 6 [pi] squared | | | + | | | | + | _____ | | | + | \/ [pi] | 1.7724539 | 0.2485750 | + | | | | + | _____ | | | + | \ cubed/ [pi] | 1.4645919 | 0.1657166 | + | | | | + | | | | + | 1 | | | + | -------- | | | + | _____ | 0.5641896 | 1.7514251 | + | \/ [pi] | | | + | | | | + | 2 | | | + | -------- | | | + | _____ | 1.1283792 | 0.0524551 | + | \/ [pi] | | | + | | | | + | 1 | | | + | ---------- | | | + | _____ | 0.2820948 | 1.4503951 | + | 2 \/ [pi] | | | + | | | | + | _____ | | | + | / 6 | | | + | \ cubed/ ---- | 1.2407010 | 0.0936671 | + | V [pi] | | | + | | | | + | ______ | | | + | / 3 | | | + | \ cubed/ ------- | 0.6203505 | 1.7926371 | + | V 4 [pi] | | | + | | | | + | log e [pi] | 1.1447299 | 0.0587030 | + +--------------+-----------+-----------+ + + Useful fractional approximations are 22/7 and 355/113. + + A synopsis of the leading formula connected with the circle will now + be given. + + 1. _Circle._--Data: radius = a. Circumference = 2[pi]a. Area = [pi]a squared. + + 2. _Arc_ and _Sector_.--Data: radius = a; [theta] = circular measure + of angle subtended at centre by arc; c = chord of arc; c2 = chord of + semi-arc; c4 = chord of quarter-arc. + + Exact formulae are:--Arc = a[theta], where [theta] may be given + directly, or indirectly by the relation c = 2a sin 1/2[theta]. Area of + sector = 1/2a squared[theta] = 1/2 radius x arc. + + Approximate formulae are:--Arc = (1/3)(8c2 - c) (Huygen's formula); + arc = (1/45)(c - 40c2 + 256c4). + + 3. _Segment._--Data: a, [theta], c, c2, as in (2); h = height of + segment, i.e. distance of mid-point of arc from chord. + + Exact formulae are:--Area = 1/2a squared([theta] - sin [theta]) = 1/2a squared[theta] + -1/4c squared cot 1/2[theta] = 1/2a squared - 1/2c sqrt(a squared - 1/4c squared). If h be given, we can use + c squared + 4h squared = 8ah, 2h = c tan 1/4[theta] to determine [theta]. + + Approximate formulae are:--Area = (1/15)(6c + 8c2)h; = (2/3) sqrt(c squared + + (8/5)h squared).h; = (1/15)(7c + 3[alpha])h, [alpha] being the true length of + the arc. + + From these results the mensuration of any figure bounded by circular + arcs and straight lines can be determined, e.g. the area of a _lune_ + or _meniscus_ is expressible as the difference or sum of two segments, + and the circumference as the sum of two arcs. (C. E.*) + + +_Squaring of the Circle._ + +The problem of finding a square equal in area to a given circle, like +all problems, may be increased in difficulty by the imposition of +restrictions; consequently under the designation there may be embraced +quite a variety of geometrical problems. It has to be noted, however, +that, when the "squaring" of the circle is especially spoken of, it is +almost always tacitly assumed that the restrictions are those of the +Euclidean geometry. + +Since the area of a circle equals that of the rectilineal triangle whose +base has the same length as the circumference and whose altitude equals +the radius (Archimedes, [Greek: Kyklou metresis], prop. 1), it follows +that, if a straight line could be drawn equal in length to the +circumference, the required square could be found by an ordinary +Euclidean construction; also, it is evident that, conversely, if a +square equal in area to the circle could be obtained it would be +possible to draw a straight line equal to the circumference. +Rectification and quadrature of the circle have thus been, since the +time of Archimedes at least, practically identical problems. Again, +since the circumferences of circles are proportional to their +diameters--a proposition assumed to be true from the dawn almost of +practical geometry--the rectification of the circle is seen to be +transformable into finding the ratio of the circumference to the +diameter. This correlative numerical problem and the two purely +geometrical problems are inseparably connected historically. + +Probably the earliest value for the ratio was 3. It was so among the +Jews (1 Kings vii. 23, 26), the Babylonians (Oppert, _Journ. asiatique_, +August 1872, October 1874), the Chinese (Biot, _Journ. asiatique_, June +1841), and probably also the Greeks. Among the ancient Egyptians, as +would appear from a calculation in the Rhind papyrus, the number +(4/3)^4, i.e. 3.1605, was at one time in use.[1] The first attempts to +solve the purely geometrical problem appear to have been made by the +Greeks (Anaxagoras, &c.)[2], one of whom, Hippocrates, doubtless raised +hopes of a solution by his quadrature of the so-called _meniscoi_ or +_lune_.[3] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6.] + +[Illustration: Fig. 7.] + +[The Greeks were in possession of several relations pertaining to the +quadrature of the lune. The following are among the more interesting. In +fig. 6, ABC is an isosceles triangle right angled at C, ADB is the +semicircle described on AB as diameter, AEB the circular arc described +with centre C and radius CA = CB. It is easily shown that the areas of +the lune ADBEA and the triangle ABC are equal. In fig. 7, ABC is any +triangle right angled at C, semicircles are described on the three +sides, thus forming two lunes AFCDA and CGBEC. The sum of the areas of +these lunes equals the area of the triangle ABC.] + +As for Euclid, it is sufficient to recall the facts that the original +author of prop. 8 of book iv. had strict proof of the ratio being <4, +and the author of prop. 15 of the ratio being >3, and to direct +attention to the importance of book x. on incommensurables and props. 2 +and 16 of book xii., viz. that "circles are to one another as the +squares on their diameters" and that "in the greater of two concentric +circles a regular 2n-gon can be inscribed which shall not meet the +circumference of the less," however nearly equal the circles may be. + +[Illustration: FIG. 8.] + +With Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) a notable advance was made. Taking the +circumference as intermediate between the perimeters of the inscribed +and the circumscribed regular n-gons, he showed that, the radius of the +circle being given and the perimeter of some particular circumscribed +regular polygon obtainable, the perimeter of the circumscribed regular +polygon of double the number of sides could be calculated; that the like +was true of the inscribed polygons; and that consequently a means was +thus afforded of approximating to the circumference of the circle. As a +matter of fact, he started with a semi-side AB of a circumscribed +regular hexagon meeting the circle in B (see fig. 8), joined A and B +with O the centre, bisected the angle AOB by OD, so that BD became the +semi-side of a circumscribed regular 12-gon; then as AB:BO:OA::1: +sqrt(3):2 he sought an approximation to sqrt(3) and found that AB:BO > +153:265. Next he applied his theorem[4] BO + OA:AB::OB:BD to calculate +BD; from this in turn he calculated the semi-sides of the circumscribed +regular 24-gon, 48-gon and 96-gon, and so finally established for the +circumscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter:diameter < (3-1/7):1. In a +quite analogous manner he proved for the inscribed regular 96-gon that +perimeter:diameter > 3-(10/71):1. The conclusion from these therefore +was that the ratio of circumference to diameter is < 3-1/7 and > +3-(10/71). This is a most notable piece of work; the immature condition +of arithmetic at the time was the only real obstacle preventing the +evaluation of the ratio to any degree of accuracy whatever.[5] + +No advance of any importance was made upon the achievement of Archimedes +until after the revival of learning. His immediate successors may have +used his method to attain a greater degree of accuracy, but there is +very little evidence pointing in this direction. Ptolemy (fl. 127-151), +in the _Great Syntaxis_, gives 3.141552 as the ratio[6]; and the Hindus +(c. A.D. 500), who were very probably indebted to the Greeks, used +62832/20000, that is, the now familiar 3.1416.[7] + +It was not until the 15th century that attention in Europe began to be +once more directed to the subject, and after the resuscitation a +considerable length of time elapsed before any progress was made. The +first advance in accuracy was due to a certain Adrian, son of Anthony, a +native of Metz (1527), and father of the better-known Adrian Metius of +Alkmaar. In refutation of Duchesne(Van der Eycke), he showed that the +ratio was < 3-(17/120) and > 3-(15/106), and thence made the exceedingly +lucky step of taking a mean between the two by the quite unjustifiable +process of halving the sum of the two numerators for a new numerator and +halving the sum of the two denominators for a new denominator, thus +arriving at the now well-known approximation 3-(16/113) or 355/113, +which, being equal to 3.1415929..., is correct to the sixth fractional +place.[8] + +The next to advance the calculation was Francisco Vieta. By finding the +perimeter of the inscribed and that of the circumscribed regular polygon +of 393216 (i.e. 6 X 2^16) sides, he proved that the ratio was > +3.1415926535 and < 3.1415926537, so that its value became known (in +1579) correctly to 10 fractional places. The theorem for angle-bisection +which Vieta used was not that of Archimedes, but that which would now +appear in the form 1 - cos [theta] = 2 sin squared 1/2[theta]. With Vieta, by +reason of the advance in arithmetic, the style of treatment becomes more +strictly trigonometrical; indeed, the _Universales Inspectiones_, in +which the calculation occurs, would now be called plane and spherical +trigonometry, and the accompanying _Canon mathematicus_ a table of +sines, tangents and secants.[9] Further, in comparing the labours of +Archimedes and Vieta, the effect of increased power of symbolical +expression is very noticeable. Archimedes's process of unending cycles +of arithmetical operations could at best have been expressed in his time +by a "rule" in words; in the 16th century it could be condensed into a +"formula." Accordingly, we find in Vieta a formula for the ratio of +diameter to circumference, viz. the interminate product[10]-- + + ___________________ + __________ / ___________ + ___ / ___ / / ___ + 1/2 \/ 1/2 . \/ 1/2 + 1/2\/ 1/2 . \/ 1/2 + 1/2 \/ 1/2 + 1/2 \/ 1/2 ... + +From this point onwards, therefore, no knowledge whatever of geometry +was necessary in any one who aspired to determine the ratio to any +required degree of accuracy; the problem being reduced to an +arithmetical computation. Thus in connexion with the subject a genus of +workers became possible who may be styled "[pi]-computers or +circle-squarers"--a name which, if it connotes anything uncomplimentary, +does so because of the almost entirely fruitless character of their +labours. Passing over Adriaan van Roomen (Adrianus Romanus) of Louvain, +who published the value of the ratio correct to 15 places in his _Idea +mathematica_ (1593),[11] we come to the notable computer Ludolph van +Ceulen (d. 1610), a native of Germany, long resident in Holland. His +book, _Van den Circkel_ (Delft, 1596), gave the ratio correct to 20 +places, but he continued his calculations as long as he lived, and his +best result was published on his tombstone in St Peter's church, Leiden. +The inscription, which is not known to be now in existence,[12] is in +part as follows:-- + + ... Qui in vita sua multo labore circumferentiae circuli proximam + rationem ad diametrum invenit sequentem-- + + quando diameter est 1 + tum circuli circumferentia plus est + + quam 314159265358979323846264338327950288 + 1OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO + + et minus + quam 314159265358979323846264338327950289 + 1OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ... + +This gives the ratio correct to 35 places. Van Ceulen's process was +essentially identical with that of Vieta. Its numerous root extractions +amply justify a stronger expression than "multo labore," especially in +an epitaph. In Germany the "Ludolphische Zahl" (Ludolph's number) is +still a common name for the ratio.[13] + +[Illustration: FIG. 9.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 10.] + +Up to this point the credit of most that had been done may be set down +to Archimedes. A new departure, however, was made by Willebrord Snell of +Leiden in his _Cyclometria_, published in 1621. His achievement was a +closely approximate geometrical solution of the problem of rectification +(see fig. 9): ACB being a semicircle whose centre is O, and AC the arc +to be rectified, he produced AB to D, making BD equal to the radius, +joined DC, and produced it to meet the tangent at A in E; and then his +assertion (not established by him) was that AE was nearly equal to the +arc AC, the error being in defect. For the purposes of the calculator a +solution erring in excess was also required, and this Snell gave by +slightly varying the former construction. Instead of producing AB (see +fig. 10) so that BD was equal to r, he produced it only so far that, +when the extremity D' was joined with C, the part D'F outside the circle +was equal to r; in other words, by a non-Euclidean construction he +trisected the angle AOC, for it is readily seen that, since FD' = FO = +OC, the angle FOB = (1/3)AOC.[14] This couplet of constructions is as +important from the calculator's point of view as it is interesting +geometrically. To compare it on this score with the fundamental +proposition of Archimedes, the latter must be put into a form similar to +Snell's. AMC being an arc of a circle (see fig. 11) whose centre is O, +AC its chord, and HK the tangent drawn at the middle point of the arc +and bounded by OA, OC produced, then, according to Archimedes, AMC < HK, +but > AC. In modern trigonometrical notation the propositions to be +compared stand as follows:-- + + 2 tan 1/2[theta] > [theta] > 2sin 1/2 [theta] (Archimedes); + + 3 sin [theta] + tan (1/3)[theta] + 2sin (1/3)[theta] > [theta] > --------------- (Snell). + 2 + cos [theta] + +It is readily shown that the latter gives the best approximation to +[theta]; but, while the former requires for its application a knowledge +of the trigonometrical ratios of only one angle (in other words, the +ratios of the sides of only one right-angled triangle), the latter +requires the same for two angles, [theta] and (1/3)[theta]. Grienberger, +using Snell's method, calculated the ratio correct to 39 fractional +places.[15] C. Huygens, in his _De Circuli Magnitudine Inventa_, 1654, +proved the propositions of Snell, giving at the same time a number of +other interesting theorems, for example, two inequalities which may be +written as follows[16]-- + + 4chd [theta] + sin [theta] 1 + chd [theta] + --------------------------- . --- (chd [theta] - sin [theta]) > + 2chd [theta] + 3sin [theta] 3 + + 1 + [theta] > chd [theta] + --- (chd [theta] - sin [theta]). + 3 +[Illustration: FIG. 11.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 12.] + +As might be expected, a fresh view of the matter was taken by Rene +Descartes. The problem he set himself was the exact converse of that of +Archimedes. A given straight line being viewed as equal in length to the +circumference of a circle, he sought to find the diameter of the circle. +His construction is as follows (see fig. 12). Take AB equal to one-fourth +of the given line; on AB describe a square ABCD; join AC; in AC produced +find, by a known process, a point C1 such that, when C1B1 is drawn +perpendicular to AB produced and C1D1 perpendicular to BC produced, the +rectangle BC1 will be equal to 1/4ABCD; by the same process find a point C2 +such that the rectangle B1C2 will be equal to 1/4BC1; and so on _ad +infinitum_. The diameter sought is the straight line from A to the +limiting position of the series of B's, say the straight line AB[oo]. As +in the case of the process of Archimedes, we may direct our attention +either to the infinite series of geometrical operations or to the +corresponding infinite series of arithmetical operations. Denoting the +number of units in AB by 1/4c, we can express BB1, B1B2, ... in terms of +1/4c, and the identity AB[oo] = AB + BB1 + B1B2 + ... gives us at once an +expression for the diameter in terms of the circumference by means of an +infinite series.[17] The proof of the correctness of the construction is +seen to be involved in the following theorem, which serves likewise to +throw new light on the subject:--AB being any straight line whatever, and +the above construction being made, then AB is the diameter of the circle +circumscribed by the square ABCD (self-evident), AB1 is the diameter of +the circle circumscribed by the regular 8-gon having the same perimeter +as the square, AB2 is the diameter of the circle circumscribed by the +regular 16-gon having the same perimeter as the square, and so on. +Essentially, therefore, Descartes's process is that known later as the +process of _isoperimeters_, and often attributed wholly to Schwab.[18] + +In 1655 appeared the _Arithmetica Infinitorum_ of John Wallis, where +numerous problems of quadrature are dealt with, the curves being now +represented in Cartesian co-ordinates, and algebra playing an important +part. In a very curious manner, by viewing the circle y = (1 - x squared)^1/2 +as a member of the series of curves y = (1 - x squared)1, y = (1 - x +squared) squared, &c., he was led to the proposition that four times the +reciprocal of the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, i.e. 4/[pi], +is equal to the infinite product + + 3 . 3 . 5 . 5 . 7 . 7 . 9 ... + -----------------------------; + 2 . 4 . 4 . 6 . 6 . 8 . 8 ... + +and, the result having been communicated to Lord Brounker, the latter +discovered the equally curious equivalent continued fraction + + 1 squared 3 squared 5 squared 7 squared + 1 + --- --- --- --- ... + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + +The work of Wallis had evidently an important influence on the next +notable personality in the history of the subject, James Gregory, who +lived during the period when the higher algebraic analysis was coming +into power, and whose genius helped materially to develop it. He had, +however, in a certain sense one eye fixed on the past and the other +towards the future. His first contribution[19] was a variation of the +method of Archimedes. The latter, as we know, calculated the perimeters +of successive polygons, passing from one polygon to another of double +the number of sides; in a similar manner Gregory calculated the areas. +The general theorems which enabled him to do this, after a start had +been made, are + + _____ + A2n = \/AnA'n (Snell's _Cyclom._), + + 2 An A'n 2 A'n A2n + A'2n = ---------- or ----------- (Gregory), + An + A'2n A'n + A2n + +where An, A'n are the areas of the inscribed and the circumscribed +regular n-gons respectively. He also gave approximate rectifications of +circular arcs after the manner of Huygens; and, what is very notable, he +made an ingenious and, according to J.E. Montucla, successful attempt to +show that quadrature of the circle by a Euclidean construction was +impossible.[20] Besides all this, however, and far beyond it in +importance, was his use of infinite series. This merit he shares with +his contemporaries N. Mercator, Sir I. Newton and G.W. Leibnitz, and the +exact dates of discovery are a little uncertain. As far as the +circle-squaring functions are concerned, it would seem that Gregory was +the first (in 1670) to make known the series for the arc in terms of the +tangent, the series for the tangent in terms of the arc, and the secant +in terms of the arc; and in 1669 Newton showed to Isaac Barrow a little +treatise in manuscript containing the series for the arc in terms of the +sine, for the sine in terms of the arc, and for the cosine in terms of +the arc. These discoveries formed an epoch in the history of +mathematics generally, and had, of course, a marked influence on after +investigations regarding circle-quadrature. Even among the mere +computers the series + + [theta] = tan - (1/3) tan^3 [theta] + (1/5) tan^5 [theta] - ..., + +specially known as Gregory's series, has ever since been a necessity of +their calling. + +The calculator's work having now become easier and more mechanical, +calculation went on apace. In 1699 Abraham Sharp, on the suggestion of +Edmund Halley, took Gregory's series, and, putting tan [theta] = (1/3) +sqrt(3), found the ratio equal to + + __ / 1 1 1 \ + \/12 ( 1 - ----- + ------ - ------ + ... ), + \ 3 . 3 5 . 3 squared 7 . 3 cubed / + +from which he calculated it correct to 71 fractional places.[21] About +the same time John Machin calculated it correct to 100 places, and, what +was of more importance, gave for the ratio the rapidly converging +expression + + 16 / 1 1 1 \ + -- ( ---- + ----- - ----- + ... ) - + 5 \ 3.5 squared 5.5^4 7.5^6 / + + 4 / 1 1 \ + --- ( 1 - ------ + ------- - ... ), + 239 \ 3.239 squared 5.239^4 / + +which long remained without explanation.[22] Fautet de Lagny, still +using tan 30 deg., advanced to the 127th place.[23] + +Leonhard Euler took up the subject several times during his life, +effecting mainly improvements in the theory of the various series.[24] +With him, apparently, began the usage of denoting by [pi] the ratio of +the circumference to the diameter.[25] + +The most important publication, however, on the subject in the 18th +century was a paper by J.H. Lambert,[26] read before the Berlin Academy +in 1761, in which he demonstrated the irrationality of [pi]. The general +test of irrationality which he established is that, if + + a1 a2 a2 + -- -- -- ... + b1 +- b2 +- b3 +- + +be an interminate continued fraction, a1, a2, ..., b1, b2 ... be +integers, a1/b1, a2/b2, ... be proper fractions, and the value of every +one of the interminate continued fractions + + a1 a2 + -- , -- , ... be < 1, + b1 +- ... b2 +- ... + +then the given continued fraction represents an irrational quantity. If +this be applied to the right-hand side of the identity + + m m m squared m squared + tan --- = --- ---- ---- ... + n n - 3n - 5n + +it follows that the tangent of every arc commensurable with the radius +is irrational, so that, as a particular case, an arc of 45 deg., having +its tangent rational, must be incommensurable with the radius; that is to +say, [pi]/4 is an incommensurable number.[27] + +This incontestable result had no effect, apparently, in repressing the +[pi]-computers. G. von Vega in 1789, using series like Machin's, viz. +Gregory's series and the identities + + [pi]/4 = 5tan^{-1} (1/7) + 2tan^{-1} (3/79) (Euler, 1779), + [pi]/4 = tan^{-1} (1/7) + 2tan^{-1} ( 1/3) (Hutton, 1776), + +neither of which was nearly so advantageous as several found by Charles +Hutton, calculated [pi] correct to 136 places.[28] This achievement was +anticipated or outdone by an unknown calculator, whose manuscript was +seen in the Radcliffe library, Oxford, by Baron von Zach towards the end +of the century, and contained the ratio correct to 152 places. More +astonishing still have been the deeds of the [pi]-computers of the 19th +century. A condensed record compiled by J.W.L. Glaisher (_Messenger of +Math._ ii. 122) is as follows:-- + + +-----+------------+-----------------+--------------------------------------------+ + | | |No. of fr. digits| | + |Date.| Computer. +--------+--------+ Place of Publication. | + | | | calcd. |correct.| | + +-----+------------+--------+--------+--------------------------------------------+ + |1842 | Rutherford | 208 | 152 | _Trans. Roy. Soc._ (London, 1841), p. 283. | + |1844 | Dase | 205 | 200 | _Crelle's Journ._. xxvii. 198. | + |1847 | Clausen | 250 | 248 | _Astron. Nachr._ xxv. col. 207. | + |1853 | Shanks | 318 | 318 | _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (London, 1853), 273. | + |1853 | Rutherford | 440 | 440 | Ibid. | + |1853 | Shanks | 530 | .. | Ibid. | + |1853 | Shanks | 607 | .. | W. Shanks, _Rectification of the Circle_ | + | | | | | (London, 1853). | + |1853 | Richter | 333 | 330 | _Grunert's Archiv_, xxi. 119. | + |1854 | Richter | 400 | 330 | Ibid. xxii. 473. | + |1854 | Richter | 400 | 400 | Ibid. xxiii. 476. | + |1854 | Richter | 500 | 500 | Ibid. xxv. 472. | + |1873 | Shanks | 707 | .. | _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (London), xxi. | + +-----+------------+--------+--------+--------------------------------------------+ + +By these computers Machin's identity, or identities analogous to it, e.g. + + [pi]/4 = tan^{-1} (1/2) + tan^{-1} 1/5 + tan^{-1} 1/8 (Dase, 1844), + [pi]/4 = 4tan^{-1} (1/5) - tan^{-1} 1/70 + tan^{-1} 1/99 (Rutherford), + +and Gregory's series were employed.[29] + +A much less wise class than the [pi]-computers of modern times are the +pseudo-circle-squarers, or circle-squarers technically so called, that +is to say, persons who, having obtained by illegitimate means a +Euclidean construction for the quadrature or a finitely expressible +value for [pi], insist on using faulty reasoning and defective +mathematics to establish their assertions. Such persons have flourished +at all times in the history of mathematics; but the interest attaching +to them is more psychological than mathematical.[30] + +It is of recent years that the most important advances in the theory of +circle-quadrature have been made. In 1873 Charles Hermite proved that +the base [eta] of the Napierian logarithms cannot be a root of a +rational algebraical equation of any degree.[31] To prove the same +proposition regarding [pi] is to prove that a Euclidean construction for +circle-quadrature is impossible. For in such a construction every point +of the figure is obtained by the intersection of two straight lines, a +straight line and a circle, or two circles; and as this implies that, +when a unit of length is introduced, numbers employed, and the problem +transformed into one of algebraic geometry, the equations to be solved +can only be of the first or second degree, it follows that the equation +to which we must be finally led is a rational equation of even degree. +Hermite[32] did not succeed in his attempt on [pi]; but in 1882 F. +Lindemann, following exactly in Hermite's steps, accomplished the +desired result.[33] (See also TRIGONOMETRY.) + + REFERENCES.--Besides the various writings mentioned, see for the + history of the subject F. Rudio, _Geschichte des Problems von der + Quadratur des Zirkels_ (1892); M. Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_ + (1894-1901); Montucla, _Hist. des. math._ (6 vols., Paris, 1758, 2nd + ed. 1799-1802); Murhard, _Bibliotheca Mathematica_, ii. 106-123 + (Leipzig, 1798); Reuss, _Repertorium Comment._ vii. 42-44 (Goettingen, + 1808). For a few approximate geometrical solutions, see Leybourn's + _Math. Repository_, vi. 151-154; _Grunert's Archiv_, xii. 98, xlix. 3; + _Nieuw Archief v. Wisk._ iv. 200-204. For experimental determinations + of [pi], dependent on the theory of probability, see _Mess. of Math._ + ii. 113, 119; _Casopis pro pistovani math. a fys._ x. 272-275; + _Analyst_, ix. 176. (T. MU.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Eisenlohr, _Ein math. Handbuch d. alten Aegypter, uebers. u. + erklaert_ (Leipzig, 1877); Rodet, _Bull. de la Soc. Math. de France_, + vi. pp. 139-149. + + [2] H. Hankel, _Zur Gesch. d. Math. im Alterthum_, &c., chap, v + (Leipzig, 1874); M. Cantor, _Vorlesungen ueber Gesch. d. Math._ i. + (Leipzig, 1880); Tannery, _Mem. de la Soc._, &c., _a Bordeaux_; + Allman, in _Hermathena_. + + [3] Tannery. _Bull. des sc. math._ [2], x. pp. 213-226. + + [4] In modern trigonometrical notation, 1 + sec [theta]:tan + [theta]::1:tan 1/2[theta]. + + [5] Tannery, "Sur la mesure du cercle d'Archimede," in _Mem.... + Bordeaux_[2], iv. pp. 313-339; Menge, _Des Archimedes + Kreismessung_ (Coblenz, 1874). + + [6] De Morgan, in _Penny Cyclop_, xix. p. 186. + + [7] Kern, _Aryabhattiyam_ (Leiden, 1874), trans. by Rodet + (Paris,1879). + + [8] De Morgan, art. "Quadrature of the Circle," in _English + Cyclop._; Glaisher, _Mess. of Math._ ii. pp. 119-128, iii. pp. + 27-46; de Haan, _Nieuw Archief v. Wisk._ i. pp. 70-86, 206-211. + + [9] Vieta, _Opera math._ (Leiden, 1646); Marie, _Hist. des sciences + math._ iii. 27 seq. (Paris, 1884). + + [10] Kluegel, _Math. Woerterb._ ii. 606, 607. + + [11] Kaestner, _Gesch. d. Math._ i. (Goettingen, 1796-1800). + + [12] But see _Les Delices de Leide_ (Leiden, 1712); or de Haan, + _Mess. of Math._ iii. 24-26. + + [13] For minute and lengthy details regarding the quadrature of the + circle in the Low Countries, see de Haan, "Bouwstoffen voor de + geschiedenis, &c.," in _Versl. en Mededeel. der K. Akad. van + Wetensch._ ix., x., xi., xii. (Amsterdam); also his "Notice sur + quelques quadrateurs, &c.," in _Bull. di bibliogr. e di storia delle + sci. mat. e fis._ vii. 99-144. + + [14] It is thus manifest that by his first construction Snell gave + an approximate solution of two great problems of antiquity. + + [15] _Elementa trigonometrica_ (Rome, 1630); Glaisher, _Messenger of + Math._ iii. 35 seq. + + [16] See Kiessling's edition of the _De Circ. Magn. Inv._ + (Flensburg, 1869); or Pirie's tract on _Geometrical Methods of + Approx. to the Value of [pi]_ (London, 1877). + + [17] See Euler, "Annotationes in locum quendam Cartesii," in _Nov. + Comm. Acad. Petrop._ viii. + + [18] Gergonne, _Annales de math._ vi. + + [19] See _Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura_ (Padua, 1667); and + the _Appendicula_ to the same in his _Exercitationes geometricae_ + (London, 1668). + + [20] _Penny Cyclop._ xix. 187. + + [21] See Sherwin's _Math. Tables_ (London, 1705), p. 59. + + [22] See W. Jones, _Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos_ (London, 1706); + Maseres, _Scriptores Logarithmici_ (London, 1791-1796), iii. 159 + seq.; Hutton, _Tracts_, i. 266. + + [23] See _Hist. de l'Acad._ (Paris, 1719); 7 appears instead of 8 in + the 113th place. + + [24] _Comment. Acad. Petrop._ ix., xi.; _Nov. Comm. Ac. Pet._ xvi.; + _Nova Acta Acad. Pet._ xi. + + [25] _Introd. in Analysin Infin._ (Lausanne, 1748), chap. viii. + + [26] _Mem. sur quelques proprietes remarquables des quantites + transcendantes, circulaires, et logarithmiques._ + + [27] See Legendre, _Elements de geometrie_ (Paris, 1794), note iv.; + Schloemilch, _Handbuch d. algeb. Analysis_ (Jena, 1851), chap. xiii. + + [28] _Nova Acta Petrop._ ix. 41; _Thesaurus Logarithm. Completus_, + 633. + + [29] On the calculations made before Shanks, see Lehmann, "Beitrag + zur Berechnung der Zahl [pi]," in _Grunert's Archiv_, xxi. 121-174. + + [30] See Montucla, _Hist. des rech. sur la quad. du cercle_ (Paris, + 1754, 2nd ed. 1831); de Morgan, _Budget of Paradoxes_ (London, + 1872). + + [31] "Sur la fonction exponentielle," _Comples rendus_ (Paris), + lxxvii. 18, 74, 226, 285. + + [32] See _Crelle's Journal_, lxxvi. 342. + + [33] See "Ueber die Zahl [pi]," in _Math. Ann._ xx. 213. + + + + +CIRCLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Pickaway county, Ohio, +U.S.A., about 26 m. S. by E. of Columbus, on the Scioto river and the +Ohio Canal. Pop. (1890) 6556; (1900) 6991 (551 negroes); (1910) 6744. It +is served by the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania lines) and +the Norfolk & Western railways, and by the Scioto Valley electric line. +Circleville is situated in a farming region, and its leading industries +are the manufacture of straw boards and agricultural implements, and the +canning of sweet corn and other produce. The city occupies the site of +prehistoric earth-works, from one of which, built in the form of a +circle, it derived its name. Circleville, first settled about 1806, was +chosen as the county-seat in 1810. The court-house was built in the form +of an octagon at the centre of the circle, and circular streets were +laid out around it; but this arrangement proved to be inconvenient, the +court-house was destroyed by fire in 1841, and at present no trace of +the ancient landmarks remains. Circleville was incorporated as a village +in 1814, and was chartered as a city in 1853. + + + + +CIRCUIT (Lat. _circuitus_, from _circum_, round, and _ire_, to go), the +act of moving round; so circumference, or anything encircling or +encircled. The word is particularly known as a law term, signifying the +periodical progress of a legal tribunal for the purpose of carrying out +the administration of the law in the several provinces of a country. It +has long been applied to the journey or progress which the judges have +been in the habit of making through the several counties of England, to +hold courts and administer justice, where recourse could not be had to +the king's court at Westminster (see ASSIZE). + +In England, by sec. 23 of the Judicature Act 1875, power was conferred +on the crown, by order in council, to make regulations respecting +circuits, including the discontinuance of any circuit, and the formation +of any new circuit, and the appointment of the place at which assizes +are to be held on any circuit. Under this power an order of council, +dated the 5th of February 1876, was made, whereby the circuit system was +remodelled. A new circuit, called the North-Eastern circuit, was +created, consisting of Newcastle and Durham taken out of the old +Northern circuit, and York and Leeds taken out of the Midland circuit. +Oakham, Leicester and Northampton, which had belonged to the Norfolk +circuit, were added to the Midland. The Norfolk circuit and the Home +circuit were abolished and a new South-Eastern circuit was created, +consisting of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ipswich, Norwich, Chelmsford, +Hertford and Lewes, taken partly out of the old Norfolk circuit and +partly out of the Home circuit. The counties of Kent and Surrey were +left out of the circuit system, the assizes for these counties being +held by the judges remaining in London. Subsequently Maidstone and +Guildford were united under the revived name of the Home circuit for the +purpose of the summer and winter assizes, and the assizes in these towns +were held by one of the judges of the Western circuit, who, after +disposing of the business there, rejoined his colleague in Exeter. In +1899 this arrangement was abolished, and Maidstone and Guildford were +added to the South-Eastern circuit. Other minor changes in the assize +towns were made, which it is unnecessary to particularize. Birmingham +first became a circuit town in the year 1884, and the work there became, +by arrangement, the joint property of the Midland and Oxford circuits. +There are alternative assize towns in the following counties, viz.:--On +the Western circuit, Salisbury and Devizes for Wiltshire, and Wells and +Taunton for Somerset; on the South-Eastern, Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds +for Suffolk; on the North Wales circuit, Welshpool and Newtown for +Montgomery; and on the South Wales circuit, Cardiff and Swansea for +Glamorgan. + +According to the arrangements in force in 1909 there are four assizes in +each year. There are two principal assizes, viz. the winter assizes, +beginning in January, and the summer assizes, beginning at the end of +May. At these two assizes criminal and civil business is disposed of in +all the circuits. There are two other assizes, viz. the autumn assizes +and the Easter assizes. The autumn assizes are regulated by acts of 1876 +and 1877 (Winter Assizes Acts 1876 and 1877), and orders of council made +under the former act. They are held for the whole of England and Wales, +but for the purpose of these assizes the work is to a large extent +"grouped," so that not every county has a separate assize. For example, +on the South-Eastern circuit Huntingdon is grouped with Cambridge; on +the Midland, Rutland is grouped with Lincoln; on the Northern, +Westmorland is grouped with Cumberland; and the North Wales and South +Wales circuits are united, and no assizes are held at some of the +smaller towns. At these assizes criminal business only is taken, except +at Manchester, Liverpool, Swansea, Birmingham and Leeds. The Easter +assizes are held in April and May on two circuits only, viz. at +Manchester and Liverpool on the Northern and at Leeds on the +North-Eastern. Both civil and criminal business is taken at Manchester +and Liverpool, but criminal business only at Leeds. + +Other changes were made, with a view to preventing the complete +interruption of the London sittings in the common law division by the +absence of the judges on circuit. The assizes were so arranged as to +commence on different dates in the various circuits. For example, the +summer assizes begin in the South-Eastern and Western circuits on the +29th of May; in the Northern circuit on the 28th of June; in the Midland +and Oxford circuits on the 16th of June; in the North-Eastern circuit on +the 6th of July; in the North Wales circuit on the 7th of July; and in +the South Wales circuit on the 11th of July. Again, there has been a +continuous development of what may be called the single-judge system. In +the early days of the new order the members of the court of appeal and +the judges of the chancery division shared the circuit work with the +judges in the common law division. This did not prove to be a +satisfactory arrangement. The assize work was not familiar and was +uncongenial to the chancery judges, who had but little training or +experience to fit them for it. Arrears increased in chancery, and the +appeal court was shorn of much of its strength for a considerable part +of the year. The practice was discontinued in or about the year 1884. +The appeal and chancery judges were relieved of the duty of going on +circuit, and an arrangement was made by the treasury for making an +allowance for expenses of circuit to the common law judges, on whom the +whole work of the assizes was thrown. In order to cope with the assize +work, and at the same time keep the common law sittings going in London, +an experiment, which had been previously tried by Lord Cairns and Lord +Cross (then home secretary) and discontinued, was revived. Instead of +two judges going together to each assize town, it was arranged that one +judge should go by himself to certain selected places--practically, it +may be said, to all except the more important provincial centres. The +only places to which two judges now go are Exeter, Winchester, Bristol, +Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Stafford, Birmingham, Newcastle, +Durham, York, Leeds, Chester, and Cardiff or Swansea. + +It could scarcely be said that, even with the amendments introduced +under orders in council, the circuit system was altogether satisfactory +or that the last word had been pronounced on the subject. In the first +report of the Judicature Commission, dated March 25th, 1869, p. 17 +(_Parl. Papers_, 1868-1869), the majority report that "the necessity for +holding assizes in every county without regard to the extent of the +business to be transacted in such county leads, in our judgment, to a +great waste of judicial strength and a great loss of time in going from +one circuit town to another, and causes much unnecessary cost and +inconvenience to those whose attendance is necessary or customary at the +assizes." And in their second report, dated July 3rd, 1872 (_Parl. +Papers_, 1872, vol. xx.), they dwell upon the advisability of grouping +or a discontinuance of holding assizes "in several counties, for +example, Rutland and Westmorland, where it is manifestly an idle waste +of time and money to have assizes." It is thought that the grouping of +counties which has been effected for the autumn assizes might be carried +still further and applied to all the assizes; and that the system of +holding the assizes alternately in one of two towns within a county +might be extended to two towns in adjoining counties, for example, +Gloucester and Worcester. The facility of railway communication renders +this reform comparatively easy, and reforms in this direction have been +approved by the judges, but ancient custom and local patriotism, +interests, or susceptibility bar the way. The Assizes and Quarter +Sessions Act 1908 contributed something to reform by dispensing with the +obligation to hold assizes at a fixed date if there is no business to be +transacted. Nor can it be said that the single-judge system has been +altogether a success. When there is only one judge for both civil and +criminal work, he properly takes the criminal business first. He can fix +only approximately the time when he can hope to be free for the civil +business. If the calendar is exceptionally heavy or one or more of the +criminal cases prove to be unexpectedly long (as may easily happen), the +civil business necessarily gets squeezed into the short residue of the +allotted time. Suitors and their solicitors and witnesses are kept +waiting for days, and after all perhaps it proves to be impossible for +the judge to take the case, and a "remanet" is the result. It is the +opinion of persons of experience that the result has undoubtedly been to +drive to London much of the civil business which properly belongs to the +provinces, and ought to be tried there, and thus at once to increase the +burden on the judges and jurymen in London, and to increase the costs of +the trial of the actions sent there. Some persons advocate the +continuous sittings of the high court in certain centres, such as +Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Birmingham and Bristol, or (in +fact) a decentralization of the judicial system. There is already an +excellent court for chancery cases for Lancashire in the county palatine +court, presided over by the vice-chancellor, and with a local bar which +has produced many men of great ability and even eminence. The Durham +chancery court is also capable of development. Another suggestion has +been made for continuous circuits throughout the legal year, so that a +certain number of the judges, according to a rota, should be +continuously in the provinces while the remaining judges did the London +business. The value of this suggestion would depend on an estimate of +the number of cases which might thus be tried in the country in relief +of the London list. This estimate it would be difficult to make. The +opinion has also been expressed that it is essential in any changes that +may be made to retain the occasional administration by judges of the +high court of criminal jurisdiction, both in populous centres and in +remote places. It promotes a belief in the importance and dignity of +justice and the care to be given to all matters affecting a citizen's +life, liberty or character. It also does something, by the example set +by judges in country districts, to check any tendency to undue severity +of sentences in offences against property. + +Counsel are not expected to practise on a circuit other than that to +which they have attached themselves, unless they receive a special +retainer. They are then said to "go special," and the fee in such a case +is one hundred guineas for a king's counsel, and fifty guineas for a +junior. It is customary to employ one member of the circuit on the side +on which the counsel comes special. Certain rules have been drawn up by +the Bar Committee for regulating the practice as to retainers on +circuit. (1) A special retainer must be given for a particular assize (a +circuit retainer will not, however, make it compulsory upon counsel +retained to go the circuit, but will give the right to counsel's +services should he attend the assize and the case be entered for trial); +(2) if the venue is changed to another place on the same circuit, a +fresh retainer is not required; (3) if the action is not tried at the +assize for which the retainer is given, the retainer must be renewed for +every subsequent assize until the action is disposed of, unless a brief +has been delivered; (4) a retainer may be given for a future assize, +without a retainer for an intervening assize, unless notice of trial is +given for such intervening assize. There are also various regulations +enforced by the discipline of the circuit bar mess. + +In the United States the English circuit system still exists in some +states, as in Massachusetts, where the judges sit in succession in the +various counties of the state. The term _circuit courts_ applies +distinctively in America to a certain class of inferior federal courts +of the United States, exercising jurisdiction, concurrently with the +state courts, in certain matters where the United States is a party to +the litigation, or in cases of crime against the United States. The +circuit courts act in nine judicial circuits, divided as follows: _1st +circuit_, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island; _2nd +circuit_, Connecticut, New York, Vermont; _3rd circuit_, Delaware, New +Jersey, Pennsylvania; _4th circuit_, Maryland, North Carolina, South +Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia; _5th circuit_, Alabama, Florida, +Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas; _6th circuit_, Kentucky, +Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee; _7th circuit_, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin; +_8th circuit_, Arkansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, +Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, +Wyoming; _9th circuit_, Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana, +Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii. A circuit court of appeals is +made up of three judges of the circuit court, the judges of the district +courts of the circuit, and the judge of the Supreme Court allotted to +the circuit. + +In Scotland the judges of the supreme criminal court, or high court of +justiciary, form also three separate circuit courts, consisting of two +judges each; and the country, with the exception of the Lothians, is +divided into corresponding districts, called the Northern, Western and +Southern circuits. On the Northern circuit, courts are held at +Inverness, Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen; on the Western, at Glasgow, +Stirling and Inveraray; and on the Southern, at Dumfries, Jedburgh and +Ayr. + +Ireland is divided into the North-East and the North-West circuits, and +those of Leinster, Connaught and Munster. + + + + +CIRCULAR NOTE, a documentary request by a bank to its foreign +correspondents to pay a specified sum of money to a named person. The +person in whose favour a circular note is issued is furnished with a +letter (containing the signature of an official of the bank and the +person named) called a letter of indication, which is usually referred +to in the circular note, and must be produced on presentation of the +note. Circular notes are generally issued against a payment of cash to +the amount of the notes, but the notes need not necessarily be cashed, +but may be returned to the banker in exchange for the amount for which +they were originally issued. A forged signature on a circular note +conveys no right, and as it is the duty of the payer to see that payment +is made to the proper person, he cannot recover the amount of a forged +note from the banker who issued the note. (See also LETTER OF CREDIT.) + + + + +CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO (Lat. for "circle in proving"), in logic, a phrase +used to describe a form of argument in which the very fact which one +seeks to demonstrate is used as a premise, i.e. as part of the evidence +on which the conclusion is based. This argument is one form of the +fallacy known as _petitio principii_, "begging the question." It is most +common in lengthy arguments, the complicated character of which enables +the speaker to make his hearers forget the data from which he began. +(See FALLACY.) + + + + +CIRCUMCISION (Lat. _circum_, round, and _caedere_, to cut), the cutting +off of the foreskin. This surgical operation, which is commonly +prescribed for purely medical reasons, is also an initiation or +religious ceremony among Jews and Mahommedans, and is a widespread +institution in many Semitic races. It remains, with Jews, a necessary +preliminary to the admission of proselytes, except in some Reformed +communities. The origin of the rite among the Jews is in Genesis (xvii.) +placed in the age of Abraham, and at all events it must have been very +ancient, for flint stones were used in the operation (Exodus iv. 25; +Joshua v. 2). The narrative in Joshua implies that the custom was +introduced by him, not that it had merely been in abeyance in the +Wilderness. At Gilgal he "rolled away the reproach of the Egyptians" by +circumcising the people. This obviously means that whereas the Egyptians +practised circumcision the Jews in the land of the Pharaohs did not, and +hence were regarded with contempt. It was an old theory (Herodotus ii. +36) that circumcision originated in Egypt; at all events it was +practised in that country in ancient times (Ebers, _Egypten und die +Buecher Mosis_, i. 278-284), and the same is true at the present day. But +it is not generally thought probable that the Hebrews derived the rite +directly from the Egyptians. As Driver puts it (_Genesis_, p. 190): "It +is possible that, as Dillmann and Nowack suppose, the peoples of N. +Africa and Asia who practised the rite adopted it from the Egyptians, +but it appears in so many parts of the world that it must at any rate in +these cases have originated independently." In another biblical +narrative (Exodus iv. 25) Moses is subject to the divine anger because +he had not made himself "a bridegroom of blood," that is, had not been +circumcised before his marriage. + +The rite of circumcision was practised by all the inhabitants of +Palestine with the exception of the Philistines. It was an ancient +custom among the Arabs, being presupposed in the Koran. The only +important Semitic peoples who most probably did not follow the rite were +the Babylonians and Assyrians (Sayce, _Babyl. and Assyrians_, p. 47). +Modern investigations have brought to light many instances of the +prevalence of circumcision in various parts of the world. These facts +are collected by Andree and Ploss, and go to prove that the rite is not +only spread through the Mahommedan world (Turks, Persians, Arabs, &c.), +but also is practised by the Christian Abyssinians and the Copts, as +well as in central Australia and in America. In central Australia +(Spencer and Gillen, pp. 212-386) circumcision with a stone knife must +be undergone by every youth before he is reckoned a full member of the +tribe or is permitted to enter on the married state. In other parts, too +(e.g. Loango), no uncircumcised man may marry. Circumcision was known to +the Aztecs (Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii.), and is still practised +by the Caribs of the Orinoco and the Tacunas of the Amazon. The method +and period of the operation vary in important particulars. Among the +Jews it is performed in infancy, when the male child is eight days old. +The child is named at the same time, and the ceremony is elaborate. The +child is carried in to the godfather (_sandek_, a hebraized form of the +Gr. [Greek: sunteknos], "godfather," post-class.), who places the child +on a cushion, which he holds on his knees throughout the ceremony. The +operator (_mohel_) uses a steel knife, and pronounces various +benedictions before and after the rite is performed (see S. Singer, +_Authorized Daily Prayer Book_, pp. 304-307; an excellent account of the +domestic festivities and spiritual joys associated with the ceremony +among medieval and modern Jews may be read in S. Schechter's _Studies in +Judaism_, first series, pp. 351 seq.). Some tribes in South America and +elsewhere are said to perform the rite on the eighth day, like the Jews. +The Mazequas do it between the first and second months. Among the +Bedouins the rite is performed on children of three years, amid dances +and the selection of brides (Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_, i. 340); among +the Somalis the age is seven (Reinisch, _Somalisprache_, p. 110). But +for the most part the tribes who perform the rite carry it out at the +age of puberty. Many facts bearing on this point are given by B. Stade +in _Zeitschrift fuer die alttest. Wissenschaft_, vi. (1886) pp. 132 seq. + +The significance of the rite of circumcision has been much disputed. +Some see in it a tribal badge. If this be the true origin of +circumcision, it must go back to the time when men went about naked. +Mutilations (tattooing, removal of teeth and so forth) were tribal +marks, being partly sacrifices and partly means of recognition (see +MUTILATION). Such initiatory rites were often frightful ordeals, in +which the neophyte's courage was severely tested (Robertson Smith, +_Religion of the Semites_, p. 310). Some regard circumcision as a +substitute for far more serious rites, including even human sacrifice. +Utilitarian explanations have also been suggested. Sir R. Burton +(_Memoirs Anthrop. Soc._ i. 318) held that it was introduced to promote +fertility, and the claims of cleanliness have been put forward +(following Philo's example, see ed. Mangey, ii. 210). Most probably, +however, circumcision (which in many tribes is performed on both sexes) +was connected with marriage, and was a preparation for connubium. It was +in Robertson Smith's words "originally a preliminary to marriage, and so +a ceremony of introduction to the full prerogative of manhood," the +transference to infancy among the Jews being a later change. On this +view, the decisive Biblical reference would be the Exodus passage (iv. +25), in which Moses is represented as being in danger of his life +because he had neglected the proper preliminary to marriage. In Genesis, +on the other hand, circumcision is an external sign of God's covenant +with Israel, and later Judaism now regards it in this symbolical sense. +Barton (_Semitic Origins_, p. 100) declares that "the circumstances +under which it is performed in Arabia point to the origin of +circumcision as a sacrifice to the goddess of fertility, by which the +child was placed under her protection and its reproductive powers +consecrated to her service." But Barton admits that initiation to the +connubium was the primitive origin of the rite. + +As regards the non-ritual use of male circumcision, it may be added that +in recent years the medical profession has been responsible for its +considerable extension among other than Jewish children, the operation +being recommended not merely in cases of malformation, but generally for +reasons of health. + + AUTHORITIES.--On the present diffusion of circumcision see H. Ploss, + _Das Kind im Brauch und Sitte der Voelker_, i. 342 seq., and his + researches in _Deutsches Archiv fuer Geschichte der Medizin_, viii. + 312-344; Andree, "Die Beschneidung" in _Archiv fuer Anthropologie_, + xiii. 76; and Spencer and Gillen, _Tribes of Central Australia_. The + articles in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ and _Dictionary of the Bible_ + contain useful bibliographies as well as historical accounts of the + rite and its ceremonies, especially as concerns the Jews. The _Jewish + Encyclopedia_ in particular gives an extensive list of books on the + Jewish customs connected with circumcision, and the various articles + in that work are full of valuable information (vol. iv. pp. 92-102). + On the rite among the Arabs, see Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen + Heidentums_, 154. (I. A.) + + + + +CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF (from Lat. _circum_, round, and _vallum_, a +rampart), in fortification, a continuous circle of entrenchments +surrounding a besieged place. "Lines of Contravallation" were similar +works by which the besieger protected himself against the attack of a +relieving army from any quarter. These continuous lines of +circumvallation and contravallation were used only in the days of small +armies and small fortresses, and both terms are now obsolete. + + + + +CIRCUS (Lat. _circus_, Gr. [Greek: kirkos] or [Greek: krikos], a ring or +circle; probably "circus" and "ring" are of the same origin), a space, +in the strict sense circular, but sometimes oval or even oblong, +intended for the exhibition of races and athletic contests generally. +The circus differs from the theatre inasmuch as the performance takes +place in a central circular space, not on a stage at one end of the +building. + +1. _In Roman antiquities_ the circus was a building for the exhibition +of horse and chariot races and other amusements. It consisted of tiers +of seats running parallel with the sides of the course, and forming a +crescent round one of the ends. The other end was straight and at right +angles to the course, so that the plan of the whole had nearly the form +of an ellipse cut in half at its vertical axis. Along the transverse +axis ran a fence (_spina_) separating the return course from the +starting one. The straight end had no seats, but was occupied by the +stalls (_carceres_) where the chariots and horses were held in +readiness. This end constituted also the front of the building with the +main entrance. At each end of the course were three conical pillars +(_metae_) to mark its limits. + +The oldest building of this kind in Rome was the _Circus Maximus_, in +the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills, where, before the +erection of any permanent structure, races appear to have been held +beside the altar of the god Consus. The first building is assigned to +Tarquin the younger, but for a long time little seems to have been done +to complete its accommodation, since it is not till 329 B.C. that we +hear of stalls being erected for the chariots and horses. It was not in +fact till under the empire that the circus became a conspicuous public +resort. Caesar enlarged it to some extent, and also made a canal 10 ft. +broad between the lowest tier of seats (_podium_) and the course as a +precaution for the spectators' safety when exhibitions of fighting with +wild beasts, such as were afterwards confined to the amphitheatre, took +place. When these exhibitions were removed, and the canal (_euripus_) +was no longer necessary, Nero had it filled up. Augustus is said to have +placed an obelisk on the _spina_ between the _metae_, and to have built +a new _pulvinar_, or imperial box; but if this is taken in connexion +with the fact that the circus had been partially destroyed by fire in 31 +B.C., it may be supposed that besides this he had restored it +altogether. Only the lower tiers of seats were of stone, the others +being of wood, and this, from the liability to fire, may account for the +frequent restorations to which the circus was subject; it would also +explain the falling of the seats by which a crowd of people were killed +in the time of Antoninus Pius. In the reign of Claudius, apparently +after a fire, the _carceres_ of stone (tufa) were replaced by marble, +and the _metae_ of wood by gilt bronze. Under Domitian, again, after a +fire, the circus was rebuilt and the carceres increased to 12 instead of +8 as before. The work was finished by Trajan. See further for seating +capacity, &c., ROME: _Archaeology_, Sec. "Places of Amusement." + +The circus was the only public spectacle at which men and women were not +separated. The lower seats were reserved for persons of rank; there were +also various state boxes, e.g. for the giver of the games and his +friends (called _cubicula_ or _suggestus_). The principal object of +attraction apart from the racing must have been the _spina_ or low wall +which ran down the middle of the course, with its obelisks, images and +ornamental shrines. On it also were seven figures of dolphins and seven +oval objects, one of which was taken down at every round made in a race, +so that spectators might see readily how the contest proceeded. The +chariot race consisted of seven rounds of the course. The chariots +started abreast, but in an oblique line, so that the outer chariot might +be compensated for the wider circle it had to make at the other end. +Such a race was called a _missus_, and as many as 24 of these would take +place in a day. The competitors wore different colours, originally white +and red (_albata_ and _russata_), to which green (_prasina_) and blue +(_veneta_) were added. Domitian introduced two more colours, gold and +purple (_purpureus et auratus pannus_), which probably fell into disuse +after his death. To provide the horses and large staff of attendants it +was necessary to apply to rich capitalists and owners of studs, and from +this there grew up in time four select companies (_factiones_) of circus +purveyors, which were identified with the four colours, and with which +those who organized the races had to contract for the proper supply of +horses and men. The drivers (_aurigae, agitatores_), who were mostly +slaves, were sometimes held in high repute for their skill, although +their calling was regarded with contempt. The horses most valued were +those of Sicily, Spain and Cappadocia, and great care was taken in +training them. Chariots with two horses (_bigae_) or four (_quadrigae_) +were most common, but sometimes also they had three (_trigae_), and +exceptionally more than four horses. Occasionally there was combined +with the chariots a race of riders (_desultores_), each rider having two +horses and leaping from one to the other during the race. At certain of +the races the proceedings were opened by a _pompa_ or procession in +which images of the gods and of the imperial family deified were +conveyed in cars drawn by horses, mules or elephants, attended by the +colleges of priests, and led by the presiding magistrate (in some cases +by the emperor himself) seated in a chariot in the dress and with the +insignia of a triumphator. The procession passed from the capitol along +the forum, and on to the circus, where it was received by the people +standing and clapping their hands. The presiding magistrate gave the +signal for the races by throwing a white flag (_mappa_) on to the +course. + +Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome was the _Circus +Flaminius_, erected 221 B.C., in the censorship of C. Flaminius, from +whom it may have taken its name; or the name may have been derived from +Prata Flaminia, where it was situated, and where also were held plebeian +meetings. The only games that are positively known to have been +celebrated in this circus were the _Ludi Taurii_ and _Plebeii_. There is +no mention of it after the 1st century. Its ruins were identified in the +16th century at S. Catarina dei Funari and the Palazzo Mattei. + +A third circus in Rome was erected by Caligula in the gardens of +Agrippina, and was known as the _Circus Neronis_, from the notoriety +which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of Nero. A fourth was +constructed by Maxentius outside the Porta Appia near the tomb of +Caecilia Metella, where its ruins are still, and now afford the only +instance from which an idea of the ancient circi in Rome can be +obtained. It was traced to Caracalla, till the discovery of an +inscription in 1825 showed it to be the work of Maxentius. Old +topographers speak of six circi, but two of these appear to be +imaginary, the Circus Florae and the Circus Sallustii. + +Circus races were held in connexion with the following public festivals, +and generally on the last day of the festival, if it extended over more +than one day:--(1) The _Consualia_, August 21st, December 15th; (2) +_Equirria_, February 27th, March 14th; (3) _Ludi Romani_, September +4th-19th; (4) _Ludi Plebeii_, November 4th-17th; (5) _Cerialia_, April +12th-19th; (6) _Ludi Apollinares_, July 6th-13th; (7) _Ludi Megalenses_, +April 4th-10th; (8) _Floralia_, April 28th-May 3rd. + + In addition to Smith's _Dictionary of Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1890), + see articles in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_, + Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopaedie der classischen + Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2 (1899), and Marquardt, _Roemische + Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (2nd ed., 1885), p. 504. For existing remains + see works quoted under ROME: _Archaeology_. + +2. _The Modern Circus._--The "circus" in modern times is a form of +popular entertainment which has little in common with the institution of +classical Rome. It is frequently nomadic in character, the place of the +permanent building known to the ancients as the circus being taken by a +tent, which is carried from place to place and set up temporarily on any +site procurable at country fairs or in provincial towns, and in which +spectacular performances are given by a troupe employed by the +proprietor. The centre of the tent forms an arena arranged as a +horse-ring, strewn with tan or other soft substance, where the +performances take place, the seats of the spectators being arranged in +ascending tiers around the central space as in the Roman circus. The +traditional type of exhibition in the modern travelling circus consists +of feats of horsemanship, such as leaping through hoops from the back of +a galloping horse, standing with one foot on each of two horses +galloping side by side, turning somersaults from a springboard over a +number of horses standing close together, or accomplishing acrobatic +tricks on horseback. These performances, by male and female riders, are +varied by the introduction of horses trained to perform tricks, and by +drolleries on the part of the clown, whose place in the circus is as +firmly established by tradition as in the pantomime. + +The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that kept by +Philip Astley (d. 1814) in London at the end of the 18th century. Astley +was followed by Ducrow, whose feats of horsemanship had much to do with +establishing the traditions of the circus, which were perpetuated by +Hengler's and Sanger's celebrated shows in a later generation. In +America a circus-actor named Ricketts is said to have performed before +George Washington in 1780, and in the first half of the 19th century the +establishments of Purdy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a wide +popularity to the circus in the United States. All former +circus-proprietors were, however, far surpassed in enterprise and +resource by P.T. Barnum (q.v.), whose claim to be the possessor of "the +greatest show on earth" was no exaggeration. The influence of Barnum, +however, brought about a considerable change in the character of the +modern circus. In arenas too large for speech to be easily audible, the +traditional comic dialogue of the clown assumed a less prominent place +than formerly, while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties +relegated to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which +were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and by +exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the employment of +immense numbers of performers and often of complicated and expensive +machinery. These tendencies are, as is natural, most marked in shows +given in permanent buildings in large cities, such as the London +Hippodrome, which was built as a combination of the circus, the +menagerie and the variety theatre, where wild animals such as lions and +elephants from time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions +of nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have been +produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display. At the +Hippodrome in Paris--unlike its London namesake, a circus of the true +classical type in which the arena is entirely surrounded by the seats of +the spectators--chariot races after the Roman model were held in the +latter part of the 19th century, at which prizes of considerable value +were given by the management. + + + + +CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced _Ciceter_), a market town in the +Cirencester parliamentary division of Gloucestershire, England, on the +river Churn, a tributary of the Thames, 93 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. of +urban district (1901) 7536. It is served by a branch of the Great +Western railway, and there is also a station on the Midland and +South-Western Junction railway. This is an ancient and prosperous market +town of picturesque old houses clustering round a fine parish church, +with a high embattled tower, and a remarkable south porch with parvise. +The church is mainly Perpendicular, and among its numerous chapels that +of St Catherine has a beautiful roof of fan-tracery in stone dated 1508. +Of the abbey founded in 1117 by Henry I. there remain a Norman gateway +and a few capitals. There are two good museums containing mosaics, +inscriptions, carved and sculptured stones, and many smaller remains, +for the town was the Roman _Corinium_ or _Durocornovium Dobunorum_. +Little trace of Corinium, however, can be seen _in situ_, except the +amphitheatre and some indications of the walls. To the west of the town +is Cirencester House, the seat of Earl Bathurst. The first Lord Bathurst +(1684-1775) devoted himself to beautifying the fine demesne of Oakley +Park, which he planted and adorned with remarkable artificial ruins. +This nobleman, who became baron in 1711 and earl in 1772, was a patron +of art and literature no less than a statesman; and Pope, a frequent +visitor here, was allowed to design the building known as Pope's Seat, +in the park, commanding a splendid prospect of woods and avenues. Swift +was another appreciative visitor. The house contains portraits by +Lawrence, Gainsborough, Romney, Lely, Reynolds, Hoppner, Kneller and +many others. A mile west of the town is the Royal Agricultural College, +incorporated by charter in 1845. Its buildings include a chapel, a +dining hall, a library, a lecture theatre, laboratories, classrooms, +private studies and dormitories for the students, apartments for +resident professors, and servants' offices; also a museum containing a +collection of anatomical and pathological preparations, and +mineralogical, botanical and geological specimens. The college farm +comprises 500 acres, 450 of which are arable; and on it are the +well-appointed farm-buildings and the veterinary hospital. Besides +agriculture, the course of instruction at the college includes +chemistry, natural and mechanical philosophy, natural history, +mensuration, surveying and drawing, and other subjects of practical +importance to the farmer, proficiency in which is tested by means of +sessional examinations. The industries of Cirencester comprise various +branches of agriculture. It has connexion by a branch canal with the +Thames and Severn canal. + +Corinium was a flourishing Romano-British town, at first perhaps a +cavalry post, but afterwards, for the greater part of the Roman period, +purely a civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 m. N.E., is one of the most +noteworthy Roman villas in England. Cirencester (_Cirneceaster_, +_Cyrenceaster_, _Cyringceaster_) is described in Domesday as ancient +demesne of the crown. The manor was granted by William I. to William +Fitzosbern; on reverting to the crown it was given in 1189, with the +township, to the Augustinian abbey founded here by Henry I. The struggle +of the townsmen to prove that Cirencester was a borough probably began +in the same year, when they were amerced for a false presentment. Four +inquisitions during the 13th century supported the abbot's claims, yet +in 1343 the townsmen declared in a chancery bill of complaint that +Cirencester was a borough distinct from the manor, belonging to the king +but usurped by the abbot, who since 1308 had abated their court of +provostry. Accordingly they produced a copy of a forged charter from +Henry I. to the town; the court ignored this and the abbot obtained a +new charter and a writ of _supersedeas_. For their success against the +earls of Kent and Salisbury Henry IV. in 1403 gave the townsmen a gild +merchant, although two inquisitions reiterated the abbot's rights. +These were confirmed in 1408-1409 and 1413; in 1418 the charter was +annulled, and in 1477 parliament declared that Cirencester was not +corporate. After several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish the gild +merchant, the government in 1592 was vested in the bailiff of the lord +of the manor. Cirencester became a parliamentary borough in 1572, +returning two members, but was deprived of representation in 1885. +Besides the "new market" of Domesday Book the abbots obtained charters +in 1215 and 1253 for fairs during the octaves of All Saints and St +Thomas the Martyr. The wool trade gave these great importance; in 1341 +there were ten wool merchants in Cirencester, and Leland speaks of the +abbots' cloth-mill, while Camden calls it the greatest market for wool +in England. + + See _Transactions_ of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological + Society, vols. ii., ix., xviii. + + + + +CIRILLO, DOMENICO (1739-1799), Italian physician and patriot, was born +at Grumo in the kingdom of Naples. Appointed while yet a young man to a +botanical professorship, Cirillo went some years afterwards to England, +where he was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and to France. On his +return to Naples he was appointed successively to the chairs of +practical and theoretical medicine. He wrote voluminously and well on +scientific subjects and secured an extensive medical practice. On the +French occupation of Naples and the proclamation of the Parthenopean +republic (1799), Cirillo, after at first refusing to take part in the +new government, consented to be chosen a representative of the people +and became a member of the legislative commission, of which he was +eventually elected president. On the abandonment of the republic by the +French (June 1799), Cardinal Ruffo and the army of King Ferdinand IV. +returned to Naples, and the Republicans withdrew, ill-armed and +inadequately provisioned, to the forts. After a short siege they +surrendered on honourable terms, life and liberty being guaranteed them +by the signatures of Ruffo, of Foote, and of Micheroux. But the arrival +of Nelson changed the complexion of affairs, and he refused to ratify +the capitulation. Secure under the British flag, Ferdinand and his wife, +Caroline of Austria, showed themselves eager for revenge, and Cirillo +was involved with the other republicans in the vengeance of the royal +family. He asked Lady Hamilton (wife of the British minister to Naples) +to intercede on his behalf, but Nelson wrote in reference to the +petition: "Domenico Cirillo, who had been the king's physician, might +have been saved, but that he chose to play the fool and lie, denying +that he had ever made any speeches against the government, and saying +that he only took care of the poor in the hospitals" (_Nelson and the +Neapolitan Jacobins_, Navy Records Society, 1903). He was condemned and +hanged on the 29th of October 1799. Cirillo, whose favourite study was +botany, and who was recognized as an entomologist by Linnaeus, left many +books, in Latin and Italian, all of them treating of medical and +scientific subjects, and all of little value now. Exception must, +however, be made in favour of the _Virtu morali dell' Asino_, a pleasant +philosophical pamphlet remarkable for its double charm of sense and +style. He introduced many medical innovations into Naples, particularly +inoculation for smallpox. + + See C. Giglioli, _Naples in 1799_ (London, 1903); L. Conforti, _Napoli + nel 1799_ (Naples, 1889); C. Tivaroni, _L' Italia durante il dominio + francese_, vol. ii. pp. 179-204. Also under NAPLES; NELSON and + FERDINAND IV. OF NAPLES. + + + + +CIRQUE (Lat. _circus_, ring), a French word used in physical geography +to denote a semicircular crater-like amphitheatre at the head of a +valley, or in the side of a glaciated mountain. The valley cirque is +characteristic of calcareous districts. In the Chiltern Hills +especially, and generally along the chalk escarpments, a flat-bottomed +valley with an intermittent stream winds into the hill and ends suddenly +in a cirque. There is an excellent example at Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire, +where it appears as though an enormous flat-bottomed scoop had been +driven into the hillside and dragged outwards to the plain. In all cases +it is found that the valley floor consists of hard or impervious rock +above which lies a permeable or soluble stratum of considerable +thickness. In the case of the chalk hills the upper strata are very +porous, and the descending water with atmospheric and humous acids in +solution has great solvent power. During the winter this upper layer +becomes saturated and some of the water drains away along joints in the +escarpment. An underground stream is thus developed carrying away a +great deal of material in solution, and in consequence the ground above +slowly collapses over the stream, while the cirque at the head, where +the stream issues, gradually works backward and may pass completely +through the hills, leaving a gap of which another drainage system may +take possession. In the limestone country of the Cotteswold Hills, many +small intermittent tributary streams are headed by cirques, and some of +the longer dry valleys have springs issuing from beneath their lower +ends, the dry valleys being collapsed areas above underground streams +not yet revealed. In this case the pervious limestone is underlain by +beds of impervious clay. There are many of these in the Jura Mountains. +The Cirque de St Sulpice is a fine example where the impervious bed is a +marly clay. + +The origin of the glacial cirque is entirely different and is said by +W.D. Johnson (_Journal of Geology_, xii. No. 7, 1904) to be due to basal +sapping and erosion under the _bergschrund_ of the glacier. In this he +is supported by G.K. Gilbert in the same journal, who produces some +remarkable examples from the Sierra Nevada in California, where the +mountain fragments have been left behind "like a sheet of dough upon a +board after the biscuit tin has done its work"; so that above the head +of the glaciers "the rock detail is rugged and splintered but its +general effect is that of a great symmetrical arc." Descending one of +the bergschrunds of Mt. Lyell to a depth of 150 ft., Johnson found a +rock floor cumbered with ice and blocks of rock and the rock face a +literally vertical cliff "much riven, its fracture planes outlining +sharp angular masses in all stages of displacement and dislodgment." +Judging from these facts, he interprets the deep valleys with cirques at +their head in formerly glaciated regions where at the head there is a +"reversed grade" of slope, as due to ice-erosion at valley-heads where +scour is impossible at the sides of the mountain but strongest under the +glacier head where the ice is deepest. The opponents of ice-erosion +nevertheless recognize the very frequent occurrence of glacial cirques +often containing small lakes such as that under Cader Idris in Wales, or +at the head of Little Timber Creek, Montana, and numerous examples in +Alpine districts. + + + + +CIRTA (mod. _Constantine_, q.v.), an ancient city of Numidia, in Africa, +in the country of the Massyli. It was regarded by the Romans as the +strongest position in Numidia, and was made by them the converging point +of all their great military roads in that country. By the early emperors +it was allowed to fall into decay, but was afterwards restored by +Constantine, from whom it took its modern name. + + + + +CISSEY, ERNEST LOUIS OCTAVE COURTOT DE (1810-1882), French general, was +born at Paris on the 23rd of September 1810, and after passing through +St Cyr, entered the army in 1832, becoming captain in 1839. He saw +active service in Algeria, and became _chef d'escadron_ in 1849 and +lieutenant-colonel in 1850. He took part as a colonel in the Crimean +War, and after the battle of Inkerman received the rank of general of +brigade. In 1863 he was promoted general of division. When the +Franco-German War broke out in 1870, de Cissey was given a divisional +command in the Army of the Rhine, and he was included in the surrender +of Bazaine's army at Metz. He was released from captivity only at the +end of the war, and on his return was at once appointed by the +Versailles government to a command in the army engaged in the +suppression of the Commune, a task in the execution of which he +displayed great rigour. From July 1871 de Cissey sat as a deputy, and he +had already become minister of war. He occupied this post several times +during the critical period of the reorganization of the French army. In +1880, whilst holding the command of the XI. corps at Nantes, he was +accused of having relations with a certain Baroness Kaula, who was said +to be a spy in the pay of Germany, and he was in consequence relieved +from duty. An inquiry subsequently held resulted in de Cissey's favour +(1881). He died on the 15th of June 1882 at Paris. + + + + +CISSOID (from the Gr. [Greek: kissos], ivy, and [Greek: eidos], form), a +curve invented by the Greek mathematician Diocles about 180 B.C., for +the purpose of constructing two mean proportionals between two given +lines, and in order to solve the problem of duplicating the cube. It was +further investigated by John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens (who determined +the length of any arc in 1657), and Pierre de Fermat (who evaluated the +area between the curve and its asymptote in 1661). It is constructed in +the following manner. Let APB be a semicircle, BT the tangent at B, and +APT a line cutting the circle in P and BT at T; take a point Q on AT so +that AQ always equals PT; then the locus of Q is the cissoid. Sir Isaac +Newton devised the following mechanical construction. Take a rod LMN +bent at right angles at M, such that MN = AB; let the leg LM always pass +through a fixed point O on AB produced such that OA = CA, where C is the +middle point of AB, and cause N to travel along the line perpendicular +to AB at C; then the midpoint of MN traces the cissoid. The curve is +symmetrical about the axis of x, and consists of two infinite branches +asymptotic to the line BT and forming a cusp at the origin. The +cartesian equation, when A is the origin and AB = 2a, is y squared(2a - x) = +x cubed; the polar equation is r = 2a sin [theta] tan [theta]. The cissoid is +the first positive pedal of the parabola y squared + 8ax = 0 for the vertex, +and the inverse of the parabola y squared = 8ax, the vertex being the centre of +inversion, and the semi-latus rectum the constant of inversion. The area +between the curve and its asymptote is 3[pi]a squared, i.e. three times the +area of the generating circle. + +The term cissoid has been given in modern times to curves generated in +similar manner from other figures than the circle, and the form +described above is distinguished as the cissoid of Diocles. + +[Illustration] + +A _cissoid angle_ is the angle included between the concave sides of two +intersecting curves; the convex sides include the _sistroid angle_. + + See John Wallis, _Collected Works_, vol. i.; T.H. Eagles, _Plane + Curves_ (1885). + + + + +CIS-SUTLEJ STATES, the southern portion of the Punjab, India. The name, +now obsolete, came into use in 1809, when the Sikh chiefs south of the +Sutlej passed under British protection, and was generally applied to the +country south of the Sutlej and north of the Delhi territory, bounded on +the E. by the Himalayas, and on the W. by Sirsa district. Before 1846 +the greater part of this territory was independent, the chiefs being +subject merely to control from a political officer stationed at Umballa, +and styled the agent of the governor-general for the Cis-Sutlej states. +After the first Sikh War the full administration of the territory became +vested in this officer. In 1849 occurred the annexation of the Punjab, +when the Cis-Sutlej states commissionership, comprising the districts of +Umballa, Ferozepore, Ludhiana, Thanesar and Simla, was incorporated with +the new province. The name continued to be applied to this division +until 1862, when, owing to Ferozepore having been transferred to the +Lahore, and a part of Thanesar to the Delhi division, it ceased to be +appropriate. Since then, the tract remaining has been known as the +Umballa division. Patiala, Jind and Nabha were appointed a separate +political agency in 1901. Excluding Bahawalpur, for which there is no +political agent, and Chamba, the other states are grouped under the +commissioners of Jullunder and Delhi, and the superintendent of the +Simla hill states. + + + + +CIST (Gr. [Greek: kiste], Lat. _cista_, a box; cf. Ger. _Kiste_, Welsh +_kistvaen_, stone-coffin, and also the other Eng. form "chest"), in +Greek archaeology, a wicker-work receptacle used in the Eleusinian and +other mysteries to carry the sacred vessels; also, in the archaeology +of prehistoric man, a coffin formed of flat stones placed edgeways with +another flat stone for a cover. The word is also used for a sepulchral +chamber cut in the rock (see COFFIN). + +"Cistern," the common term for a water-tank, is a derivation of the same +word (Lat. _cisterna_; cf. "cave" and "cavern"). + + + + +CISTERCIANS, otherwise GREY or WHITE MONKS (from the colour of the +habit, over which is worn a black scapular or apron). In 1098 St Robert, +born of a noble family in Champagne, at first a Benedictine monk, and +then abbot of certain hermits settled at Molesme near Chatillon, being +dissatisfied with the manner of life and observance there, migrated with +twenty of the monks to a swampy place called Citeaux in the diocese of +Chalons, not far from Dijon. Count Odo of Burgundy here built them a +monastery, and they began to live a life of strict observance according +to the letter of St Benedict's rule. In the following year Robert was +compelled by papal authority to return to Molesme, and Alberic succeeded +him as abbot of Citeaux and held the office till his death in 1109, when +the Englishman St Stephen Harding became abbot, until 1134. For some +years the new institute seemed little likely to prosper; few novices +came, and in the first years of Stephen's abbacy it seemed doomed to +failure. In 1112, however, St Bernard and thirty others offered +themselves to the monastery, and a rapid and wonderful development at +once set in. The next three years witnessed the foundation of the four +great "daughter-houses of Citeaux"--La Ferte, Pontigny, Clairvaux and +Morimond. At Stephen's death there were over 30 Cistercian houses; at +Bernard's (1154) over 280; and by the end of the century over 500; and +the Cistercian influence in the Church more than kept pace with this +material expansion, so that St Bernard saw one of his monks ascend the +papal chair as Eugenius III. + +The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of +St Benedict's rule--how literal may be seen from the controversy between +St Bernard and Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny (see Maitland, _Dark +Ages_, Sec. xxii.). The Cistercians rejected alike all mitigations and all +developments, and tried to reproduce the life exactly as it had been in +St Benedict's time, indeed in various points they went beyond it in +austerity. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to +manual labour, and especially to field-work, which became a special +characteristic of Cistercian life. In order to make time for this work +they cut away the accretions to the divine office which had been +steadily growing during three centuries, and in Cluny and the other +Black Monk monasteries had come to exceed greatly in length the regular +canonical office: one only of these accretions did they retain, the +daily recitation of the Office of the Dead (Edm. Bishop, _Origin of the +Primer_, Early English Text Society, original series, 109, p. xxx.). + +It was as agriculturists and horse and cattle breeders that, after the +first blush of their success and before a century had passed, the +Cistercians exercised their chief influence on the progress of +civilization in the later middle ages: they were the great farmers of +those days, and many of the improvements in the various farming +operations were introduced and propagated by them; it is from this point +of view that the importance of their extension in northern Europe is to +be estimated. The Cistercians at the beginning renounced all sources of +income arising from benefices, tithes, tolls and rents, and depended for +their income wholly on the land. This developed an organized system for +selling their farm produce, cattle and horses, and notably contributed +to the commercial progress of the countries of western Europe. Thus by +the middle of the 13th century the export of wool by the English +Cistercians had become a feature in the commerce of the country. Farming +operations on so extensive a scale could not be carried out by the monks +alone, whose choir and religious duties took up a considerable portion +of their time; and so from the beginning the system of lay brothers was +introduced on a large scale. The lay brothers were recruited from the +peasantry and were simple uneducated men, whose function consisted in +carrying out the various field-works and plying all sorts of useful +trades; they formed a body of men who lived alongside of the choir +monks, but separate from them, not taking part in the canonical office, +but having their own fixed round of prayer and religious exercises. A +lay brother was never ordained, and never held any office of +superiority. It was by this system of lay brothers that the Cistercians +were able to play their distinctive part in the progress of European +civilization. But it often happened that the number of lay brothers +became excessive and out of proportion to the resources of the +monasteries, there being sometimes as many as 200, or even 300, in a +single abbey. On the other hand, at any rate in some countries, the +system of lay brothers in course of time worked itself out; thus in +England by the close of the 14th century it had shrunk to relatively +small proportions, and in the 15th century the regime of the English +Cistercian houses tended to approximate more and more to that of the +Black Monks. + +The Cistercian polity calls for special mention. Its lines were +adumbrated by Alberic, but it received its final form at a meeting of +the abbots in the time of Stephen Harding, when was drawn up the _Carta +Caritatis_ (Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ clxvi. 1377), a document which +arranged the relations between the various houses of the Cistercian +order, and exercised a great influence also upon the future course of +western monachism. From one point of view, it may be regarded as a +compromise between the primitive Benedictine system, whereby each abbey +was autonomous and isolated, and the complete centralization of Cluny, +whereby the abbot of Cluny was the only true superior in the body. +Citeaux, on the one hand, maintained the independent organic life of the +houses--each abbey had its own abbot, elected by its own monks; its own +community, belonging to itself and not to the order in general; its own +property and finances administered by itself, without interference from +outside. On the other hand, all the abbeys were subjected to the general +chapter, which met yearly at Citeaux, and consisted of the abbots only; +the abbot of Citeaux was the president of the chapter and of the order, +and the visitor of each and every house, with a predominant influence +and the power of enforcing everywhere exact conformity to Citeaux in all +details of the exterior life--observance, chant, customs. The principle +was that Citeaux should always be the model to which all the other +houses had to conform. In case of any divergence of view at the chapter, +the side taken by the abbot of Citeaux was always to prevail (see F.A. +Gasquet, _Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History_, pp. xxxv-xxxviii, +prefixed to English trans, of Montalembert's _Monks of the West_, ed. +1895). + +By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered 500; in +the 13th a hundred more were added; and in the 15th, when the order +attained its greatest extension, there were close on 750 houses: the +larger figures sometimes given are now recognized as apocryphal. Nearly +half of the houses had been founded, directly or indirectly, from +Clairvaux, so great was St Bernard's influence and prestige: indeed he +has come almost to be regarded as the founder of the Cistercians, who +have often been called Bernardines. The order was spread all over +western Europe,--chiefly in France, but also in Germany, England, +Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, Italy and Sicily, Spain and +Portugal,--where some of the houses, as Alcobaca, were of almost +incredible magnificence. In England the first foundation was Furness +(1127), and many of the most beautiful monastic buildings of the +country, beautiful in themselves and beautiful in their sites, were +Cistercian,--as Tintern, Rievaulx, Byland, Fountains. A hundred were +established in England in the next hundred years, and then only one more +up to the Dissolution (for list, see table and map in F.A. Gasquet's +_English Monastic Life_, or _Catholic Dictionary_, art. "Cistercians"). + +For a hundred years, till the first quarter of the 13th century, the +Cistercians supplanted Cluny as the most powerful order and the chief +religious influence in western Europe. But then in turn their influence +began to wane, chiefly, no doubt, because of the rise of the mendicant +orders, who ministered more directly to the needs and ideas of the new +age. But some of the reasons of Cistercian decline were internal. In the +first place, there was the permanent difficulty of maintaining in its +first fervour a body embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of +monks, spread all over Europe; and as the Cistercian very _raison +d'etre_ consisted in its being a "reform," a return to primitive +monachism, with its field-work and severe simplicity, any failures to +live up to the ideal proposed worked more disastrously among Cistercians +than among mere Benedictines, who were intended to live a life of +self-denial, but not of great austerity. Relaxations were gradually +introduced in regard to diet and to simplicity of life, and also in +regard to the sources of income, rents and tolls being admitted and +benefices incorporated, as was done among the Benedictines; the farming +operations tended to produce a commercial spirit; wealth and splendour +invaded many of the monasteries, and the choir monks abandoned +field-work. + +The later history of the Cistercians is largely one of attempted +revivals and reforms. The general chapter for long battled bravely +against the invasion of relaxations and abuses. In 1335 Benedict XII., +himself a Cistercian, promulgated a series of regulations to restore the +primitive spirit of the order, and in the 15th century various popes +endeavoured to promote reforms. All these efforts at a reform of the +great body of the order proved unavailing; but local reforms, producing +various semi-independent offshoots and congregations, were successfully +carried out in many parts in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries. +In the 17th another great effort at a general reform was made, promoted +by the pope and the king of France; the general chapter elected +Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Citeaux, thinking he would protect +them from the threatened reform. In this they were disappointed, for he +threw himself wholly on the side of reform. So great, however, was the +resistance, and so serious the disturbances that ensued, that the +attempt to reform Citeaux itself and the general body of the houses had +again to be abandoned, and only local projects of reform could be +carried out. In 1598 had arisen the reformed congregation of the +Feuillants, which spread widely in France and Italy, in the latter +country under the name of "Improved Bernardines." The French +congregation of Sept-Fontaines (1654) also deserves mention. In 1663 de +Rance reformed La Trappe (see TRAPPISTS). + +The Reformation, the ecclesiastical policy of Joseph II., the French +Revolution, and the revolutions of the 19th century, almost wholly +destroyed the Cistercians; but some survived, and since the beginning of +the last half of the 19th century there has been a considerable +recovery. They are at present divided into three bodies: (1) the Common +Observance, with about 30 monasteries and 800 choir monks, the large +majority being in Austria-Hungary; they represent the main body of the +order and follow a mitigated rule of life; they do not carry on +field-work, but have large secondary schools, and are in manner of life +little different from fairly observant Benedictine Black monks; of late +years, however, signs are not wanting of a tendency towards a return to +older ideas; (2) the Middle Observance, embracing some dozen monasteries +and about 150 choir monks; (3) the Strict Observance, or Trappists +(q.v.), with nearly 60 monasteries, about 1600 choir monks and 2000 lay +brothers. + +In all there are about 100 Cistercian monasteries and about 4700 monks, +including lay brothers. There have always been a large number of +Cistercian nuns; the first nunnery was founded at Tart in the diocese of +Langres, 1125; at the period of their widest extension there are said to +have been 900 nunneries, and the communities were very large. The nuns +were devoted to contemplation and also did field-work. In Spain and +France certain Cistercian abbesses had extraordinary privileges. +Numerous reforms took place among the nuns. The best known of all +Cistercian convents was probably Port-Royal (q.v.), reformed by +Angelique Arnaud, and associated with the story of the Jansenist +controversy. After all the troubles of the 19th century there still +exist 100 Cistercian nunneries with 3000 nuns, choir and lay; of these, +15 nunneries with 900 nuns are Trappist. + + Accounts of the beginnings of the Cistercians and of the primitive + life and spirit will be found in the lives of St Bernard, the best + whereof is that of Abbe E. Vacandard (1895); also in the Life of St + Stephen Harding, in the _English Saints_. See also Henry Collins (one + of the Oxford Movement, who became a Cistercian), _Spirit and Mission + of the Cistercian Order_ (1866). The facts are related in Helyot, + _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), v. cc. 33-46, vi cc. 1, 2. Useful + sketches, with references to the literature, are supplied in Herzog, + _Realencyklopaedie_ (ed. 3), art. "Cistercienser"; Wetzer und Welte, + _Kirchenlexikon_ (ed. 2), art. "Cistercienserorden"; Max Heimbucher, + _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. Sec.Sec. 33, 34. Prof. Brewer's + discriminating, yet on the whole sympathetic, Preface to vol. iv. of + the Works of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls Series of _Chronicles and + Memorials_) is very instructive. Denis Murphy's _Triumphalia + Monasterii S. Crucis_ (1891) contains a general sketch, with a + particular account of the Irish Cistercians. (E. C. B.) + + + + +CITATION (Lat. _citare_, to cite), in law, a summons to appear, more +particularly applied in England to process in the probate and divorce +division of the high court. In the ecclesiastical courts, citation was a +method of commencing a probate suit, answering to a writ of summons at +common law, and it is now in English probate practice an instrument +issuing from the principal probate registry, chiefly used when a person, +having the superior right to take a grant, delays or declines to do so, +and another having an inferior right desires to obtain a grant; the +party having the prior right is cited to appear and either to renounce +the grant or show cause why it should not be decreed to the citator. In +divorce practice, when a petitioner has filed his petition and +affidavit, he extracts a citation, i.e. a command drawn in the name of +the sovereign and signed by one of the registrars of the court, calling +upon the alleged offender to appear and make answer to the petition. In +Scots law, citation is used in the sense of a writ of summons. The word +in its more general literary sense means the act of quoting, or the +referring to an authority in support of an argument. + + + + +CITEAUX, a village of eastern France, in the department of Cote d'Or, 16 +m. S.S.E. of Dijon by road. It is celebrated for the great abbey founded +by Robert, abbot of Molesme, in 1098, which became the headquarters of +the Cistercian order. The buildings which remain date chiefly from the +18th century and are of little interest. The church, destroyed in 1792, +used to contain the tombs of the earlier dukes of Burgundy. + + + + +CITHAERON, now called from its pine forests Elatea, a famous mountain +range (4626 ft.) in the south of Boeotia, separating that state from +Megaris and Attica. It was famous in Greek mythology, and is frequently +mentioned by the great poets, especially by Sophocles. It was on +Cithaeron that Aetaeon was changed into a stag, that Pentheus was torn +to pieces by the Bacchantes whose orgies he had been watching, and that +the infant Oedipus was exposed. This mountain, too, was the scene of the +mystic rites of Dionysus, and the festival of the Daedala in honour of +Hera. The carriage-road from Athens to Thebes crosses the range by a +picturesque defile (the pass of Dryoscephalae, "Oak-heads"), which was +at one time guarded on the Attic side by a strong fortress, the ruins of +which are known as Ghyphto-kastro ("Gipsy Castle"). Plataea is situated +on the north slope of the mountain, and the strategy of the battle of +479 B.C. was considerably affected by the fact that it was necessary for +the Greeks to keep their communications open by the passes (see +PLATAEA). The best known of these is that of Dryoscephalae, which must +then, as now, have been the direct route from Athens to Thebes. Two +other passes, farther to the west, were crossed by the roads from +Plataea to Athens and to Megara respectively. (E. GR.) + + + + +CITHARA (Assyrian _chetarah_; Gr. [Greek: kithara]; Lat. _cithara_; +perhaps Heb. _kinura, kinnor_), one of the most ancient stringed +instruments, traced back to 1700 B.C. among the Semitic races, in Egypt, +Assyria, Asia Minor, Greece and the Roman empire, whence the use of it +spread over Europe. The main feature of the Greek _kithara_, its shallow +sound-chest, being the most important part of it, is also that in which +developments are most noticeable; its contour varied considerably during +the many musical ages, but the characteristic in respect of which it +fore-shadowed the precursors of the violin family, and by which they +were distinguished from other contemporary stringed instruments of the +middle ages, was preserved throughout in all European descendants +bearing derived names. This characteristic box sound-chest (fig. 1) +consisted of two resonating tables, either flat or delicately arched, +connected by ribs or sides of equal width. The cithara may be regarded +as an attempt by a more skilful craftsman or race to improve upon the +lyre (q.v.), while retaining some of its features. The construction of +the cithara can fortunately be accurately studied from two actual +specimens found in Egypt and preserved in the museums of Berlin and +Leiden. The Leiden cithara (fig. 2), which forms part of the d'Anastasy +Collection in the Museum of Antiquities, is in a very good state of +preservation. The sound-chest, in the form of an irregular square (17 +cm. X 17 cm.), is hollowed out of a solid block of wood from the base, +which is open; the little bar, seen through the open base and measuring +21/2 cm. (1 in.), is also of the same piece of wood. The arms, one short +and one long, are solid and are fixed to the body by means of wooden +pins; they are glued as well for greater strength. W. Pleyte, through +whose courtesy the sketch was revised and corrected, states that there +are no indications on the instrument of any kind of bridge or attachment +for strings except the little half-hoop of iron wire which passes +through the base from back to front. To this the strings were probably +attached, and the little bar performed the double duty of sound-post and +support for strengthening the tail-piece and enabling it to resist the +tension of the strings. The oblique transverse bar, rendered necessary +by the increasing length of the strings, was characteristic of the +Egyptian cithara,[1] whereas the Asiatic and Greek instruments were +generally constructed with horizontal bars resting on arms of equal +length, the pitch of the strings being varied by thickness and tension, +instead of by length. (For the Berlin cithara see LYRE.) + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Nero Citharoedus (_Mus. Pio-Clementino_), +showing back of a Roman Cithara.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ancient Egyptian Cithara from Thebes. Museum of +Antiquities, Leiden.] + +The number of strings with which the cithara was strung varied from 4 to +19 or 20 at different times; they were added less for the purpose of +increasing the compass in the modern sense than to enable the performer +to play in the different modes of the Greek musical system. Terpander is +credited with having increased the number of strings to seven; Euclid, +quoting him as his authority, states that "loving no more the +tetrachordal chant, we will sing aloud new hymns to a seven-toned +phorminx." + +What has been said of the scale of the lyre applies also to the cithara, +and need therefore not be repeated here. The strings were vibrated by +means of the fingers or plectrum ([Greek: plektron], from [Greek: +plessein], to strike; Lat. _plectrum_, from _plango_, I strike). +Twanging with the fingers for strings of gut, hemp or silk was +undoubtedly the more artistic method, since the player was able to +command various shades of expression which are impossible with a rigid +plectrum.[2] Loudness of accent and great brilliancy of tone, however, +can only be obtained by the use of the plectrum. + +Quotations from the classics abound to show what was the practice of the +Greeks and Romans in this respect. The plectrum was held in the right +hand, with elbow outstretched and palm bent inwards, and the strings +were plucked with the straightened fingers of the left hand.[3] Both +methods were used with intention according to the dictates of art for +the sake of the variation in tone colour obtainable thereby.[4] + +The strings of the cithara were either knotted round the transverse +tuning bar itself (_zugon_) or to rings threaded over the bar, which +enabled the performer to increase or decrease the tension by shifting +the knots or rings; or else they were wound round pegs,[5] knobs[6] or +pins[7] fixed to the zugon. The other end of the strings was secured to +a tail-piece after passing over a flat bridge, or the two were combined +in the curious high box tail-piece which acted as a bridge. Plutarch[8] +states that this contrivance was added to the cithara in the days of +Cepion, pupil of Terpander. These boxes were hinged in order to allow +the lid to be opened for the purpose of securing the strings to some +contrivance concealed therein. It is a curious fact that no sculptured +cithara provided with this box tail-piece is represented with strings, +and in many cases there could never have been any, for the hand and +arm[9] are visible across the space that would be filled by the strings, +which are always carved in a solid block. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Apollo Citharoedus, showing Cithara with box +tail-pieces.] + +Like the lyre the cithara was made in many sizes, conditioned by the +pitch and the use to which the instrument was to be put. These +instruments may have been distinguished by different names; the +_pectis_, for instance, is declared by Sappho (22nd fragment) to have +been small and shrill; the _phorminx_, on the other hand, seems to have +been identical with the cithara.[10] + +The Greek _kithara_ was the instrument of the professional singer or +citharoedus ([Greek: kitharodos]) and of the instrumentalist or +citharista ([Greek: kitharistes]), and thus served the double purpose of +(1) accompanying the voice--a use placed by the Greeks far above mere +instrumental music--in epic recitations and rhapsodies, in odes and +lyric songs; and (2) of accompanying the dance; it was also used for +playing solos at the national games, at receptions and banquets and at +trials of skill. The costume of the citharoedus and citharista was rich +and recognized as being distinctive; it varied but little throughout the +ages, as may be deduced from a comparison of representations of the +citharoedus on a coin and on a Greek vase of the best period (fig. 4). +The costume consisted of a _palla_ or long tunic with sleeves +embroidered with gold and girt high above the waist, falling in graceful +folds to the feet. This _palla_ must not be confounded with the mantle +of the same name worn by women. Over one shoulder, or hanging down the +back, was the purple _chlamys_ or cloak, and on his brow a golden wreath +of laurels. All the citharoedi bear instruments of the type here +described as the cithara, and never one of the lyre type. The records of +the citharoedi extend over more than thirteen centuries and fall into +two natural divisions: (1) The mythological period, approximately from +the 13th century B.C. to the first Olympiad, 776 B.C.; and (2) the +historical period to the days of Ptolemy, A.D. 161. One of the very few +authentic Greek odes extant is a Pythian ode by Pindar, in which the +phorminx of Apollo is mentioned; the solo is followed by a chorus of +citharoedi. The scope of the solemn games and processions, called +_Panathenaea_, held every four years in honour of the goddess Athena, +which originally consisted principally of athletic sports and horse and +chariot races, was extended under Peisistratus (c. 540 B.C.), and the +celebration made to include contests of singers and instrumentalists, +recitations of portions of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, such as are +represented on the frieze of the Parthenon (in the Elgin Room at the +British Museum) and later on friezes by Pheidias. It was at the same +period that the first contests for solo-playing on the cithara ([Greek: +kitharistus]) and for solo _aulos_-playing were instituted at the 8th +Pythian Games.[11] One of the principal items at these contests for +aulos and cithara was the _Nomos Pythikos_, descriptive of the victory +of Apollo over the python and of the defeat of the monster.[12] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cithara or Phorminx, from a vase in the British +Museum.] + +The Pythian Games survived the classic Greek period and were continued +under Roman sway until about A.D. 394. Not only were these games held at +Delphi, but smaller contests, called Pythia, modelled on the great +Pythian, were instituted in various provinces of the empire, and more +especially in Asia Minor. The games lasted for several days, the first +being devoted to music. To the games at Delphi came musicians from all +parts of the civilized world; and the Spaniards, at the beginning of our +era, had attained to such a marvellous proficiency in playing the +cithara, an instrument which they had learnt to know from the Phoenician +colonists before the conquest by the Romans, that some of their +citharoedi easily carried off the honours at the musical contests. The +consul Metellus was so charmed with the music of the Spanish competitors +that he sent some to Rome for the festivals, where the impression +created was so great that the Spanish citharoedi obtained a permanent +footing in Rome. Aulus Gellius (_Noct. Att._) describes an incident at a +banquet which corroborates this statement. + +The degeneration of music as an art among the Romans, and its gradual +degradation by association with the sensual amusements of corrupt Rome, +nearly brought about its extinction at the end of the 4th century, when +the condemnation of the Church closed the theatres, and the great +national games came to an end. Instrumental music was banished from +civil life and from religious rites, and thenceforth the slender threads +which connect the musical instruments of Greeks and Romans with those of +the middle ages must be sought among the unconverted barbarians of +northern and western Europe, who kept alive the traditions taught them +by conquerors and colonists; but as civilization was in its infancy with +them the instruments sent out from their workshops must have been crude +and primitive. Asia, the cradle of the cithara, also became its +foster-mother; it was among the Greeks of Asia Minor that the several +steps in the transition from cithara into guitar[13] (q.v.) took place. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Asiatic Cithara in transition (or rotta). From a +fresco at Beni-Hasan (c. 1700 B.C.).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Roman Cithara in transition, of the Lycian +Apollo (Rome Mus. Capit.).] + +The first of these steps produced the rotta (q.v.), by the construction +of body, arms and transverse bar in one piece. The Semitic races used +the rotta at a very remote period (1700 B.C.), as we know from a fresco +at Beni-Hasan, dating from the reign of Senwosri II., which depicts a +procession of strangers bringing tribute; among them is a bearded +musician of Semitic type bearing a rotta which he holds horizontally in +front of him in the Assyrian manner, and quite unlike the Greeks, who +always played the lyre and cithara in an upright position. A unique +specimen of this rectangular rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the +5th or 6th century at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. The instrument was +clasped in the arms of an armed knight; it is now preserved in the +Voelker Museum in Berlin. This old German rotta is an exact counterpart +of instruments pictured in illuminated MSS. of the 8th century, and is +derived from the cithara with rectangular body, while from the cithara +with a body having the curve of the lower half of the violin was +produced a rotta with the outline of the body of the guitar. Both types +were common in Europe until the 14th century, some played with a bow, +others twanged by the fingers, and bearing indifferently both names, +cithara and rotta. The addition of a finger-board, stretching like a +short neck from body to transverse bar, leaving on each side of the +finger-board space for the hand to pass through in order to stop the +strings, produced the crwth or crowd (q.v.), and brought about the +reduction in the number of the strings to three or four. The conversion +of the rotta into the guitar (q.v.) was an easy transition effected by +the addition of a long neck to a body derived from the oval rotta. When +the bow was applied the result was the guitar or troubadour fiddle. At +first the instrument called _cithara_ in the Latin versions of the +Psalms was glossed _citran, citre_ in Anglo-Saxon, but in the 11th +century the same instrument was rendered _hearpan_, and in French and +English _harpe_ or _harp_, and our modern versions have retained this +translation. The _cittern_ (q.v.), a later descendant of the cithara, +although preserving the characteristic features of the cithara, the +shallow sound-chest with ribs, adopted the pear-shaped outline of the +Eastern instruments of the lute tribe. (K.S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] A drawing of an Egyptian cithara, similar to the Leiden + specimen, may be seen in Champollion, _Monuments de l'Egypte et de + la Nubie_, ii. pl. 175. + + [2] See Plutarch, _Apophthegm. Lacon._ + + [3] Philostratus the Elder, _Imagines_, No. 10, "Amphion," and + Philostratus the Younger, _Imagines_, No. 7, "Orpheus," p. 403. + + [4] Tibullus, _Eleg._ iii. 4. 39. + + [5] _Le Antichita de Ercolano_, vol. iii. p. 5. + + [6] _Idem_, vol. iv. p. 201. + + [7] Thomas Hope, _Costumes of the Ancients_, vol. ii. p. 193; also + Edward Buhle, _Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen des + fruehen Mittelalters_ (Leipzig, 1903), frontispiece. + + [8] See _De Musica_, ch. vi. + + [9] See Visconti, _Museo Clementino_, pl. 22, Erato's cithara, and + in the same work that of Apollo Citharoedus (fig. 3 above). + + [10] See _Od._ i. 153, 155; _Il._ xviii. 569-570. In Homer the form + is always [Greek: kitharis]. + + [11] See Pausanias x. 7, Sec. 4 et seq. + + [12] For a description of the _Nomos Pythikos_ in its relation to + Greek music see Kathleen Schlesinger, "Researches into the Origin of + the Organs of the Ancients," _Intern. Mus. Ges._ Sbd. ii. (1901), 2, + p. 177, and Strabo ix. p. 421. + + [13] For a discussion of this question see Kathleen Schlesinger, + _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, part ii., and especially + chapters on the cithara in transition during the middle ages, and + the question of the origin of the Utrecht Psalter, in which the + evolution of the cithara is traced at some length. + + + + +CITIUM (Gr. [Greek: Kition]), the principal Phoenician city in Cyprus, +situated at the north end of modern Larnaca, on the bay of the same name +on the S.E. coast of the island. Converging currents from E. and W. meet +and pass seawards off Cape Kiti a few miles south, and greatly +facilitated ancient trade. To S. and W. the site is protected by +lagoons, the salt from which was one of the sources of its prosperity. +The earliest remains near the site go back to the Mycenaean age (c. +1400-1100 B.C.) and seem to mark an Aegean colony.[1] but in historic +times Citium is the chief centre of Phoenician influence in Cyprus. That +this was still a recent settlement in the 7th century is suggested by an +allusion in a list of the allies of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 +B.C. to a King Damasu of Kartihadasti (Phoenician for "New-town"), where +Citium would be expected. A Phoenician dedication to "Baal of Lebanon" +found here, and dated also to the 7th century, suggests that Citium may +have belonged to Tyre. The biblical name Kittim, derived from Citium, is +in fact used quite generally for Cyprus as a whole;[2] later also for +Greeks and Romans in general.[3] The discovery here of an official +monument of Sargon II. suggests that Citium was the administrative +centre of Cyprus during the Assyrian protectorate (700-668 B.C.).[4] +During the Greek revolts of 500, 386 foll. and 352 B.C., Citium led the +side loyal to Persia and was besieged by an Athenian force in 449 B.C.; +its extensive necropolis proves that it remained a considerable city +even after the Greek cause triumphed with Alexander. But like other +cities of Cyprus, it suffered repeatedly from earthquake, and in +medieval times when its harbour became silted the population moved to +Larnaca, on the open roadstead, farther south. Harbour and citadel have +now quite disappeared, the latter having been used to fill up the former +shortly after the British occupation; some gain to health resulted, but +an irreparable loss to science. Traces remain of the circuit wall, and +of a sanctuary with copious terra-cotta offerings; the large necropolis +yields constant loot to illicit excavation. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W.H. Engel, _Kypros_ (Berlin, 1841), (classical + allusions); J.L. Myres, _Journ. Hellenic Studies_, xvii. 147 ff. + (excavations); _Cyprus Museum Catalogue_ (Oxford, 1899), p. 5-6; + 153-155; Index (Antiquities); G.F. Hill, _Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of + Cyprus_ (London, 1904), (Coins). (J.L.M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Cf. the name Kathian in a Ramessid list of cities of Cyprus, + Oberhummer, _Die Insel Cypern_ (Munich, 1903), p. 4. + + [2] Gen. x. 4; Num. xxiv. 24; Is. xxiii. 1, 12; Jer. ii. 10; Ezek. + xxvii. 6. + + [3] Dan. xi. 30; I Macc. i. 1; viii. 5. + + [4] Schrader, "Die Sargonstele des Berliner Museums," in _Abh. d. k. + Preuss. Akad. Wiss._ (1881); _Zur Geogr. d. assyr. Reiches_ (Berlin, + 1890), pp. 337-344. + + + + +CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with "denizen," +from O. Fr. _citeain_, mod. Fr. _citoyen_), etymologically the +inhabitant of a city, _cite_ or _civitas_ (see CITY), and in England the +term still used primarily of persons possessing civic rights in a +borough; thus used also of a townsman as opposed to a countryman. The +more extended use of the word, however, corresponding to _civitas_, +gives "citizen" the meaning of one who is a constituent member of a +state in international relations and as such has full national rights +and owes a certain allegiance (q.v.) as opposed to an "alien"; in +republican countries the term is then commonly employed as the +equivalent of "subject" in monarchies of feudal origin. For the rules +governing the obtaining of citizenship in this latter sense in the +United States and elsewhere see NATURALIZATION. + + + + +CITOLE, also spelled SYTOLE, CYTHOLE, GYTOLLE, &c. (probably a Fr. +diminutive form of _cithara_, and not from Lat. _cista_, a box), an +obsolete musical instrument of which the exact form is uncertain. It is +frequently mentioned by poetical writers of the 13th to the 15th +centuries, and is found in Wycliffe's Bible (1360) in 2 Samuel vi. 5, +"Harpis and sitols and tympane." The Authorized Version has +"psaltiries," and the Vulgate "lyrae." It has been supposed to be +another name for the psaltery (q.v.), a box-shaped instrument often seen +in the illuminated missals of the middle ages. + + + + +CITRIC ACID, _Acidum citricum_, or OXYTRICARBALLYLIC ACID, +C3H4(OH) (CO.OH)3, a tetrahydroxytribasic acid, first obtained +in the solid state by Karl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1784, from the juice of +lemons. It is present also in oranges, citrons, currants, gooseberries +and many other fruits, and in several bulbs and tubers. It is made on a +large scale from lime or lemon juice, and also by the fermentation of +glucose under the influence of _Citromycetes pfefferianus, C. glaber_ +and other ferments. Lemon juice is fermented for some time to free it +from mucilage, then boiled and filtered, and neutralized with powdered +chalk and a little milk of lime; the precipitate of calcium citrate so +obtained is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, the solution +filtered, evaporated to remove calcium sulphate and concentrated, +preferably in vacuum pans. The acid is thus obtained in colourless +rhombic prisms of the composition C6H8O7 + H2O. Crystals of +a different form are deposited from a strong boiling solution of the +acid. About 20 gallons of lemon juice should yield about 10 lb of +crystallized citric acid. The acid may also be prepared from the juice +of unripe gooseberries. Calcium citrate must be manufactured with care +to avoid an excess of chalk or lime, which would precipitate +constituents of the juice that cause the fermentation of the citrate and +the production of calcium acetate and butyrate. + +The synthesis of citric acid was accomplished by L.E. Grimaux and P. +Adam in 1881. Glycerin when treated with hydrochloric acid gives +propenyl dichlorhydrin, which may be oxidized to s-dichloracetone. This +compound combines with hydrocyanic acid to form a nitrile which +hydrolyses to dichlor-hydroxy iso-butyric acid. Potassium cyanide reacts +with this acid to form the corresponding dinitrile, which is converted +by hydrochloric acid into citric acid. This series of operations proves +the constitution of the acid. A. Haller and C.A. Held synthesized the +acid from ethyl chlor-acetoacetate (from chlorine and acetoacetic ester) +by heating with potassium cyanide and saponifying the resulting nitrile. +The acetone dicarboxylic acid, CO(CH2CO2H)2, so obtained +combines with hydrocyanic acid, and this product yields citric acid on +hydrolysis. + +Citric acid has an agreeable sour taste. It is soluble in 3/4ths of its +weight of cold, and in half its weight of boiling water, and dissolves +in alcohol, but not in ether. At 150 deg.C. it melts, and on the continued +application of heat boils, giving off its water of crystallization. At +175 deg. C. it is resolved into water and aconitic acid, C6H6O6, a +substance found in _Equisetum fluviatile_, monks-hood and other plants. +A higher temperature decomposes this body into carbon dioxide and +itaconic acid, C5H6C4, which, again, by the expulsion of a +molecule of water, yields citraconic anhydride, C5H4O3. Citric +acid digested at a temperature below 40 deg.C. with concentrated sulphuric +acid gives off carbon monoxide and forms acetone dicarboxylic acid. With +fused potash it forms potassium oxalate and acetate. It is a strong +acid, and dissolved in water decomposes carbonates and attacks iron and +zinc. + +The citrates are a numerous class of salts, the most soluble of which +are those of the alkaline metals; the citrates of the alkaline earth +metals are insoluble. Citric acid, being tribasic, forms either acid +monometallic, acid dimetallic or neutral trimetallic salts; thus, mono-, +di- and tri-potassium and sodium citrates are known. On warming citric +acid with an excess of lime-water a precipitate of calcium citrate is +obtained which is redissolved as the liquid cools. + +The impurities occasionally present in commercial citric acid are salts +of potassium and sodium, traces of iron, lead and copper derived from +the vessels used for its evaporation and crystallization, and free +sulphuric, tartaric and even oxalic acid. Tartaric acid, which is +sometimes present in large quantities as an adulterant in commercial +citric acid, may be detected in the presence of the latter, by the +production of a precipitate of acid potassium tartrate when potassium +acetate is added to a cold solution. Another mode of separating the two +acids is to convert them into calcium salts, which are then treated with +a perfectly neutral solution of cupric chloride, soluble cupric citrate +and calcium chloride being formed, while cupric tartrate remains +undissolved. Citric acid is also distinguished from tartaric acid by the +fact that an ammonia solution of silver tartrate produces a brilliant +silver mirror when boiled, whereas silver citrate is reduced only after +prolonged ebullition. + +Citric acid is used in calico printing, also in the preparation of +effervescing draughts, as a refrigerant and sialogogue, and occasionally +as an antiscorbutic, instead of fresh lemon juice. In the form of lime +juice it has long been known as an antidote for scurvy. Several of the +citrates are much employed as medicines, the most important being the +scale preparations of iron. Of these iron and ammonium citrate is much +used as a haematinic, and as it has hardly any tendency to cause gastric +irritation or constipation it can be taken when the ordinary forms of +iron are inadmissible. Iron and quinine citrate is used as a bitter +stomachic and tonic. In the blood citrates are oxidized into carbonates; +they therefore act as _remote alkalis_, increasing the alkalinity of the +blood and thereby the general rate of chemical change within the body +(see ACETIC ACID). + + + + +CITRON, a species of _Citrus_ (_C. medica_), belonging to the tribe +_Aurantieae_, of the botanical natural order Rutaceae; the same genus +furnishes also the orange, lime and shaddock. The citron is a small +evergreen tree or shrub growing to a height of about 10 ft.; it has +irregular straggling spiny branches, large pale-green broadly oblong, +slightly serrate leaves and generally unisexual flowers purplish without +and white within. The large fruit is ovate or oblong, protuberant at the +tip, and from 5 to 6 in. long, with a rough, furrowed, adherent rind, +the inner portion of which is thick, white and fleshy, the outer, thin, +greenish-yellow and very fragrant. The pulp is sub-acid and edible, and +the seeds are bitter. There are many varieties of the fruit, some of +them of great weight and size. The Madras citron has the form of an +oblate sphere; and in the "fingered citron" of China the lobes are +separated into finger-like divisions formed by separation of the +constituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in the orange. + +The citron-tree thrives in the open air in China, Persia, the West +Indies, Madeira, Sicily, Corsica, and the warmer parts of Spain and +Italy; and in conservatories it is often to be seen in more northerly +regions. Sir Joseph Hooker (_Flora of British India_, i. 514) regards it +as a native of the valleys at the foot of the Himalaya, and of the +Khasia hills and the Western Ghauts; Dr Bonavia, however, considers it +to have originated in Cochin China or China, and to have been introduced +into India, whence it spread to Media and Persia. It was described by +Theophrastus as growing in Media, three centuries before Christ, and was +early known to the ancients, and the fruit was held in great esteem by +them; but they seem to have been acquainted with no other member of the +_Aurantieae_, the introduction of oranges and lemons into the countries +of the Mediterranean being due to the Arabs, between the 10th and 15th +centuries. Josephus tells us that "the law of the Jews required that at +the feast of tabernacles every one should have branches of palm-tree and +citron-tree" (_Antiq._ xiii. 13. 5); and the Hebrew word _tappuach_, +rendered "apples" and "apple-tree" in Cant. ii. 3, 5, Prov. xxv. 11, +&c., probably signifies the citron-tree and its fruit. Oribasius in the +4th century describes the fruit, accurately distinguishing the three +parts of it. About the 3rd century the tree was introduced into Italy; +and, as Gallesio informs us, it was much grown at Salerno in the 11th +century. In China citrons are placed in apartments to make them +fragrant. The rind of the citron yields two perfumes, _oil of cedra_ and +_oil of citron_, isomeric with oil of turpentine; and when candied it is +much esteemed as a dessert and in confectionery. The lemon (q.v.) is now +generally regarded as a subspecies _Limonum_ of _Citrus medica_. + + Oribasii Sardiani, _Collectorum Medicinalium Libri XVII._ i. 64 (_De + citrio_); Gallesio, _Traite du citrus_ (1811); Darwin, _Animals and + Plants under Domestication_, i. 334-336 (1868); Brandis, _Forest Flora + of North-West and Central India_, p. 51 (1874); E. Bonavia, _The + Cultivated Oranges and Lemons, &c., of India and Ceylon_ (1890). + + + + +CITTADELLA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Padua, 20 m. +N.W. by rail from the town of Padua; 160 ft. above sea-level. Pop. +(1901) town, 3616; commune, 9686. The town was founded in 1220 by the +Paduans to counterbalance the fortification of Castelfranco, 8 m. to the +E., in 1218 by the Trevisans, and retains its well-preserved medieval +walls, surrounded by a wet ditch. It was always a fortress of +importance, and in modern times is a centre for the agricultural produce +of the district, being the junction of the lines from Padua to Bassano +and from Vicenza to Treviso. + + + + +CITTA DELLA PIEVE, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the +province of Perugia, situated 1666 ft. above the sea, 3 m. N.E. of its +station on the railway between Chiusi and Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 8381. +Etruscan tombs have been found in the neighbourhood, but it is not +certain that the present town stands on an ancient site. It was the +birthplace of the painter Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), and possesses +several of his works, but none of the first rank. + + + + +CITTA DI CASTELLO, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the +province of Perugia, 38 m. E. of Arezzo by rail (18 m. direct), situated +on the left bank of the Tiber, 945 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of +town, 6096; of commune, 26,885. It occupies, as inscriptions show, the +site of the ancient _Tifernum Tiberinum_, near which Pliny had a villa +(_Epist._ v. 6; cf. H. Winnefeld in _Jahrbuch des deutschen +archaeologischen Instituts_, vi. Berlin, 1891, 203), but no remains exist +above ground. The town was devastated by Totila, but seems to have +recovered. We find it under the name of _Castrum Felicitatis_ at the end +of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from the 7th century. The town +went through various political vicissitudes in the middle ages, being +subject now to the emperor, now to the Church, until in 1468 it came +under the Vitelli: but when they died out it returned to the allegiance +of the Church. It is built in the form of a rectangle and surrounded by +walls of 1518. It contains fine buildings of the Renaissance, especially +the palaces of the Vitelli, and the cathedral, originally Romanesque. +The 12th-century altar front of the latter in silver is fine. The +Palazzo Comunale is of the 14th century. Some of Raphael's earliest +works were painted for churches in this town, but none of them remains +there. There is, however, a small collection of pictures. + + See Magherini Graziani, _L'Arte a Citta di Castello_ (1897). + + + + +CITTA VECCHIA, or CITTA NOTABILE, a fortified city of Malta, 7 m. W. of +Valletta, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. (1901) 7515. It +lies on high, sharply rising ground which affords a view of a large part +of the island. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains an ornate +cathedral, overthrown by an earthquake in 1693, but rebuilt, which is +said by an acceptable tradition to occupy the site of the house of the +governor Publius, who welcomed the apostle Paul. It contains some rich +stalls of the 15th century and other objects of interest. In the rock +beneath the city there are some remarkable catacombs in part of +pre-Christian origin, but containing evidence of early Christian burial; +and a grotto, reputed to have given shelter to the apostle, is pointed +out below the church of San Paolo. Remains of Roman buildings have been +excavated in the town. About 2 m. E. of the town is the residence of the +English governor, known as the palace of S. Antonio; and at a like +distance to the south is the ancient palace of the grand masters of the +order of St John, with an extensive public garden called Il Boschetto. +Citta Vecchia was called Civitas Melita by the Romans and oldest +writers, Medina (i.e. the city) by the Saracens, Notabile (_locale +notabile, et insigne coronae regiae_, as it is called in a charter by +Alphonso, 1428) under the Sicilian rule, and Citta Vecchia (old city) by +the knights. It was the capital of the island till its supersession by +Valletta in 1570. (See also MALTA.) + + + + +CITTERN (also CITHERN, CITHRON, CYTHREN, CITHAREN, &c.; Fr. _citre, +cistre, cithre, guitare allemande_ or _anglaise_; Ger. _Cither_, Zither +(_mit Hals_, with neck); Ital. _cetera, cetra_), a medieval stringed +instrument with a neck terminating in a grotesque and twanged by fingers +or plectrum. The popularity of the cittern was at its height in England +and Germany during the 16th and 17th centuries. The cittern consisted of +a pear-shaped body similar to that of the lute but with a flat back and +sound-board joined by ribs. The neck was provided with a fretted +finger-board; the head was curved and surmounted by a grotesque head of +a woman or of an animal.[1] The strings were of wire in pairs of +unisons, known as courses, usually four in number in England. A +peculiarity of the cittern lay in the tuning of the courses, the third +course known as bass being lower than the fourth styled tenor. + +[Illustration] + +[Illustration: From Thomas Robinson's _New Citharen Lessons_, 1609. +Four-course Cittern.] + +According to Vincentio Galilei (the father of the great astronomer) +England was the birthplace of the cittern.[2] Several lesson books for +this popular instrument were published during the 17th century in +England. A very rare book (of which the British Museum does not possess +a copy), _The Cittharn Schoole_, written by Anthony Holborne in 1597, is +mentioned in Sir P. Leycester's manuscript commonplace book[3] dated +1656, "For the little Instrument called a _Psittyrne_ Anthony Holborne +and Tho. Robinson were most famous of any before them and have both of +them set out a booke of Lessons for this Instrument. Holborne has +composed a Basse-parte for the Viole to play unto the Psittyrne with +those Lessons set out in his booke. These lived about Anno Domini 1600." +Thomas Robinson's _New Citharen Lessons with perfect tunings for the +same from Foure course of strings to Fourteene course_, &c. (printed +London, 1609, by William Barley), contains illustrations of both kinds +of instruments. The fourteen-course cittern was also known in England as +_Bijuga_; the seven courses in pairs were stretched over the +finger-board, and the seven single strings, fastened to the grotesque +head, were stretched as in the lyre _a vide_ alongside the neck; all the +strings rested on the one flat bridge near the tail-piece. Robinson +gives instructions for learning to play the cittern and for reading the +tablature. John Playford's _Musick's Delight on the Cithren_ (London, +1666) also contains illustrations of the instrument as well as of the +viol da Gamba and Pochette; he claims to have revived the instrument and +restored it to what it was in the reign of Queen Mary. + +The cittern probably owed its popularity at this time to the ease with +which it might be mastered and used to accompany the voice; it was one +of four instruments generally found in barbers' shops, the others being +the gittern, the lute and the virginals. The customers while waiting +took down the instrument from its peg and played a merry tune to pass +the time.[4] We read that when Konstantijn Huygens came over to England +and was received by James I. at Bagshot, he played to the king on the +cittern (cithara), and that his performance was duly appreciated and +applauded. He tells us that, although he learnt to play the barbiton in +a few weeks with skill, he had lessons from a master for two years on +the cittern.[5] On the occasion of a third visit he witnessed the +performance of some fine musicians and was astonished to hear a lady, +mother of twelve, singing in divine fashion, accompanying herself on the +cittern; one of these artists he calls Lanivius, the British Orpheus, +whose performance was really enchanting. + +Michael Praetorius[6] gives various tunings for the cittern as well as +an illustration (sounded an octave higher than the notation). + +[Illustration: French] + +[Illustration: Italian 4 course] + +[Illustration: Italian 6 course] + +During the 18th century the cittern, citra or English guitar, had twelve +wire strings in six pairs of unisons tuned thus: + +[Illustration] + +The introduction of the Spanish guitar, which at once leapt into favour, +gradually displaced the English variety. The Spanish guitar had gut +strings twanged by the fingers. The last development of the cittern +before its disappearance was the addition of keys. The keyed cithara[7] +was first made by Claus & Co. of London in 1783. The keys, six in +number, were placed on the left of the sound-board, and on being +depressed they acted on hammers inside the sound-chest, which rising +through the rose sound-hole struck the strings. Sometimes the keys were +placed in a little box right over the strings, the hammers striking from +above. M.J.B. Vuillaume of Paris possessed an Italian cetera (not keyed) +by Antoine Stradivarius,[8] 1700 (now in the Museum of the +Conservatoire, Paris), with twelve strings tuned in pairs of unisons to +E, D, G, B, C, A, which was exhibited in London in 1871. + +The cittern of the 16th century was the result of certain transitions +which took place during the evolution of the violin from the Greek +kithara (see CITHARA). + + _Genealogical Table of the Cittern._ + + Assyrian Ketharah Persian Rebab + ____________|_____________ : + | | : + Persian and Arabic Greek Kithara Arab Rebab + Kithara | : + | | : + Moorish Guitra, Roman Cithara European Rebec + Cuitra or Guitarra or Fidicula : + | : + Cithara in transition or Rotta : + ___________________________|________________________: + | | | + Cithara in transition Guitarra Latina _Cittern_ + or Guitar or Vihuela de Mano + | | + Spanish Guitar Ghittern + +The cittern has retained the following characteristics of the archetype. +(1) The derivation of the name, which after the introduction of the bow +was used to characterize various instruments whose strings were twanged +by fingers or plectrum, such as the harp and the rotta (both known as +_cithara_), the citola and the zither. In an interlinear Latin and +Anglo-Saxon version of the Psalms, dated A.D. 700 (Brit. Mus., Vesp. A. +1), _cithara_ is translated _citran_, from which it is not difficult to +trace the English _cithron, citteran, cittarn_, of the 16th century. (2) +The construction of the sound-chest with flat back and sound-board +connected by ribs. The pear-shaped outline was possibly borrowed from +the Eastern instruments, both bowed as the rebab and twanged as the +lute, so common all over Europe during the middle ages, or more probably +derived from the _kithara_ of the Greeks of Asia Minor, which had the +corners rounded. These early steps in the transition from the _cithara_ +may be seen in the miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter,[9] a unique and +much-copied Carolingian MS. executed at Reims (9th century), the +illustrations of which were undoubtedly adapted from an earlier psalter +from the Christian East. The instruments which remained true to the +prototype in outline as well as in construction and in the derivation +of the name were the ghittern and the guitar, so often confused with the +cittern. It is evident that the kinship of cittern and guitar was +formerly recognized, for during the 18th century, as stated above, the +cittern was known as the English guitar to distinguish it from the +Spanish guitar. The grotesque head, popularly considered the +characteristic feature of the cittern, was probably added in the 12th +century at a time when this style of decoration was very noticeable in +other musical instruments, such as the cornet or _Zinck_, the +_Platerspiel_, the chaunter of the bagpipe, &c. The cittern of the +middle ages was also to be found in oval shape. From the 13th century +representations of the pear-shaped instrument abound in miniatures and +carvings.[10] + + A very clearly drawn cittern of the 14th century occurs in a MS. + treatise on astronomy (Sloane MS. 3983, Brit. Mus.) translated from + the Persian of Albumazar into Latin by Georgius Zothari Zopari + Fenduli, priest and philosopher, with a prologue and numerous + illustrations by his own hand; the cittern is here called _giga_ in an + inscription at the side of the drawing. + + References to the cittern are plentiful in the literature of the 16th + and 17th centuries. Robert Fludd[11] describes it thus: "Cistrona quae + quatuor tantum chordas duplicatas habet easque cupreas et ferreas de + quibus aliquid dicemus quo loco." Others are given in the _New English + Dictionary_, "Cittern," and in Godefroy's _Dict. de l'anc. langue + franc. du IXe au XVe siecle_. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Shakespeare, _Love's Labour's Lost_, act v. sc. 2, where + Boyet compares the countenance of Holofernes to a cittern head; John + Forde, _Lovers' Melancholy_ (1629), act ii. sc. 1, "Barbers shall + wear thee on their citterns." + + [2] _Dialogo della musica_ (Florence, 1581), p. 147. + + [3] The musical extracts from the commonplace book were prepared by + Dr Rimbault for the Early English Text Society. Holborne's work is + mentioned in his _Bibliotheca Madrigaliana_. The descriptive list of + the musical instruments in use in England during Leycester's + lifetime (about 1656) has been extracted and published by Dr F.J. + Furnivall, in _Captain Cox, his Ballads and Books, or Robert + Laneham's Letter_ (1575), (London, 1871), pp. 65-68. + + [4] See Knight's _London_, i. 142. + + [5] See _De Vita propria sermonum inter liberos libri duo_ (Haarlem, + 1817) and E. van der Straeten, _La Musique aux Pays-Bas_, ii. + 348-35O. + + [6] _Syntagma Musicum_ (1618). See also M. Mersenne, _Harmonie + universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xv., who gives different + accordances. + + [7] See Carl Engel, _Catalogue_ of the Exhibition of Ancient Musical + Instruments (London, 1872), Nos. 289 and 290. + + [8] See note above. Illustration in A.J. Hipkins, _Musical Instruments; + Historic, Rare and Unique_ (Edinburgh, 1888). + + [9] For a resume of the question of the origin of this famous psalter, + and an inquiry into its bearing on the history of musical + instruments with illustrations and facsimile reproductions, see + Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, part ii. + "The Precursors of the Violin Family," pp. 127-166 (London, + 1908-1909). + + [10] An oval cittern and a ghittern, side by side, occur in the + beautiful 13th-century Spanish MS. known as _Cantigas de Santa + Maria_ in the Escorial. For a fine facsimile in colours see marquis + de Valmar, _Real. Acad. Esq._, publ. by L. Aguado (Madrid, 1889). + Reproductions in black and white in Juan F. Riano, _Critical and + Bibliog. Notes on Early Spanish Music_ (London, 1887). See also K. + Schlesinger, op. cit. fig. 167, p. 223, also boat-shaped citterns, + figs. 155 and 156, p. 197. Cittern with woman's head, 15th century, + on one of six bas-reliefs on the under parts of the seats of the + choir of the Priory church, Great Malvern, reproduced in J. Carter's + _Ancient Sculptures_, &c., vol. ii. pl. following p. 12. Another + without a head, ibid. pl. following p. 16, from a brass monumental + plate in St Margaret's, King's Lynn. + + [11] _Historia utriusque Cosmi_ (Oppenheim, ed. 1617) i. 226. + + + + +CITY (through Fr. _cite_, from Lat. _civitas_). In the United Kingdom, +strictly speaking, "city" is an honorary title, officially applied to +those towns which, in virtue of some preeminence (e.g. as episcopal +sees, or great industrial centres), have by traditional usage or royal +charter acquired the right to the designation. In the United Kingdom the +official style of "city" does not necessarily involve the possession of +municipal power greater than those of the ordinary boroughs, nor indeed +the possession of a corporation at all (e.g. Ely). In the United States +and the British colonies, on the other hand, the official application of +the term "city" depends on the kind and extent of the municipal +privileges possessed by the corporations, and charters are given raising +towns to the rank of cities. Both in France and England the word is used +to distinguish the older and central nucleus of some of the large towns, +e.g. the _Cite_ in Paris, and the "square mile" under the jurisdiction +of the lord mayor which is the "City of London." + +In common usage, however, the word implies no more than a somewhat vague +idea of size and dignity, and is loosely applied to any large centre of +population. Thus while, technically, the City of London is quite small, +London is yet properly described as the largest city in the world. In +the United States this use of the word is still more loose, and any +town, whether technically a city or not, is usually so designated, with +little regard to its actual size or importance. + +It is clear from the above that the word "city" is incapable of any very +clear and inclusive definition, and the attempt to show that +historically it possesses a meaning that clearly differentiates it from +"town" or "borough" has led to some controversy. As the translation of +the Greek [Greek: polis] or Latin _civitas_ it involves the ancient +conception of the state or "city-state," i.e. of the state as not too +large to prevent its government through the body of the citizens +assembled in the _agora_, and is applied not to the place but to the +whole body politic. From this conception both the word and its dignified +connotation are without doubt historically derived. On the occupation of +Gaul the Gallic states and tribes were called _civitates_ by the Romans, +and subsequently the name was confined to the chief towns of the +various administrative districts. These were also the seats of the +bishops. It is thus affirmed that in France from the 5th to the 15th +century the name _civitas_ or _cite_ was confined to such towns as were +episcopal sees, and Du Cange (_Gloss._ s.v. _civitas_) defines that word +as _urbs episcopalis_, and states that other towns were termed _castra_ +or _oppida_. How far any such distinction can be sharply drawn may be +doubted. With regard to England no definite line can be drawn between +those towns to which the name _civitas_ or _cite_ is given in medieval +documents and those called _burgi_ or boroughs (see J.H. Round, _Feudal +England_, p. 338; F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and After_, p. 183). It +was, however, maintained by Coke and Blackstone that a city is a town +incorporate which is or has been the see of a bishop. It is true, +indeed, that the actual sees in England all have a formal right to the +title; the boroughs erected into episcopal sees by Henry VIII. thereby +became "cities"; but towns such as Thetford, Sherborne and Dorchester +are never so designated, though they are regularly incorporated and were +once episcopal sees. On the other hand, it has only been since the +latter part of the 19th century that the official style of "city" has, +in the United Kingdom, been conferred by royal authority on certain +important towns which were not episcopal sees, Birmingham in 1889 being +the first to be so distinguished. It is interesting to note that London, +besides 27 boroughs, now contains two cities, one (the City of London) +outside, the other (the City of Westminster) included in the +administrative county. + + For the history of the origin and development of modern city + government see BOROUGH and COMMUNE: _Medieval_. + + + + +CIUDAD BOLIVAR, an inland city and river port of Venezuela, capital of +the state of Bolivar, on the right bank of the Orinoco river, 240 m. +above its mouth. Pop. (1891) 11,686. It stands upon a small hill about +187 ft. above sea-level, and faces the river where it narrows to a width +of less than half a mile. The city is largely built upon the hillside. +It is the seat of the bishopric of Guayana (founded in 1790), and is the +commercial centre of the great Orinoco basin. Among its noteworthy +edifices are the cathedral, federal college, theatre, masonic temple, +market, custom-house, and hospital. The mean temperature is 83 deg. The +city has a public water-supply, a tramway line, telephone service, +subfluvial cable communication with Soledad near the mouth of the +Orinoco, where connexion is made with the national land lines, and +regular steamship communication with the lower and upper Orinoco. +Previous to the revolution of 1901-3 Ciudad Bolivar ranked fourth among +the Venezuelan custom-houses, but the restrictions placed upon transit +trade through West Indian ports have made her a dependency of the La +Guaira custom-house to a large extent. The principal exports from this +region include cattle, horses, mules, tobacco, cacao, rubber, tonka +beans, bitters, hides, timber and many valuable forest products. The +town was founded by Mendoza in 1764 as San Tomas de la Nueva Guayana, +but its location at this particular point on the river gave to it the +popular name of _Angostura_, the Spanish term for "narrows." This name +was used until 1849, when that of the Venezuelan liberator was bestowed +upon it. Ciudad Bolivar played an important part in the struggle for +independence and was for a time the headquarters of the revolution. The +town suffered severely in the struggle for its possession, and the +political disorders which followed greatly retarded its growth. + + + + +CIUDAD DE CURA, an inland town of the state of Aragua, Venezuela, 55 m. +S.W. of Caracas, near the Lago de Valencia. Pop. (1891) 12,198. The town +stands in a broad, fertile valley, between the sources of streams +running southward to the Guarico river and northward to the lake, with +an elevation above sea-level of 1598 ft. Traffic between Puerto Cabello +and the Guarico plains has passed through this town since early colonial +times, and has made it an important commercial centre, from which hides, +cheese, coffee, cacao and beans are sent down to the coast for export; +it bears a high reputation in Venezuela for commercial enterprise. +Ciudad de Cura was founded in 1730, and suffered severely in the war of +independence. + + + + +CIUDAD JUAREZ, formerly EL PASO DEL NORTE, a northern frontier town of +Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua, 1223 m. by rail N.N.W. of Mexico +City. Pop. (1895) 6917. Ciudad Juarez stands 3800 ft. above sea-level on +the right bank of the Rio Grande del Norte, opposite the city of El +Paso, Texas, with which it is connected by two bridges. It is the +northern terminus of the Mexican Central railway, and has a large and +increasing transit trade with the United States, having a custom-house +and a United States consulate. It is also a military post with a small +garrison. The town has a straggling picturesque appearance, a +considerable part of the habitations being small adobe or brick cabins. +In the fertile neighbouring district cattle are raised, and wheat, +Indian corn, fruit and grapes are grown, wine and brandy being made. The +town was founded in 1681-1682; its present importance is due entirely to +the railway. It was the headquarters of President Juarez in 1865, and +was renamed in 1885 because of its devotion to his cause. + + + + +CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ, formerly PIEDRAS NEGRAS, a northern frontier town +of Mexico in the state of Coahuila, 1008 m. N. by W. from Mexico City, +on the Rio Grande del Norte, 720 ft. above sea-level, opposite the town +of Eagle Pass, Texas. Pop. (1900, estimate) 5000. An international +bridge connects the two towns, and the Mexican International railway has +its northern terminus in Mexico at this point. The town has an important +transfer trade with the United States, and is the centre of a fertile +district devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. Coal is found in the +vicinity. The Mexican government maintains a custom-house and military +post here. The town was founded in 1849. + + + + +CIUDAD REAL, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of districts +taken from New Castile, and bounded on the N. by Toledo, E. by Albacete, +S. by Jaen and Cordova and W. by Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 321,580; area, +7620 sq. m. The surface of Ciudad Real consists chiefly of a level or +slightly undulating plain, with low hills in the north-east and +south-west; but along the south-western frontier the Sierra de Alcudia +rises in two parallel ridges on either side of the river Alcudia, and is +continued in the Sierra Madrona on the east. The river Guadiana drains +almost the entire province, which it traverses from east to west; only +the southernmost districts being watered by tributaries of the +Guadalquivir. Numerous smaller streams flow into the Guadiana, which +itself divides near Herencia into two branches,--the northern known as +the Giguela, the southern as the Zancara. The eastern division of Ciudad +Real forms part of the region known as La Mancha, a flat, thinly-peopled +plain, clothed with meagre vegetation which is often ravaged by locusts. +La Mancha (q.v.) is sometimes regarded as coextensive with the whole +province. Severe drought is common here, although some of the rivers, +such as the Jabalon and Azuer, issue fully formed from the chalky soil, +and from their very sources give an abundant supply of water to the +numerous mills. Towards the west, where the land is higher, there are +considerable tracts of forest. + +The climate is oppressively hot in summer, and in winter the plains are +exposed to violent and bitterly cold winds; while the cultivation of +grain, the vine and the olive is further impeded by the want of proper +irrigation, and the general barrenness of the soil. Large flocks of +sheep and goats find pasture in the plains; and the swine which are kept +in the oak and beech forests furnish bacon and hams of excellent +quality. Coal is mined chiefly at Puertollano, lead in various +districts, mercury at Almaden. There are no great manufacturing towns. +The roads are insufficient and ill-kept, especially in the north-east +where they form the sole means of communication; and neither the +Guadiana nor its tributaries are navigable. The main railway from Madrid +to Lisbon passes through the capital, Ciudad Real, and through +Puertollano; farther east, the Madrid-Linares line passes through +Manzanares and Valdepenas. Branch railways also connect the capital with +Manzanares, and Valdepenas with the neighbouring town of La Calzada. + +The principal towns, Alcazar de San Juan (11,499), Almaden (7375), +Almodovar del Campo (12,525), Ciudad Real (15,255), Manzanares (11,229) +and Valdepenas (21,015), are described in separate articles. Almagro +(7974) and Daimiel (11,825), in the district of La Mancha known as the +Campo de Calatrava, belonged in the later middle ages to the knightly +Order of Calatrava, which was founded in 1158 to keep the Moors in +check. Almagro was long almost exclusively inhabited by monks and +knights, and contains several interesting churches and monasteries, +besides the castle of the knights, now used as barracks. Almagro is +further celebrated for its lace, Daimiel for its medicinal salts. +Tomelloso (13,929) is one of the chief market towns of La Mancha. +Education is very backward, largely owing to the extreme poverty which +has frequently brought the inhabitants to the verge of famine. (See also +CASTILE.) + + + + +CIUDAD REAL, the capital formerly of La Mancha, and since 1833 of the +province described above; 107 m. S. of Madrid, on the +Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon and Ciudad Real-Manzanares railways. Pop. (1900) +15,255. Ciudad Real lies in the midst of a wide plain, watered on the +north by the river Guadiana, and on the south by its tributary the +Jabalon. Apart from the remnants of its 13th-century fortifications, and +one Gothic church of immense size, built without aisles, the town +contains little of interest; its public buildings--town-hall, barracks, +churches, hospital and schools--being in no way distinguished above those +of other provincial capitals. There are no important local manufactures, +and the trade of the town consists chiefly in the weekly sales of +agricultrural produce and live-stock. Ciudad Real was founded by Alphonso +X. of Castile (1252-1284), and fortified by him as a check upon the +Moorish power. Its original name of _Villarreal_ was changed to _Ciudad +Real_ by John VI. in 1420. During the Peninsular War a Spanish force was +defeated here by the French, on the 27th of March 1809. + + + + +CIUDAD RODRIGO, a town of western Spain, in the province of Salamanca, +situated 8 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier, on the right bank of the +river Agueda, and the railway from Salamanca to Coimbra in Portugal. +Pop. (1900) 8930. Ciudad Rodrigo is an episcopal see, and was for many +centuries an important frontier fortress. Its cathedral dates from 1190, +but was restored in the 15th century. The remnants of a Roman aqueduct, +the foundations of a bridge across the Agueda, and other remains, seem +to show that Ciudad Rodrigo occupies the site of a Roman settlement. It +was founded in the 12th century by Count Rodrigo Gonzalez, from whom its +name is derived. During the Peninsular War, it was captured by the +French under Marshal Ney, in 1810; but on the 19th of January 1812 it +was retaken by the British under Viscount Wellington, who, for this +exploit, was created earl of Wellington, duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, and +marquess of Torres Vedras, in Portugal. + + + + +CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO, an early 16th-century Italian painter, born at +Crema. There are altar-pieces by him at Brescia, and at Crema the +altar-piece at the duomo (1509). His "Birth of Christ" is in the Brera, +Milan; and at Lovere are other of his works dating from 1539 and 1540. + + + + +CIVET, or properly CIVET-CAT, the designation of the more typical +representatives of the mammalian family _Viverridae_ (see CARNIVORA). +Civets are characterized by the possession of a deep pouch in the +neighbourhood of the genital organs, into which the substance known as +civet is poured from the glands by which it is secreted. This fatty +substance is at first semifluid and yellow, but afterwards acquires the +consistency of pomade and becomes darker. It has a strong musky odour, +exceedingly disagreeable to those unaccustomed to it, but "when properly +diluted and combined with other scents it produces a very pleasing +effect, and possesses a much more floral fragrance than musk, indeed it +would be impossible to imitate some flowers without it." The African +civet (_Viverra civetta_) is from 2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the +tail, which is half the length of the body, and stands from 10 to 12 in. +high. It is covered with long hair, longest on the middle line of the +back, where it is capable of being raised or depressed at will, of a +dark-grey colour, with numerous transverse black bands and spots. In +habits it is chiefly nocturnal, and by preference carnivorous, feeding +on birds and the smaller quadrupeds, in pursuit of which it climbs +trees, but it is said also to eat fruits, roots and other vegetable +matters. In a state of captivity the civet is never completely tamed, +and only kept for the sake of its perfume, which is obtained in largest +quantity from the male, especially when in good condition and subjected +to irritation, being scraped from the pouch with a small spoon usually +twice a week. The zibeth (_Viverra zibetha_) is a widely distributed +species extending from Arabia to Malabar, and throughout several of the +larger islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is smaller than the true +civet, and wants the dorsal crest. In the wild state it does great +damage among poultry, and frequently makes off with the young of swine +and sheep. When hunted it makes a determined resistance, and emits a +scent so strong as even to sicken the dogs, who nevertheless are +exceedingly fond of the sport, and cannot be got to pursue any other +game while the stench of the zibeth is in their nostrils. In +confinement, it becomes comparatively tame, and yields civet in +considerable quantity. In preparing this for the market it is usually +spread out on the leaves of the pepper plant in order to free it from +the hairs that have become detached from the pouch. On the Malabar coast +this species is replaced by _V. civettina_. The small Indian civet or +rasse (_Viverricula malaccensis_) ranges from Madagascar through India +to China, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of the Archipelago. It is +almost 3 ft. long including the tail, and prettily marked with dark +longitudinal stripes, and spots which have a distinctly linear +arrangement. The perfume, which is extracted in the same way as in the +two preceding species, is highly valued and much used by the Javanese. +Although this animal is said to be an expert climber it usually inhabits +holes in the ground. It is frequently kept in captivity in the East, and +becomes tame. Fossil remains of extinct civets are found in the Miocene +strata of Europe. + + + + +CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI (anc. _Forum Iulii_), a town of Venetia, Italy, in +the province of Udine, 10 m. E. by N. by rail from the town of Udine; +453 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town, 4143; commune, 9061. It is +situated on the river Natisone, which forms a picturesque ravine here. +It contains some interesting relics of the art of the 8th century. The +cathedral of the 15th century contains an octagonal marble canopy with +sculptures in relief, with a font below it belonging to the 8th century, +but altered later. The high altar has a fine silver altar front of 1185. +The museum contains various Roman and Lombard antiquities, and valuable +MSS. and works of art in gold, silver and ivory formerly belonging to +the cathedral chapter. The small church of S. Maria in Valle belongs to +the 8th century, and contains fine decorations in stucco which probably +belong to the 11th or 12th century. The fine 15th-century Ponte del +Diavolo leads to the church of S. Martino, which contains an altar of +the 8th century with reliefs executed by order of the Lombard king +Ratchis. At Cividale were born Paulus Diaconus, the historian of the +Lombards in the time of Charlemagne, and the actress Adelaide Ristori +(1822-1906). + +The Roman town (a _municipium_) of Forum Iulii was founded either by +Julius Caesar or by Augustus, no doubt at the same time as the +construction of the Via Iulia Augusta, which passed through Utina +(Udine) on its way north. After the decay of Aquileia and Iulium +Carnicum (Zuglio) it became the chief town of the district of Friuli and +gave its name to it. The patriarchs of Aquileia resided here from 773 to +1031, when they returned to Aquileia, and finally in 1238 removed to +Udine. This last change of residence was the origin of the antagonism +between Cividale and Udine, which was only terminated by their surrender +to Venice in 1419 and 1420 respectively. + + + + +CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS, or more correctly, JULIUS, leader of the Batavian +revolt against Rome (A.D. 69-70). He was twice imprisoned on a charge of +rebellion, and narrowly escaped execution. During the disturbances that +followed the death of Nero, he took up arms under pretence of siding +with Vespasian and induced the inhabitants of his native country to +rebel. The Batavians, who had rendered valuable aid under the early +emperors, had been well treated in order to attach them to the cause of +Rome. They were exempt from tribute, but were obliged to supply a large +number of men for the army, and the burden of conscription and the +oppressions of provincial governors were important incentives to revolt. +The Batavians were immediately joined by several neighbouring German +tribes, the most important of whom were the Frisians. The Roman +garrisons near the Rhine were driven out, and twenty-four ships +captured. Two legions under Mummius Lupercus were defeated at Castra +Vetera (near the modern Xanten) and surrounded. Eight cohorts of +Batavian veterans joined their countrymen, and the troops sent by +Vespasian to the relief of Vetera threw in their lot with them. The +result of these accessions to the forces of Civilis was a rising in +Gaul. Hordeonius Flaccus was murdered by his troops (70), and the whole +of the Roman forces were induced by two commanders of the Gallic +auxiliaries--Julius Classicus and Julius Tutor--to revolt from Rome and +join Civilis. The whole of Gaul thus practically declared itself +independent, and the foundation of a new kingdom of Gaul was +contemplated. The prophetess Velleda predicted the complete success of +Civilis and the fall of the Roman Empire. But disputes broke out amongst +the different tribes and rendered co-operation impossible; Vespasian, +having successfully ended the civil war, called upon Civilis to lay down +his arms, and on his refusal resolved to take strong measures for the +suppression of the revolt. The arrival of Petillius Cerialis with a +strong force awed the Gauls and mutinous troops into submission; Civilis +was defeated at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Treves) and Vetera, and +forced to withdraw to the island of the Batavians. He finally came to an +agreement with Cerialis whereby his countrymen obtained certain +advantages, and resumed amicable relations with Rome. From this time +Civilis disappears from history. + + The chief authority for the history of the insurrection is Tacitus, + _Historiae_, iv., v., whose account breaks off at the beginning of + Civilis's speech to Cerialis; see also Josephus, _Bellum Judaicum_, + vii. 4. There is a monograph by E. Meyer, _Der Freiheitskrieg der + Bataver unter Civilis_ (1856); see also Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans + under the Empire_, ch. 58; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der roemischen + Kaiserzeit_, bk. ii. ch. 2, Sec. 54 (1883). + + + + +CIVILIZATION. The word "civilization" is an obvious derivative of the +Lat. _civis_, a citizen, and _civilis_, pertaining to a citizen. +Etymologically speaking, then, it would be putting no undue strain upon +the word to interpret it as having to do with the entire period of human +progress since mankind attained sufficient intelligence and social unity +to develop a system of government. But in practice "civilization" is +usually interpreted in a somewhat narrower sense, as having application +solely to the most recent and comparatively brief period of time that +has elapsed since the most highly developed races of men have used +systems of writing. This restricted usage is probably explicable, in +part at least, by the fact that the word, though distinctly modern in +origin, is nevertheless older than the interpretation of social +evolution that now finds universal acceptance. Only very recently has it +come to be understood that primitive societies vastly antedating the +historical period had attained relatively high stages of development and +fixity, socially and politically. Now that this is understood, however, +nothing but an arbitrary and highly inconvenient restriction of meanings +can prevent us from speaking of the citizens of these early societies as +having attained certain stages of civilization. It will be convenient, +then, in outlining the successive stages of human progress here, to +include under the comprehensive term "civilization" those long earlier +periods of "savagery" and "barbarism" as well as the more recent period +of higher development to which the word "civilization" is sometimes +restricted. + + + Savagery and barbarism. + +Adequate proof that civilization as we now know it is the result of a +long, slow process of evolution was put forward not long after the +middle of the 19th century by the students of palaeontology and of +prehistoric archaeology. A recognition of the fact that primitive man +used implements of chipped flint, of polished stone, and of the softer +metals for successive ages, before he attained a degree of technical +skill and knowledge that would enable him to smelt iron, led the Danish +archaeologists to classify the stages of human progress under these +captions: the Rough Stone Age; the Age of Polished Stone; the Age of +Bronze; and the Age of Iron. These terms acquired almost universal +recognition, and they retain popularity as affording a very broad +outline of the story of human progress. It is obviously desirable, +however, to fill in the outlines of the story more in detail. To some +extent it has been possible to do so, largely through the efforts of +ethnologists who have studied the social conditions of existing races of +savages. A recognition of the principle that, broadly speaking, progress +has everywhere been achieved along the same lines and through the same +sequence of changes, makes it possible to interpret the past history of +the civilized races of to-day in the light of the present-day conditions +of other races that are still existing under social and political +conditions of a more primitive type. Such races as the Maoris and the +American Indians have furnished invaluable information to the student of +social evolution; and the knowledge thus gained has been extended and +fortified by the ever-expanding researches of the palaeontologist and +archaeologist. + +Thus it has become possible to present with some confidence a picture +showing the successive stages of human development during the long dark +period when our prehistoric ancestor was advancing along the toilsome +and tortuous but on the whole always uprising path from lowest savagery +to the stage of relative enlightenment at which we find him at the +so-called "dawnings of history." That he was for long ages a savage +before he attained sufficient culture to be termed, in modern +phraseology, a barbarian, admits of no question. Equally little in doubt +is it that other long ages of barbarism preceded the final ascent to +civilization. The precise period of time covered by these successive +"Ages" is of course only conjectural; but something like one hundred +thousand years may perhaps be taken as a safe minimal estimate. At the +beginning of this long period, the most advanced race of men must be +thought of as a promiscuous company of pre-troglodytic mammals, at least +partially arboreal in habit, living on uncooked fruits and vegetables, +and possessed of no arts and crafts whatever--nor even of the knowledge +of the rudest implement. At the end of the period, there emerges into +the more or less clear light of history a large-brained being, living in +houses of elaborate construction, supplying himself with divers luxuries +through the aid of a multitude of elaborate handicrafts, associated with +his fellows under the sway of highly organized governments, and +satisfying aesthetic needs through the practice of pictorial and +literary arts of a high order. How was this amazing transformation +brought about? + + + Crucial developments. + +If an answer can be found to that query, we shall have a clue to all +human progress, not only during the prehistoric but also during the +historic periods; for we may well believe that recent progress has not +departed from the scheme of development impressed on humanity during +that long apprenticeship. Ethnologists believe that an answer can be +found. They believe that the metamorphosis from beast-like savage to +cultured civilian may be proximally explained (certain potentialities +and attributes of the species being taken for granted) as the result of +accumulated changes that found their initial impulses in a half-dozen or +so of practical inventions. Stated thus, the explanation seems absurdly +simple. Confessedly it supplies only a proximal, not a final, analysis +of the forces impelling mankind along the pathway of progress. But it +has the merit of tangibility; it presents certain highly important facts +of human history vividly: and it furnishes a definite and fairly +satisfactory basis for marking successive stages of incipient +civilization. + +In outlining the story of primitive man's advancement, upon such a +basis, we may follow the scheme of one of the most philosophical of +ethnologists, Lewis H. Morgan, who made a provisional analysis of the +prehistoric period that still remains among the most satisfactory +attempts in this direction. Morgan divides the entire epoch of man's +progress from bestiality to civilization into six successive periods, +which he names respectively the Older, Middle and Later periods of +Savagery, and the Older, Middle and Later periods of Barbarism. + + + Speech. + +The first of these periods, when mankind was in the lower status of +savagery, comprises the epoch when articulate speech was being +developed. Our ancestors of this epoch inhabited a necessarily +restricted tropical territory, and subsisted upon raw nuts and fruits. +They had no knowledge of the uses of fire. All existing races of men had +advanced beyond this condition before the opening of the historical +period. + + + Fire. + +The Middle Period of Savagery began with a knowledge of the uses of +fire. This wonderful discovery enabled the developing race to extend its +habitat almost indefinitely, and to include flesh, and in particular +fish, in its regular dietary. Man could now leave the forests, and +wander along the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less +enervating than those to which he had previously been confined. +Doubtless he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly equipped +for hunting, being provided, probably, with no weapon more formidable +than a crude hatchet and a roughly fashioned spear. The primitive races +of Australia and Polynesia had not advanced beyond this middle status of +savagery when they were discovered a few generations ago. It is obvious, +then, that in dealing with the further progress of nascent civilization +we have to do with certain favoured portions of the race, which sought +out new territories and developed new capacities while many tribes of +their quondam peers remained static and hence by comparison seemed to +retrograde. + + + Bow and arrow. + +The next great epochal discovery, in virtue of which a portion of the +race advanced to the Upper Status of Savagery, was that of the bow and +arrow,--a truly wonderful implement. The possessor of this device could +bring down the fleetest animal and could defend himself against the most +predatory. He could provide himself not only with food but with +materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus could migrate at +will back from the seas and large rivers, and far into inhospitable but +invigorating temperate and sub-Arctic regions. The meat diet, now for +the first time freely available, probably contributed, along with the +stimulating climate, to increase the physical vigour and courage of this +highest savage, thus urging him along the paths of progress. +Nevertheless many tribes came thus far and no further, as witness the +Athapascans of the Hudson's Bay Territory and the Indians of the valley +of the Columbia. + + + Pottery. + +We now come to the marvellous discovery that enabled our ancestor to +make such advances upon the social conditions of his forbears as to +entitle him, in the estimate of his remote descendants, to be considered +as putting savagery behind him and as entering upon the Lower Status of +Barbarism. The discovery in question had to do with the practice of the +art of making pottery (see CERAMICS). Hitherto man had been possessed of +no permanent utensils that could withstand the action of fire. He could +not readily boil water except by some such cumbersome method as the +dropping of heated stones into a wooden or skin receptacle. The effect +upon his dietary of having at hand earthen vessels in which meat and +herbs could be boiled over a fire must have been momentous. Various +meats and many vegetables become highly palatable when boiled that are +almost or quite inedible when merely roasted before a fire. Bones, +sinews and even hides may be made to give up a modicum of nutriment in +this way; and doubtless barbaric man, before whom starvation always +loomed threateningly, found the crude pot an almost perennial refuge. +And of course its use as a cooking utensil was only one of many ways in +which the newly discovered mechanism exerted a civilizing influence. + + + Domestic animals. + +The next great progressive movement, which carried man into the Middle +Status of Barbarism, is associated with the domestication of animals in +the Eastern hemisphere, and with the use of irrigation in cultivating +the soil and of adobe bricks and stone in architecture in the Western +hemisphere. The dog was probably the first animal to be domesticated, +but the sheep, the ox, the camel and the horse were doubtless added in +relatively rapid succession, so soon as the idea that captive animals +could be of service had been clearly conceived. Man now became a +herdsman, no longer dependent for food upon the precarious chase of wild +animals. Milk, procurable at all seasons, made a highly important +addition to his dietary. With the aid of camel and horse he could +traverse wide areas hitherto impassable, and come in contact with +distant peoples. Thus commerce came to play an extended role in the +dissemination of both commodities and ideas. In particular the nascent +civilization of the Mediterranean region fell heir to numerous products +of farther Asia,--gums, spices, oils, and most important of all, the +cereals. The cultivation of the latter gave the finishing touch to a +comprehensive and varied diet, while emphasizing the value of a fixed +abode. For the first time it now became possible for large numbers of +people to form localized communities. A natural consequence was the +elaboration of political systems, which, however, proceeded along lines +already suggested by the experience of earlier epochs. All this tended +to establish and emphasize the idea of nationality, based primarily on +blood-relationship; and at the same time to develop within the community +itself the idea of property,--that is to say, of valuable or desirable +commodities which have come into the possession of an individual through +his enterprise or labour, and which should therefore be subject to his +voluntary disposal. At an earlier stage of development, all property had +been of communal, not of individual, ownership. It appears, then, that +our mid-period barbarian had attained--if the verbal contradiction be +permitted--a relatively high stage of civilization. + + + Iron. + +There remained, however, one master craft of which he had no conception. +This was the art of smelting iron. When, ultimately, his descendants +learned the wonderful secrets of that art, they rose in consequence to +the Upper Status of Barbarism. This culminating practical invention, it +will be observed, is the first of the great discoveries with which we +have to do that was not primarily concerned with the question of man's +food supply. Iron, to be sure, has abundant uses in the same connexion, +but its most direct and obvious utilities have to do with weapons of war +and with implements calculated to promote such arts of peace as +house-building, road-making and the construction of vehicles. Wood and +stone could now be fashioned as never before. Houses could be built and +cities walled with unexampled facility; to say nothing of the making of +a multitude of minor implements and utensils hitherto quite unknown, or +at best rare and costly. Nor must we overlook the aesthetic influence of +edged implements, with which wood and stone could readily be sculptured +when placed in the hands of a race that had long been accustomed to +scratch the semblance of living forms on bone or ivory and to fashion +crude images of clay. In a word, man, the "tool-making animal," was now +for the first time provided with tools worthy of his wonderful hands and +yet more wonderful brain. + +Thus through the application of one revolutionary invention after +another, the most advanced races of men had arrived, after long ages of +effort, at a relatively high stage of development. A very wide range of +experiences had enabled man to evolve a complex body politic, based on a +fairly secure social basis, and his brain had correspondingly developed +into a relatively efficient and stable organ of thought. But as yet he +had devised no means of communicating freely with other people at a +distance except through the medium of verbal messages; nor had he any +method by which he could transmit his experiences to posterity more +securely than by fugitive and fallible oral traditions. A vague +symbolization of his achievements was preserved from generation to +generation in myth-tale and epic, but he knew not how to make permanent +record of his history. Until he could devise a means to make such +record, he must remain, in the estimate of his descendants, a barbarian, +though he might be admitted to have become a highly organized and even +in a broad sense a cultured being. + + + Writing. + +At length, however, this last barrier was broken. Some race or races +devised a method of symbolizing events and ultimately of making even +abstruse ideas tangible by means of graphic signs. In other words, a +system of writing was developed. Man thus achieved a virtual conquest +over time as he had earlier conquered space. He could now transmit the +record of his deeds and his thoughts to remote posterity. Thus he stood +at the portals of what later generations would term secure history. He +had graduated out of barbarism, and become in the narrower sense of the +word a civilized being. Henceforth, his knowledge, his poetical +dreamings, his moral aspirations might be recorded in such form as to be +read not merely by his contemporaries but by successive generations of +remote posterity. The inspiring character of such a message is obvious. +The validity of making this great culminating intellectual achievement +the test of "civilized" existence need not be denied. But we should ill +comprehend the character of the message which the earlier generations of +civilized beings transmit to us from the period which we term the +"dawning of history" did we not bear constantly in mind the long series +of progressive stages of "savagery" and "barbarism" that of necessity +preceded the final stage of "civilization" proper. The achievements of +those earlier stages afforded the secure foundation for the progress of +the future. A multitude of minor arts, in addition to the important ones +just outlined, had been developed; and for a long time civilized man was +to make no other epochal addition to the list of accomplishments that +came to him as a heritage from his barbaric progenitor. Indeed, even to +this day the list of such additions is not a long one, nor, judged in +the relative scale, so important as might at first thought be supposed. +Whoever considers the subject carefully must admit the force of Morgan's +suggestion that man's achievements as a barbarian, considered in their +relation to the sum of human progress, "transcend, in relative +importance, all his subsequent works." + +Without insisting on this comparison, however, let us ask what +discoveries and inventions man has made within the historical period +that may fairly be ranked with the half-dozen great epochal achievements +that have been put forward as furnishing the keys to all the progress of +the prehistoric periods. In other words, let us sketch the history of +progress during the ten thousand years or so that have elapsed since man +learned the art of writing, adapting our sketch to the same scale which +we have already applied to the unnumbered millenniums of the prehistoric +period. The view of world-history thus outlined will be a very different +one from what might be expected by the student of national history; but +it will present the essentials of the progress of civilization in a +suggestive light. + + + Civilization proper. + +Without pretending to fix an exact date,--which the historical records +do not at present permit,--we may assume that the most advanced race of +men elaborated a system of writing not less than six thousand years +before the beginning of the Christian era. Holding to the terminology +already suggested for the earlier periods, we may speak of man's +position during the ensuing generations as that of the First or Lowest +Status of civilization. If we review the history of this period we shall +find that it extends unbroken over a stretch of at least four or five +thousand years. During the early part of this period such localized +civilizations as those of the Egyptians, the Sumerians, the Babylonians +and the Hittites rose, grew strong and passed beyond their meridian. +This suggests that we must now admit the word "civilization" to yet +another definition, within its larger meaning: we must speak of "_a_ +civilization," as that of Egypt, of Babylonia, of Assyria, and we must +understand thereby a localized phase of society bearing the same +relation to civilization as a whole that a wave bears to the ocean or a +tree to the forest. Such other localized civilizations as those of +Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, Rome, Byzantium, the Sassanids, in due +course waxed and waned, leaving a tremendous imprint on national +history, but creating only minor and transitory ripples in the great +ocean of civilization. Progress in the elaboration of the details of +earlier methods and inventions took place as a matter of course. Some +nation, probably the Phoenicians, gave a new impetus to the art of +writing by developing a phonetic alphabet; but this achievement, +remarkable as it was in itself, added nothing fundamental to human +capacity. Literatures had previously flourished through the use of +hieroglyphic and syllabic symbols; and the Babylonian syllabics +continued in vogue throughout western Asia for a long time after the +Phoenician alphabet had demonstrated its intrinsic superiority. + +Similarly the art of Egyptian and Assyrian and Greek was but the +elaboration and perfection of methods that barbaric man had practised +away back in the days when he was a cave-dweller. The weapons of warfare +of Greek and Roman were the spear and the bow and arrow that their +ancestors had used in the period of savagery, aided by sword and helmet +dating from the upper period of barbarism. Greek and Roman government at +their best were founded upon the system of _gentes_ that barbaric man +had profoundly studied,--as witness, for example, the federal system of +the barbaric Iroquois Indians existing in America before the coming of +Columbus. And if the Greeks had better literature, the Romans better +roads and larger cities, than their predecessors, these are but matters +of detailed development, the like of which had marked the progress of +the more important arts and the introduction of less important ancillary +ones in each antecedent period. The axe of steel is no new implement, +but a mere perfecting of the axe of chipped flint. The _Iliad_ +represents the perfecting of an art that unnumbered generations of +barbarians practised before their camp-fires. + + + Great inventions of the middle ages. + +Thus for six or seven thousand years after man achieved civilization +there was rhythmic progress in many lines, but there came no great +epochal invention to usher in a new ethnic period. Then, towards the +close of what historians of to-day are accustomed to call the middle +ages, there appeared in rapid sequence three or four inventions and a +great scientific discovery that, taken together, were destined to change +the entire aspect of European civilization. The inventions were +gunpowder, the mariner's compass, paper and the printing-press, three of +which appear to have been brought into Europe by the Moors, whether or +not they originated in the remote East. The scientific discovery which +must be coupled with these inventions was the Copernican demonstration +that the sun and not the earth is the centre of our planetary system. +The generations of men that found themselves (1) confronted with the +revolutionary conception of the universe given by the Copernican theory; +(2) supplied with the new means of warfare provided by gunpowder; (3) +equipped with an undreamed-of guide across the waters of the earth; and +(4) enabled to promulgate knowledge with unexampled speed and cheapness +through the aid of paper and printing-press--such generations of men +might well be said to have entered upon a new ethnic period. The +transition in their mode of thought and in their methods of practical +life was as great as can be supposed to have resulted, in an early +generation, from the introduction of iron, or in a yet earlier from the +invention of the bow and arrow. So the Europeans of about the 15th +century of the Christian era may be said to have entered upon the Second +or Middle Status of civilization. + + + Steam machinery. + +The new period was destined to be a brief one. It had compassed only +about four hundred years when, towards the close of the 18th century, +James Watt gave to the world the perfected steam-engine. Almost +contemporaneously Arkwright and Hargreaves developed revolutionary +processes of spinning and weaving by machinery. Meantime James Hutton +and William Smith and their successors on the one hand, and Erasmus +Darwin, Francois Lamarck, and (a half-century later) Charles Darwin on +the other, turned men's ideas topsy-turvy by demonstrating that the +world as the abiding-place of animals and man is enormously old, and +that man himself instead of deteriorating from a single perfect pair six +thousand years removed, has ascended from bestiality through a slow +process of evolution extending over hundreds of centuries. The +revolution in practical life and in the mental life of our race that +followed these inventions and this new presentation of truth probably +exceeded in suddenness and in its far-reaching effects the metamorphosis +effected at any previous transition from one ethnic period to another. +The men of the 19th century, living now in the period that may be termed +the Upper Status of civilization, saw such changes effected in the +practical affairs of their everyday lives as had not been wrought before +during the entire historical period. Their fathers had travelled in +vehicles drawn by horses, quite as their remoter ancestors had done +since the time of higher barbarism. It may be doubted whether there +existed in the world in the year 1800 a postal service that could +compare in speed and efficiency with the express service of the Romans +of the time of Caesar; far less was there a telegraph service that could +compare with that of the ancient Persians. Nor was there a ship sailing +the seas that a Phoenician trireme might not have overhauled. But now +within the lifetime of a single man the world was covered with a network +of steel rails on which locomotives drew gigantic vehicles, laden with +passengers at an hourly speed almost equalling Caesar's best journey of +a day; over the land and under the seas were stretched wires along which +messages coursed from continent to continent literally with the speed of +lightning; and the waters of the earth were made to teem with gigantic +craft propelled without sail or oar at a speed which the Phoenician +captain of three thousand years ago and the English captain of the 18th +century would alike have held incredible. + + + Social and political organization. + +There is no need to give further details here of the industrial +revolutions that have been achieved in this newest period of +civilization, since in their broader outlines at least they are familiar +to every one. Nor need we dwell upon the revolution in thought whereby +man has for the first time been given a clear inkling as to his origin +and destiny. It suffices to point out that such periods of fermentation +of ideas as this suggests have probably always been concomitant with +those outbursts of creative genius that gave the world the practical +inventions upon which human progress has been conditioned. The same +attitude of receptivity to new ideas is pre-requisite to one form of +discovery as to the other. Nor, it may be added, can either form of idea +become effective for the progress of civilization except in proportion +as a large body of any given generation are prepared to receive it. +Doubtless here and there a dreamer played with fire, in a literal sense, +for generations before the utility of fire as a practical aid to human +progress came to be recognized in practice. And--to seek an illustration +at the other end of the scale--we know that the advanced thinkers of +Greece and Rome believed in the antiquity of the earth and in the +evolution of man two thousand years before the coming of Darwin. We have +but partly solved the mysteries of the progress of civilization, then, +when we have pointed out that each tangible stage of progress owed its +initiative to a new invention or discovery of science. To go to the root +of the matter we must needs explain how it came about that a given +generation of men was in mental mood to receive the new invention or +discovery. + +The pursuit of this question would carry us farther into the realm of +communal and racial psychology--to say nothing of the realm of +conjecture--than comports with the purpose of this article. It must +suffice to point out that alertness of mind--that all mentality--is, in +the last analysis, a reaction to the influences of the environment. It +follows that man may subject himself to new influences and thus give his +mind a new stimulus by changing his habitat. A fundamental secret of +progress is revealed in this fact. Man probably never would have evolved +from savagery had he remained in the Tropics where he doubtless +originated. But successive scientific inventions enabled him, as has +been suggested, to migrate to distant latitudes, and thus more or less +involuntarily to become the recipient of new creative and progressive +impulses. After migrations in many directions had resulted in the +development of divers races, each with certain capacities and +acquirements due to its unique environment, there was opportunity for +the application of the principle of environmental stimulus in an +indirect way, through the mingling and physical intermixture of one race +with another. Each of the great localized civilizations of antiquity +appears to have owed its prominence in part at least--perhaps very +largely--to such intermingling of two or more races. Each of these +civilizations began to decay so soon as the nation had remained for a +considerable number of generations in its localized environment, and had +practically ceased to receive accretions from distant races at +approximately the same stage of development. There is a suggestive +lesson for present-day civilization in that thought-compelling fact. +Further evidence of the application of the principle of environmental +stimulus, operating through changed habitat and racial intermixture, is +furnished by the virility of the colonial peoples of our own day. The +receptiveness to new ideas and the rapidity of material progress of +Americans, South Africans and Australians are proverbial. No one doubts, +probably, that one or another of these countries will give a new +stimulus to the progress of civilization, through the promulgation of +some great epochal discovery, in the not distant future. Again, the +value of racial intermingling is shown yet nearer home in the +long-continued vitality of the British nation, which is explicable, in +some measure at least, by the fact that the Celtic element held aloof +from the Anglo-Saxon element century after century sufficiently to +maintain racial integrity, yet mingled sufficiently to give and receive +the fresh stimulus of "new blood." It is interesting in this connexion +to examine the map of Great Britain with reference to the birthplaces of +the men named above as being the originators of the inventions and +discoveries that made the close of the 18th century memorable as +ushering in a new ethnic era. It may be added that these names suggest +yet another element in the causation of progress: the fact, namely, +that, however necessary racial receptivity may be to the dynamitic +upheaval of a new ethnic era, it is after all _individual_ genius that +applies its detonating spark. + + + Nine periods of progress. + +Without further elaboration of this aspect of the subject it may be +useful to recapitulate the analysis of the evolution of civilization +above given, prior to characterizing it from another standpoint. It +appears that the entire period of human progress up to the present may +be divided into nine periods which, if of necessity more or less +arbitrary, yet are not without certain warrant of logic. They may be +defined as follows: (1) The Lower Period of Savagery, terminating with +the discovery and application of the uses of fire. (2) The Middle Period +of Savagery, terminating with the invention of the bow and arrow. (3) +The Upper Period of Savagery, terminating with the invention of pottery. +(4) The Lower Period of Barbarism, terminating with the domestication of +animals. (5) The Middle Period of Barbarism, terminating with the +discovery of the process of smelting iron ore. (6) The Upper Period of +Barbarism, terminating with the development of a system of writing +meeting the requirements of literary composition. (7) The First Period +of Civilization (proper) terminating with the introduction of gunpowder. +(8) The Second Period of Civilization, terminating with the invention of +a practical steam-engine. (9) The Upper Period of Civilization, which is +still in progress, but which, as will be suggested in a moment, is +probably nearing its termination. + +It requires but a glance at the characteristics of these successive +epochs to show the ever-increasing complexity of the inventions that +delimit them and of the conditions of life that they connote. Were we to +attempt to characterize in a few phrases the entire story of achievement +thus outlined, we might say that during the three stages of Savagery man +was attempting to make himself master of the geographical climates. His +unconscious ideal was, to gain a foothold and the means of subsistence +in every zone. During the three periods of Barbarism the ideal of +conquest was extended to the beasts of the field, the vegetable world, +and the mineral contents of the earth's crust. During the three periods +of Civilization proper the ideal of conquest has become still more +intellectual and subtle, being now extended to such abstractions as an +analysis of speech-sounds, and to such intangibles as expanding gases +and still more elusive electric currents: in other words, to the forces +of nature, no less than to tangible substances. Hand in hand with this +growing complexity of man's relations with the external world has gone a +like increase of complexity in the social and political organizations +that characterize man's relations with his fellowmen. In savagery the +family expanded into the tribe; in barbarism the tribe developed into +the nation. The epoch of civilization proper is aptly named, because it +has been a time in which citizenship, in the narrower national +significance, has probably been developed to its apogee. Throughout this +period, in every land, the highest virtue has been considered to be +patriotism,--by which must be understood an instinctive willingness on +the part of every individual to defend even with his life the interests +of the nation into which he chances to be born, regardless of whether +the national cause in which he struggles be in any given case good or +bad, right or wrong. The communal judgment of this epoch pronounces any +man a traitor who will not uphold his own nation even in a wrong +cause--and the word "traitor" marks the utmost brand of ignominy. + + + Nationality and cosmopolitanism. + +But while the idea of nationality has thus been accentuated, there has +been a never-ending struggle within the bounds of the nation itself to +adjust the relations of one citizen to another. The ideas that might +makes right, that the strong man must dominate the weak, that leadership +in the community properly belongs to the man who is physically most +competent to lead--these ideas were a perfectly natural, and indeed an +inevitable, outgrowth of the conditions under which man fought his way +up through savagery and barbarism. Man in the first period of +civilization inherited these ideas, along with the conditions of society +that were their concomitants. So throughout the periods when the +oriental civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria and Persia +were dominant, a despotic form of government was accepted as the natural +order of things. It does not appear that any other form was even +considered as a practicality. A despot might indeed be overthrown, but +only to make way for the coronation of another despot. A little later +the Greeks and Romans modified the conception of a heaven-sent +individual monarch; but they went no further than to substitute a +heaven-favoured community, with specially favoured groups (_Patricii_) +within the community. With this, national egoism reached its climax; for +each people regarded its own citizens as the only exemplars of +civilization, openly branding all the rest of the world as "barbarians," +fit subjects for the exaction of tribute or for the imposition of the +bonds of actual slavery. During the middle ages there was a reaction +towards individualism as opposed to nationalism: but the entire system +of feudalism, with its clearly recognized conditions of over-lordship +and of vassaldom, gave expression, no less clearly than oriental +despotism and classical "democracy" had done, to the idea of individual +inequality; of divergence of moral and legal status based on natural +inheritance. Thus this idea, a reminiscence of barbarism, maintained its +dominance throughout the first period of civilization. + +But gunpowder, marking the transition to the second period of +civilization, came as a great levelling influence. With its aid the +weakest peasant might prove more than a match for the most powerful +knight. Before its assaults the castle of the lord ceased to be an +impregnable fortress. And while gunpowder thus levelled down the power +of the mighty, the printing-press levelled up the intelligence, and +hence the power and influence of the lowly. Meantime the mariner's +compass opened up new territories beyond the seas, and in due course men +of lowly origin were seen to attain to wealth and power through +commercial pursuits, thus tending to break in upon the established +social order. In the colonial territories themselves all men were +subjected more or less to the same perils and dependent upon their own +efforts. Success and prominence in the community came not as a +birthright, but as the result of demonstrated fitness. The great lesson +that the interests of all members of a community are, in the last +analysis, mutual could be more clearly distinguished in these small +colonies than in larger and older bodies politic. Through various +channels, therefore, in the successive generations of this middle period +of civilization, the idea gained ground that intelligence and moral +worth, rather than physical prowess, should be the test of greatness; +that it is incumbent on the strong in the interests of the body politic +to protect the weak; and that, in the long run, the best interests of +the community are conserved if all its members, without exception, are +given moral equality before the law. This idea of equal rights and +privileges for all members of the community--for each individual "the +greatest amount of liberty consistent with a like liberty of every other +individual"--first found expression as a philosophical doctrine towards +the close of the 18th century; at which time also tentative efforts were +made to put it into practice. It may be said therefore to represent the +culminating sociological doctrine of the middle period of +civilization,--the ideal towards which all the influences of the period +had tended to impel the race. + +It will be observed, however, that this ideal of individual equality +within the body politic in no direct wise influences the status of the +body politic itself as the centre of a localized civilization that may +be regarded as in a sense antagonistic to all other similarly localized +civilizations. If there were any such influence, it would rather operate +in the direction of accentuating the patriotism of the member of a +democratical community, as against that of the subject of a despot, +through the sense of personal responsibility developed in the former. +The developments of the middle period of civilization cannot be +considered, therefore, to have tended to decrease the spirit of +nationality, with its concomitant penalty of what is sometimes called +provincialism. The history of this entire period, as commonly presented, +is largely made up of the records of international rivalries and +jealousies, perennially culminating in bitterly contested wars. It was +only towards the close of the epoch that the desirability of free +commercial intercourse among nations began to find expression as a +philosophical creed through the efforts of Quesnay and his followers; +and the doctrine that both parties to an international commercial +transaction are gainers thereby found its first clear expression in the +year 1776 in the pages of Condillac and of Adam Smith. + +But the discoveries that ushered in the third period of civilization +were destined to work powerfully from the outset for the breaking down +of international barriers, though, of course, their effects would not be +at once manifest. Thus the substitution of steam power for water power, +besides giving a tremendous impetus to manufacturing in general, mapped +out new industrial centres in regions that nature had supplied with coal +but not always with other raw materials. To note a single result, +England became the manufacturing centre of the world, drawing its raw +materials from every corner of the globe; but in so doing it ceased to +be self-supporting as regards the production of food-supplies. While +growing in national wealth, as a result of the new inventions, England +has therefore lost immeasurably in national self-sufficiency and +independence; having become in large measure dependent upon other +countries both for the raw materials without which her industries must +perish and for the foods to maintain the very life of her people. + +What is true of England in this regard is of course true in greater or +less measure of all other countries. Everywhere, thanks to the new +mechanisms that increase industrial efficiency, there has been an +increasing tendency to specialization; and since the manufacturer must +often find his raw materials in one part of the world and his markets in +another, this implies an ever-increasing intercommunication and +interdependence between the nations. This spirit is obviously fostered +by the new means of transportation by locomotive and steamship, and by +the electric communication that enables the Londoner, for example, to +transact business in New York or in Tokio with scarcely an hour's delay; +and that puts every one in touch at to-day's breakfast table with the +happenings of the entire world. Thanks to the new mechanisms, national +isolation is no longer possible; globe-trotting has become a habit with +thousands of individuals of many nations; and Orient and Occident, +representing civilizations that for thousands of years were almost +absolutely severed and mutually oblivious of each other, have been +brought again into close touch for mutual education and betterment. The +Western mind has learned with amazement that the aforetime _Terra +Incognita_ of the far East has nurtured a gigantic civilization having +ideals in many ways far different from our own. The Eastern mind has +proved itself capable, in self-defence, of absorbing the essential +practicalities of Western civilization within a single generation. Some +of the most important problems of world-civilization of the immediate +future hinge upon the mutual relations of these two long-severed +communities, branched at some early stage of progress to opposite +hemispheres of the globe, but now brought by the new mechanisms into +daily and even hourly communication. + + + Modern humanism. + +While the new conditions of the industrial world have thus tended to +develop a new national outlook, there has come about, as a result of the +scientific discoveries already referred to, a no less significant +broadening of the mental and spiritual horizons. Here also the trend is +away from the narrowly egoistic and towards the cosmopolitan view. About +the middle of the 19th century Dr Pritchard declared that many people +debated whether it might not be permissible for the Australian settlers +to shoot the natives as food for their dogs; some of the disputants +arguing that savages were without the pale of human brotherhood. To-day +the thesis that all mankind are one brotherhood needs no defence. The +most primitive of existing aborigines are regarded merely as brethren +who, through some defect or neglect of opportunity, have lagged behind +in the race. Similarly the defective and criminal classes that make up +so significant a part of the population of even our highest present-day +civilizations, are no longer regarded with anger or contempt, as beings +who are suffering just punishment for wilful transgressions, but are +considered as pitiful victims of hereditary and environmental influences +that they could neither choose nor control. Insanity is no longer +thought of as demoniac possession, but as the most lamentable of +diseases. + +The changed attitude towards savage races and defective classes affords +tangible illustrations of a fundamental transformation of point of view +which doubtless represents the most important result of the operation of +new scientific knowledge in the course of the 19th century. It is a +transformation that is only partially effected as yet, to be sure; but +it is rapidly making headway, and when fully achieved it will represent, +probably, the most radical metamorphosis of mental view that has taken +place in the entire course of the historical period. The essence of the +new view is this: to recognize the universality and the invariability of +natural law; stated otherwise, to understand that the word +"supernatural" involves a contradiction of terms and has in fact no +meaning. Whoever has grasped the full import of this truth is privileged +to sweep mental horizons wider by far than ever opened to the view of +any thinker of an earlier epoch. He is privileged to forecast, as the +sure heritage of the future, a civilization freed from the last ghost of +superstition--an Age of Reason in which mankind shall at last find +refuge from the hosts of occult and invisible powers, the fearsome +galaxies of deities and demons, which have haunted him thus far at every +stage of his long journey through savagery, barbarism and civilization. +Doubtless here and there a thinker, even in the barbaric eras, may have +realized that these ghosts that so influenced the everyday lives of his +fellows were but children of the imagination. But the certainty that +such is the case could not have come with the force of demonstration +even to the most clear-sighted thinker until 19th-century science had +investigated with penetrating vision the realm of molecule and atom; had +revealed the awe-inspiring principle of the conservation of energy; and +had offered a comprehensible explanation of the evolution of one form of +life from another, from monad to man, that did not presuppose the +intervention of powers more "supernatural" than those that operate about +us everywhere to-day. + +The stupendous import of these new truths could not, of course, make +itself evident to the generality of mankind in a single generation, when +opposed to superstitions of a thousand generations' standing. But the +new knowledge has made its way more expeditiously than could have been +anticipated; and its effects are seen on every side, even where its +agency is scarcely recognized. As a single illustration, we may note the +familiar observation that the entire complexion of orthodox teaching of +religion has been more altered in the past fifty years than in two +thousand years before. This of course is not entirely due to the +influence of physical and biological science; no effect has a unique +cause, in the complex sociological scheme. Archaeology, comparative +philology and textual criticism have also contributed their share; and +the comparative study of religions has further tended to broaden the +outlook and to make for universality, as opposed to insularity, of view. +It is coming to be more and more widely recognized that all theologies +are but the reflex of the more or less faulty knowledge of the times in +which they originate, that the true and abiding purpose of religion +should be the practical betterment of humanity--the advancement of +civilization in the best sense of the word; and that this end may +perhaps be best subserved by different systems of theology, adapted to +the varied genius of different times and divers races. Wherefore there +is not the same enthusiastic desire to-day that found expression a +generation ago, to impose upon the cultured millions of the East a +religion that seems to them alien to their manner of thought, unsuited +to their needs and less distinctly ethical in teaching than their own +religions. + +Such are but a few of the illustrations that might be cited from many +fields to suggest that the mind of our generation is becoming receptive +to a changed point of view that augurs the coming of a new ethnic era. +If one may be permitted to enter very tentatively the field of prophecy, +it seems not unlikely that the great revolutionary invention which will +close the third period of civilization and usher in a new era is already +being evolved. It seems not over-hazardous to predict that the air-ship, +in one form or another, is destined to be the mechanism that will give +the new impetus to human civilization; that the next era will have as +one of its practical ideals the conquest of the air; and that this +conquest will become a factor in the final emergence of humanity from +the insularity of nationalism to the broad view of cosmopolitanism, +towards which, as we have seen, the tendencies of the present era are +verging. That the gap to be covered is a vastly wide one no one need be +reminded who recalls that the civilized nations of Europe, together with +America and Japan, are at present accustomed to spend more than three +hundred million pounds each year merely that they may keep armaments in +readiness to fly at one another's throats should occasion arise. +Formidable as these armaments now seem, however, the developments of the +not very distant future will probably make them quite obsolete; and +sooner or later, as science develops yet more deadly implements of +destruction, the time must come when communal intelligence will rebel at +the suicidal folly of the international attitude that characterized, for +example, the opening decade of the 20th century. At some time, after the +first period of cosmopolitanism shall be ushered in as a tenth ethnic +period, it will come to be recognized that there is a word fraught with +fuller meanings even than the word patriotism. That word is +humanitarianism. The enlightened generation that realizes the full +implications of that word will doubtless marvel that their ancestors of +the third period of civilization should have risen up as nations and +slaughtered one another by thousands to settle a dispute about a +geographical boundary. Such a procedure will appear to have been quite +as barbarous as the cannibalistic practices of their yet more remote +ancestors, and distinctly less rational, since cannibalism might +sometimes save its practiser from starvation, whereas warfare of the +civilized type was a purely destructive agency. + +Equally obvious must it appear to the cosmopolite of some generation of +the future that quality rather than mere numbers must determine the +efficiency of any given community. Race suicide will then cease to be a +bugbear; and it will no longer be considered rational to keep up the +census at the cost of propagating low orders of intelligence, to feed +the ranks of paupers, defectives and criminals. On the contrary it will +be thought fitting that man should become the conscious arbiter of his +own racial destiny to the extent of applying whatever laws of heredity +he knows or may acquire in the interests of his own species, as he has +long applied them in the case of domesticated animals. The survival and +procreation of the unfit will then cease to be a menace to the progress +of civilization. It does not follow that all men will be brought to a +dead level of equality of body and mind, nor that individual competition +will cease; but the average physical mental status of the race will be +raised immeasurably through the virtual elimination of that vast company +of defectives which to-day constitutes so threatening an obstacle to +racial progress. There are millions of men in Europe and America to-day +whose whole mental equipment--despite the fact that they have been +taught to read and write--is far more closely akin to the average of the +Upper Period of Barbarism than to the highest standards of their own +time; and these undeveloped or atavistic persons have on the average +more offspring than are produced by the more highly cultured and +intelligent among their contemporaries. "Race suicide" is thereby +prevented, but the progress of civilization is no less surely +handicapped. We may well believe that the cosmopolite of the future, +aided by science, will find rational means to remedy this strange +illogicality. In so doing he will exercise a more consciously purposeful +function, and perhaps a more directly potent influence, in determining +the line of human progress than he has hitherto attempted to assume, +notwithstanding the almost infinitely varied character of the +experiments through which he has worked his way from savagery to +civilization. + + + Ethical evolution. + +All these considerations tend to define yet more clearly the ultimate +goal towards which the progressive civilization of past and present +appears to be trending. The contemplation of this goal brings into view +the outlines of a vastly suggestive evolutionary cycle. For it appears +that the social condition of cosmopolite man, so far as the present-day +view can predict it, will represent a state of things, magnified to +world-dimensions, that was curiously adumbrated by the social system of +the earliest savage. At the very beginning of the journey through +savagery, mankind, we may well believe, consisted of a limited tribe, +representing no great range or variety of capacity, and an almost +absolute identity of interests. Thanks to this community of +interests,--which was fortified by the recognition of blood-relationship +among all members of the tribe,--a principle which we now define as "the +greatest ultimate good to the greatest number" found practical, even if +unwitting, recognition; and therein lay the germs of all the moral +development of the future. But obvious identity of interests could be +recognized only so long as the tribe remained very small. So soon as its +numbers became large, patent diversities of interest, based on +individual selfishness, must appear, to obscure the larger harmony. And +as savage man migrated hither and thither, occupying new regions and +thus developing new tribes and ultimately a diversity of "races," all +idea of community of interests, as between race and race, must have been +absolutely banished. It was the obvious and patent fact that each race +was more or less at rivalry, in disharmony, with all the others. In the +hard struggle for subsistence, the expansion of one race meant the +downfall of another. So far as any principle of "greatest good" remained +in evidence, it applied solely to the members of one's own community, or +even to one's particular phratry or gens. + +Barbaric man, thanks to his conquest of animal and vegetable nature, was +able to extend the size of the unified community, and hence to develop +through diverse and intricate channels the application of the principle +of "greatest good" out of which the idea of right and wrong was +elaborated. But quite as little as the savage did he think of extending +the application of the principle beyond the bounds of his own race. The +laws with which he gave expression to his ethical conceptions applied, +of necessity, to his own people alone. The gods with which his +imagination peopled the world were local in habitat, devoted to the +interests of his race only, and at enmity with the gods of rival +peoples. As between nation and nation, the only principle of ethics that +ever occurred to him was that might makes right. Civilized man for a +long time advanced but slowly upon this view of international morality. +No Egyptian or Babylonian or Hebrew or Greek or Roman ever hesitated to +attack a weaker nation on the ground that it would be wrong to do so. +And few indeed are the instances in which even a modern nation has +judged an international question on any other basis than that of +self-interest. It was not till towards the close of the 19th century +that an International Peace Conference gave tangible witness that the +idea of fellowship of nations was finding recognition; and in the same +recent period history has recorded the first instance of a powerful +nation vanquishing a weaker one without attempting to exact at least an +"indemnifying" tribute. + +But the citizen of the future, if the auguries of the present prove +true, will be able to apply principles of right and wrong without +reference to national boundaries. He will understand that the interests +of the entire human family are, in the last analysis, common interests. +The census through which he attempts to estimate "the greatest good of +the greatest number" must include, not his own nation merely, but the +remotest member of the human race. On this universal basis must be +founded that absolute standard of ethics which will determine the +relations of cosmopolite man with his fellows. When this ideal is +attained, mankind will again represent a single family, as it did in the +day when our primeval ancestors first entered on the pathway of +progress; but it will be a family whose habitat has been extended from +the narrow glade of some tropical forest to the utmost habitable +confines of the globe. Each member of this family will be permitted to +enjoy the greatest amount of liberty consistent with the like liberty of +every other member; but the interests of the few will everywhere be +recognized as subservient to the interests of the many, and such +recognition of mutual interests will establish the practical criterion +for the interpretation of international affairs. + + + Progress and efficiency. + +But such an extension of the altruistic principle by no means +presupposes the elimination of egoistic impulses--of individualism. On +the contrary, we must suppose that man at the highest stages of culture +will be, even as was the savage, a seeker after the greatest attainable +degree of comfort for the least necessary expenditure of energy. The +pursuit of this ideal has been from first to last the ultimate impelling +force in nature urging man forward. The only change has been a change in +the interpretation of the ideal, an altered estimate as to what manner +of things are most worth the purchase-price of toil and self-denial. +That the things most worth the having cannot, generally speaking, be +secured without such toil and self-denial, is a lesson that began to be +inculcated while man was a savage, and that has never ceased to be +reiterated generation after generation. It is the final test of +progressive civilization that a given effort shall produce a larger and +larger modicum of average individual comfort. That is why the great +inventions that have increased man's efficiency as a worker have been +the necessary prerequisites to racial progress. Stated otherwise, that +is why the industrial factor is everywhere the most powerful factor in +civilization; and why the economic interpretation is the most searching +interpretation of history at its every stage. It is the basal fact that +progress implies increased average working efficiency--a growing ratio +between average effort and average achievement--that gives sure warrant +for such a prognostication as has just been attempted concerning the +future industrial unification of our race. The efforts of civilized man +provide him, on the average, with a marvellous range of comforts, as +contrasted with those that rewarded the most strenuous efforts of savage +or barbarian, to whom present-day necessaries would have been +undreamed-of luxuries. But the ideal ratio between effort and result has +by no means been achieved; nor will it have been until the inventive +brain of man has provided a civilization in which a far higher +percentage of citizens will find the life-vocations to which they are +best adapted by nature, and in which, therefore, the efforts of the +average worker may be directed with such vigour, enthusiasm and interest +as can alone make for true efficiency; a civilization adjusted to such +an economic balance that the average man may live in reasonable comfort +without heart-breaking strain, and yet accumulate a sufficient surplus +to ensure ease and serenity for his declining days. Such, seemingly, +should be the normal goal of progressive civilization. Doubtless mankind +in advancing towards that goal will institute many changes that could by +no possibility be foretold, but (to summarize the views just presented) +it seems a safe augury from present-day conditions and tendencies that +the important lines of progress will include (1) the organic betterment +of the race through wise application of the laws of heredity; (2) the +lessening of international jealousies and the consequent minimizing of +the drain upon communal resources that attends a military regime; and +(3) an ever-increasing movement towards the industrial and economic +unification of the world. (H. S. WI.) + + AUTHORITIES.--A list of works dealing with the savage and barbarous + periods of human development will be found appended to the article + ANTHROPOLOGY. Special reference may here be made to E.B. Tylor's + _Early History of Mankind_ (1865), _Primitive Culture_ (1871) and + _Anthropology_ (1881); Lord Avebury's _Prehistoric Times_ (new + edition, 1900) and _Origin of Civilization_ (new edition, 1902); A.H. + Keane's _Man Past and Present_ (1899); and Lewis H. Morgan's _Ancient + Society_ (1877). The earliest attempt at writing a history of + civilization which has any value for the 20th-century reader was F. + Guizot's in 1828-1830, a handy English translation by William Hazlitt + being included in Bohn's Standard Library under the title of _The + History of Civilization_. The earlier lectures, delivered at the Old + Sorbonne, deal with the general progress of European civilization, + whilst the greater part of the work is an account of the growth of + civilization in France. Guizot's attitude is somewhat antiquated, but + this book still has usefulness as a storehouse of facts. T.H. Buckle's + famous work, _The History of Civilization in England_ (1857-1861), + though only a gigantic unfinished introduction to the author's + proposed enterprise, holds an important place in historical literature + on account of the new method which it introduced, and has given birth + to a considerable number of valuable books on similar lines, such as + Lecky's _History of European Morals_ (1869) and _Rise and Influence of + Rationalism in Europe_ (1865). J.W. Draper's _History of the + Intellectual Development of Europe_ (1861) undertook, from the + American stand-point, "the labour of arranging the evidence offered by + the intellectual history of Europe in accordance with physiological + principles, so as to illustrate the orderly progress of civilization." + Its objective treatment and wealth of learning still give it great + value to the student. Since the third quarter of the 19th century it + may be said that all serious historical work has been more or less a + history of civilization as displayed in all countries and ages, and a + bibliography of the works bearing on the subject would be coextensive + with the catalogue of a complete historical library. Special mention, + however, may be made of such important and suggestive works as C.H. + Pearson's _National Life and Character_ (1893); Benjamin Kidd's + _Social Evolution_ (1894) and _Principles of Western Civilization_ + (1902); Edward Eggleston's _Transit of Civilization_ (1901); C. + Seignobos's _Histoire de la civilisation_ (1887); C. Faulmann's + _Illustrirte Culturgeschichte_ (1881); G. Ducoudray's _Histoire de la + civilisation_ (1886); J. von Hellwald's _Kulturgeschichte_ (1896); J. + Lippert's _Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit_ (1886); O. Henne-am-Rhyn's + _Die Kultur der Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft_ (1890); G. + Kurth's _Origines de la civilisation moderne_ (1886), &c. The vast + collection of modern works on sociology, from Herbert Spencer onwards, + should also be consulted; see bibliography attached to the article + SOCIOLOGY. The historical method on which practically all the articles + of the present edition of the _Ency. Brit._ are planned, makes the + whole work itself in essentials the most comprehensive history of + civilization in existence. + + + + +CIVIL LAW, a phrase which, with its Latin equivalent _jus civile_, has +been used in a great variety of meanings. _Jus civile_ was sometimes +used to distinguish that portion of the Roman law which was the proper +or ancient law of the city or state of Rome from the _jus gentium_, or +the law common to all the nations comprising the Roman world, which was +incorporated with the former through the agency of the praetorian +edicts. This historical distinction remained as a permanent principle of +division in the body of the Roman law. One of the first propositions of +the Institutes of Justinian is the following:--"Jus autem civile vel +gentium ita dividitur. Omnes populi qui legibus et moribus reguntur +partim suo proprio, partim communi omnium hominum jure utuntur; nam quod +quisque populus ipsi sibi jus constituit, id ipsius civitatis proprium +est, vocaturque jus civile quasi jus proprium ipsius civitatis. Quod +vero naturalis ratio inter omnes homines constituit, id apud omnes +peraeque custoditur, vocaturque jus gentium quasi quo jure omnes gentes +utuntur." The _jus gentium_ of this passage is elsewhere identified with +_jus naturale_, so that the distinction comes to be one between civil +law and natural or divine law. The municipal or private law of a state +is sometimes described as civil law in distinction to public or +international law. Again, the municipal law of a state may be divided +into civil law and criminal law. The phrase, however, is applied _par +excellence_ to the system of law created by the genius of the Roman +people, and handed down by them to the nations of the modern world (see +ROMAN LAW). The civil law in this sense would be distinguished from the +local or national law of modern states. The civil law in this sense is +further to be distinguished from that adaptation of its principles to +ecclesiastical purposes which is known as the canon law (q.v.). + + + + +CIVIL LIST, + + History + +the English term for the account in which are contained all the expenses +immediately applicable to the support of the British sovereign's +household and the honour and dignity of the crown. An annual sum is +settled by the British parliament at the beginning of the reign on the +sovereign, and is charged on the consolidated fund. But it is only from +the reign of William IV. that the sum thus voted has been restricted +solely to the personal expenses of the crown. Before his accession many +charges properly belonging to the ordinary expenses of government had +been placed on the civil list. The history of the civil list dates from +the reign of William and Mary. Before the Revolution no distinction had +been made between the expenses of government in time of peace and the +expenses relating to the personal dignity and support of the sovereign. +The ordinary revenues derived from the hereditary revenues of the crown, +and from certain taxes voted for life to the king at the beginning of +each reign, were supposed to provide for the support of the sovereign's +dignity and the civil government, as well as for the public defence in +time of peace. Any saving made by the king in the expenditure touching +the government of the country or its defence would go to swell his privy +purse. But with the Revolution a step forward was made towards the +establishment of the principle that the expenses relating to the support +of the crown should be separated from the ordinary expenses of the +state. The evils of the old system under which no appropriation was made +of the ordinary revenue granted to the crown for life had been made +manifest in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.; it was their +control of these large revenues that made them so independent of +parliament. Moreover, while the civil government and the defences +suffered, the king could use these revenues as he liked. The parliament +of William and Mary fixed the revenue of the crown in time of peace at +L1,200,000 per annum; of this sum about L700,000 was appropriated +towards the "civil list." But from this the sovereign was to defray the +expenses of the civil service and the payment of pensions, as well as +the cost of the support of the royal household and his own personal +expenses. It was from this that the term "civil list" arose, to +distinguish it from the statement of military and naval charges. The +revenue voted to meet the civil list consisted of the hereditary +revenues of the crown and a part of the excise duties. Certain changes +and additions were made in the sources of revenue thus appropriated +between the reign of William and Mary and the accession of George III., +when a different system was adopted. Generally speaking, however, the +sources of revenue remained as settled at the Revolution. + + + Anne, George I. and George II. + + George III. + +Anne had the same civil list, estimated to produce an annual income of +L700,000. During her reign a debt of L1,200,000 was incurred. This debt +was paid by parliament and charged on the civil list itself. George I. +enjoyed the same revenue by parliamentary grant, in addition to an +annual sum of L120,000 on the aggregate fund. A debt of L1,000,000 was +incurred, and discharged by parliament in the same manner as Anne's debt +had been. To George II. a civil list of L800,000 as a minimum was +granted, parliament undertaking to make up any deficiency if the sources +of income appropriated to its service fell short of that sum. Thus in +1746 a debt of L456,000 was paid by parliament on the civil list. On the +accession of George III. a change was made in the system of the civil +list. Hitherto the sources of revenue appropriated to the service of the +civil list had been settled on the crown. If these revenues exceeded the +sum they were computed to produce annually, the surplus went to the +king. George III., however, surrendered the life-interest in the +hereditary revenues and the excise duties hitherto voted to defray the +civil list expenditure, and any claim to a surplus for a fixed amount. +The king still retained other large sources of revenue which were not +included in the civil list, and were free from the control of +parliament. The revenues from which the civil list had been defrayed +were henceforward to be carried into, and made part of, the aggregate +fund. In their place a fixed civil list was granted--at first of +L723,000 per annum, to be increased to L800,000 on the falling in of +certain annuities to members of the royal family. From this L800,000 the +king's household and the honour and dignity of the crown were to be +supported, as well as the civil service offices, pensions and other +charges still laid on the list. + + + Indebtedness of civil list. + +During the reign of George III. the civil list played an important part +in the history of the struggle on the part of the king to establish the +royal ascendancy. From the revenue appropriated to its service came a +large portion of the money employed by the king in creating places and +pensions for his supporters in parliament, and, under the colour of the +royal bounty, bribery was practised on a large scale. No limit was set +to the amount applicable to the pensions charged on the civil list, so +long as the sum granted could meet the demand; and there was no +principle on which the grant was regulated. Secret pensions at the +king's pleasure were paid out of it, and in every way the independence +of parliament was menaced; and though the more legitimate expenses of +the royal household were diminished by the king's penurious style of +living, and though many charges not directly connected with the king's +personal expenditure were removed, the amount was constantly exceeded, +and applications were made from time to time to parliament to pay off +debts incurred; and thus opportunity was given for criticism. In 1769 a +debt of L513,511 was paid off in arrears; and in spite of the demand for +accounts and for an inquiry into the cause of the debt, the ministry +succeeded in securing this vote without granting such information. All +attempts to investigate the civil list were successfully resisted, +though Lord Chatham went so far as to declare himself convinced that the +funds were expended in corrupting members of parliament. Again, in 1777, +an application was made to parliament to pay off L618,340 of debts; and +in view of the growing discontent Lord North no longer dared to withhold +accounts. Yet, in spite of strong opposition and free criticism, not +only was the amount voted, but also a further L100,000 per annum, thus +raising the civil list to an annual sum of L900,000. + +In 1779, at a time when the expenditure of the country and the national +debt had been enormously increased by the American War, the general +dissatisfaction found voice in parliament, and the abuses of the civil +list were specially singled out for attack. Many petitions were +presented to the House of Commons praying for its reduction, and a +motion was made in the House of Lords in the same sense, though it was +rejected. In 1780 Burke brought forward his scheme of economic reform, +but his name was already associated with the growing desire to remedy +the evils of the civil list by the publication in 1769 of his pamphlet +on "The Causes of the Present Discontent." In this scheme Burke freely +animadverts on the profusion and abuse of the civil list, criticizing +the useless and obsolete offices and the offices performed by deputy. In +every department he discovers jobbery, waste and peculation. His +proposal was that the many offices should be reduced and consolidated, +that the pension list should be brought down to a fixed sum of L60,000 +per annum, and that pensions should be conferred only to reward merit or +fulfil real public charity. All pensions were to be paid at the +exchequer. He proposed also that the civil list should be divided into +classes, an arrangement which later was carried into effect. In 1780 +Burke succeeded in bringing in his Establishment Bill; but though at +first it met with considerable support, and was even read a second time, +Lord North's government defeated it in committee. The next year the bill +was again introduced into the House of Commons, and Pitt made his first +speech in its favour. The bill was, however, lost on the second reading. + + + Civil List Act 1782. + +In 1782 the Rockingham ministry, pledged to economic reform, came into +power; and the Civil List Act 1782 was introduced and carried with the +express object of limiting the patronage and influence of ministers, or, +in other words, the ascendancy of the crown over parliament. Not only +did the act effect the abolition of a number of useless offices, but it +also imposed restraints on the issue of secret service money, and made +provision for a more effectual supervision of the royal expenditure. As +to the pension list, the annual amount was to be limited to L95,000; no +pension to any one person was to exceed L1200, and all pensions were to +be paid at the exchequer, thus putting a stop to the secret pensions +payable during pleasure. Moreover, pensions were only to be bestowed in +the way of royal bounty for persons in distress or as a reward for +merit. Another very important change was made by this act: the civil +list was divided into classes, and a fixed amount was to be appropriated +to each class. The following were the classes:-- + + 1. Pensions and allowances of the royal family. + 2. Payment of salaries of lord chancellor, speaker and judges. + 3. Salaries of ministers to foreign courts resident at the same. + 4. Approved bills of tradesmen, artificers and labourers for any + article supplied and work done for His Majesty's service. + 5. Menial servants of the household. + 6. Pension list. + 7. Salaries of all other places payable out of the civil list revenues. + 8. Salaries and pensions of treasurer or commissioners of the + treasury and of the chancellor of the exchequer. + +Yet debt was still the condition of the civil list down to the end of +the reign, in spite of the reforms established by the Rockingham +ministry, and notwithstanding the removal from the list of many charges +unconnected with the king's personal expenses. The debts discharged by +parliament between 1782, the date of the passing of the Civil List Act, +and the end of George III.'s reign, amounted to L2,300,000. In all, +during his reign L3,398,061 of debt owing by the civil list was paid +off. + +With the regency the civil list was increased by L70,000 per annum, and +a special grant of L100,000 was settled on the prince regent. In 1816 +the annual amount was settled at L1,083,727, including the establishment +of the king, now insane; though the civil list was relieved from some +annuities payable to the royal family. Nevertheless, the fund still +continued charged with such civil expenses as the salaries of judges, +ambassadors and officers of state, and with pensions granted for public +services. Other reforms were made as regards the definition of the +several classes of expenditure, while the expenses of the royal +household were henceforth to be audited by a treasury official--the +auditor of the civil list. On the accession of George IV. the civil +list, freed from the expenses of the late king, was settled at L845,727. +On William IV. coming to the throne a sum of L510,000 per annum was +fixed for the service of the civil list. The king at the same time +surrendered all the sources of revenue enjoyed by his predecessors, +apart from the civil list, represented by the hereditary revenues of +Scotland--the Irish civil list, the droits of the crown and admiralty, +the 41/2% duties, the West India duties, and other casual revenues +hitherto vested in the crown, and independent of parliament. The +revenues of the duchy of Lancaster were still retained by the crown. In +return for this surrender and the diminished sum voted, the civil list +was relieved from all the charges relating rather to the civil +government than to the support of the dignity of the crown and the royal +household. The future expenditure was divided into five classes, and a +fixed annual sum was appropriated to each class. The pension list was +reduced to L75,000. The king resisted an attempt on the part of the +select committee to reduce the salaries of the officers of state on the +grounds that this touched his prerogative, and the ministry of Earl Grey +yielded to his remonstrance. + + + Queen Victoria's civil list. + +The civil list of Queen Victoria was settled on the same principles as +that of William IV. A considerable reduction was made in the aggregate +annual sum voted, from L510,000 to L385,000, and the pension list was +separated from the ordinary civil list. The civil list proper was +divided into the following five classes, with a fixed sum appropriated +to each:-- + + Privy purse L60,000 + Salaries of household 131,260 + Expenses of household 172,500 + Royal bounty, &c. 13,200 + Unappropriated 8,040 + +In addition the queen might, on the advice of her ministers, grant +pensions up to L1200 per annum, in accordance with a resolution of the +House of Commons of February 18th, 1834, "to such persons as have just +claims on the royal beneficence or who, by their personal services to +the crown, by the performance of duties to the public, or by their +useful discoveries in science and attainments in literature and art, +have merited the gracious consideration of the sovereign and the +gratitude of their country." The service of these pensions increased the +annual sum devoted to support the dignity of the crown and the expenses +of the household to about L409,000. The list of pensions must be laid +before parliament within thirty days of 20th June. Thus the civil list +was reduced in amount, and relieved from the very charges which gave it +its name as distinct from the statement of military and naval charges. +It now really only dealt with the support of the dignity and honour of +the crown and the royal household. The arrangement was most successful, +and during the last three reigns there was no application to parliament +for the discharge of debts incurred on the civil list. + + + Civil List Act 1901. + +The death of Queen Victoria rendered it necessary that a renewed +provision should be made for the civil list; and King Edward VII., +following former precedents, placed unreservedly at the disposal of +parliament his hereditary revenues. A select committee of the House of +Commons was appointed to consider the provisions of the civil list for +the crown, and to report also on the question of grants for the +honourable support and maintenance of Her Majesty the Queen and the +members of the royal family. The committee in their conclusions were +guided to a considerable extent by the actual civil list expenditure +during the last ten years of the last reign, and made certain +recommendations which, without undue interference with the sovereign's +personal arrangements, tended towards increased efficiency and economy +in the support of the sovereign's household and the honour and dignity +of the crown. On their report was based the Civil List Act 1901, which +established the new civil list. The system that the hereditary revenues +should as before be paid into the exchequer and be part of the +consolidated fund was maintained. The amount payable for the civil list +was increased from L385,000 to L470,000. In the application of this sum +the number of classes of expenditure to which separate amounts were to +be appropriated was increased from five to six. The following was the +new arrangement of classes:--1st class, Their Majesties' privy purse, +L110,000; 2nd class, salaries of His Majesty's household and retired +allowances, L125,800; 3rd class, expenses of His Majesty's household, +L193,000; 4th class, works (the interior repair and decoration of +Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle), L20,000; 5th class, royal bounty, +alms and special services, L13,200; 6th class, unappropriated, L8000. +The system relating to civil list pensions, established by the Civil +List Act 1837, continued to apply, but the pensions were not regarded as +chargeable on the sum paid for the civil list. The committee also +advised that the mastership of the Buckhounds should not be continued; +and the king, on the advice of his ministers, agreed to accept their +recommendation. The maintenance of the royal hunt thus ceased to be a +charge on the civil list. The annuities of L20,000 to the prince of +Wales, of L10,000 to the princess of Wales, and of L18,000 to His +Majesty's three daughters, were not included in the civil list, though +they were conferred by the same act. Other grants made by special acts +of parliament to members of the royal family were also excluded from it; +these were L6000 to the princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, L6000 +to the princess Louise (duchess of Argyll), L25,000 to the duke of +Connaught, L6000 to the duchess of Albany, L6000 to the princess +Beatrice (Henry of Battenberg), and L3000 to the duchess of +Mecklenburg-Strelitz. + + + Figures in other countries. + + It may be interesting to compare with the British civil list the + corresponding figures in other countries. These are as follows, the + figures being those, for convenience, of 1905. Spain, L280,000, + exclusive of allowances to members of the royal family; Portugal, + L97,333, in addition to L1333 to the queen-consort--total grant to the + royal family, L116,700; Italy, L602,000, from which was deducted + L16,000 for the children of the deceased Prince Amedeo, duke of Aosta, + L16,000 to Prince Tommaso, duke of Genoa, and L40,000 to Queen + Margherita; Belgium, L140,000; Netherlands, L50,000, with, in + addition, L4000 for the maintenance of the royal palaces; Germany, + L770,500 (_Krondotations Rente_), the sovereign also possessing large + private property (_Kronfideikommiss und Schatullgueter_), the revenue + from which contributed to the expenditure of the court and the members + of the royal family; Denmark, L55,500, in addition to L6600 to the + heir-apparent; Norway, L38,888; Sweden, L72,700; Greece, L52,000, + which included L4000 each from Great Britain, France and Russia; + Austria-Hungary, L941,666, made up of L387,500 as emperor of Austria + out of the revenues of Austria, and L554,166 as king of Hungary out of + the revenues of Hungary; Japan, L300,000; Rumania, L47,000, in + addition to revenues from certain crown lands; Servia, L48,000; + Bulgaria, L40,000, besides L30,000 for maintenance of palaces, &c.; + Montenegro, L8300; Russia had no civil list, the sovereign having all + the revenue from the crown domains (actual amount unknown, but + supposed to amount to over L4,000,000); the president of the French + Republic had a salary of L24,000 a year, with a further L24,000 for + expenses; and the president of the United States had a salary of + $50,000 (from 1909, $75,000). + + + + +CIVIL SERVICE, the generic name given to the aggregate of all the public +servants, or paid civil administrators and clerks, of a state. It is the +machinery by which the executive, through the various administrations, +carries on the central government of the country. + +_British Empire._--The appointments to the civil service until the year +1855 were made by nomination, with an examination not sufficient to form +an intellectual or even a physical test. It was only after much +consideration and almost years of discussion that the nomination system +was abandoned. Various commissions reported on the civil service, and +orders in council were issued. Finally in 1855 a qualifying examination +of a stringent character was instituted, and in 1870 the principle of +open competition was adopted as a general rule. On the report of the +Playfair Commission (1876), an order in council was issued dividing the +civil service into an upper and lower division. The order in council +directed that a lower division should be constituted, and men and boy +clerks holding permanent positions replaced the temporary assistants and +writers. The "temporary" assistant was not found to be advantageous to +the service. In December 1886 a new class of assistant clerks was formed +to replace the men copyists. In 1887 the Ridley Commission reported on +the civil service establishment. In 1890 two orders in council were +issued based on the reports of the Ridley Commission, which sat from +1886 to 1890. The first order constituted what is now known as the +second division of the civil service. The second order in council +concerned the officers of the 1st class; and provision was made for the +possible promotion of the second division clerks to the first division +after eight years' service. + +The whole system is under the administration of the civil service +commissioners, and power is given to them, with the approval of the +treasury, to prescribe the subjects of examination, limits of age, &c. +The age is fixed for compulsory retirement at sixty-five. In exceptional +cases a prolongation of five years is within the powers of the civil +service commissioners. The examination for 1st class clerkships is held +concurrently with that of the civil service of India and Eastern +cadetships in the colonial service. Candidates can compete for all three +or for two. In addition to the intellectual test the candidate must +fulfil the conditions of age (22 to 24), must present recommendations as +to character, and pass a medical examination. This examination +approximates closely to the university type of education. Indeed, there +is little chance of success except for candidates who have had a +successful university career, and frequently, in addition, special +preparation by a private teacher. The subjects include the language and +literature of England, France, Germany, Italy, ancient Greece and Rome, +Sanskrit and Arabic, mathematics (pure and applied), natural science +(chemistry, physics, zoology, &c.), history (English, Greek, Roman and +general modern), political economy and economic history, mental and +moral philosophy, Roman and English law and political science. The +candidate is obliged to reach a certain standard of knowledge in each +subject before any marks at all are allowed him. This rule was made to +prevent success by mere cramming, and to ensure competent knowledge on +the basis of real study. + +The maximum scale of the salaries of clerks of Class I. is as +follows:--3rd class, L200 a year, increasing by L20 a year to L500; 2nd +class, L600, increasing by L25 a year to L800; 1st class, L850, +increasing by L50 a year to L1000. Their pensions are fixed by the +Superannuation Act 1859, 22 Vict. c. 26:-- + + "To any person who shall have served ten years and upwards, and under + eleven years, an annual allowance of ten-sixtieths of the annual + salary and emoluments of his office: + + "For eleven years and under twelve years, an annual allowance of + eleven-sixtieths of such salary and emoluments: + + "And in like manner a further addition to the annual allowance of + one-sixtieth in respect of each additional year of such service, until + the completion of a period of service of forty years, when the annual + allowance of forty-sixtieths may be granted; and no additions shall be + made in respect of any service beyond forty years." + + The "ordinary annual holidays allowed to officers" (1st class) "shall + not exceed thirty-six week-days during each of their first ten years + of service and forty-eight week-days thereafter." Order in Council, + 15th August 1890. + + "Within that maximum heads of departments have now, as they have + hitherto had, an absolute discretion in fixing the annual leave." + +Sick leave can be granted on full salary for not more than six months, +on half-salary for another six months. + +The scale of salary for 2nd division clerks begins at L70 a year, +increasing by L5 to L100; then L100 a year, increasing by L7, 10s. to +L190; and then L190 a year, increasing by L10 to L250. The highest is +L300 to L500. Advancement in the 2nd division to the higher ranks +depends on merit, not seniority. The ordinary annual holiday of the 2nd +division clerks is 14 working days for the first five years, and 21 +working days afterwards. They can be allowed sick leave for six months +on full pay and six months on half-pay. The subjects of their +examination are: (1) handwriting and orthography, including copying MS.; +(2) arithmetic; (3) English composition; (4) precis, including indexing +and digest of returns; (5) book-keeping and shorthand writing; (6) +geography and English history; (7) Latin; (8) French; (9) German; (10) +elementary mathematics; (11) inorganic chemistry with elements of +physics. Not more than four of the subjects (4) to (11) can be taken. +The candidate must be between the ages of 17 and 20. A certain number of +the places in the 2nd division were reserved for the candidates from the +boy clerks appointed under the old system. The competition is severe, +only about one out of every ten candidates being successful. Candidates +are allowed a choice of departments subject to the exigencies of the +services. + + There is also a class of boy copyists who are almost entirely employed + in London, a few in Dublin and Edinburgh, and, very seldom, in some + provincial towns. The subjects of their examination are: + _Obligatory_--handwriting and orthography, arithmetic and English + composition. _Optional_--(any two of the following): (1) copying MS.; + (2) geography; (3) English history; (4) translation from one of the + following languages--Latin, French or German; (5) Euclid, bk. i. and + ii., and algebra, up to and including simple equations; (6) rudiments + of chemistry and physics. Candidates must be between the ages of 15 + and 18. They have no claims to superannuation or compensation + allowance. Boy copyists are not retained after the age of 20. + +Candidates for the civil service of India take the same examination as +for 1st class clerkships. Candidates successful in the examination must +subsequently spend one year in England. They receive for that year L150 +if they elect to live at one of the universities or colleges approved by +the secretary of state for India. They are submitted to a final +examination in the following subjects--Indian Penal Code and the Code +of Criminal Procedure, the principal vernacular language of the province +to which they are assigned, the Indian Evidence Act (these three +subjects are compulsory), either Hindu and Mahommedan Law, or Sanskrit, +Arabic or Persian, Burmese (for Burma only). A candidate may not take +Arabic or Sanskrit both in the first examination and in the final. They +must also pass a thorough examination in riding. On reaching India +their salary begins at 400 rupees a month. They may take, as leave, +one-fourth of the time on active service in periods strictly limited by +regulation. After 25 years' service (of which 21 must be active service) +they can retire on a pension of L1000 a year. The unit of administration +is the district. At the head of the district is an executive officer +called either collector-magistrate or deputy-commissioner. In most +provinces he is responsible to the commissioner, who corresponds +directly with the provincial government. The Indian civilian after four +years' probation in both branches of the service is called upon to elect +whether he will enter the revenue or judicial department, and this +choice as a rule is held to be final for his future work. + + Candidates for the Indian Forest Service have to pass a competitive + examination, one of the compulsory subjects being German or French. + They have also to pass a severe medical examination, especially in + their powers of vision and hearing. They must be between the ages of + 18 and 22. Successful candidates are required to pass a three years' + course, with a final examination, seven terms of the course at an + approved school of forestry, the rest of the time receiving practical + instruction in continental European forests. On reaching India they + start as assistant conservators at 380 rupees a month. The highest + salary, that of inspector-general of forests, in the Indian Forest + Service is 2650 rupees a month. + + The Indian Police Service is entered by a competitive examination of + very much the same kind as for the forest service, except that special + subjects such as German and botany are not included. The candidates + are limited in age to 19 and 21. They must pass a riding examination. + A free passage out is given them. They are allotted as probationers, + their wishes being consulted as far as possible as to their province. + A probationer receives 300 rupees a month. A district superintendent + can rise to 1200 rupees a month, while there are a few posts with a + salary of 3000 rupees a month in the police service. The leave and + pension in both these departments follow the general rules for Indian + services. + +The civil service also includes student interpreterships for China, +Japan and Siam, and for the Ottoman dominions, Persia, Greece and +Morocco. Both these classes of student interpreters are selected by open +competition. Their object is to supply the consular service in the +above-named countries with persons having a thorough knowledge of the +language of the country in which they serve. + + In the first case, China, Japan, &c., they learn their language in the + country itself, receiving L200 as probationers. Then they become + assistants in a consulate. The highest post is that of consul-general. + In the case of student interpreters for the Ottoman dominions, Persia, + Greece and Morocco, the successful candidates learn their languages at + Oxford. Turkish is taught gratuitously, but they pay the usual fees + for other languages. At Oxford they receive L200 a year for two years. + On leaving Oxford they become assistants under the embassy at + Constantinople, the legations at Teheran, Athens or Morocco, or at one + of H.B.M. consulates. As assistants they receive L300 a year. The + consuls, the highest post to which they can reach, receive in the + Levant from L500 to L1600 a year. The civil services of Ceylon, + Hong-Kong, the Straits Settlements, and the Malay Peninsula are + supplied by the Eastern cadetships. The limits of age for the + examination are 18 and 24. The cadets are required to learn the native + language of the colony or dependency to which they are assigned. In + the case of the Straits Settlements and Malay cadets they may have to + learn Chinese or Tamil, as well as the native language. The salaries + are: passed cadets, 3500 rupees per annum, gradually increasing until + first-class officers receive from 12,000 to 18,000 rupees per annum. + They are allowed three months' vacation on full pay in two years, and + leave of absence on half-pay after six years' service, or before that + if urgently needed. They can retire for ill-health after ten years + with fifteen-sixtieths of their annual salary. Otherwise they can add + one-sixtieth of their annual salary to their pension for every + additional year's service up to thirty-five years' service. + +In spite of the general rule of open competition, there are still a few +departments where the system of _nomination_ obtains, accompanied by a +severe test of knowledge, either active or implied. Such are the foreign +office, British Museum, and board of education. + +The employment of women in the civil service has been principally +developed in the post office. Women are employed in the post office as +female clerks, counter clerks, telegraphists, returners, sorters and +post-mistresses all over the United Kingdom. The board of agriculture, +the customs and the India office employ women. The department of +agriculture, the board of education generally, the local government +board, all to a certain extent employ women, whilst in the home office +there are an increasing number of women inspectors of workshops and +factories. + + In 1881 the postmaster-general took a decided step in favour of female + employment, and with the consent of the treasury instituted female + clerkships. Female clerks do not come in contact with the public. + Their duties are purely clerical, and entirely in the + accountant-general's department at the savings bank. Their leave is + one month per annum; their pension is on the ordinary civil service + scale. The examination is competitive; the subjects are handwriting + and spelling, arithmetic, English composition, geography, English + history, French or German. Candidates must be between the ages of 18 + and 20. Whether unmarried or widows they must resign on marriage. The + class of girl clerks take the same subjects in a competitive + examination. They must be between the ages of 16 and 18; they serve + only in the Savings Bank department. If competent they can pass on + later to female clerkships. The salaries of the female clerkships + range from L200 to L500 in the higher grade, L55 to L190 in the 2nd + class, whilst girl clerks are paid from L35 to L40, with the chance of + advancement to higher posts. + + + The "spoils system". + +_United States._--Civil service reform, like other great administrative +reforms, began in America in the latter half of the 19th century. +Personal and partisan government, with all the entailed evils of the +patronage system, culminated in Great Britain during the reign of George +III., and was one of the efficient causes of the American revolution. +Trevelyan characterizes the use of patronage to influence legislation, +and the giving of colonial positions as sinecures to the privileged +classes and personal favourites of the administration, by saying, "It +was a system which, as its one achievement of the first order, brought +about the American War, and made England sick, once and for all, of the +very name of personal government." It was natural that the founders of +the new government in America, after breaking away from the +mother-country, should strive to avoid the evils which had in a measure +brought about the revolution. Their intention that the administrative +officers of the government should hold office during good behaviour is +manifest, and was given thorough and practical effect by every +administration during the first forty years of the life of the +government. The constitution fixed no term of office in the executive +branch of the government except those of president and vice-president; +and Madison, the expounder of the constitution, held that the wanton +removal of a meritorious officer was an impeachable offence. Not until +nine years after the passage of the Four Years' Tenure of Office Act in +1820 was there any material departure from this traditional policy of +the government. This act (suggested by an appointing officer who wished +to use the power it gave in order to secure his own nomination for the +presidency, and passed without debate and apparently without any +adequate conception of its full effect) opened the doors of the service +to all the evils of the "spoils system." The foremost statesmen of the +time were not slow to perceive the baleful possibilities of this +legislation, Jefferson,[1] Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton and many +others being recorded as condemning and deploring it in the strongest +terms. The transition to the "spoils system" was not, however, +immediate, and for the next nine years the practice of reappointing all +meritorious officers was practically universal; but in 1829 this +practice ceased, and the act of 1820 lent the sanction of law to the +system of proscriptions which followed, which was a practical +application of the theory that "to the victor belong the spoils of the +enemy." In 1836 the provisions of this law, which had at first been +confined mainly to officers connected with the collection of revenue, +were extended to include also all postmasters receiving a compensation +of $1000 per annum or more. It rapidly became the practice to regard all +these four years' tenure offices as agencies not so much for the +transaction of the public business as for the advancement of political +ends. The revenue service from being used for political purposes merely +came to be used for corrupt purposes as well, with the result that in +one administration frauds were practised upon the government to the +extent of $75,000,000. The corrupting influences permeated the whole +body politic. Political retainers were selected for appointment not on +account of their ability to do certain work but because they were +followers of certain politicians; these "public servants" acknowledged +no obligation except to those politicians, and their public duties, if +not entirely disregarded, were negligently and inefficiently performed. +Thus grew a saturnalia of spoils and corruption which culminated in the +assassination of a president. + + + Law of 1883. + +Acute conditions, not theories, give rise to reforms. In the +congressional election of November 1882, following the assassination of +President Garfield as an incident in the operation of the spoils system, +the voice of the people commanding reform was unmistakable. Congress +assembled in December 1882, and during the same month a bill looking to +the improvement of the civil service, which had been pending in the +Senate for nearly two years, was finally taken up and considered by that +body. In the debate upon this bill its advocates declared that it would +"vastly improve the whole civil service of the country," which they +characterized as being at that time "inefficient, expensive and +extravagant, and in many instances corrupt."[2] This bill passed the +Senate on the 27th of December 1882, and the House on the 4th of January +1883, and was signed by the president on the 16th of January 1883, +coming into full operation on the 16th of July 1883. It is now the +national civil service law. The fundamental principles of this law +are:--(1) selection by competitive examination for all appointments to +the "classified service," with a period of probationary service before +absolute appointment; (2) apportionment among the states and +territories, according to population, of all appointments in the +departmental service at Washington; (3) freedom of all the employees of +the government from any necessity to contribute to political campaign +funds or to render political services. For putting these principles into +effect the Civil Service Commission was created, and penalties were +imposed for the solicitation or collection from government employees of +contributions for political purposes, and for the use of official +positions in coercing political action. The commission, in addition to +its regular duties of aiding in the preparation of civil service rules, +of regulating and holding examinations, and certifying the results +thereof for use in making appointments, and of keeping records of all +changes in the service, was given authority to investigate and report +upon any violations of the act or rules. The "classified" service to +which the act applies has grown, by the action of successive presidents +in progressively including various branches of tne service within it, +from 13,924 positions in 1883 to some 80,000 (in round numbers) in 1900, +constituting about 40% of the entire civil service of the government and +including practically all positions above the grade of mere labourer or +workman to which appointment is _not_ made directly by the president +with the consent of the Senate.[3] A very large class to which the act +is expressly applicable, and which has been partly brought within its +provisions by executive action, is that of fourth-class postmasters, of +whom there are between 70,000 and 80,000 (about 15,000 classified in +1909). + +In order to provide registers of eligibles for the various grades of +positions in the classified service, the United States Civil Service +Commission holds annually throughout the country about 300 different +kinds of examinations. In the work of preparing these examinations and +of marking the papers of competitors in them the commission is +authorized by law to avail itself, in addition to its own corps of +trained men, of the services of the scientific and other experts in the +various executive departments. In the work of holding the examinations +it is aided by about 1300 local boards of examiners, which are its local +representatives throughout the country and are located at the principal +post offices, custom houses and other government offices, being composed +of three or more Federal employees in those offices. About 50,000 +persons annually compete in these examinations, and about 10,000 of +those who are successful receive appointments through regular +certification. Persons thus appointed, however, must serve six months +"on probation" before their appointment can be made absolute. At the end +of this probation, if his service has not been satisfactory, the +appointee is simply dropped; and the fact that less than 1% of those +appointed prove thus deficient on trial is high testimony to the +practical nature of the examinations held by the commission, and to +their aptness for securing persons qualified for all classes of +positions. + +The effects of the Civil Service Act within the scope of its actual +operation have amply justified the hopes and promises of its advocates. +After its passage, absentee holders of lucrative appointments were +required to report for duty or to sever their connexion with the +service. Improved methods were adopted in the departments, and +superfluous and useless work was no longer devised in order to provide a +show of employment and a _locus standi_ for the parasites upon the +public service. Individual clerks were required, and by reason of the +new conditions were enabled, to do more and better work; and this, +coupled with the increase in efficiency in the service on account of new +blood coming in through the examinations, made possible an actual +decrease in the force required in many offices, notwithstanding the +natural growth in the amount of work to be done.[4] Experience proves +that the desire to create new and unnecessary positions was in direct +proportion to the power to control them, for where the act has taken +away this power of control the desire had disappeared naturally. There +is no longer any desire on the part of heads of departments to increase +the number or salaries of classified positions which would fall by law +within the civil service rules and be subject to competitive +examinations. Thus the promises of improvement and economy in the +service have been fulfilled. + +The chief drawback to the full success of the act within its intended +scope of operation has been the withholding of certain positions in the +service from the application of the vital principle of competition. The +Civil Service Act contemplated no exceptions, within the limits to which +it was made applicable, to the general principle of competition upon +merit for entrance to the service. In framing the first civil service +rules, however, in 1883, the president, yielding to the pressure of the +heads of some of the departments, and against the urgent protest of the +Civil Service Commission, excepted from the requirement of examination +large numbers of positions in the higher grades of the service, chiefly +fiduciary and administrative positions such as cashiers, chief clerks +and chiefs of division. These positions being thus continued under the +absolute control of the appointing officer, the effect of their +exception from examination was to retain just that much of the old or +"spoils" system within the nominal jurisdiction of the new or "merit" +system. Even more: under the old system, while appointments from the +outside had been made regardless of fitness, still those appointments +had been made in the lower grades, the higher positions being filled by +promotion within the service, usually of the most competent, but under +the new system with its exceptions, while appointments to the lower +grades were filled on the basis of merit, the pressure for spoils at +each change of administration forced inexperienced, political or +personal favourites in at the top. This blocked promotions and +demoralized the service. Thus, while the general effect of the act was +to limit very greatly the number of vicious appointments, at the same +time the effect of these exceptions was to confine them to the upper +grades, where the demoralizing effect of each upon the service would be +a maximum. By constant efforts the Civil Service Commission succeeded in +having position after position withdrawn from this excepted class, until +by the action of the president, on the 6th of May 1896, it was finally +reduced almost to a minimum. By subsequent presidential action, +however, on the 29th of May 1899, the excepted class was again greatly +extended.[5] + +A further obstacle to the complete success of the merit system, and one +which prevents the carrying forward of the reform to the extent to which +it has been carried in Great Britain, is inherent in the Civil Service +Act itself. All postmasters who receive compensation of $1000 or more +per annum, and all collectors of customs and collectors of internal +revenue, are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, and +are therefore, by express provision of the act, not "required to be +classified." The universal practice of treating these offices as +political agencies instead of as administrative business offices is +therefore not limited by the act. Such officers are active in political +work throughout the country, and their official position adds greatly to +their power to affect the political prospects of the leaders in their +districts. Accordingly the Senate, from being, as originally intended, +merely a confirming body as to these officers, has become in a large +measure, actually if not formally, a nominating body, and holds with +tenacity to the power thus acquired by the individual senators. Thorough +civil service reform requires that these positions also, and all those +of fourth-class postmasters (partly classified by order of 1st Dec. +1908), be made subject to the merit system, for in them is the real +remaining stronghold of the spoils system. Even though all their +subordinates be appointed through examination, it will be impossible to +carry the reform to ultimate and complete success so long as the +officers in charge are appointed mainly for political reasons and are +changed with every change of administration. + +The purpose of the act to protect the individual employees in the +service from the rapacity of the "political barons" has been measurably, +if not completely, successful. The power given the Civil Service +Commission, to investigate and report upon violations of the law, has +been used to bring to light such abuses as the levying of political +contributions, and to set the machinery of the law in motion against +them. While comparatively few actual prosecutions have been brought +about, and although the penalties imposed by the act for this offence +have been but seldom inflicted, still the publicity given to all such +cases by the commission's investigations has had a wholesome deterrent +effect. Before the passage of the act, positions were as a general rule +held upon a well-understood lease-tenure, the political contributions +for them being as securely and as certainly collected as any rent. Now, +however, it can be said that these forced contributions have almost +entirely disappeared. The efforts which are still made to collect +political funds from government employees in evasion of the law are +limited in the main to persuasion to make "voluntary" contributions, and +it has been possible so to limit and obstruct these efforts that their +practical effect upon the character of the service is now very small. + + + State examination. + +The same evils that the Federal Civil Service Act was designed to remedy +exist to a large degree in many of the state governments, and are +especially aggravated in the administration of the local governments of +some of the larger cities. The chief, if not the only, test of fitness +for office in many cases has been party loyalty, honesty and capacity +being seldom more than secondary considerations. The result has been the +fostering of dishonesty and extravagance, which have brought weakness +and gross corruption into the administration of the local governments. +In consequence of this there has been a constantly growing tendency, +among the more intelligent class of citizens, to demand that honest +business methods be applied to local public service, and that +appointments be made on the basis of intelligence and capacity, rather +than of party allegiance. The movement for the reform of the civil +service of cities is going hand in hand with the movement for general +municipal reform, those reformers regarding the merit system of +appointments as not merely the necessary and only safe bulwark to +preserve the results of their labours, but also as the most efficient +means for bringing about other reforms. Hence civil service reform is +given a leading position in all programmes for the reform of state and +municipal governments. This has undoubtedly been due, in the first +instance, at least, to the success which attended the application of the +merit system to the Federal service, municipal and state legislation +following in the wake of the national civil service law. In New York an +act similar to the Federal Civil Service Act was passed on the 4th of +May 1883, and in 1894 the principles of the merit system were introduced +by an amendment into the state constitution, and made applicable to +cities and villages as well. In Massachusetts an act was passed on the +3rd of June 1884 which in its general features was based upon the +Federal act and the New York act. Similar laws were passed in Illinois +and Wisconsin in 1895, and in New Jersey in 1908; the laws provide for +the adoption of the merit system in state and municipal government. In +New Orleans, La., and in Seattle, Wash., the merit system was introduced +by an amendment to the city charter in 1896. The same result was +accomplished by New Haven, Conn., in 1897, and by San Francisco, Cal., +in 1899. In still other cities the principles of the merit system have +been enacted into law, in some cases applying to the entire service and +in others to only a part of it. + +The application of the merit system to state and municipal governments +has proved successful wherever it has been given a fair trial.[6] As +experience has fostered public confidence in the system, and at the same +time shown those features of the law which are most vulnerable, and the +best means for fortifying them, numerous and important improvements upon +the pioneer act applying to the Federal service have been introduced in +the more recent legislation. This is particularly true of the acts now +in force in New York (passed in 1899) and in Chicago. The power of the +commission to enforce these acts is materially greater than the power +possessed by the Federal commission. In making investigations they are +not confined to taking the testimony of voluntary witnesses, but may +administer oaths, and compel testimony and the production of books and +papers where necessary; and in taking action they are not confined to +the making of a report of the findings in their investigations, but may +themselves, in many cases, take final judicial action. Further than +this, the payment of salaries is made dependent upon the certificate of +the commission that the appointments of the recipients were made in +accordance with the civil service law and rules. Thus these commissions +have absolute power to prevent irregular or illegal appointments by +refractory appointing officers. Their powers being so much greater than +those of the national commission, their action can be much more drastic +in most cases, and they can go more directly to the heart of an existing +abuse, and apply more quickly and effectually the needed remedy. + +Upon the termination of the Spanish-American War, the necessity for the +extension of the principles of the merit system to the new territories, +the responsibility for whose government the results of this war had +thrown upon the United States, was realized. By the acts providing for +civil government in Porto Rico (April 12th, 1900) and Hawaii (April +30th, 1900), the provisions of the Civil Service Act and Rules were +applied to those islands. Under this legislation the classification +applies to all positions which are analogous to positions in the Federal +service, those which correspond to positions in the municipal and state +governments being considered as local in character, and not included in +the classification. + +On the 19th of September 1900 the United States Philippine Commission +passed an act "for the establishment and maintenance of an efficient and +honest civil service in the Philippine Islands." This act, in its +general features, is based upon the national civil service law, but +includes also a number of the stronger points to be found in the state +and municipal law mentioned above. Among these are the power given the +civil service board to administer oaths, summon witnesses, and require +the production of official records; and the power to stop payment of +salaries to persons illegally appointed. Promotions are determined by +competitive examinations, and are made throughout the service, as there +are no excepted positions. A just right of preference in local +appointments is given to natives. The president of the Philippine +commission in introducing this bill said: "The purpose of the United +States government ... in these islands is to secure for the Filipino +people as honest and as efficient a government as may be possible.... It +is the hope of the commission to make it possible for one entering the +lowest ranks to reach the highest, under a tenure based solely upon +merit." Judging by past experience it is believed that this law is well +adapted to accomplish the purpose above stated. + + For fuller information upon the details of the present workings of the + merit system in the Federal service, recourse should be had to the + publications of the U.S. Civil Service Commission, which are to be + found in the public libraries in all the principal cities in the + United States, or which may be had free of charge upon application to + the commission. The _Manual of Examinations_, published semi-annually, + gives full information as to the character of the examinations held by + the commission, together with the schedule of dates and places for the + holding of those examinations. The _Annual Reports_ of the commission + contain full statistics of the results of its work, together with + comprehensive statements as to the difficulties encountered in + enforcing the law, and the means used to overcome them. In the + _Fifteenth Report_, pp. 443-485, will be found a very valuable + historical compilation from original sources, upon the "practice of + the presidents in appointments and removals in the executive civil + service, from 1789 to 1883." In the same report, pp. 511-517, is a + somewhat comprehensive bibliography of "civil service" in periodical + literature in the 19th century, brought down to the end of 1898. See + also C.R. Fish, _The Civil Service and the Patronage_ (New York, + 1905). + + In most European countries the civil service is recruited on much the + same lines as in the United Kingdom and the United States, that is, + either by examination or by nomination or by both. In some cases the + examination is purely competitive, in other cases, as in France, + holders of university degrees get special privileges, such as being + put at the head of the list, or going up a certain number of places; + or, as in Germany, many departmental posts are filled by nomination, + combined with the results of general examinations, either at school or + university. In the publications of the United States Department of + Labour and Commerce for 1904-1905 will be found brief details of the + systems adopted by the various foreign countries for appointing their + civil service employees. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See letter to Monroe, November 29th, 1820, Jefferson's + _Writings_, vii. 190. A quotation from this letter is given at p. 454 + of the _Fifteenth Report of the U.S. Civil Service Commission_. + + [2] See _Senate Report No. 576_, 47th Congress, 1st session; also + _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Third Report_, p. 16 et seq., _Tenth + Report_, pp. 136, 137, and _Fifteenth Report_, pp. 483, 484. + + [3] The progressive classification of the executive civil service, + showing the growth of the merit system, is discussed, with + statistics, in the _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Sixteenth + Report_, pp. 129-137. A revision of this discussion, with important + additions, appears in the _Seventeenth Report_. + + [4] For details justifying these statements, see _U.S. Civil Service + Commission's Fourteenth Report_, pp. 12-14. + + [5] For the scope of these exceptions, see Civil Service Rule VI., at + p. 57 of the _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth and Sixteenth + Reports_. A statement of the number of positions actually affected by + this action of the president appears in the _Seventeenth Report_. + + [6] In the _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth Report_, pp. + 489-502, the "growth of the civil service reform in states and + cities" is historically treated, briefly, but with some thoroughness. + + + + +CIVITA CASTELLANA (anc. _Falerii_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of +the province of Rome, 45 m. by rail from the city of Rome (the station +is 5 m. N.E. of the town). Population (1901) 5265. The cathedral of S. +Maria possesses a fine portico, erected in 1210 by Laurentius Romanus, +his son Jacobus and his grandson Cosmas, in the cosmatesque style, with +ancient columns and mosaic decorations: the interior was modernized in +the 18th century, but has some fragments of cosmatesque ornamentation. +The citadel was erected by Pope Alexander VI. from the designs of +Antonio da Sangallo the elder, and enlarged by Julius II. and Leo X. The +lofty bridge by which the town is approached belongs to the 18th +century. Mount Soracte lies about 6 m. to the south-east. + + + + +CIVITA VECCHIA, a seaport town and episcopal see of Italy, in the +province of Rome, 50 m. N.W. by rail and 35 m. direct from the city of +Rome. Pop. (1871) 8143; (1901) 17,589. It is the ancient _Centum +Cellae_, founded by Trajan. Interesting descriptions of it are given by +Pliny the Younger (_Epist._ vi. 31) and Rutilius Namat. i. 237. The +modern harbour works rest on the ancient foundations, and near it the +cemetery of detachments of the _Classes Misenensis_ and _Ravennas_ has +been found (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vol. xi., Berlin, 1888, pp. 3520 seq.). +Remains of an aqueduct and other Roman buildings are preserved; the +imperial family had a villa here. Procopius mentions it in the 6th +century as a strong and populous place, but it was destroyed in 813 by +the Saracens. Leo IV. erected a new city for the inhabitants on the site +where they had taken refuge, about 8 m. N.N.E. of Civita Vecchia towards +the hills, near La Farnesina, where its ruins may still be seen; the +city walls and some of the streets and buildings may be traced, and an +inscription (which must have stood over one of the city gates) +recording its foundation has been discovered. It continued to exist +under the name Cencelle as a feudal castle until the 15th century. In +the meantime, however, the inhabitants returned to the old town by the +shore in 889 and rebuilt it, giving it the name Civitas Vetus, the +modern Civita Vecchia (see O. Marucchi in _Nuovo Bullettino di +archeologia cristiana_, vi., 1900, p. 195 seq.). In 1508 Pope Julius II. +began the construction of the castle from the designs of Bramante, +Michelangelo being responsible for the addition of the central tower. It +is considered by Burckhardt the finest building of its kind. Pius IV. +added a convict prison. The arsenal was built by Alexander VII. and +designed by Bernini. Civita Vecchia was the chief port of the Papal +State and has still a considerable trade. There are cement factories in +the town, and calcium carbide is an important article of export. The +principal imports are coal, cattle for the home markets, and fire-bricks +from the United Kingdom. Three miles N.E. were the _Aquae Tauri_, warm +springs, now known as _Bagni della Ferrata_: considerable remains of the +Roman baths are still preserved. About 1 m. W. of these are other hot +springs, those of the _Ficoncella_, also known in Roman times. + + + + +CLACKMANNAN, the county town of Clackmannanshire, Scotland. Pop. 1505. +It lies near the north bank of the Forth, 2 m. E. of Alloa, with two +stations on the North British railway. Among the public buildings are +the parish church, the tower of which, standing on a commanding +eminence, is a conspicuous landmark. Clackmannan Tower is now a +picturesque ruin, but at one time played an important part in Scottish +history, and was the seat of a lineal descendant of the Bruce family +after the failure of the male line. The old market cross still exists, +and close to it stands the stone that gives the town its name (Gaelic, +_clach_, stone; Manann, the name of the district). A large spinning-mill +and coalpits lend a modern touch in singular contrast with the quaint, +old-world aspect of the place. About 1 m. to the S.E. is Kennet House, +the seat of Lord Balfour of Burleigh, another member of the Bruce +family. + + + + +CLACKMANNANSHIRE, the smallest county in Scotland, bounded S.W. by the +Forth, W. by Stirlingshire, N.N.E. and N.W. by Perthshire, and E. by +Fifeshire. It has an area of 35,160 acres, or about 55 sq. m. An +elevated ridge starting on the west, runs through the middle of the +county, widening gradually till it reaches the eastern boundary, and +skirting the alluvial or carse lands in the valleys of the Forth and +Devon. Still farther to the N. the Ochil hills form a picturesque +feature in the landscape, having their generally verdant surface broken +by bold projecting rocks and deeply indented ravines. The principal +summits are within the limits of the shire, among them Ben Cleuch (2363 +ft.), King's Seat (2111 ft.), Whitewisp (2110 ft.), the Law (above +Tillicoultry, 2094 ft.) and Blairdenon (2072 ft.), on the northern +slope, in which the river Devon takes its rise. The rivers of importance +are the Devon and the Black or South Devon. The former, noted in the +upper parts for its romantic scenery and its excellent trout-fishing, +runs through the county near the base of the Ochils, and falls into the +Forth at the village of Cambus, after a winding course of 33 m., +although as the crow flies its source is only 5 1/4 m. distant. The +Black Devon, rising in the Cleish Hills, flows westwards in a direction +nearly parallel to that of the Devon, and falls into the Forth near +Clackmannan. It supplies motive power to numbers of mills and +collieries; and its whole course is over coal strata. The Forth is +navigable as far as it forms the boundary of the county, and ships of +500 tons burden run up as far as Alloa. The only lake is Gartmorn, 1 m. +long by about 1/3 of a mile broad, which has been dammed in order to +furnish water to Alloa and power to mills. The Ochils are noted for the +number of their glens. Though these are mostly small, they are well +wooded and picturesque, and those at Menstrie, Alva, Tillicoultry and +Dollar are particularly beautiful. + + _Geology._--This county is divided geologically into two areas, the + boundary line skirting the southern margin of the Ochils and running + westwards from a point north of Dollar by Alva in the direction of + Airthrev in Stirlingshire. The northern portion forms part of the + volcanic range of the Ochils which belongs to the Old Red Sandstone + period, and consists of a great succession of lavas--basalts and + andesites--with intercalations of tuff and agglomerate. As the rocks + dip gently towards the north and form the highest ground in the county + they must reach a great thickness. They are pierced by small intrusive + masses of diorite, north of Tillicoultry House. The well-marked + feature running E. and W. along the southern base of the Ochils + indicates a line of fault or dislocation which abruptly truncates the + Lower Old Red volcanic rocks and brings down an important development + of Carboniferous strata occupying the southern part of the county. + These belong mainly to the Coal-measures and comprise a number of + valuable coal-seams which have been extensively worked. The + Clackmannan field is the northern continuation of the great + Lanarkshire basin which extends northwards by Slamannan, Falkirk and + the Carron Ironworks to Alloa. Along the eastern margin between + Cairnmuir and Brucefield the underlying Millstone Grit, consisting + mainly of false-bedded sandstones, comes to the surface. Close to the + river Devon south of Dollar the Vicars Bridge Limestone, which there + marks the top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, rises from + beneath the Millstone Grit. The structure of the Clackmannan field is + interesting. The strata are arranged in synclinal form, the highest + seams being found near the Devon ironworks, and they are traversed by + a series of parallel east and west faults each with a downthrow to the + south, whereby the coals are repeated and the field extended. During + mining operations evidence has been obtained of the existence of a + buried river-channel, filled with boulder clay and stratified deposits + along the course of the Devon, which extends below the present + sea-level and points to greater elevation of the land in pre-glacial + time. An excellent example of a dolerite dyke trending slightly north + of west occurs in the north part of the county where it traverses the + volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sandstone age. + +_Industries._--The soil is generally productive and well cultivated, +though the greater part of the elevated range which is interposed +between the carse lands on the Forth and the vale of Devon at the base +of the Ochils on the north consists of inferior soils, often lying upon +an impervious clay. Oats are the chief crop, but wheat and barley are +profitably grown. Sheep-farming is successfully pursued, the Ochils +affording excellent pasturage, and cattle, pigs and horses are also +raised. There is a small tract of moorland in the east, called the +Forest, bounded on its northern margin by the Black Devon. Iron-ore +(haematite), copper, silver, lead, cobalt and arsenic have all been +discovered in small quantity in the Ochils, between Alva and Dollar. +Ironstone--found either in beds, or in oblate balls embedded in slaty +clay, and yielded from 25 to 30% of iron--is mined for the Devon +iron-works, near Clackmannan. Coal has been mined for a long period. The +strata which compose the field are varieties of sandstone, shale, +fire-clay and argillaceous ironstone. There is a heavy continuous output +of coal at the mines at Sauchie, Fishcross, Coalsnaughton, Devonside, +Clackmannan and other pits. The spinning-mills at Alloa, Tillicoultry +and Alva are always busy, Alloa yarns and fingering being widely famous. +The distilleries at Glenochil and Carsebridge and the breweries in Alloa +and Cambus do a large export business. The minor trades include +glass-blowing, pottery, coopering, tanning, iron-founding, electrical +apparatus making, ship-building and paper-making. + +The north British railway serves the whole county, while the Caledonian +has access to Alloa. + +_Population and Government._--The population was 33,140 in 1891 and +32,029 in 1901, when 170 persons spoke Gaelic and English and one person +Gaelic only. The county unites with Kinross-shire in returning one +member to parliament. Clackmannan (pop. 1505) is the county town, but +Alloa (14,458), Alva (4624), and Tillicoultry (3338) take precedence in +population and trade. Menstrie (pop. 898) near Alloa has a large +furniture factory and the great distillery of Glenochil. To the +north-east of Alloa is the thriving mining village of Sauchie. +Clackmannan forms a sheriffdom with Stirling and Dumbarton shires, and a +sheriff-substitute sits at Alloa. Most of the schools in the shire are +under school-board control, but there are a few voluntary schools, +besides an exceptionally well-equipped technical school in Alloa and a +well-known academy at Dollar. + + See James Wallace, _The Sheriffdom of Clackmannan: a Sketch of its + History_ (Edinburgh, 1890); D. Beveridge, _Between the Ochils and the + Forth_ (Edinburgh, 1888); John Crawford, _Memorials of Alloa_ (1885); + William Gibson, _Reminiscences of Dollar, Tillicoultry_, + + + + +CLACTON-ON-SEA, a watering-place in the Harwich parliamentary division +of Essex, England; 71 m. E.N.E. from London by a branch from Colchester +of the Great Eastern railway; served also by steamers from London in the +summer months. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7456. Clay cliffs of slight +altitude rise from the sandy beach and face south-eastward. In the +neighbourhood, however, marshes fringe the shore. The church of Great +Clacton, at the village 11/2 m. inland, is Norman and later, and of +considerable interest. Clacton is provided with a pier, promenade and +marine parade; and is the seat of various convalescent and other homes. + + + + +CLADEL, LEON (1835-1892), French novelist, was born at Montauban +(Tarn-et-Garonne) on the 13th of March 1835. The son of an artisan, he +studied law at Toulouse and became a solicitor's clerk in Paris. He made +a reputation in a limited circle by his first book, _Les Martyrs +ridicules_ (1862), a novel for which Charles Baudelaire, whose literary +disciple Cladel was, wrote a preface. He then returned to his native +district of Quercy, where he produced a series of pictures of peasant +life in _Eral le dompteur_ (1865), _Le Nomme Qouael_ (1868) and other +volumes. Returning to Paris he published the two novels which are +generally acknowledged as his best work, _Le Bouscassie_ (1869) and _La +Fete votive de Saint Bartholomee Porte-glaive_ (1872). _Une Maudite_ +(1876) was judged dangerous to the public morals and cost its author a +month's imprisonment. Other works by Cladel are _Les Va-nu-pieds_ +(1873), a volume of short stories; _N'a qu'un oeil_ (1882), _Urbains +et ruraux_ (1884), _Gueux de marque_ (1887), and the posthumous _Juive +errante_ (1897). He died at Sevres on the 20th of July 1892. + + See _La Vie de Leon Cladel_ (Paris, 1905), by his daughter Judith + Cladel, containing also an article on Cladel by Edmond Picard, a + complete list of his works, and of the critical articles on his work. + + + + +CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM (1811-1885), American merchant, was born in +Milford, Massachusetts, on the 18th of December 1811. He was educated at +Milford Academy, became a clerk in his father's store in Milford, and in +1831, with his brother Aaron and his brother-in-law Samuel Daniels, +succeeded to his father's business. In 1832 the firm opened a branch +store in Worcester, Mass., and in 1833 Horace B. Claflin and Daniels +secured the sole control of this establishment and restricted their +dealing to dry goods. In 1843 Claflin removed to New York City and +became a member of the firm of Bulkley & Claflin, wholesale dry goods +merchants. In 1851 and in 1864 the firm was reorganized, being +designated in these respective years as Claflin, Mellin & Company and +H.B. Claflin & Company. Under Claflin's management the business +increased so rapidly that the sales for a time after 1865 probably +exceeded those of any other mercantile house in the world. Though the +firm was temporarily embarrassed at the beginning of the Civil War, on +account of its large business interests in the South, and during the +financial panic of 1873, the promptness with which Mr Claflin met these +crises and paid every dollar of his liabilities greatly increased his +reputation for business ability and integrity. He died at Fordham, New +York, on the 14th of November 1885. + + + + +CLAIRAULT (or CLAIRAUT), ALEXIS CLAUDE (1713-1765), French +mathematician, was born on the 13th or 7th of May 1713, at Paris, where +his father was a teacher of mathematics. Under his father's tuition he +made such rapid progress in mathematical studies that in his thirteenth +year he read before the French Academy an account of the properties of +four curves which he had then discovered. When only sixteen he finished +a treatise, _Recherches sur les courbes a double courbure_, which, on +its publication in 1731, procured his admission into the Academy of +Sciences, although even then he was below the legal age. In 1736, +together with Pierre Louis Maupertuis, he took part in the expedition to +Lapland, which was undertaken for the purpose of estimating a degree of +the meridian, and on his return he published his treatise _Theorie de la +figure de la terre_ (1743). In this work he promulgated the theorem, +known as "Clairault's theorem," which connects the gravity at points on +the surface of a rotating ellipsoid with the compression and the +centrifugal force at the equator (see EARTH, FIGURE OF THE). He obtained +an ingenious approximate solution of the problem of the three bodies; +in 1750 he gained the prize of the St Petersburg Academy for his essay +_Theorie de la lune_; and in 1759 he calculated the perihelion of +Halley's comet. He also detected singular solutions in differential +equations of the first order, and of the second and higher degrees. +Clairault died at Paris, on the 17th of May 1765. + + + + +CLAIRON, LA (1723-1803), French actress, whose real name was CLAIRE +JOSEPH HIPPOLYTE LERIS, was born at Conde sur l'Escaut, Hainaut, on the +25th of January 1723, the natural daughter of any army sergeant. In 1736 +she made her first stage appearance at the Comedie Italienne, in a small +part in Marivaux's _Ile des esclaves_. After several years in the +provinces she returned to Paris. Her life, meanwhile, had been decidedly +irregular, even if not to the degree indicated by the libellous pamphlet +_Histoire de la demoiselle Cronel, dite Fretillon, actrice de la Comedie +de Rouen, ecrite par elle-meme_ (The Hague, 1746), or to be inferred +from the disingenuousness of her own _Memoires d'Hippolyte Clairon_ +(1798); and she had great difficulty in obtaining an order to make her +_debut_ at the Comedie Francaise. Succeeding, however, at last, she had +the courage to select the title-role of _Phedre_ (1743), and she +obtained a veritable triumph. During her twenty-two years at this +theatre, dividing the honours with her rival Mlle Dumesnil, she filled +many of the classical roles of tragedy, and created a great number of +parts in the plays of Voltaire, Marmontel, Saurin, de Belloy and others. +She retired in 1766, and trained pupils for the stage, among them Mlle +Raucourt. Goldsmith called Mlle Clairon "the most perfect female figure +I have ever seen on any stage" (_The Bee_, 2nd No.); and Garrick, while +recognizing her unwillingness or inability to make use of the +inspiration of the instant, admitted that "she has everything that art +and a good understanding with great natural spirit can give her." + + + + +CLAIRVAUX, a village of north-eastern France, in the department of Aube, +40 m. E.S.E. of Troyes on the Eastern railway to Belfort. Clairvaux +(_Clara Vallis_) is situated in the valley of the Aube on the eastern +border of the Forest of Clairvaux. Its celebrity is due to the abbey +founded in 1115 by St Bernard, which became the centre of the Cistercian +order. The buildings (see ABBEY) belong for the most part to the 18th +century, but there is a large storehouse which dates from the 12th +century. The abbey, suppressed at the Revolution, now serves as a +prison, containing on an average 800 inmates, who are employed in +agricultural and industrial occupations. Clairvaux has iron-works of +some importance. + + + + +CLAIRVOYANCE (Fr. for "clear-seeing"), a technical term in psychical +research, properly equivalent to lucidity, a supernormal power of +obtaining knowledge in which no part is played by (_a_) the ordinary +processes of sense-perception or (_b_) supernormal communication with +other intelligences, incarnate, or discarnate. The word is also used, +sometimes qualified by the word _telepathic_, to mean the power of +gaining supernormal knowledge from the mind of another (see TELEPATHY). +It is further commonly used by spiritualists to mean the power of seeing +spirit forms, or, more vaguely, of discovering facts by some supernormal +means. + +_Lucidity._--Few experiments have been made to test the existence of +this faculty. If communications from discarnate minds are regarded as +possible, there are no means of distinguishing facts obtained in this +way from facts obtained by independent clairvoyance. In practice no +evidence has been obtained pointing to the possession by a discarnate +spirit of knowledge not possessed by any living person (see MEDIUM). As +explanation of the few successful experiments in independent +clairvoyance we have the choice of three explanations: (1) lucidity; (2) +telepathy from living persons; (3) hyperaesthesia. The second +possibility was overlooked in Richet's diagram experiments; it cannot be +assumed that a picture put into an envelope and not consciously recalled +has been in reality forgotten. Similarly the clairvoyant diagnosis of +diseases may depend on knowledge gained telepathically from the patient, +who may be subliminally aware of diseased states of the body. The most +elaborate experiments are by Prof. Richet with a hypnotized subject who +succeeded in naming twelve cards out of sixty-eight. But no precautions +were taken against hyperaesthesia further than enclosing the card in a +second envelope. There is a power possessed by a certain number of +people, of naming a card drawn by them or held in the hand face +downwards, so that there is no normal knowledge of its suit and number. +Few thorough trials have been made; but it seems to point to some kind +of hyperaesthesia rather than to clairvoyance; in the Richet experiments +even if the envelopes excluded hyperaesthesia of touch on the part of +the medium, there may have been subliminal knowledge on Prof. Richet's +part of the card which he put in the envelope. The experience known as +the _deja vu_ has sometimes been explained as due to clairvoyance. + +_Telepathic Clairvoyance._--For a discussion of this see TELEPATHY and +CRYSTAL-GAZING. It may be noted here that some curious relation seems to +exist between apparently telepathic acquisition of knowledge and the +arrival of a letter, newspaper, &c, from which the same knowledge could +be directly gained. We are confronted with a similar problem in +attempting an explanation of the power of mediums to state correctly +facts relating to objects placed in their hands. Of a somewhat different +character is retrocognition (_q.v._), where the knowledge in many cases, +if telepathic, must be derived from a discarnate mind. + +Clairvoyance, as a term of spiritualism, with its correlative +_clairaudience_, is the name given to the power of seeing and hearing +discarnate spirits of dead relatives and others, with whom the living +are said to be surrounded. More vaguely it includes the power of gaining +knowledge, either through the spirit world or by means of psychometry +(i.e. the supernormal acquisition of knowledge about owners of objects, +writers of letters, &c). Some evidence for these latter powers has been +accumulated by the Society for Psychical Research, but in many cases the +piecing together of normally acquired knowledge, together with shrewd +guessing, suffices to explain the facts, especially where the +investigator has had no special training for his task. + + See Richet, _Experimentelle Studien_ (1891); also in _Proc. S.P.R._ + vi. 66. For a criticism see N.W. Thomas, _Thought Transference_, pp. + 44-48. For Clairvoyance in general see F.W.H. Myers, _Human + Personality_, and in _Proc. S.P.R._ xi. 334 et seq. For a criticism of + the evidence see Mrs Sidgwick in _Proc. S.P.R._ vii. 30, 356. + (N. W. T.) + + + + +CLAMECY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Nievre, at the confluence of the Yonne and Beuvron and on +the Canal du Nivernais, 46 m. N.N.E. of Nevers on the Paris-Lyon +railway. Pop. (1906) 4455. Its principal building is the church of St +Martin, which dates chiefly from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The +tower and facade are of the 16th century. The chevet, which is +surrounded by an aisle, is rectangular--a feature found in few French +churches. Of the old castle of the counts of Nevers, vaulted cellars +alone remain. A church in the suburb of Bethlehem, dating from the 12th +and 13th centuries, now serves as part of an hotel. The public +institutions include the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and +of commerce and a communal college. Among the industrial establishments +are saw-mills, fulling-mills and flour-mills, tanneries and +manufactories of boots and shoes and chemicals; and there is +considerable trade in wine and cattle and in wood and charcoal, which is +conveyed principally to Paris, by way of the Yonne. + +In the early middle ages Clamecy belonged to the abbey of St Julian at +Auxerre; in the 11th century it passed to the counts of Nevers, one of +whom, Herve, enfranchised the inhabitants in 1213. After the capture of +Jerusalem by Saladin in 1188, Clamecy became the seat of the bishops of +Bethlehem, who till the Revolution resided in the hospital of Panthenor, +bequeathed by William IV., count of Nevers. On the _coup d'etat_ of 1851 +an insurrection broke out in the town, and was repressed by the new +authorities with great severity. + + + + +CLAN (Gaelic _clann_, O. Ir. _cland_, connected with Lat. _planta_, +shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p), a +group of people united by common blood, and usually settled in a common +habitat. The clan system existed in Ireland and the Highlands of +Scotland from early times. In its strictest sense the system was +peculiar to those countries, but, in its wider meaning of a group of +kinsmen forming a self-governing community, the system as represented by +the village community has been shown by Sir H. Maine and others to have +existed at one time or another in all lands. + +Before the use of surnames and elaborate written genealogies, a tribe in +its definite sense was called in Celtic a _tuath_, a word of wide +affinities, from a root _tu_, to grow, to multiply, existing in all +European languages. When the tribal system began to be broken up by +conquest and by the rise of towns and of territorial government, the use +of a common surname furnished a new bond for keeping up a connexion +between kindred. The head of a tribe or smaller group of kindred +selected some ancestor and called himself his _Ua_, grandson, or as it +has been anglicized _O', e.g. Ua Conchobair_ (O' Conor), _Ua +Suilleabhain_ (O'Sullivan). All his kindred adopted the same name, the +chief using no fore-name however. The usual mode of distinguishing a +person before the introduction of surnames was to name his father and +grandfather, e.g. Owen, son of Donal, son of Dermot. This naturally +led some to form their surnames with _Mac_, son, instead of _Ua_, +grandson, e.g. _MacCarthaigh_, son of _Carthach_ (MacCarthy), +_MacRuaidhri_, son of Rory (Macrory). Both methods have been followed in +Ireland, but in Scotland _Mac_ came to be exclusively used. The adoption +of such genealogical surnames fostered the notion that all who bore the +same surname were kinsmen, and hence the genealogical term _clann_, +which properly means the descendants of some progenitor, gradually +became synonymous with _tuath_, tribe. Like all purely genealogical +terms, _clann_ may be used in the limited sense of a particular tribe +governed by a chief, or in that of many tribes claiming descent from a +common ancestor. In the latter sense it was synonymous with _sil, siol_, +seed e.g. _Siol Alpine_, a great clan which included the smaller clans +of the Macgregors, Grants, Mackinnons, Macnabs, Macphies, Macquarries +and Macaulays. + +The clan system in the most archaic form of which we have any definite +information can be best studied in the Irish _tuath_, or tribe.[1] This +consisted of two classes: (1) tribesmen, and (2) a miscellaneous class +of slaves, criminals, strangers and their descendants. The first class +included tribesmen by blood in the male line, including all illegitimate +children acknowledged by their fathers, and tribesmen by adoption or +sons of tribeswomen by strangers, foster-sons, men who had done some +signal service to the tribe, and lastly the descendants of the second +class after a certain number of generations. Each _tuath_ had a chief +called a _rig_, king, a word cognate with the Gaulish _rig-s_ or _rix_, +the Latin _reg-s_ or _rex_, and the Old Norse _rik-ir_. The tribesmen +formed a number of communities, each of which, like the tribe itself, +consisted of a head, _ceann fine_, his kinsmen, slaves and other +retainers. This was the _fine_, or sept. Each of these occupied a +certain part of the tribe-land, the arable part being cultivated under a +system of co-tillage, the pasture land co-grazed according to certain +customs, and the wood, bog and mountains forming the marchland of the +sept being the unrestricted common land of the sept. The sept was in +fact a village community. + +What the sept was to the tribe, the homestead was to the sept. The head +of a homestead was an _aire_, a representative freeman capable of acting +as a witness, compurgator and bail. These were very important functions, +especially when it is borne in mind that the tribal homestead was the +home of many of the kinsfolk of the head of the family as well as of his +own children. The descent of property being according to a gavel-kind +custom, it constantly happened that when an _aire_ died the share of his +property which each member of his immediate family was entitled to +receive was not sufficient to qualify him to be an _aire_. In this case +the family did not divide the inheritance, but remained together as "a +joint and undivided family," one of the members being elected chief of +the family or household, and in this capacity enjoyed the rights and +privileges of an _aire_. Sir H.S. Maine directed attention to this kind +of family as an important feature of the early institutions of all +Indo-European nations. Beside the "joint and undivided family," there +was another kind of family which we might call "the joint family." This +was a partnership composed of three or four members of a sept whose +individual wealth was not sufficient to qualify each of them to be an +_aire_, but whose joint wealth qualified one of the co-partners as head +of the joint family to be one. + +So long as there was abundance of land each family grazed its cattle +upon the tribe-land without restriction; unequal increase of wealth and +growth of population naturally led to its limitation, each head of a +homestead being entitled to graze an amount of stock in proportion to +his wealth, the size of his homestead, and his acquired position. The +arable land was no doubt applotted annually at first; gradually, +however, some of the richer families of the tribe succeeded in evading +this exchange of allotments and converting part of the common land into +an estate in sevralty. Septs were at first colonies of the tribe which +settled on the march-land; afterwards the conversion of part of the +common land into an estate in sevralty enabled the family that acquired +it to become the parent of a new sept. The same process might, however, +take place within a sept without dividing it; in other words, several +members of the sept might hold part of the land of the sept as separate +estate. The possession of land in sevralty introduced an important +distinction into the tribal system--it created an aristocracy. An _aire_ +whose family held the same land for three generations was called a +_flaith_, or lord, of which rank there were several grades according to +their wealth in land and chattels. The _aires_ whose wealth consisted in +cattle only were called _bo-aires_, or cow-_aires_, of whom there were +also several grades, depending on their wealth in stock. When a +_bo-aire_ had twice the wealth of the lowest class of _flaith_ he might +enclose part of the land adjoining his house as a lawn; this was the +first step towards his becoming a _flaith_. The relations which +subsisted between the _flaiths_ and the _bo-aires_ formed the most +curious part of the Celtic tribal system, and throw a flood of light on +the origin of the feudal system. Every tribesman without exception owed +_ceilsinne_ to the _rig_, or chief, that is, he was bound to become his +_ceile_, or vassal. This consisted in paying the _rig_ a tribute in +kind, for which the _ceile_ was entitled to receive a proportionate +amount of stock without having to give any bond for their return, giving +him service, e.g. in building his _dun_, or stronghold, reaping his +harvest, keeping his roads clean and in repair, killing wolves, and +especially service in the field, and doing him homage three times while +seated every time he made his return of tribute. Paying the "_calpe_" to +the Highland chiefs represented this kind of vassalage, a _colpdach_ or +heifer being in many cases the amount of food-rent paid by a free or +_saer ceile_. A tribesman might, however, if he pleased, pay a higher +rent on receiving more stock together with certain other chattels for +which no rent was chargeable. In this case he entered into a contract, +and was therefore a bond or _daer ceile_. No one need have accepted +stock on these terms, nor could he do so without the consent of his +sept, and he might free himself at any time from his obligation by +returning what he had received, and the rent due thereon. + +What every one was bound to do to his _rig_, or chief, he might do +voluntarily to the _flaith_ of his sept, to any _flaith_ of the tribe, +or even to one of another tribe. He might also become a bond _ceile_. In +either case he might renounce his ceileship by returning a greater or +lesser amount of stock than what he had received according to the +circumstances under which he terminated his vassalage. In cases of +disputed succession to the chiefship of a tribe the rival claimants were +always anxious to get as many as possible to become their vassals. Hence +the anxiety of minor chieftains, in later times in the Highlands of +Scotland, to induce the clansmen to pay the "_calpe_" where there +happened to be a doubt as to who was entitled to be chief. + +The effect of the custom of gavel-kind was to equalize the wealth of +each and leave no one wealthy enough to be chief. The "joint and +undivided family" and the formation of "joint families," or gilds, was +one way of obviating this result; another way was the custom of +tanistry. The headship of the tribe was practically confined to the +members of one family; this was also the case with the headship of a +sept. Sometimes a son succeeded his father, but the rule was that the +eldest and most capable member of the _geilfine_, that is, the relatives +of the actual chief to the fifth degree,[2] was selected during his +lifetime to be his successor--generally the eldest surviving brother or +son of the preceding chief. The man selected as successor to a chief of +a tribe, or chieftain of a sept, was called the tanist, and should be +"the most experienced, the most noble, the most wealthy, the wisest, the +most learned, the most truly popular, the most powerful to oppose, the +most steadfast to sue for profits and (be sued) for losses." In addition +to these qualities he should be free from personal blemishes and +deformities and of fit age to lead his tribe or sept, as the case may +be, to battle.[3] So far as selecting the man of the _geilfine_ who was +supposed to possess all those qualities, the office of chief of a tribe +or chieftain of a sept was elective, but as the _geilfine_ was +represented by four persons, together with the chief or chieftain, the +election was practically confined to one of the four. In order to +support the dignity of the chief or chieftain a certain portion of the +tribe or sept land was attached as an apanage to the office; this land, +with the _duns_ or fortified residences upon it, went to the successor, +but a chief's own property might be gavelled. This custom of tanistry +applied at first probably to the selection of the successors of a _rig_, +but was gradually so extended that even a _bo-aire_ had a tanist. + +A sept might have only one _flaith_, or lord, connected with it, or +might have several. It sometimes happened, however, that a sept might be +so broken and reduced as not to have even one man qualified to rank as a +_flaith_. The rank of a _flaith_ depended upon the number of his +_ceiles_, that is, upon his wealth. The _flaith_ of a sept, and the +highest when there was more than one, was _ceann fine_, or head of the +sept, or as he was usually called in Scotland, the chieftain. He was +also called the _flaith geilfine_, or head of the _geilfine_, that is, +the kinsmen to the fifth degree from among whom should be chosen the +tanist, and who, according to the custom of gavel-kind, were the +immediate heirs who received the personal property and were answerable +for the liabilities of the sept. The _flaiths_ of the different septs +were the vassals of the _rig_, or chief of the tribe, and performed +certain functions which were no doubt at first individual, but in time +became the hereditary right of the sept. One of those was the office of +_maer_, or steward of the chief's rents, &c.;[4] and another that of +_aire tuisi_, leading _aire_, or _taoisech_, a word cognate with the +Latin _duc-s_ or _dux_, and Anglo-Saxon here-_tog_, leader of the +"here," or army. The _taoisech_ was leader of the tribe in battle; in +later times the term seems to have been extended to several offices of +rank. The cadet of a Highland clan was always called the _taoisech_, +which has been translated captain; after the conquest of Wales the same +term, _tywysaug_, was used for a ruling prince. Slavery was very common +in Ireland and Scotland; in the former slaves constituted a common +element in the stipends or gifts which the higher kings gave their +vassal _sub-reguli_. Female slaves, who were employed in the houses of +chiefs and _flaiths_ in grinding meal with the hand-mill or quern, and +in other domestic work, must have been very common, for the unit or +standard for estimating the wealth of a _bo-aire_, blood-fines, &c., was +called a _cumhal_, the value of which was three cows, but which +literally meant a female slave. The descendants of those slaves, +prisoners of war, forfeited hostages, refugees from other tribes, broken +tribesmen, &c., gathered round the residence of the _rig_ and _flaiths_, +or squatted upon their march-lands, forming a motley band of retainers +which made a considerable element in the population, and one of the +chief sources of the wealth of chiefs and _flaiths_. The other principal +source of their income was the food-rent paid by _ceiles_, and +especially by the _daer_ or bond _ceiles_, who were hence called +_biathachs_, from _biad_, food. A _flaith_, but not a _rig_, might, if +he liked, go to the house of his _ceile_ and consume his food-rent in +the house of the latter. + +Under the influence of feudal ideas and the growth of the modern views +as to ownership of land, the chiefs and other lords of clans claimed in +modern times the right of best owing the tribe-land as _turcrec_, +instead of stock, and receiving rent not for cattle and other chattels +as in former times, but proportionate to the extent of land given to +them. The _turcrec_-land seems to have been at first given upon the same +terms as _turcrec_-stock, but gradually a system of short leases grew +up; sometimes, too, it was given on mortgage. In the Highlands of +Scotland _ceiles_ who received _turcrec_-land were called "taksmen." On +the death of the chief or lord, his successor either bestowed the land +upon the same person or gave it to some other relative. In this way in +each generation new families came into possession of land, and others +sank into the mass of mere tribesmen. Sometimes a "taksman" succeeded in +acquiring his land in perpetuity, by gift, marriage or purchase, or even +by the "strong hand." The universal prevalence of exchangeable +allotments, or the rundale system, shows that down to even comparatively +modern times some of the land was still recognized as the property of +the tribe, and was cultivated in village communities. + +The chief governed the clan by the aid of a council called the _sabaid_ +(_sab_, a prop), but the chief exercised much power, especially over the +miscellaneous body of non-tribesmen who lived on his own estate. This +power seems to have extended to life and death. Several of the +_flaiths_, perhaps, all heads of septs, also possessed somewhat +extensive powers of the same kind. + +The Celtic dress, at least in the middle ages, consisted of a kind of +shirt reaching to a little below the knees called a _lenn_, a jacket +called an _inar_, and a garment called a _brat_, consisting of a single +piece of cloth. This was apparently the garb of the _aires_, who appear +to have been further distinguished by the number of colours in their +dress, for we are told that while a slave had clothes of one colour, a +_reg tuatha_, or chief of a tribe, had five, and an _ollamh_ and a +superior king six. The breeches was also known, and cloaks with a cowl +or hood, which buttoned up tight in front. The _lenn_ is the modern +kilt, and the _brat_ the plaid, so that the dress of the Irish and Welsh +in former times was the same as that of the Scottish Highlander. + +By the abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Highland chiefs, +and the general disarmament of the clans by the acts passed in 1747 +after the rebellion of 1745, the clan system was practically broken up, +though its influence still lingers in the more remote districts. An act +was also passed in 1747 forbidding the use of the Highland garb; but the +injustice and impolicy of such a law being generally felt it was +afterwards repealed. (W. K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The following account of the Irish clan-system differs in some + respects from that in the article on BREHON LAWS (_q.v._); but it is + retained here in view of the authority of the writer and the admitted + obscurity of the whole subject. (ED. _E.B._) + + [2] The explanation here given of _geilfine_ is different from that + given in the introduction to the third volume of the _Ancient Laws of + Ireland_, which was followed by Sir H.S. Maine in his account of it + in his _Early History of Institutions_, and which the present writer + believes to be erroneous. + + [3] It should also be mentioned that illegitimacy was not a bar. The + issue of "handfast" marriages in Scotland were eligible to be chiefs, + and even sometimes claimed under feudal law. + + [4] This office is of considerable importance in connexion with early + Scottish history. In the Irish annals the _rig_, or chief of a great + tribe (_mor tuath_), such as of Ross, Moray, Marr, Buchan, &c., is + called a _mor maer_, or great _maer_. Sometimes the same person is + called king also in these annals. Thus _Findlaec_, or Finlay, son of + _Ruadhri_, the father of Shakespeare's Macbeth, is called king of + Moray in the _Annals of Ulster_, and _mor maer_ in the _Annals of + Tighernach_. The term is never found in Scottish charters, but it + occurs in the Book of the Abbey of Deir in Buchan, now in the library + of the university of Cambridge. The Scotic kings and their successors + obviously regarded the chiefs of the great tribes in question merely + as their _maers_, while their tribesmen only knew them as kings. From + these "mor-maerships," which corresponded with the ancient _mor + tuatha_, came most, if not all, the ancient Scottish earldoms. + + + + +CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE), 1st EARL OF (d. 1544), +styled MacWilliam, and Ne-gan or Na-gCeann (i.e. "of the Heads," "having +made a mount of the heads of men slain in battle which he covered up +with earth"), was the son of Richard or Rickard de Burgh, lord of +Clanricarde, by a daughter of Madden of Portumna, and grandson of Ulick +de Burgh, lord of Clanricarde (1467-1487), the collateral heir male of +the earls of Ulster. On the death of the last earl in 1333, his only +child Elizabeth had married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and the earldom +became merged in the crown, in consequence of which the de Burghs +abjured English laws and sovereignty, and chose for their chiefs the +sons of Sir William, the "Red" earl of Ulster's brother, the elder +William taking the title of MacWilliam Eighter (Uachtar, i.e. Upper), +and becoming the ancestor of the earls of Clanricarde, and his brother +Sir Edmond that of MacWilliam Oughter (Ochtar, i.e. Lower), and founding +the family of the earls of Mayo. In 1361 the duke of Clarence was sent +over as lord-lieutenant to Ireland to enforce his claims as husband of +the heir general, but failed, and the chiefs of the de Burghs maintained +their independence of English sovereignty for several generations. Ulick +de Burgh succeeded to the headship of his clan, exercised a quasi-royal +authority and held vast estates in county Galway, in Connaught, +including Loughry, Dunkellin, Kiltartan (Hilltaraght) and Athenry, as +well as Clare and Leitrim. In March 1541, however, he wrote to Henry +VIII., lamenting the degeneracy of his family, "which have been brought +to Irish and disobedient rule by reason of marriage and nurseing with +those Irish, sometime rebels, near adjoining to me," and placing himself +and his estates in the king's hands. The same year he was present at +Dublin, when the act was passed making Henry VIII. king of Ireland. In +1543, in company with other Irish chiefs, he visited the king at +Greenwich, made full submission, undertook to introduce English manners +and abandon Irish names, received a regrant of the greater part of his +estates with the addition of other lands, was confirmed in the +captainship and rule of Clanricarde, and was created on the 1st of July +1543 earl of Clanricarde and baron of Dunkellin in the peerage of +Ireland, with unusual ceremony. "The making of McWilliam earl of +Clanricarde made all the country during his time quiet and obedient," +states Lord Chancellor Cusake in his review of the state of Ireland in +1553.[1] He did not live long, however, to enjoy his new English +dignities, but died shortly after returning to Ireland about March 1544. +He is called by the annalist of Loch Ce "a haughty and proud lord," who +reduced many under his yoke, and by the Four Masters "the most +illustrious of the English in Connaught." + +Clanricarde married (1) Grany or Grace, daughter of Mulrone O'Carroll, +"prince of Ely," by whom he had Richard or Rickard "the Saxon," who +succeeded him as 2nd earl of Clanricarde (grandfather of the 4th earl, +whose son became marquess of Clanricarde), this alliance being the only +one declared valid. After parting with his first wife he married (2) +Honora, sister of Ulick de Burgh, from whom he also parted. He married +(3) Mary Lynch, by whom he had John, who claimed the earldom in 1568. +Other sons, according to Burke's _Peerage_, were Thomas "the Athlete," +shot in 1545, Redmond "of the Broom" (d. 1595), and Edmund (d. 1597). + + See also _Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters_ (ed. by O. Connellan, + 1846), p. 132 note, and reign of Henry VIII.; _Annals of Loch Ce + (Rerum Brit. Medii Aevi Scriptores_) (54) (1871); _Hist. Mem. of the + O'Briens_, by J.O. Donoghue (i860), pp 159, 519; _Ireland under the + Tudors_, by R. Bagwell, vol. i.; _State Papers, Ireland, Carew MSS._ + and Gairdner's _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Cotton MSS._ Brit. + Mus., Titus B xi. f. 388. (P.C.Y.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Cal. of State Pap., Carew MSS._ 1515-1574, p. 246. + + + + +CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE), MARQUESS OF (1604-1657 or +1658), son of Richard, 4th earl of Clanricarde, created in 1628 earl of +St Albans, and of Frances, daughter and heir of Sir Francis Walsingham, +and widow of Sir Philip Sidney and of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, +was born in 1604. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Burgh in +1628, and succeeded his father as 5th earl in 1635. He sat in the Short +Parliament of 1640 and attended Charles I. in the Scottish expedition. +On the outbreak of the Irish rebellion Clanricarde had powerful +inducements for joining the Irish--the ancient greatness and +independence of his family, his devotion to the Roman Catholic Church, +and strongest of all, the ungrateful treatment meted out by Charles I. +and Wentworth to his father, one of Elizabeth's most stanch adherents in +Ireland, whose lands were appropriated by the crown and whose death, it +was popularly asserted, was hastened by the harshness of the +lord-lieutenant. Nevertheless at the crisis his loyalty never wavered. +Alone of the Irish Roman Catholic nobility to declare for the king, he +returned to Ireland, took up his residence at Portumna, kept Galway, of +which he was governor, neutral, and took measures for the defence of the +county and for the relief of the Protestants, making "his house and +towns a refuge, nay, even a hospital for the distressed English."[1] In +1643 he was one of the commissioners appointed by the king to confer +with the Irish confederates, and urged the wisdom of a cessation of +hostilities in a document which he publicly distributed. He was +appointed commander of the English forces in Connaught in 1644, and in +1646 was created a marquess and a privy councillor. He supported the +same year the treaty between Charles I. and the confederates, and +endeavoured after its failure to persuade Preston, the general of the +Irish, to agree to a peace; but the latter, being advised by Rinuccini, +the papal nuncio, refused in December. Together with Ormonde, +Clanricarde opposed the nuncio's policy; and the royalist inhabitants of +Galway having through the latter's influence rejected the cessation of +hostilities, arranged with Lord Inchiquin in 1648, he besieged the town +and compelled its acquiescence. In 1649 he reduced Sligo. On Ormonde's +departure in December 1650 Clanricarde was appointed deputy +lord-lieutenant, but he was not trusted by the Roman Catholics, and was +unable to stem the tide of the parliamentary successes. In 1651 he +opposed the offer of Charles, duke of Lorraine, to supply money and aid +on condition of being acknowledged "Protector" of the kingdom. In May +1652 Galway surrendered to the parliament, and in June Clanricarde +signed articles with the parliamentary commissioners which allowed his +departure from Ireland. In August he was excepted from pardon for life +and estate, but by permits, renewed from time to time by the council, he +was enabled to remain in England for the rest of his life, and in 1653 +L500 a year was settled upon him by the council of state in +consideration of the protection which he had given to the Protestants in +Ireland at the time of the rebellion. He died at Somerhill in Kent in +1657 or 1658 and was buried at Tunbridge. + +The "great earl," as he was called, supported Ormonde in his desire to +unite the English royalists with the more moderate Roman Catholics on +the basis of religious toleration under the authority of the sovereign, +against the papal scheme advocated by Rinuccini, and in opposition to +the parliamentary and Puritan policy. By the author of the _Aphorismical +Discovery_, who represents the opinion of the native Irish, he is +denounced as the "masterpiece of the treasonable faction," "a foe to his +king, nation and religion," and by the duke of Lorraine as "a traitor +and a base fellow"; but there is no reason to doubt Clarendon's opinion +of him as "a person of unquestionable fidelity. . . and of the most +eminent constancy to the Roman Catholic religion of any man in the three +kingdoms," or the verdict of Hallam, who describes him "as perhaps the +most unsullied character in the annals of Ireland." + +He married Lady Anne Compton, daughter of William Compton, 1st earl of +Northampton, but had issue only one daughter. On his death, accordingly, +the marquessate and the English peerages became extinct, the Irish +titles reverting to his cousin Richard, 6th earl, grandson of the 3rd +earl of Clanricarde. Henry, the 12th earl (1742-1797), was again created +a marquess in 1789, but the marquessate expired at his death without +issue, the earldom going to his brother. In 1825 the 14th earl +(1802-1874) was created a marquess; he was ambassador at St Petersburg, +and later postmaster-general and lord privy seal, and married George +Canning's daughter. His son (b. 1832), who achieved notoriety in the +Irish land agitation, succeeded him as 2nd marquess. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article "Burgh, Ulick de," in the _Dict. of + Nat. Biography_, and authorities there given; _Hist. of the Irish + Confederation_, by R. Bellings, ed. by J.T. Gilbert (1882); + _Aphorismical Discovery_ (Irish Archaeological Society, 1879); + _Memoirs of the Marquis of Clanricarde_ (1722, repr. 1744); _Memoirs + of Ulick_, _Marquis of Clanricarde_, by John, 11th earl (1757); _Life + of Ormonde_, by T. Carte (1851); S.R. Gardiner's _Hist. of the Civil + War_ and of the _Commonwealth; Thomason Tracts_ (Brit. Mus.) E 371 + (11), 456 (10); _Cal. of State Papers, Irish_, esp. _Introd._ + 1633-1647 and _Domestic; Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Ormonde_ + and _Earl of Egmont_. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS of Earl of Egmont_, i. 223. + + + + +CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS, the name of an English poet first mentioned in the +history of English literature by F.S. Ellis in 1896, when, in editing +the text of _The Book of Cupid, God of Love, or The Cuckoo and the +Nightingale_, for the Kelmscott Press, he stated that Professor Skeat +had discovered that at the end of the best of the MSS. the author was +called Clanvowe. In 1897 this information was confirmed and expanded by +Professor Skeat in the supplementary volume of his Clarendon Press +_Chaucer_ (1894-1897). The beautiful romance of _The Cuckoo and the +Nightingale_ was published by Thynne in 1532, and was attributed by him, +and by successive editors down to the days of Henry Bradshaw, to +Chaucer. It was due to this error that for three centuries Chaucer was +supposed to be identified with the manor of Woodstock, and even painted, +in fanciful pictures, as lying + + "Under a maple that is fair and green, + Before the chamber-window of the Queen + At Wodestock, upon the greene lea." + +But this queen could only be Joan of Navarre, who arrived in 1403, three +years after Chaucer's death, and it is to the spring of that year that +Professor Skeat attributes the composition of the poem. Sir Thomas +Clanvowe was of a Herefordshire family, settled near Wigmore. He was a +prominent figure in the courts of Richard II. and Henry IV., and is said +to have been a friend of Prince Hal. He was one of those who "had begun +to mell of Lollardy, and drink the gall of heresy." He was one of the +twenty-five knights who accompanied John Beaufort (son of John of Gaunt) +to Barbary in 1390. + +The date of his birth is unknown, and his name is last mentioned in +1404. The historic and literary importance of _The Cuckoo and the +Nightingale_ is great. It is the work of a poet who had studied the +prosody of Chaucer with more intelligent care than either Occleve or +Lydgate, and who therefore forms an important link between the 14th and +15th centuries in English poetry. Clanvowe writes with a surprising +delicacy and sweetness, in a five-line measure almost peculiar to +himself. Professor Skeat points out a unique characteristic of +Clanvowe's versification, namely, the unprecedented freedom with which +he employs the suffix of the final _-e_, and rather avoids than seeks +elision. _The Cuckoo and the Nightingale_ was imitated by Milton in his +sonnet to the Nightingale, and was rewritten in modern English by +Wordsworth. It is a poem of so much individual beauty, that we must +regret the apparent loss of everything else written by a poet of such +unusual talent. + + See also a critical edition of the _Boke of Cupide_ by Dr Erich + Vollmer (Berlin, 1898). (E. G.) + + + + +CLAPAREDE, JEAN LOUIS RENE ANTOINE EDOUARD (1832-1870), Swiss +naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of April 1832. He belonged to +a French family, some members of which had taken refuge in that city +after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In 1852 he began to study +medicine and natural science at Berlin, where he was greatly influenced +by J. Mueller and C.G. Ehrenberg, the former being at that period engaged +in his important researches on the Echinoderms. In 1855 he accompanied +Mueller to Norway, and there spent two months on a desolate reef that he +might obtain satisfactory observations. The latter part of his stay at +Berlin he devoted, along with J. Lachmann, to the study of the Infusoria +and Rhizopods. In 1857 he obtained the degree of doctor, and in 1862 he +was chosen professor of comparative anatomy at Geneva. In 1859 he +visited England, and in company with W.B. Carpenter made a voyage to the +Hebrides; and in 1863 he spent some months in the Bay of Biscay. On the +appearance of Darwin's work on the _Origin of Species_, he adopted his +theories and published a valuable series of articles on the subject in +the _Revue Germanique_ (1861). During 1865 and 1866 ill-health rendered +him incapable of work, and he determined to pass the winter of 1866-1867 +in Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and his +energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the Annelidae of the +gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage in 1868; but in 1870, +instead of recovering as before, he grew worse, and on the 31st of May +he died at Siena on his way home. His _Recherches sur la structure des +annelides sedentaires_ were published posthumously in 1873. + + + + +CLAPPERTON, HUGH (1788-1827), Scottish traveller in West-Central Africa, +was born in 1788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where his father was a +surgeon. He gained some knowledge of practical mathematics and +navigation, and at thirteen was apprenticed on board a vessel which +traded between Liverpool and North America. After having made several +voyages across the Atlantic he was impressed for the navy, in which he +soon rose to the rank of midshipman. During the Napoleonic wars he saw a +good deal of active service, and at the storming of Port Louis, +Mauritius, in November 1810, he was first in the breach and hauled down +the French flag. In 1814 he went to Canada, was promoted to the rank of +lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the Canadian lakes. In +1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was dismantled, he returned home on +half-pay. + +In 1820 Clapperton removed to Edinburgh, where he made the acquaintance +of Walter Oudney, M.D., who aroused in him an interest in African +travel. Lieut. G.F. Lyon, R.N., having returned from an unsuccessful +attempt to reach Bornu from Tripoli, the British government determined +on a second expedition to that country. Dr Oudney was appointed by Lord +Bathurst, then colonial secretary, to proceed to Bornu as consul with +the object of promoting trade, and Clapperton and Major Dixon Denham +(q.v.) were added to the party. From Tripoli, early in 1822, they set +out southward to Murzuk, and from this point Clapperton and Oudney +visited the Ghat oasis. Kuka, the capital of Bornu, was reached in +February 1823, and Lake Chad seen for the first time by Europeans. At +Bornu the travellers were well received by the sultan; and after +remaining in the country till the 14th of December they again set out +for the purpose of exploring the course of the Niger. At Murmur, on the +road to Kano, Oudney died (January 1824). Clapperton continued his +journey alone through Kano to Sokoto, the capital of the Fula empire, +where by order of Sultan Bello he was obliged to stop, though the Niger +was only five days' journey to the west. Worn out with his travel he +returned by way of Zaria and Katsena to Kuka, where he again met Denham. +The two travellers then set out for Tripoli, reached on the 26th of +January 1825. An account of the travels was published in 1826 under the +title of _Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central +Africa in the years 1822-1824_. + +Immediately after his return Clapperton was raised to the rank of +commander, and sent out with another expedition to Africa, the sultan +Bello of Sokoto having professed his eagerness to open up trade with the +west coast. Clapperton landed at Badagry in the Bight of Benin, and +started overland for the Niger on the 7th of December 1825, having with +him his servant Richard Lander (q.v.), Captain Pearce, R.N., and Dr +Morrison, navy surgeon and naturalist. Before the month was out Pearce +and Morrison were dead of fever. Clapperton continued his journey, and, +passing through the Yoruba country, in January 1826 he crossed the Niger +at Bussa, the spot where Mungo Park had died twenty years before. In +July he arrived at Kano. Thence he went to Sokoto, intending afterwards +to go to Bornu. The sultan, however, detained him, and being seized with +dysentery he died near Sokoto on the 13th of April 1827. + +Clapperton was the first European to make known from personal +observation the semi-civilized Hausa countries, which he visited soon +after the establishment of the Sokoto empire by the Fula. In 1829 +appeared the _Journal of a Second Expedition into the Interior of +Africa_, &c, by the late Commander Clapperton, to which was prefaced a +biographical sketch of the explorer by his uncle, Lieut.-colonel S. +Clapperton. Lander, who had brought back the journal of his master, also +published _Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition to Africa ... +with the subsequent Adventures of the Author_ (2 vols., London, 1830). + + + + +CLAQUE (Fr. _claquer_, to clap the hands), an organized body of +professional applauders in the French theatres. The hiring of persons to +applaud dramatic performances was common in classical times, and the +emperor Nero, when he acted, had his performance greeted by an encomium +chanted by five thousand of his soldiers, who were called Angustals. The +recollection of this gave the 16th-century French poet, Jean Daurat, an +idea which has developed into the modern claque. Buying up a number of +tickets for a performance of one of his plays, he distributed them +gratuitously to those who promised publicly to express their +approbation. It was not, however, till 1820 that a M. Sauton seriously +undertook the systematization of the claque, and opened an office in +Paris for the supply of _claqueurs_. By 1830 the claque had become a +regular institution. The manager of a theatre sends an order for any +number of _claqueurs_. These people are usually under a _chef de +claque_, whose duty it is to judge where their efforts are needed and to +start the demonstration of approval. This takes several forms. Thus +there are _commissaires_, those who learn the piece by heart, and call +the attention of their neighbours to its good points between the acts. +The _rieurs_ are those who laugh loudly at the jokes. The _pleureurs_, +generally women, feign tears, by holding their handkerchiefs to their +eyes. The _chatouilleurs_ keep the audience in a good humour, while the +_bisseurs_ simply clap their hands and cry _bis! bis!_ to secure +encores. + + + + +CLARA, SAINT (1194-1253), foundress of the Franciscan nuns, was born of +a knightly family in Assisi in 1194. At eighteen she was so impressed by +a sermon of St Francis that she was filled with the desire to devote +herself to the kind of life he was leading. She obtained an interview +with him, and to test her resolution he told her to dress in penitential +sackcloth and beg alms for the poor in the streets of Assisi. Clara +readily did this, and Francis, satisfied as to her vocation, told her to +come to the Portiuncula arrayed as a bride. The friars met her with +lighted candles, and at the foot of the altar Francis shore off her +hair, received her vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, and invested +her with the Franciscan habit, 1212. He placed her for a couple of years +in a Benedictine convent in Assisi, until the convent at St Damian's, +close to the town, was ready. Her two younger sisters, and, after her +father's death, her mother and many others joined her, and the +Franciscan nuns spread widely and rapidly (see CLARES, POOR). The +relations of friendship and sympathy between St Clara and St Francis +were very close, and there can be no doubt that she was one of the +truest heirs of Francis's inmost spirit. After his death Clara threw +herself wholly on the side of those who opposed mitigations in the rule +and manner of life, and she was one of the chief upholders of St +Francis's primitive idea of poverty (see FRANCISCANS). She was the close +friend of Brother Leo and the other "Companions of St Francis," and they +assisted at her death. For forty years she was abbess at St Damian's, +and the great endeavour of her life was that the rule of the nuns should +be purged of the foreign elements that had been introduced, and should +become wholly conformable to St Francis's spirit. She lived just long +enough to witness the fulfilment of her great wish, a rule such as she +desired being approved by the pope two days before her death on the 11th +of August 1253. + + The sources for her life are to be found in the Bollandist _Acta + Sanctorum_ on the 11th of August, and sketches in such _Lives of the + Saints_ as Alban Butler's. See also Wetzer und Welte, + _Kirchen-lexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Clara." (E. C. B.) + + + + +CLARE, the name of a famous English family. The ancestor of this +historic house, "which played," in Freeman's words, "so great a part +alike in England, Wales and Ireland," was Count Godfrey, eldest of the +illegitimate sons of Richard the Fearless, duke of Normandy. His son, +Count Gilbert of Brionne, had two sons, Richard, lord of Bienfaite and +Orbec, and Baldwin, lord of Le Sap and Meulles, both of whom accompanied +the Conqueror to England. Baldwin, known as "De Meulles" or "of Exeter," +received the hereditary shrievalty of Devon with great estates in the +West Country, and left three sons, William, Robert and Richard, of whom +the first and last were in turn sheriffs of Devon. Richard, known as +"de Bienfaite," or "of Tunbridge," or "of Clare," was the founder of the +house of Clare. + +Richard derived his English appellation from his strongholds at +Tunbridge and at Clare, at both of which his castle-mounds still remain. +The latter, on the borders of Essex and Suffolk, was the head of his +great "honour" which lay chiefly in the eastern counties. Appointed +joint justiciar in the king's absence abroad, he took a leading part in +suppressing the revolt of 1075. By his wife, Rohese, daughter of Walter +Giffard, through whom great Giffard estates afterwards came to his +house, he left five sons and two daughters. Roger was his heir in +Normandy, Walter founded Tintern Abbey, Richard was a monk, and Robert, +receiving the forfeited fief of the Baynards in the eastern counties, +founded, through his son Walter, the house of FitzWalter (extinct 1432), +of whom the most famous was Robert FitzWalter, the leader of the barons +against King John. Of this house, spoken of by Jordan Fantosme as +"Clarreaus," the Daventrys of Daventry (extinct 1380) and Fawsleys of +Fawsley (extinct 1392) were cadets. One of Richard's two daughters +married the famous Walter Tirel. + +Gilbert, Richard's heir in England, held his castle of Tunbridge against +William Rufus, but was wounded and captured. Under Henry I., who +favoured the Clares, he obtained a grant of Cardigan, and carried his +arms into Wales. Dying about 1115, he left four sons, of whom Gilbert, +the second, inherited Chepstow, with Nether-Gwent, from his uncle, +Walter, the founder of Tintern, and was created earl of Pembroke by +Stephen about 1138; he was father of Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke +(q.v.). The youngest son Baldwin fought for Stephen at the battle of +Lincoln (1141) and founded the priories of Bourne and Deeping on lands +acquired with his wife. The eldest son Richard, who was slain by the +Welsh on his way to Cardigan in 1135 or 1136, left two sons Gilbert and +Roger, of whom Gilbert was created earl of Hertfordshire by Stephen. + +It was probably because he and the Clares had no interests in +Hertfordshire that they were loosely and usually styled the earls of +(de) Clare. Dying in 1152, Gilbert was succeeded by his brother Roger, +of whom Fitz-Stephen observes that "nearly all the nobles of England +were related to the earl of Clare, whose sister, the most beautiful +woman in England, had long been desired by the king" (Henry II.). He was +constantly fighting the Welsh for his family possessions in Wales and +quarrelled with Becket over Tunbridge Castle. In 1173 or 1174 he was +succeeded by his son Richard as third earl, whose marriage with Amicia, +daughter and co-heir of William, earl of Gloucester, was destined to +raise the fortunes of his house to their highest point. He and his son +Gilbert were among the "barons of the Charter," Gilbert, who became +fourth earl in 1217, obtained also, early in 1218, the earldom of +Gloucester, with its great territorial "Honour," and the lordship of +Glamorgan, in right of his mother; "from this time the house of Clare +became the acknowledged head of the baronage." Gilbert had also +inherited through his father his grandmother's "Honour of St Hilary" and +a moiety of the Giffard fief; but the vast possessions of his house were +still further swollen by his marriage with a daughter of William +(Marshal), earl of Pembroke, through whom his son Richard succeeded in +1245 to a fifth of the Marshall lands including the Kilkenny estates in +Ireland. Richard's successor, Gilbert, the "Red" earl, died in 1295, the +most powerful subject in the kingdom. + +On his death his earldoms seem to have been somewhat mysteriously deemed +to have passed to his widow Joan, daughter of Edward I.; for her second +husband, Ralph de Monthermer, was summoned to parliament in right of +them from 1299 to 1306. After her death, however, in 1307, Earl +Gilbert's son and namesake was summoned in 1308 as earl of Gloucester +and Hertford, though only sixteen. A nephew of Edward II. and +brother-in-law of Gaveston, he played a somewhat wavering part in the +struggle between the king and the barons. Guardian of the realm in 1311 +and regent in 1313, he fell gloriously at Bannockburn (June 24th, 1314), +when only twenty-three, rushing on the enemy "like a wild boar, making +his sword drunk with their blood." + +The earl was the last of his mighty line, and his vast possessions in +England (in over twenty counties), Wales and Ireland fell to his three +sisters, of whom Elizabeth, the youngest, wife of John de Burgh, +obtained the "Honour of Clare" and transmitted it to her son William de +Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster, whose daughter brought it to Lionel, son of +King Edward III., who was thereupon created duke of Clarence, a title +associated ever since with the royal house. The "Honour of Clare," +vested in the crown, still preserves a separate existence, with a court +and steward of its own. + +Clare College, Cambridge, derived its name from the above Elizabeth, +"Lady of Clare," who founded it as Clare Hall in 1347. + +Clare County in Ireland derives its name from the family, though whether +from Richard Strongbow, or from Thomas de Clare, a younger son, who had +a grant of Thomond in 1276, has been deemed doubtful. + +Clarenceux King of Arms, an officer of the Heralds' College, derives his +style, through Clarence, from Clare. + + See J.H. Round's _Geoffrey de Mandeville, Feudal England, Commune of + London_, and _Peerage Studies_; also his "Family of Clare" in _Arch. + Journ._ lvi., and "Origin of Armorial Bearings" in Ib. li.; + Parkinson's "Clarence, the origin and bearers of the title," in _The + Antiquary_, v.; Clark's "Lords of Glamorgan" in _Arch. Journ._ xxxv.; + Planche's "Earls of Gloucester" in _Journ. Arch. Assoc._ xxvi.; + Dugdale's _Baronage_, vol. i., and _Monasticon Anglicanum_; G.E. + C[okayne]'s _Complete Peerage_. (J. H. R.) + + + + +CLARE, JOHN (1793-1864), English poet, commonly known as "the +Northamptonshire Peasant Poet," the son of a farm labourer, was born at +Helpstone near Peterborough, on the 13th of July 1793. At the age of +seven he was taken from school to tend sheep and geese; four years later +he began to work on a farm, attending in the winter evenings a school +where he is said to have learnt some algebra. He then became a pot-boy +in a public-house and fell in love with Mary Joyce, but her father, a +prosperous farmer, forbade her to meet him. Subsequently he was gardener +at Burghley Park. He enlisted in the militia, tried camp life with +gipsies, and worked as a lime burner in 1817, but in the following year +he was obliged to accept parish relief. Clare had bought a copy of +Thomson's _Seasons_ out of his scanty earnings and had begun to write +poems. In 1819 a bookseller at Stamford, named Drury, lighted on one of +Clare's poems, _The Setting Sun_, written on a scrap of paper enclosing +a note to his predecessor in the business. He befriended the author and +introduced his poems to the notice of John Taylor, of the publishing +firm of Taylor & Hussey, who issued the _Poems Descriptive of Rural Life +and Scenery_ in 1820. This book was highly praised, and in the next year +his _Village Minstrel and other Poems_ were published. He was greatly +patronized; fame, in the shape of curious visitors, broke the tenor of +his life, and the convivial habits that he had formed were indulged more +freely. He had married in 1820, and an annuity of 15 guineas from Lord +Exeter, in whose service he had been, was supplemented by subscription, +and he became possessed of L45 annually, a sum far beyond what he had +ever earned, but new wants made his income insufficient, and in 1823 he +was nearly penniless. The _Shepherd's Calendar_ (1827) met with little +success, which was not increased by his hawking it himself. As he worked +again on the fields his health temporarily improved; but he soon became +seriously ill. Lord Fitzwilliam presented him with a new cottage and a +piece of ground, but Clare could not settle in his new home. Gradually +his mind gave way. His last and best work, the _Rural Muse_ (1835), was +noticed by "Christopher North" alone. He had for some time shown +symptoms of insanity; and in July 1837 he was removed to a private +asylum, and afterwards to the Northampton general lunatic asylum, where +he died on the 20th of May 1864. Clare's descriptions of rural scenes +show a keen and loving appreciation of nature, and his love-songs and +ballads charm by their genuine feeling; but his vogue was no doubt +largely due to the interest aroused by his humble position in life. + + See the _Life of John Clare_, by Frederick Martin (1865); and _Life + and Remains of John Clare_, by J.L. Cherry (1873), which, though not + so complete, contains some of the poet's asylum verses and prose + fragments. + + + + +CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON, 1ST EARL OF (1749-1802), lord chancellor of +Ireland, was the second son of John Fitzgibbon, who had abandoned the +Roman Catholic faith in order to pursue a legal career. He was educated +at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was highly distinguished as a +classical scholar, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in +1770. In 1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and quickly acquired a +very lucrative practice; he also inherited his father's large fortune on +the death of his elder brother. In 1778 he entered the Irish House of +Commons as member for Dublin University, and at first gave a general +support to the popular party led by Henry Grattan (q.v.). He was, +however, from the first hostile to that part of Grattan's policy which +aimed at removing the disabilities of the Roman Catholics; he +endeavoured to impede the Relief Bill of 1778 by raising difficulties +about its effect on the Act of Settlement. He especially distrusted the +priests, and many years later explained that his life-long resistance to +all concession to the Catholics was based on his "unalterable opinion" +that "a conscientious Popish ecclesiastic never will become a +well-attached subject to a Protestant state, and that the Popish clergy +must always have a commanding influence on every member of that +communion." As early as 1780 Fitzgibbon began to separate himself from +the popular or national party, by opposing Grattan's declaration of the +Irish parliament's right to independence. There is no reason to suppose +that in this change of view he was influenced by corrupt or personal +motives. His cast of mind naturally inclined to authority rather than to +democratic liberty; his hostility to the Catholic claims, and his +distrust of parliamentary reform as likely to endanger the connexion of +Ireland with Great Britain, made him a sincere opponent of the aims +which Grattan had in view. In reply, however, to a remonstrance from his +constituents Fitzgibbon promised to support Grattan's policy in the +future, and described the claim of Great Britain to make laws for +Ireland as "a daring usurpation of the rights of a free people." + +For some time longer there was no actual breach between him and Grattan. +Grattan supported the appointment of Fitzgibbon as attorney-general in +1783, and in 1785 the latter highly eulogized Grattan's character and +services to the country in a speech in which he condemned Flood's +volunteer movement. He also opposed Flood's Reform Bill of 1784; and +from this time forward he was in fact the leading spirit in the Irish +government, and the stiffest opponent of all concession to popular +demands. In 1784 the permanent committee of revolutionary reformers in +Dublin, of whom Napper Tandy was the most conspicuous, invited the +sheriffs of counties to call meetings for the election of delegates to +attend a convention for the discussion of reform; and when the sheriff +of the county of Dublin summoned a meeting for this purpose Fitzgibbon +procured his imprisonment for contempt of court, and justified this +procedure in parliament, though Lord Erskine declared it grossly +illegal. In the course of the debates on Pitt's commercial propositions +in 1785, which Fitzgibbon supported in masterly speeches, he referred to +Curran in terms which led to a duel between the two lawyers, when +Fitzgibbon was accused of a deliberation in aiming at his opponent that +was contrary to etiquette. His antagonism to Curran was life-long and +bitter, and after he became chancellor his hostility to the famous +advocate was said to have driven the latter out of practice. In January +1787 Fitzgibbon introduced a stringent bill for repressing the Whiteboy +outrages. It was supported by Grattan, who, however, procured the +omission of a clause enacting that any Roman Catholic chapel near which +an illegal oath had been tendered should be immediately demolished. His +influence with the majority in the Irish parliament defeated Pitt's +proposed reform of the tithe system in Ireland, Fitzgibbon refusing even +to grant a committee to investigate the subject. On the regency question +in 1789 Fitzgibbon, in opposition to Grattan, supported the doctrine of +Pitt in a series of powerful speeches which proved him a great +constitutional lawyer; he intimated that the choice for Ireland might in +certain eventualities rest between complete separation from England and +legislative union; and, while he exclaimed as to the latter alternative, +"God forbid that I should ever see that day!" he admitted that +separation would be the worse evil of the two. + +In the same year Lord Lifford resigned the chancellorship, and +Fitzgibbon was appointed in his place, being raised to the peerage as +Baron Fitzgibbon. His removal to the House of Lords greatly increased +his power. In the Commons, though he had exercised great influence as +attorney-general, his position had been secondary; in the House of Lords +and in the privy council he was little less than despotic. "He was," +says Lecky, "by far the ablest Irishman who had adopted without +restriction the doctrine that the Irish legislature must be maintained +in a condition of permanent and unvarying subjection to the English +executive." But the English ministry were now embarking on a policy of +conciliation in Ireland. The Catholic Relief Bill of 1793 was forced on +the Irish executive by the cabinet in London, but it passed rapidly and +easily through the Irish parliament. Lord Fitzgibbon, while accepting +the bill as inevitable under the circumstances that had arisen, made a +most violent though exceedingly able speech against the principle of +concession, which did much to destroy the conciliatory effect of the +measure; and as a consequence of this act he began persistently to urge +the necessity for a legislative union. From this date until the union +was carried, the career of Fitzgibbon is practically the history of +Ireland. True to his inveterate hostility to the popular claims, he was +opposed to the appointment of Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.) as viceroy in +1795, and was probably the chief influence in procuring his recall; and +it was Fitzgibbon who first put it into the head of George III. that the +king would violate his coronation oath if he consented to the admission +of Catholics to parliament. When Lord Camden, Fitzwilliam's successor in +the viceroyalty, arrived in Dublin on the 31st of March 1795, +Fitzgibbon's carriage was violently assaulted by the mob, and he himself +was wounded; and in the riots that ensued his house was also attacked. +But as if to impress upon the Catholics the hopelessness of their case, +the government who had made Fitzgibbon a viscount immediately after his +attack on the Catholics in 1793 now bestowed on him a further mark of +honour. In June 1795 he was created earl of Clare. On the eve of the +rebellion he warned the government that while emancipation and reform +might be the objects aimed at by the better classes, the mass of the +disaffected had in view "the separation of the country from her +connexion with Great Britain, and a fraternal alliance with the French +Republic." Clare advocated stringent measures to prevent an outbreak; +but he was neither cruel nor immoderate, and was inclined to mercy in +dealing with individuals. He attempted to save Lord Edward Fitzgerald +(q.v.) from his fate by giving a friendly warning to his friends, and +promising to facilitate his escape from the country; and Lord Edward's +aunt, Lady Louisa Conolly, who was conducted to his death-bed in prison +by the chancellor in person, declared that "nothing could exceed Lord +Clare's kindness." His moderation and humanity after the rebellion was +extolled by Cornwallis. He threw his great influence on the side of +clemency, and it was through his intervention that Oliver Bond, when +sentenced to death, was reprieved; and that an arrangement was made by +which Arthur O'Connor, Thomas Emmet and other state prisoners were +allowed to leave the country. + +In October 1798 Lord Clare, who since 1793 had been convinced of the +necessity for a legislative union if the connexion between Great Britain +and Ireland was to be maintained, and who was equally determined that +the union must be unaccompanied by Catholic emancipation, crossed to +England and successfully pressed his views on Pitt. In 1799 he induced +the Irish House of Lords to throw out a bill for providing a permanent +endowment of Maynooth. On the 10th of February 1800 Clare in the House +of Lords moved the resolution approving the union in a long and powerful +speech, in which he reviewed the history of Ireland since the +Revolution, attributing the evils of recent years to the independent +constitution of 1782, and speaking of Grattan in language of deep +personal hatred. He was not aware of the assurance which Cornwallis had +been authorized to convey to the Catholics that the union was to pave +the way for emancipation, and when he heard of it after the passing of +the act he bitterly complained that Pitt and Castlereagh had deceived +him. After the union Clare became more violent than ever in his +opposition to any policy of concession in Ireland. He died on the 28th +of January 1802; his funeral in Dublin was the occasion of a riot +organized "by a gang of about fourteen persons under orders of a +leader." His wife, in compliance with his death-bed request, destroyed +all his papers. His two sons, John (1792-1851) and Richard Hobart +(1793-1864), succeeded in turn to the earldom, which became extinct on +the death of the latter, whose only son, John Charles Henry, Viscount +Fitzgibbon (1829-1854), was killed in the charge of the Light Brigade at +Balaklava. + +Lord Clare was in private life an estimable and even an amiable man; +many acts of generosity are related of him; the determination of his +character swayed other wills to his purpose, and his courage was such as +no danger, no obloquy, no public hatred or violence could disturb. +Though not a great orator like Flood or Grattan, he was a skilful and +ready debater, and he was by far the ablest Irish supporter of the +union. He was, however, arrogant, overbearing and intolerant to the last +degree. He was the first Irishman since the Revolution to hold the +office of lord chancellor of Ireland. "Except where his furious personal +antipathies and his ungovernable arrogance were called into action, he +appears to have been," says Lecky, "an able, upright and energetic +judge"; but as a politician there can be little question that Lord +Clare's bitter and unceasing resistance to reasonable measures of reform +did infinite mischief in the history of Ireland, by inflaming the +passions of his countrymen, driving them into rebellion, and +perpetuating their political and religious divisions. + + See W.E.H. Lecky, _History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5 + vols., London, 1892); J.R. O'Flanagan, _The Lives of the Lord + Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal in Ireland_ (2 vols., + London, 1870); _Cornwallis Correspondence_, ed. by C. Ross (3 vols., + London, 1859); Charles Phillips, _Recollections of Curran and some of + his Contemporaries_ (London, 1822); Henry Grattan, _Memoirs of the + Life and Times of the Right Honble. Henry Grattan_ (5 vols., London, + 1839-1846); Lord Auckland, _Journal and Correspondence_ (4 vols., + London, 1861); Charles Coote, _History of the Union of Great Britain + and Ireland_ (London, 1802). (R. J. M.) + + + + +CLARE, a county in the province of Munster, Ireland, bounded N. by +Galway Bay and Co. Galway, E. by Lough Derg, the river Shannon, and +counties Tipperary and Limerick, S. by the estuary of the Shannon, and +W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is 852,389 acres, or nearly 1332 sq. +m. Although the surface of the county is hilly, and in some parts even +mountainous, it nowhere rises to a great elevation. Much of the western +baronies of Moyarta and Ibrickan is composed of bog land. Bogs are +frequent also in the mountainous districts elsewhere, except in the +limestone barony of Burren, the inhabitants of some parts of which +supply themselves with turf from the opposite shores of Connemara. +Generally speaking, the eastern parts of the county are mountainous, +with tracts of rich pasture-land interspersed; the west abounds with +bog; and the north is rocky and best adapted for grazing sheep. In the +southern part, along the banks of the Fergus and Shannon, are the bands +of rich low grounds called corcasses, of various breadth, indenting the +land in a great variety of shapes. They are composed of deep rich loam, +and are distinguished as the black corcasses, adapted for tillage, and +the blue, used more advantageously as meadow land. The coast is in +general rocky, and occasionally bold and precipitous in the extreme, as +may be observed at the picturesque cliffs of Moher within a few miles of +Ennistimon and Lisdoonvarna, which rise perpendicularly at O'Brien's +Tower to an elevation of 580 ft. The coast of Clare is indented with +several bays, the chief of which are Ballyvaghan, Liscannor and Malbay; +but from Black Head to Loop Head, that is, along the entire western +boundary of the county formed by the Atlantic, there is no safe harbour +except Liscannor Bay. Malbay takes its name from its dangers to +navigators, and the whole coast has been the scene of many fatal +disasters. The county possesses only one large river, the Fergus; but +nearly 100 m. of its boundary-line are washed by the river Shannon, +which enters the Atlantic Ocean between this county and Kerry. The +numerous bays and creeks on both sides of this great river render its +navigation safe in every wind; but the passage to and from Limerick is +often tedious, and the port of Kilrush has from that cause gained in +importance. The river Fergus is navigable from the Shannon to the town +of Clare, which is the terminating point of its natural navigation, and +the port of all the central districts of the county. + +There are a great number of lakes and tarns in the county, of which the +largest are Loughs Muckanagh, Graney, Atedaun and Dromore; but they are +more remarkable for beauty than for size or utility, with the exception +of the extensive and navigable Lough Derg, formed by the river Shannon +between this county and Tipperary. The salmon fishery of the Shannon, +both as a sport and as an industry, is famous; the Fergus also holds +salmon, and there is much good trout-fishing in the lakes for which +Ennis is a centre, and in the streams of the Atlantic seaboard. Clare is +a county which, like all the western counties of Ireland, repays +visitors in search of the pleasures of seaside resorts, sport, scenery +or antiquarian interest. Yet, again like other western counties, it was +long before it was rendered accessible. Communications, however, are now +satisfactory. + + _Geology._--Upper Carboniferous strata cover the county west of Ennis, + the coast-sections in them being particularly fine. Shales and + sandstones alternate, now horizontal, as in the Cliffs of Moher, now + thrown into striking folds. The Carboniferous Limestone forms a barren + terraced country, often devoid of soil, through the Burren in the + north, and extends to the estuary of the Fergus and the Shannon. On + the east, the folding has brought up two bold masses of Old Red + Sandstone, with Silurian cores. Slieve Bernagh, the more southerly of + these, rises to 1746 ft. above Killaloe, and the hilly country here + traversed by the Shannon is in marked contrast with the upper course + of the river through the great limestone plain. + +_Minerals._--Although metals and minerals have been found in many places +throughout the county, they do not often show themselves in sufficient +abundance to induce the application of capital for their extraction. The +principal metals are lead, iron and manganese. The Milltown lead mine in +the barony of Tulla is probably one of the oldest mines in Ireland, and +formerly, if the extent of the ancient excavations may be taken as a +guide, there must have been a very rich deposit. Copper pyrites occurs +in several parts of Burren, but in small quantity. Coal exists at +Labasheeda on the right bank of the Shannon, but the few and thin seams +are not productive. The nodules of clay-ironstone in the strata that +overlie the limestone were mined and smelted down to 1750. Within half a +mile of the Milltown lead mine are immense natural vaulted passages of +limestone, through which the river Ardsullas winds a singular course. +The lower limestone of the eastern portion of the county has been found +to contain several very large deposits of argentiferous galena. Flags, +easily quarried, are procured near Kilrush, and thinner flags near +Ennistimon. Slates are quarried in several places, the best being those +of Broadford and Killaloe, which are nearly equal to the finest procured +in Wales. A species of very fine black marble is obtained near Ennis; it +takes a high polish, and is free from the white spots with which the +black Kilkenny marble is marked. + +The mineral springs, which are found in many places, are chiefly +chalybeate. That of Lisdoonvarna, a sulphur spa, about 8 m. from +Ennistimon, has been celebrated since the 18th century for its medicinal +qualities, and now attracts a large number of visitors annually. It lies +9 m. by road N. of Ennistimon. There are chalybeate springs of less note +at Kilkishen, Burren, Broadfoot, Lehinch, Kilkee, Kilrush, Killadysart, +and near Milltown Malbay. Springs called by the people "holy" or +"blessed" wells, generally mineral waters, are common; but the belief in +their power of performing cures in inveterate maladies is nearly +extinct. + +_Watering-places._--The Atlantic Ocean and the estuary of the Shannon +afford many situations admirably adapted for summer bathing-places. +Among the most frequented of these localities are Milltown Malbay; with +one of the best beaches on the western coast; and the neighbouring +Spanish Point (named from the scene of the wreck of two ships of the +Armada); Lehinch, about 2 m. from Ennistimon on Liscannor Bay, and near +the interesting cliffs of Moher, has a magnificent beach. Kilkee is the +most fashionable watering-place on the western coast of Ireland; and +Kilrush on the Shannon estuary is also favoured. + +_Industries._--The soil and surface of the county are in general better +adapted for grazing than for tillage, and the acreage devoted to the +former consequently exceeds three times that of the latter. Agriculture +is in a backward state, and not a fifth of the total area is under +cultivation, while the acreage shows a decrease even in the principal +crops of oats and potatoes. Cattle, sheep, poultry and pigs, however, +all receive considerable attention. Owing to the mountainous nature of +the county nearly one-seventh of the total area is quite barren. + +There are no extensive manufactures, although flannels and friezes are +made for home use, and hosiery of various kinds, chiefly coarse and +strong, is made around Ennistimon and other places. There are several +fishing stations on the coast, and cod, haddock, ling, sole, turbot, +ray, mackerel and other fish abound, but the rugged nature of the coast +and the tempestuous sea greatly hinder the operations of the fishermen. +Near Pooldoody is the great Burren oyster bed called the Red Bank, where +a large establishment is maintained, from which a constant supply of the +excellent Red Bank oysters is furnished to the Dublin and other large +markets. Crabs and lobsters are caught on the shores of the Bay of +Galway in every creek from Black Head to Ardfry. In addition to the +Shannon salmon fishery mentioned above, eels abound in every rivulet, +and form an important article of consumption. + +The Great Southern & Western railway line from Limerick to Sligo +intersects the centre of the county from north to south. From Ennis on +this line the West Clare railway runs to Ennistimon on the coast, where +it turns south and follows the coast by Milltown Malbay to Kilkee and +Kilrush. Killaloe in the east of the county is the terminus of a branch +of the Great Southern & Western railway. + +_Population and Administration._--The population (126,244 in 1891; +112,334 in 1901; almost wholly Roman Catholic and rural) shows a +decrease among the most serious of the Irish counties, and the +emigration returns are proportionately heavy. The principal towns, all +of insignificant size, are Ennis (pop. 5093, the county town), Kilrush +(4179), Kilkee (1661) and Killaloe (885); but several of the smaller +settlements, as resorts, are of more than local importance. The county, +which is divided into 11 baronies, contains 79 parishes, and includes +the Protestant diocese of Kilfenora, the greater part of Killaloe, and a +very small portion of the diocese of Limerick. It is within the Roman +Catholic dioceses of Killaloe and Limerick. The assizes are held at +Ennis, and quarter sessions here and at Ennistimon, Killaloe, Kilrush +and Tulla. The county is divided into the East and West parliamentary +divisions, each returning one member. + +_History._--This county, together with part of the neighbouring +district, was anciently called Thomond, that is, North Munster, and +formed part of the monarchy of the celebrated Brian Boroihme, who held +his court at Kincora near Killaloe, where his palace was situated on the +banks of the Shannon. The site is still distinguished by extensive +earthen ramparts. Settlements were effected by the Danes, and in the +13th century by the Anglo-Normans, but without permanently affecting the +possession of the district by its native proprietors. In 1543 Murrogh +O'Brien, after dispossessing his nephew and vainly attempting a +rebellion against the English rule, proceeded to England and submitted +to Henry VIII., resigning his name and possessions. He soon received +them back by an English tenure, together with the title of earl of +Thomond, on condition of adopting the English dress, manners and +customs. In 1565 this part of Thomond (sometimes called O'Brien's +country) was added to Connaught, and made one of the six new counties +into which that province was divided by Sir Henry Sidney. It was named +Clare, the name being traceable either to Richard de Clare (Strongbow), +earl of Pembroke, or to his younger brother, Thomas de Clare, who +obtained a grant of Thomond from Edward I. in 1276, and whose family +for some time maintained a precarious position in the district. Towards +the close of the reign of Elizabeth, Clare was detached from the +government of Connaught and given a separate administration; but at the +Restoration it was reunited to Munster. + +_Antiquities._--The county abounds with remains of antiquities, both +military and ecclesiastical, especially in the north-western part. There +still exist above a hundred fortified castles, several of which are +inhabited. They are mostly of small extent, a large portion being +fortified dwellings. The chief of them is Bunratty Castle, built in +1277, once inhabited by the earls of Thomond, 10 m. W. of Limerick, on +the Shannon. Those of Ballykinvarga, Ballynalackan and Lemaneagh, all in +the north-west, should also be mentioned. Raths or encampments are to be +found in every part. They are generally circular, composed either of +large stones without mortar or of earth thrown up and surrounded by one +or more ditches. The list of abbeys and other religious houses formerly +flourishing here (some now only known by name, but many of them +surviving in ruins) comprehends upwards of twenty. The most remarkable +are--Quin, considered one of the finest and most perfect specimens of +ancient monastic architecture in Ireland; Corcomroe; Ennis, in which is +a very fine window of uncommonly elegant workmanship; and those on +Inniscattery or Scattery Island, in the Shannon, said to have been +founded by St Senan (see KILRUSH). Kilfenora, 5 m. N.E. of Ennistimon, +was until 1752 a separate diocese, and its small cathedral is of +interest, with several neighbouring crosses and a holy well. The ruined +churches of Kilnaboy, Nouhaval and Teampul Cronan are the most +noteworthy of many in the north-west. Five round towers are to be found +in various stages of preservation--at Scattery Island, Drumcliffe, +Dysert O'Dea, Kilnaboy and Inniscaltra (Lough Derg). The cathedral of +the diocese of Killaloe is at the town of that name. Cromlechs are +found, chiefly in the rocky limestone district of Burren in the N.W., +though there are some in other baronies. That at Ballygannor is formed +of a stone 40 ft. long and 10 broad. + + See papers by T.J. Westropp in _Proceedings of the Royal Irish + Academy_--"Distribution of Cromlechs in County Clare" (1897); and + "Churches of County Clare, and Origin of Ecclesiastical Divisions" + (1900). + + + + +CLAREMONT, a city of Sullivan county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., situated in +the W. part of the state, bordering on the Connecticut river. Pop. +(1890) 5565; (1900) 6498 (1442 foreign-born); (1910) 7529. Area, 6 sq. +m. It is served by two branches of the Boston & Maine railway. In +Claremont is the Fiske free library (1873), housed in a Carnegie +building (1904). The Stevens high school is richly endowed by the gift +of Paran Stevens, a native of Claremont. The city contains several +villages, the principal being Claremont, Claremont Junction and West +Claremont. Sugar river, flowing through the city into the Connecticut +and falling 223 ft. within the city limits, furnishes good water-power. +Among the manufactures are woollen and cotton goods, paper, mining and +quarrying machinery, rubber goods, linens, shoes, wood trim and pearl +buttons. The first settlement here was made in 1762, and a township was +organized in 1764; in 1908 Claremont was chartered as a city. It was +named from Claremont, Lord Clive's country place. + + + + +CLARENCE, DUKES OF. The early history of this English title is identical +with that of the family of Clare (q.v.), earls of Gloucester, who are +sometimes called earls of Clare, of which word Clarence is a later form. +The first duke of Clarence was Lionel of Antwerp (see below), third son +of Edward III., who was created duke in 1362, and whose wife Elizabeth +was a direct descendant of the Clares, the "Honour of Clare" being among +the lands which she brought to her husband. When Lionel died without +sons in 1368 the title became extinct; but in 1412 it was revived in +favour of Thomas (see below), the second son of Henry IV. The third +creation of a duke of Clarence took place in 1461, and was in favour of +George (see below), brother of the King Edward IV. When this duke, +accused by the king, was attainted and killed in 1478, his titles and +estates were forfeited. There appears to have been no other creation of +a duke of Clarence until 1789, when William, third son of George III., +was made a peer under this title. Having merged in the crown when +William became king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1830, the title of +duke of Clarence was again revived in 1890 in favour of Albert Victor +(1864-1892), the elder son of King Edward VII., then prince of Wales, +only to become extinct for the fifth time on his death in 1892. + + +LIONEL OF ANTWERP, duke of Clarence (1338-1368), third son of Edward +III., was born at Antwerp on the 29th of November 1338. Betrothed when a +child to Elizabeth (d. 1363), daughter and heiress of William de Burgh, +3rd earl of Ulster (d. 1332), he was married to her in 1352; but before +this date he had entered nominally into possession of her great Irish +inheritance. Having been named as his father's representative in England +in 1345 and again in 1346, Lionel was created earl of Ulster, and joined +an expedition into France in 1355, but his chief energies were reserved +for the affairs of Ireland. Appointed governor of that country, he +landed at Dublin in 1361, and in November of the following year was +created duke of Clarence, while his father made an abortive attempt to +secure for him the crown of Scotland. His efforts to secure an effective +authority over his Irish lands were only moderately successful; and +after holding a parliament at Kilkenny, which passed the celebrated +statute of Kilkenny in 1367, he threw up his task in disgust and +returned to England. About this time a marriage was arranged between +Clarence and Violante, daughter of Galeazzo Visconti, lord of Pavia (d. +1378); the enormous dowry which Galeazzo promised with his daughter +being exaggerated by the rumour of the time. Journeying to fetch his +bride, the duke was received in great state both in France and Italy, +and was married to Violante at Milan in June 1368. Some months were then +spent in festivities, during which Lionel was taken ill at Alba, where +he died on the 7th of October 1368. His only child Philippa, a daughter +by his first wife, married in 1368 Edmund Mortimer, 3rd earl of March +(1351-1381), and through this union Clarence became the ancestor of +Edward IV. The poet Chaucer was at one time a page in Lionel's +household. + + +THOMAS, duke of Clarence (c. 1388-1421), who was nominally lieutenant of +Ireland from 1401 to 1413, and was in command of the English fleet in +1405, acted in opposition to his elder brother, afterwards King Henry +V., and the Beauforts during the later part of the reign of Henry IV.; +and was for a short time at the head of the government, leading an +unsuccessful expedition into France in 1412. When Henry V., however, +became king in 1413 no serious dissensions took place between the +brothers, and as a member of the royal council Clarence took part in the +preparations for the French war. He was with the English king at +Harfleur, but not at Agincourt, and shared in the expedition of 1417 +into Normandy, during which he led the assault on Caen, and +distinguished himself as a soldier in other similar undertakings. When +Henry V. returned to England in 1421, the duke remained in France as his +lieutenant, and was killed at Beauge whilst rashly attacking the French +and their Scottish allies on the 22nd of March 1421. He left no +legitimate issue, and the title again became extinct. + + +GEORGE, duke of Clarence (1449-1478), younger son of Richard, duke of +York, by his wife Cicely, daughter of Ralph Neville, 1st earl of +Westmorland, was born in Dublin on the 21st of October 1449. Soon after +his elder brother became king as Edward IV. in March 1461, he was +created duke of Clarence, and his youth was no bar to his appointment as +lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the following year. Having been mentioned +as a possible husband for Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, afterwards +duke of Burgundy, Clarence came under the influence of Richard Neville, +earl of Warwick, and in July 1469 was married at Calais to the earl's +elder daughter Isabella. With his father-in-law he then acted in a +disloyal manner towards the king. Both supported the rebels in the north +of England, and when their treachery was discovered Clarence was +deprived of his office as lord-lieutenant and fled to France. Returning +to England with Warwick in September 1470, he witnessed the restoration +of Henry VI., when the crown was settled upon himself in case the male +line of Henry's family became extinct. The good understanding, however, +between Warwick and his son-in-law was not lasting, and Clarence was +soon secretly reconciled with Edward. The public reconciliation between +the brothers took place when the king was besieging Warwick in Coventry, +and Clarence then fought for the Yorkists at Barnet and Tewkesbury. +After Warwick's death in April 1471 Clarence appears to have seized the +whole of the vast estates of the earl, and in March 1472 was created by +right of his wife earl of Warwick and Salisbury. He was consequently +greatly disturbed when he heard that his younger brother Richard, duke +of Gloucester, was seeking to marry Warwick's younger daughter Anne, and +was claiming some part of Warwick's lands. A violent quarrel between the +brothers ensued, but Clarence was unable to prevent Gloucester from +marrying, and in 1474 the king interfered to settle the dispute, +dividing the estates between his brothers. In 1477 Clarence was again a +suitor for the hand of Mary, who had just become duchess of Burgundy. +Edward objected to the match, and Clarence, jealous of Gloucester's +influence, left the court. At length Edward was convinced that Clarence +was aiming at his throne. The duke was thrown into prison, and in +January 1478 the king unfolded the charges against his brother to the +parliament. He had slandered the king; had received oaths of allegiance +to himself and his heirs; had prepared for a new rebellion; and was in +short incorrigible. Both Houses of Parliament passed the bill of +attainder, and the sentence of death which followed was carried out on +the 17th or 18th of February 1478. It is uncertain what share Gloucester +had in his brother's death; but soon after the event the rumour gained +ground that Clarence had been drowned in a butt of malmsey wine. Two of +the duke's children survived their father: Margaret, countess of +Salisbury (1473-1541), and Edward, earl of Warwick (1475-1499), who +passed the greater part of his life in prison and was beheaded in +November 1499. + + On the last-named see W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. iii. + (Oxford, 1895); Sir J.H. Ramsay, _Lancaster and York_ (Oxford, 1892); + C.W.C. Oman, _Warwick the Kingmaker_ (London, 1891). On the title + generally see G.E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898). + + + + +CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, 1ST EARL OF (1609-1674), English historian and +statesman, son of Henry Hyde of Dinton, Wiltshire, a member of a family +for some time established at Norbury, Cheshire, was born on the 18th of +February 1609. He entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1622 (having been +refused a demyship at Magdalen College), and graduated B.A. in 1626. +Intended originally for holy orders, the death of two elder brothers +made him his father's heir, and in 1625 he entered the Middle Temple. At +the university his abilities were more conspicuous than his industry, +and at the bar his time was devoted more to general reading and to the +society of eminent scholars and writers than to the study of law +treatises. This wandering from the beaten track, however, was not +without its advantages. In later years Clarendon declared "next the +immediate blessing and providence of God Almighty" that he "owed all the +little he knew and the little good that was in him to the friendships +and conversation ... of the most excellent men in their several kinds +that lived in that age."[1] These included Ben Jonson, Selden, Waller, +Hales, and especially Lord Falkland; and from their influence and the +wide reading in which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning +and literary talent which afterwards distinguished him. + +In 1629 he married his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir George Ayliffe, +who died six months afterwards; and secondly, in 1634, Frances, daughter +of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests. In 1633 he was called to +the bar, and obtained quickly a good position and practice. His +marriages had gained for him influential friends, and in December 1634 +he was made keeper of the writs and rolls of the common pleas; while his +able conduct of the petition of the London merchants against Portland +earned Laud's approval. He was returned to the Short Parliament in 1640 +as member for Wootton Bassett. Respect and veneration for the law and +constitution of England were already fundamental principles with Hyde, +and the flagrant violations and perversions of the law which +characterized the twelve preceding years of absolute rule drove him into +the ranks of the popular party. He served on numerous and important +committees, and his parliamentary action was directed chiefly towards +the support and restoration of the law. He assailed the jurisdiction of +the earl marshal's court, and in the Long Parliament, in which he sat +for Saltash, renewed his attacks and practically effected its +suppression. In 1641 he served on the committees for inquiring into the +status of the councils of Wales and of the North, distinguished himself +by a speech against the latter, and took an important part in the +proceedings against the judges. He supported Stafford's impeachment, and +did not vote against the attainder, subsequently making an unsuccessful +attempt through Essex to avert the capital penalty.[2] Hyde's +allegiance, however, to the church of England was as staunch as his +support of the law, and was soon to separate him from the popular +faction. In February 1641 he opposed the reception of the London +petition against episcopacy, and in May the project for unity of +religion with the Scots, and the bill for the exclusion of the clergy +from secular office. He showed special energy in his opposition to the +Root and Branch Bill, and, though made chairman of the committee on the +bill on the 11th of July in order to silence his opposition, he caused +by his successful obstruction the failure of the measure. In consequence +he was summoned to the king's presence, and encouraged in his attitude, +and at the beginning of the second session was regarded as one of the +king's ablest supporters in the Commons. He considered the claims put +forward at this time by parliament as a violation and not as a guarantee +of the law and constitution. He opposed the demand by the parliament to +choose the king's ministers, and also the Grand Remonstrance, to which +he wrote a reply published by the king. + +He now definitely though not openly joined the royal cause, and refused +office in January 1642 with Colepeper and Falkland in order to serve the +king's interests more effectually. Charles undertook to do nothing in +the Commons without their advice. Nevertheless a few days afterwards, +without their knowledge and by the advice of Lord Digby, he attempted +the arrest of the five members, a resort to force which reduced Hyde to +despair, and which indeed seemed to show that things had gone too far +for an appeal to the law. He persevered, nevertheless, in his legal +policy, to which Charles after the failure of his project again +returned, joined the king openly in June, and continued to compose the +king's answers and declarations in which he appealed to the "known Laws +of the land" against the arbitrary and illegal acts of a seditious +majority in the parliament, his advice to the king being "to shelter +himself wholly under the law, ... presuming that the king and the law +together would have been strong enough for any encounter." Hyde's appeal +had great influence, and gained for the king's cause half the nation. It +by no means, however, met with universal support among the royalists, +Hobbes jeering at Hyde's love for "mixed monarchy," and the courtiers +expressing their disapproval of the "spirit of accommodation" which +"wounded the regality." It was destined to failure owing principally to +the invincible distrust of Charles created in the parliament leaders, +and to the fact that Charles was simultaneously carrying on another and +an inconsistent policy, listening to very different advisers, such as +the queen and Digby, and resolving on measures (such as the attempt on +Hull) without Hyde's knowledge or approval. + +War, accordingly, in spite of his efforts, broke out. He was expelled +the House of Commons on the 11th of August 1642, and was one of those +excepted later from pardon. He showed great activity in collecting +loans, was present at Edgehill, though not as a combatant, and followed +the king to Oxford, residing at All Souls College from October 1642 till +March 1645. On the 22nd of February he was made a privy councillor and +knighted, and on the 3rd of March appointed chancellor of the exchequer. +He was an influential member of the "Junto" which met every week to +discuss business before it was laid before the council. His aim was to +gain over some of the leading Parliamentarians by personal influence and +personal considerations, and at the Uxbridge negotiations in January +1645, where he acted as principal manager on the king's side, while +remaining firm on the great political questions such as the church and +the militia, he tried to win individuals by promises of places and +honours. He promoted the assembly of the Oxford parliament in December +1643 as a counterpoise to the influence and status of the Long +Parliament. Hyde's policy and measures, however, all failed. They had +been weakly and irregularly supported by the king, and were fiercely +opposed by the military party, who were jealous of the civil influence, +and were urging Charles to trust to force and arms alone and eschew all +compromise and concessions. Charles fell now under the influence of +persons devoid of all legal and constitutional scruples, sending to +Glamorgan in Ireland "those strange powers and instructions inexcusable +to justice, piety and prudence."[3] + +Hyde's influence was much diminished, and on the 4th of March 1645 he +left the king for Bristol as one of the guardians of the prince of Wales +and governors of the west. Here the disputes between the council and the +army paralysed the proceedings, and lost, according to Hyde, the finest +opportunity since the outbreak of the war of raising a strong force and +gaining substantial victories in that part of the country. After +Hopton's defeat on the 16th of February 1646, at Torrington, Hyde +accompanied the prince, on the 4th of March, to Scilly, and on the 17th +of April, for greater security, to Jersey. He strongly disapproved of +the prince's removal to France by the queen's order and of the schemes +of assistance from abroad, refused to accompany him, and signed a bond +to prevent the sale of Jersey to the French supported by Jermyn. He +opposed the projected sacrifice of the church to the Scots and the grant +by the king of any but personal or temporary concessions, declaring that +peace was only possible "upon the old foundations of government in +church and state." He was especially averse to Charles's tampering with +the Irish Romanists. "Oh, Mr Secretary," he wrote to Nicholas, "those +stratagems have given me more sad hours than all the misfortunes in war +which have befallen the king and look like the effects of God's anger +towards us."[4] He refused to compound for his own estate. While in +Jersey he resided first at St Helier and afterwards at Elizabeth Castle +with Sir George Carteret. He composed the first portion of his _History_ +and kept in touch with events by means of an enormous correspondence. In +1648 he published _A Full answer to an infamous and traiterous +Pamphlet..._, a reply to the resolution of the parliament to present no +more addresses to the king and a vindication of Charles. + +On the outbreak of the second Civil War Hyde left Jersey (26th of June +1648) to join the queen and prince at Paris. He landed at Dieppe, sailed +from that port to Dunkirk, and thence followed the prince to the Thames, +where Charles had met the fleet, but was captured and robbed by a +privateer, and only joined the prince in September after the latter's +return to the Hague. He strongly disapproved of the king's concessions +at Newport. When the army broke off the treaty and brought Charles to +trial he endeavoured to save his life, and after the execution drew up a +letter to the several European sovereigns invoking their assistance to +avenge it. Hyde strongly opposed Charles II.'s ignominious surrender to +the Covenanters, the alliance with the Scots, and the Scottish +expedition, desiring to accomplish whatever was possible there through +Montrose and the royalists, and inclined rather to an attempt in +Ireland. His advice was not followed, and he gladly accepted a mission +with Cottington to Spain to obtain money from the Roman Catholic powers, +and to arrange an alliance between Owen O'Neill and Ormonde for the +recovery of Ireland, arriving at Madrid on the 26th of November 1649. +The defeat, however, of Charles at Dunbar, and the confirmation of +Cromwell's ascendancy, influenced the Spanish government against them, +and they were ordered to leave in December 1650. Hyde arrived at Antwerp +in January 1651, and in December rejoined Charles at Paris after the +latter's escape from Worcester. He now became one of his chief advisers, +accompanying him in his change of residence to Cologne in October 1654 +and to Bruges in 1658, and was appointed lord chancellor on the 13th of +January 1658. His influence was henceforth maintained in spite of the +intrigues of both Romanists and Presbyterians, as well as the violent +and openly displayed hostility of the queen, and was employed +unremittingly in the endeavour to keep Charles faithful to the church +and constitution, and in the prevention of unwise concessions and +promises which might estrange the general body of the royalists. His +advice to Charles was to wait upon the turn of events, "that all his +activity was to consist in carefully avoiding to do anything that might +do him hurt and to expect some blessed conjuncture."[5] In 1656, during +the war between England and Spain, Charles received offers of help from +the latter power provided he could gain a port in England, but Hyde +discouraged small isolated attempts. He expected much from Cromwell's +death. The same year he made an alliance with the Levellers, and was +informed of their plots to assassinate the protector, without apparently +expressing any disapproval.[6] He was well supplied with information +from England,[7] and guided the action of the royalists with great +ability and wisdom during the interval between Cromwell's death and the +Restoration, urged patience, and advocated the obstruction of a +settlement between the factions contending for power and the fomentation +of their jealousies, rather than premature risings. + +The Restoration was a complete triumph for Hyde's policy. He lays no +stress on his own great part in it, but it was owing to him that the +Restoration was a national one, by the consent and invitation of +parliament representing the whole people and not through the medium of +one powerful faction enforcing its will upon a minority, and that it was +not only a restoration of Charles but a restoration of the monarchy. By +Hyde's advice concessions to the inconvenient demands of special +factions had been avoided by referring the decision to a "free +parliament," and the declaration of Breda reserved for parliament the +settlement of the questions of amnesty, religious toleration and the +proprietorship of forfeited lands. + +Hyde entered London with the king, all attempts at effecting his fall +having failed, and immediately obtained the chief place in the +government, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer till the 13th +of May 1661, when he surrendered it to Lord Ashley. He took his seat as +speaker of the House of Lords and in the court of chancery on the 1st of +June 1660. On the 3rd of November 1660 he was made Baron Hyde of Hindon, +and on the 20th of April 1661 Viscount Cornbury and earl of Clarendon, +receiving a grant from the king of L20,000 and at different times of +various small estates and Irish rents. The marriage of his daughter Anne +to James, duke of York, celebrated in secret in September 1660, at first +alarmed Clarendon on account of the public hostility he expected thereby +to incur, but finding his fears unconfirmed he acquiesced in its public +recognition in December, and thus became related in a special manner to +the royal family and the grandfather of two English sovereigns.[8] + +Clarendon's position was one of great difficulties, but at the same time +of splendid opportunities. In particular a rare occasion now offered +itself of settling the religious question on a broad principle of +comprehension or toleration; for the monarchy had been restored not by +the supporters of the church alone but largely by the influence and aid +of the nonconformists and also of the Roman Catholics, who were all +united at that happy moment by a common loyalty to the throne. +Clarendon appears to have approved of comprehension but not of +toleration. He had already in April 1660 sent to discuss terms with the +leading Presbyterians in England, and after the Restoration offered +bishoprics to several, including Richard Baxter. He drew up the royal +declaration of October, promising limited episcopacy and a revised +prayer-book and ritual, which was subsequently thrown out by parliament, +and he appears to have anticipated some kind of settlement from the +Savoy Conference which sat in April 1661. The failure of the latter +proved perhaps that the differences were too great for compromise, and +widened the breach. The parliament immediately proceeded to pass the +series of narrow and tyrannical measures against the dissenters known as +the Clarendon Code. The Corporations Act, obliging members of +corporations to denounce the Covenant and take the sacrament according +to the Anglican usage, became law on the 20th of December 1661, the Act +of Uniformity enforcing the use of the prayer-book on ministers, as well +as a declaration that it was unlawful to bear arms against the +sovereign, on the 19th of May 1662, and these were followed by the +Conventicle Act in 1664 suppressing conventicles and by the Five-Mile +Act in 1665 forbidding ministers who had refused subscription to the Act +of Uniformity to teach or reside within 5 m. of a borough. Clarendon +appears to have reluctantly acquiesced in these civil measures rather +than to have originated them, and to have endeavoured to mitigate their +injustice and severity. He supported the continuance of the tenure by +presbyterian ministers of livings not held by Anglicans and an amendment +in the Lords allowing a pension to those deprived, earning the gratitude +of Baxter and the nonconformists. On the 17th of March 1662 he +introduced into parliament a declaration enabling the king to dispense +with the Act of Uniformity in the case of ministers of merit.[9] But +once committed to the narrow policy of intolerance, Clarendon was +inevitably involved in all its consequences. His characteristic respect +for the law and constitution rendered him hostile to the general policy +of indulgence, which, though the favourite project of the king, he +strongly opposed in the Lords, and in the end caused its withdrawal. He +declared that he could have wished the law otherwise, "but when it was +passed, he thought it absolutely necessary to see obedience paid to it +without any connivance."[10] Charles was greatly angered. It was +believed in May 1663 that the intrigues of Bennet and Buckingham, who +seized the opportunity of ingratiating themselves with the king by +zealously supporting the indulgence, had secured Clarendon's dismissal, +and in July Bristol ventured to accuse him of high treason in the +parliament; but the attack, which did not receive the king's support, +failed entirely and only ended in the banishment from court of its +promoter. Clarendon's opposition to the court policy in this way +acquired a personal character, and he was compelled to identify himself +more completely with the intolerant measures of the House of Commons. +Though not the originator of the Conventicle Act or of the Five-Mile +Act, he has recorded his approval,[11] and he ended by taking alarm at +plots and rumours and by regarding the great party of nonconformists, +through whose co-operation the monarchy had been restored, as a danger +to the state whose "faction was their religion."[12] + +Meanwhile Clarendon's influence and direction had been predominant in +nearly all departments of state. He supported the exception of the +actual regicides from the Indemnity, but only ten out of the twenty-six +condemned were executed, and Clarendon, with the king's support, +prevented the passing of a bill in 1661 for the execution of thirteen +more. He upheld the Act of Indemnity against all the attempts of the +royalists to upset it. The conflicting claims to estates were left to be +decided by the law. The confiscations of the usurping government +accordingly were cancelled, while the properly executed transactions +between individuals were necessarily upheld. There can be little doubt +that the principle followed was the only safe one in the prevailing +confusion. Great injustice was indeed suffered by individuals, but the +proper remedy of such injustice was the benevolence of the king, which +there is too much reason to believe proved inadequate and partial. The +settlement of the church lands which was directed by Clarendon presented +equal difficulties and involved equal hardships. In settling Scotland +Clarendon's aim was to make that kingdom dependent upon England and to +uphold the Cromwellian union. He proposed to establish a council at +Whitehall to govern Scottish affairs, and showed great zeal in +endeavouring to restore episcopacy through the medium of Archbishop +Sharp. His influence, however, ended with the ascendancy of Lauderdale +in 1663. He was, to some extent at least, responsible for the settlement +in Ireland, but, while anxious for an establishment upon a solid +Protestant basis, urged "temper and moderation and justice" in securing +it. He supported Ormonde's wise and enlightened Irish administration, +and in particular opposed persistently the prohibition of the import of +Irish cattle into England, incurring thereby great unpopularity. He +showed great activity in the advancement of the colonies, to whom he +allowed full freedom of religion. He was a member of the council for +foreign plantations, and one of the eight lords proprietors of Carolina +in 1663; and in 1664 sent a commission to settle disputes in New +England. In the department of foreign affairs he had less influence. His +policy was limited to the maintenance of peace "necessary for the +reducing [the king's] own dominions into that temper of subjection and +obedience as they ought to be in."[13] In 1664 he demanded, on behalf of +Charles, French support, and a loan of L50,000 against disturbance at +home, and thus initiated that ignominious system of pensions and +dependence upon France which proved so injurious to English interests +later. But he was the promoter neither of the sale of Dunkirk on the +27th of October 1662, the author of which seems to have been the earl of +Sandwich,[14] nor of the Dutch War. He attached considerable value to +the possession of the former, but when its sale was decided he conducted +the negotiations and effected the bargain. He had zealously laboured for +peace with Holland, and had concluded a treaty for the settlement of +disputes on the 4th of September 1662. Commercial and naval jealousies, +however, soon involved the two states in hostilities. Cape Corso and +other Dutch possessions on the coast of Africa, and New Amsterdam in +America, were seized by squadrons from the royal navy in 1664, and +hostilities were declared on the 22nd of February 1665. Clarendon now +gave his support to the war, asserted the extreme claims of the English +crown over the British seas, and contemplated fresh cessions from the +Dutch and an alliance with Sweden and Spain. According to his own +account he initiated the policy of the Triple Alliance,[15] but it seems +clear that his inclination towards France continued in spite of the +intervention of the latter state in favour of Holland; and he took part +in the negotiations for ending the war by an undertaking with Louis XIV. +implying a neutrality, while the latter seized Flanders. The crisis in +this feeble foreign policy and in the general official mismanagement was +reached in June 1667, when the Dutch burnt several ships at Chatham and +when "the roar of foreign guns were heard for the first and last time by +the citizens of London."[16] + +The whole responsibility for the national calamity and disgrace, and for +the ignominious peace which followed it, was unjustly thrown on the +shoulders of Clarendon, though it must be admitted that the disjointed +state of the administration and want of control over foreign policy were +largely the causes of the disaster, and for these Clarendon's influence +and obstruction of official reforms were to some extent answerable. +According to Sir William Coventry, whose opinion has weight and who +acknowledges the chancellor's fidelity to the king, while Clarendon "was +so great at the council board and in the administration of matters, there +was no room for anybody to propose any remedy to what was remiss ... he +managing all things with that greatness which will now be removed."[17] He +disapproved of the system of boards and committees instituted during the +Commonwealth, as giving too much power to the parliament, and regarded the +administration by the great officers of state, to the exclusion of pure +men of business, as the only method compatible with the dignity and +security of the monarchy. The lowering of the prestige of the privy +council, and its subordination first to the parliament and afterwards to +the military faction, he considered as one of the chief causes of the fall +of Charles I. He aroused a strong feeling of hostility in the Commons by +his opposition to the appropriation of supplies in 1665, and to the audit +of the war accounts in 1666, as "an introduction to a commonwealth" and as +"a new encroachment," and by his high tone of prerogative and authority, +while by his advice to Charles to prorogue parliament he incurred their +resentment and gave colour to the accusation that he had advised the king +to govern without parliaments. He was unpopular among all classes, among +the royalists on account of the Act of Indemnity, among the Presbyterians +because of the Act of Uniformity. It was said that he had invented the +maxim "that the king should buy and reward his enemies and do little for +his friends, because they are his already."[18] Every kind of +maladministration was currently ascribed to him, of designs to govern by a +standing army, and of corruption. He was credited with having married +Charles purposely to a barren queen in order to raise his own +grandchildren to the throne, with having sold Dunkirk to France, and his +magnificent house in St James's was nicknamed "Dunkirk House," while on +the day of the Dutch attack on Chatham the mob set up a gibbet at his gate +and broke his windows. He had always been exceedingly unpopular at court, +and kept severely aloof from the revels and licence which reigned there. +Evelyn names "the buffoons and the misses to whom he was an eyesore."[19] +He was intensely disliked by the royal mistresses, whose favour he did not +condescend to seek, and whose presence and influence were often the +subject of his reproaches.[20] A party of younger men of the king's own +age, more congenial to his temperament, and eager to drive the old +chancellor from power and to succeed him in office, had for some time been +endeavouring to undermine his influence by ridicule and intrigue. +Surrounded by such general and violent animosity, Clarendon's only hope +could be in the support of the king. But the chancellor had early and +accurately gauged the nature and extent of the king's attachment to him, +which proceeded neither from affection nor gratitude but "from his +aversion to be troubled with the intricacies of his affairs," and in 1661 +he had resisted the importunities of Ormonde to resign the great seal for +the lord treasurership with the rank of "first minister," "a title newly +translated out of French into English," on account of the obloquy this +position would incur and the further dependence which it entailed upon the +inconstant king.[21] Charles, long weary of the old chancellor's rebukes, +was especially incensed at this time owing to his failure in securing +Frances Stuart (la Belle Stuart) for his seraglio, a disappointment which +he attributed to Clarendon, and was now alarmed by the hostility which his +administration had excited. He did not scruple to sacrifice at once the +old adherent of his house and fortunes. "The truth is," he wrote Ormonde, +"his behaviour and humour was grown so insupportable to myself and all the +world else that I could no longer endure it, and it was impossible for me +to live with it and do these things with the Parliament that must be done, +or the government will be lost."[22] By the direction of Charles, James +advised Clarendon to resign before the meeting of parliament, but in an +interview with the king on the 26th of August Clarendon refused to deliver +up the seal unless dismissed, and urged him not to take a step ruinous to +the interests both of the chancellor himself and of the crown.[23] He +could not believe his dismissal was really intended, but on the 30th of +August he was deprived of the great seal, for which the king received the +thanks of the parliament on the 16th of October. On the 12th of November +his impeachment, consisting of various charges of arbitrary government, +corruption and maladministration, was brought up to the Lords, but the +latter refused to order his committal, on the ground that the Commons had +only accused him of treason in general without specifying any particular +charge. Clarendon wrote humbly to the king asking for pardon, and that the +prosecution might be prevented, but Charles had openly taken part against +him, and, though desiring his escape, would not order or assist his +departure for fear of the Commons. Through the bishop of Hereford, +however, on the 29th of November he pressed Clarendon to fly, promising +that he should not during his absence suffer in his honour or fortune. +Clarendon embarked the same night for Calais, where he arrived on the 2nd +of December. The Lords immediately passed an act for his banishment and +ordered the petition forwarded by him to parliament to be burnt. + +The rest of Clarendon's life was passed in exile. He left Calais for +Rouen on the 25th of December, returning on the 21st of January 1668, +visiting the baths of Bourbon in April, thence to Avignon in June, +residing from July 1668 till June 1671 at Montpellier, whence he +proceeded to Moulins and to Rouen again in May 1674. His sudden +banishment entailed great personal hardships. His health at the time of +his flight was much impaired, and on arriving at Calais he fell +dangerously ill; and Louis XIV., anxious at this time to gain popularity +in England, sent him peremptory and repeated orders to quit France. He +suffered severely from gout, and during the greater part of his exile +could not walk without the aid of two men. At Evreux, on the 23rd of +April 1668, he was the victim of a murderous assault by English sailors, +who attributed to him the non-payment of their wages, and who were on +the point of despatching him when he was rescued by the guard. For some +time he was not allowed to see any of his children; even correspondence +with him was rendered treasonable by the Act of Banishment; and it was +not apparently till 1671, 1673 and 1674 that he received visits from his +sons, the younger, Lawrence Hyde, being present with him at his death. + +Clarendon bore his troubles with great dignity and fortitude. He found +consolation in religious duties, and devoted a portion of every day to +the composition of his _Contemplations on the Psalms_, and of his moral +essays. Removed effectually from the public scene, and from all share in +present politics, he turned his attention once more to the past and +finished his _History_ and his _Autobiography_. Soon after reaching +Calais he had written, on the 17th of December 1667, to the university +of Oxford, desiring as his last request that the university should +believe in his innocence and remember him, though there could be no +further mention of him in their public devotions, in their private +prayers.[24] In 1668 he wrote to the duke and duchess of York to +remonstrate on the report that they had turned Roman Catholic, to the +former urging "You cannot be without zeal for the Church to which your +blessed father made himself a sacrifice," adding that such a change +would bring a great storm against the Romanists. He entertained to the +last hopes of obtaining leave to return to England. He asked for +permission in June 1671 and in August 1674. In the dedication of his +_Brief View of Mr Hobbes's Book Leviathan_ he repeats "the hope which +sustains my weak, decayed spirits that your Majesty will at some time +call to your remembrance my long and incorrupted fidelity to your person +and your service"; but his petitions were not even answered or noticed. +He died at Rouen on the 9th of December 1674. He was buried in +Westminster Abbey at the foot of the steps at the entrance to Henry +VII.'s chapel. He left two sons, Henry, 2nd earl of Clarendon, and +Lawrence, earl of Rochester, his daughter Anne, duchess of York, and a +third son, Edward, having predeceased him. His male descendants became +extinct on the death of the 4th earl of Clarendon and 2nd earl of +Rochester in 1753, the title of Clarendon being revived in 1776 in the +person of Thomas Villiers, who had married the granddaughter and heir of +the last earl. + +As a statesman Clarendon had obvious limitations and failings. He +brought to the consideration of political questions an essentially legal +but also a narrow mind, conceiving the law, "that great and admirable +mystery," and the constitution as fixed, unchangeable and sufficient for +all time, in contrast to Pym, who regarded them as living organisms +capable of continual development and evolution; and he was incapable of +comprehending and governing the new conditions and forces created by the +civil wars. His character, however, and therefore to some extent his +career, bear the indelible marks of greatness. He left the popular cause +at the moment of its triumph and showed in so doing a strict +consistency. In a court degraded by licence and self-indulgence, he +maintained his self-respect and personal dignity regardless of +consequences, and in an age of almost universal corruption and +self-seeking he preserved a noble integrity and patriotism. At the +Restoration he showed great moderation in accepting rewards. He refused +a grant of 10,000 acres in the Fens from the king on the ground that it +would create an evil precedent, and amused Charles and James by his +indignation at the offer of a present of L10,000 from the French +minister Fouquet, the only present he accepted from Louis XIV. being a +set of books printed at the Louvre. His income, however, as lord +chancellor was very large, and Clarendon maintained considerable state, +considering it due to the dignity of the monarchy that the high officers +should carry the external marks of greatness. The house built by him in +St James's was one of the most magnificent ever seen in England, and was +filled with a collection of portraits, chiefly those of contemporary +statesmen and men of letters. It cost Clarendon L50,000, involved him +deeply in debt and was considered one of the chief causes of the "gust +of envy" that caused his fall.[25] He is described as "a fair, ruddy, +fat, middle-statured, handsome man," and his appearance was stately and +dignified. He expected deference from his inferiors, and one of the +chief charges which he brought against the party of the young +politicians was the want of respect with which they treated himself and +the lord treasurer. His industry and devotion to public business, of +which proofs still remain in the enormous mass of his state papers and +correspondence, were exemplary, and were rendered all the more +conspicuous by the negligence, inferiority in business, and frivolity of +his successors. As lord chancellor Clarendon made no great impression in +the court of chancery. His early legal training had long been +interrupted, and his political preoccupations probably rendered +necessary the delegation of many of his judicial duties to others. +According to Speaker Onslow his decrees were always made with the aid of +two judges. Burnet praises him, however, as "a very good chancellor, +only a little too rough but very impartial in the administration of +justice," and Pepys, who saw him presiding in his court, perceived him +to be "a most able and ready man."[26] According to Evelyn, "though no +considerable lawyer" he was "one who kept up the fame and substance of +things in the nation with ... solemnity." He made good appointments to +the bench and issued some important orders for the reform of abuses in +his court.[27] As chancellor of Oxford University, to which office he +was elected on the 27th of October 1660, Clarendon promoted the +restoration of order and various educational reforms. In 1753 his +manuscripts were left to the university by his great-grandson Lord +Cornbury, and in 1868 the money gained by publication was spent in +erecting the Clarendon Laboratory, the profits of the _History_ having +provided in 1713 a building for the university press adjoining the +Sheldonian theatre, known since the removal of the press to its present +quarters as the Clarendon Building. + +Clarendon had risen to high office largely through his literary and +oratorical gifts. His eloquence was greatly admired by Evelyn and +Pepys, though Burnet criticises it as too copious. He was a great lover +of books and collected a large library, was well read in the Roman and +in the contemporary histories both foreign and English, and could +appreciate Carew, Ben Jonson and Cowley. As a writer and historian +Clarendon occupies a high place in English literature. His great work, +the _History of the Rebellion_, is composed in the grand style. A +characteristic feature is the wonderful series of well-known portraits, +drawn with great skill and liveliness and especially praised by Evelyn +and by Macaulay. The long digressions, the lengthy sentences, and the +numerous parentheses do not accord with modern taste and usage, but it +may be observed that these often follow more closely the natural +involutions of the thought, and express the argument more clearly, than +the short disconnected sentences, now generally employed, while in +rhythm and dignity Clarendon's style is immeasurably superior. The +composition, however, of the work as a whole is totally wanting in +proportion, and the book is overloaded with state papers, misplaced and +tedious in the narrative. In considering the accuracy of the history it +is important to remember the dates and circumstances of the composition +of its various portions. The published _History_ is mainly a compilation +of two separate original manuscripts, the first being the history +proper, written between 1646 and 1648, with the advantage of a fresh +memory and the help of various documents and authorities, and ending in +March 1644, and the second being the _Life_, extending from 1609 to +1660, but composed long afterwards in exile and without the aid of +papers between 1668 and 1670. The value of any statement, therefore, in +the published _History_ depends chiefly on whether it is taken from the +_History_ proper or the _Life_. In 1671 these two manuscripts were +united by Clarendon with certain alterations and modifications making +Books i.-vii. of the published _History_, while Books viii.-xv. were +written subsequently, and, being composed for the most part without +materials, are generally inaccurate, with the notable exception of Book +ix., made up from two narratives written at Jersey in 1646, and +containing very little from the _Life_. Sincerity and honest conviction +are present on every page, and the inaccuracies are due not to wilful +misrepresentation, but to failure of memory and to the disadvantages +under which the author laboured in exile. But they lessen considerably +the value of his work, and detract from his reputation as chronicler of +contemporary events, for which he was specially fitted by his practical +experience in public business, a qualification declared by himself to be +the "genius, spirit and soul of an historian." In general, Clarendon, +like many of his contemporaries, failed signally to comprehend the real +issues and principles at stake in the great struggle, laying far too +much stress on personalities and never understanding the real aims and +motives of the Presbyterian party. The work was first published in +1702-1704 from a copy of a transcript made by Clarendon's secretary, +with a few unimportant alterations, and was the object of a violent +attack by John Oldmixon for supposed changes and omissions in _Clarendon +and Whitelocke compared_ (1727) and again in a preface to his _History +of England_ (1730), repelled and refuted by John Burton in the +_Genuineness of Lord Clarendon's History Vindicated_ (1744). The history +was first published from the original in 1826; the best edition being +that of 1888 edited by W.D. Macray and issued by the Clarendon Press. +_The Lord Clarendon's History ... Compleated_, a supplement containing +portraits and illustrative papers, was published in 1717, and _An +Appendix to the History_, containing a life, speeches and various +pieces, in 1724. The _Sutherland Clarendon_ in the Bodleian library at +Oxford contains several thousand portraits and illustrations of the +_History_. _The Life of Edward, earl of Clarendon ... [and the] +Continuation of the History ..._, the first consisting of that portion +of the _Life_ not included in the _History_, and the second of the +account of Clarendon's administration and exile in France, begun in +1672, was published in 1759, the _History of the Reign of King Charles +II. from the Restoration ..._, published about 1755, being a +surreptitious edition of this work, of which the latest and best edition +is that of the Clarendon Press of 1857. + +Clarendon was also the author of _The Difference and Disparity between +the Estate and Condition of George, duke of Buckingham and Robert, earl +of Essex_, a youthful production vindicating Buckingham, printed in +_Reliquiae Wottonianae_ (1672), i. 184; _Animadversions on a Book +entitled Fanaticism_ (1673); _A Brief View ... of the dangerous ... +errors in ... Mr Hobbes's book entitled "Leviathan"_ (1676); _The +History of the Rebellion and Civil War in Ireland_ (1719); _A Collection +of Several Pieces of Edward, earl of Clarendon_, containing reprints of +speeches from the journals of the House of Lords and of the History of +the Rebellion in Ireland (1727); _A Collection of Several Tracts_ +containing his _Vindication_ in answer to his impeachment, _Reflections +upon several Christian Duties, Two Dialogues on Education and on the +want of Respect due to age_, and _Contemplations on the Psalms_ (1727); +_Religion and Policy_ (1811); _Essays moral and entertaining on the +various faculties and passions of the human mind_ (1815, and in _British +Prose Writers_, 1819, vol. i.); _Speeches_ in _Rushworth's Collections_ +(1692), pt. iii. vol. i. 230, 333; _Declarations and Manifestos_ +(Clarendon being the author of nearly all on the king's side between +March 1642 and March 1645, the first being the answer to the Grand +Remonstrance in January 1642, but not of the answer to the XIX. +Propositions or the apology for the King's attack upon Brentford) in the +published _History_, Rushworth's _Collections_, E. Husband's +_Collections of Ordinances and Declarations_ (1646), _Old Parliamentary +History_ (1751-1762), _Somers Tracts, State Tracts, Harleian Miscellany, +Thomasson Tracts_ (Brit. Mus.), E. 157 (14); and a large number of +anonymous pamphlets aimed against the parliament, including +_Transcendent and Multiplied Rebellion and Treason_ (1645), _A Letter +from a True and Lawful Member of Parliament ... to one of the Lords of +his Highness's Council_ (1656), and _Two Speeches made in the House of +Peers on Monday 19th Dec._ [1642] ... (_Somers Tracts_, Scott, vi. 576); +_Second Thoughts_ (n.d., in favour of a limited toleration) is ascribed +to him in the Catalogue in the British Museum; _A Letter ... to one of +the Chief Ministers of the Nonconforming Party_ ... (Saumur, 7th May +1674) has been attributed to him on insufficient evidence. + +Clarendon's correspondence, amounting to over 100 volumes, is in the +Bodleian library at Oxford, and other letters are to be found in +_Additional MSS._ in the British Museum. Selections have been published +under the title of _State Papers Collected by Edward, earl of Clarendon_ +(Clarendon State Papers) between 1767 and 1786, and the collection has +been calendared up to 1657 in 1869, 1872, 1876. Other letters of +Clarendon are to be found in Lister's _Life of Clarendon, iii.; Nicholas +Papers_ (Camden Soc., 1886); _Diary_ of J. Evelyn, _appendix_; Sir R. +Fanshaw's _Original Letters_ (1724); Warburton's _Life of Prince Rupert_ +(1849): Barwick's _Life of Barwick_ (1724); _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 10th Rep. +pt. vi. pp. 193-216, and in the _Harleian Miscellany_. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Clarendon's autobiographical works and Letters + enumerated above, and the MS. Collection in the Bodleian library. The + Lives of Clarendon by T.H. Lister (1838), and by C.H. Firth in the + _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ (with authorities there collected), + completely supersede all earlier accounts including that in _Lives of + All the Lord Chancellors_ (1708), in Macdiarmid's _Lives of British + Statesmen_ (1807), and in the different Lives by Wood in _Athenae + Oxonienses_ (Bliss), iii. 1018; while those in J.H. Browne's _Lives of + the Prime Ministers of England_ (1858), in Lodge's _Portraits_, in + Lord Campbell's _Lives of the Chancellors_, iii. 110 (1845), and in + Foss's _Judges_, supply no further information. In _Historical + Inquiries respecting the Character of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon_, + various charges against Clarendon were collected by G.A. Ellis (1827) + and answered by Lister, vol. ii. 529, and by Lady Th. Lewis in _Lives + of the Contemporaries of Lord Clarendon_ (1852), i. preface pt. i. For + criticisms of the _History_ see Gardiner's _Civil Wars_ (1893), iii. + 121; Ranke's _Hist. of England_, vi. 3-29; _Die Politik Karls des + Ersten_ ... _und Lord Clarendon's Darstellung_, by A. Buff (1868); + article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ by C.H. Firth, and especially a + series of admirable articles by the same author in the _Eng. Hist. + Review_ (1904). For description of the MS., Macray's edition of the + _History_ (1888), Lady Th. Lewis's _Lives from the Clarendon Gallery_, + i. introd. pt. ii.; for list of earlier editions, _Ath. Oxon._ (Bliss) + iii. 1017. Lord Lansdowne defends Sir R. Granville against Clarendon's + strictures in the _Vindication (Genuine Works of G. Granville, Lord + Lansdowne, i. 503 [1732])_, and Lord Ashburnham defends John + Ashburnham in _A Narrative by John Ashburnham_ (1830). See also _Notes + at Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and the Earl of + Clarendon_ (Roxburghe Club. 1896); _General Orders of the High Court + of Chancery_, by J. Beames (1815), 147-221; S.R. Gardiner's _Hist. of + England, of the Civil War and of the Commonwealth; Lord Clarendon_, by + A. Chassant (account of the assault at Evreux) (1891); _Annals of the + Bodleian Library_, by W.D. Macray (1868); Masson's _Life of Milton_; + _Life of Sir G. Savile_, by H.C. Foxcroft (1898); _Cal. of St. Pap. + Dom._, esp. 1667-1668, 58, 354, 370; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, MSS. of + J.M. Heathcote_ and _Various Collections_, vol. ii.; _Add. MSS._ in + the British Museum; _Notes and Queries_, 6 ser. v. 283, 9 ser. xi. + 182, 1 ser. ix. 7; Pepys's _Diary_; J. Evelyn's _Diary and + Correspondence_; Gen. Catalogue in British Museum; _Edward Hyde, earl + of Clarendon_ (1909), a lecture delivered at Oxford during the + Clarendon centenary by C.H. Firth. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Life_, i. 25. + + [2] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, iii. 164, the account being + substantially accepted by Gardiner, in spite of inaccuracies in + details (_Hist._ ix. 341, note). + + [3] _Clarendon St. Pap._ ii. 337. + + [4] Ibid. + + [5] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, xiii. 140. + + [6] _Clarendon State Papers_, iii. 316, 325, 341, 343. + + [7] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham_, 227. + + [8] Anne Hyde (1637-1671), eldest daughter of the chancellor, was the + mother by James of Queen Mary and Queen Anne, besides six other + children, including four sons who all died in infancy. She became a + Roman Catholic in 1670 shortly before her death, and was buried in + the vault of Mary, queen of Scots, in Henry VII.'s chapel in + Westminster Abbey. + + [9] See _Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various Collections_, ii. 118, and _MSS. + of Duke of Somerset_, 94. + + [10] _Continuation_, 339. + + [11] Ib. 511, 776. + + [12] Lister's _Life of Clarendon_, ii. 295; _Hist. MSS. Comm.: + Various Collections_, ii. 379. + + [13] _Continuation_, 1170. + + [14] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham_, 250. + + [15] _Continuation_, 1066. + + [16] Macaulay's _Hist. of England_, i. 193. + + [17] Pepys's _Diary_, Sept. 2, 1667. + + [18] _Hist. MSS. Comm._, 7th Rep. 162. + + [19] _Diary_, iii. 95, 96. + + [20] _Lives from the Clarendon Gallery_, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 39; + Burnet's _Hist. of his own Times_, i. 209. + + [21] _Continuation_, 88. + + [22] Lister's _Life of Clarendon_, ii. 416. + + [23] _Continuation_, 1137. + + [24] _Clarendon St. Pap._ iii. Suppl. xxxvii. + + [25] Evelyn witnessed its demolition in 1683--_Diary_, May 19th, Sept. + 18th; _Lives from the Clarendon Gallery_, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 40. + + [26] _Diary_, July 14th, 1664. + + [27] _Lister_, ii. 528. + + + + +CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS, 4TH EARL OF (in the +Villiers line) (1800-1870), English diplomatist and statesman, was born +in London on the 12th of January 1800. He was the eldest son of Hon. +George Villiers (1750-1827), youngest son of the 1st earl of Clarendon +(second creation), by Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord +Boringdon, and granddaughter of the first Lord Grantham. The earldom of +the lord chancellor Clarendon became extinct in the Hyde line by the +death of the 4th earl, his last male descendant. Jane Hyde, countess of +Essex, the sister of that nobleman (she died in 1724), left two +daughters; of these the eldest, Lady Charlotte, became heiress of the +Hyde family. She married Thomas Villiers (1709-1786), second son of the +2nd earl of Jersey, who served with distinction as English minister in +Germany, and in 1776 the earldom of Clarendon was revived in his favour. +The connexion with the Hyde family was therefore in the female line and +somewhat remote. But a portion of the pictures and plate of the great +chancellor was preserved to this branch of the family, and remains at +The Grove, their family seat at Hertfordshire. The 2nd and 3rd earls +were sons of the 1st, and, neither of them having sons, the title +passed, on the death of the 3rd earl (John Charles) in 1838, to their +younger brother's son. + +Young George Villiers entered upon life in circumstances which gave +small promise of the brilliancy of his future career. He was well born; +he was heir presumptive to an earldom; and his mother was a woman of +great energy, admirable good sense, and high feeling. But the means of +his family were contracted; his education was desultory and incomplete; +he had not the advantages of a training either at a public school or in +the House of Commons. He went up to Cambridge at the early age of +sixteen, and entered St John's College on the 29th of June 1816. In +1820, as the eldest son of an earl's brother with royal descent, he was +enabled to take his M.A. degree under the statutes of the university +then in force. In the same year he was appointed attache to the British +embassy at St Petersburg, where he remained three years, and gained that +practical knowledge of diplomacy which was of so much use to him in +after-life. He had received from nature a singularly handsome person, a +polished and engaging address, a ready command of languages, and a +remarkable power of composition. + +Upon his return to England in 1823 he was appointed to a +commissionership of customs, an office which he retained for about ten +years. In 1831 he was despatched to France to negotiate a commercial +treaty, which, however, led to no result. On the 16th of August 1833 he +was appointed minister at the court of Spain. Ferdinand VII. died within +a month of his arrival at Madrid, and the infant queen Isabella, then in +the third year of her age, was placed by the old Spanish law of female +inheritance on her contested throne. Don Carlos, the late king's +brother, claimed the crown by virtue of the Salic law of the House of +Bourbon which Ferdinand had renounced before the birth of his daughter. +Isabella II. and her mother Christina, the queen regent, became the +representatives of constitutional monarchy, Don Carlos of Catholic +absolutism. The conflict which had divided the despotic and the +constitutional powers of Europe since the French Revolution of 1830 +broke out into civil war in Spain, and by the Quadruple Treaty, signed +on the 22nd of April 1834, France and England pledged themselves to the +defence of the constitutional thrones of Spain and Portugal. For six +years Villiers continued to give the most active and intelligent support +to the Liberal government of Spain. He was accused, though unjustly, of +having favoured the revolution of La Granja, which drove Christina, the +queen mother, out of the kingdom, and raised Espartero to the regency. +He undoubtedly supported the chiefs of the Liberal party, such as +Espartero, against the intrigues of the French court; but the object of +the British government was to establish the throne of Isabella on a +truly national and liberal basis and to avert those complications, +dictated by foreign influence, which eventually proved so fatal to that +princess. Villiers received the grand cross of the Bath in 1838 in +acknowledgment of his services, and succeeded, on the death of his +uncle, to the title of earl of Clarendon; in the following year, having +left Madrid, he married Katharine, eldest daughter of James Walter, +first earl of Verulam. + +In January 1840 he entered Lord Melbourne's administration as lord privy +seal, and from the death of Lord Holland in the autumn of that year Lord +Clarendon also held the office of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster +until the dissolution of the ministry in 1841. Deeply convinced that the +maintenance of a cordial understanding with France was the most +essential condition of peace and of a liberal policy in Europe, he +reluctantly concurred in the measures proposed by Lord Palmerston for +the expulsion of the pasha of Egypt from Syria; he strenuously +advocated, with Lord Holland, a more conciliatory policy towards France; +and he was only restrained from sending in his resignation by the +dislike he felt to break up a cabinet he had so recently joined. + +The interval of Sir Robert Peel's great administration (1841-1846) was +to the leaders of the Whig party a period of repose; but Lord Clarendon +took the warmest interest in the triumph of the principles of free trade +and in the repeal of the corn-laws, of which his brother, Charles Pelham +Villiers (q.v.), had been one of the earliest champions. For this +reason, upon the formation of Lord John Russell's first administration, +Lord Clarendon accepted the office of president of the Board of Trade. +Twice in his career the governor-generalship of India was offered him, +and once the governor-generalship of Canada;--these he refused from +reluctance to withdraw from the politics of Europe. But in 1847 a sense +of duty compelled him to take a far more laborious and uncongenial +appointment. The desire of the cabinet was to abolish the +lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, and Lord Clarendon was prevailed upon to +accept that office, with a view to transform it ere long into an Irish +secretaryship of state. But he had not been many months in Dublin before +he acknowledged that the difficulties then existing in Ireland could +only be met by the most vigilant and energetic authority, exercised on +the spot. The crisis was one of extraordinary peril. Agrarian crimes of +horrible atrocity had increased threefold. The Catholic clergy were +openly disaffected. This was the second year of the Irish famine, and +extraordinary measures were required to regulate the bounty of the +government and the nation. In 1848 the revolution in France let loose +fresh elements of discord, which culminated in an abortive insurrection, +and for a lengthened period Ireland was a prey to more than her wonted +symptoms of disaffection and disorder. Lord Clarendon remained viceroy +of Ireland till 1852, and left behind him permanent marks of +improvement. His services were expressly acknowledged in the queen's +speech to both Houses of Parliament on the 5th of September 1848--this +being the first time that any _civil_ services obtained that honour; and +he was made a knight of the Garter (retaining also the grand cross of +the Bath by special order) on the 23rd of March 1849. + +Upon the formation of the coalition ministry between the Whigs and the +Peelites, in 1853, under Lord Aberdeen, Lord Clarendon became foreign +minister. The country was already "drifting" into the Crimean War, an +expression of his own which was never forgotten. Clarendon was not +responsible for the policy which brought war about; but when it occurred +he employed every means in his power to stimulate and assist the war +departments, and above all he maintained the closest relations with the +French. The tsar Nicholas had speculated on the impossibility of the +sustained joint action of France and England in council and in the +field. It was mainly by Lord Clarendon at Whitehall and by Lord Raglan +before Sevastopol that such a combination was rendered practicable, and +did eventually triumph over the enemy. The diplomatic conduct of such an +alliance for three years between two great nations jealous of their +military honour and fighting for no separate political advantage, tried +by excessive hardships and at moments on the verge of defeat, was +certainly one of the most arduous duties ever performed by a minister. +The result was due in the main to the confidence with which Lord +Clarendon had inspired the emperor of the French, and to the affection +and regard of the empress, whom he had known in Spain from her +childhood. + +In 1856 Lord Clarendon took his seat at the congress of Paris convoked +for the restoration of peace, as first British plenipotentiary. It was +the first time since the appearance of Lord Castlereagh at Vienna that a +secretary of state for foreign affairs had been present in person at a +congress on the continent. Lord Clarendon's first care was to obtain the +admission of Italy to the council chamber as a belligerent power, and to +raise the barrier which still excluded Prussia as a neutral one. But in +the general anxiety of all the powers to terminate the war there was no +small danger that the objects for which it had been undertaken would be +abandoned or forgotten. It is due entirely to the firmness of Lord +Clarendon that the principle of the neutralization of the Black Sea was +preserved, that the Russian attempt to trick the allies out of the +cession in Bessarabia was defeated, and that the results of the war were +for a time secured. The congress was eager to turn to other subjects, +and perhaps the most important result of its deliberations was the +celebrated Declaration of the Maritime Powers, which abolished +privateering, defined the right of blockade, and limited the right of +capture to enemy's property in enemy's ships. Lord Clarendon has been +accused of an abandonment of what are termed the belligerent rights of +Great Britain, which were undoubtedly based on the old maritime laws of +Europe. But he acted in strict conformity with the views of the British +cabinet, and the British cabinet adopted those views because it was +satisfied that it was not for the benefit of the country to adhere to +practices which exposed the vast mercantile interests of Britain to +depredation, even by the cruisers of a secondary maritime power, and +which, if vigorously enforced against neutrals, could not fail to +embroil her with every maritime state in the world. + +Upon the reconstitution of the Whig administration in 1859, Lord John +Russell made it a condition of his acceptance of office under Lord +Palmerston that the foreign department should be placed in his own +hands, which implied that Lord Clarendon should be excluded from office, +as it would have been inconsistent alike with his dignity and his tastes +to fill any other post in the government. The consequence was that from +1859 till 1864 Lord Clarendon remained out of office, and the critical +relations arising out of the Civil War in the United States were left to +the guidance of Earl Russell. But he re-entered the cabinet in May 1864 +as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; and upon the death of Lord +Palmerston in 1865, Lord Russell again became prime minister, when Lord +Clarendon returned to the foreign office, which was again confided to +him for the third time upon the formation of Mr Gladstone's +administration in 1868. To the last moment of his existence, Lord +Clarendon continued to devote every faculty of his mind and every +instant of his life to the public service; and he expired surrounded by +the boxes and papers of his office on the 27th of June 1870. No man owed +more to the influence of a generous, unselfish and liberal disposition. +If he had rivals he never ceased to treat them with the consideration +and confidence of friends, and he cared but little for the ordinary +prizes of ambition in comparison with the advancement of the cause of +peace and progress. + +He was succeeded as 5th earl by his eldest son, EDWARD HYDE VILLIERS (b. +1846), who became lord chamberlain in 1900. + + See also the article (by Henry Reeve) in _Fraser's Magazine_, August + 1876. + + + + +CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE, 2ND EARL OF (1638-1709), English statesman, +eldest son of the first earl, was born on the 2nd of June 1638. He +accompanied his parents into exile and assisted his father as +secretary, returning with them in 1660. In 1661 he was returned to +parliament for Wiltshire as Lord Cornbury. He became secretary in 1662 +and lord chamberlain to the queen in 1665. He took no part in the life +of the court, and on the dismissal of his father became a vehement +opponent of the administration, defended his father in the impeachment, +and subsequently made effective attacks upon Buckingham and Arlington. +In 1674 he became earl of Clarendon by his father's death, and in 1679 +was made a privy councillor. He was not included in Sir W. Temple's +council of that year, but was reappointed in 1680. In 1682 he supported +Halifax's proposal of declaring war on France. On the accession of James +in 1685 he was appointed lord privy seal, but shortly afterwards, in +September, was removed from this office to that of lord-lieutenant of +Ireland. Clarendon was embarrassed in his estate, and James required a +willing agent to carry out his design by upsetting the Protestant +government and the Act of Settlement. Clarendon arrived in Dublin on the +9th of January 1686. He found himself completely in the power of +Tyrconnel, the commander-in-chief; and though, like his father, a +staunch Protestant, elected this year high steward of Oxford University, +and detesting the king's policy, he obeyed his orders to introduce Roman +Catholics into the government and the army and upon the bench, and clung +to office till after the dismissal of his brother, the earl of +Rochester, in January 1687, when he was recalled and succeeded by +Tyrconnel. He now supported the church in its struggle with James, +opposed the Declaration of Indulgence, wrote to Mary an account of the +resistance of the bishops,[1] and visited and advised the latter in the +Tower. He had no share, however, in inviting William to England. He +assured James in September that the Church would be loyal, advised the +calling of the parliament, and on the desertion of his son, Lord +Cornbury, to William on the 14th of November, expressed to the king and +queen the most poignant grief. In the council held on the 27th, however, +he made a violent and unseasonable attack upon James's conduct, and on +the 1st of December set out to meet William, joined him on the 3rd at +Berwick near Salisbury, and was present at the conference at Hungerford +on the 8th, and again at Windsor on the 16th. His wish was apparently to +effect some compromise, saving the crown for James. According to Burnet, +he advised sending James to Breda, and according to the duchess of +Marlborough to the Tower, but he himself denies these statements.[2] He +opposed vehemently the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary, +voted for the regency, and refused to take the oaths of the new +sovereigns, remaining a non-juror for the rest of his life. He +subsequently retired to the country, engaged in cabals against the +government, associated himself with Richard Graham, Lord Preston, and +organizing a plot against William, was arrested on the 24th of June 1690 +by order of his niece, Queen Mary, and placed in the Tower. Liberated on +the 15th of August, he immediately recommenced his intrigues. On +Preston's arrest on the 31st of December, a compromising letter from +Clarendon was found upon him, and he was named by Preston as one of his +accomplices. He was examined before the privy council and again +imprisoned in the Tower on the 4th of January 1691, remaining in +confinement till the 3rd of July. This closed his public career. In +1702, on Queen Anne's accession, he presented himself at court, "to talk +to his niece," but the queen refused to see him till he had taken the +oaths. He died on the 31st of October 1709, and was buried in +Westminster Abbey. + +His public career had been neither distinguished nor useful, but it +seems natural to ascribe its failure to small abilities and to the +conflict between personal ties and political convictions which drew him +in opposite directions, rather than, following Macaulay, to motives of +self-interest. He was a man of some literary taste, a fellow of the +Royal Society (1684), the author of _The History and Antiquities of the +Cathedral Church of Winchester ... continued by S. Gale_ (1715), and he +collaborated with his brother Rochester in the publication of his +father's _History_ (1702-1704). He married (1) in 1660, Theodosia, +daughter of Lord Capel, and (2) in 1670, Flower, daughter of William +Backhouse of Swallowfield in Berkshire, and widow of William Bishopp and +of Sir William Backhouse, Bart. He was succeeded by his only son, Edward +(1661-1724), as 3rd earl of Clarendon; and, the latter having no +surviving son, the title passed to Henry, 2nd earl of Rochester +(1672-1753), at whose death without male heirs it became extinct in the +Hyde line. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of the Duke of Buccleuch_, ii. 31. + + [2] _Correspondence and Diary_ (1828), ii. 286. + + + + +CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF, a body of English laws issued at Clarendon +in 1164, by which Henry II. endeavoured to settle the relations between +Church and State. Though they purported to declare the usages on the +subject which prevailed in the reign of Henry I. they were never +accepted by the clergy, and were formally renounced by the king at +Avranches in September 1172. Some of them, however, were in part at +least, as they all purported to be, declaratory of ancient usage and +remained in force after the royal renunciation. Of the sixteen +provisions the one which provoked the greatest opposition was that which +declared in effect that criminous clerks were to be summoned to the +king's court, and from there, after formal accusation and defence, sent +to the proper ecclesiastical court for trial. If found guilty they were +to be degraded and sent back to the king's court for punishment. Another +provision, which in spite of all opposition obtained a permanent place +in English law, declared that all suits even between clerk and clerk +concerning advowsons and presentations should be tried in the king's +court. By other provisions appeals to Rome without the licence of the +king were forbidden. None of the clergy were to leave the realm, nor +were the king's tenants-in-chief and ministers to be excommunicated or +their lands interdicted without the royal permission. Pleas of debt, +whether involving a question of good faith or not, were to be in the +jurisdiction of the king's courts. Two most interesting provisions, to +which the clergy offered no opposition, were: (1) if a dispute arose +between a clerk and a layman concerning a tenement which the clerk +claimed as free-alms (frankalmoign) and the layman as a lay-fee, it +should be determined by the recognition of twelve lawful men before the +king's justice whether it belonged to free-alms or lay-fee, and if it +were found to belong to free-alms then the plea was to be held in the +ecclesiastical court, but if to lay-fee, in the court of the king or of +one of his magnates; (2) a declaration of the procedure for election to +bishoprics and royal abbeys, generally considered to state the terms of +the settlement made between Henry I. and Anselm in 1107. + + AUTHORITIES.--J.C. Robertson, _Materials for History of Thomas + Becket_, Rolls Series (1875-1885); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland, + _History of English Law before the Time of Ed. I._ (Cambridge, 1898), + and F.W. Maitland, _Roman Canon Law in the Church of England_ (1898); + the text of the Constitutions is printed by W. Stubbs in _Select + Charters_ (Oxford, 1895). (G.J.T.) + + + + +CLARES, POOR, otherwise _Clarisses_, Franciscan nuns, so called from +their foundress, St Clara (q.v.). She was professed by St Francis in the +Portiuncula in 1212, and two years later she and her first companions +were established in the convent of St Damian's at Assisi. The nuns +formed the "Second Order of St Francis," the friars being the "First +Order," and the Tertiaries (q.v.) the "Third." Before Clara's death in +1253, the Second Order had spread all over Italy and into Spain, France +and Germany; in England they were introduced c. 1293 and established in +London, outside Aldgate, where their name of Minoresses survives in the +Minories; there were only two other English houses before the +Dissolution. St Francis gave the nuns no rule, but only a "Form of Life" +and a "Last Will," each only five lines long, and coming to no more than +an inculcation of his idea of evangelical poverty. Something more than +this became necessary as soon as the institute began to spread; and +during Francis's absence in the East, 1219, his supporter Cardinal +Hugolino composed a rule which made the Franciscan nuns practically a +species of unduly strict Benedictines, St Francis's special +characteristics being eliminated. St Clara made it her life work to have +this rule altered, and to get the Franciscan character of the Second +Order restored; in 1247 a "Second Rule" was approved which went a long +way towards satisfying her desires, and finally in 1253 a "Third," +which practically gave what she wanted. This rule has come to be known +as the "Rule of the Clares"; it is one of great poverty, seclusion and +austerity of life. Most of the convents adopted it, but several clung to +that of 1247. To bring about conformity, St Bonaventura, while general +(1264), obtained papal permission to modify the rule of 1253, somewhat +mitigating its austerities and allowing the convents to have fixed +incomes,--thus assimilating them to the Conventual Franciscans as +opposed to the Spirituals. This rule was adopted in many convents, but +many more adhered to the strict rule of 1253. Indeed a counter-tendency +towards a greater strictness set in, and a number of reforms were +initiated, introducing an appalling austerity of life. The most +important of these reforms were the Coletines (St Colette, c. 1400) and +the Capucines (c. 1540; see CAPUCHINS). The half-dozen forms of the +Franciscan rule for women here mentioned are still in use in different +convents, and there are also a great number of religious institutes for +women based on the rule of the Tertiaries. By the term "Poor Clares" the +Coletine nuns are now commonly understood; there are various convents of +these nuns, as of other Franciscans, in England and Ireland. Franciscan +nuns have always been very numerous; there are now about 150 convents of +the various observances of the Second Order, in every part of the world, +besides innumerable institutions of Tertiaries. + + See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), vii. cc. 25-28 and + 38-42; Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Clara"; Max + Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. Sec.Sec. 47, 48, who gives + references to all the literature. For a scientific study of the + beginnings see Lempp, "Die Anfaenge des Klarissenordens" in + _Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte_, xiii. (1892), 181 ff. (E.C.B.) + + + + +CLARET (from the Fr. _vin claret_, mod. _clairet_, wine of a light clear +colour, from Lat. _clarus_, clear), the English name for the red +Bordeaux wines. The term was originally used in France for light-yellow +or light-red wines, as distinguished from the _vins rouges_ and the +_vins blancs_; later it was applied to red wines generally, but is +rarely used in French, and never with the particular English meaning +(see WINE). + + + + +CLARETIE, JULES ARSENE ARNAUD (1840- ), French man of letters and +director of the Theatre Francais, was born at Limoges on the 3rd of +December 1840. After studying at the lycee Bonaparte in Paris, he became +an active journalist, achieving great success as dramatic critic to the +_Figaro_ and to the _Opinion nationale_. He was a newspaper +correspondent during the Franco-German War, and during the Commune acted +as staff-officer in the National Guard. In 1885 he became director of +the Theatre Francais, and from that time devoted his time chiefly to its +administration. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1888, and took +his seat in February 1889, being received by Ernest Renan. The long list +of his works includes _Histoire de la revolution de 1870-1871_ (new ed., +5 vols., 1875-1876); _Cinq ans apres; l'Alsace et la Lorraine depuis +l'annexion_ (1876); some annual volumes of reprints of his articles in +the weekly press, entitled _La Vie a Paris; La Vie moderne au theatre_ +(1868-1869); _Moliere, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1871); _Histoire de la +litterature francaise, 900-1900_ (2nd ed. 1905); _Candidat!_ (1887), a +novel of contemporary life; _Brichanteau, comedien francais_ (1896); +several plays, some of which are based on novels of his own--_Les +Muscadins_ (1874), _Le Regiment de Champagne_ (1877), _Les Mirabeau_ +(1879), _Monsieur le ministre_ (1883), and others; and the opera, _La +Navarraise_, based on his novel _La Cigarette_, and written with Henri +Cain to the music of Massenet. _La Navarraise_ was first produced at +Covent Garden (June 1894) with Mme Calve in the part of Anita. His +_OEuvres completes_ were published in 1897-1904. + + + + +CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA, Italian musical composer, chapel-master at +Pistoia, was born at Pisa about the year 1669. The time of his death is +unknown. He was the most celebrated pupil of Colonna, chapel-master of +S. Petronio, at Bologna. He became _maestro di cappella_ at Pistoia +about 1712, at Bologna in 1720, and at Pisa in 1736. He is supposed to +have died about 1745. The works by which Clari distinguished himself +pre-eminently are his vocal duets and trios, with a _basso continuo_, +published between 1740 and 1747. These compositions, which combine +graceful melody with contrapuntal learning, were much admired by +Cherubini. They appear to have been admired by Handel also, since he did +not hesitate to make appropriations from them. Clari composed one opera, +_Il Savio delirante_, produced at Bologna in 1695, and a large quantity +of church music, several specimens of which were printed in Novello's +_Fitzwilliam Music_. + + + + +CLARINA, a comparatively new instrument of the wood-wind class (although +actually made of metal), a hybrid possessing characteristics of both +oboe and clarinet. The clarina was invented by W. Heckel of +Biebrich-am-Rhein, and has been used since 1891 at the Festspielhaus, +Bayreuth, in _Tristan und Isolde_, as a substitute for the +_Holztrompete_ made according to Wagner's instructions. The clarina has +been found more practical and more effective in producing the desired +tone-colour. The clarina is a metal instrument with the conical bore and +fingering of the oboe and the clarinet single-reed mouthpiece. The +compass of the instrument is as shown, and it stands in the key of +B[flat]. Like the clarinet, the clarina is a transposing instrument, for +which the music must be written in a key a tone higher than that of the +composition. The timbre resulting from the combination of conical bore +and single-reed mouthpiece has in the lowest register affinities with +the _cor anglais_, in the middle with the saxophone, and in the highest +with the clarinet. Other German orchestras have followed the example of +Bayreuth. The clarina has also been found very effective as a solo +instrument. (K. S.) + +[Illustration: Notation.] + +[Illustration: Real Sounds.] + + + + +CLARINET, or CLARIONET (Fr. _clarinette_; Ger. _Clarinette, Klarinett_; +Ital. _clarinetto, chiarinetto_), a wood-wind instrument having a +cylindrical bore and played by means of a single-reed mouthpiece. The +word "clarinet" is said to be derived from _clarinetto_, a diminutive of +_clarino_, the Italian for (1) the soprano trumpet, (2) the highest +register of the instrument, (3) the trumpet played musically without the +blare of the martial instrument. The word "clarionet" is similarly +derived from "clarion," the English equivalent of _clarino_. It is +suggested that the name _clarinet_ or _clarinetto_ was bestowed on +account of the resemblance in timbre between the high registers of the +clarino and clarinet. By adding the speaker-hole to the old chalumeau, +J.C. Denner gave it an additional compass based on the overblowing of +the harmonic twelfth, and consisting of an octave and a half of +harmonics, which received the name of _clarino_, while the lower +register retained the name of _chalumeau_. There is something to be said +also in favour of another suggested derivation from the Italian +_chiarina_, the name for reed instruments and the equivalent for tibia +and aulos. At the beginning of the 18th century in Italy _clarinetto_, +the diminutive of _clarino_, would be masculine, whereas _chiarinetta_ +or _clarinetta_ would be feminine,[1] as in Doppelmayr's account of the +invention written in 1730. The word "clarinet" is sometimes used in a +generic sense to denote the whole family, which consists of the +clarinet, or discant corresponding to the violin, oboe, &c; the alto +clarinet in E; the basset horn in F (q.v.); the bass clarinet (q.v.), +and the pedal clarinet (q.v.). + +The modern clarinet consists of five (or four) separate pieces: (1) the +mouthpiece; (2) the bulb; (3) the upper middle joint, or left-hand +joint; (4) the lower middle joint, or right-hand joint[2]; (5) the bell; +which (the bell excepted) when joined together, form a tube with a +continuous cylindrical bore, 2 ft. or more in length, according to the +pitch of the instrument. The mouthpiece, including the beating or +single-reed common to the whole clarinet family, has the appearance of a +beak with the point bevelled off and thinned at the edge to correspond +with the end of the reed shaped like a spatula. The under part of the +mouthpiece (fig. 2) is flattened in order to form a table for the +support of the reed which is adjusted thereon with great nicety, +allowing just the amount of play requisite to set in vibration the +column of air within the tube. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Clarinet (Albert Model).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Clarinet Mouthpiece. _a_, the mouthpiece showing +the position of the bore inside; _b_, the single or beating reed.] + +The mouthpiece, which is subject to continual fluctuations of dampness +and dryness, and to changes of temperature, requires to be made of a +material having great powers of resistance, such as cocus wood, ivory or +vulcanite, which are mostly used for the purpose in England. A +longitudinal aperture 1 in. long and 1/2 in. wide, communicating with the +bore, is cut in the table and covered by the reed. The aperture is thus +closed except towards the point, where, for the distance of 1/3 to 1/4 +in., the reed is thinned and the table curves backwards towards the +point, leaving a gap between the ends of the mouthpiece and of the reed +of 1 mm. or about the thickness of a sixpence for the B flat clarinet. +The curve of the table and the size of the gap are therefore of +considerable importance. The reed is cut from a joint of the _Arundo +donax_ or _sativa_, which grows wild in the regions bordering on the +Mediterranean. A flat slip of the reed is cut, flattened on one side and +thinned to a very delicate edge on the other. At first the reed was +fastened to the table by means of many turns of a fine waxed cord. The +metal band adjusted by means of two screws, known as the "ligature," was +introduced about 1817 by Ivan Mueller. The reed is set in vibration by +the breath of the performer, and being flexible it beats against the +table, opening and closing the gap at a rate depending on the rate of +the vibrations it sets up in the air column, this rate varying according +to the length of the column as determined by opening the lateral holes +and keys. A cylindrical tube played by means of a reed has the acoustic +properties of a stopped pipe, i.e. the fundamental tone produced by the +tube is an octave lower than the corresponding tone of an open pipe of +the same length, and overblows a twelfth; whereas tubes having a conical +bore like the oboe, and played by means of a reed, speak as open pipes +and overblow an octave. This forms the fundamental difference between +the instruments of the oboe and clarinet families. Wind instruments +depending upon lateral holes for the production of their scale must +either have as many holes pierced in the bore as they require notes, or +make use of the property possessed by the air-column of dividing into +harmonics or partials of the fundamental tones. Twenty to twenty-two +holes is the number generally accepted as the practical limit for the +clarinet; beyond that number the fingering and mechanism become too +complicated. The compass of the clarinet is therefore extended through +the medium of the harmonic overtones. In stopped pipes a node is formed +near the mouthpiece, and they are therefore only able to produce the +uneven harmonics, such as the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, &c, corresponding to +the fundamental, and the diatonic intervals of the 5th one octave above, +and of the 3rd and 7th two octaves above the fundamental. By pressing +the reed with the lip near the base where it is thicker and stiffer, and +increasing the pressure of the breath, the air-column is forced to +divide and to sound the harmonics, a principle well understood by the +ancient Greeks and Romans in playing upon the aulos and tibia.[3] This +is easier to accomplish with the double reed than with the beating reed; +in fact with a tube of wide diameter, such as that of the modern +clarinet, it would not be possible by this means alone to do justice to +the tone of the instrument or to the music now written for it. The bore +of the aulos was very much narrower than that of the clarinet. + +In order to facilitate the production of the harmonic notes on the +clarinet, a small hole, closed by means of a key and called the +"speaker," is bored near the mouthpiece. By means of this small hole the +air-column is placed in communication with the external atmosphere, a +ventral segment is formed, and the air-column divides into three equal +parts, producing a triple number of vibrations resulting in the third +note of the harmonic series, at an interval of a twelfth above the +fundamental.[4] In a wind instrument with lateral holes the fundamental +note corresponding to any particular hole is produced when all the holes +below that hole are open and it itself and all above it are closed, the +effective length of the resonating tube being shortened as each of the +closed holes is successively uncovered. In order to obtain a complete +chromatic scale on the clarinet at least eighteen holes are required. +This series produces with the bell-note a succession of nineteen +semitones, giving the range of a twelfth and known as the fundamental +scale or _chalumeau_ register, so called, no doubt, because it was the +compass (without chromatic semitones) of the more primitive predecessor +of the clarinet, known as the _chalumeau_, which must not be confounded +with the shawm or schalmey of the middle ages. + + The fundamental scale of the modern clarinet in C extends from + [Illustration]. The next octave and a half is obtained by opening the + speaker key, whereby each of the fundamental notes is reproduced a + twelfth higher; the bell-note thus jumps from E to B#, the first key + gives instead of F its twelfth C#, and so on, extending the compass to + [Illustration], which ends the natural compass of the instrument, + although a skilful performer may obtain another octave by + cross-fingering. The names of the holes and keys on the clarinet are + derived not from the notes of the fundamental scale, but from the name + of the twelfth produced by overblowing with the speaker key open; for + instance, the first key near the bell is known not as the E key but as + the B#. The use of the speaker key forms the greatest technical + difficulty in learning to play the clarinet, on account of the thumb + having to do double duty, closing one hole and raising the lever of + the speaker key simultaneously. In a clarinet designed by Richard + Carte this difficulty was ingeniously overcome by placing the left + thumb-hole towards the front, and closing it by a thumb-lever or with + a ring action by the first or second finger of the left hand, thus + leaving the thumb free to work the speaker key alone. + + There is good reason to think that the ancient Greeks understood the + advantage of a speaker-hole, which they called _Syrinx_, for + facilitating the production of harmonics on the aulos. The credit of + the discovery of this interesting fact is due to A.A. Howard,[5] of + Harvard University; it explains many passages in the classics which + before were obscure (see AULOS). Plutarch relates[6] that Telephanes + of Megara was so incensed with the syrinx that he never allowed his + instrument-makers to place one on any of his auloi; he even went so + far as to absent himself, principally on account of the syrinx, from + the Pythian games. Telephanes was a great virtuoso who scorned the use + of a speaker-hole, being able to obtain his harmonics on the aulos by + the mere control of lips and teeth. + + The modern clarinet has from thirteen to nineteen keys, some being + normally open and others closed. In order to understand why, when once + the idea of adding keys to the chalumeau had been conceived, the + number rose so slowly, keys being added one or two at a time by makers + of various nationalities at long intervals, it is necessary to + consider the effect of boring holes in the side of a cylindrical tube. + If it were possible to proceed from an absolute theoretical basis, + there would be but little difficulty; there are, however, practical + reasons which make this a matter of great difficulty. According to V. + Mahillon,[7] the theoretical length of a B flat clarinet (French pitch + diapason normal A = 435 vibrations), is 39 cm. when the internal + diameter of the bore measures exactly 1.4 cm. Any increase in the + diameter of the cylindrical bore for a given length of tube raises the + pitch proportionally and in the same way a decrease lowers it. A bore + narrow in proportion to the length facilitates the production of the + harmonics, which is no doubt the reason why the aulos was made with a + very narrow diameter, and produced such deep notes in proportion to + its length. In determining the position of the holes along the tube, + the thickness of the wood to be pierced must be taken into + consideration, for the length of the passage from the main bore to the + outer air adds to the length of the resonating column; as, however, + the clarinet tube is reckoned as a closed one, only half the extra + length must be taken into account. When placed in its correct + theoretical position, a hole should have its diameter equal to the + diameter of the main bore, which is the ideal condition for obtaining + a full, rich tone; it is, however, feasible to give the hole a smaller + diameter, altering its position by placing it nearer the mouthpiece. + These laws, which were likewise known to the Greeks and Romans,[8] had + to be rediscovered by experience in the 18th and 19th centuries, + during which the mechanism of the key system was repeatedly improved. + Due consideration having been given to these points, it will also be + necessary to remember that the stopping of the seven open holes leaves + only the two little fingers (the thumb of the right hand being in the + ordinary clarinet engaged in supporting the instrument) free at all + times for key service, the other fingers doing duty when momentarily + disengaged. The fingering of the clarinet is the most difficult of any + instrument in the orchestra, for it differs in all four octaves of its + compass. Once mastered, however, it is the same for all clarinets, the + music being always written in the key of C. + + [Illustration: real sounds] + + The actual tonality of the clarinet is determined by the diatonic + scale produced when, starting with keys untouched and finger and + thumb-holes closed, the fingers are raised one by one from the holes. + In the B flat clarinet, the _real sounds_ thus produced are being part + of the scale of B flat major. By the closing of two _open_ keys, the + lower E flat and D are added. + + The following are the various sizes of clarinets with the key proper + to each: + + E flat, a minor third above the C clarinet. + B flat, a tone below " " + The high F, 4 tones above " " + The D, 1 tone above " " + The low G, a fourth below " " + The A, a minor third below " " + The B# 1 semintone below " " + The alto clarinet in E flat, a fifth below the B flat clarinet. + The tenor or basset horn, in F, a fifth below the C clarinet. + The bass clarinet in B flat, an 8ve below that in B flat. + The pedal clarinet in B flat, an 8ve below the bass clarinet. + The clarinets in B flat and A are used in the orchestra; those in C + and E flat in military bands. + +_History_.--Although the single beating-reed associated with the +instruments of the clarinet family has been traced in ancient Egypt, the +double reed, characteristic of the oboe family, being of simpler +construction, was probably of still greater antiquity. An ancient +Egyptian pipe found in a mummy-case and now preserved in the museum at +Turin was found to contain a beating-reed sunk 3 in. below the end of +the pipe, which is the principle of the drone. It would appear that the +double chalumeau, called arghoul (q.v.) by the modern Egyptians, was +known in ancient Egypt, although it was not perhaps in common use. The +Musee Guimet possesses a copy of a fresco from the tombs at Saqqarah +(executed under the direction of Mariette Bey) assigned to the 4th or +5th dynasty, on which is shown a concert with dancing; the instruments +used are two harps, the long oblique flute "nay," blown from the end +without any mouthpiece or embouchure, and an instrument identified as an +arghoul[9] from its resemblance to the modern instrument of the same +name. This is believed to be the only illustration of the ancient double +chalumeau yet found in Egypt, with the single exception of a hieroglyph +occurring also once only, i.e. the sign read _As-it_, consisting of a +cylindrical pipe with a beak mouthpiece bound round with a cord tied in +a bow. The bow is taken to indicate the double parallel pipes bound +together; the same sign without the bow occurs frequently and is read +_Ma-it_,[10] and is considered to be the generic name for reed wind +instruments. The beating-reed was probably introduced into classic +Greece from Egypt or Asia Minor. A few ancient Greek instruments are +extant, five of which are in the British Museum. They are as nearly +cylindrical as would be the natural growing reed itself. The probability +is that both single and double reeds were at times used with the Greek +aulos and the Roman tibia. V. Mahillon and A.A. Howard of Harvard have +both obtained facsimiles of actual instruments, some found at Pompeii +and now deposited in the museum at Naples, and others in the British +Museum. Experiments made with these instruments, whose original +mouthpieces have perished, show that with pipes of such narrow diameter +the fundamental scale and pitch are the same whether sounded by means of +a single or of a double reed, but the modern combination of single reed +and cylindrical tube alone gives the full pure tone quality. The subject +is more fully discussed in the article AULOS.[11] The Roman tibia, if +monuments can be trusted, sometimes had a beak-shaped mouthpiece, as for +instance that attached to a pipe discovered at Pompeii, or that shown in +a scene on Trajan's column.[12] It is probable that when, at the decline +of the Roman empire, instrumental music was placed by the church under a +ban--and the tibia more especially from its association with every form +of licence and moral depravity--this instrument, sharing the common +fate, survived chiefly among itinerant musicians who carried it into +western Europe, where it was preserved from complete extinction. An +instrument of difficult technique requiring an advanced knowledge of +acoustics was not, however, likely to flourish or even to be understood +among nations whose culture was as yet in its infancy. + +The tide of culture from the Byzantine empire filtered through to the +south and west, leaving many traces; a fresh impetus was received from +the east through the Arabs; and later, as a result of the Crusades, the +prototype of the clarinet, together with the practical knowledge +necessary for making the instrument and playing upon it, may have been +re-introduced through any one or all of these sources. However this may +be, the instrument was during the Carolingian period identified with the +tibia of the Romans until such time as the new western civilization +ceased to be content to go back to classical Rome for its models, and +began to express itself, at first naively and awkwardly, as the 11th +century dawned. The name then changed to the derivatives of the Greek +_kalamos_, assuming an almost bewildering variety of forms, of which the +commonest are chalemie, chalumeau, schalmey, scalmeye, shawm, calemel, +kalemele.[13] The derivation of the name seems to point to a Byzantine +rather than an Arab source for the revival of the instruments which +formed the prototype of both oboe and clarinet, but it must not be +forgotten that the instruments with a conical bore--more especially +those played by a reed--are primarily of Asiatic origin. At the +beginning of the 13th century in France, where the instrument remained +a special favourite until it was displaced by the clarinet, the +chalumeau is mentioned in some of the early romances:--"Tabars et +chalemiaux et estrumens sonner" (_Aye d'Avignon_, v. 4137); "Grelles et +chelimiaus et buisines bruians" (_Gui de Bourgogne_, v. 1374), &c. By +the end of the 13th century, the German equivalent _Schalmey_ appears in +the literature of that country,--"Pusunen und Schalmeyen schal moht +niemen da gehoeren wal" (_Frauendienst_, 492, fol. 5, Ulrich von +Lichtenstein). The schalmey or shawm is frequently represented in +miniatures from the 13th century, but it must have been known long +before, since it was at that period in use as the chaunter of the +bag-pipe (q.v.), a fully-developed complex instrument which presupposes +a separate previous existence for its component parts. + +We have no reason to suppose that any distinction was drawn between the +single and double reed instruments during the early middle ages--if +indeed the single reed was then known at all--for the derivatives of +_kalamos_ were applied to a variety of pipes. The first clear and +unmistakable drawing yet found of the single reed occurs in Mersenne's +_Harmonie universelle_ (p. 282), where the primitive reed pipe is shown +with the beating-reed detached from the tube of the instrument itself, +by making a lateral slit and then splitting back a little tongue of reed +towards a knot. Mersenne calls this the simplest form of chalumeau or +wheat-stalk (_tuyau de ble_). It is evident that no significance was +then attached to the form of the vibrating reed, whether single or +double, for Mersenne and other writers of his time call the chaunters of +the musette and cornemuse chalumeaux whether they are of cylindrical or +of conical bore. The difference in timbre produced by the two kinds of +reeds was, however, understood, for Mersenne states that a special kind +of cornemuse was used in concert with the _hautbois de Poitou_ (an oboe +whose double reed was enclosed in an air chamber) and was distinguished +from the shepherd's cornemuse by having double reeds throughout, whereas +the drones of the latter instrument were furnished with beating reeds. +It is therefore evident that as late as 1636 (the date at which Mersenne +wrote) in France the word "chalumeau" was not applied to the instrument +transformed some sixty years later into the clarinet, nor was it applied +exclusively to any one kind of pipe except when acting as the chaunter +of the bagpipe, and that independently of any structural +characteristics. The chaunter was still called chalumeau in 1737.[14] Of +the instrument which has been looked upon as the chalumeau, there is but +little trace in Germany or in France at the beginning of the 17th +century. A chalumeau with beak mouthpiece and characteristic short +cylindrical tube pierced with six holes figures among the musical +instruments used for the triumphal procession of the emperor Maximilian +I., commemorated by a fine series of plates,[15] engraved on wood by +Hans Burgkmair, the friend and colleague of A. Duerer. On the same plate +(No. 79) are five schalmeys with double reeds and five chalumeaux with +single-reed beak mouthpieces; the latter instruments were in all +probability made in the Netherlands, which excelled from the 12th +century in the manufacture of all musical instruments. No single-reed +instrument, with the exception of the regal (q.v.), is figured by S. +Virdung,[16] M. Agricola[17] or M. Praetorius.[18] + +A good idea of the primitive chalumeau may be gained from a reproduction +of one of the few specimens from the 16th or 17th century still extant, +which belonged to Cesare Snoeck and was exhibited at the Royal Military +Exhibition in London in 1890.[19] The tube is stopped at the mouthpiece +end by a natural joint of the reed, and a tongue has been detached just +under the joint; there are six finger-holes and one for the thumb. An +instrument almost identical with the above, but with a rudimentary bell, +and showing plainly the detached tongue, is figured by Jost Amman in +1589.[20] A plate in Diderot and d'Alembert's _Encyclopedie_[21] shows a +less primitive instrument, outwardly cylindrical and having a separate +mouthpiece joint and a clarinet reed but no keys. A chalumeau without +keys, but consisting apparently of three joints--mouthpiece, main tube +and bell,--is figured on the title-page of a musical work[22] dated +1690; it is very similar to the one represented in fig. 3, except that +only six holes are visible. + +[Illustrations: (From Diderot and d'Alembert's _Encyclopedie_.) FIG. 3. +Chalumeau, 1767. (_a_) Front, (_b_) Back view.] + +[Illustration] + +In his biographical notice of J. Christian Denner (1655-1707), J.G. +Doppelmayr[23] states that at the beginning of the 18th century "Denner +invented a new kind of pipe, the so-called clarinet, which greatly +delighted lovers of music; he also made great improvements in the stock +or rackett-fagottos, known in the olden time and finally also in the +chalumeaux." It is probable that the improvements in the chalumeau to +which Doppelmayr alludes without understanding them consisted (_a_) in +giving the mouthpiece the shape of a beak and adding a separate reed +tongue as in that of the modern clarinet, unless this change had already +taken place in the Netherlands, the country which the unremitting +labours of E. van der Straeten[24] have revealed as taking the lead in +Europe from the 14th to the 16th century in the construction of musical +instruments of all kinds; (_b_) in the boring of two additional holes +for A and B near the mouthpiece and covering them with two keys; (_c_) +in replacing the long cylindrical mouthpiece joint by a bulb, thus +restoring one of the characteristic features of the tibia,[25] known as +the [Greek: holmos]. There are a few of these improved chalumeaux in +existence, two being in the Bavarian national museum at Munich, the one +in high A, in a bad state of preservation, the second in C, marked J.C. +Denner, of which V. Mahillon has made a facsimile[26] for the museum of +the Brussels Conservatoire. There are two keys and eight holes; the +first consists of two small holes on the same level giving a semitone if +only one be closed. If the thumb-key be left open, the sounds of the +fundamental scale (shown in the black notes below) rise a twelfth to +form the second register (the white notes). This early clarinet or +improved chalumeau has a clarinet mouthpiece, but no bulb; it measures +50 cm. (20 in.), whereas the one in A mentioned above is only 28 cm. in +length, the long cylindrical tube between mouthpiece and key-joint, +afterwards turned into the bulb, being absent. Mahillon was probably the +first to point out that the so-called invention of the clarinet by J.C. +Denner consisted in providing a device--the speaker-key--to facilitate +the production of the harmonics of the fundamental. Can we be sure that +the same result was not obtained on the old chalumeau before keys were +added, by partially uncovering the hole for the thumb? + +The Berlin museum possesses an early clarinet with two keys, marked J.B. +Oberlender, derived from the Snoeck collection. Paul de Wit's collection +has a similar specimen by Enkelmer. The Brussels Conservatoire possesses +clarinets with two keys by Flemish makers, G.A. Rottenburgh and J.B. +Willems[27]; the latter, with a small bulb and bell, is in G a fifth +above the C clarinet. The next improvements in the clarinet, made in +1720, are due to J. Denner, probably a son of J.C. Denner. They +consisted in the addition of a bell and in the removal of the +speaker-hole and key nearer the mouthpiece, involving the reduction of +the diameter of the hole. The effect of this change of position was to +turn the B[natural] into B flat, for J. Denner introduced into the +hole, nearly as far as the axis of the bore, a small metal drainage +tube[28] for the moisture of the breath. In the modern clarinet, the +same result is attained by raising this little tube slightly above the +surface of the main tube, placing a key on the top of it, and bending +the lever. In order to produce the missing B[natural], J. Denner +lengthened the tube and pierced another hole, the low E, covered by an +open key with a long lever which, when closed, gives the desired B as +its twelfth, thus forming a connexion between the two registers. A +clarinet with three keys, of similar construction (about 1750), marked +J.W. Kenigsperger, is preserved in the Bavarian national museum, at +Munich. Another in B flat marked Lindner[29] belongs to the collection +at Brussels. About the middle of the 18th century, the number of keys +was raised to five, some say[30] by Barthold Fritz of Brunswick +(1697-1766), who added keys for C# and D#. [Illustration] According to +Altenburg[31] the E flat or D# key is due to the virtuoso Joseph Beer +(1744-1811). The sixth key was added about 1790 by the celebrated French +virtuoso Xavier Lefebure (or Lefevre), and produced G#. [Illustration] +Anton Stadler and his brother, both clarinettists in the Vienna court +orchestra and instrument-makers, are said to have lengthened the tube of +the B flat clarinet, extending the compass down to C (real sound B +flat). It was for the Stadler brothers that Mozart wrote his quintet for +strings, with a fine obbligato for the clarinet in A (1789), and the +clarinet concerto with orchestra in 1791. + +This, then, was the state of the clarinet in 1810 when Ivan Mueller, then +living in Paris, carried the number of keys up to thirteen, and made +several structural improvements already mentioned, which gave us the +modern instrument and inaugurated a new era in the construction and +technique of the clarinet. Mueller's system is still adopted in principle +by most clarinet makers. The instrument was successively improved during +the 19th century by the Belgian makers Bachmann, the elder Sax, Albert +and C. Mahillon, whose invention in 1862 of the C# key with double +action is now generally adopted. In Paris the labours of Lefebure, +Buffet-Crampon, and Goumas are pre-eminent. In 1842 H.E. Klose conceived +the idea of adapting to the clarinet the ingenious mechanism of movable +rings, invented by Boehm for the flute, and he entrusted the execution +of this innovation to Buffet-Crampon; this is the type of clarinet +generally adopted in French orchestras. From this adaptation has sprung +the erroneous notion that Klose's clarinet was constructed according to +the Boehm system; Klose's lateral divisions of the tube do not follow +those applied by Boehm to the flute. + +In England the clarinet has also passed through several progressive +stages since its introduction about 1770, and first of all at the hands +of Cornelius Ward. The principal improvements were due to Richard Carte, +who took out a patent in 1858 for an improved Boehm clarinet which +possessed some claim to the name, since Boehm's principle of boring the +holes at theoretically correct intervals and of venting the holes by +means of open holes below was carried out. Carte made several +modifications of his original patent, his chief endeavour being to so +dispose the key-work as to reduce the difficulties in fingering. By the +extension of the principle of the ring action, the work of the third and +little fingers of the left hand was simplified and the fingering of +certain difficult notes and shakes greatly facilitated. Messrs Rudall, +Carte & Company have made further improvements in the clarinet, which +are embodied in Klussmann's patent (fig. 4); these consist in the +introduction of the duplicate G# key, a note which has hitherto formed a +serious obstacle to perfect execution. The duplicate key, operated by +the third or second finger of the right hand, releases the fourth finger +of the left hand. The old G# is still retained and may be used in the +usual way if desired. The body of the instrument is now made in one +joint, and the position of the G# hole is mathematically correct, +whereby perfect intonation for C#, G# and F[n] is secured. Other +improvements were made in Paris by Messrs Evette & Schaeffer and by M. +Paradis,[32] a clarinet-player in the band of the Garde Republicaine, +and very great improvements in boring and in key mechanism were effected +by Albert of Brussels (see fig. 1). + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Clarinet (Boehm model, Klussmann's patent).] + +The clarinet appears to have received appreciation in the Netherlands +earlier than in its own native land. According to W. Altenburg (op. cit. +p. 11),[33] a MS. is preserved in the cathedral at Antwerp of a mass +written by A.J. Faber in 1720, which is scored for a clarinet. Johann +Mattheson,[34] _Kapellmeister_ at Hamburg, mentions clarinet music in +1713, although Handel, whose rival he was, does not appear to have known +the instrument. Joh. Christ. Bach scored for the clarinet in 1763 in his +opera _Orione_ performed in London, and Rameau had already employed the +instrument in 1751 in a theatre for his pastoral entitled _Acante et +Cephise_.[35] The clarinet was formally introduced into the orchestra in +Vienna in 1767,[36] Gluck having contented himself with the use of the +chalumeau in _Orfeo_ (1762) and in _Alceste_ (1767).[37] The clarinet +had already been adopted in military bands in France in 1755, where it +very speedily completely replaced the oboe. One of Napoleon Bonaparte's +bands is said to have had no less than twenty clarinets. + + For further information on the clarinet at the beginning of the 19th + century, consult the _Methods_ by Ivan Mueller and Xavier Lefebure, and + Joseph Froehlich's admirable work on the instruments of the orchestra; + and Gottfried Weber's articles in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedia_. + See also BASSET HORN; BASS CLARINET and PEDAL CLARINET. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Gottfried Weber's objection to this derivation in "Ueber + Clarinette und Basset-horn," _Caecilia_ (Mainz, 1829), vol. xi. pp. + 36 and 37, note. + + [2] Nos. 3 and 4 are sometimes made in one, as for instance in Messrs + Rudall, Carte & Company's modification, the Klussmann patent. + + [3] Aristotle (_de Audib._ 802 b 18, and 804 a) and Porphyry (ed. + Wallis, pp. 249 and 252) mention that if the performer presses the + _zeuge_ (mouthpiece) or the _glottai_ (reeds) of the pipes, a sharper + tone is produced. + + [4] Cf. V.C. Mahillon, _Elements d'acoustique musicale et + instrumentale_ (Brussels, 1874), p. 161; and Fr. Zamminer, _Die Musik + und die musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen + der Akustik ..._ (Giessen, 1855), pp. 297 and 298. + + [5] "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston, 1893). + + [6] _De Musica_, 1138. + + [7] _Op. cit._ pp. 160 et seq.; and Wilhelm Altenburg, _Die + Klarinette_ (Heilbronn, 1904), p. 9, who refers to Mahillon. + + [8] See Macrobius, _Comm. in somnium Scipionis_, ii. 4. 5 "nec secus + probamus in tibiis de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis ori sonus + acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis, gravior: + item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta." + + [9] See Victor Loret, _L'Egypte au temps des Pharaons--la vie, le + science, et l'art_ (Paris, 1889), illustration p. 139 and p. 143. The + author gives no information about this fresco except that it is in + the Musee Guimet. It is probably identical with the second of the + mural paintings described on p. 190 of _Petit guide illustre au Musee + Guimet_, par L. de Milloue. + + [10] See Victor Loret, "Les flutes egyptiennes antiques," _Journal + asiatique_ (Paris, 1889), [8], xiv. pp. 129, 130, 132. + + [11] See also A.A. Howard, "Study on the Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard + Studies_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893); F.C. Gevaert, _Musique de + l'antiquite_; Carl von Jan, article "Floete" in August Baumeister's + _Denkmaeler des klassischen Alterthums_ (Leipzig, 1884-1888), vol. i.; + Dr Hugo Riemann, _Handbuch der Musikgesch._ vol. i. p. 90, &c. + (Leipzig, 1904); all of whom have not come to the same conclusions. + + [12] Wilhelm Froehner, _La Colonne trajane_ (Paris, 1872), t. ii. pl. + 76. + + [13] "Aveuc aus ert vestus Guis + Ki leur cante et Kalemele, + En la muse au grant bourdon." + + J.A.U. Scheler's _Trouveres belges_. + + [14] See Ernest Thoinan, _Les Hotteterre et les Chedeville, celebres + facteurs de flutes, hautbois, bassons et musettes_ (Paris, 1894), p. + 15 et seq., and _Methode pour la musette_, &c., par Hotteterre le + Romain (Paris, 1737). + + [15] The whole series of 135 plates has been reproduced in _Jahrb. d. + Samml. des Alterh. Kaiserhauses_ (Vienna, 1883-1884). + + [16] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511). + + [17] _Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch_ (Nuremberg, 1528 and 1545). + + [18] _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbuettel, 1618). This work and those + mentioned in the two previous notes have been reprinted by the Ges. + f. Musikforschung in vols. xi., xx. and xiii. of _Publikationen_ + (Berlin). + + [19] See _Descriptive Catalogue_, by Capt. C.R. Day (London, 1891), + pl. iv. A and p. 110, No. 221. + + [20] _Wappenbuch_, p. 111, "Musica." + + [21] Paris, 1767, vol. v. "Planches," pl. ix. 20, 21, 22. + + [22] Dr Theofilo Muffat, "Componimenti musicali per il cembalo," in + _Denkmaeler d. Tonkunst in Oesterreich_, Bd. iii. + + [23] _Historische Nachricht von den Nuernbergischen Mathematicis u. + Kuenstlern_, &c. (Nuremberg, 1730), p. 305. + + [24] _Histoire de la musique aux Pays Bas avant le XIXe siecle._ + + [25] For a facsimile of one of the Pompeii tibiae, see Capt. C.R. + Day, _op. cit._ pl. iv. C. and p. 109. + + [26] _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 211, No. 911, + where an illustration is given. See also Capt. C.R. Day, _op. cit._ + pl. iv. B and _Errata_ where the description is printed. + + [27] For a description with illustration see V. Mahillon's _Catalogue + descriptif_ (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 215, No. 916. + + [28] See Wilhelm Altenburg, op. cit. p. 6. + + [29] See V. Mahillon, _Catal. descript._ (1896), p. 213, No. 913. + + [30] H. Welcker von Gontershausen, _Die musikalischen Tonwerk-zeuge_ + (Frankfort-on-Main, 1855), p. 141. + + [31] Op. cit. p. 6. + + [32] See Capt. C.R. Day, op. cit. p. 106. + + [33] V. Mahillon, _Catal. desc._ (1880), p. 182, refers his statement + to the Chevalier L. de Burbure. + + [34] _Das neu-eroeffnete Orchester_ (Hamburg, 1713). + + [35] Mahillon, _Catal. desc._ (1880), vol. i. p. 182. + + [36] See Chevalier Ludwig von Koechel, _Die kaiserliche + Hofmusik-kapelle zu Wien, 1543-1867_ (Vienna, 1869). + + [37] In the Italian edition of 1769 the part is scored for clarinet. + + + + +CLARK, SIR ANDREW, Bart. (1826-1893), British physician, was born at +Aberdeen on the 28th of October 1826. His father, who also was a medical +man, died when he was only a few years old. After attending school in +Aberdeen, he was sent by his guardians to Dundee and apprenticed to a +druggist; then returning to Aberdeen he began his medical studies in the +university of that city. Soon, however, he went to Edinburgh, where in +the extra-academical school he had a student's career of the most +brilliant description, ultimately becoming assistant to J. Hughes +Bennett in the pathological department of the Royal Infirmary, and +assistant demonstrator of anatomy to Robert Knox. But symptoms of +pulmonary phthisis brought his academic life to a close, and in the hope +that the sea might benefit his health he joined the medical department +of the navy in 1848. Next year he became pathologist to the Haslar +hospital, where T.H. Huxley was one of his colleagues, and in 1853 he +was the successful candidate for the newly-instituted post of curator to +the museum of the London hospital. Here he intended to devote all his +energies to pathology, but circumstances brought him into active medical +practice. In 1854, the year in which he took his doctor's degree at +Aberdeen, the post of assistant-physician to the hospital became vacant +and he was prevailed upon to apply for it. He was fond of telling how +his phthisical tendencies gained him the appointment. "He is only a poor +Scotch doctor," it was said, "with but a few months to live; let him +have it." He had it, and two years before his death publicly declared +that of those who were on the staff of the hospital at the time of his +selection he was the only one remaining alive. In 1854 he became a +member of the College of Physicians, and in 1858 a fellow, and then went +in succession through all the offices of honour the college has to +offer, ending in 1888 with the presidency, which he continued to hold +till his death. From the time of his selection as assistant physician to +the London hospital, his fame rapidly grew until he became a fashionable +doctor with one of the largest practices in London, counting among his +patients some of the most distinguished men of the day. The great number +of persons who passed through his consulting-room every morning rendered +it inevitable that to a large extent his advice should become +stereotyped and his prescriptions often reduced to mere stock formulae, +but in really serious cases he was not to be surpassed in the skill and +carefulness of his diagnosis and in his attention to detail. In spite of +the claims of his practice he found time to produce a good many books, +all written in the precise and polished style on which he used to pride +himself. Doubtless owing largely to personal reasons, lung diseases and +especially fibroid phthisis formed his favourite theme, but he also +discussed other subjects, such as renal inadequacy, anaemia, +constipation, &c. He died in London on the 6th of November 1893, after a +paralytic stroke which was probably the result of persistent overwork. + + + + +CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851- ), American clergyman, was born of New +England ancestry at Aylmer, Province of Quebec, Canada, on the 12th of +September 1851. He was the son of Charles C. Symmes, but took the name +of an uncle, the Rev. E.W. Clark, by whom he was adopted after his +father's death in 1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873 and at +Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, was ordained in the Congregational +ministry, and was pastor of the Williston Congregational church at +Portland, Maine, from 1876 to 1883, and of the Phillips Congregational +church, South Boston, Mass., from 1883 to 1887. On the 2nd of February +1881 he founded at Portland the Young People's Society of Christian +Endeavor, which, beginning as a small society in a single New England +church, developed into a great interdenominational organization, which +in 1908 had 70,761 societies and more than 3,500,000 members scattered +throughout the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia, South +Africa, India, Japan and China. After 1887 he devoted his time entirely +to the extension of this work, and was president of the United Societies +of Christian Endeavor and of the World's Christian Endeavor Union, and +editor of the _Christian Endeavor World_ (originally _The Golden Rule_). +Among his numerous publications are _The Children and the Church_ +(1882); _Looking Out on Life_ (1883); _Young People's Prayer Meetings_ +(1884); _Some Christian Endeavor Saints_ (1889); _World-Wide Endeavor_ +(1895); _A New Way Round an Old World_ (1900). + + See his _The Young People's Christian Endeavor, where it began, &c._ + (Boston, 1895); _Christian Endeavor Manual_ (Boston, 1903); and + _Christian Endeavor in All Lands: Record of Twenty-five Years of + Progress_ (Philadelphia, 1907). + + + + +CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752-1818), American frontier military leader, was +born near Charlottesville, in Albemarle county, Virginia, on the 19th of +November 1752. Early in life he became a land-surveyor; he took part in +Lord Dunmore's War (1774), and in 1775 went as a surveyor for the Ohio +Company to Kentucky (then a district of Virginia), whither he removed +early in 1776. His iron will, strong passions, audacious courage and +magnificent physique soon made him a leader among his frontier +neighbours, by whom in 1776 he was sent as a delegate to the Virginia +legislature. In this capacity he was instrumental in bringing about the +organization of Kentucky as a county of Virginia, and also obtained from +Governor Patrick Henry a supply of powder for the Kentucky settlers. +Convinced that the Indians were instigated and supported in their raids +against the American settlers by British officers stationed in the forts +north of the Ohio river, and that the conquest of those forts would put +an end to the evil, he went on foot to Virginia late in 1777 and +submitted to Governor Henry and his council a plan for offensive +operations. On the 2nd of January 1778 he was commissioned +lieutenant-colonel, received L1200 in depreciated currency, and was +authorized to enlist troops; and by the end of May he was at the falls +of the Ohio (the site of Louisville) with about 175 men. The expedition +proceeded to Fort Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, in what is now +Illinois. This place and Cahokia, also on the Mississippi, near St +Louis, were defended by small British garrisons, which depended upon the +support of the French _habitants_. The French being willing to accept +the authority of Virginia, both forts were easily taken. Clark gained +the friendship of Father Pierre Gibault, the priest at Kaskaskia, and +through his influence the French at Vincennes on the Wabash were induced +(late in July) to change their allegiance. On the 17th of December +Lieut.-Governor Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, +recovered Vincennes and went into winter quarters. Late in February 1779 +he was surprised by Clark and compelled to give up Vincennes and its +fort, Fort Sackville, and to surrender himself and his garrison of about +80 men, as prisoners of war. With the exception of Detroit and several +other posts on the Canadian frontier the whole of the North-West was +thus brought under American influence; many of the Indians, previously +hostile, became friendly, and the United States was put in a position to +demand the cession of the North-West in the treaty of 1783. For this +valuable service, in which Clark had freely used his own private funds, +he received practically no recompense either from Virginia or from the +United States, and for many years before his death he lived in poverty. +To him and his men, however, the Virginia legislature granted 150,000 +acres of land in 1781, which was subsequently located in what are now +Clark, Floyd and Scott counties, Indiana; Clark's individual share was +8049 acres, but from this he realized little. Clark built Fort Jefferson +on the Mississippi, 4 or 5 m. below the mouth of the Ohio, in 1780, +destroyed the Indian towns Chillicothe and Piqua in the same year, and +in November 1782 destroyed the Indian towns on the Miami river. With +this last expedition his active military service virtually ended, and in +July 1783 he was relieved of his command by Virginia. Thereafter he +lived on part of the land granted to him by Virginia or in Louisville +for the rest of his life. In 1793 he accepted from Citizen Genet a +commission as "major-general in the armies of France, and +commander-in-chief of the French Revolutionary Legion in the Mississippi +Valley," and tried to raise a force for an attack upon the Spanish +possessions in the valley of the Mississippi. The scheme, however, was +abandoned after Genet's recall. Disappointed at what he regarded as his +country's ingratitude, and broken down by excessive drinking and +paralysis, he lost his once powerful influence and lived in comparative +isolation until his death, near Louisville, Kentucky, on the 13th of +February 1818. + + See W.H. English, _Conquest of the Country north-west of the River + Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of George Rogers Clark_ (2 vols., + Indianapolis and Kansas City, 1896), an accurate and detailed work, + which represents an immense amount of research among both printed and + manuscript sources. Clark's own accounts of his expeditions, and other + interesting documents, are given in the appendix to this work. + + +CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838), the well-known explorer, was the youngest +brother of the foregoing. He was born in Caroline county, Virginia, on +the 1st of August 1770. At the age of fourteen he removed with his +parents to Kentucky, settling at the falls of the Ohio (Louisville). He +entered the United States army as a lieutenant of infantry in March +1792, and served under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians in +1794. In July 1796 he resigned his commission on account of ill-health. +In 1803-1806, with Meriwether Lewis (q.v.), he commanded the famous +exploring expedition across the continent to the mouth of the Columbia +river, and was commissioned second lieutenant in March 1804 and first +lieutenant in January 1806. In February he again resigned from the army. +He then served for a few years as brigadier-general of the Louisiana +territorial militia, as Indian agent for "Upper Louisiana," as +territorial governor of Missouri in 1813-1820, and as superintendent of +Indian affairs at St Louis from 1822 until his death there on the 1st of +September 1838. + + + + +CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788-1870), English physician, was born at Cullen, +Banffshire, and was educated at the grammar school of Fordyce and at the +universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He served for six years as a +surgeon in the army; then spent some time in travelling on the +continent, in order to investigate the mineral waters and the climate of +various health resorts; and for seven years he lived in Rome. In 1826 he +began to practise in London. In 1835 he was appointed physician to the +duchess of Kent, becoming physician in ordinary to Queen Victoria in +1837. In 1838 he was created a baronet. He published _The Influence of +Climate in Chronic Diseases_, containing valuable meteorological tables +(1829), and a _Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption_ (1835). + + + + +CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847- ), American economist, was born at Providence, +Rhode Island, on the 26th of January 1847. Educated at Brown University, +Amherst College, Heidelberg and Zurich, he was appointed professor of +political economy at Carleton College, Minnesota, in 1877. In 1881 he +became professor of history and political science in Smith College, +Massachusetts; in 1892 professor of political economy in Amherst +College. He was appointed professor of political economy at Columbia +University in 1895. Among his works are: _The Philosophy of Wealth_ +(1885); _Wages_ (1889); _Capital and its Earnings_ (1898); _The Control +of Trusts_ (1901); _The Problem of Monopoly_ (1904); and _Essentials of +Economic Theory_ (1907). + + + + +CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822-1898), English engineer and electrician, was +born on the 10th of March 1822 at Great Marlow, Bucks. His first +interest was in chemical manufacturing, but in 1848 he became assistant +engineer at the Menai Straits bridge under his elder brother Edwin +(1814-1894), the inventor of the Clark hydraulic lift graving dock. Two +years later, when his brother was appointed engineer to the Electric +Telegraph Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently +succeeded him as chief engineer. In 1854 he took out a patent "for +conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure of air and +vacuum," and later was concerned in the construction of a large +pneumatic despatch tube between the general post office and Euston +station, London. About the same period he was engaged in experimental +researches on the propagation of the electric current in submarine +cables, on which he published a pamphlet in 1855, and in 1859 he was a +member of the committee which was appointed by the government to +consider the numerous failures of submarine cable enterprises. Latimer +Clark paid much attention to the subject of electrical measurement, and +besides designing various improvements in method and apparatus and +inventing the Clark standard cell, he took a leading part in the +movement for the systematization of electrical standards, which was +inaugurated by the paper which he and Sir C.T. Bright read on the +question before the British Association in 1861. With Bright also he +devised improvements in the insulation of submarine cables. In the later +part of his life he was a member of several firms engaged in laying +submarine cables, in manufacturing electrical appliances, and in +hydraulic engineering. He died in London on the 30th of October 1898. +Besides professional papers, he published an _Elementary Treatise on +Electrical Measurement_ (1868), together with two books on astronomical +subjects, and a memoir of Sir W.F. Cooke. + + + + +CLARK, THOMAS (1801-1867), Scottish chemist, was born at Ayr on the 31st +of March 1801. In 1826 he was appointed lecturer on chemistry at the +Glasgow mechanics' institute, and in 1831 he took the degree of M.D. at +the university of that city. Two years later he became professor of +chemistry in Marischal College, Aberdeen, but was obliged to give up the +duties of that position in 1844 through ill-health, though nominally he +remained professor till 1860. His name is chiefly known in connexion +with his process for softening hard waters, and his water tests, +patented in 1841. The last twenty years before his death at Glasgow on +the 27th of November 1867 were occupied with the study of the historical +origin of the Gospels. + + + + +CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821-1878), English classical and Shakespearian +scholar, was born at Barford Hall, Darlington, in March 1821. He was +educated at Sedbergh and Shrewsbury schools and Trinity College, +Cambridge, where he was elected fellow after a brilliant university +career. In 1857 he was appointed public orator. He travelled much during +the long vacations, visiting Spain, Greece, Italy and Poland. His +_Peloponnesus_ (1858) was an important contribution to the knowledge of +the country at that time. In 1853 Clark had taken orders, but left the +Church in 1870 after the passing of the Clerical Disabilities Act, of +which he was one of the promoters. He also resigned the public +oratorship in the same year, and in consequence of illness left +Cambridge in 1873. He died at York on the 6th of November 1878. He +bequeathed a sum of money to his old college for the foundation of a +lectureship in English literature. Although Clark was before all a +classical scholar, he published little in that branch of learning. A +contemplated edition of the works of Aristophanes, a task for which he +was singularly fitted, was never published. He visited Italy in 1868 for +the express purpose of examining the Ravenna and other MSS., and on his +return began the notes to the _Acharnians_, but they were left in too +incomplete a state to admit of publication in book form even after his +death (see _Journal of Philology_, viii., 1879). He established the +Cambridge _Journal of Philology_, and cooperated with B.H. Kennedy and +James Riddell in the production of the well-known _Sabrinae Corolla_. +The work by which he is best known is the Cambridge Shakespeare +(1863-1866), containing a collation of early editions and selected +emendations, edited by him at first with John Glover and afterwards with +W. Aldis Wright. _Gazpacho_ (1853)gives an account of his tour in Spain; +his visits to Italy at the time of Garibaldi's insurrection, and to +Poland during the insurrection of 1863, are described in _Vacation +Tourists_, ed. F. Galton, i. and iii. + + H.A.J. Munro in _Journal of Philology_ (viii. 1879) describes Clark as + "the most accomplished and versatile man he ever met"; see also + notices by W. Aldis Wright in _Academy_ (Nov. 23, 1878); R. Burn in + _Athenaeum_ (Nov. 16, 1878); _The Times_ (Nov. 8, 1878); _Notes and + Queries_, 5th series, x. (1878), p. 400. + + + + +CLARKE, ADAM (1762?-1832), British Nonconformist divine, was born at +Moybeg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in 1760 or 1762. After receiving a +very limited education he was apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but, +finding the employment uncongenial, he resumed school-life at the +institution founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he +entered on the duties of the ministry, being appointed by Wesley to the +Bradford (Wiltshire) circuit. His popularity as a preacher was very +great, and his influence in the denomination is indicated by the fact +that he was three times (1806, 1814, 1822) chosen to be president of the +conference. He served twice on the London circuit, the second period +being extended considerably longer than the rule allowed, at the special +request of the British and Foreign Bible Society, who had employed him +in the preparation of their Arabic Bible. Though ardent in his pastoral +work, he found time for diligent study of Hebrew and other Oriental +languages, undertaken chiefly with the view of qualifying himself for +the great work of his life, his _Commentary on the Holy Scriptures_ (8 +vols., 1810-1820). In 1802 he published a _Bibliographical Dictionary_ +in six volumes, to which he afterwards added a supplement. He was +selected by the Records Commission to re-edit Rymer's _Foedera_, a task +which after ten years' labour (1808-1818) he had to resign. He also +wrote _Memoirs of the Wesley Family_ (1823), and edited a large number +of religious works. Honours were showered upon him (he was M.A., LL.D. +of Aberdeen), and many distinguished men in church and state were his +personal friends. He died in London on the 16th of August 1832. + + His _Miscellaneous Works_ were published in 13 vols. (1836), and a + _Life_ (3 vols.) by his son, J.B.B. Clarke, appeared in 1833. + + + + +CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902), British soldier and administrator, son +of Colonel Andrew Clarke, of Co. Donegal, Ireland, governor of West +Australia, was born at Southsea, England, on the 27th of July 1824, and +educated at King's school, Canterbury. He entered the Royal Military +Academy, Woolwich, and obtained his commission in the army in 1844 as +second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was appointed to his +father's staff in West Australia, but was transferred to be A.D.C. and +military secretary to the governor of Tasmania; and in 1847 he went to +New Zealand to take part in the Maori War, and for some years served on +Sir George Grey's staff. He was then made surveyor-general in Victoria, +took a prominent part in framing its new constitution, and held the +office of minister of public lands during the first administration +(1855-1857). He returned to England in 1857, and in 1863 was sent on a +special mission to the West Coast of Africa. In 1864 he was appointed +director of works for the navy, and held this post for nine years, being +responsible for great improvements in the naval arsenals at Chatham, +Portsmouth and Plymouth, and for fortifications at Malta, Cork, Bermuda +and elsewhere. In 1873 he was made K.C.M.G., and became governor of the +Straits Settlements, where he did most valuable work in consolidating +British rule and ameliorating the condition of the people. From 1875 to +1880 he was minister of public works in India; and on his return to +England in 1881, holding then the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the +army, he was first appointed commandant at Chatham and then +inspector-general of fortifications (1882-1886). Having attained the +rank of lieutenant-general and been created G.C.M.G., he retired from +official life, and in 1886 and 1893 unsuccessfully stood for parliament +as a supporter of Mr Gladstone. During his last years he was +agent-general for Victoria. He died on the 29th of March 1902. Both as a +technical and strategical engineer and as an Imperial administrator Sir +Andrew Clarke was one of the ablest and most useful public servants of +his time; and his contributions to periodical literature, as well as his +official memoranda, contained valuable suggestions on the subjects of +imperial defence and imperial consolidation which received too little +consideration at a period when the home governments were not properly +alive to their importance. He is entitled to remembrance as one of those +who first inculcated, from a wide practical experience, the views of +imperial administration and its responsibilities, which in his last +years he saw accepted by the bulk of his countrymen. + + + + +CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877), English author and Shakespearian +scholar, was born at Enfield, Middlesex, on the 15th of December 1787. +His father, John Clarke, was a schoolmaster, among whose pupils was John +Keats. Charles Clarke taught Keats his letters, and encouraged his love +of poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards became +acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge and Hazlitt. Clarke +became a music publisher in partnership with Alfred Novello, and married +in 1828 his partner's sister, Mary Victoria (1809-1898), the eldest +daughter of Vincent Novello. In the year after her marriage Mrs Cowden +Clarke began her valuable Shakespeare concordance, which was eventually +issued in eighteen monthly parts (1844-1845), and in volume form in +1845 as _The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare, being a Verbal Index +to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works of the Poet_. This work +superseded the _Copious Index to ... Shakespeare_ (1790) of Samuel +Ayscough, and the _Complete Verbal Index ..._ (1805-1807) of Francis +Twiss. Charles Cowden Clarke published many useful books, and edited the +text for John Nichol's edition of the British poets; but his most +important work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856 on +Shakespeare and other literary subjects. Some of the more notable series +were published, among them being _Shakespeare's Characters, chiefly +those subordinate_ (1863), and _Moliere's Characters_ (1865). In 1859 he +published a volume of original poems, _Carmina Minima_. For some years +after their marriage the Cowden Clarkes lived with the Novellos in +London. In 1849 Vincent Novello with his wife removed to Nice, where he +was joined by the Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at Genoa +at the "Villa Novello." They collaborated in _The Shakespeare Key, +unlocking the Treasures of his Style ..._ (1879), and in an edition of +Shakespeare for Messrs Cassell, which was issued in weekly parts, and +completed in 1868. It was reissued in 1886 as _Cassell's Illustrated +Shakespeare_. Charles Clarke died on the 13th of March 1877 at Genoa, +and his wife survived him until the 12th of January 1898. Among Mrs +Cowden Clarke's other works may be mentioned _The Girlhood of +Shakespeare's Heroines_ (3 vols., 1850-1852), and a translation of +Berlioz's _Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration_ +(1856). + + See _Recollections of Writers_ (1898), a joint work by the Clarkes + containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends; + and Mary Cowden Clarke's autobiography, _My Long Life_ (1896). A + charming series of letters (1850-1861), addressed by her to an + American admirer of her work, Robert Balmanno, was edited by Anne + Upton Nettleton as _Letters to an Enthusiast_ (Chicago, 1902). + + + + +CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769-1822), English mineralogist and traveller, +was born at Willingdon, Sussex, on the 5th of June 1769, and educated +first at Tonbridge. In 1786 he obtained the office of chapel clerk at +Jesus College, Cambridge, but the loss of his father at this time +involved him in difficulties. In 1790 he took his degree, and soon after +became private tutor to Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset. In +1792 he obtained an engagement to travel with Lord Berwick through +Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After crossing the Alps, and visiting a +few of the principal cities of Italy, including Rome, he went to Naples, +where he remained nearly two years. Having returned to England in the +summer of 1794, he became tutor in several distinguished families. In +1799 he set out with a Mr Cripps on a tour through the continent of +Europe, beginning with Norway and Sweden, whence they proceeded through +Russia and the Crimea to Constantinople, Rhodes, and afterwards to Egypt +and Palestine. After the capitulation of Alexandria, Clarke was of +considerable use in securing for England the statues, sarcophagi, maps, +manuscripts, &c., which had been collected by the French savants. Greece +was the country next visited. From Athens the travellers proceeded by +land to Constantinople, and after a short stay in that city directed +their course homewards through Rumelia, Austria, Germany and France. +Clarke, who had now obtained considerable reputation, took up his +residence at Cambridge. He received the degree of LL.D. shortly after +his return in 1803, on account of the valuable donations, including a +colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, which he had made to the +university. He was also presented to the college living of Harlton, near +Cambridge, in 1805, to which, four years later, his father-in-law added +that of Yeldham. Towards the end of 1808 Dr Clarke was appointed to the +professorship of mineralogy in Cambridge, then first instituted. Nor was +his perseverance as a traveller otherwise unrewarded. The MSS. which he +had collected in the course of his travels were sold to the Bodleian +library for L1000; and by the publication of his travels he realized +altogether a clear profit of L6595. Besides lecturing on mineralogy and +discharging his clerical duties, Dr Clarke eagerly prosecuted the study +of chemistry, and made several discoveries, principally by means of the +gas blow-pipe, which he had brought to a high degree of perfection. He +was also appointed university librarian in 1817, and was one of the +founders of the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1819. He died in +London on the 9th of March 1822. The following is a list of his +principal works:--_Testimony of Authors respecting the Colossal Statue +of Ceres in the Public Library, Cambridge_ (8vo, 1801-1803); _The Tomb +of Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alexandria, +and now in the British Museum_ (4to, 1805); _A Methodical Distribution +of the Mineral Kingdom_ (fol., Lewes, 1807); _A Description of the Greek +Marbles brought from the Shores of the Euxine, Archipelago and +Mediterranean, and deposited in the University Library, Cambridge_ (8vo, +1809); _Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa_ (4to, +1810-1819; 2nd ed., 1811-1823). + + See _Life and Remains_, by Rev. W. Otter (1824). + + + + +CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841- ), English lawyer and politician, son +of J.G. Clarke of Moorgate Street, London, was born on the 15th of +February 1841. In 1859 he became a writer in the India office, but +resigned in the next year, and became a law reporter. He obtained a +Tancred law scholarship in 1861, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's +Inn in 1864. He joined the home circuit, became Q.C. in 1880, and a +bencher of Lincoln's Inn in 1882. In November 1877 he was successful in +securing the acquittal of Chief-Inspector Clarke from the charge brought +against certain Scotland Yard officials of conspiracy to defeat justice, +and his reputation was assured by his defence of Patrick Staunton in the +Penge murder case (1877), and of Mrs Bartlett against the charge of +poisoning her husband (1886). Among other notable cases he was counsel +for the plaintiff in the libel action brought by Sir William +Gordon-Cumming (1890) against Mr and Mrs Lycett Green and others for +slander, charging him with cheating in the game of baccarat (in this +case the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII., gave evidence), and he +appeared for Dr Jameson, Sir John Willoughby and others when they were +tried (1896) under the Foreign Enlistment Act. He was knighted in 1886. +He was returned as Conservative member for Southwark at a by-election +early in 1880, but failed to retain his seat at the general election +which followed a month or two later; he found a seat at Plymouth, +however, which he retained until 1900. He was solicitor-general in the +Conservative administration of 1886-1892, but declined office under the +Unionist government of 1895 when the law officers of the crown were +debarred from private practice. The most remarkable, perhaps, of his +speeches in the House of Commons was his reply to Mr Gladstone on the +second reading of the Home Rule Bill in 1893. In 1899 differences which +arose between Sir Edward Clarke and his party on the subject of the +government's South African policy led to his resigning his seat. At the +general election of 1906 he was returned at the head of the poll for the +city of London, but he offended a large section of his constituents by a +speech against tariff reform in the House of Commons on the 12th of +March, and shortly afterwards he resigned his seat on grounds of health. +He published a _Treatise on the Law of Extradition_ (4th ed., 1903), and +also three volumes of his political and forensic speeches. + +CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810-1888), American preacher and author, was +born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 4th of April 1810. He was +prepared for college at the public Latin school of Boston, and graduated +at Harvard College in 1829, and at the Harvard Divinity School in 1833. +He was then ordained as minister of a Unitarian congregation at +Louisville, Kentucky, which was then a slave state. Clarke soon threw +himself heart and soul into the national movement for the abolition of +slavery, though he was never what was then called in America a "radical +abolitionist." In 1839 he returned to Boston, where he and his friends +established (1841) the "Church of the Disciples." It brought together a +body of men and women active and eager in applying the Christian +religion to the social problems of the day, and he would have said that +the feature which distinguished it from any other church was that they +also were ministers of the highest religious life. Ordination could make +no distinction between him and them. Of this church he was the minister +from 1841 until 1850 and from 1854 until his death. He was also +secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-1871 professor of +natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard. From the beginning +of his active life he wrote freely for the press. From 1836 until 1839 +he was editor of the _Western Messenger_, a magazine intended to carry +to readers in the Mississippi Valley simple statements of "liberal +religion," involving what were then the most radical appeals as to +national duty, especially the abolition of slavery. The magazine is now +of value to collectors because it contains the earliest printed poems of +Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was Clarke's personal friend. Most of Clarke's +earlier published writings were addressed to the immediate need of +establishing a larger theory of religion than that espoused by people +who were still trying to be Calvinists, people who maintained what a +good American phrase calls "hard-shelled churches." But it would be +wrong to call his work controversial. He was always declaring that the +business of the Church is Eirenic and not Polemic. Such books as +_Orthodoxy: Its Truths and Errors_ (1866) have been read more largely by +members of orthodox churches than by Unitarians. In the great moral +questions of his time Clarke was a fearless and practical advocate of +the broadest statement of human rights. Without caring much what company +he served in, he could always be seen and heard, a leader of unflinching +courage, in the front rank of the battle. He published but few verses, +but at the bottom he was a poet. He was a diligent and accurate scholar, +and among the books by which he is best known is one called _Ten Great +Religions_ (2 vols., 1871-1883). Few Americans have done more than +Clarke to give breadth to the published discussion of the subjects of +literature, ethics and religious philosophy. Among his later books are +_Every-Day Religion_ (1886) and _Sermons on the Lord's Prayer_ (1888). +He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., on the 8th of June 1888. + + His _Autobiography, Diary and Correspondence_, edited by Edward + Everett Hale, was published in Boston in 1891. (E.E.H.) + + + + +CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833-1899), American actor, was born in Baltimore, +Maryland, on the 3rd of September 1833, and was educated for the law. He +made his first appearance in Boston as Frank Hardy in _Paul Pry_ in +1851. In 1859 he married Asia Booth, daughter of Junius Brutus Booth, +and he was associated with his brother-in-law Edwin Booth in the +management of the Winter Garden theatre in New York, the Walnut Street +theatre in Philadelphia and the Boston theatre. In 1867 he went to +London, where he made his first appearance at the St James's as Major +Wellington de Boots in Stirling Coynes's _Everybody's Friend_, rewritten +for him and called _The Widow's Hunt_. His success was so great that he +remained in England for the rest of his life, except for four visits to +America. Among his favourite parts were Toodles, which ran for 200 +nights at the Strand, Dr Pangloss in _The Heir-at-law_, and Dr Ollapod +in _The Poor Gentleman_. He managed several London theatres, including +the Haymarket, where he preceded the Bancrofts. He retired in 1889, and +died on the 24th of September 1899. His two sons also were actors. + + + + +CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846-1881), Australian author, was born in +London on the 24th of April 1846. He was the only son of William Hislop +Clarke, a barrister of the Middle Temple who died in 1863. He emigrated +forthwith to Australia, where his uncle, James Langton Clarke, was a +county court judge. He was at first a clerk in the bank of Australasia, +but showed no business ability, and soon proceeded to learn farming at a +station on the Wimmera river, Victoria. He was already writing stories +for the _Australian Magazine_, when in 1867 he joined the staff of the +Melbourne _Argus_ through the introduction of Dr Robert Lewins. He also +became secretary (1872) to the trustees of the Melbourne public library +and later (1876) assistant librarian. He founded in 1868 the Yorick +Club, which soon numbered among its members the chief Australian men of +letters. The most famous of his books is _For the Term of his Natural +Life_ (Melbourne, 1874), a powerful tale of an Australian penal +settlement, which originally appeared in serial form in a Melbourne +paper. He also wrote _The Peripatetic Philosopher_ (1869), a series of +amusing papers reprinted from _The Austral-asian; Long Odds_ (London, +1870), a novel; and numerous comedies and pantomimes, the best of which +was _Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star_ (Theatre Royal, Melbourne; +Christmas, 1873). He married an actress, Marian Dunn. In spite of his +popular success Clarke was constantly involved in pecuniary +difficulties, which are said to have hastened his death at Melbourne on +the 2nd of August 1881. + + See _The Marcus Clarke Memorial Volume_ (Melbourne, 1884), containing + selections from his writings with a biography and list of works, + edited by Hamilton Mackinnon. + + + + +CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c. 1776-1852), mistress of Frederick duke of York, +second son of George III., was born either in London or at Oxford. Her +father, whose name was Thompson, seems to have been a tradesman in +rather humble circumstances. She married before she was eighteen, but Mr +Clarke, the proprietor of a stonemasonry business, became bankrupt, and +she left him. After other _liaisons_, she became in 1803 the mistress of +the duke of York, then commander-in-chief, maintaining a large and +expensive establishment in a fashionable district. The duke's promised +allowance was not regularly paid, and to escape her financial +difficulties Mrs Clarke trafficked in her protector's position, +receiving money from various promotion-seekers, military, civil and even +clerical, in return for her promise to secure them the good services of +the duke. Her procedure became a public scandal, and in 1809 Colonel +Wardle, M.P., brought eight charges of abuse of military patronage +against the duke in the House of Commons, and a committee of inquiry was +appointed, before which Mrs Clarke herself gave evidence. The result of +the inquiry clearly established the charges as far as she was concerned, +and the duke of York was shown to have been aware of what was being +done, but to have derived no pecuniary benefit himself. He resigned his +appointment as commander-in-chief, and terminated his connexion with Mrs +Clarke, who subsequently obtained from him a considerable sum in cash +and a pension, as the price for withholding the publication of his +numerous letters to her. Mrs Clarke died at Boulogne on the 21st of June +1852. + + See Taylor, _Authentic Memoirs of Mrs Clarke_; Clarke (? pseud.), + _Life of Mrs M.A. Clarkek_; _Annual Register_, vol. li. + + + + +CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675-1729), English philosopher and divine, son of +Edward Clarke, an alderman, who for several years was parliamentary +representative of the city of Norwich, was born on the 11th of October +1675, and educated at the free school of Norwich and at Caius College, +Cambridge. The philosophy of Descartes was the reigning system at the +university; Clarke, however, mastered the new system of Newton, and +contributed greatly to its extension by publishing an excellent Latin +version of the _Traite de physique_ of Jacques Rohault (1620-1675) with +valuable notes, which he finished before he was twenty-two years of age. +The system of Rohault was founded entirely upon Cartesian principles, +and was previously known only through the medium of a rude Latin +version. Clarke's translation (1697) continued to be used as a text-book +in the university till supplanted by the treatises of Newton, which it +had been designed to introduce. Four editions were issued, the last and +best being that of 1718. It was translated into English in 1723 by his +brother Dr John Clarke (1682-1757), dean of Sarum. + +Clarke afterwards devoted himself to the study of Scripture in the +original, and of the primitive Christian writers. Having taken holy +orders, he became chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714), bishop of Norwich, +who was ever afterwards his friend and patron. In 1699 he published two +treatises,--one entitled _Three Practical Essays on Baptism, +Confirmation and Repentance_, and the other, _Some Reflections on that +part of a book called Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton's Life, which +relates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and, the Canon of the +New Testament_. In 1701 he published _A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St +Matthew_, which was followed, in 1702, by the _Paraphrases upon the +Gospels of St Mark and St Luke_, and soon afterwards by a third volume +upon St John. They were subsequently printed together in two volumes and +have since passed through several editions. He intended to treat in the +same manner the remaining books of the New Testament, but his design was +unfulfilled. + +Meanwhile he had been presented by Bishop Moore to the rectory of +Drayton, near Norwich. As Boyle lecturer, he dealt in 1704 with the +_Being and Attributes of God_, and in 1705 with the _Evidences of +Natural and Revealed Religion_. These lectures, first printed +separately, were afterwards published together under the title of _A +Discourse concerning the Being and Attributes of God, the Obligations of +Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian +Revelation, in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the author of the Oracles +of Reason, and other Deniers of Natural and Revealed Religion_. + +In 1706 he wrote a refutation of Dr Henry Dodwell's views on the +immortality of the soul, and this drew him into controversy with Anthony +Collins. He also wrote at this time a translation of Newton's _Optics_, +for which the author presented him with L500. In the same year through +the influence of Bishop Moore, he obtained the rectory of St Benet's, +Paul's Wharf, London. Soon afterwards Queen Anne appointed him one of +her chaplains in ordinary, and in 1709 presented him to the rectory of +St James's, Westminster. He then took the degree of doctor in divinity, +defending as his thesis the two propositions: _Nullum fidei Christianae +dogma, in Sacris Scripturis traditum, est rectae rationi dissentaneum_, +and _Sine actionum humanarum libertate nulla potest esse religio_. +During the same year, at the request of the author, he revised Whiston's +English translation of the _Apostolical Constitutions_. + +In 1712 he published a carefully punctuated and annotated edition (folio +1712, octavo 1720) of Caesar's _Commentaries_, with elegant engravings, +dedicated to the duke of Marlborough. During the same year he published +his celebrated treatise on _The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity_. It +is divided into three parts. The first contains a collection and +exegesis of all the texts in the New Testament relating to the doctrine +of the Trinity; in the second the doctrine is set forth at large, and +explained in particular and distinct propositions; and in the third the +principal passages in the liturgy of the Church of England relating to +the doctrine of the Trinity are considered. Whiston informs us that, +some time before the publication of this book, a message was sent to him +from Lord Godolphin "that the affairs of the public were with difficulty +then kept in the hands of those that were for liberty; that it was +therefore an unseasonable time for the publication of a book that would +make a great noise and disturbance; and that therefore they desired him +to forbear till a fitter opportunity should offer itself,"--a message +that Clarke of course entirely disregarded. The ministers were right in +their conjectures; and the work not only provoked a great number of +replies, but occasioned a formal complaint from the Lower House of +Convocation. Clarke, in reply, drew up an apologetic preface, and +afterwards gave several explanations, which satisfied the Upper House; +and, on his pledging himself that his future conduct would occasion no +trouble, the matter dropped. + +In 1715 and 1716 he had a discussion with Leibnitz relative to the +principles of natural philosophy and religion, which was at length cut +short by the death of his antagonist. A collection of the papers which +passed between them was published in 1717 (cf. G. v. Leroy, _Die philos. +Probleme in dem Briefwechsel Leibniz und Clarke_, Giessen, 1893). In +1719 he was presented by Nicholas 1st Baron Lechmere, to the mastership +of Wigston's hospital in Leicester. In 1724 he published seventeen +sermons, eleven of which had not before been printed. In 1727, on the +death of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court the place of +master of the mint, worth on an average from L1200 to L1500 a year. This +secular preferment, however, he absolutely refused. In 1728 was +published "A Letter from Dr Clarke to Benjamin Hoadly, F.R.S., +occasioned by the controversy relating to the Proportion of Velocity and +Force in Bodies in Motion," printed in the _Philosophical Transactions_. +In 1729 he published the first twelve books of Homer's _Iliad_. This +edition, dedicated to William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was highly +praised by Bishop Hoadly. On Sunday, the 11th of May 1729, when going +out to preach before the judges at Serjeants' Inn, he was seized with a +sudden illness, which caused his death on the Saturday following (May +17, 1729). + +Soon after his death his brother Dr John Clarke, dean of Sarum, +published, from his original manuscripts, _An Exposition of the Church +Catechism_, and ten volumes of sermons. The _Exposition_ is composed of +the lectures which he read every Thursday morning, for some months in +the year, at St James's church. In the latter part of his life he +revised them with great care, and left them completely prepared for the +press. Three years after his death appeared also the last twelve books +of the _Iliad_, published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of +these books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised +and annotated by his father. + +In disposition Clarke was cheerful and even playful. An intimate friend +relates that he once found him swimming upon a table. At another time +Clarke on looking out at the window saw a grave blockhead approaching +the house; upon which he cried out, "Boys, boys, be wise; here comes a +fool." Dr Warton, in his observations upon Pope's line, + + "Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise," + +says, "Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances; that Newton +once studied astrology; that Dr Clarke valued himself on his agility, +and frequently amused himself in a private room of his house in leaping +over the tables and chairs?" + + _Philosophy._--Clarke, though in no way an original thinker, was + eminent in theology, mathematics, metaphysics and philology, but his + chief strength lay in his logical power. The materialism of Hobbes, + the pantheism of Spinoza, the empiricism of Locke, the determinism of + Leibnitz, Collins' necessitarianism, Dodwell's denial of the natural + immortality of the soul, rationalistic attacks on Christianity, and + the morality of the sensationalists--all these he opposed with a + thorough conviction of the truth of the principles which he advocated. + His fame as theologian and philosopher rests to a large extent on his + demonstration of the existence of God and his theory of the foundation + of rectitude. The former is not a purely a priori argument, nor is it + presented as such by its author. It starts from a fact and it often + explicitly appeals to facts. The intelligence, for example, of the + self-existence and original cause of all things is, he says, "not + easily proved a priori," but "demonstrably proved a posteriori from + the variety and degrees of perfection in things, and the order of + causes and effects, from the intelligence that created beings are + confessedly endowed with, and from the beauty, order, and final + purpose of things." The propositions maintained in the argument + are--"(1) That something has existed from eternity; (2) that there has + existed from eternity some one immutable and independent being; (3) + that that immutable and independent being, which has existed from + eternity, without any external cause of its existence, must be + self-existent, that is, necessarily existing; (4) what the substance + or essence of that being is, which is self-existent or necessarily + existing, we have no idea, neither is it at all possible for us to + comprehend it; (5) that though the substance or essence of the + self-existent being is itself absolutely incomprehensible to us, yet + many of the essential attributes of his nature are strictly + demonstrable as well as his existence, and, in the first place, that + he must be of necessity eternal; (6) that the self-existent being must + of necessity be infinite and omnipresent; (7) must be but one; (8) + must be an intelligent being; (9) must be not a necessary agent, but a + being endued with liberty and choice; (10) must of necessity have + infinite power; (11) must be infinitely wise, and (12) must of + necessity be a being of infinite goodness, justice, and truth, and all + other moral perfections, such as become the supreme governor and judge + of the world." + + In order to establish his sixth proposition, Clarke contends that time + and space, eternity and immensity, are not substances, but + attributes--the attributes of a self-existent being. Edmund Law, + Dugald Stewart, Lord Brougham, and many other writers, have, in + consequence, represented Clarke as arguing from the existence of time + and space to the existence of Deity. This is a serious mistake. The + existence of an immutable, independent, and necessary being is + supposed to be proved before any reference is made to the nature of + time and space. Clarke has been generally supposed to have derived the + opinion that time and space are attributes of an infinite immaterial + and spiritual being from the _Scholium Generale_, first published in + the second edition of Newton's _Principia_ (1714). The truth is that + his work on the Being and Attributes of God appeared nine years before + that _Scholium_. The view propounded by Clarke may have been derived + from the Midrash, the Kabbalah, Philo, Henry More, or Cudworth, but + not from Newton. It is a view difficult to prove, and probably few + will acknowledge that Clarke has conclusively proved it. + + His ethical theory of "fitness" (see ETHICS) is formulated on the + analogy of mathematics. He held that in relation to the will things + possess an objective fitness similar to the mutual consistency of + things in the physical universe. This fitness God has given to + actions, as he has given laws to Nature; and the fitness is as + immutable as the laws. The theory has been unfairly criticized by + Jouffroy, Amedee Jacques, Sir James Mackintosh, Thomas Brown and + others. It is said, for example, that Clarke made virtue consist in + conformity to the relations of things universally, although the whole + tenor of his argument shows him to have had in view conformity to such + relations only as belong to the sphere of moral agency. It is true + that he might have emphasized the relation of moral fitness to the + will, and in this respect J.F. Herbart (_q.v._) improved on Clarke's + statement of the case. To say, however, that Clarke simply confused + mathematics and morals by justifying the moral criterion on a + mathematical basis is a mistake. He compared the two subjects for the + sake of the analogy. + + Though Clarke can thus be defended against this and similar criticism, + his work as a whole can be regarded only as an attempt to present the + doctrines of the Cartesian school in a form which would not shock the + conscience of his time. His work contained a measure of rationalism + sufficient to arouse the suspicion of orthodox theologians, without + making any valuable addition to, or modification of, the underlying + doctrine. + + AUTHORITIES.--See W. Whiston's _Historical Memoirs_, and the preface + by Benjamin Hoadly to Clarke's _Works_ (4 vols., London, 1738-1742). + See further on his general philosophical position J. Hunt's _Religious + Thought in England_, _passim_, but particularly in vol. ii. 447-457, + and vol. iii. 20-29 and 109-115, &c.; Rob. Zimmermann in the + _Denkschriften d. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist. Classe_, + Bd. xix. (Vienna, 1870); H. Sidgwick's _Methods of Ethics_ (6th ed., + 1901), p. 384; A. Bain's _Moral Science_ (1872), p. 562 foll., and + _Mental Science_ (1872), p. 416; Sir L. Stephen's _English Thought in + the Eighteenth Century_ (3rd ed., 1902), c. iii.; J. E. le Rossignol, + _Ethical Philosophy of S. Clarke_ (Leipzig, 1892). + + + + +CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1860- ), American artist, was born in Pittsburg, +Pennsylvania, on the 25th of April 1860, and graduated at Princeton in +1882. He was a pupil of the Art Students' League, New York, and of the +Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, under J.L. Gerome; later he entered the +atelier of Dagnan-Bouveret, and, becoming interested in sculpture, +worked for a while under Henri M. Chapu. As a sculptor, he received a +medal of honour in Madrid for his "The Cider Press," now in the Golden +Gate Park, San Francisco, California, and he made four caryatides of +"The Seasons" for the Appellate Court House, New York. He designed an +"Alma Mater" for Princeton University, and a model is in the library. +Among his paintings are his "Night Market in Morocco" (Philadelphia Art +Club), for which he received a medal at the International Exposition in +Berlin in 1891, and his "A Fool's Fool," exhibited at the Salon in 1887 +and now in the collection of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, +Philadelphia. + + + + +CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878), British geologist, was born at +East Bergholt, in Suffolk, on the 2nd of June 1798. He received his +early education at Dedham grammar school, and in 1817 entered Jesus +College, Cambridge; he took his B.A. in 1821, was ordained and became +M.A. in 1824. In 1821 he was appointed curate of Ramsholt in Suffolk, +and he acted in his clerical capacity in other places until 1839. Having +become interested in geology through the teachings of Sedgwick, he +utilized his opportunities and gathered many interesting facts on the +geology of East Anglia which were embodied in a paper "On the Geological +Structure and Phenomena of Suffolk" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ 1837). He also +communicated a series of papers on the geology of S.E. Dorsetshire to +the _Magazine of Nat. Hist._ (1837-1838). In 1839, after a severe +illness, he left England for New South Wales, mainly with the object of +benefiting by the sea voyage. He remained, however, in that country, and +came to be regarded as the "Father of Australian Geology." From the date +of his arrival in New South Wales until 1870 he was in clerical charge +first of the country from Paramatta to the Hawkesbury river, then of +Campbelltown, and finally of Willoughby. He zealously devoted attention +to the geology of the country, with results that have been of paramount +importance. In 1841 he discovered gold, being the first explorer who had +obtained it _in situ_ in the country, finding it both in the detrital +deposits and in the quartzites of the Blue Mountains, and he then +declared his belief in its abundance. In 1849 he made the first actual +discovery of tin in Australia and in 1859 he made known the occurrence +of the diamond. He was also the first to indicate the presence of +Silurian rocks, and to determine the age of the coal-bearing rocks in +New South Wales. In 1869 he announced the discovery of remains of +_Dinornis_ in Queensland. He was a trustee of the Australian museum at +Sydney, and an active member of the Royal Society of New South Wales. In +1860 he published _Researches in the Southern Gold-fields of New South +Wales_. He was elected F.R.S. in 1876, and in the following year was +awarded the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London. His +contributions to Australian scientific journals were numerous. He died +near Sydney, on the 17th of June 1878. + + + + +CLARKSON, THOMAS (1760-1846), English anti-slavery agitator, was born on +the 28th of March 1760, at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire, where his father +was headmaster of the free grammar school. He was educated at St Paul's +school and at St John's College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place +among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded in 1785 in +gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors. The subject +appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, was one in which he was +himself deeply interested--_Anne liceat invitos in servitutem dare?_ (Is +it right to make men slaves against their will?). In preparing for this +essay Clarkson consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which +the chief was Benezet's _Historical Survey of New Guinea_; and the +atrocities of which he read affected him so deeply that he determined to +devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the slave trade, and +gave up his intention of entering the church. + +His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English translation +of his prize essay (June 1786). He then commenced to search in all +quarters for information concerning slavery. He soon discovered that the +cause had already been taken up to some extent by others, most of whom +belonged to the Society of Friends, and among the chief of whom were +William Dillwyn, Joseph Wood and Granville Sharp. With the aid of these +gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 1787 to do all that +was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade. Meanwhile +Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce, Whitbread, Sturge +and several other men of influence. Travelling from port to port, he now +commenced to collect a large mass of evidence; and much of it was +embodied in his _Summary View of the Slave Trade, and the Probable +Consequences of its Abolition_, which, with a number of other +anti-slavery tracts, was published by the committee. Pitt, Grenville, +Fox and Burke looked favourably on the movement; in May 1788 Pitt +introduced a parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben +brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves carried in a +vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A number of Liverpool and +Bristol merchants obtained permission from the House to be heard by +council against the bill, but on the 18th of June it passed the Commons. +Soon after Clarkson published an _Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave +Trade_; and for two months he was continuously engaged in travelling +that he might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facts of +the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount of +evidence; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to appear +before the privy council. Meanwhile other witnesses had been obtained by +Wilberforce and the committee, and on the 12th of May 1789 the former +led a debate on the subject in the House of Commons, in which he was +seconded by Burke and supported by Pitt and Fox. + +It was now the beginning of the French Revolution, and in the hope that +he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with other abuses, +Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he remained six months. He found Necker +head of the government, and obtained from him some sympathy but little +help. Mirabeau, however, with his assistance, prepared a speech against +slavery, to be delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis +de la Fayette entered enthusiastically into his views. During this visit +Clarkson met a deputation of negroes from Santo Domingo, who had come to +France to present a petition to the National Assembly, desiring to be +placed on an equal footing with the whites; but the storm of the +Revolution permitted no substantial success to be achieved. Soon after +his return home he engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of +which finely displays his unshrinking laboriousness and his passionate +enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself witnessed the +capture of the negroes in Africa; and a friend having met by chance a +man-of-war's-man who had done so, Clarkson, though ignorant of the name +and address of the sailor, set out in search of him, and actually +discovered him. His last tour was undertaken in order to form +anti-slavery committees in all the principal towns. At length, in the +autumn of 1794, his health gave way, and he was obliged to cease active +work. He now occupied his time in writing a _History of the Abolition of +the Slave Trade_, which appeared in 1808. The bill for the abolition of +the trade became law in 1807; but it was still necessary to secure the +assent of the other powers to its principle. To obtain this was, under +pressure of the public opinion created by Clarkson and his friends, one +of the main objects of British diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna, and +in February 1815 the trade was condemned by the powers. The question of +concerting practical measures for its abolition was raised at the +Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but without result. On this +occasion Clarkson personally presented an address to the emperor +Alexander I., who communicated it to the sovereigns of Austria and +Prussia. In 1823 the Anti-Slavery Society was formed, and Clarkson was +one of its vice-presidents. He was for some time blind from cataract; +but several years before his death on the 26th of September 1846, his +sight was restored. + + Besides the works already mentioned, he published the _Portraiture of + Quakerism_ (1806), _Memoirs of William Penn_ (1813), _Researches, + Antediluvian, Patriarchal and Historical_ (1836), intended as a + history of the interference of Providence for man's spiritual good, + and _Strictures_ on several of the remarks concerning himself made in + the _Life of Wilberforce_, in which his claim as originator of the + anti-slavery movement is denied. + + See the lives by Thomas Elmes (1876) and Thomas Taylor (1839). + + + + +CLARKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county, Tennessee, +U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, about 50 m. N.W. of +Nashville, on the Cumberland river, at the mouth of the Red river. Pop. +(1890) 7924; (1900) 9431, of whom 5094 were negroes; (1910 census) 8548. +It is served by the Louisville & Nashville, and the Illinois Central +railways, and by passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Cumberland +river. The city hall, and the public library are among the principal +public buildings, and the city is the seat of the Tennessee Odd Fellows' +home, and of the South-Western Presbyterian University, founded in 1875. +Clarksville lies in the centre of the dark tobacco belt--commonly known +as the "Black Patch"--and is an important tobacco market, with an annual +trade in that staple of about $4,000,000, most of the product being +exported to France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The city is situated in a +region well adapted for the growing of wheat, Indian corn, and +vegetables, and for the raising of live-stock; and Clarksville is a +shipping point for the lumber--chiefly oak, poplar and birch--and the +iron-ore of the surrounding country, a branch of the Louisville & +Nashville railway extending into the iron district. The city's principal +manufactures are flour and grist mill products, chewing and smoking +tobacco and snuff, furniture, lumber, iron, and pearl buttons. The value +of the factory product in 1905 was $2,210,112, being 32% greater than in +1900. The municipality owns its water-works. Clarksville was first +settled as early as 1780, was named in honour of General George Rogers +Clark, and was chartered as a city in 1850. + + + + +CLASSICS. The term "classic" is derived from the Latin epithet +_classicus_, found in a passage of Aulus Gellius (xix. 8. 15), where a +"_scriptor 'classicus'_" is contrasted with a "_scriptor proletarius_." +The metaphor is taken from the division of the Roman people into +_classes_ by Servius Tullius, those in the first class being called +_classici_, all the rest _infra classem_, and those in the last +_proletarii_.[1] The epithet "classic" is accordingly applied (1) +generally to an author of the first rank, and (2) more particularly to +a Greek or Roman author of that character. Similarly, "the classics" is +a synonym for the choicest products of the literature of ancient Greece +and Rome. It is to this sense of the word that the following article is +devoted in two main divisions: (A) the general history of classical +(i.e. Greek and Latin) scholarship, and (B) its place in higher +education. + + +(A) GENERAL HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS + +We may consider this subject in four principal periods:--(i.) the +_Alexandrian_, c. 300-1 B.C.; (ii.) the _Roman_, A.D. c. 1-530; (iii.) +the _Middle Ages_, c. 530-1350; and (iv.) the _Modern Age_, c. 1350 to +the present day. + +(i.) _The Alexandrian Age._--The study of the Greek classics begins with +the school of Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy Philadelphus +(285-247 B.C.), learning found a home in the Alexandrian Museum and in +the great Alexandrian Library. The first four librarians were Zenodotus, +Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, and Aristarchus. Zenodotus +produced before 274 the first scientific edition of the _Iliad_ and +_Odyssey_, an edition in which spurious lines were marked, at the +beginning, with a short horizontal dash called an _obelus_ (--). He also +drew up select lists of epic and lyric poets. Soon afterwards a +classified catalogue of dramatists, epic and lyric poets, legislators, +philosophers, historians, orators and rhetoricians, and miscellaneous +writers, with a brief biography of each, was produced by the scholar and +poet Callimachus (fl. 260). Among the pupils of Callimachus was +Eratosthenes who, in 234, succeeded Zenodotus as librarian. Apart from +his special interest in the history of the Old Attic comedy, he was a +man of vast and varied learning; the founder of astronomical geography +and of scientific chronology; and the first to assume the name of +[Greek: philologos]. The greatest philologist of antiquity was, however, +his successor, Aristophanes of Byzantium (195), who reduced accentuation +and punctuation to a definite system, and used a variety of critical +symbols in his recension of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. He also edited +Hesiod and Pindar, Euripides and Aristophanes, besides composing brief +introductions to the several plays, parts of which are still extant. +Lastly, he established a scientific system of lexicography and drew up +lists of the "best authors." Two critical editions of the _Iliad_ and +_Odyssey_ were produced by his successor, Aristarchus, who was librarian +until 146 B.C. and was the founder of scientific scholarship. His +distinguished pupil, Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166 B.C.), drew up a Greek +grammar which continued in use for more than thirteen centuries. The +most industrious of the successors of Aristarchus was Didymus (c. 65 +B.C.-A.D. 10), who, in his work on the Homeric poems, aimed at restoring +the lost recensions of Aristarchus. He also composed commentaries on the +lyric and comic poets and on Thucydides and Demosthenes; part of his +commentary on this last author was first published in 1904. He was a +teacher in Alexandria (and perhaps also in Rome); and his death, about +A.D. 10, marks the close of the Alexandrian age. He is the industrious +compiler who gathered up the remnants of the learning of his +predecessors and transmitted them to posterity. The poets of that age, +including Callimachus and Theocritus, were subsequently expounded by +Theon, who flourished under Tiberius, and has been well described as +"the Didymus of the Alexandrian poets." + +The Alexandrian canon of the Greek classics, which probably had its +origin in the lists drawn up by Callimachus, Aristophanes of Byzantium +and Aristarchus, included the following authors:-- + + _Epic poets_ (5): Homer, Hesiod, Peisander, Panyasis, Antimachus. + + _Iambic poets_ (3): Simonides of Amorgos, Archilochus, Hipponax. + + _Tragic poets_ (5): Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Ion, Achaeus. + + _Comic poets, Old_ (7): Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes, + Pherecrates, Crates, Plato. _Middle_ (2): Antiphanes, Alexis. _New_ + (5): Menander, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus. + + _Elegiac poets_ (4): Callinus, Mimnermus, Philetas, Callimachus. + + _Lyric poets_ (9): Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar, + Bacchylides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides of Ceos. + + _Orators_ (10): Demosthenes, Lysias, Hypereides, Isocrates, Aeschines, + Lycurgus, Isaeus, Antiphon, Andocides, Deinarchus. + + _Historians_ (10): Thucydides, Herodotus, Xenophon, Philistius, + Theopompus, Ephorus, Anaximenes, Callisthenes, Hellanicus, Polybius. + +The latest name in the above list is that of Polybius, who died about +123 B.C. Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus and Theocritus were subsequently +added to the "epic" poets. Philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle, +were possibly classed in a separate "canon." + +While the scholars of Alexandria were mainly interested in the _verbal +criticism_ of the Greek _poets_, a wider variety of studies was the +characteristic of the school of Pergamum, the literary rival of +Alexandria. Pergamum was a home of learning for a large part of the 150 +years of the Attalid dynasty, 283-133 B.C. + +The grammar of the Stoics, gradually elaborated by Zeno, Cleanthes and +Chrysippus, supplied a terminology which, in words such as "genitive," +"accusative" and "aorist," has become a permanent part of the +grammarian's vocabulary; and the study of this grammar found its +earliest home in Pergamum. + +From about 168 B.C. the head of the Pergamene school was Crates of +Mallus, who (like the Stoics) was an adherent of the principle of +"anomaly" in grammar, and was thus opposed to Aristarchus of Alexandria, +the champion of "analogy." He also opposed Aristarchus, and supported +the Stoics, by insisting on an _allegorical_ interpretation of Homer. He +is credited with having drawn up the classified lists of the best +authors for the Pergamene library. His mission as an envoy to the Roman +senate, "shortly after the death of Ennius" in 169 B.C., had a +remarkable influence on literary studies in Rome. Meeting with an +accident while he was wandering on the Palatine, and being detained in +Rome, he passed part of his enforced leisure in giving lectures +(possibly on Homer, his favourite author), and thus succeeded in +arousing among the Romans a taste for the scholarly study of literature. +The example set by Crates led to the production of a new edition of the +epic poem of Naevius, and to the public recitation of the _Annals_ of +Ennius, and (two generations later) the _Satires_ of Lucilius. + +(ii.) _The Roman Age._--(a) _Latin Studies._--In the 1st century B.C. +the foremost scholar in Rome was L. Aelius Stilo (c. 154-c. 74), who is +described by Cicero as profoundly learned in Greek and Latin literature, +and as an accomplished critic of Roman antiquities and of ancient +authors. Of the plays then passing under the name of Plautus, he +recognized twenty-five as genuine. His most famous pupil was Varro +(116-27), the six surviving books of whose great work on the Latin +language are mainly concerned with the great grammatical controversy on +analogy and anomaly--a controversy which also engaged the attention of +Cicero and Caesar, and of the elder Pliny and Quintilian. The twenty-one +plays of Plautus accepted by Varro are doubtless the twenty now extant, +together with the lost _Vidularia_. The influence of Varro's last work +on the nine _disciplinae_, or branches of study, long survived in the +seven "liberal arts" recognized by St Augustine and Martianus Capella, +and in the _trivium_ and _quadrivium_ of the middle ages. + +Part of Varro's treatise on Latin was dedicated to Cicero (106-43), who +as an interpreter of Greek philosophy to his fellow-countrymen enlarged +the vocabulary of Latin by his admirable renderings of Greek +philosophical terms, and thus ultimately gave us such indispensable +words as "species," "quality" and "quantity." + +The earliest of Latin lexicons was produced about 10 B.C. by Verrius +Flaccus in a work, _De Verborum Significatu_, which survived in the +abridgment by Festus (2nd century A.D.) and in the further abridgment +dedicated by Paulus Diaconus to Charles the Great. + +Greek models were diligently studied by Virgil and Horace. Their own +poems soon became the theme of criticism and of comment; and, by the +time of Quintilian and Juvenal, they shared the fate (which Horace had +feared) of becoming text-books for use in schools. + +Recensions of Terence, Lucretius and Persius, as well as Horace and +Virgil, were produced by Probus (d. A.D. 88), with critical symbols +resembling those invented by the Alexandrian scholars. His contemporary +Asconius is best known as the author of an extant historical commentary +on five of the speeches of Cicero. In A.D. 88 Quintilian was placed at +the head of the first state-supported school in Rome. His comprehensive +work on the training of the future orator includes an outline of general +education, which had an important influence on the humanistic schools of +the Italian Renaissance. It also presents us with a critical survey of +the Greek and Latin classics arranged under the heads of poets, +historians, orators and philosophers (book x. chap. i.). The lives of +Roman poets and scholars were among the many subjects that exercised the +literary skill of Hadrian's private secretary, Suetonius. One of his +lost works is the principal source of the erudition of Isidore of +Seville (d. A.D. 636), whose comprehensive encyclopaedia was a favourite +text-book in the middle ages. About the time of the death of Suetonius +(A.D. 160) a work entitled the _Noctes Atticae_ was begun by Aulus +Gellius. The author is an industrious student and a typical scholar, who +frequents libraries and is interested in the MSS. of old Latin authors. +Early in the 4th century the study of grammar was represented in +northern Africa by the Numidian tiro, Nonius Marcellus (fl. 323), the +author of an encyclopaedic work in three parts, lexicographical, +grammatical and antiquarian, the main value of which lies in its +quotations from early Latin literature. About the middle of the same +century grammar had a far abler exponent at Rome in the person of Aelius +Donatus, the preceptor of St Jerome, as well as the author of a +text-book that remained in use throughout the middle ages. The general +state of learning in this century is illustrated by Ausonius (c. +310-393), the grammarian and rhetorician of Bordeaux, the author of the +_Mosella_, and the probable inspirer of the memorable decree of Gratian +(376), providing for the appointment and the payment of teachers of +rhetoric and of Greek and Latin literature in the principal cities of +Gaul. His distinguished friend, Q. Aurelius Symmachus, the consul of +A.D. 391, aroused in his own immediate circle an interest in Livy, the +whole of whose history was still extant. Early in the 5th century other +aristocratic Romans interested themselves in the textual criticism of +Persius and Martial. Among the contemporaries of Symmachus, the devoted +adherent of the old Roman religion, was St Jerome (d. 420), the most +scholarly representative of Christianity in the 4th century, the student +of Plautus and Terence, of Virgil and Cicero, the translator of the +_Chronology_ of Eusebius, and the author of the Latin version of the +Bible now known as the Vulgate. St Augustine (d. 430) confesses to his +early fondness for Virgil, and also tells us that he received his first +serious impressions from the _Hortensius_ of Cicero, an eloquent +exhortation to the study of philosophy, of which only a few fragments +survive. In his survey of the "liberal arts" St Augustine imitates (as +we have seen) the _Disciplinae_ of Varro, and in the greatest of his +works, the _De Civitate Dei_ (426), he has preserved large portions of +the _Antiquitates_ of Varro and the _De Republica_ of Cicero. About the +same date, and in the same province of northern Africa, Martianus +Capella produced his allegorical work on the "liberal arts," the +principal, and, indeed, often the only, text-book of the medieval +schools. + +In the second half of the 5th century the foremost representative of +Latin studies in Gaul was Apollinaris Sidonius (fl. 470), whose +_Letters_ were modelled on those of the younger Pliny, while his poems +give proof of a wide though superficial acquaintance with classical +literature. He laments the increasing decline in the classical purity of +the Latin language. + +An interest in Latin literature lived longest in Gaul, where schools of +learning flourished as early as the 1st century at Autun, Lyons, +Toulouse, Nimes, Vienne, Narbonne and Marseilles; and, from the 3rd +century onwards, at Trier, Poitiers, Besancon and Bordeaux. + +About ten years after the death of Sidonius we find Asterius, the consul +of 494, critically revising the text of Virgil in Rome. Boethius, who +early in life formed the ambitious plan of expounding and reconciling +the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, continued in the year of his sole +consulship (510) to instruct his fellow-countrymen in the wisdom of +Greece. He is a link between the ancient world and the middle ages, +having been the last of the learned Romans who understood the language +and studied the literature of Greece, and the first to interpret to the +middle ages the logical treatises of Aristotle. He thereby gave the +signal for the age-long conflict between Nominalism and Realism, which +exercised the keenest intellects among the Schoolmen, while the crowning +work of his life, the _Consolatio Philosophiae_ (524), was repeatedly +expounded and imitated, and reproduced in renderings that were among the +earliest literary products of the vernacular languages of modern Europe. +His contemporary, Cassiodorus (c. 480-c. 575), after spending thirty +years in the service of the Ostrogothic dynasty at Ravenna, passed the +last thirty-three years of his long life on the shores of the Bay of +Squillace, where he founded two monasteries and diligently trained their +inmates to become careful copyists. In his latest work he made extracts +for their benefit from the pages of Priscian (fl. 512), a transcript of +whose great work on Latin grammar was completed at Constantinople by one +of that grammarian's pupils in 527, to be reproduced in a thousand MSS. +in the middle ages. More than ten years before Cassiodorus founded his +monasteries in the south of Italy, Benedict of Nursia (480-543) had +rendered a more permanent service to the cause of scholarship by +building, amid the ruins of the temple of Apollo on the crest of Monte +Cassino, the earliest of those homes of learning that have lent an +undying distinction to the Benedictine order. The learned labours of the +Benedictines were no part of the original requirements of the rule of St +Benedict; but before the founder's death his favourite disciple had +planted a monastery in France, and the name of that disciple is +permanently associated with the learned labours of the Benedictines of +the Congregation of St Maur (see MAURISTS). + +(b) _Greek Studies._--Meanwhile, the study of the Greek classics was +ably represented at Rome in the Augustan age by Dionysius of +Halicarnassus (fl. 30-8 B.C.), the intelligent critic of the ancient +Attic orators, while the 1st century of our era is the probable date of +the masterpiece of literary criticism known as the treatise _On the +Sublime_ by Longinus (q.v.). + +The 2nd century is the age of the two great grammarians, Apollonius +Dyscolus (the founder of scientific grammar and the creator of the study +of Greek syntax) and his son Herodian, the larger part of whose +principal work dealt with the subject of Greek accentuation. It is also +the age of the lexicographers of Attic Greek, the most important of whom +are Phrynichus, Pollux (fl. A.D. 180) and Harpocration. + +In the 4th century Demosthenes was expounded and imitated by the widely +influential teacher, Libanius of Antioch (c. 314-c. 393), the pagan +preceptor of St Chrysostom. To the same century we may assign the +grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria, who, instead of confining himself +(like Dionysius Thrax) to the tenses of [Greek: thupto] in actual use, +was the first to set forth all the imaginary aorists and futures of that +verb, which have thence descended through the Byzantine age to the +grammars of the Renaissance and of modern Europe. + +In the 5th century we may place Hesychius of Alexandria, the compiler of +the most extensive of our ancient Greek lexicons, and Proclus, the +author of a chrestomathy, to the extracts from which (as preserved by +Photius) we owe almost all our knowledge of the contents of the lost +epics of early Greece. In the same century the study of Plato was +represented by Synesius of Cyrene (c. 370-c. 413) and by the +Neoplatonists of Alexandria and of Athens. The lower limit of the Roman +age of classical studies may be conveniently placed in the year 529. In +that year the monastery of Monte Cassino was founded in the West, while +the school of Athens was closed in the East. The Roman age thus ends in +the West with Boethius, Cassiodorus and St Benedict, and in the East +with Priscian and Justinian. + +(iii.) _The Middle Ages_.--(a) _In the East_, commonly called the +_Byzantine Age_, c. 530-1350. In this age, grammatical learning was +represented by Choeroboscus, and lexicography by Photius (d. 891), the +patriarch of Constantinople, who is also the author of a _Bibliotheca_ +reviewing and criticizing the contents of 280 MSS., and incidentally +preserving important extracts from the lost Greek historians. + +In the time of Photius the poets usually studied at school were Homer, +Hesiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus (_Prometheus, Septem_ +and _Persae_), Sophocles (_Ajax, Electra_ and _Oedipus Tyrannus_), and +Euripides (_Hecuba, Orestes, Phoenissae_, and, next to these, _Alcestis, +Andromache, Hippolytus, Medea, Rhesus, Troades_,) also Aristophanes +(beginning with the _Plutus_), Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius +Periegetes. The principal prose authors were Thucydides, parts of Plato +and Demosthenes, with Aristotle, Plutarch's _Lives_, and, above all, +Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age. + +One of the distinguished pupils of Photius, Arethas, bishop of Caesarea +in Cappadocia (c. 907-932), devoted himself with remarkable energy to +collecting and expounding the Greek classics. Among the important MSS. +still extant that were copied at his expense are the Bodleian Euclid +(888) and the Bodleian Plato (895). To the third quarter of the 10th +century we may assign the Greek lexicon of Suidas, a combination of a +lexicon and an encyclopaedia, the best articles being those on the +history of literature. + +Meanwhile, during the "dark age" of secular learning at Constantinople +(641-850), the light of Greek learning had spread eastwards to Syria and +Arabia. At Bagdad, in the reign of Mamun (813-833), the son of Harun +al-Rashid, philosophical works were translated by Syrian Christians from +Greek into Syriac and from Syriac into Arabic. It was in his reign that +Aristotle was first translated into Arabic, and, shortly afterwards, we +have Syriac and Arabic renderings of commentators on Aristotle, and of +portions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen; while in the 10th century new +translations of Aristotle and his commentators were produced by the +Nestorian Christians. + +The Arabic translations of Aristotle passed from the East to the West by +being transmitted through the Arab dominions in northern Africa to +Spain, which had been conquered by the Arabs in the 8th century. In the +12th century Toledo was the centre of the study of Aristotle in the +West, and it was from Toledo that the knowledge of Aristotle spread to +Paris and to other seats of learning in western Europe. + +The 12th century in Constantinople is marked by the name of Tzetzes (c. +1110-c. 1180), the author of a mythological, literary and historical +miscellany called the _Chiliades_, in the course of which he quotes more +than four hundred authors. The prolegomena to his scholia on +Aristophanes supply us with valuable information on the Alexandrian +libraries. The most memorable name, however, among the scholars of this +century is that of Eustathius, whose philological studies at +Constantinople preceded his tenure of the archbishopric of Thessalonica +(1175-1192). The opening pages of his commentaries on the _Iliad_ and +the _Odyssey_ dwell with enthusiasm on the abiding influence of Homer on +the literature of Greece. + +While the Byzantine MSS. of the 11th century (such as the Laurentian +MSS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and the Ravenna MS. of Aristophanes) +maintain the sound traditions of the Alexandrian and Roman ages, those +of the times of the Palaeologi give proof of a frequent tampering with +the metres of the ancient poets in order to bring them into conformity +with theories recently invented by Moschopulus and Triclinius. The +scholars of these times are the natural precursors of the earliest +representatives of the Revival of Learning in the West. Of these later +Byzantines the first in order of date is the monk Planudes (d. 1330), +who devoted his knowledge of Latin to producing excellent translations +of Caesar's _Gallic War_ as well as Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ and +_Heroides_, and the classic work of Boethius; he also compiled (in 1302) +the only Greek anthology known to scholars before the recovery in 1607 +of the earlier and fuller anthology of Cephalas (fl. 917). + +The scholars of the Byzantine age cannot be compared with the great +Alexandrians, but they served to maintain the continuity of tradition by +which the Greek classics selected by the critics of Alexandria were +transmitted to modern Europe. + +(b) _In the West_ (c. 530-c. 1350).--At the portal of the middle ages +stands Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), who had little (if any) knowledge +of Greek and had no sympathy with the _secular_ side of the study of +Latin. A decline in grammatical learning is exemplified in the three +Latin historians of the 6th century, Jordanes, Gildas and Gregory of +Tours (d. 594), who begins his history of the Franks by lamenting the +decay of Latin literature in Gaul. The historian of Tours befriended the +Latin poet, Venantius Fortunatus (d. _c._ 600), who is still remembered +as the writer of the three well-known hymns beginning _Salve festa +dies_, _Vexilla regis prodeunt_, and _Pange lingua gloriosi proelium +certaminis_. The decadence of Latin early in the 7th century is +exemplified by the fantastic grammarian Virgilius Maro, who also +illustrates the transition from Latin to Provencal, and from quantitive +to accentual forms of verse. + +While Latin was declining in Gaul, even Greek was not unknown in +Ireland, and the Irish passion for travel led to the spread of Greek +learning in the west of Europe. The Irish monk Columban, shortly before +his death in 615, founded in the neighbourhood of Pavia the monastery of +Bobbio, to be the repository of many Latin MSS. which were ultimately +dispersed among the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin. About the same +date his fellow-traveller, Gallus, founded above the Lake of Constance +the monastery of St Gallen, where Latin MSS. were preserved until their +recovery in the age of the Renaissance. During the next twenty-five +years Isidore of Seville (d. 636) produced in his _Origines_ an +encyclopaedic work which gathered up for the middle ages much of the +learning of the ancient world. + +In Italy a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the 5th and 6th +centuries led to an estrangement between the Greek and Latin Churches. +The year 690 is regarded as the date of the temporary extinction of +Greek in Italy, but, in the first quarters of the 8th and the 9th +centuries, the iconoclastic decrees of the Byzantine emperors drove many +of the Greek monks and their lay adherents to the south of Italy, and +even to Rome itself. + +In Ireland we find Greek characters used in the Book of Armagh (_c._ +807); and, in the same century, a Greek psalter was copied by an Irish +monk of Liege, named Sedulius (fl. 850), who had a wide knowledge of +Latin literature. In England, some sixty years after the death of +Augustine, the Greek archbishop of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (d. +690) founded a school for the study of Greek, and with the help of an +African monk named Hadrian made many of the English monasteries schools +of Greek and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bede (d. 735), some +of the scholars who still survived were "as familiar with Greek and +Latin as with their mother-tongue." Among those who had learned their +Greek at Canterbury was Aldhelm (d. 709), "the first Englishman who +cultivated classical learning with any success." While Aldhelm is known +as "the father of Anglo-Latin verse," Latin prose was the literary +medium used by Bede in his celebrated _Ecclesiastical History_ of +England (731). Nine years after the death of Bede (735), Boniface, "the +apostle of Germany," sanctioned the founding of Fulda (744), which soon +rivalled St Gallen as a school of learning. Alcuin (d. 804), who was +probably born in the year of Bede's death, tells us of the wealth of +Latin literature preserved in the library at York. Through the +invitation of Charles the Great, he became associated with the revival +of learning which marks the reign of that monarch, by presiding over the +School of the Palace (782-790), and by exercising a healthy influence as +abbot of St Martin's at Tours (796-804). Among the friends of Alcuin and +the advisers of Charles was Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans and abbot of +Fleury (d. 821), who is memorable as an accomplished Latin poet, and as +the initiator of free education. Einhard (d. 840), in his classic life +of Charles the Great, models his style on that of Suetonius, and shows +his familiarity with Caesar and Livy and Cicero, while Rabanus Maurus +(d. 856), who long presided over Einhard's school of Fulda, was the +first to introduce Priscian into the schools of Germany. His pupil, +Walafrid Strabo, the abbot of Reichenau (d. 849), had a genuine gift for +Latin poetry, a gift agreeably exemplified in his poem on the plants in +the monastic garden. In the same century an eager interest in the Latin +classics is displayed by Servatus Lupus, who was educated at Fulda, and +was abbot of Ferrieres for the last twenty years of his life (d. 862). +In his literary spirit he is a precursor of the humanists of the +Renaissance. Under Charles the Bald (d. 877) there was a certain revival +of interest in literature, when John the Scot (Erigena) became, for some +thirty years (c. 845-875), the head of the Palace School. He was +familiar with the Greek Fathers, and was chosen to execute a Latin +rendering of the writings of "Dionysius the Areopagite," the patron +saint of France. In the preface the translator praises the king for +prompting him not to rest satisfied with the literature of the West, but +to have recourse to the "most pure and copious waters of the Greeks." In +the next generation Remi of Auxerre was the first to open a school in +Paris (900). Virgil is the main authority quoted in Remi's Commentary on +Donatus, which remained in use until the Renaissance. During the two +centuries after John the Scot, the study of Greek declined in France. In +England the 9th century closes with Alfred, who, with the aid of the +Welsh monk, Asser, produced a series of free translations from Latin +texts, including Boethius and Orosius and Bede, and the _Cura +Pastoralis_ of Gregory the Great. + +In the 10th century learning flourished at Aachen under Bruno, brother +of Otto I. and archbishop of Cologne (953-965), who had himself learned +Greek from certain Eastern monks at the imperial court, and who called +an Irish bishop from Trier to teach Greek at the imperial capital. He +also encouraged the transcription of Latin MSS., which became models of +style to Widukind of Corvey, the imitator of Sallust and Livy. In the +same century the monastery of Gandersheim, south of Hanover, was the +retreat of the learned nun Hroswitha, who celebrated the exploits of +Otho in leonine hexameters, and composed in prose six moral and +religious plays in imitation of Terence. One of the most prominent +personages of the century was Gerbert of Aurillac, who, after teaching +at Tours and Fleury, became abbot of Bobbio, archbishop of Reims, and +ultimately pope under the name of Silvester II. (d. 1003). He frequently +quotes from the speeches of Cicero, and it has been surmised that the +survival of those speeches may have been due to the influence of +Gerbert. The most original hellenist of this age is Luitprand, bishop of +Cremona (d. 972), who acquired some knowledge of Greek during his +repeated missions to Constantinople. About the same time in England +Oswald of York, who had himself been educated at Fleury, invited Abbo +(d. 1004) to instruct the monks of the abbey recently founded at Ramsey, +near Huntingdon. At Ramsey he wrote for his pupils a scholarly work +dealing with points of prosody and pronunciation, and exhibiting an +accurate knowledge of Virgil and Horace. During the same half-century, +AElfric, the abbot of Eynsham (d. c. 1030), aided Bishop AEthelwold in +making Winchester famous as a place of education. It was there that he +began his _Latin Grammar_, his _Glossary_ (the earliest Latin-English +dictionary in existence), and his _Colloquium_, in which Latin is taught +in a conversational manner. + +In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the 11th +century was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In and after the +middle of that century the Norman monastery of Bec flourished under the +rule of Lanfranc and Anselm, both of whom had begun their career in +northern Italy, and closed it at Canterbury. Meanwhile, in Germany, the +styles of Sallust and Livy were being happily imitated in the _Annals_ +of Lambert of Hersfeld (d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin +literature seems never to have entirely died out, young nobles and +students preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning +Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics, such +as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as divided in his +allegiance between the saints and the muses. Learning flourished at +Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot Desiderius (afterwards Pope +Victor III.). In this century that famous monastery had its classical +chronicler in Leo Marsicanus, and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future +archbishop of Salerno. + +The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle, and we may +here briefly note the successive stages in their gradually increasing +knowledge of his works. Until 1128 only the first two of the five parts +of the _Organon_ were known, and those solely in Latin translations from +the original. After that date two more became known; the whole was +familiar to John of Salisbury in 1159; while the _Physics_ and +_Metaphysics_ came into notice about 1200. Plato was mainly represented +by the Latin translation of the _Timaeus_. Abelard (d. 1142) was +acquainted with no Greek works except in Latin translations, but he has +left his mark on the history of European education. The wide popularity +of his brilliant lectures in the "schools" of Paris made this city the +resort of the many students who were ultimately organized as a +"university" (c. 1170). John of Salisbury attended Abelard's lectures in +1136, and, after spending two years in the study of logic in Paris, +passed three more in the scholarly study of Latin literature at +Chartres, where a sound and healthy tradition, originally due to Bernard +of Chartres (fl. 1120), was still perpetuated by his pupils. In that +school the study of "figures of speech" was treated as merely +introductory to that of the classical texts. Stress was laid on the +sense as well as the style of the author studied. Discussions on set +subjects were held, select passages from the classics learned by heart, +while written exercises in prose and verse were founded on the best +ancient models. In the general scheme of education the authority +followed was Quintilian. John of Salisbury (d. 1180), the ripest product +of this school, is the most learned man of his time. His favourite +author is Cicero, and in all the Latin literature accessible to him he +is the best-read scholar of his age. Among Latin scholars of the next +generation we have Giraldus Cambrensis (d. c. 1222), the author of +topographical and historical writings on Ireland and Wales, and of other +works teeming with quotations from the Latin classics. During the middle +ages Latin prose never dies out. It is the normal language of +literature. In England it is used by many chroniclers and historians, +the best known of whom are William of Malmesbury (d. 1142) and Matthew +Paris (d. 1259). In Italy Latin verse had been felicitously applied to +historic themes by William of Apulia (fl. 1100) and other Latin poets +(1088-1247). In the 12th century England claims at least seven Latin +poets, one of these being her only Latin epic poet, Joseph of Exeter (d. +1210), whose poem on the Trojan war is still extant. The Latin +versifier, John of Garlandia, an Englishman who lived mainly in France +(fl. 1204-1252), produced several Latin vocabularies which were still in +use in the boyhood of Erasmus. The Latin poets of French birth include +Gautier and Alain de Lille (d. c. 1203), the former being the author of +the _Alexandreis_, and the latter that of the _Anti-Claudianus_, a poem +familiar to Chaucer. + +During the hundred and thirty years that elapsed between the early +translations of Aristotle executed at Toledo about 1150 and the death in +1281 of William of Moerbeke, the translator of the _Rhetoric_ and the +_Politics_, the knowledge of Aristotle had been greatly extended in +Europe by means of translations, first from the Arabic, and, next, from +the original Greek. Aristotle had been studied in England by Grosseteste +(d. 1253), and expounded abroad by the great Dominican, Albertus Magnus +(d. 1280), and his famous pupil, Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). Among the +keenest critics of the Schoolmen and of the recent translations of +Aristotle was Roger Bacon (d. 1294), whose _Opus majus_ has been +recognized as the _Encyclopedie_ and the _Organon_ of the 13th century. +His knowledge of Greek, as shown in his _Greek Grammar_ (first published +in 1902), was clearly derived from the Greeks of his own day. The +medieval dependence on the authority of Aristotle gradually diminished. +This was partly due to the recovery of some of the lost works of ancient +literature, and the transition from the middle ages to the revival of +learning was attended by a general widening of the range of classical +studies and by a renewed interest in Plato. + +The classical learning of the middle ages was largely second-hand. It +was often derived from glossaries, from books of elegant extracts, or +from comprehensive encyclopaedias. Among the compilers of these last +were Isidore and Hrabanus, William of Conches and Honorius of Autun, +Bartholomaeus Anglicus (fl. 1250), Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), and, +lastly, Brunetto Latini (d. 1290), the earlier contemporary of Dante. +For Aristotle, as interpreted by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, +Dante has the highest regard. To the Latin translations of Aristotle +and to his interpreters he refers in more than three hundred passages, +while the number of his references to the Latin translation of the +_Timaeus_ of Plato is less than ten. His five great pagan poets are +Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Lucan; Statius he regards as a "Christian" +converted by Virgil's _Fourth Eclogue_. His standard authors in Latin +prose are Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Frontinus and Orosius. His knowledge of +Greek was practically nil. Latin was the language of his political +treatise, _De Monarchia_, and even that of his defence of the vulgar +tongue, _De Vulgari Eloquio_. He is, in a limited sense, a precursor of +the Renaissance, but he is far more truly to be regarded as the crowning +representative of the spirit of the middle ages. + + + Italy. + +(iv.) _The Modern Age._--(a) Our fourth period is ushered in by the age +of the Revival of Learning in Italy (c. 1350-1527). Petrarch (1304-1374) +has been well described as "the first of modern men." In contrast with +the Schoolmen of the middle ages, he has no partiality for Aristotle. He +was interested in Greek, and, a full century before the fall of +Constantinople, he was in possession of MSS. of Homer and Plato, though +his knowledge of the language was limited to the barest rudiments. For +that knowledge, scanty as it was, he was indebted to Leontius Pilatus, +with whose aid Boccaccio (1313-1375) became "the first of modern men" to +study Greek to some purpose during the three years that Leontius spent +as his guest in Florence (1360-1363). It was also at Florence that Greek +was taught in the next generation by Chrysoloras (in 1396-1400). Another +generation passed, and the scholars of the East and West met at the +council of Florence (1439). One of the envoys of the Greeks, Gemistus +Pletho, then inspired Cosimo dei Medici with the thought of founding an +academy for the study of Plato. The academy was founded, and, in the age +of Lorenzo, Plato and Plotinus were translated into Latin by Marsilio +Ficino (d. 1499). The _Apology_ and _Crito_, the _Phaedo, Phaedrus_ and +_Gorgias_ of Plato, as well as speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines, +with the _Oeconomics, Ethics_ and _Politics_ of Aristotle, had already +been translated by Leonardo Bruni (d. 1444); the _Rhetoric_ by Filelfo +(1430), and Plato's _Republic_ by Decembrio (1439). A comprehensive +scheme for translating the principal Greek prose authors into Latin was +carried out at Rome by the founder of the manuscript collections of the +Vatican, Nicholas V. (1447-1455), who had belonged to the literary +circle of Cosimo at Florence. The translation of Aristotle was entrusted +to three of the learned Greeks who had already arrived in Italy, +Trapezuntius, Gaza and Bessarion, while other authors were undertaken by +Italian scholars such as Guarino, Valla, Decembrio and Perotti. Among +the scholars of Italian birth, probably the only one in this age who +rivalled the Greeks as a public expositor of their own literature was +Politian (1454-1494), who lectured on Homer and Aristotle in Florence, +translated Herodian, and was specially interested in the Latin authors +of the Silver Age and in the text of the _Pandects_ of Justinian. It +will be observed that the study of Greek had been resumed in Florence +half a century before the fall of Constantinople, and that the principal +writers of Greek prose had been translated into Latin before that event. + +Meanwhile, the quest of MSS. of the Latin classics had been actively +pursued. Petrarch had discovered Cicero's Speech _pro Archia_ at Liege +(1333) and the _Letters to Atticus_ and _Quintus_ at Verona (1345). +Boccaccio had discovered Martial and Ausonius, and had been the first of +the humanists to be familiar with Varro and Tacitus, while Salutati had +recovered Cicero's letters _Ad Familiares_ (1389). During the council of +Constance, Poggio, the papal secretary, spent in the quest of MSS. the +interval between May 1415 and November 1417, during which he was left at +leisure by the vacancy in the apostolic see. + +Thirteen of Cicero's speeches were found by him at Cluny and Langres, +and elsewhere in France or Germany; the commentary of Asconius, a +complete Quintilian, and a large part of Valerius Flaccus were +discovered at St Gallen. A second expedition to that monastery and to +others in the neighbourhood led to the recovery of Lucretius, Manilius, +Silius Italicus and Ammianus Marcellinus, while the _Silvae_ of Statius +were recovered shortly afterwards. A complete MS. of Cicero, _De +Oratore_, _Brutus_ and _Orator_, was found by Bishop Landriani at Lodi +(1421). Cornelius Nepos was discovered by Traversari in Padua (1434). +The _Agricola_, _Germania_ and _Dialogue_ of Tacitus reached Italy from +Germany in 1455, and the early books of the _Annals_ in 1508. Pliny's +_Panegyric_ was discovered by Aurispa at Mainz (1433), and his +correspondence with Trajan by Fra Giocondo in Paris about 1500. + +Greek MSS. were brought from the East by Aurispa, who in 1423 returned +with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight, including the celebrated +Laurentian MS. of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Apollonius Rhodius. A smaller +number was brought from Constantinople by Filelfo (1427), while Quintus +Smyrnaeus was discovered in south Italy by Bessarion, who presented his +own collection of MSS. to the republic of Venice and thus led to the +foundation of the library of St Mark's (1468). As the emissary of +Lorenzo, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the East, returning from his +second visit in 1492 with two hundred MSS. from Mount Athos. + +The Renaissance theory of a humanistic education is illustrated by +several treatises still extant. In 1392 Vergerio addressed to a prince +of Padua the first treatise which methodically maintains the claims of +Latin as an essential part of a liberal education. Eight years later, he +was learning Greek from Chrysoloras. Among the most distinguished pupils +of the latter was Leonardo Bruni, who, about 1405, wrote "the earliest +humanistic tract on education expressly addressed to a lady." He here +urges that the foundation of all true learning is a "sound and thorough +knowledge of Latin," and draws up a course of reading, in which history +is represented by Livy, Sallust, Curtius, and Caesar; oratory by Cicero; +and poetry by Virgil. The same year saw the birth of Maffeo Vegio, whose +early reverence for the muse of Virgil and whose later devotion to the +memory of Monica have left their mark on the educational treatise which +he wrote a few years before his death in 1458. The authors he recommends +include "Aesop" and Sallust, the tragedies of Seneca and the epic poets, +especially Virgil, whom he interprets in an allegorical sense. He is in +favour of an early simultaneous study of a wide variety of subjects, to +be followed later by the special study of one or two. Eight years before +the death of Vegio, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had composed a +brief treatise on education in the form of a letter to Ladislaus, the +young king of Bohemia and Hungary. The Latin poets to be studied include +Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, and (with certain +limitations) Horace, Juvenal and Persius, as well as Plautus, Terence +and the tragedies of Seneca; the prose authors recommended are Cicero, +Livy and Sallust. The first great school of the Renaissance was that +established by Vittorino da Feltre at Mantua, where he resided for the +last twenty-two years of his life (1424-1446). Among the Latin authors +studied were Virgil and Lucan, with selections from Horace, Ovid and +Juvenal, besides Cicero and Quintilian, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and +Livy. The Greek authors were Homer, Hesiod, Pindar and the dramatists, +with Herodotus, Xenophon and Plato, Isocrates and Demosthenes, Plutarch +and Arrian. + +Meanwhile, Guarino had been devoting five years to the training of the +eldest son of the marquis of Ferrara. At Ferrara he spent the last +thirty years of his long life (1370-1460), producing text-books of Greek +and Latin grammar, and translations from Strabo and Plutarch. His method +may be gathered from his son's treatise, _De Ordine Docendi et +Studendi_. In that treatise the essential marks of an educated person +are, not only ability to write Latin verse, but also, a point of "at +least equal importance," "familiarity with the language and literature +of Greece." "Without a knowledge of Greek, Latin scholarship itself is, +in any real sense, impossible" (1459). + +By the fall of Constantinople in 1453, "Italy (in the eloquent phrase of +Carducci) became sole heir and guardian of the ancient civilization," +but its fall was in no way necessary for the revival of learning, which +had begun a century before. Bessarion, Theodorus Gaza, Georgius +Trepezuntius, Argyropulus, Chalcondyles, all had reached Italy before +1453. A few more Greeks fled to Italy after that date, and among these +were Janus Lascaris, Musurus and Callierges. All three were of signal +service in devoting their knowledge of Greek to perpetuating and +popularizing the Greek classics with the aid of the newly-invented art +of printing. That art had been introduced into Italy by the German +printers, Sweynheym and Pannartz, who had worked under Fust at Mainz. At +Subiaco and at Rome they had produced in 1465-1471 the earliest editions +of Cicero, _De Oratore_ and the _Letters_, and eight other Latin +authors. + +The printing of Greek began at Milan with the Greek grammar of +Constantine Lascaris (1476). At Florence the earliest editions of Homer +(1488) and Isocrates (1493) had been produced by Demetrius Chalcondyles, +while Janus Lascaris was the first to edit the Greek anthology, +Apollonius Rhodius, and parts of Euripides, Callimachus and Lucian +(1494-1496). In 1494-1515 Aldus Manutius published at Venice no less +than twenty-seven _editiones principes_ of Greek authors and of Greek +works of reference, the authors including Aristotle, Theophrastus, +Theocritus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Herodotus, Euripides, +Demosthenes (and the minor Attic orators), Pindar, Plato and Athenaeus. +In producing Plato, Athenaeus and Aristophanes, the scholar-printer was +largely aided by Musurus, who also edited the Aldine Pausanias (1516) +and the _Etymologicum_ printed in Venice by another Greek immigrant, +Callierges (1499). + +The Revival of Learning in Italy ends with the sack of Rome (1527). +Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to decline in Italy, but +meanwhile an interest in that language had been transmitted to the lands +beyond the Alps. + +In the study of Latin the principal aim of the Italian humanists was the +_imitation_ of the style of their classical models. In the case of +poetry, this imitative spirit is apparent in Petrarch's _Africa_, and in +the Latin poems of Politian, Pontano, Sannazaro, Vida and many others. +Petrarch was not only the imitator of Virgil, who had been the leading +name in Latin letters throughout the middle ages; it was the influence +of Petrarch that gave a new prominence to Cicero. The imitation of +Cicero was carried on with varying degrees of success by humanists such +as Gasparino da Barzizza (d. 1431), who introduced a new style of +epistolary Latin; by Paolo Cortesi, who discovered the importance of a +rhythmical structure in the composition of Ciceronian prose (1490); and +by the accomplished secretaries of Leo X., Bembo and Sadoleto. Both of +these papal secretaries were mentioned in complimentary terms by Erasmus +in his celebrated dialogue, the _Ciceronianus_ (1528), in which no less +than one hundred and six Ciceronian scholars of all nations are briefly +and brilliantly reviewed, the slavish imitation of Cicero denounced, and +the law laid down that "to speak with propriety we must adapt ourselves +to the age in which we live--an age that differs entirely from that of +Cicero." One of the younger Ciceronians criticized by Erasmus was +Longolius, who had died at Padua in 1522. The cause of the Ciceronians +was defended by the elder Scaliger in 1531 and 1536, and by Etienne +Dolet in 1535, and the controversy was continued by other scholars down +to the year 1610. Meanwhile, in Italy, a strict type of Ciceronianism +was represented by Paulus Manutius (d. 1574), and a freer and more +original form of Latinity by Muretus (d. 1585). + +Before touching on the salient points in the subsequent centuries, in +connexion with the leading nations of Europe, we may briefly note the +cosmopolitan position of Erasmus (1466-1536), who, although he was a +native of the Netherlands, was far more closely connected with France, +England, Italy, Germany and Switzerland, than with the land of his +birth. He was still a school-boy at Deventer when his high promise was +recognized by Rudolf Agricola, "the first (says Erasmus) who brought +from Italy some breath of a better culture." Late in 1499 Erasmus spent +some two months at Oxford, where he met Colet; it was in London that he +met More and Linacre and Grocyn, who had already ceased to lecture at +Oxford. At Paris, in 1500, he was fully conscious that "without Greek +the amplest knowledge of Latin was imperfect"; and, during his three +years in Italy (1506-1509), he worked quietly at Greek in Bologna and +attended the lectures of Musurus in Padua. In October 1511 he was +teaching Greek to a little band of students in Cambridge; at Basel in +1516 he produced his edition of the Greek Testament, the first that was +actually published; and during the next few years he was helping to +organize the college lately founded at Louvain for the study of Greek +and Hebrew, as well as Latin. Seven years at Basel were followed by five +at Freiburg, and by two more at Basel, where he died. The names of all +these places are suggestive of the wide range of his influence. By his +published works, his _Colloquies_, his _Adages_ and his _Apophthegms_, +he was the educator of the nations of Europe. An educational aim is also +apparent in his editions of Terence and of Seneca, while his Latin +translations made his contemporaries more familiar with Greek poetry and +prose, and his _Paraphrase_ promoted a better understanding of the Greek +Testament. He was not so much a scientific scholar as a keen and +brilliant man of letters and a widely influential apostle of humanism. + + + France. + + Germany. + +In France the most effective of the early teachers of Greek was Janus +Lascaris (1495-1503). Among his occasional pupils was Budaeus (d. 1540), +who prompted Francis I. to found in 1530 the corporation of the Royal +Readers in Greek, as well as Latin and Hebrew, afterwards famous under +the name of the College de France. In the study of Greek one of the +earliest links between Italy and Germany was Rudolf Agricola, who had +learned Greek under Gaza at Ferrara. It was in Paris that his younger +contemporary Reuchlin acquired part of that proficiency in Greek which +attracted the notice of Argyropulus, whose admiration of Reuchlin is +twice recorded by Melanchthon, who soon afterwards was pre-eminent as +the "praeceptor" of Germany. + + + England. + +In the age of the revival the first Englishman who studied Greek was a +Benedictine monk, William of Selling (d. 1494), who paid two visits to +Italy. At Canterbury he inspired with his own love of learning his +nephew, Linacre, who joined him on one of those visits, studied Greek at +Florence under Politian and Chalcondyles, and apparently stayed in Italy +from 1485 to 1499. His translation of a treatise of Galen was printed at +Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch, who, in the same year and place, was the +first to use Greek type in England. Greek had been first taught to some +purpose at Oxford by Grocyn on his return from Italy in 1491. One of the +younger scholars of the day was William Lilye, who picked up his Greek +at Rhodes on his way to Palestine and became the first high-master of +the school founded by Colet at St Paul's (1510). + +(b) That part of the _Modern Period_ of classical studies which succeeds +the age of the Revival in Italy may be subdivided into three periods +distinguished by the names of the nations most prominent in each. + + + The French period. + +1. The first may be designated the _French_ period. It begins with the +foundation of the Royal Readers by Francis I. in 1530, and it may +perhaps be regarded as extending to 1700. This period is marked by a +many-sided _erudition_ rather than by any special cult of the _form_ of +the classical languages. It is the period of the great polyhistors of +France. It includes Budaeus and the elder Scaliger (who settled in +France in 1529), with Turnebus and Lambinus, and the learned printers +Robertus and Henricus Stephanus, while among its foremost names are +those of the younger (and greater) Scaliger, Casaubon and Salmasius. Of +these, Casaubon ended his days in England (1614); Scaliger, by leaving +France for the Netherlands in 1593, for a time at least transferred the +supremacy in scholarship from the land of his birth to that of his +adoption. The last sixteen years of his life (1593-1609) were spent at +Leiden, which was also for more than twenty years (1631-1653) the home +of Salmasius, and for thirteen (1579-1592) that of Lipsius (d. 1606). In +the 17th century the erudition of France is best represented by +"Henricus Valesius," Du Cange and Mabillon. In the same period Italy was +represented by Muretus, who had left France in 1563, and by her own +sons, Nizolius, Victorius, Robortelli and Sigonius, followed in the 17th +century by R. Fabretti. The Netherlands, in the 16th, claim W. Canter as +well as Lipsius, and, in the 17th, G.J. Vossius, Johannes Meursius, the +elder and younger Heinsius, Hugo Grotius, J.F. Gronovius, J.G. Graevius +and J. Perizonius. Scotland, in the 16th, is represented by George +Buchanan; England by Sir John Cheke, Roger Ascham, and Sir Henry Savile, +and, in the 17th, by Thomas Gataker, Thomas Stanley, Henry Dodwell, and +Joshua Barnes; Germany by Janus Gruter, Ezechiel Spanheim and Chr. +Cellarius, the first two of whom were also connected with other +countries. + + + Literary Latin. + +We have already seen that a strict imitation of Cicero was one of the +characteristics of the Italian humanists. In and after the middle of the +16th century a correct and pure Latinity was promoted by the educational +system of the Jesuits; but with the growth of the vernacular literatures +Latin became more and more exclusively the language of the learned. +Among the most conspicuous Latin writers of the 17th century are G.J. +Vossius and the Heinsii, with Salmasius and his great adversary, Milton. +Latin was also used in works on science and philosophy, such as Sir +Isaac Newton's _Principia_ (1687), and many of the works of Leibnitz +(1646-1705). In botany the custom followed by John Ray (1627-1705) in +his _Historia Plantarum_ and in other works was continued in 1760 by +Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_. The last important work in English +theology written in Latin was George Bull's _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_ +(1685). The use of Latin in diplomacy died out towards the end of the +17th century; but, long after that date negotiations with the German +empire were conducted in Latin, and Latin was the language of the +debates in the Hungarian diet down to 1825. + + + The English and Dutch period. + +2. During the 18th century the classical scholarship of the Netherlands +was under the healthy and stimulating influence of Bentley (1662-1742), +who marks the beginning of the English and Dutch period, mainly +represented in Holland by Bentley's younger contemporary and +correspondent, Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685-1766), and the latter +scholar's great pupil David Ruhnken (1723-1798). It is the age of +historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism. Both of these +were ably represented in the first half of the century by Bentley +himself, while, in the twenty years between 1782 and 1803, the verbal +criticism of the tragic poets of Athens was the peculiar province of +Richard Porson (1759-1808), who was born in the same year as F.A. Wolf. +Among other representatives of England were Jeremiah Markland and +Jonathan Toup, Thomas Tyrwhitt and Thomas Twining, Samuel Parr and Sir +William Jones; and of the Netherlands, the two Burmanns and L. Kuester, +Arnold Drakenborch and Wesseling, Lodewyk Valckenaer and Daniel +Wyttenbach (1746-1829). Germany is represented by Fabricius and J.M. +Gesner, J.A. Ernesti and J.J. Reiske, J.J. Winckelmann and Chr. G. +Heyne; France by B. de Montfaucon and J.B.G.D. Villoison; Alsace by +French subjects of German origin, R.F.P. Brunck and J. Schweighaeuser; +and Italy by E. Forcellini and Ed. Corsini. + + + The German period. + +3. The _German_ period begins with F.A. Wolf (1759-1824), whose +_Prolegomena_ to Homer appeared in 1795. He is the founder of the +systematic and encyclopaedic type of scholarship embodied in the +comprehensive term _Altertumswissenschaft_, or "a scientific knowledge +of the old classical world." The tradition of Wolf was ably continued by +August Boeckh (d. 1867), one of the leaders of the historical and +antiquarian school, brilliantly represented in the previous generation +by B.G. Niebuhr (d. 1831). + +In contrast with this school we have the critical and grammatical school +of Gottfried Hermann (d. 1848). During this period, while Germany +remains the most productive of the nations, scholarship has been more +and more international and cosmopolitan in its character. + + + Germany. + +_19th Century._--We must here be content with simply recording the names +of a few of the more prominent representatives of the 19th century in +some of the most obvious departments of classical learning. Among +natives of Germany the leading scholars have been, in _Greek_, C.F.W. +Jacobs, C.A. Lobeck, L. Dissen, I. Bekker, A. Meineke, C. Lehrs, W. +Dindorf, T. Bergk, F.W. Schneidewin, H. Koechly, A. Nauck, H. Usener, G. +Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in _Latin_, C. Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M. +Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleckeisen, E. Baehrens, L. Mueller and O. +Ribbeck. _Grammar_ and kindred subjects have been represented by P. +Buttmann, A. Matthiae, F.W. Thiersch, C.G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C.W. +Krueger, R. Kuehner and H.L. Ahrens; and _lexicography_ by F. Passow and +C.E. Georges. Among editors of _Thucydides_ we have had E.F. Poppo and +J. Classen; among editors of _Demosthenes or other orators_, G.H. +Schaefer, J.T. Voemel, G.E. Benseler, A. Westermann, G.F. Schoemann, H. +Sauppe, and C. Rehdantz (besides Blass, already mentioned). The +_Platonists_ include F. Schleiermacher, G.A.F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the +many-sided C.F. Hermann; the _Aristotelians_, C.A. Brandis, A. +Trendelenburg, L. Spengel, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bernays and F. +Susemihl. The history of _Greek philosophy_ was written by F. Ueberweg, +and, more fully, by E. Zeller. _Greek history_ was the domain of G. +Droysen, Max Duncker, Ernst Curtius, Arnold Schaefer and Adolf Holm; +_Greek antiquities_ that of M.H. Meier and G.F. Schoemann and of G. +Gilbert; _Greek epigraphy_ that of J. Franz, A. Kirchhoff, W. von +Hartel, U. Koehler, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittenberger; _Roman history and +constitutional antiquities_ that of Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903), who was +associated in _Latin epigraphy_ with E. Huebner and W. Henzen. _Classical +art and archaeology_ were represented by F.G. Welcker, E. Gerhard, C.O. +Mueller, F. Wieseler, O. Jahn, C.L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C.B. Stark, J. +Overbeck, W. Helbig, O. Benndorf and A. Furtwaengler; _mythology_ (with +cognate subjects) by G.F. Creuzer, P.W. Forchhammer, L. Preller, A. +Kuhn, J.W. Mannhardt and E. Rohde; and _comparative philology_ by F. +Bopp, A.F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen, Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and +H. Steinthal. The history of _classical philology_ in Germany was +written by Conrad Bursian (1830-1883). + + + France, + + Belgium, Holland, + + England. + +In France we have J.F. Boissonade, J.A. Letronne, L.M. Quicherat, M.P. +Littre, B. Saint-Hilaire, J.V. Duruy, B.E. Miller, E. Egger, C.V. +Daremberg, C. Thurot, L.E. Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in +archaeology) A.C. Quatremere de Quincy, P. le Bas, C.F.M. Texier, the +duc de Luynes, the Lenormants (C. and F.), W.H. Waddington and O. Rayet; +and (in comparative philology) Victor Henry. Greece was ably represented +in France by A. Koraes. In Belgium we have P. Willems and the Baron De +Witte (long resident in France); in Holland, C.G. Cobet; in Denmark, +J.N. Madvig. Among the scholars of Great Britain and Ireland may be +mentioned: P. Elmsley, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P.P. Dobree, J.H. Monk, +C.J. Blomfield, W. Veitch, T.H. Key, B.H. Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T.W. +Peile, R. Shilleto, W.H. Thompson, J.W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H.G. +Liddell, C. Badham, G. Rawlinson, F.A. Paley, B. Jowett, T.S. Evans, +E.M. Cope, H.A.J. Munro, W.G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H.A. Holden, +J. Riddell, J. Conington, W.Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W.D. Geddes, D.B. +Monro, H. Nettleship, A. Palmer, R.C. Jebb, A.S. Wilkins, W.G. +Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and archaeologists, W.M. +Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grote and C. Thirlwall, T. Arnold, G. Long +and Charles Merivale, Sir Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A.S. +Murray, Robert Burn and H.F. Pelham. Among comparative philologists Max +Mueller belonged to Germany by birth and to England by adoption, while, +in the United States, his ablest counterpart was W.D. Whitney. B.L. +Gildersleeve, W.W. Goodwin, Henry Drisler, J.B. Greenough and G.M. Lane +were prominent American classical scholars. + + + Schools of Rome and Athens. + +The 19th century in Germany was marked by the organization of the great +series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by the foundation of the +Archaeological Institute in Rome (1829), which was at first +international in its character. The Athenian Institute was founded in +1874. Schools at Athens and Rome were founded by France in 1846 and +1873, by the United States of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England +in 1883 and 1901; and periodicals are published by the schools of all +these four nations. An interest in Greek studies (and especially in art +and archaeology) has been maintained in England by the Hellenic Society, +founded in 1879, with its organ the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_. A +further interest in Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized +lands by the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta, +Olympia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete. The +extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly extended our +knowledge of the administration of that country in the times of the +Ptolemies, and have materially added to the existing remains of Greek +literature. Scholars have been enabled to realize in their own +experience some of the enthusiasm that attended the recovery of lost +classics during the Revival of Learning. They have found themselves +living in a new age of _editiones principes_, and have eagerly welcomed +the first publication of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ (1891), +Herondas (1891) and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the _Persae_ of +Timotheus of Miletus (1903), with some of the _Paeans_ of Pindar (1907) +and large portions of the plays of Menander (1898-1899 and 1907). The +first four of these were first edited by F.G. Kenyon, Timotheus by von +Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Menander partly by J. Nicole and G. Lefebre and +partly by B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt, who have also produced fragments +of the _Paeans_ of Pindar and many other classic texts (including a +Greek continuation of Thucydides and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in +the successive volumes of the _Oxyrhynchus papyri_ and other kindred +publications. + + AUTHORITIES.--For a full bibliography of the history of classical + philology, see E. Huebner, _Grundriss zu Vorlesungen ueber die + Geschichte und Encyklopaedie der klassischen Philologie_ (2nd ed., + 1889); and for a brief outline, C.L. Urlichs in Iwan von Mueller's + _Handbuch_, vol. i. (2nd ed., 1891). 33-145; S. Reinach, _Manuel de + philologie classique_ (2nd ed., 1883-1884; _nouveau tirage_ 1907), + 1-22; and A. Gudemann, _Grundris_ (Leipzig, 1907), pp. 224 seq. For + the Alexandrian period, F. Susemihl, _Gesch. der griechischen + Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit_ (2 vols., 1891-1892); cf. F.A. + Eckstein, _Nomenclator Philologorum_ (1871), and W. Poekel, + _Philologisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon_ (1882). For the period ending + A.D. 400, see A. Graefenhan, _Gesch. der klass. Philologie_ (4 vols., + 1843-1850); for the Byzantine period, C. Krumbacher in Iwan von + Mueller, vol. ix. (1) (2nd ed., 1897); for the Renaissance, G. Voigt, + _Die Wiederbelebung des class. Altertums_ (3rd ed., 1894, with + bibliography); L. Geiger, _Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und + Deutschland_ (1882, with bibliography); J.A. Symonds, _Revival of + Learning_ (1877, &c.); R.C. Jebb, in _Cambridge Modern History_, i. + (1902), 532-584; and J.E. Sandys, _Harvard Lectures on the Revival of + Learning_ (1905); also P. de Nolhac, _Petrarque et l'humanisme_ (2nd + ed., 1907). On the history of Greek scholarship in France, E. Egger, + _L'Histoire d'hellenisme en France_ (1869); Mark Pattison, _Essays_, + i., and _Life of Casaubon_; in Germany, C. Bursian, _Gesch. der class. + Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); in Holland, L. Mueller, _Gesch. der + class. Philologie in den Niederlanden_ (1869); in Belgium, L.C. + Roersch in E.P. van Bemmel's _Patria Belgica_, vol. iii. (1875), + 407-432; and in England, R.C. Jebb, "Erasmus" (1890) and "Bentley" + (1882), and "Porson" (in _Dict. Nat. Biog._). On the subject as a + whole see J.E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (with + chronological tables, portraits and facsimiles), vol. i.; _From the + Sixth Century B.C. to the end of the Middle Ages_ (1903, 2nd ed., + 1906); vols. ii. and iii., _From the Revival of Learning to the + Present Day_ (1908), including the history of scholarship in all the + countries of Europe and in the United States of America. See also the + separate biographical articles in this Encyclopaedia. + + +(B) THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION + +After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed much to the +influence and example of Vittorino da Feltre, Budacus, Erasmus and +Melanchthon, who were among the leading representatives of that revival +in Italy, France, England and Germany. + + + England. + +1. In _England_, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and Eton +(1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but before the +revival had reached Britain. The first school[2] which came into being +under the immediate influence of humanism was that founded at St Paul's +by Dean Colet (1510), the friend of Erasmus, whose treatise _De pueris +instituendis_ (1529) has its English counterpart in the _Governor_ of +Sir Thomas Elyot (1531). The highmaster of St Paul's was to be "learned +in good and clean Latin, and also in Greek, if such may be gotten." The +master and the second master of Shrewsbury (founded 1551) were to be +"well able to make a Latin verse, and learned in the Greek tongue." The +influence of the revival extended to many other schools, such as +Christ's Hospital (1552), Westminster (1560), and Merchant Taylors' +(1561); Repton (1557), Rugby (1567) and Harrow (1571). + + + Shakespeare and the grammar-school. + + Early text-books. + +At the grammar school of Stratford-on-Avon, about 1571-1577, Shakespeare +presumably studied Terence, Horace, Ovid and the _Bucolics_ of Baptista +Mantuanus (1502). In the early plays he quotes Ovid and Seneca. +Similarly, in _Titus Andronicus_ (iv. 2) he says, of _Integer vitae_: +"'Tis a verse in Horace; I know it well: I read it in the grammar long +ago." In _Henry VI._ part ii. sc. 7, when Jack Cade charges Lord Say +with having "most traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in +erecting a grammar-school," Lord Say replies that "ignorance is the +curse of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven." In the +_Taming of the Shrew_ (I. i. 157) a line is quoted as from Terence +(_Andria_, 74): "_redime te captum quam queas minimo._" This is taken +_verbatim_ from Lilye's contribution to the _Brevis Institutio_, +originally composed by Colet, Erasmus and Lilye for St Paul's School +(1527), and ultimately adopted as the _Eton Latin Grammar_. The +_Westminster Greek Grammar_ of Grant (1575) was succeeded by that of +Camden (1595), founded mainly on a Paduan text-book, and apparently +adopted in 1596 by Sir Henry Savile at Eton, where it long remained in +use as the _Eton Greek Grammar_, while at Westminster itself it was +superseded by that of Busby (1663). The text-books to be used at Harrow +in 1590 included Hesiod and some of the Greek orators and historians. + + + Ascham. + +In one of the _Paston Letters_ (i. 301), an Eton boy of 1468 quotes two +Latin verses of his own composition. Nearly a century later, on New +Year's Day, 1560, forty-four boys of the school presented Latin verses +to Queen Elizabeth. The queen's former tutor, Roger Ascham, in his +_Scholemaster_ (1570), agrees with his Strassburg friend, J. Sturm, in +making the imitation of the Latin classics the main aim of instruction. +He is more original when he insists on the value of translation and +retranslation for acquiring a mastery over Latin prose composition, and +when he protests against compelling boys to converse in Latin too soon. +Ascham's influence is apparent in the _Positions_ of Mulcaster, who in +1581 insists on instruction in English before admission to a +grammar-school, while he is distinctly in advance of his age in urging +the foundation of a special college for the training of teachers. + + + Cleland. + + Bacon, Milton, Petty. + + Locke. + +Cleland's _Institution of a Young Nobleman_ (1607) owes much to the +Italian humanists. The author follows Ascham in protesting against +compulsory Latin conversation, and only slightly modifies his +predecessor's method of teaching Latin prose. When Latin grammar has +been mastered, he bids the teacher lead his pupil "into the sweet +fountain and spring of all Arts and Science," that is, Greek learning +which is "as profitable for the understanding as the Latin tongue for +speaking." In the study of ancient history, "deeds and not words" are +the prime interest. "In Plutarch pleasure is so mixed and confounded +with profit; that I esteem the reading of him as a paradise for a +curious spirit to walk in at all time." Bacon in his _Advancement of +Learning_ (1605) notes it as "the first distemper of learning when men +study words and not matter" (I. iv. 3); he also observes that the +Jesuits "have much quickened and strengthened the state of learning" (I. +vi. 15). He is on the side of reform in education; he waves the humanist +aside with the words: _vetustas cessit, ratio vicit_. Milton, in his +_Tractate on Education_ (1644), advances further on Bacon's lines, +protesting against the length of time spent on instruction in language, +denouncing merely verbal knowledge, and recommending the study of a +large number of classical authors for the sake of their subject-matter, +and with a view to their bearing on practical life. His ideal place of +education is an institution combining a school and a university. Sir +William Petty, the economist (1623-1687), urged the establishment of +_ergastula literaria_ for instruction of a purely practical kind. Locke, +who had been educated at Winchester and had lectured on Greek at Oxford +(1660), nevertheless almost completely eliminated Greek from the scheme +which he unfolded in his _Thoughts on Education_ (1693). With Locke, the +moral and practical qualities of virtue and prudence are of the first +consideration. Instruction, he declares, is but the least part of +education; his aim is to train, not men of letters or men of science, +but practical men armed for the battle of life. Latin was, above all, to +be learned through use, with as little grammar as possible, but with the +reading of easy Latin texts, and with no repetition, no composition. +Greek he absolutely proscribes, reserving a knowledge of that language +to the learned and the lettered, and to professional scholars. + + + Arnold. + +Throughout the 18th century and the early part of the 19th, the old +routine went on in England with little variety, and with no sign of +expansion. The range of studies was widened, however, at Rugby in +1828-1842 by Thomas Arnold, whose interest in ancient history and +geography, as a necessary part of classical learning, is attested by his +edition of Thucydides; while his influence was still further extended +when those who had been trained in his traditions became head masters of +other schools. + +During the rest of the century the leading landmarks are the three royal +commissions known by the names of their chairmen: (1) Lord Clarendon's +on nine public schools, Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, +Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, St Paul's and Merchant Taylors' (1861-1864), +resulting in the Public Schools Act of 1868; (2) Lord Taunton's on 782 +endowed schools (1864-1867), followed by the act of 1869; and (3) Mr +Bryce's on secondary education (1894-1895). + + + Controversy on classical education. + +A certain discontent with the current traditions of classical training +found expression in the _Essays on a Liberal Education_ (1867). The +author of the first essay, C.S. Parker, closed his review of the reforms +instituted in Germany and France by adding that in England there had +been but little change. The same volume included a critical examination +of the "Theory of Classical Education" by Henry Sidgwick, and an attack +on compulsory Greek and Latin verse composition by F.W. Farrar. The +claims of verse composition have since been judiciously defended by the +Hon. Edward Lyttelton (1897), while a temperate and effective +restatement of the case for the classics may be found in Sir Richard +Jebb's Romanes Lecture on "Humanism in Education" (1899). + +The question of the position of Greek in secondary education has from +time to time attracted attention in connexion with the requirement of +Greek in Responsions at Oxford, and in the Previous Examination at +Cambridge. + + + "Compulsory Greek." + +In the _Cambridge University Reporter_ for November 9, 1870, it was +stated that, "in order to provide adequate encouragement for the study +of Modern Languages and Natural Science," the commissioners for endowed +schools had determined on the establishment of modern schools of the +first grade in which Greek would be excluded. The commissioners feared +that, so long as Greek was a _sine qua non_ at the universities, these +schools would be cut off from direct connexion with the universities, +while the universities would in some degree lose their control over a +portion of the higher culture of the nation. On the 9th of March 1871 a +syndicate recommended that, in the Previous Examination, French and +German (taken together) should be allowed in place of Greek; on the 27th +of April this recommendation (which only affected candidates for honours +or for medical degrees) was rejected by 51 votes to 48. + +All the other proposals and votes relating to Greek in the Previous +Examination in 1870-1873, 1878-1880, and 1891-1892 are set forth in the +_Cambridge University Reporter_ for November 11, 1904, pp. 202-205. In +November 1903 a syndicate was appointed to consider the studies and +examinations of the university, their report of November 1904 on the +Previous Examination was fully discussed, and the speeches published in +the _Reporter_ fcr December 17, 1904. In the course of the discussion +Sir Richard Jebb drew attention to the statistics collected by the +master of Emmanuel, Mr W. Chawner, showing that, out of 86 head masters +belonging to the Head Masters' Conference whose replies had been +published, "about 56 held the opinion that the exemption from Greek for +all candidates for a degree would endanger or altogether extinguish the +study of Greek in the vast majority of schools, while about 21 head +masters held a different opinion." On the 3rd of March 1905 a proposal +for accepting either French or German as an alternative for either Latin +or Greek in the Previous Examination was rejected by 1559 to 1052 votes, +and on the 26th of May 1906 proposals distinguishing between students in +letters and students in science, and (_inter alia_) _requiring_ the +latter to take either French or German for either Latin or Greek in the +Previous Examination, were rejected by 746 to 241. + +Meanwhile, at Oxford a proposal practically making Greek optional with +all undergraduates was rejected, in November 1902, by 189 votes to 166; +a preliminary proposal permitting students of mathematics or natural +science to offer one or more modern languages in lieu of Greek was +passed by 164 to 162 in February 1904, but on the 29th of November the +draft of a statute to this effect was thrown out by 200 to 164. In the +course of the controversy three presidents of the Royal Society, Lord +Kelvin, Lord Lister and Sir W. Huggins, expressed the opinion that the +proposed exemption was not beneficial to science students. + + + The Classical Association. + +Incidentally, the question of "compulsory Greek" has stimulated a desire +for greater efficiency in classical teaching. In December 1903, a year +before the most important of the public discussions at Cambridge, the +Classical Association was founded in London. The aim of that association +is "to promote the development, and maintain the well-being, of +classical studies, and in particular (a) to impress upon public opinion +the claim of such studies to an eminent place in the national scheme of +education; (b) to improve the practice of classical teaching by free +discussion of its scope and methods; (c) to encourage investigation and +call attention to new discoveries; (d) to create opportunities of +friendly intercourse and co-operation between all lovers of classical +learning in this country." + + + The curriculum. + +The question of the curriculum and the time-table in secondary education +has occupied the attention of the Classical Association, the British +Association and the Education Department of Scotland. The general effect +of the recommendations already made would be to begin the study of +foreign languages with French, and to postpone the study of Latin to the +age of twelve and that of Greek to the age of thirteen. At the Head +Masters' Conference of December 1907 a proposal to lower the standard of +Greek in the entrance scholarship examinations of public schools was +lost by 10 votes to 16, and the "British Association report" was adopted +with reservations in 1908. In the case of secondary schools in receipt +of grants of public money (about 700 in England and 100 in Wales in +1907-1908), "the curriculum, and time-table must be approved by the +Board of Education." The Board has also a certain control over the +curriculum of schools under the Endowed Schools Acts and the Charitable +Trusts Acts, and also over that of schools voluntarily applying for +inspection with a view to being recognized as efficient. + + + Reform in Latin pronunciation. + +Further efficiency in classical education has been the aim of the +movement in favour of the reform of Latin pronunciation. In 1871 this +movement resulted in Munro and Palmer's _Syllabus of Latin +Pronunciation_. The reform was carried forward at University College, +London, by Professor Key and by Professor Robinson Ellis in 1873, and +was accepted at Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Liverpool College, Christ's +Hospital, Dulwich, and the City of London school. It was taken up anew +by the Cambridge Philological Society in 1886, by the Modern Languages +Association in 1901, by the Classical Association in 1904-1905, and the +Philological Societies of Oxford and Cambridge in 1906. The reform was +accepted by the various bodies of head masters and assistant masters in +December 1906-January 1907, and the proposed scheme was formally +approved by the Board of Education in February 1907. + + See W.H. Woodward, _Studies in Education during the Age of the + Renaissance_ (1906), chap. xiii.; Acland and Llewellin Smith, _Studies + in Secondary Education_, with introduction by James Bryce (1892); + _Essays on a Liberal Education_, ed. F.W. Farrar (1867); R.C. Jebb, + "Humanism in Education," Romanes Lecture of 1899, reprinted with other + lectures on cognate subjects in _Essays and Addresses_ (1907); Foster + Watson, _The Curriculum and Practice of the English Grammar Schools up + to 1660_ (1908); "Greek at Oxford," by a Resident, in _The Times_ + (December 27, 1904); _Cambridge University Reporter_ (November 11 and + December 17, 1904); _British Association Report on Curricula of + Secondary Schools_ (with an independent paper by Professor Armstrong + on "The Teaching of Classics"), (December 1907); W.H.D. Rouse in _The + Year's Work in Classical Studies_ (1907 and 1908), chap. i.; J.P. + Postgate, _How to pronounce Latin_ (Appendix B, on "Recent Progress"), + (1907). For further bibliographical details see pp. 875-890 of Dr Karl + Breul's "Grossbritannien" in Baumeister's _Handbuch_, I. ii. 737-892 + (Munich, 1897). + + + France. + +2. In _France_ it was mainly with a view to promoting the study of Greek +that the corporation of Royal Readers was founded by Francis I. in 1530 +at the prompting of Budaeus. In the university of Paris, which was +originally opposed to this innovation, the statutes of 1598 prescribed +the study of Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Theocritus, Plato, Demosthenes and +Isocrates (as well as the principal Latin classics), and required the +production of three exercises in Greek or Latin in each week. + + + Textbooks. + +From the middle of the 16th century the elements of Latin were generally +learned from unattractive abridgments of the grammar of the Flemish +scholar, van Pauteren or Despautere (d. 1520), which, in its original +folio editions of 1537-1538, was an excellent work. The unhappy lot of +those who were compelled to learn their Latin from the current +abridgments was lamented by a Port-Royalist in a striking passage +describing the gloomy forest of _le pays de Despautere_ (Guyot, quoted +in Sainte-Beuve's _Port-Royal_, iii. 429). The first Latin grammar +written in French was that of Pere de Condren of the _Oratoire_ (c. +1642), which was followed by the Port-Royal _Methode latine_ of Claude +Lancelot (1644), and by the grammar composed by Bossuet for the dauphin, +and also used by Fenelon for the instruction of the duc de Bourgogne. In +the second half of the 17th century the rules of grammar and rhetoric +were simplified, and the time withdrawn from the practice of composition +(especially verse composition) transferred to the explanation and the +study of authors. + + + Richelieu, Bossuet, Fenelon, Fleury. + +Richelieu, in 1640, formed a scheme for a college in which Latin was to +have a subordinate place, while room was to be found for the study of +history and science, Greek, and French and modern languages. Bossuet, in +educating the dauphin, added to the ordinary classical routine +represented by the extensive series of the "Delphin Classics" the study +of history and of science. A greater originality in the method of +teaching the ancient languages was exemplified by Fenelon, whose views +were partially reflected by the Abbe Fleury, who also desired the +simplification of grammar, the diminution of composition, and even the +suppression of Latin verse. Of the ordinary teaching of Greek in his +day, Fleury wittily observed that most boys "learned just enough of that +language to have a pretext for saying for the rest of their lives that +Greek was a subject easily forgotten." + + + Rollin. + +In the 18th century Rollin, in his _Traite des etudes_ (1726), agreed +with the Port-Royalists in demanding that Latin grammars should be +written in French, that the rules should be simplified and explained by +a sufficient number of examples, and that a more important place should +be assigned to translation than to composition. The supremacy of Latin +was the subject of a long series of attacks in the same century. Even at +the close of the previous century the brilliant achievements of French +literature had prompted La Bruyere to declare in _Des ouvrages de +l'esprit_ (about 1680), "We have at last thrown off the yoke of +_Latinism_"; and, in the same year, Jacques Spon claimed in his +correspondence the right to use the French language in discussing points +of archaeology. + + + The Jesuits. + +Meanwhile, in 1563, notwithstanding the opposition of the university of +Paris, the Jesuits had succeeded in founding the _Collegium +Claromontanum_. After the accession of Henry IV. they were expelled from +Paris and other important towns in 1594, and not allowed to return until +1609, when they found themselves confronted once more by their rival, +the university of Paris. They opened the doors of their schools to the +Greek and Latin classics, but they represented the ancient masterpieces +dissevered from their original historic environment, as impersonal +models of taste, as isolated standards of style. They did much, however, +for the cultivation of original composition modelled on Cicero and +Virgil. They have been charged with paying an exaggerated attention to +form, and with neglecting the subject-matter of the classics. This +neglect is attributed to their anxiety to avoid the "pagan" element in +the ancient literature. Intensely conservative in their methods, they +kept up the system of using Latin in their grammars (and in their oral +instruction) long after it had been abandoned by others. + + + Port-Royal. + +The use of French for these purposes was a characteristic of the "Little +Schools" of the Jansenists of Port-Royal(1643-1660). The text-books +prepared for them by Lancelot included not only the above-mentioned +Latin grammar (1644) but also the _Methode grecque_ of 1655 and the +_Jardin des racines grecques_ (1657), which remained in use for two +centuries and largely superseded the grammar of Clenardus (1636) and the +_Tirocinium_ of Pere Labbe (1648). Greek began to decline in the +university about 1650, at the very time when the Port-Royalists were +aiming at its revival. During the brief existence of their schools their +most celebrated pupils were Tillemont and Racine. + +The Jesuits, on the other hand, claimed Corneille and Moliere, as well +as Descartes and Bossuet, Fontenelle, Montesquieu and Voltaire. Of their +Latin poets the best-known were Denis Petau (d. 1652), Rene Rapin (d. +1687) and N.E. Sanadon (d. 1733). In 1762 the Jesuits were suppressed, +and more than one hundred schools were thus deprived of their teachers. +The university of Paris, which had prompted their suppression, and the +parliament, which had carried it into effect, made every endeavour to +replace them. The university took possession of the _Collegium +Claromontanum_, then known as the _College Louis-le-Grand_, and +transformed it into an _ecole normale_. Many of the Jesuit schools were +transferred to the congregations of the _Oratoire_ and the Benedictines, +and to the secular clergy. On the eve of the Revolution, out of a grand +total of 562 classical schools, 384 were in the hands of the clergy and +178 in those of the congregations. + + + Classical education attacked. + +The expulsion of the Jesuits gave a new impulse to the attacks directed +against all schemes of education in which Latin held a prominent +position. At the moment when the university of Paris was, by the absence +of its rivals, placed in complete control of the education of France, +she found herself driven to defend the principles of classical education +against a crowd of assailants. All kinds of devices were suggested for +expediting the acquisition of Latin; grammar was to be set aside; Latin +was to be learned as a "living language"; much attention was to be +devoted to acquiring an extensive vocabulary; and, "to save time," +composition was to be abolished. To facilitate the reading of Latin +texts, the favourite method was the use of interlinear translations, +originally proposed by Locke, first popularized in France by Dumarsais +(1722), and in constant vogue down to the time of the Revolution. + +Early in the 18th century Rollin pleaded for the "utility of Greek," +while he described that language as the heritage of the university of +Paris. In 1753 Berthier feared that in thirty years no one would be able +to read Greek. In 1768 Rolland declared that the university, which held +Greek in high honour, nevertheless had reason to lament that her +students learnt little of the language, and he traced this decline to +the fact that attendance at lectures had ceased to be compulsory. Greek, +however, was still recognized as part of the examination held for the +appointment of schoolmasters. + + + Eve of the Revolution. + +During the 18th century, in Greek as well as in Latin, the general aim +was to reach the goal as rapidly as possible, even at the risk of +missing it altogether. On the eve of the Revolution, France was enjoying +the study of the institutions of Greece in the attractive pages of the +_Voyage du jeune Anacharsis_ (1789), but the study of Greek was menaced +even more than that of Latin. For fifty years before the Revolution +there was a distinct dissatisfaction with the routine of the schools. To +meet that dissatisfaction, the teachers had accepted new subjects of +study, had improved their methods, and had simplified the learning of +the dead languages. But even this was not enough. In the study of the +classics, as in other spheres, it was revolution rather than evolution +that was loudly demanded. + + + First Republic. + +The Revolution was soon followed by the long-continued battle of the +"Programmes." Under the First Republic the schemes of Condorcet (April +1792) and J. Lakanal (February 1795) were superseded by that of P.C.F. +Daunou (October 1795), which divided the pupils of the "central schools" +into three groups, according to age, with corresponding subjects of +study: (1) twelve to fourteen,--drawing, natural history, Greek and +Latin, and a choice of modern languages; (2) fourteen to +sixteen,--mathematics, physics, chemistry; (3) over sixteen,--general +grammar, literature, history and constitutional law.. + + + Consulate. + +In July 1801, under the consulate, there were two courses, (1) nine to +twelve,--elementary knowledge, including elements of Latin; (2) above +twelve,--a higher course, with two alternatives, "humanistic" studies +for the "civil," and purely practical studies for the "military" +section. The law of the 1st of May 1802 brought the _lycees_ into +existence, the subjects being, in Napoleon's own phrase, "mainly Latin +and mathematics." + + + Restoration. + +At the Restoration (1814) the military discipline of the lycees was +replaced by the ecclesiastical discipline of the "Royal Colleges." The +reaction of 1815-1821 in favour of classics was followed by the more +liberal programme of Vatimesnil (1829), including, for those who had no +taste for a classical education, certain "special courses" (1830), which +were the germ of the _enseignement special_ and the _enseignement +moderne_. + + + Third Republic. + +Under Louis Philippe (1830-1848), amid all varieties of administration +there was a consistent desire to hold the balance fairly between all the +conflicting subjects of study. After the revolution of 1848 the +difficulties raised by the excessive number of subjects were solved by +H.N.H. Fortoul's expedient of "bifurcation," the alternatives being +letters and science. In 1863, under Napoleon III., Victor Duruy +encouraged the study of history, and also did much for classical +learning by founding the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. In 1872, under the +Third Republic, Jules Simon found time for hygiene, geography and modern +languages by abolishing Latin verse composition and reducing the number +of exercises in Latin prose, while he insisted on the importance of +studying the inner meaning of the ancient classics. The same principles +were carried out by Jules Ferry (1880) and Paul Bert (1881-1882). In the +scheme of 1890 the Latin course of six years began with ten hours a week +and ended with four; Greek was begun a year later with two hours, +increasing to six and ending with four. + +The commission of 1899, under the able chairmanship of M. Alexandre +Ribot, published an important report, which was followed in 1902 by the +scheme of M. Georges Leygues. The preamble includes a striking tribute +to the advantages that France had derived from the study of the +classics:-- + + "L'etude de l'antiquite grecque et latine a donne au genie francais + une mesure, une clarte et une elegance incomparables. C'est par elle + que notre philosophie, nos lettres et nos arts ont brille d'un si vif + eclat; c'est par elle que notre influence morale s'est exercee en + souveraine dans le monde. Les humanites doivent etre protegees contre + toute atteinte et fortifiees. Elles font partie du patrimoine + national. + + "L'esprit classique n'est pas ... incompatible avec l'esprit moderne. + Il est de tous les temps, parce qu'il est le culte de la raison claire + et libre, la recherche de la beaute harmonieuse et simple dans toutes + les manifestations de la pensee." + +By the scheme introduced in these memorable terms the course of seven +years is divided into two cycles, the first cycle (of four years) having +two parallel courses: (1) without Greek or Latin, and (2) with Latin, +and with optional Greek at the beginning of the third year. In the +second cycle (of three years) those who have been learning both Greek +and Latin, and those who have been learning neither, continue on the +same lines as before; while those who have been learning Latin only may +either (1) discontinue it in favour of modern languages _and_ science, +or (2) continue it with _either_. As an alternative to the second cycle, +which normally ends in the examination for the _baccalaureat_, there is +a shorter course, mainly founded on modern languages or applied science +and ending in a public examination without the _baccalaureat_. The +_baccalaureat_, however, has been condemned by the next minister, M. +Briand, who prefers to crown the course with the award of a school +diploma (1907). + + See H. Lantoine, _Histoire de l'enseignement secondaire en France au + XVIIe siecle_ (1874); A. Sicard, _Les Etudes classiques avant la + Revolution_ (1887); Sainte-Beuve, _Port-Royal_, vols. i.-v. + (1840-1859), especially iii. 383-588; O. Greard, _Education et + instruction_, 4 vols., especially "Enseignement secondaire," vol. ii. + pp. 1-90, with conspectus of programmes in the appendix (1889); A. + Ribot, _La Reforme de l'enseignement secondaire_ (1900); G. Leygues, + _Plan d'etudes_, &c. (1902); H.H. Johnson, "Present State of Classical + Studies in France," in _Classical Review_ (December 1907). See also + the English Education Department's _Special Reports on Education in + France_ (1899). The earlier literature is best represented in England + by Matthew Arnold's _Schools and Universities in France_ (1868; new + edition, 1892) and _A French Eton_ (1864). + + + Germany. + +3. The history of education in Germany since 1500 falls into three +periods: (a) the age of the Revival of Learning and the Reformation +(1500-1650), (b) the age of French influence (1650-1800), and (c) the +19th century. + + + Melanchthon. + + The Greek Testament. + +(a) During the first twenty years of the 16th century the reform of +Latin instruction was carried out by setting aside the old medieval +grammars, by introducing new manuals of classical literature, and by +prescribing the study of classical authors and the imitation of +classical models. In all these points the lead was first taken by south +Germany, and by the towns along the Rhine down to the Netherlands. The +old schools and universities were being quietly interpenetrated by the +new spirit of humanism, when the sky was suddenly darkened by the clouds +of religious conflict. In 1525-1535 there was a marked depression in the +classical studies of Germany. Erasmus, writing to W. Pirckheimer in +1528, exclaims: "Wherever the spirit of Luther prevails, learning goes +to the ground." Such a fate was, however, averted by the intervention of +Melanchthon (d. 1560), the _praeceptor Germaniae_, who was the +embodiment of the spirit of the new Protestant type of education, with +its union of evangelical doctrine and humanistic culture. Under his +influence, new schools rapidly rose into being at Magdeburg, Eisleben +and Nuremberg (1521-1526). During more than forty years of academic +activity he not only provided manuals of Latin and Greek grammar and +many other text-books that long remained in use, but he also formed for +Germany a well-trained class of learned teachers, who extended his +influence throughout the land. His principal ally as an educator and as +a writer of text-books was Camerarius (d. 1574). Precepts of style, and +models taken from the best Latin authors, were the means whereby a +remarkable skill in the imitation of Cicero was attained at Strassburg +during the forty-four years of the headmastership of Johannes von Sturm +(d. 1589), who had himself been influenced by the _De disciplinis_ of +J.L. Vives (1531), and in all his teaching aimed at the formation of a +_sapiens atque eloquens pietas_. Latin continued to be the living +language of learning and of literature, and a correct and elegant Latin +style was regarded as the mark of an educated person. Greek was taught +in all the great schools, but became more and more confined to the study +of the Greek Testament. In 1550 it was proposed in Brunswick to banish +all "profane" authors from the schools, and in 1589 a competent scholar +was instructed to write a sacred epic on the kings of Israel as a +substitute for the works of the "pagan" poets. In 1637, when the doubts +of Scaliger and Heinsius as to the purity of the Greek of the New +Testament prompted the rector of Hamburg to introduce the study of +classical authors, any reflection on the style of the Greek Testament +was bitterly resented. + + + The Jesuits. + +The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540, and by 1600 most of the +teachers in the Catholic schools and universities of Germany were +Jesuits. The society was "dissolved" in 1773, but survived its +dissolution. In accordance with the _Ratio Studiorum_ of Aquaviva +(1599), which long remained unaltered and was only partially revised by +J. Roothaan (1832), the main subjects of instruction were the _litterae +humaniores diversarum linguarum_. The chief place among these was +naturally assigned to Latin, the language of the society and of the +Roman Church. The Latin grammar in use was that of the Jesuit rector of +the school at Lisbon, Alvarez (1572). As in the Protestant schools, the +principal aim was the attainment of _eloquentia_. A comparatively +subordinate place was assigned to Greek, especially as the importance +attributed to the Vulgate weakened the motive for studying the original +text. It was recognized, however, that Latin itself (as Vives had said) +was "in no small need of Greek," and that, "unless Greek was learnt in +boyhood, it would hardly ever be learnt at all." The text-book used was +the _Institutiones linguae Graecae_ of the German Jesuit, Jacob Gretser, +of Ingolstadt (c. 1590), and the reading in the highest class included +portions of Demosthenes, Isocrates, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod, +Pindar, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil and Chrysostom. The Catholic and +Protestant schools of the 16th century succeeded, as a rule, in giving a +command over a correct Latin style and a taste for literary form and for +culture. Latin was still the language of the law-courts and of a large +part of general literature. Between Luther and Lessing there was no +great writer of German prose. + + + The age of French influence. + +(b) In the early part of the period 1650-1800, while Latin continued to +hold the foremost place, it was ceasing to be Latin of the strictly +classical type. Greek fell still further into the background; and Homer +and Demosthenes gradually gave way to the Greek Testament. Between 1600 +and 1775 there was a great gap in the production of new editions of the +principal Greek classics. The spell was only partially broken by J.A. +Ernesti's _Homer_ (1759 f.) and Chr. G. Heyne's _Pindar_ (1773 f.). + + + Modern and secular education. + +The peace of Westphalia (1648) marks a distinct epoch in the history of +education in Germany. Thenceforth, education became more modern and more +secular. The long wars of religion in Germany, as in France and England, +were followed by a certain indifference as to disputed points of +theology. But the modern and secular type of education that now +supervened was opposed by the pietism of the second half of the 17th +century, represented at the newly-founded university of Halle (1694) by +A.H. Francke, the professor of Greek (d. 1727), whose influence was far +greater than that of Chr. Cellarius (d. 1707), the founder of the first +philological _Seminar_ (1697). Francke's contemporary, Chr. Thomasius +(d. 1728), was never weary of attacking scholarship of the old +humanistic type and everything that savoured of antiquarian pedantry, +and it was mainly his influence that made German the language of +university lectures and of scientific and learned literature. A modern +education is also the aim of the general introduction to the _nova +methodus_ of Leibnitz, where the study of Greek is recommended solely +for the sake of the Greek Testament (1666). Meanwhile, Ratichius (d. +1635) had in vain pretended to teach Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the +space of six months (1612), but he had the merit of maintaining that the +study of a language should begin with the study of an author. Comenius +(d. 1671) had proposed to teach Latin by drilling his pupils in a +thousand graduated phrases distributed over a hundred instructive +chapters, while the Latin authors were banished because of their +difficulty and their "paganism" (1631). One of the catchwords of the day +was to insist on a knowledge of _things_ instead of a knowledge of +_words_, on "realism" instead of "verbalism." + + + Ritter-akademien. + +Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became the ideal in +the German education of the upper classes of the 17th and 18th +centuries. A large number of aristocratic schools (_Ritter-Akademien_) +were founded, beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tuebingen (1589) +and ending with the Hohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775). In these +schools the subjects of study included mathematics and natural sciences, +geography and history, and modern languages (especially French), with +riding, fencing and dancing; Latin assumed a subordinate place, and +classical composition in prose or verse was not considered a +sufficiently courtly accomplishment. The youthful aristocracy were thus +withdrawn from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic +schools vanished with the dawn of the 19th century, and the ordinary +public schools were once more frequented by the young nobility. + + + The "new humanism." + + Herder. + + School reorganization. + +(c) _The Modern Period._--In the last third of the 18th century two +important movements came into play, the "naturalism" of Rousseau and the +"new humanism." While Rousseau sought his ideal in a form of education +and of culture that was in close accord with nature, the German apostles +of the new humanism were convinced that they had found that ideal +completely realized in the old Greek world. Hence the aim of education +was to make young people thoroughly "Greek," to fill them with the +"Greek" spirit, with courage and keenness in the quest of truth, and +with a devotion to all that was beautiful. The link between the +naturalism of Rousseau and the new humanism is to be found in J.G. +Herder, whose passion for all that is Greek inspires him with almost a +hatred of Latin. The new humanism was a kind of revival of the +Renaissance, which had been retarded by the Reformation in Germany and +by the Counter-Reformation in Italy, or had at least been degraded to +the dull classicism of the schools. The new humanism agreed with the +Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of the old classical world as +a perfect pattern of culture. But, while the Renaissance aimed at +reproducing the Augustan age of _Rome_, the new humanism found its +golden age in _Athens_. The Latin Renaissance in Italy aimed at +recovering and verbally imitating the ancient literature; the Greek +Renaissance in Germany sought inspiration from the creative originality +of Greek literature with a view to producing an original literature in +the German language. The movement had its effect on the schools by +discouraging the old classical routine of verbal imitation, and giving a +new prominence to Greek and to German. The new humanism found a home in +Goettingen (1783) in the days of J.M. Gesner and C.G. Heyne. It was +represented at Leipzig by Gesner's successor, Ernesti (d. 1781); and at +Halle by F.A. Wolf, who in 1783 was appointed professor of education by +Zedlitz, the minister of Frederick the Great. In literature, its leading +names were Winckelmann, Lessing and Voss, and Herder, Goethe and +Schiller. The tide of the new movement had reached its height about +1800. Goethe and Schiller were convinced that the old Greek world was +the highest revelation of humanity; and the universities and schools of +Germany were reorganized in this spirit by F.A. Wolf and his illustrious +pupil, Wilhelm von Humboldt. In 1809-1810 Humboldt was at the head of +the educational section of the Prussian Home Office, and, in the brief +interval of a year and a half, gave to the general system of education +the direction which it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout the +whole century. In 1810 the _examen pro facultate docendi_ first made the +profession of a schoolmaster independent of that of a minister of +religion. The new scheme drawn up by J.W. Suevern recognized four +principal co-ordinated branches of learning: Latin, Greek, German, +mathematics. All four were studied throughout the school, Greek being +begun in the fourth of the nine classes, that corresponding to the +English "third form." The old Latin school had only one main subject, +the study of Latin style (combined with a modicum of Greek). The new +gymnasium aimed at a wider education, in which literature was +represented by Latin, Greek and German, by the side of mathematics and +natural science, history and religion. The uniform employment of the +term _Gymnasium_ for the highest type of a Prussian school dates from +1812. The leaving examination (_Abgangspruefung_), instituted in that +year, required Greek translation at sight, with Greek prose composition, +and ability to speak and to write Latin. In 1818-1840 the leading spirit +on the board of education was Johannes Schulze, and a _complete_ and +comprehensive system of education continued to be the ideal kept in +view. Such an education, however, was found in practice to involve a +prolongation of the years spent at school and a correspondingly later +start in life. It was also attacked on the ground that it led to +"overwork." This attack was partially met by the scheme of 1837. +Schulze's period of prominence in Berlin closely corresponded to that of +Herbart at Koenigsberg (1809-1833) and Goettingen (1833-1841), who +insisted that for boys of eight to twelve there was no better text-book +than the Greek _Odyssey_, and this principle was brought into practice +at Hanover by his distinguished pupil, Ahrens. + +The Prussian policy of the next period, beginning with the accession of +Friedrich Wilhelm IV. in 1840, was to lay a new stress on religious +teaching, and to obviate the risk of overwork resulting from the +simultaneous study of all subjects by the encouragement of +specialization in a few. Ludwig Wiese's scheme of 1856 insisted on the +retention of Latin verse as well as Latin prose, and showed less favour +to natural science, but it awakened little enthusiasm, while the attempt +to revive the old humanistic Gymnasium led to a demand for schools of a +more modern type, which issued in the recognition of the _Realgymnasium_ +(1859). + +In the age of Bismarck, school policy in Prussia had for its aim an +increasing recognition of modern requirements. In 1875 Wiese was +succeeded by Bonitz, the eminent Aristotelian scholar, who in 1849 had +introduced mathematics and natural science into the schools of Austria, +and had substituted the wide reading of classical authors for the +prevalent practice of speaking and writing Latin. By his scheme of 1882 +natural science recovered its former position in Prussia, and the hours +assigned in each week to Latin were diminished from 86 to 77. But +neither of the two great parties in the educational world was satisfied; +and great expectations were aroused when the question of reform was +taken up by the German emperor, William II., in 1890. The result of the +conference of December 1890 was a compromise between the conservatism of +a majority of its members and the forward policy of the emperor. The +scheme of 1892 reduced the number of hours assigned to Latin from 77 to +62, and laid special stress on the _German_ essay; but the modern +training given by the _Realgymnasium_ was still unrecognized as an +avenue to a university education. A conference held in June 1900, in +which the speakers included Mommsen and von Wilamowitz, Harnack and +Diels, was followed by the "Kiel Decree" of the 26th of November. In +that decree the emperor urged the equal recognition of the classical and +the modern _Gymnasium_, and emphasized the importance of giving more +time to Latin and to English in both. In the teaching of Greek, "useless +details" were to be set aside, and special care devoted to the connexion +between ancient and modern culture, while, in all subjects, attention +was to be paid to the classic precept: _multum, non multa_. + +By the scheme of 1901 the pupils of the _Realgymnasium_, the +_Oberrealschule_ and the _Gymnasium_ were admitted to the university on +equal terms in virtue of their leaving-certificates, but Greek and Latin +were still required for students of classics or divinity. + +For the _Gymnasium_ the aim of the new scheme is, in _Latin_, "to supply +boys with a sound basis of grammatical training, with a view to their +understanding the more important classical writers of Rome, and being +thus introduced to the intellectual life and culture of the ancient +world"; and, in _Greek_, "to give them a sufficient knowledge of the +language with a view to their obtaining an acquaintance with some of the +Greek classical works which are distinguished both in matter and in +style, and thus gaining an insight into the intellectual life and +culture of Ancient Greece." In consequence of these changes Greek is now +studied by a smaller number of boys, but with better results, and a new +lease of life has been won for the classical _Gymnasium_. + +Lastly, by the side of the classical _Gymnasium_, we now have the +"German Reform Schools" of two different types, that of Altona (dating +from 1878) and that of Frankfort-on-the-Main (1892). The leading +principle in both is the postponement of the time for learning Latin. +Schools of the Frankfort type take French as their only foreign language +in the first three years of the course, and aim at achieving in six +years as much as has been achieved by the _Gymnasia_ in nine; and it is +maintained that, in six years, they succeed in mastering a larger amount +of Latin literature than was attempted a generation ago, even in the +best _Gymnasia_ of the old style. It may be added that in all the German +_Gymnasia_, whether reformed or not, more time is given to classics than +in the corresponding schools in England. + + See F. Paulsen, _Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts vom Ausgang des + Mittelalters bis auf die Gegenwart mit besonderer Ruecksicht auf den + klassischen Unterricht_ (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1896); _Das Realgymnasium + und die humanistische Bildung_ (1889); _Die hoeheren Schulen und das + Universitaetsstudium im 20. Jahrhundert_ (1901); "Das moderne + Bildungswesen" in _Die Kulture der Gegenwart_, vol. i. (1904); _Das + deutsche Bildungswesen in seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung_ (1906) + (with the literature there quoted, pp. 190-192), translated by Dr T. + Lorenz, _German Education, Past and Present_ (1908); T. Ziegler, + _Notwendigkeit ... des Realgymnasiums_ (Stuttgart, 1894); F.A. + Eckstein, _Lateinischer und griechischer Unterricht_ (1887); O. Kohl, + "Griechischer Unterricht" (Langensalza, 1896) in W. Rein's _Handbuch_; + A. Baumeister's _Handbuch_ (1895), especially vol. i. 1 (History) and + i. 2 (Educational Systems); P. Stoetzner, _Das oeffentliche + Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands in der Gegenwart_ (1901); F. Seiler, + _Geschichte des deutschen Unterrichtswesens_ (2 vols., 1906); + _Verhandlungen_ of June 1900 (2nd ed., 1902); _Lehrplaene_, &c. (1901); + _Die Reform des hoeheren Schulwesens_, ed. W. Lexis (1902); A. + Harnack's _Vortrag_ and W. Parow's _Erwiderung_ (1905); H. Mueller, + _Das hoehere Schulwesen Deutschlands am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts_ + (Stuttgart, 1904); O. Steinbart, _Durchfuehrung des preussischen + Schulreform in ganz Deutschland_ (Duisburg, 1904); J. Schipper, _Alte + Bildung und moderne Cultur_ (Vienna, 1901); Papers by M.E. Sadler: (1) + "Problems in Prussian Secondary Education" (Special Reports of + Education Dept., 1899); (2) "The Unrest in Secondary Education in + Germany and Elsewhere" (Special Reports of Board of Education, vol. 9, + 1902); J.L. Paton, _The Teaching of Classics in Prussian Secondary + Schools_ (on "German Reform Schools") (1907, Wyman, London); J.E. + Russell, _German Higher Schools_ (New York, 1899); and (among earlier + English publications) Matthew Arnold's _Higher Schools and + Universities in Germany_ (1874, reprinted from _Schools and + Universities on the Continent_, 1865). + + + United States. + +(4) In the _United States of America_ the highest degree of educational +development has been subsequent to the Civil War. The study of Latin +begins in the "high schools," the average age of admission being fifteen +and the normal course extending over four years. Among classical +teachers an increasing number would prefer a longer course extending +over six years for Latin, and at least three for Greek, and some of +these would assign to the elementary school the first two of the +proposed six years of Latin study. Others are content with the late +learning of Latin and prefer that it should be preceded by a thorough +study of modern languages (see Prof. B.I. Wheeler, in Baumeister's +_Handbuch_, 1897, ii. 2, pp. 584-586). + + + Latin pronunciation. + +It was mainly owing to a pamphlet issued in 1871 by Prof. G.M. Lane, of +Harvard, that a reformed pronunciation of Latin was adopted in all the +colleges and schools of the United States. Some misgivings on this +reform found expression in a work on the _Teaching of Latin_, published +by Prof. C.E. Bennett of Cornell in 1901, a year in which it was +estimated that this pronunciation was in use by more than 96% of the +Latin pupils in the secondary schools. + +Some important statistics as to the number studying Latin and Greek in +the secondary schools were collected in 1900 by a committee of twelve +educational experts representing all parts of the Union, with a view to +a uniform course of instruction being pursued in all classical schools. +They had the advantage of the co-operation of Dr W.T. Harris, the U.S. +commissioner of education, and they were able to report that, in all the +five groups into which they had divided the states, the number of pupils +pursuing the study of Latin and Greek showed a remarkable advance, +especially in the most progressive states of the middle west. The number +learning Latin had increased from 100,144 in 1890 to 314,856 in +1899-1900, and those learning Greek from 12,869 to 24,869. Thus the +number learning Latin at the later date was three times, and the number +learning Greek twice, as many as those learning Latin or Greek ten years +previously. But the total number in 1000 was 630,048; so that, +notwithstanding this proof of progress, the number learning Greek in +1900 was only about one twenty-fifth of the total number, while the +number learning Latin was as high as half. + +The position of Greek as an "elective" or "optional" subject (notably at +Harvard), an arrangement regarded with approval by some eminent +educational authorities and with regret by others, probably has some +effect on the high schools in the small number of those who learn Greek, +and in their lower rate of increase, as compared with those who learn +Latin. Some evidence as to the quality of the study of those languages +in the schools is supplied by English commissioners in the _Reports of +the Mosely Commission_. Thus Mr Papillon considered that, while the +teaching of English literature was admirable, the average standard of +Latin and Greek teaching and attainment in the upper classes was "below +that of an English public school"; he felt, however, that the secondary +schools of the United States had a "greater variety of the curriculum to +suit the practical needs of life," and that they existed, not "for the +select few," but "for the whole people" (pp. 250 f.). + + For full information see the "Two volumes of Monographs prepared for + the United States Educational Exhibit at the Paris Exposition of + 1900," edited by Dr N. Murray Butler; the _Annual Reports_ of the U.S. + commissioner of education (Washington); and the _Reports of the Mosely + Commission to the United States of America_ (London, 1904). Cf. + statistics quoted in G.G. Ramsay's "Address on Efficiency in + Education" (Glasgow, 1902, 17-20), from the _Transactions of the Amer. + Philol. Association_, xxx. (1899), pp. lxxvii-cxxii; also Bennett and + Bristol, _The Teaching of Latin and Greek in the Secondary School_ + (New York, 1901). (J. E. S.*) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The above derivation is in accordance with English usage. In the + _New English Dictionary_ the earliest example of the word "classical" + is the phrase "classical and canonical," found in the _Europae + Speculum_ of Sir Edwin Sandys (1599), and, as applied to a writer, it + is explained as meaning "of the first rank or authority." This + exactly corresponds with the meaning of _classicus_ in the above + passage of Gellius. On the other hand, the French word _classique_ + (in Littre's view) primarily means "used in class." + + [2] See also the article SCHOOLS. + + + + +CLASSIFICATION (Lat. _classis_, a class, probably from the root _cal-_, +_cla-_, as in Gr. [Greek: kaleo], _clamor_), a logical process, common +to all the special sciences and to knowledge in general, consisting in +the collection under a common name of a number of objects which are +alike in one or more respects. The process consists in observing the +objects and abstracting from their various qualities that characteristic +which they have in common. This characteristic constitutes the +definition of the "class" to which they are regarded as belonging. It +is this process by which we arrive first at "species" and then at +"genus," i.e. at all scientific generalization. Individual things, +regarded as such, constitute a mere aggregate, unconnected with one +another, and so far unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in +systematic classification. Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies +individually we can state merely that they have been observed to have +certain motions through the sky, that they are luminous, and the like. +If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover that, whereas +all partake in the general movement of the heavens, some have a movement +of their own. Thus we arrive at a system of classification according to +motion, by which fixed stars are differentiated from planets. A further +classification according to other criteria gives us stars of the first +magnitude and stars of the second magnitude, and so forth. We thus +arrive at a systematic understanding expressed in laws by the +application of which accurate forecasts of celestial phenomena can be +made. Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering +the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from what +is often called "artificial" classification, which is the preparation, +e.g. of statistics for particular purposes, administrative and the like. + +Of the systems of classification adopted in physical science, only one +requires treatment here, namely, the classification of the sciences as +a whole, a problem which has from the time of Aristotle attracted +considerable attention. Its object is to delimit the spheres of +influence of the positive sciences and show how they are mutually +related. Of such attempts three are specially noteworthy, those of +Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer. + +Bacon's classification is based on the subjective criterion of the +various faculties which are specially concerned. He thus distinguished +History (natural, civil, literary, ecclesiastical) as the province of +memory, Philosophy (including Theology) as that of reason, and Poetry, +Fables and the like, as that of imagination. This classification was +made the basis of the _Encyclopedie_. Comte adopted an entirely +different system based on an objective criterion. Having first +enunciated the theory that all science passes through three stages, +theological, metaphysical and positive, he neglects the two first, and +divides the last according to the "things to be classified," in view of +their real affinity and natural connexions, into six, in order of +decreasing generality and increasing complexity--mathematics, astronomy, +physics, chemistry, physiology and biology (including psychology), and +sociology. This he conceives to be not only the logical, but also the +historical, order of development, from the abstract and purely deductive +to the concrete and inductive. Sociology is thus the highest, most +complex, and most positive of the sciences. Herbert Spencer, condemning +this division as both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a +three-fold division into (1) _abstract_ science (including logic and +mathematics) dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge +of phenomena is possible, (2) _abstract-concrete_ science (including +mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of phenomena +themselves, i.e. laws of forces as deducible from the persistence of +forces, and (3) _concrete_ science (e.g. astronomy, biology, sociology), +dealing with "phenomena themselves in their totalities," the universal +laws of the continuous redistribution of Matter and Motion, Evolution +and Dissolution. + +Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief mention. In +Greece at the dawn of systematic thought the physical sciences were few +in number; none the less philosophers were not agreed as to their true +relation. The Platonic school adopted a triple classification, physics, +ethics and dialectics; Aristotle's system was more complicated, nor do +we know precisely how he subdivided his three main classes, theoretical, +practical and poetical (i.e. technical, having to do with [Greek: +poiesis], creative). The second class covered ethics and politics, the +latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including ethics; the +third includes the useful and the imitative sciences; the first includes +metaphysics and physics. As regards pure logic Aristotle sometimes seems +to include it with metaphysics and physics, sometimes to regard it as +ancillary to all the sciences. + +Thomas Hobbes (_Leviathan_) drew up an elaborate paradigm of the +sciences, the first stage of which was a dichotomy into "Naturall +Philosophy" ("consequences from the accidents of bodies naturall") and +"Politiques and Civill Philosophy" ("consequences from accidents of +Politique bodies"). The former by successive subdivisions is reduced to +eighteen special sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and +duties of sovereign powers, and those of the subject. + +Jeremy Bentham and A.M. Ampere both drew up elaborate systems based on +the principle of dichotomy, and beginning from the distinction of mind +and body. Bentham invented an artificial terminology which is rather +curious than valuable. The science of the body was Somatology, that of +the mind Pneumatology. The former include Posology (science of quantity, +mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology includes +Morphoscopic (geometry) and Alegomorphic(arithmetic). See further +Bentham's _Chrestomathia_ and works quoted under BENTHAM, JEREMY. + +Carl Wundt criticized most of these systems as taking too little account +of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on the +standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-matter. His +system may, therefore, be described as conceptional. It distinguishes +philosophy, which deals with facts in their widest universal relations, +from the special sciences, which consider facts in the light of a +particular relation or set of relations. + +All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting as throwing +light on the views of those who invented them. It will be seen, however, +that none can lay claim to unique validity. The _fundamenta divisionis_, +though in themselves more or less logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen, +generally as being germane to a preconceived philosophical or scientific +theory. + + + + +CLASTIDIUM (mod. _Casteggio_), a village of the Anamares, in Gallia +Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 m. E. of Iria (mod. _Voghera_) and 31 +m. W. of Placentia. Here in 222 B.C. M. Claudius Marcellus defeated the +Gauls and won the _spolia opima_; in 218 Hannibal took it and its stores +of corn by treachery. It never had an independent government, and not +later than 190 B.C. was made part of the colony of Placentia (founded +219). In the Augustan division of Italy, however, Placentia belonged to +the 8th region, Aemilia, whereas Iria certainly, and Clastidium +possibly, belonged to the 9th, Liguria (see Th. Mommsen in _Corp. +Inscrip. Lat._ vol. v. Berlin, 1877, p. 828). The remains visible at +Clastidium are scanty; there is a fountain (the Fontana d'Annibale), and +a Roman bridge, which seems to have been constructed of tiles, not of +stone, was discovered in 1857, but destroyed. + + See C. Giulietti, _Casteggio, notizie storiche II. Avanzi di + antichita_ (Voghera, 1893). + + + + +CLAUBERG, JOHANN (1622-1665), German philosopher, was born at Solingen, +in Westphalia, on the 24th of February 1622. After travelling in France +and England, he studied the Cartesian philosophy under John Raey at +Leiden. He became (1649) professor of philosophy and theology at +Herborn, but subsequently (1651), in consequence of the jealousy of his +colleagues, accepted an invitation to a similar post at Duisburg, where +he died on the 31st of January 1665. Clauberg was one of the earliest +teachers of the new doctrines in Germany and an exact and methodical +commentator on his master's writings. His theory of the connexion +between the soul and the body is in some respects analogous to that of +Malebranche; but he is not therefore to be regarded as a true forerunner +of Occasionalism, as he uses "Occasion" for the stimulus which directly +produces a mental phenomenon, without postulating the intervention of +God (H. Mueller, _J. Clauberg und seine Stellung im Cartesianismus_). +His view of the relation of God to his creatures is held to foreshadow +the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist only through the +continuous creative energy of the Divine Being, and are no more +independent of his will than are our thoughts independent of us,--or +rather less, for there are thoughts which force themselves upon us +whether we will or not. For metaphysics Clauberg suggested the names +_ontosophy_ or _ontology_, the latter being afterwards adopted by Wolff. +He also devoted considerable attention to the German languages, and his +researches in this direction attracted the favourable notice of +Leibnitz. His chief works are: _De conjunctione animae et corporis +humani_; _Exercitationes centum de cognitione Dei et nostri_; _Logica +vetus et nova_; _Initiatio philosophi, seu Dubitatio Cartesiana_; a +commentary on Descartes' _Meditations_; and _Ars etymologica Teutonum_. + + A collected edition of his philosophical works was published at + Amsterdam (1691), with life by H.C. Hennin; see also E. Zeller, + _Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie seit Leibnitz_ (1873). + + + + +CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687), French Protestant divine, was born at La +Sauvetat-du-Dropt near Agen. After studying at Montauban, he entered the +ministry in 1645. He was for eight years professor of theology in the +Protestant college of Nimes; but in 1661, having successfully opposed a +scheme for re-uniting Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to +preach in Lower Languedoc. In 1662 he obtained a post at Montauban +similar to that which he had lost; but after four years he was removed +from this also. He next became pastor at Charenton near Paris, where he +engaged in controversies with Pierre Nicole (_Reponse aux deux traites +intitules la perpetuite de la foi_, 1665), Antoine Arnauld (_Reponse au +livre de M. Arnauld_, 1670), and J.B. Bossuet (_Reponse au livre de M. +l'eveque de Meaux_, 1683). On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he +fled to Holland, and received a pension from William of Orange, who +commissioned him to write an account of the persecuted Huguenots +(_Plaintes des protestants cruellement opprimes dans le royaume de +France_, 1686). The book was translated into English, but by order of +James II, both the translation and the original were publicly burnt by +the common hangman on the 5th of May 1686, as containing "expressions +scandalous to His Majesty the king of France." Other works by him were +_Reponse au livre de P. Nouet sur l'eucharistie_ (1668); _Oeuvres +posthumes_ (Amsterdam, 1688), containing the _Traite de la composition +d'un sermon_, translated into English in 1778. + + See biographies by J.P. Niceron and Abel Rotholf de la Deveze; E. + Haag, _La France protestante_, vol. iv. (1884, new edition). + + + + +CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, or CLAUDE GELEE (1600-1682), French +landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the village of +Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that he made no progress at +school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly said, to a pastry-cook, but +this is extremely dubious. At the age of twelve, being left an orphan, +he went to live at Freiburg on the Rhine with an elder brother, Jean +Gelee, a wood-carver of moderate merit, and under him he designed +arabesques and foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a +livelihood; but from his clownishness and ignorance of the language, he +failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to Naples, to study +landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a painter of much repute. With +him he remained two years; then he returned to Rome, and was +domesticated until April 1625 with another landscape-painter, Augustin +Tassi, who hired him to grind his colours and to do all the household +drudgery. + +His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his greatest +works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the elements of +design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began to expand, and he +devoted himself to artistic study with great eagerness. He exerted his +utmost industry to explore the true principles of painting by an +incessant examination of nature; and for this purpose he made his +studies in the open fields, where he very frequently remained from +sunrise till sunset, watching the effect of the shifting light upon the +landscape. He generally sketched whatever he thought beautiful or +striking, marking every tinge of light with a similar colour; from these +sketches he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in +Italy, France and a part of Germany, including his native Lorraine, +suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl Dervent, painter to +the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant for a year; and he painted +at Nancy the architectural subjects on the ceiling of the Carmelite +church. He did not, however, relish this employment, and in 1627 +returned to Rome. Here, painting two landscapes for Cardinal +Bentivoglio, he earned the protection of Pope Urban VIII, and from about +1637 he rapidly rose into celebrity. Claude was acquainted not only with +the facts, but also with the laws of nature; and the German painter +Joachim von Sandrart relates that he used to explain, as they walked +together through the fields, the causes of the different appearances of +the same landscape at different hours of the day, from the reflections +or refractions of light, or from the morning and evening dews or +vapours, with all the precision of a natural philosopher. He elaborated +his pictures with great care; and if any performance fell short of his +ideal, he altered, erased and repainted it several times over. + +His skies are aerial and full of lustre, and every object harmoniously +illumined. His distances and colouring are delicate, and his tints have +a sweetness and variety till then unexampled. He frequently gave an +uncommon tenderness to his finished trees by glazing. His figures, +however, are very indifferent; but he was so conscious of his deficiency +in this respect, that he usually engaged other artists to paint them for +him, among whom were Courtois and Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to +say that he sold his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to +avoid a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very +numerous spurious copies of his works, he made tinted outline drawings +(in six paper books prepared for this purpose) of all those pictures +which were transmitted to different countries; and on the back of each +drawing he wrote the name of the purchaser. These books he named _Libri +di verita_. This valuable work (now belonging to the duke of Devonshire) +has been engraved and published, and has always been highly esteemed by +students of the art of landscape. Claude, who had suffered much from +gout, died in Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 21st (or perhaps the +23rd) of November 1682, leaving his wealth, which was considerable, +between his only surviving relatives, a nephew and an adopted daughter +(? niece). + +Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in the National Gallery +and in the Louvre; the landscapes in the Altieri and Colonna palaces in +Rome are also of especial celebrity. A list has been printed showing no +less than 92 examples in the various public galleries of Europe. He +himself regarded a landscape which he painted in the Villa Madama, being +a cento of various views with great abundance and variety of leafage, +and a composition of Esther and Ahasuerus, as his finest works; the +former he refused to sell, although Clement IX. offered to cover its +surface with gold pieces. He etched a series of twenty-eight landscapes, +fine impressions of which are greatly prized. Full of amenity, and +deeply sensitive to the graces of nature, Claude was long deemed the +prince of landscape painters, and he must always be accounted a prime +leader in that form of art, and in his day a great enlarger and refiner +of its province. + +Claude was a man of amiable and simple character, very kind to his +pupils, a patient and unwearied worker; in his own sphere of study, his +mind was stored (as we have seen) with observation and knowledge, but he +continued an unlettered man till his death. Famous and highly patronized +though he was in all his later years, he seems to have been very little +known to his brother artists, with the single exception of Sandrart. +This painter is the chief direct authority for the facts of Claude's +life (_Academia Artis Pictoriae_, 1683); Baldinucci, who obtained +information from some of Claude's immediate survivors, relates various +incidents to a different effect (_Notizie dei professori del disegno_). + + See also Victor Cousin, _Sur Claude Gelee_ (1853); M.F. Sweetser, + _Claude Lorrain_ (1878); Lady Dilke, _Claude Lorrain_ (1884). + (W. M. R.) + + + + +CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN (1797-1867), French photographer, was +born at Lyons on the 12th of August 1797. Having acquired a share in +L.J.M. Daguerre's invention, he was one of the first to practise +daguerreotype portraiture in England, and he improved the sensitizing +process by using chlorine in addition to iodine, thus gaining greater +rapidity of action. In 1848 he produced the photographometer, an +instrument designed to measure the intensity of photogenic rays; and in +1849 he brought out the focimeter, for securing a perfect focus in +photographic portraiture. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society +in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonoscope, in reply to a +challenge from Sir David Brewster. He died in London on the 27th of +December 1867. + + + + +CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS, Latin epic poet and panegyrist, flourished during +the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. He was an Egyptian by birth, +probably an Alexandrian, but it may be conjectured from his name and his +mastery of Latin that he was of Roman extraction. His own authority has +been assumed for the assertion that his first poetical compositions were +in Greek, and that he had written nothing in Latin before A.D. 395; but +this seems improbable, and the passage (_Carm. Min._ xli. 13) which is +taken to prove it does not necessarily bear this meaning. In that year +he appears to have come to Rome, and made his debut as a Latin poet by a +panegyric on the consulship of Olybrius and Probinus, the first brothers +not belonging to the imperial family who had ever simultaneously filled +the office of consul. This piece proved the precursor of the series of +panegyrical poems which compose the bulk of his writings. In Birt's +edition a complete chronological list of Claudian's poems is given, and +also in J.B. Bury's edition of Gibbon (iii. app. i. p. 485), where the +dates given differ slightly from those in the present article. + +In 396 appeared the encomium on the third consulship of the emperor +Honorius, and the epic on the downfall of Rufinus, the unworthy +minister of Arcadius at Constantinople. This revolution was principally +effected by the contrivance of Stilicho, the great general and minister +of Honorius. Claudian's poem appears to have obtained his patronage, or +rather perhaps that of his wife Serena, by whose interposition the poet +was within a year or two enabled to contract a wealthy marriage in +Africa (_Epist._ 2). Previously to this event he had produced (398) his +panegyric on the fourth consulship of Honorius, his epithalamium on the +marriage of Honorius to Stilicho's daughter, Maria, and his poem on the +Gildonic war, celebrating the repression of a revolt in Africa. To these +succeeded his piece on the consulship of Manlius Theodorus (399), the +unfinished or mutilated invective against the Byzantine prime minister +Eutropius in the same year, the epics on Stilicho's first consulship and +on his repulse of Alaric (400 and 403), and the panegyric on the sixth +consulship of Honorius (404). From this time all trace of Claudian is +lost, and he is generally supposed to have perished with his patron +Stilicho in 408. It may be conjectured that he must have died in 404, as +he could hardly otherwise have omitted to celebrate the greatest of +Stilicho's achievements, the destruction of the barbarian host led by +Radagaisus in the following year. On the other hand, he may have +survived Stilicho, as in the dedication to the second book of his epic +on the _Rape of Proserpine_ (which Birt, however, assigns to 395-397), +he speaks of his disuse of poetry in terms hardly reconcilable with the +fertility which he displayed during his patron's lifetime. From the +manner in which Augustine alludes to him in his _De civitate Dei_, it +may be inferred that he was no longer living at the date of the +composition of that work, between 415 and 428. + +Besides Claudian's chief poems, his lively Fescennines on the emperor's +marriage, his panegyric on Serena, and the _Gigantomachia_, a fragment +of an unfinished Greek epic, may also be mentioned. Several poems +expressing Christian sentiments are undoubtedly spurious. Claudian's +paganism, however, neither prevented his celebrating Christian rulers +and magistrates nor his enjoying the distinction of a court laureate. It +is probable that he was nominally a Christian, like his patron Stilicho +and Ausonius, although at heart attached to the old religion. The very +decided statements of Orosius and Augustine as to his heathenism may be +explained by the pagan style of Claudian's political poems. We have his +own authority for his having been honoured by a bronze statue in the +forum, and Pomponius Laetus discovered in the 15th century an +inscription (_C.I.L._ vi. 1710) on the pedestal, which, formerly +considered spurious, is now generally regarded as genuine. + +The position of Claudian--the last of the Roman poets--is unique in +literature. It is sufficiently remarkable that, after nearly three +centuries of torpor, the Latin muse should have experienced any revival +in the age of Honorius, nothing less than amazing that this revival +should have been the work of a foreigner, most surprising of all that a +just and enduring celebrity should have been gained by official +panegyrics on the generally uninteresting transactions of an inglorious +epoch. The first of these particulars bespeaks Claudian's taste, rising +superior to the prevailing barbarism, the second his command of +language, the third his rhetorical skill. As remarked by Gibbon, "he was +endowed with the rare and precious talent of raising the meanest, of +adorning the most barren, and of diversifying the most similar topics." +This gift is especially displayed in his poem on the downfall of +Rufinus, where the punishment of a public malefactor is exalted to the +dignity of an epical subject by the magnificence of diction and the +ostentation of supernatural machinery. The noble exordium, in which the +fate of Rufinus is propounded as the vindication of divine justice, +places the subject at once on a dignified level; and the council of the +infernal powers has afforded a hint to Tasso, and through him to Milton. +The inevitable monotony of the panegyrics on Honorius is relieved by +just and brilliant expatiation on the duties of a sovereign. In his +celebration of Stilicho's victories Claudian found a subject more worthy +of his powers, and some passages, such as the description of the flight +of Alaric, and of Stilicho's arrival at Rome, and the felicitous +parallel between his triumphs and those of Marius, rank among the +brightest ornaments of Latin poetry. Claudian's panegyric, however +lavish and regardless of veracity, is in general far less offensive than +usual in his age, a circumstance attributable partly to his more refined +taste and partly to the genuine merit of his patron Stilicho. He is a +valuable authority for the history of his times, and is rarely to be +convicted of serious inaccuracy in his facts, whatever may be thought of +the colouring he chooses to impart to them. He was animated by true +patriotic feeling, in the shape of a reverence for Rome as the source +and symbol of law, order and civilization. Outside the sphere of actual +life he is less successful; his _Rape of Proserpine_, though the +beauties of detail are as great as usual, betrays his deficiency in the +creative power requisite for dealing with a purely ideal subject. This +denotes the rhetorician rather than the poet, and in general it may be +said that his especial gifts of vivid natural description, and of +copious illustration, derived from extensive but not cumbrous erudition, +are fully as appropriate to eloquence as to poetry. In the general cast +of his mind and character of his writings, and especially, in his +faculty for bestowing enduring interest upon occasional themes, we may +fitly compare him with Dryden, remembering that while Dryden exulted in +the energy of a vigorous and fast-developing language, Claudian was +cramped by an artificial diction, confined to the literary class. + + The editio princeps of Claudian was printed at Vicenza in 1482; the + editions of J.M. Gesner (1759) and P. Burmann (1760) are still + valuable for their notes. The first critical edition was that of L. + Jeep (1876-1879), now superseded by the exhaustive work of T. Birt, + with bibliography, in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica_ (x., 1892; + smaller ed. founded on this by J. Koch, Teubner series, 1893). There + is a separate edition with commentary and verse translation of _Il + Ratto di Proserpina_, by L. Garces de Diez (1889); the satire _In + Eutropium_ is discussed by T. Birt in _Zwei politische Satiren des + alten Rom_ (1888). There is a complete English verse translation of + little merit by A. Hawkins (1817). See the articles by Ramsay in + Smith's _Classical Dictionary_ and Vollmer in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Realencyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2 + (1899); also J.H.E. Crees, _Claudian as an Historian_ (1908), the + "Cambridge Historical Essay" for 1906 (No. 17); T. Hodgkin, _Claudian, + the last of the Roman Poets_ (1875). + + + + +CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS], Roman emperor A.D. +41-54, son of Drusus and Antonia, nephew of the emperor Tiberius, and +grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on +the 1st of August 10 B.C. During his boyhood he was treated with +contempt, owing to his weak and timid character and his natural +infirmities; the fact that he was regarded as little better than an +imbecile saved him from death at the hands of Caligula. He chiefly +devoted himself to literature, especially history, and until his +accession he took no real part in public affairs, though Caligula +honoured him with the dignity of consul. He was four times married: to +Plautia Urgulanilla, whom he divorced because he suspected her of +designs against his life; to Aelia Petina, also divorced; to the +infamous Valeria Messallina (q.v.); and to his niece Agrippina. + +In A.D. 41, on the murder of Caligula, Claudius was seized by the +praetorians, and declared emperor. The senate, which had entertained the +idea of restoring the republic, was obliged to acquiesce. One of +Claudius's first acts was to proclaim an amnesty for all except Cassius +Chaerea, the assassin of his predecessor, and one or two others. After +the discovery of a conspiracy against his life in 42, he fell completely +under the influence of Messallina and his favourite freedmen Pallas and +Narcissus, who must be held responsible for acts of cruelty which have +brought undeserved odium upon the emperor. There is no doubt that +Claudius was a liberal-minded man of kindly nature, anxious for the +welfare of his people. Humane regulations were made in regard to +freedmen, slaves, widows and orphans; the police system was admirably +organized; commerce was put on a sound footing; the provinces were +governed in a spirit of liberality; the rights of citizens and admission +to the senate were extended to communities outside Italy. The speech of +Claudius delivered (in the year 48) in the senate in support of the +petition of the Aeduans that their senators should have the _jus +petendorum honorum_ (claim of admission to the senate and magistracies) +at Rome has been partly preserved on the fragment of a bronze tablet +found at Lyons in 1524; an imperial edict concerning the citizenship of +the Anaunians (15th of March 46) was found in the southern Tirol in 1869 +(_C.I.L._ v. 5050). Claudius was especially fond of building. He +completed the great aqueduct (Aqua Claudia) begun by Caligula, drained +the Lacus Fucinus, and built the harbour of Ostia. Nor were his military +operations unsuccessful. Mauretania was made a Roman province; the +conquest of Britain was begun; his distinguished general Domitius +Corbulo (_q.v._) gained considerable successes in Germany and the East. +The intrigues of Narcissus caused Messallina to be put to death by order +of Claudius, who took as his fourth wife his niece Agrippina, a woman as +criminal as any of her predecessors. She prevailed upon him to set aside +his own son Britannicus in favour of Nero, her son by a former marriage; +and in 54, to make Nero's position secure, she put the emperor to death +by poison. The apotheosis of Claudius was the subject of a lampoon by +Seneca called _apokolokyntosis_, the "pumpkinification" of Claudius. + +Claudius was a prolific writer, chiefly on history, but his works are +lost. He wrote (in Greek) a history of Carthage and a history of +Etruria; (in Latin) a history of Rome from the death of Caesar, an +autobiography, and an essay in defence of Cicero against the attacks of +Asinius Gallus. He also introduced three new letters into the Latin +alphabet: [Latin character] for the consonantal V, [Latin character] for +BS and PS, [Latin character] for the intermediate sound between I and U. + + AUTHORITIES.--Ancient: the _Annals_ of Tacitus, Suetonius and Dio + Cassius. Modern: H. Lehmann, _Claudius und seine Zeit_, with + introductory chapter on the ancient authorities (1858); Lucien Double, + _L'Empereur Claude_ (1876); A. Ziegler, _Die politische Seite der + Regierung des Kaisers Claudius_ (1885); H.F. Pelham in _Quarterly + Review_ (April 1905), where certain administrative and political + changes introduced by Claudius, for which he was attacked by his + contemporaries, are discussed and defended; Merivale, _Hist. of the + Romans under the Empire_, chs. 49, 50; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der + roemischen Kaiserzeit_, i., pt. 1; H. Furneaux's ed. of the _Annals_ of + Tacitus (introduction). + + + + +CLAUDIUS, the name of a famous Roman gens. The by-form _Clodius_, in its +origin a mere orthographical variant, was regularly used for certain +Claudii in late republican times, but otherwise the two forms were used +indifferently. The gens contained a patrician and a plebeian family; the +chief representatives of the former were the Pulchri, of the latter the +Marcelli (see MARCELLUS). The following members of the gens deserve +particular mention. + + +1. APPIUS SAMINUS INREGILLENSIS, or REGILLENSIS, CLAUDIUS, so called +from Regillum (or Regilli) in Sabine territory, founder of the Claudian +gens. His original name was Attus or Attius Clausus. About 504 B.C. he +settled in Rome, where he and his followers formed a tribe. In 495 he +was consul, and his cruel enforcement of the laws of debtor and +creditor, in opposition to his milder colleague, P. Servilius Priscus, +was one of the chief causes of the "secession" of the plebs to the +Sacred Mount. On several occasions he displayed his hatred of the +people, although it is stated that he subsequently played the part of +mediator. + + Suetonius, _Tiberius_, i.; Livy ii. 16-29; Dion. Halic. v. 40, vi. 23, + 24. + + +2. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CRASSUS, a Roman patrician, consul in 471 +and 451 B.C., and in the same and following year one of the decemvirs. +At first he was conspicuous for his aristocratic pride and bitter hatred +of the plebeians. Twice they refused to fight under him, and fled before +their enemies. He retaliated by decimating the army. He was banished, +but soon returned, and again became consul. In the same year (451) he +was made one of the decemviri who had been appointed to draw up a code +of written laws. When it was decided to elect decemvirs for another +year, he who had formerly been looked upon as the champion of the +aristocracy, suddenly came forward as the friend of the people, and was +himself re-elected together with several plebeians. But no sooner was +the new body in office, than it treated both patricians and plebeians +with equal violence, and refused to resign at the end of the year. +Matters were brought to a crisis by the affair of Virginia. Enamoured +of the beautiful daughter of the plebeian centurion Virginius, Claudius +attempted to seize her by an abuse of justice. One of his clients, +Marcus Claudius, swore that she was the child of a slave belonging to +him, and had been stolen by the childless wife of the centurion. +Virginius was summoned from the army, and on the day of trial was +present to expose the conspiracy. Nevertheless, judgment was given +according to the evidence of Marcus, and Claudius commanded Virginia to +be given up to him. In despair, her father seized a knife from a +neighbouring stall and plunged it in her side. A general insurrection +was the result; and the people seceded to the Sacred Mount. The +decemvirs were finally compelled to resign and Appius Claudius died in +prison, either by his own hand or by that of the executioner. For a +discussion of the character of Appius Claudius, see Mommsen's appendix +to vol. i. of his _History of Rome_. He holds that Claudius was never +the leader of the patrician party, but a patrician demagogue who ended +by becoming a tyrant to patricians as well as plebeians. The +decemvirate, one of the triumphs of the plebs, could hardly have been +abolished by that body, but would naturally have been overthrown by the +patricians. The revolution which ruined Claudius was a return to the +rule of the patricians represented by the Horatii and Valerii. + + Livy iii. 32-58; Dion. Halic. x. 59, xi. 3. + + +3. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CAECUS, Roman patrician and author. In 312 +B.C. he was elected censor without having passed through the office of +consul. His censorship--which he retained for five years, in spite of +the lex Aemilia which limited the tenure of that office to eighteen +months--was remarkable for the actual or attempted achievement of +several great constitutional changes. He filled vacancies in the senate +with men of low birth, in some cases even the sons of freedmen (Diod. +Sic. xx. 36; Livy ix. 30; Suetonius, _Claudius_, 24). His most important +political innovation was the abolition of the old free birth, freehold +basis of suffrage. He enrolled the freedmen and landless citizens both +in the centuries and in the tribes, and, instead of assigning them to +the four urban tribes, he distributed them through all the tribes and +thus gave them practical control of the elections. In 304, however, Q. +Fabius Rullianus limited the landless and poorer freedmen to the four +urban tribes, thus annulling the effect of Claudius's arrangement. +Appius Claudius transferred the charge of the public worship of Hercules +in the Forum Boarium from the Potitian gens to a number of public +slaves. He further invaded the exclusive rights of the patricians by +directing his secretary Gnaeus Flavius (whom, though a freedman, he made +a senator) to publish the _legis actiones_ (methods of legal practice) +and the list of _dies fasti_ (or days on which legal business could be +transacted). Lastly, he gained enduring fame by the construction of a +road and an aqueduct, which--a thing unheard of before--he called by his +own name (Livy ix. 29; Frontinus, _De Aquis_, 115; Diod. Sic. xx. 36). +In 307 he was elected consul for the first time. In 298 he was interrex; +in 296, as consul, he led the army in Samnium, and although, with his +colleague, he gained a victory over the Etruscans and Samnites, he does +not seem to have specially distinguished himself as a soldier (Livy x. +19). Next year he was praetor, and he was once dictator. His character, +like his namesake the decemvir's is not easy to define. In spite of his +political reforms, he opposed the admission of the plebeians to the +consulship and priestly offices; and, although these reforms might +appear to be democratic in character and calculated to give +preponderance to the lowest class of the people, his probable aim was to +strengthen the power of the magistrates (and lessen that of the senate) +by founding it on the popular will, which would find its expression in +the urban inhabitants and could be most easily influenced by the +magistrate. He was already blind and too feeble to walk, when Cineas, +the minister of Pyrrhus, visited him, but so vigorously did he oppose +every concession that all the eloquence of Cineas was in vain, and the +Romans forgot past misfortunes in the inspiration of Claudius's +patriotism (Livy x. 13; Justin xviii. 2; Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 19). The +story of his blindness, however, may be merely a method of accounting +for his cognomen. Tradition regarded it as the punishment of his +transference of the cult of Hercules from the Potitii. + +Appius Claudius Caecus is also remarkable as the first writer mentioned +in Roman literature. His speech against peace with Pyrrhus was the first +that was transmitted to writing, and thereby laid the foundation of +prose composition. He was the author of a collection of aphorisms in +verse mentioned by Cicero (of which a few fragments remain), and of a +legal work entitled _De Usurpationibus_. It is very likely also that he +was concerned in the drawing up of the _Legis Actiones_ published by +Flavius. The famous dictum "Every man is the architect of his own +fortune" is attributed to him. He also interested himself in grammatical +questions, distinguished the two sounds R and S in writing, and did away +with the letter Z. + + See Mommsen's appendix to his _Roman History_ (vol. i.); treatises by + W. Siebert (1863) and F.D. Gerlach (1872), dealing especially with the + censorship of Claudius. + + +4. CLAUDIUS, PUBLIUS, surnamed PULCHER, son of (3). He was the first of +the gens who bore this surname. In 249 he was consul and appointed to +the command of the fleet in the first Punic War. Instead of continuing +the siege of Lilybaeum, he decided to attack the Carthaginians in the +harbour of Drepanum, and was completely defeated. The disaster was +commonly attributed to Claudius's treatment of the sacred chickens, +which refused to eat before the battle. "Let them drink then," said the +consul, and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. Having been recalled +and ordered to appoint a dictator, he gave another instance of his +high-handedness by nominating a subordinate official, M. Claudius +Glicia, but the nomination was at once overruled. Claudius himself was +accused of high treason and heavily fined. He must have died before 246, +in which year his sister Claudia was fined for publicly expressing a +wish that her brother Publius could rise from the grave to lose a second +fleet and thereby diminish the number of the people. It is supposed that +he committed suicide. + + Livy, _Epit._, 19; Polybius i. 49; Cicero, _De Divinatione_, i. 16, + ii. 8; Valerius Maximus i. 4, viii. I. + + +5. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed PULCHER, Roman statesman and author. He +served under his brother-in-law Lucullus in Asia (72 B.C.) and was +commissioned to deliver the ultimatum to Tigranes, which gave him the +choice of war with Rome or the surrender of Mithradates. In 57 he was +praetor, in 56 propraetor in Sardinia, and in 54 consul with L. Domitius +Ahenobarbus. Through the intervention of Pompey, he became reconciled to +Cicero, who had been greatly offended because Claudius had indirectly +opposed his return from exile. In this and certain other transactions +Claudius seems to have acted from avaricious motives,--a result of his +early poverty. In 53 he entered upon the governorship of Cilicia, in +which capacity he seems to have been rapacious and tyrannical. During +this period he carried on a correspondence with Cicero, whose letters to +him form the third book of the _Epistolae ad Familiares_. Claudius +resented the appointment of Cicero as his successor, avoided meeting +him, and even issued orders after his arrival in the province. On his +return to Rome Claudius was impeached by P. Cornelius Dolabella on the +ground of having violated the sovereign rights of the people. This led +him to make advances to Cicero, since it was necessary to obtain +witnesses in his favour from his old province. He was acquitted, and a +charge of bribery against him also proved unsuccessful. In 50 he was +censor, and expelled many of the members of the senate, amongst them the +historian Sallust on the ground of immorality. His connexion with Pompey +brought upon him the enmity of Caesar, at whose march on Rome he fled +from Italy. Having been appointed by Pompey to the command in Greece, in +obedience to an ambiguous oracle he crossed over to Euboea, where he +died about 48, before the battle of Pharsalus. Claudius was of a +distinctly religious turn of mind, as is shown by the interest he took +in sacred buildings (the temple at Eleusis, the sanctuary of Amphiaraus +at Oropus). He wrote a work on augury, the first book of which he +dedicated to Cicero. He was also extremely superstitious, and believed +in invocations of the dead. Cicero had a high opinion of his +intellectual powers, and considered him a great orator (see Orelli, +_Onomasticon Tullianum_). + + A full account of all the Claudii will be found in Pauly-Wissowa's + _Realencyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2 + (1899). + + + + +CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, surnamed GOTHICUS, Roman emperor A.D. +268-270, belonged to an obscure Illyrian family. On account of his +military ability he was placed in command of an army by Decius; and +Valerian appointed him general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of +the provinces of the lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienus, he was +called to Italy in order to crush Aureolus; and on the death of the +emperor (268) he was chosen as his successor, in accordance, it was +said, with his express desire. Shortly after his accession he routed the +Alamanni on the Lacus Benacus (some doubt is thrown upon this); in 269 a +great victory over the Goths at Naissus in Moesia gained him the title +of Gothicus. In the following year he died of the plague at Sirmium, in +his fifty-sixth year. He enjoyed great popularity, and appears to have +been a man of ability and character. + + His life was written by Trebellius Pollio, one of the _Scriptores + Historiae Augusiae_; see also Zosimus i. 40-43, the histories of Th. + Bernhardt and H. Schiller, and special dissertations by A. Duncker on + the life of Claudius (1868) and the defeat of the Alamanni (_Annalen + des Vereins fuer nassauische Altertumskunde_, 1879); Homo, _De Claudio + Gothico_ (1900); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopaedie_, ii. 2458 ff. + (Henze). + + + + +CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (1740-1815), German poet, otherwise known by the _nom +de plume_ of ASMUS, was born on the 15th of August 1740 at Reinfeld, +near Luebeck, and studied at Jena. He spent the greater part of his life +in the little town of Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, where he earned his first +literary reputation by editing from 1771 to 1775, a newspaper called the +_Wandsbecker Bote_ (_Wandsbeck Messenger_), in which he published a +large number of prose essays and poems. They were written in pure and +simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; in many there was a +vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque, while others were full of +quiet meditation and solemn sentiment. In his later days, perhaps +through the influence of Klopstock, with whom he had formed an intimate +acquaintance, Claudius became strongly pietistic, and the graver side of +his nature showed itself. In 1814 he removed to Hamburg, to the house of +his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph Perthes, where he died +on the 21st of January 1815. + + Claudius's collected works were published under the title of _Asmus + omnia sua secum portans, oder Saemtliche Werke des Wandsbecker Boten_ + (8 vols., 1775-1812; 13th edition, by C. Redich, 2 vols., 1902). His + biography has been written by Wilhelm Herbst (4th ed., 1878). See also + M. Schneidereit, _M. Claudius, seine Weltanschauung und + Lebensweisheit_ (1898). + + + + +CLAUSEL (more correctly CLAUZEL), BERTRAND, COUNT (1772-1842), marshal +of France, was born at Mirepoix (Ariege) on the 12th of December 1772, +and served in the first campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars as one +of the volunteers of 1791. In June 1795, having distinguished himself +repeatedly in the war on the northern frontier (1792-1793) and the +fighting in the eastern Pyrenees (1793-1794), Clausel was made a general +of brigade. In this rank he served in Italy in 1798 and 1799, and in the +disastrous campaign of the latter year he won great distinction at the +battles of the Trebbia and of Novi. In 1802 he served in the expedition +to S. Domingo. He became a general of division in December 1802, and +after his return to France he was in almost continuous military +employment there until in 1806 he was sent to the army of Naples. Soon +after this Napoleon made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In +1808-1809 he was with Marmont in Dalmatia, and at the close of 1809 he +was appointed to a command in the army of Portugal under Massena. + +Clausel took part in the Peninsular campaigns of 1810 and 1811, +including the Torres Vedras campaign, and under Marmont he did excellent +service in re-establishing the discipline, efficiency and mobility of +the army, which had suffered severely in the retreat from Torres Vedras. +In the Salamanca campaign (1812) the result of Clausel's work was shown +in the marching powers of the French, and at the battle of Salamanca, +Clausel, who had succeeded to the command on Marmont being wounded, and +had himself received a severe wound, drew off his army with the greatest +skill, the retreat on Burgos being conducted by him in such a way that +the pursuers failed to make the slightest impression, and had themselves +in the end to retire from the siege of Burgos (1812). Early in 1813 +Clausel was made commander of the Army of the North in Spain, but he was +unable to avert the great disaster of Vittoria. Under the supreme +command of Soult he served through the rest of the Peninsular War with +unvarying distinction. On the first restoration in 1814 he submitted +unwillingly to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon returned to France, he +hastened to join him. During the Hundred Days he was in command of an +army defending the Pyrenean frontier. Even after Waterloo he long +refused to recognize the restored government, and he escaped to America, +being condemned to death in absence. He took the first opportunity of +returning to aid the Liberals in France (1820), sat in the chamber of +deputies from 1827 to 1830, and after the revolution of 1830 was at once +given a military command. At the head of the army of Algiers, Clausel +made a successful campaign, but he was soon recalled by the home +government, which desired to avoid complications in Algeria. At the same +time he was made a marshal of France (February 1831). For some four +years thereafter he urged his Algerian policy upon the chamber of +deputies, and finally in 1835 was reappointed commander-in-chief. But +after several victories, including the taking of Mascara in 1835, the +marshal met with a severe repulse at Constantine in 1836. A change of +government in France was primarily responsible for the failure, but +public opinion attributed it to Clausel, who was recalled in February +1837. He thereupon retired from active service, and, after vigorously +defending his conduct before the deputies, he ceased to take part in +public affairs. He lived in complete retirement up to his death at +Secourrieu (Garonne) on the 21st of April 1842. + + + + +CLAUSEN, GEORGE (1852- ), English painter, was born in London, the son +of a decorative artist. He attended the design classes at the South +Kensington schools from 1867-1873 with great success. He then worked in +the studio of Edwin Long, R.A., and subsequently in Paris under +Bouguereau and Robert-Fleury. He became one of the foremost modern +painters of landscape and of peasant life, influenced to a certain +extent by the impressionists with whom he shared the view that light is +the real subject of landscape art. His pictures excel in rendering the +appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight, or in the shady +shelter of a barn or stable. His "Girl at the Gate" was acquired for the +nation by the Chantrey Trustees and is now at the National Gallery of +British Art (Tate Gallery). He was elected associate of the Royal +Academy in 1895, and as professor of painting gave a memorable series of +lectures to the students of the schools,--published as _Six Lectures on +Painting_ (1904) and _Aims and Ideals in Art_ (1906). + + + + +CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON (1780-1831), Prussian general and military writer, +was born at Burg, near Magdeburg, on the 1st of June 1780. His family, +originally Polish, had settled in Germany at the end of the previous +century. Entering the army in 1792, he first saw service in the Rhine +campaigns of 1793-1794, receiving his commission at the siege of Mainz. +On his return to garrison duty he set to work so zealously to remedy the +defects in his education caused by his father's poverty, that in 1801 he +was admitted to the Berlin Academy for young officers, then directed by +Scharnhorst. Scharnhorst, attracted by his pupil's industry and force of +character, paid special attention to his training, and profoundly +influenced the development of his mind. In 1803, on Scharnhorst's +recommendation, Clausewitz was made "adjutant" (aide-de-camp) to Prince +August, and he served in this capacity in the campaign of Jena (1806), +being captured along with the prince by the French at Prenzlau. A +prisoner in France and Switzerland for the next two years, he returned +to Prussia in 1809; and for the next three years, as a departmental +chief in the ministry of war, as a teacher in the military school, and +as military instructor to the crown prince, he assisted Scharnhorst in +the famous reorganization of the Prussian army. In 1810 he married the +countess Marie von Bruehl. + +On the outbreak of the Russian war in 1812, Clausewitz, like many other +Prussian officers, took service with his country's nominal enemy. This +step he justified in a memorial, published for the first time in the +_Leben Gneisenaus_ by Pertz (Berlin, 1869). At first adjutant to General +Phull, who had himself been a Prussian officer, he served later under +Pahlen at Witepsk and Smolensk, and from the final Russian position at +Kaluga he was sent to the army of Wittgenstein. It was Clausewitz who +negotiated the convention of Tauroggen, which separated the cause of +Yorck's Prussians from that of the French, and began the War of +Liberation (see YORCK VON WARTENBURG; also Blumenthal's _Die Konvention +von Tauroggen_, Berlin, 1901). As a Russian officer he superintended the +formation of the _Landwehr_ of east Prussia (see STEIN, BARON VOM), and +in the campaign of 1813 served as chief of staff to Count Wallmoden. He +conducted the fight at Goehrde, and after the armistice, with Gneisenau's +permission, published an account of the campaign (_Der Feldzug von 1813 +bis zum Waffenstillstand_, Leipzig, 1813). This work was long attributed +to Gneisenau himself. After the peace of 1814 Clausewitz re-entered the +Prussian service, and in the Waterloo campaign was present at Ligny and +Wavre as General Thielmann's chief of staff. This post he retained till +1818, when he was promoted major-general and appointed director of the +_Allgemeine Kriegsschule_. Here he remained till in 1830 he was made +chief of the 3rd Artillery Inspection at Breslau. Next year he became +chief of staff to Field-marshal Gneisenau, who commanded an army of +observation on the Polish frontier. After the dissolution of this army +Clausewitz returned to his artillery duties; but on the 18th of November +1831 he died at Breslau of cholera, which had proved fatal to his chief +also, and a little previously, to his old Russian commander Diebitsch on +the other side of the frontier. + +His collected works were edited and published by his widow, who was +aided by some officers, personal friends of the general, in her task. Of +the ten volumes of _Hinterlassene Werke ueber Krieg und Kriegfuehrung_ +(Berlin, 1832-1837, later edition called _Clausewitz's Gesammte Werke_, +Berlin, 1874) the first three contain Clausewitz's masterpiece, _Vom +Kriege_, an exposition of the philosophy of war which is absolutely +unrivalled. He produced no "system" of strategy, and his critics styled +his work "negative" and asked "_Qu'a-t-il fonde?_" What he had "founded" +was that modern strategy which, by its hold on the Prussian mind, +carried the Prussian arms to victory in 1866 and 1870 over the +"systematic" strategists Krismanic and Bazaine, and his philosophy of +war became, not only in Germany but in many other countries, the +essential basis of all serious study of the art of war. The English and +French translations (Graham, _On War_, London, 1873; Neuens, _La +Guerre_, Paris, 1849-1852; or Vatry, _Theorie de la grande guerre_, +Paris, 1899), with the German original, place the work at the disposal +of students of most nationalities. The remaining volumes deal with +military history: vol. 4, the Italian campaign of 1796-97; vols. 5 and +6, the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland and Italy; vol. 7, the wars of +1812, 1813 to the armistice, and 1814; vol. 8, the Waterloo Campaign; +vols. 9 and 10, papers on the campaigns of Gustavus Adolphus, Turenne, +Luxemburg, Muennich, John Sobieski, Frederick the Great, Ferdinand of +Brunswick, &c. He also wrote _Ueber das Leben und den Charakter von +Scharnhorst_ (printed in Ranke's _Historisch-politischer Zeitschrift_, +1832). A manuscript on the catastrophe of 1806 long remained +unpublished. It was used by v. Hoepfner in his history of that war, and +eventually published by the Great General Staff in 1888 (French +translation, 1903). Letters from Clausewitz to his wife were published +in _Zeitschrift fuer preussische Landeskunde_ (1876). His name is borne +by the 28th Field Artillery regiment of the German army. + + See Schwartz, _Leben des General von Clausewitz und der Frau Marie von + Clausewitz_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1877); von Meerheimb, _Karl von + Clausewitz_ (Berlin, 1875), also Memoir in _Allgemeine deutsche + Biographie_; Bernhardi, _Leben des Generals von Clausewitz_ (10th + Supplement, _Militaer. Wochenblatt_, 1878). + + + + +CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMMANUEL (1822-1888), German physicist, was born +on the 2nd of January 1822 at Koeslin, in Pomerania. After attending the +Gymnasium at Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844. +In 1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed professor +of physics in the royal artillery and engineering school at Berlin. Late +in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture as _Privatdocent_ in +the university. In 1855 he became an ordinary professor at Zuerich +Polytechnic, accepting at the same time a professorship in the +university of Zuerich In 1867 he moved to Wuerzburg as professor of +physics, and two years later was appointed to the same chair at Bonn, +where he died on the 24th of August 1888. During the Franco-German War +he was at the head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and +received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville and +Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical rather than an +experimental physicist, was concerned with many of the most abstruse +problems of molecular physics. By his restatement of Carnot's principle +he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis, and he deserves +the credit of having made thermodynamics a science; he enunciated the +second law, in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the +well-known form, "Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter +body." His results he applied to an exhaustive development of the theory +of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the conception of +entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to his labours, Clerk +Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It was he who raised it, on +the basis of the dynamical theory of heat, to the level of a theory, and +he carried out many numerical determinations in connextion with it, e.g. +of the mean free path of a molecule. To Clausius also was due an +important advance in the theory of electrolysis, and he put forward the +idea that molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms, +the electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange. +This view found little favour until 1887, when it was taken up by S.A. +Arrhenius, who made it the basis of the theory of electrolytic +dissociation. In addition to many scientific papers he wrote _Die +Potentialfunktion und das Potential_, 1864, and _Abhandlungen ueber die +mechanische Waermetheorie_, 1864-1867. + + + + +CLAUSTHAL, or KLAUSTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Harz, lying +on a bleak plateau, 1860 ft. above sea-level, 50. m. by rail W.S.W. of +Halberstadt. Pop. (1905) 8565. Clausthal is the chief mining town of the +Upper Harz Mountains, and practically forms one town with Zellerfeld, +which is separated from it by a small stream, the Zellbach. The streets +are broad, opportunity for improvement having been given by fires in +1844 and 1854; the houses are mostly of wood. There are an Evangelical +and a Roman Catholic church, and a gymnasium. Clausthal has a famous +mining college with a mineralogical museum, and a disused mint. Its +chief mines are silver and lead, but it also smelts copper and a little +gold. Four or five sanatoria are in the neighbourhood. The museum of the +Upper Harz is at Zellerfeld. + +Clausthal was founded about the middle of the 12th century in +consequence probably of the erection of a Benedictine monastery (closed +in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellerfeld. At the beginning +of the 16th century the dukes of Brunswick made a new settlement here, +and under their directions the mining, which had been begun by the +monks, was carried on more energetically. The first church was built at +Clausthal in 1570. In 1864 the control of the mines passed into the +hands of the state. + + + + +CLAVECIN, the French for clavisymbal or harpsichord (Ger. _Clavicymbel_ +or _Dockenklavier_), an abbreviation of the Flemish _clavisinbal_ and +Ital. _clavicimbalo_, a keyboard musical instrument in which the strings +were plucked by means of a plectrum consisting of a quill mounted upon a +jack. + + See PIANOFORTE; HARPSICHORD. + + + + +CLAVICEMBALO, or GRAVICEMBALO (from Lat. _clavis_, key, and _cymbalum_, +cymbal; Eng. clavicymbal, clavisymbal; Flemish, _clavisinbal_; Span. +_clavisinbanos_), a keyboard musical instrument with strings plucked by +means of small quill or leather plectra. "Cymbal" (Gr. [Greek: +kumbalon], from [Greek: khumbe], a hollow vessel) was the old European +term for the dulcimer, and hence its place in the formation of the word. + + See PIANOFORTE; SPINET; VIRGINAL. + + + + +CLAVICHORD, or CLARICHORD (Fr. _manicorde_; Ger. _Clavichord_; Ital. +_manicordo_; Span. _manicordio_[1]), a medieval stringed keyboard +instrument, a forerunner of the pianoforte (q.v.), its strings being set +in vibration by a blow from a brass tangent instead of a hammer as in +the modern instrument. The clavichord, derived from the dulcimer by the +addition of a keyboard, consisted of a rectangular case, with or without +legs, often very elaborately ornamented with paintings and gilding. The +earliest instruments were small and portable, being placed upon a table +or stand. The strings, of finely drawn brass, steel or iron wire, were +stretched almost parallel with the keyboard over the narrow belly or +soundboard resting on the soundboard bridges, often three in number, and +wound as in the piano round wrest or tuning pins set in a block at the +right-hand side of the soundboard and attached at the other end to hitch +pins. The bridges served to direct the course of the strings and to +conduct the sound waves to the soundboard. The scaling, or division of +the strings determining their vibrating length, was effected by the +position of the tangents. These tangents, small wedge-shaped blades of +brass, beaten out at the top, were inserted in the end of the arm of the +keys. As the latter were depressed by the fingers the tangents rose to +strike the strings and stop them at the proper length from the +belly-bridge. Thus the string was set in vibration between the point of +impact and the belly-bridge just as long as the key was pressed down. +The key being released, the vibrations were instantly stopped by a list +of cloth acting as damper and interwoven among the strings behind the +line of the tangents. + +There were two kinds of clavichords--the fretted or _gebunden_ and the +fret-free or _bund-frei_. The term "fretted" was applied to those +clavichords which, instead of being provided with a string or set of +strings in unison for each note, had one set of strings acting for three +or four notes, the arms of the keys being twisted in order to bring the +contact of the tangent into the acoustically correct position under the +string. The "fret-free" were chromatically-scaled instruments. The first +_bund-frei_ clavichord is attributed to Daniel Faber of Crailsheim in +Saxony about 1720. This important change in construction increased the +size of the instrument, each pair of unison strings requiring a key and +tangent of its own, and led to the introduction of the system of tuning +by equal temperament upheld by J.S. Bach. Clavichords were made with +pedals.[2] + +The tone of the clavichord, extremely sweet and delicate, was +characterized by a tremulous hesitancy, which formed its great charm +while rendering it suitable only for the private music room or study. +Between 1883 and 1893 renewed attention was drawn to the instrument by +A.J. Hipkins's lectures and recitals on keyboard instruments in London, +Oxford and Cambridge; and Arnold Dolmetsch reintroduced the art of +making clavichords in 1894. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The words _clavicorde_, _clavicordo_ and _clavicordio_, + respectively French, Italian and Spanish, were applied to a different + type of instrument, the spinet (q.v.). + + [2] See Sebastian Virdung, _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, + 1511) (facsimile reprint Berlin, 1882, edited by R. Eitner); J. + Verschuere Reynvaan, _Musijkaal Kunst-Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1795) + (a very scarce book, of which the British Museum does not possess a + copy); Jacob Adlung, _Musica Mechanica Organoedi_ (Berlin, 1768), + vol. ii. pp. 158-9; A.J. Hipkins, _The History of the Pianoforte_ + (London, 1896), pp. 61 and 62. + + + + +CLAVICYTHERIUM, a name usually applied to an upright spinet (q.v.), the +soundboard and strings of which were vertical instead of horizontal, +being thus perpendicular to the keyboard; but it would seem that the +clavicytherium proper is distinct from the upright spinet in that its +strings are placed horizontally. In the early clavicytherium there was, +as in the spinet, only one string (of gut) to each key, set in vibration +by means of a small quill or leather plectrum mounted on a jack which +acted as in the spinet and harpsichord (q.v.). The clavicytherium or +keyed cythera or cetra, names which in the 14th and 15th centuries had +been applied somewhat indiscriminately to instruments having strings +stretched over a soundboard and plucked by fingers or plectrum, was +probably of Italian[1] or possibly of south German origin. Sebastian +Virdung,[2] writing early in the 16th century, describes the +clavicytherium as a new invention, having gut strings, and gives an +illustration of it. (See PIANOFORTE.) A certain amount of uncertainty +exists as to its exact construction, due to the extreme rarity of +unrestored specimens extant, and to the almost total absence of +trustworthy practical information. + +In a unique specimen with two keyboards dating from the 16th or 17th +century, which is in the collection of Baron Alexandre Kraus,[3] what +appear to be vibrating strings stretched over a soundboard perpendicular +to the keyboard are in reality the wires forming part of the mechanism +of the action. The arrangement of this mechanism is the distinctive +feature of the clavicytherium, for the wires, unlike the strings of the +upright spinet, increase in length from _left to right_, so that the +upright harp-shaped back has its higher side over the treble of the +keyboard instead of over the bass. The vibrating strings of the +clavicytherium in the Kraus Museum are stretched horizontally over two +kinds of psalteries fixed one over the other. The first, serving for the +lower register, is of the well-known trapezoid shape and lies over the +keyboards; it has 30 wire strings in pairs of unisons corresponding to +the 15 lowest keys. The second psaltery resembles the kanoun of the +Arabs, and has 36 strings in courses of 3 unisons corresponding to the +next 12 keys, and 88 very thin strings in courses of 4, completing the +49 keys; the compass thus has a range of four octaves from C to C. The +quills of the jacks belonging to the two keyboards are of different +length and thickness. The jacks, which work as in the spinet, are +attached to the perpendicular wires, disposed in two parallel rows, one +for each keyboard. + +There is a very fine specimen of the so-called clavicytherium (upright +spinet) in the Donaldson museum of the Royal College of Music, London, +acquired from the Correr collection at Venice in 1885.[4] The instrument +is undated, but A.J. Hipkins[5] placed it early in the 16th or even at +the end of the 15th century. There is German writing on the inside of +the back, referring to some agreement at Ulm. The case is of pine-wood, +and the natural keys of box-wood. The jacks have the early steel +springs, and in 1885 traces were found in the instrument of original +brass plectra, all of which point to a very early date. + +A learned Italian, Nicolo Vicentino,[6] living in the 16th century, +describes an _archicembalo_ of his own invention, at which the performer +had to stand, having four rows of keys designed to obtain a complete +mesotonic pure third tuning. This was an attempt to reintroduce the +ancient Greek musical system. This instrument was probably an upright +harpsichord or clavicembalo. + + For the history of the clavicytherium considered as a forerunner of + the pianoforte see PIANOFORTE. (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Mersenne, _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), p. 113, calls the + clavicytherium "une nouvelle forme d'epinette dont on use en Italie," + and states that the action of the jacks and levers is parallel from + back to front. + + [2] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511). + + [3] See "Une Piece unique du Musee Kraus de Florence" in _Annales de + l'alliance scientifique universelle_ (Paris, 1907). + + [4] See illustration by William Gibb in A.J. Hipkins's _Musical + Instruments, Historic, Rare and Unique_ (1888). + + [5] _History of the Pianoforte_, Novello's Music Primers, No. 52 + (1896), p. 75. + + [6] _L'Antica Musica ridotta moderna prattica_ (Rome, 1555). + + + + +CLAVIE, BURNING THE, an ancient Scottish custom still observed at +Burghead, a fishing village on the Moray Firth, near Forres. The +"clavie" is a bonfire of casks split in two, lighted on the 12th of +January, corresponding to the New Year of the old calendar. One of these +casks is joined together again by a huge nail (Lat. _clavus_; hence the +term). It is then filled with tar, lighted and carried flaming round the +village and finally up to a headland upon which stands the ruins of a +Roman altar, locally called "the Douro." It here forms the nucleus of +the bonfire, which is built up of split casks. When the burning +tar-barrel falls in pieces, the people scramble to get a lighted piece +with which to kindle the New Year's fire on their cottage hearth. The +charcoal of the clavie is collected and is put in pieces up the cottage +chimneys, to keep spirits and witches from coming down. + + + + +CLAVIERE, ETIENNE (1735-1793), French financier and politician, was a +native of Geneva. As one of the democratic leaders there he was obliged +in 1782 to take refuge in England, upon the armed interference of +France, Sardinia and Berne in favour of the aristocratic party. There he +met other Swiss, among them Marat and Etienne Dumont, but their schemes +for a new Geneva in Ireland--which the government favoured--were given +up when Necker came to power in France, and Claviere, with most of his +comrades, went to Paris. There in 1789 he and Dumont allied themselves +with Mirabeau, secretly collaborating for him on the _Courrier de +Provence_ and also in preparing the speeches which Mirabeau delivered as +his own. It was mainly by his use of Claviere that Mirabeau sustained +his reputation as a financier. But Claviere also published some +pamphlets under his own name, and through these and his friendship with +J.P. Brissot, whom he had met in London, he became minister of finance +in the Girondist ministry, from March to the 12th of June 1792. After +the 10th of August he was again given charge of the finances in the +provisional executive council, though with but indifferent success. He +shared in the fall of the Girondists, was arrested on the 2nd of June +1793, but somehow was left in prison until the 8th of December, when, on +receiving notice that he was to appear on the next day before the +Revolutionary Tribunal, he committed suicide. + + + + +CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE (d. 1412), Spanish traveller of the 15th +century, whose narrative is the first important one of its kind +contributed to Spanish literature, was a native of Madrid, and belonged +to a family of some antiquity and position. On the return of the +ambassadors Pelayo de Sotomayor and Hernan Sanchez de Palazuelos from +the court of Timur, Henry III. of Castille determined to send another +embassy to the new lord of Western Asia, and for this purpose he +selected Clavijo, Gomez de Salazar (who died on the outward journey), +and a master of theology named Fray Alonzo Paez de Santa Maria. They +sailed from St Mary Port near Cadiz on the 22nd of May 1403, touched at +the Balearic Isles, Gaeta and Rhodes, spent some time at Constantinople, +sailed along the southern coast of the Black Sea to Trebizond, and +proceeded inland by Erzerum, the Ararat region, Tabriz, Sultanieh, +Teheran and Meshed, to Samarkand, where they were well received by the +conqueror. Their return was at last accomplished, in part after Timur's +death, and with countless difficulties and dangers, and they landed in +Spain on the 1st of March 1406. Clavijo proceeded at once to the court, +at that time in Alcala de Henares, and served as chamberlain till the +king's death (in the spring of 1406-1407); he then returned to Madrid, +and lived there in opulence till his own death on the 2nd of April 1412. +He was buried in the chapel of the monastery of St Francis, which he had +rebuilt at great expense. + + There are two leading MSS. of Clavijo's narrative--(a) London, British + Museum, Additional MSS., 16,613 fols. I, n.-125, v.; (b) Madrid, + National Library, 9218; and two old editions of the original + Spanish--(1) by Goncalo Argote de Molina (Seville, 1582), (2) by + Antonio de Sancha (Madrid, 1782), both having the misleading titles, + apparently invented by Molina, of _Historia del gran Tamorlan_, and + _Vida y hazanas del gran Tamorlan_ (the latter at the beginning of the + text itself); a better sub-title is added, viz. _Itinerario y + enarracion del viage y relacion de la embaxada que Ruy Gonzalez de + Clavijo le hizo_. Both editors, and especially Sancha, supply general + explanatory dissertations. The Spanish text has also been published, + with a Russian translation, in vol. xxviii. (pp. 1-455) of the + _Publications of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences_ (_Section + of Russian Language_, &c.), edited by I.I. Sreznevski (1881). An + English version, by Sir Clements Markham, was issued by the Hakluyt + Society in 1859 (_Narrative of the Embassy of R ... G ... de Clavijo + to the Court of Timour_). The identification of a great number of the + places mentioned by Clavijo is a matter of considerable difficulty, + and has given rise to some discussion (see Khanikof's list in + _Geographical Magazine_ (1874), and Sreznevski's _Annotated Index_ in + the Russian edition of 1881). A short account ot Clavijo's life is + given by Alvarez y Baena in the _Hijos de Madrid_, vol. ix. See also + C.R. Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, iii. 332-56. + + + + +CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSE (1730-1806), Spanish publicist, was born at +Lanzarote (Canary Islands) in 1730. He settled in Madrid, became editor +of _El Pensador_, and by his campaign against the public performance of +_autos sacramentales_ secured their prohibition in 1765. In 1770 he was +appointed director of the royal theatres, a post which he resigned in +order to take up the editorship of the _Mercurio historico y politico de +Madrid_: at the time of his death in 1806 he was secretary to the +Cabinet of Natural History. He had in abundance the courage, +perseverance and gift of pungent expression which form the equipment of +the aggressive journalist, but his work would long since have been +forgotten were it not that it put an end to a peculiarly national form +of dramatic exposition, and that his love affair with one of +Beaumarchais' sisters suggested the theme of Goethe's first publication, +_Clavigo_. + + + + +CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903), American politician, was born in +Madison county, Kentucky, on the 19th of October 1810. He was the son of +Green Clay (1757-1826), a Kentucky soldier of the war of 1812 and a +relative of Henry Clay. He was educated at Centre College, Danville, +Kentucky, and at Yale, where he graduated in 1832. Influenced to some +extent by William Lloyd Garrison, he became an advocate of the abolition +of slavery, and on his return to his native state, at the risk of social +and political ostracism, he gave utterance to his belief. He studied +law, but instead of practising devoted himself to a political career. In +1835, 1837 and 1840 he was elected as a Whig to the Kentucky +legislature, where he advocated a system of gradual emancipation, and +secured the establishment of a public school system, and a much-needed +reform in the jury system. In 1841 he was defeated on account of his +abolition views. In 1844 he delivered campaign speeches for Henry Clay +throughout the North. In 1845 he established, at Lexington, Kentucky, an +anti-slavery publication known as _The True American_, but in the same +year his office and press were wrecked by a mob, and he removed the +publication office to Cincinnati, Ohio. During this and the earlier +period of his career his zeal and hot temper involved him in numerous +personal encounters and several duels, in all of which he bore himself +with a reckless bravery. In the Mexican War he served as a captain of a +Kentucky company of militia, and was taken prisoner, while +reconnoitring, during General Scott's advance on the City of Mexico. He +left the Whig party in 1850, and as an anti-slavery candidate for +governor of Kentucky polled 5000 votes. In 1856 he joined the Republican +party, and wielded considerable influence as a Southern representative +in its councils. In 1860 he was a leading candidate for the +vice-presidential nomination. In 1861 he was sent by President Lincoln +as minister to Russia; in 1862 he returned to America to accept a +commission as major-general of volunteers, but in March 1863 was +reappointed to his former post at St Petersburg, where he remained until +1869. Disapproving of the Republican policy of reconstruction, he left +the party, and in 1872 was one of the organizers of the +Liberal-Republican revolt, and was largely instrumental in securing the +nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the political +campaigns of 1876 and 1880 he supported the Democratic candidate, but +rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of 1884. He died at +Whitehall, Kentucky, on the 22nd of July 1903. + + See his autobiography, _The Life, Memoirs, Writings, and Speeches of + Cassius Marcellus Clay_ (Cincinnati, 1896); and _The Writings of + Cassius Marcellus Clay_ (edited with a "Memoir" by Horace Greeley. New + York, 1848). + + + + +CLAY, CHARLES (1801-1893), English surgeon, was born at Bredbury, near +Stockport, on the 27th of December 1801. He began his medical education +as a pupil of Kinder Wood in Manchester (where he used to attend John +Dalton's lectures on chemistry), and in 1821 went to Edinburgh to +continue his studies there. Qualifying in 1823, he began a general +practice in Ashton-under-Lyne, but in 1839 removed to Manchester to +practise as an operative and consulting surgeon. It was there that, in +1842, he first performed the operation of ovariotomy with which his name +is associated. On this occasion it was perfectly successful, and when +in 1865 he published an analysis of 111 cases he was able to show a +mortality only slightly above 30%. Although his merits in this matter +have sometimes been denied, his claim to the title "Father of +Ovariotomy" is now generally conceded, and it is admittted that he +deserves the credit not only of having shown how that operation could be +made a success, but also of having played an important part in the +advance of abdominal surgery for which the 19th century was conspicuous. +In spite of the claims of a heavy practice, Clay found time for the +pursuit of geology and archaeology. Among the books of which he was the +author were a volume of _Geological Sketches of Manchester_ (1839) and a +_History of the Currency of the Isle of Man_ (1849), and his collections +included over a thousand editions of the Old and New Testaments and a +remarkably complete series of the silver and copper coins of the United +States. He died at Poulton-le-Fylde, near Preston, on the 19th of +September 1893. + + + + +CLAY, FREDERIC (1838-1889), English musical composer, the son of James +Clay, M.P., who was celebrated as a player of whist and a writer on that +subject, was born in Paris on the 3rd of August 1838. He studied music +under W.B. Molique in Paris and Moritz Hauptmann at Leipzig. With the +exception of a few songs and two cantatas, _The Knights of the Cross_ +(1866) and _Lalla Rookh_ (1877),--the latter of which contained his +well-known song "I'll sing thee songs of Araby,"--his compositions were +all written for the stage. Clay's first public appearance was made with +an opera entitled _Court and Cottage_, the libretto of which was written +by Tom Taylor. This was produced at Covent Garden in 1862, and was +followed by _Constance_ (1865), _Ages Ago_ (1869), and _Princess Toto_ +(1875), to name only three of many works which have long since been +forgotten. The last two, which were written to libretti by W.S. Gilbert, +are among Clay's most tuneful and most attractive works. He wrote part +of the music for _Babil and Bijou_ (1872) and _The Black Crook_ (1873), +both of which were produced at the Alhambra. He also furnished +incidental music for a revival of _Twelfth Night_ and for the production +of James Albery's _Oriana_. His last works, _The Merry Duchess_ (1883) +and _The Golden Ring_ (1883), the latter written for the reopening of +the Alhambra, which had been burned to the ground the year before, +showed an advance upon his previous work, and rendered all the more +regrettable the stroke of paralysis which crippled his physical and +mental energies during the last few years of his life. He died at Great +Marlow on the 24th of November 1889. + + + + +CLAY, HENRY (1777-1852), American statesman and orator, was born in +Hanover county, Virginia, on the 12th of April 1777, and died in +Washington on the 29th of June 1852. Few public characters in the United +States have been the subject of more heated controversy. His enemies +denounced him as a pretender, a selfish intriguer, and an abandoned +profligate; his supporters placed him among the sages and sometimes even +among the saints. He was an arranger of measures and leader of political +forces, not an originator of ideas and systems. His public life covered +nearly half a century, and his name and fame rest entirely upon his own +merits. He achieved his success despite serious obstacles. He was tall, +rawboned and awkward; his early instruction was scant; but he "read +books," talked well, and so, after his admission to the bar at Richmond, +Virginia, in 1797, and his removal next year to Lexington, Kentucky, he +quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative income from his law +practice. + +Thereafter, until the end of life, and in a field where he met, as +either friend or foe, John Quincy Adams, Gallatin, Madison, Monroe, +Webster, Jackson, Calhoun, Randolph and Benton, his political activity +was wellnigh ceaseless. At the age of twenty-two (1799), he was elected +to a constitutional convention in Kentucky; at twenty-six, to the +Kentucky legislature; at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of +the United States constitution, he was appointed to an unexpired term +(1806-1807) in the United States Senate, where, contrary to custom, he +at once plunged into business, as though he had been there all his life. +He again served in the Kentucky legislature (1808-1809), was chosen +speaker of its lower house, and achieved distinction by preventing an +intense and widespread anti-British feeling from excluding the common +law from the Kentucky code. A year later he was elected to another +unexpired term in the United States Senate, serving in 1810-1811. At +thirty-four (1811) he was elected to the United States House of +Representatives and chosen speaker on the first day of the session. One +of the chief sources of his popularity was his activity in Congress in +promoting the war with Great Britain in 1812, while as one of the peace +commissioners he reluctantly signed the treaty of Ghent on the 24th of +December 1814. During the fourteen years following his first election, +he was re-elected five times to the House and to the speakership; +retiring for one term (1821-1823) to resume his law practice and +retrieve his fortunes. He thus served as speaker in 1811-1814, in +1815-1820 and in 1823-1825. Once he was unanimously elected by his +constituents, and once nearly defeated for having at the previous +session voted to increase congressional salaries. He was a warm friend +of the Spanish-American revolutionists (1818) and of the Greek +insurgents (1824). From 1825 to 1829 he served as secretary of state in +President John Quincy Adams's cabinet, and in 1831 he was elected to the +United States Senate, where he served until 1842, and again from 1849 +until his death. + +From the beginning of his career he was in favour of internal +improvements as a means of opening up the fertile but inaccessible West, +and was opposed to the abuse of official patronage known as "the spoils +system." The most important of the national questions with which Clay +was associated, however, were the various phases of slavery politics and +protection to home industries. The most prominent characteristics of his +public life were his predisposition to "compromises" and "pacifications" +which generally failed of their object, and his passionate patriotic +devotion to the Union. + + + His career as a Protectionist. + +His earliest championship of protection was a resolution introduced by +him in the Kentucky legislature (1808) which favoured the wearing by its +members of home-made clothes; and one in the United States Senate (April +1810), on behalf of home-grown and home-made supplies for the United +States navy, but only to the point of making the nation independent of +foreign supply. In 1816 he advocated the Dallas tariff, in which the +duties ranged up to 35% on articles of home production, the supply of +which could satisfy the home demand; the avowed purpose being to build +up certain industries for safety in time of war. In 1824 he advocated +high duties to relieve the prevailing distress, which he pictured in a +brilliant and effective speech. Although the distress was caused by the +reactionary effect of a disordered currency and the inflated prices of +the war of 1812, he ascribed it to the country's dependence on foreign +supply and foreign markets. Great Britain, he said, was a shining +example of the wisdom of a high tariff. No nation ever flourished +without one. He closed his principal speech on the subject in the House +of Representatives with a glowing appeal in behalf of what he called +"The American System." In spite of the opposition of Webster and other +prominent statesmen, Clay succeeded in enacting a tariff which the +people of the Southern states denounced as a "tariff of abominations." +As it overswelled the revenue, in 1832 he vigorously favoured reducing +the tariff rates on all articles not competing with American products. +His speech in behalf of the measure was for years a protection +text-book; but the measure itself reduced the revenue so little and +provoked such serious threats of nullification and secession in South +Carolina, that, to prevent bloodshed and to forestall a free trade +measure from the next Congress, Clay brought forward in 1833 a +compromise gradually reducing the tariff rates to an average of 20%. To +the Protectionists this was "like a crash of thunder in winter"; but it +was received with such favour by the country generally, that its author +was hailed as "The Great Pacificator," as he had been thirteen years +before at the time of the Missouri Compromise (see below). As, however, +the discontent with the tariff in the South was only a symptom of the +real trouble there--the sensitiveness of the slave-power,--Clay +subsequently confessed his serious doubts of the policy of his +interference. + +He was only twenty-two, when, as an opponent of slavery, he vainly urged +an emancipation clause for the new constitution of Kentucky, and he +never ceased regretting that its failure put his state, in improvements +and progress, behind its free neighbours. In 1820 he congratulated the +new South American republics on having abolished slavery, but the same +year the threats of the Southern states to destroy the Union led him to +advocate the "Missouri Compromise," which, while keeping slavery out of +all the rest of the territory acquired by the "Louisiana Purchase" north +of Missouri's southern boundary line, permitted it in that state. Then, +greeted with the title of "The Great Pacificator" as a reward for his +success, he retired temporarily to private life, with a larger stock of +popularity than he had ever had before. Although at various times he had +helped to strengthen the law for the recovery of fugitive slaves, +declining as secretary of state to aid Great Britain in the further +suppression of the slave trade, and demanding the return of fugitives +from Canada, yet he heartily supported the colonizing of the slaves in +Africa, because slavery was the "deepest stain upon the character of the +country," opposition to which could not be repressed except by "blowing +out the moral lights around," and "eradicating from the human soul the +light of reason and the law of liberty." When the slave power became +more aggressive, in and after the year 1831, Clay defended the right of +petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, and +opposed Calhoun's bill forbidding the use of the mails to "abolition" +newspapers and documents. He was luke-warm toward recognizing the +independence of Texas, lest it should aid the increase of slave +territory, and generally favoured the freedom of speech and press as +regards the question of slavery; yet his various concessions and +compromises resulted, as he himself declared, in the abolitionists +denouncing him as a slaveholder, and the slaveholders as an +abolitionist. In 1839, only twelve months after opposing the pro-slavery +demands, he prepared an elaborate speech, in order "to set himself right +with the South," which, before its delivery, received pro-slavery +approval. While affirming that he was "no friend of slavery" he held +abolition and the abolitionists responsible for the hatred, strife, +disruption and carnage that menaced the nation. In response, Calhoun +extended to him a most hearty welcome, and assigned him to a place on +the bench of the penitents. Being a candidate for the presidency Clay +had to take the insult without wincing. It was in reference to this +speech that he made the oft-quoted remark that he "would rather be right +than be president." While a candidate for president in 1844, he opposed +in the "Raleigh letter" the annexation of Texas on many grounds except +that of its increasing the slave power, thus displeasing both the men of +anti-slavery and those of pro-slavery sentiments. In 1847, after the +conquest of Mexico, he made a speech against the annexation of that +country or the acquiring of any foreign territory for the spread of +slavery. Although in 1849 he again vainly proposed emancipation in +Kentucky, he was unanimously elected to the United States Senate, where +in 1850 he temporarily pacified both sections of the country by +successfully offering, for the sake of the "peace, concord and harmony +of these states," a measure or series of measures that became known as +the "Compromise of 1850." It admitted California as a free state, +organized Utah and New Mexico as Territories without reference to +slavery, and enacted a more efficient fugitive slave law. In spite of +great physical weakness he made several earnest speeches in behalf of +these measures to save the Union. + +Another conspicuous feature of Clay's public career was his absorbing +and rightful, but constantly ungratified, ambition to be president of +the United States. His name in connexion therewith was mentioned +comparatively early, and in 1824, with W.H. Crawford, Andrew Jackson, +and John Quincy Adams, he was a candidate for that office. There being +no choice by the people, and the House of Representatives having elected +Adams, Clay was accused by Jackson and his friends of making a corrupt +bargain whereby, in payment of his vote and influence for Adams, he was +appointed secretary of state. This made Jackson Clay's lifelong enemy, +and ever after kept Clay busy explaining and denying the allegation. In +1832 Clay was unanimously nominated for the presidency by the National +Republicans; Jackson, by the Democrats. The main issue was the policy of +continuing the United States Bank, which in 1811 Clay had opposed, but +in 1816 and always subsequently warmly favoured. A majority of the +voters approved of Jackson's fight against what Clay had once denounced +as a dangerous and unconstitutional monopoly. Clay made the mistake of +supposing that he could arouse popular enthusiasm for a moneyed +corporation in its contest with the great military "hero of New +Orleans." In 1839 he was a candidate for the Whig nomination, but by a +secret ballot his enemies defeated him in the party convention, held in +December of that year, and nominated William Henry Harrison. The result +threw Clay into paroxysms of rage, and he violently complained that his +friends always used him as their candidate when he was sure to be +defeated, and betrayed him when he or any one could have been elected. +In 1844 he was nominated by the Whigs against James K. Polk, the +Democratic candidate. By an audacious fraud that represented him as an +enemy, and Polk as a friend of protection, Clay lost the vote of +Pennsylvania; and he lost the vote of New York by his own letter abating +the force of his previous opposition to the annexation of Texas. Even +his enemies felt that his defeat by Polk was almost a national calamity. +In 1848, Zachary Taylor, a Mexican War hero, and hardly even a convert +to the Whig party, defeated Clay for the nomination, Kentucky herself +deserting her "favourite son." + +Clay's quick intelligence and sympathy, and his irreproachable conduct +in youth, explain his precocious prominence in public affairs. In his +persuasiveness as an orator and his charming personality lay the secret +of his power. He had early trained himself in the art of speech-making, +in the forest, the field and even the barn, with horse and ox for +audience. By contemporaries his voice was declared to be the finest +musical instrument that they ever heard. His eloquence was in turn +majestic, fierce, playful, insinuating; his gesticulation natural, +vivid, large, powerful. In public he was of magnificent bearing, +possessing the true oratorical temperament, the nervous exaltation that +makes the orator feel and appear a superior being, transfusing his +thought, passion and will into the mind and heart of the listener; but +his imagination frequently ran away with his understanding, while his +imperious temper and ardent combativeness hurried him and his party into +disadvantageous positions. The ease, too, with which he outshone men of +vastly greater learning lured him from the task of intense and arduous +study. His speeches were characterized by skill of statement, ingenious +grouping of facts, fervent diction, and ardent patriotism; sometimes by +biting sarcasm, but also by superficial research, half-knowledge and an +unwillingness to reason a proposition to its logical results. In +private, his never-failing courtesy, his agreeable manners and a noble +and generous heart for all who needed protection against the powerful or +the lawless, endeared him to hosts of friends. His popularity was as +great and as inexhaustible among his neighbours as among his +fellow-citizens generally. He pronounced upon himself a just judgment +when he wrote: "If any one desires to know the leading and paramount +object of my public life, the preservation of this Union will furnish +him the key." + + See Calvin Colton, _The Works of Henry Clay_ (6 vols., New York, 1857; + new ed., 7 vols., New York, 1898), the first three volumes of which + are an account of Clay's "Life and Times"; Carl Schurz, _Henry Clay_ + (2 vols., Boston, 1887), in the "American Statesmen" series; and the + life by T. Hart Clay (1910). (C. S.) + + + + +CLAY (from O. Eng. _claeg_, a word common in various forms to Teutonic +languages, cf. Ger. _Klei_), commonly defined as a fine-grained, almost +impalpable substance, very soft, more or less coherent when dry, plastic +and retentive of water when wet; it has an "earthy" odour when breathed +upon or moistened, and consists essentially of hydrous aluminium +silicate with various impurities. Of clay are formed a great number of +rocks, which collectively are known as "clay-rocks" or "pelitic rocks" +(from Gr. [Greek: pelos], clay), e.g. mudstone, shale, slate: these +exhibit in greater or less perfection the properties above described +according to their freedom from impurities. In nature, clays are rarely +free from foreign ingredients, many of which can be detected with the +unaided eye, while others may be observed by means of the microscope. +The commonest impurities are:--(1) organic matter, humus, &c. +(exemplified by clay-soils with an admixture of peat, oil shales, +carbonaceous shales); (2) fossils (such as plants in the shales of the +Lias and Coal Measures, shells in clays of all geological periods and in +fresh water marls); (3) carbonate of lime (rarely altogether absent, but +abundant in marls, cement-stones and argillaceous limestones); (4) +sulphide of iron, as pyrite or marcasite (when finely diffused, giving +the clay a dark grey-blue colour, which weathers to brown--e.g. London +Clay; also as nodules and concretions, e.g. Gault); (5) oxides of iron +(staining the clay bright red when ferric oxide, red ochre; yellow when +hydrous, e.g. yellow ochre); (6) sand or detrital silica (forming loams, +arenaceous clays, argillaceous sandstones, &c.). Less frequently present +are the following:--rock salt (Triassic clays, and marls of Cheshire, +&c.); gypsum (London Clay, Triassic clays); dolomite, phosphate of lime, +vivianite (phosphate of iron), oxides of manganese, copper ores (e.g. +_Kupferschiefer_), wavellite and amber. As the impurities increase in +amount the clay rocks pass gradually into argillaceous sands and +sandstones, argillaceous limestones and dolomites, shaly coals and clay +ironstones. + +Natural clays, even when most pure, show a considerable range of +composition, and hence cannot be regarded as consisting of a single +mineral; clay is a _rock_, and has that variability which characterizes +all rocks. Of the essential properties of clay some are merely physical, +and depend on the minute size of the particles. If any rock be taken +(even a piece of pure quartz) and crushed to a very fine powder, it will +show some of the peculiarities of clays; for example, it will be +plastic, retentive of moisture, impermeable to water, and will shrink to +some extent if the moist mass be kneaded, and then allowed to dry. It +happens, however, that many rocks are not disintegrated to this extreme +degree by natural processes, and weathering invariably accompanies +disintegration. Quartz, for example, has little or no cleavage, and is +not attacked by the atmosphere. It breaks up into fragments, which +become rounded by attrition, but after they reach a certain minuteness +are borne along by currents of water or air in a state of suspension, +and are not further reduced in size. Hence sands are more coarse grained +than clays. A great number of rock-forming minerals, however, possess a +good cleavage, so that when bruised they split into thin fragments; many +of these minerals decompose somewhat readily, yielding secondary +minerals, which are comparatively soft and have a scaly character, with +eminently perfect cleavages, which facilitate splitting into exceedingly +thin plates. The principal substances of this description are kaolin, +muscovite and chlorite. Kaolin and muscovite are formed principally +after felspar (and the felspars are the commonest minerals of all +crystalline rocks); also from nepheline, leucite, scapolite and a +variety of other rock-forming minerals. Chlorite arises from biotite, +augite and hornblende. Serpentine, which may be fibrous or scaly, is a +secondary product of olivine and certain pyroxenes. Clays consist +essentially of the above ingredients (although serpentine is not known +to take part in them to any extent, it is closely allied to chlorite). +At the same time other substances are produced as decomposition goes on. +They are principally finely divided quartz, epidote, zoisite, rutile, +limonite, calcite, pyrites, and very small particles of these are rarely +absent from natural clays. These fine-grained materials are at first +mixed with broken and more or less weathered rock fragments and coarser +mineral particles in the soil and subsoil, but by the action of wind and +rain they are swept away and deposited in distant situations. "Loess" is +a fine calcareous clay, which has been wind-borne, and subsequently laid +down on the margins of dry steppes and deserts. Most clays are +water-borne, having been carried from the surface of the land by rain +and transported by the brooks and rivers into lakes or the sea. In this +state the fine particles are known as "mud." They are deposited where +the currents are checked and the water becomes very still. If +temporarily laid down in other situations they are ultimately lifted +again and removed. A little clay, stirred up with water in a glass +vessel, takes hours to settle, and even after two or three days some +remains in suspension; in fact, it has been suggested that in such cases +the clay forms a sort of "colloidal solution" in the water. Traces of +dissolved salts, such as common salt, gypsum or alum, greatly accelerate +deposition. For these reasons the principal gathering places of fine +pure clays are deep, still lakes, and the sea bottom at considerable +distances from the shore. The coarser materials settle nearer the land, +and the shallower portions of the sea floor are strewn with gravel and +sand, except in occasional depressions and near the mouths of rivers +where mud may gather. Farther out the great mud deposits begin, +extending from 50 to 200 m. from the land, according to the amount of +sediment brought in, and the rate at which the water deepens. A girdle +of mud accumulations encircles all the continents. These sediments are +fine and tenacious; their principal components, in addition to clay, +being small grains of quartz, zircon, tourmaline, hornblende, felspar +and iron compounds. Their typical colour is blackish-blue, owing to the +abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; when fresh they have a sulphurous +odour, when weathered they are brown, as their iron is present as +hydrous oxides (limonite, &c). These deposits are tenanted by numerous +forms of marine life, and the sulphur they contain is derived from +decomposing organic matter. Occasionally water-logged plant debris is +mingled with the mud. In a few places a red colour prevails, the iron +being mostly oxidized; elsewhere the muds are green owing to abundant +glauconite. Traced landwards the muds become more sandy, while on their +outer margins they grade into the abysmal deposits, such as the +globigerina ooze (see OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY). Near volcanoes they +contain many volcanic minerals, and around coral islands they are often +in large part calcareous. + +Microscopic sections of some of the more coherent clays and shales may +be prepared by saturating them with Canada balsam by long boiling, and +slicing the resultant mass in the same manner as one of the harder +rocks. They show that clay rocks contain abundant very small grains of +quartz (about 0.01 to 0.05 mm. in diameter), with often felspar, +tourmaline, zircon, epidote, rutile and more or less calcite. These may +form more than one-third of an ordinary shale; the greater part, +however, consists of still smaller scales of other minerals (0.01 mm. in +diameter and less than this). Some of these are recognizable as pale +yellowish and white mica; others seem to be chlorite, the remainder is +perhaps kaolin, but, owing to the minute size of the flakes, they yield +very indistinct reactions to polarized light. They are also often +stained with iron oxide and organic substances, and in consequence their +true nature is almost impossible to determine. It is certain, however, +that the finer-grained rocks are richest in alumina, and in combined +water; hence the inference is clear that kaolin or some other hydrous +aluminium silicate is the dominating constituent. These results are +confirmed by the mechanical analysis of clays. This process consists in +finely pulverizing the soil or rock, and levigating it in vessels of +water. A series of powders is obtained progressively finer according to +the time required to settle to the bottom of the vessel. The clay is +held to include those particles which have less than 0.005 mm. diameter, +and contains a higher percentage of alumina than any of the other +ingredients. + +As might be inferred from the differences they exhibit in other +respects, clay rocks vary greatly in their chemical composition. Some of +them contain much iron (yellow, blue and red clays); others contain +abundant calcium carbonate (calcareous clays and marls). Pure clays, +however, may be found almost quite free from these substances. Their +silica ranges from about 60 to 45%, varying in accordance with the +amount of quartz and alkali-felspar present. It is almost always more +than would be the case if the rock consisted of kaolin mixed with +muscovite. Alumina is high in the finer clays (18 to 30%), and they are +the most aluminous of all sediments, except bauxite. Magnesia is never +absent, though its amount may be less than 1%; it is usually contained +in minerals of the chlorite group, but partly also in dolomite. The +alkalis are very interesting; often they form 5 or 10% of the whole +rock; they indicate abundance of white micas or of undecomposed +particles of felspar. Some clays, however, such as fireclays, contain +very little potash or soda, while they are rich in alumina; and it is a +fair inference that hydrated aluminous silicates, such as kaolin, are +well represented in these rocks. There are, in fact, a few clays which +contain about 45% of alumina, that is to say, more than in pure kaolin. +It is probable that these are related to bauxite and certain kinds of +laterite. + +A few of the most important clay rocks, such as china-clay, brick-clay, +red-clay and shale, may be briefly described here. + +_China-clay_ is white, friable and earthy. It occurs in regions of +granite, porphyry and syenite, and usually occupies funnel-shaped +cavities of no great superficial area, but of considerable depth. It +consists of very fine scaly kaolin, larger, shining plates of white +mica, grains of quartz and particles of semi-decomposed felspar, +tourmaline, zircon and other minerals, which originally formed part of +the granite. These clays are produced by the decomposition of the +granite by acid vapours, which are discharged after the igneous rock has +solidified ("fumarole or pneumatolytic action"). Fluorine and its +compounds are often supposed to have been among the agencies which +produce this change, but more probably carbonic acid played the +principal role. The felspar decomposes into kaolin and quartz; its +alkalis are for the most part set free and removed in solution, but are +partly retained in the white mica which is constantly found in crude +china-clays. Semi-decomposed varieties of the granite are known as +china-stone. The kaolin may be washed away from its original site, and +deposited in hollows or lakes to form beds of white clay, such as +pipe-clay; in this case it is always more or less impure. Yellow and +pinkish varieties of china-clay and pipe-clay contain a small quantity +of oxide of iron. The best known localities for china-clay are Cornwall, +Limoges (France), Saxony, Bohemia and China; it is found also in +Pennsylvania, N. Carolina and elsewhere in the United States. + +_Fire-clays_ include all those varieties of clay which are very +refractory to heat. They must contain little alkalis, lime, magnesia and +iron, but some of them are comparatively rich in silica. Many of the +clays which pass under this designation belong to the Carboniferous +period, and are found underlying seams of coal. Either by rapid growth +of vegetation, or by subsequent percolation of organic solutions, most +of the alkalis and the lime have been carried away. + +Any argillaceous material, which can be used for the manufacture of +bricks, may be called a _brick-clay_. In England, Kimmeridge Clay, Lias +clays, London Clay and pulverized shale and slate are all employed for +this purpose. Each variety needs special treatment according to its +properties. The true brick-clays, however, are superficial deposits of +Pleistocene or Quaternary age, and occur in hollows, filled-up lakes and +deserted stream channels. Many of them are derived from the glacial +boulder-clays, or from the washing away of the finer materials contained +in older clay formations. They are always very impure. + +The _red-clay_ is an abysmal formation, occurring in the sea bottom in +the deepest part of the oceans. It is estimated to cover over fifty +millions of square miles, and is probably the most extensive deposit +which is in course of accumulation at the present day. In addition to +the reddish or brownish argillaceous matrix it contains fresh or +decomposed crystals of volcanic minerals, such as felspar, augite, +hornblende, olivine and pumiceous or palagonitic rocks. These must +either have been ejected by submarine volcanoes or drifted by the wind +from active vents, as the fine ash discharged by Krakatoa was wafted +over the whole globe. Larger rounded lumps of pumice, found in the clay, +have probably floated to their present situations, and sank when +decomposed, all their cavities becoming filled with sea water. Crystals +of zeolites (phillipsite) form in the red-clay as radiate, nodular +groups. Lumps of manganese oxide, with a black, shining outer surface, +are also characteristic of this deposit, and frequently encrust pieces +of pumice or animal remains. The only fossils of the clay are +radiolaria, sharks' teeth and the ear-bones of whales, precisely those +parts of the skeleton of marine creatures which are hardest and can +longest survive exposure to sea-water. Their comparative abundance shows +how slowly the clay gathers. Small rounded spherules of iron, believed +by some to be meteoric dust, have also been obtained in some numbers. +Among the rocks of the continents nothing exactly the same as this +remarkable deposit is known to occur, though fine dark clays, with +manganese nodules, are found in many localities, accompanied by other +rocks which indicate deep-water conditions of deposit. + +Another type of red-clay is found in caves, and is known as _cave-earth_ +or _red-earth_ (_terra rossa_). It is fine, tenacious and bright red, +and represents the insoluble and thoroughly weathered impurities which +are left behind when the calcareous matter is removed in solution by +carbonated waters. Similar residual clays sometimes occur on the surface +of areas of limestone in hollows and fissures formed by weathering. + +_Boulder-clay_ is a coarse unstratified deposit of fine clay, with more +or less sand, and boulders of various sizes, the latter usually marked +with glacial striations. + +Some clay rocks which have been laid down by water are very uniform +through their whole thickness, and are called _mud-stones_. Others split +readily into fine leaflets or laminae parallel to their bedding, and +this structure is accentuated by the presence of films of other +materials, such as sand or vegetable debris. Laminated clays of this +sort are generally known as _shales_; they occur in many formations but +are very common in the Carboniferous. Some of them contain much organic +debris, and when distilled yield paraffin oil, wax, compounds of +ammonia, &c. In these oil-shales there are clear, globular, yellow +bodies which seem to be resinous. It has been suggested that the +admixture of large quantities of decomposed fresh-water algae among the +original mud is the origin of the paraffins. In New South Wales, +Scotland and several parts of America such oil-shales are worked on a +commercial scale. Many shales contain great numbers of ovoid or rounded +septarian nodules of clay ironstone. Others are rich in pyrites, which, +on oxidation, produces sulphuric acid; this attacks the aluminous +silicates of the clay and forms aluminium sulphate (_alum shales_). The +lias shales of Whitby contain blocks of semi-mineralized wood, or jet, +which is black with a resinous lustre, and a fibrous structure. The +laminated structure of shales, though partly due to successive very thin +sheets of deposit, is certainly dependent also on the vertical pressure +exerted by masses of super-incumbent rock; it indicates a transition to +the fissile character of clay slates. (J. S. F.) + + + + +CLAY CROSS, an urban district in the Chesterfield parliamentary division +of Derbyshire, England, near the river Amber, on the Midland railway, 5 +m. S. of Chesterfield. Pop. (1901) 8358. The Clay Cross Colliery and +Ironworks Company, whose mines were for a time leased by George +Stephenson, employ a great number of hands. + + + + +CLAYMORE (from the Gaelic _claidheamh mor_, "great sword"), the old +two-edged broadsword with cross hilt, of which the guards were usually +turned down, used by the Highlanders of Scotland. The name is also +wrongly applied to the single-edged basket-hilted sword adopted in the +16th century and still worn as the full-dress sword in the Highland +regiments of the British army. + + + + +CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900), Belgian artist, was born at Bruges in +1819, and died at Brussels in 1900. He was one of the most esteemed +marine painters of his time, and early in his career he substituted a +sincere study of nature for the extravagant and artificial +conventionality of most of his predecessors. When he began to paint, the +sea was considered by continental artists as worth representing only +under its most tempestuous aspects. Artists cared only for the stirring +drama of storm and wreck, and they clung still to the old-world +tradition of the romantic school. Clays was the first to appreciate the +beauty of calm waters reflecting the slow procession of clouds, the +glories of sunset illuminating the sails of ships or gilding the tarred +sides of heavy fishing-boats. He painted the peaceful life of rivers, +the poetry of wide estuaries, the regulated stir of roadsteads and +ports. And while he thus broke away from old traditions he also threw +off the trammels imposed on him by his master, the marine painter +Theodore Gudin (1802-1880). Endeavouring only to give truthful +expression to the nature that delighted his eyes, he sought to render +the limpid salt atmosphere, the weight of waters, the transparence of +moist horizons, the gem-like sparkle of the sky. A Fleming in his +feeling for colour, he set his palette with clean strong hues, and their +powerful harmonies were in striking contrast with the rusty, smoky tones +then in favour. If he was not a "luminist" in the modern use of the +word, he deserves at any rate to be classed with the founders of the +modern naturalistic school. This conscientious and healthy +interpretation, to which the artist remained faithful, without any +important change, to the end of an unusually long and laborious career, +attracted those minds which aspired to be bold, and won over those which +were moderate. Clays soon took his place among the most famous Belgian +painters of his generation, and his pictures, sold at high prices, are +to be seen in most public and private galleries. We may mention, among +others, "The Beach at Ault," "Boats in a Dutch Port," and "Dutch Boats +in the Flushing Roads," the last in the National Gallery, London. In the +Brussels gallery are "The Port of Antwerp," "Coast near Ostend," and a +"Calm on the Scheldt"; in the Antwerp museum, "The Meuse at Dordrecht"; +in the Pinakothek at Munich, "The Open North Sea"; in the Metropolitan +Museum of Fine Arts, New York, "The Festival of the Freedom of the +Scheldt at Antwerp in 1863"; in the palace of the king of the Belgians, +"Arrival of Queen Victoria at Ostend in 1857"; in the Bruges academy, +"Port of Feirugudo, Portugal." Clays was a member of several Academies, +Belgian and foreign, and of the Order of Leopold, the Legion of Honour, +&c. + + See Camille Lemonnier, _Histoire des Beaux-Arts_ (Brussels, 1887). + (O. M.*) + + + + +CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON (1796-1856), American politician, was born in +Dagsborough, Sussex county, Delaware, on the 24th of July 1796. He came +of an old Quaker family long prominent in the political history of +Delaware. He graduated at Yale in 1815, and in 1819 began to practise +law at Dover, Delaware, where for a time he was associated with his +cousin, Thomas Clayton (1778-1854), subsequently a United States senator +and chief-justice of the state. He soon gained a large practice. He +became a member of the state House of Representatives in 1824, and from +December 1826 to October 1828 was secretary of state of Delaware. In +1829, by a combination of anti-Jackson forces in the state legislature, +he was elected to the United States Senate. Here his great oratorical +gifts gave him a high place as one of the ablest and most eloquent +opponents of the administration. In 1831 he was a member of the Delaware +constitutional convention, and in 1835 he was returned to the Senate as +a Whig, but resigned in the following year. In 1837-1839 he was chief +justice of Delaware. In 1845 he again entered the Senate, where he +opposed the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War, but advocated the +active prosecution of the latter once it was begun. In March 1849 he +became secretary of state in the cabinet of President Zachary Taylor, to +whose nomination and election his influence had contributed. His brief +tenure of the state portfolio, which terminated on the 22nd of July +1850, soon after Taylor's death, was notable chiefly for the negotiation +with the British minister, Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, of the +Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (q.v.). He was once more a member of the Senate +from March 1853 until his death at Dover, Delaware, on the 9th of +November 1856. By his contemporaries Clayton was considered one of the +ablest debaters and orators in the Senate. + + See the memoir by Joseph P. Comegys in the _Papers_ of the Historical + Society of Delaware, No. 4 (Wilmington, 1882). + + + + +CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, a famous treaty between the United States and +Great Britain, negotiated in 1850 by John M. Clayton and Sir Henry +Lytton Bulwer (Lord Dalling), in consequence of the situation created by +the project of an interoceanic canal across Nicaragua, each signatory +being jealous of the activities of the other in Central America. Great +Britain had large and indefinite territorial claims in three +regions--Belize or British Honduras, the Mosquito Coast and the Bay +Islands.[1] On the other hand, the United States, without territorial +claims, held in reserve, ready for ratification, treaties with Nicaragua +and Honduras, which gave her a certain diplomatic vantage with which to +balance the _de facto_ dominion of Great Britain. Agreement on these +points being impossible and agreement on the canal question possible, +the latter was put in the foreground. The resulting treaty had four +essential points. It bound both parties not to "obtain or maintain" any +exclusive control of the proposed canal, or unequal advantage in its +use. It guaranteed the neutralization of such canal. It declared that, +the intention of the signatories being not only the accomplishment of "a +particular object"--i.e. that the canal, then supposedly near +realization, should be neutral and equally free to the two contracting +powers--"but also to establish a general principle," they agreed "to +extend their protection by treaty stipulation to any other practicable +communications, whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which +connects North and South America." Finally, it stipulated that neither +signatory would ever "occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume or +exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast or +any part of Central America," nor make use of any protectorate or +alliance, present or future, to such ends. + +The treaty was signed on the 19th of April, and was ratified by both +governments; but before the exchange of ratifications Lord Palmerston, +on the 8th of June, directed Sir H. Bulwer to make a "declaration" that +the British government did not understand the treaty "as applying to Her +Majesty's settlement at Honduras, or its dependencies." Mr Clayton made +a counter-declaration, which recited that the United States did not +regard the treaty as applying to "the British settlement in Honduras +commonly called British-Honduras ... nor the small islands in the +neighbourhood of that settlement which may be known as its +dependencies"; that the treaty's engagements did apply to all the +Central American states, "with their just limits and proper +dependencies"; and that these declarations, not being submitted to the +United States Senate, could of course not affect the legal import of the +treaty. The interpretation of the declarations soon became a matter of +contention. The phraseology reflects the effort made by the United +States to render impossible a physical control of the canal by Great +Britain through the territory held by her at its mouth--the United +States losing the above-mentioned treaty advantages,--just as the +explicit abnegations of the treaty rendered impossible such control +politically by either power. But great Britain claimed that the excepted +"settlement" at Honduras was the "Belize" covered by the extreme British +claim; that the Bay Islands were a dependency of Belize; and that, as +for the Mosquito Coast, the abnegatory clauses being wholly prospective +in intent, she was not required to abandon her protectorate. The United +States contended that the Bay Islands were not the "dependencies" of +Belize, these being the small neighbouring islands mentioned in the same +treaties; that the excepted "settlement" was the British-Honduras of +definite extent and narrow purpose recognized in British treaties with +Spain; that she had not confirmed by recognition the large, indefinite +and offensive claims whose dangers the treaty was primarily designed to +lessen; and that, as to the Mosquito Coast, the treaty was +retrospective, and mutual in the rigour of its requirements, and as the +United States had no _de facto_ possessions, while Great Britain had, +the clause binding both not to "occupy" any part of Central America or +the Mosquito Coast necessitated the abandonment of such territory as +Great Britain was already actually occupying or exercising dominion +over; and the United States demanded the complete abandonment of the +British protectorate over the Mosquito Indians. It seems to be a just +conclusion that when in 1852 the Bay Islands were erected into a British +"colony" this was a flagrant infraction of the treaty; that as regards +Belize the American arguments were decidedly stronger, and more correct +historically; and that as regards the Mosquito question, inasmuch as a +protectorate seems certainly to have been recognized by the treaty, to +demand its absolute abandonment was unwarranted, although to satisfy the +treaty Great Britain was bound materially to weaken it. + +In 1859-1860, by British treaties with Central American states, the Bay +Islands and Mosquito questions were settled nearly in accord with the +American contentions.[2] But by the same treaties Belize was accorded +limits much greater than those contended for by the United States. This +settlement the latter power accepted without cavil for many years. + +Until 1866 the policy of the United States was consistently for +inter-oceanic canals open equally to all nations, and unequivocally +neutralized; indeed, until 1880 there was practically no official +divergence from this policy. But in 1880-1884 a variety of reasons were +advanced why the United States might justly repudiate at will the +Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.[3] The new policy was based on national +self-interest. The arguments advanced on its behalf were quite +indefensible in law and history, and although the position of the United +States in 1850-1860 was in general the stronger in history, law and +political ethics, that of Great Britain was even more conspicuously the +stronger in the years 1880-1884. In 1885 the former government reverted +to its traditional policy, and the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1902, which +replaced the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, adopted the rule of neutralization +for the Panama Canal. + + See the collected diplomatic correspondence in I.D. Travis, _History + of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty_ (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1899); J.H. Latane, + _Diplomatic Relations of the United States and Spanish America_ + (Baltimore, 1900); T.J. Lawrence, _Disputed Questions of Modern + International Law_ (2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1885); Sir E.L. + Bulwer in 99 _Quarterly Rev._ 235-286, and Sir H. Bulwer in 104 + _Edinburgh Rev._ 280-298. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The claims to a part of the first two were very old in origin, + but all were heavily clouded by interruptions of possession, + contested interpretations of Spanish-British treaties, and active + controversy with the Central American States. The claim to some of + the territory was new and still more contestable. See particularly on + these claims Travis'e book cited below. + + [2] The islands were ceded to Honduras. The Mosquito Coast was + recognized as under Nicaraguan rule limited by an attenuated British + protectorate over the Indians, who were given a reservation and + certain peculiar rights. They were left free to accept full + Nicaraguan rule at will. This they did in 1894. + + [3] It was argued, e.g., that the "general principle" of that + engagement was contingent on the prior realization of its "particular + object," which had failed, and the treaty had determined as a special + contract; moreover, none of the additional treaties to embody the + "general principle" had been negotiated, and Great Britain had not + even offered co-operation in the protection and neutrality-guarantee + of the Panama railway built in 1850-1855, so that her rights had + lapsed; certain engagements of the treaty she had violated, and + therefore the whole treaty was voidable, &c. + + + + +CLAY-WITH-FLINTS, in geology, the name given by W. Whitaker in 1861 to a +peculiar deposit of stiff red, brown or yellow clay containing unworn +whole flints as well as angular shattered fragments, also with a +variable admixture of rounded flint, quartz, quartzite and other +pebbles. It occurs "in sheets or patches of various sizes over a large +area in the south of England, from Hertfordshire on the north to Sussex +on the south, and from Kent on the east to Devon on the west. It almost +always lies on the surface of the Upper Chalk, but in Dorset it passes +on to the Middle and Lower Chalk, and in Devon it is found on the +Chert-Beds of the Selbornian group" (A.J. Jukes-Browne, "The +Clay-with-Flints, its Origin and Distribution," _Q.J.G.S._, vol. lxii., +1906, p. 132). Many geologists have supposed, and some still hold, that +the Clay-with-Flints is the residue left by the slow solution and +disintegration of the Chalk by the processes of weathering; on the other +hand, it has long been known that the deposit very frequently contains +materials foreign to the Chalk, derived either from the Tertiary rocks +or from overlying drift. In the paper quoted above, Jukes-Browne ably +summarizes the evidence against the view that the deposit is mainly a +Chalk residue, and brings forward a good deal of evidence to show that +many patches of the Clay-with-Flints lie upon the same plane and may be +directly associated with Reading Beds. He concludes "that the material +of the Clay-with-Flints has been chiefly and almost entirely derived +from Eocene clay, with addition of some flints from the Chalk; that its +presence is an indication of the previous existence of Lower Eocene Beds +on the same site and nearly at the same relative level, and, +consequently, that comparatively little Chalk has been removed from +beneath it. Finally, I think that the tracts of Clay-with-Flints have +been much more extensive than they are now" (loc. cit. p. 159). + +It is noteworthy that the Clay-with-Flints is developed over an area +which is just beyond the limits of the ice sheets of the Glacial epoch, +and the peculiar conditions of late Pliocene and Pleistocene times; +involving heavy rains, snow and frost, may have had much to do with the +mingling of the Tertiary and Chalky material. Besides the occurrence in +surface patches, Clay-with-Flints is very commonly to be observed +descending in "pipes" often to a considerable depth into the Chalk; +here, if anywhere, the residual chalk portion of the deposit should be +found, and it is surmised that a thin layer of very dark clay with +darkly stained flints, which appears in contact with the sides and +bottom of the pipe, may represent all there is of insoluble residue. + +A somewhat similar deposit, a "_conglomerat de silex_" or "_argue a +silex_," occurs at the base of the Eocene on the southern and western +borders of the Paris basin, in the neighbourhood of Chartres, Thimerais +and Sancerrois. (J. A. H.) + + + + +CLAZOMENAE (mod. _Kelisman_), an ancient town of Ionia and a member of +the Ionian Dodecapolis (Confederation of Twelve Cities), on the Gulf of +Smyrna, about 20 m. W. of that city. Though not in existence before the +arrival of the Ionians in Asia, its original founders were largely +settlers from Phlius and Cleonae. It stood originally on the isthmus +connecting the mainland with the peninsula on which Erythrae stood; but +the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the Persians, removed +to one of the small islands of the bay, and there established their +city. This island was connected with the mainland by Alexander the Great +by means of a pier, the remains of which are still visible. During the +5th century it was for some time subject to the Athenians, but about the +middle of the Peloponnesian war (412 B.C.) it revolted. After a brief +resistance, however, it again acknowledged the Athenian supremacy, and +repelled a Lacedaemonian attack. Under the Romans Clazomenae was +included in the province of Asia, and enjoyed an immunity from taxation. +The site can still be made out, in the neighbourhood of Vourla, but +nearly every portion of its ruins has been removed. It was the +birthplace of the philosopher Anaxagoras. It is famous for its painted +terra-cotta sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of Ionian +painting in the 6th century B.C. (E. GR.) + + + + +CLEANTHES (c. 301-232 or 252 B.C.), Stoic philosopher, born at Assos in +the Troad, was originally a boxer. With but four drachmae in his +possession he came to Athens, where he listened first to the lectures of +Crates the Cynic, and then to those of Zeno, the Stoic, supporting +himself meanwhile by working all night as water-carrier to a gardener +(hence his nickname [Greek: phrehantles]). His power of patient +endurance, or perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of "the Ass"; +but such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that, on +the death of Zeno in 263, he became the leader of the school. He +continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his own hands. +Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus, and Antigonus, king of +Macedon, from whom he accepted 2000 minae. The manner of his death was +characteristic. A dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time. +Subsequently he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was already +half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble to retrace his +steps. + +Cleanthes produced very little that was original, though he wrote some +fifty works, of which fragments have come down to us. The principal is +the large portion of the _Hymn to Zeus_ which has been preserved in +Stobaeus. He regarded the sun as the abode of God, the intelligent +providence, or (in accordance with Stoical materialism) the vivifying +fire or aether of the universe. Virtue, he taught, is life according to +nature; but pleasure is not according to nature. He originated a new +theory as to the individual existence of the human soul; he held that +the degree of its vitality after death depends upon the degree of its +vitality in this life. The principal fragments of Cleanthes's works are +contained in Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus; some may be found in Cicero +and Seneca. + + See G.C. Mohinke, _Kleanthes der Stoiker_ (Greifswald, 1814); C. + Wachsmuth, _Commentationes de Zenone Citiensi et Cleanthe Assio_ + (Goettingen, 1874-1875); A.C. Pearson, _Fragments of Zeno and + Cleanthes_ (Camb., 1891); article by E. Wellmann in Ersch and Gruber's + _Allgemeine Encyklopaedie_; R. Hirzel, _Untersuchungen zu Ciceros + philosophischen Schriften_, ii. (1882), containing a vindication of + the originality of Cleanthes; A.B. Krische, _Forschungen auf dem + Gebiete der alten Philosophie_ (1840); also works quoted under STOICS. + + + + +CLEARCHUS, the son of Rhamphias, a Spartan general and condottiere. Born +about the middle of the 5th century B.C., Clearchus was sent with a +fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and became governor ([Greek: harmostes]) +of Byzantium, of which town he was _proxenus_. His severity, however, +made him unpopular, and in his absence the gates were opened to the +Athenian besieging army under Alcibiades (409). Subsequently appointed +by the ephors to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium +and to protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from +Thracian attacks, he made himself tyrant of Byzantium, and, when +declared an outlaw and driven thence by a Spartan force, he fled to +Cyrus. In the "expedition of the ten thousand" undertaken by Cyrus to +dethrone his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, Clearchus led the +Peloponnesians, who formed the right wing of Cyrus's army at the battle +of Cunaxa (401). On Cyrus's death Clearchus assumed the chief command +and conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his +fellow-generals by Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes and +executed (Thuc. viii. 8. 39, 80; Xen. _Hellenica_, i. 3. 15-19; +_Anabasis_, i. ii.; Diodorus xiv. 12. 19-26). In character he was a +typical product of the Spartan educational system. He was a warrior to +the finger-tips ([Greek: polemikos kai philopolemos eschatos]. Xen. +_Anab._ ii. 6. 1), and his tireless energy, unfaltering courage and +strategic ability made him an officer of no mean order. But he seems to +have had no redeeming touch of refinement or humanity. + + + + +CLEARFIELD, a borough and the county-seat of Clearfield county, +Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. branch of the Susquehanna river, in the +W. central part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2248; (1900) 5081 (310 +foreign-born); (1910) 6851. It is served by the New York Central & +Hudson River, the Pennsylvania, and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg +railways. The borough is about 1105 ft. above sea-level, in a rather +limited space between the hills, which command picturesque views of the +narrow valley. The river runs through the borough. Coal and fireclay +abound in the vicinity, and these, with leather, iron, timber and the +products of the fertile soil, are the bases of its leading industries. +Before the arrival of the whites the place had been cleared of timber +(whence its name), and in 1805 it was chosen as a site for the +county-seat of the newly erected county and laid out as a town; in 1840 +it was incorporated as a borough. + + + + +CLEARING-HOUSE, the general term for a central institution employed in +connexion with large and interrelated businesses for the purpose of +facilitating the settlement of accounts. + +_Banking._--The London Clearing-House was established between 1750 and +1770 as a place where the clerks of the bankers of the city of London +could assemble daily to exchange with one another the cheques drawn upon +and bills payable at their respective houses. Before the clearing-house +existed, each banker had to send a clerk to the places of business of +all the other bankers in London to collect the sums payable by them in +respect of cheques and bills; and it is obvious that much time was +consumed by this process, which involved the use of an unnecessary +quantity of money and corresponding risks of safe carriage. In 1775 a +room in Change Alley was settled upon as a common centre of exchange; +this was afterwards removed to Post Office Court, Lombard Street. This +clearing centre was at first confined to the bankers--at that time and +long afterwards exclusively private bankers--doing business within the +city, and the bankers in the west end of the metropolis used some one or +other of the city banks as their agent in clearing. When the joint-stock +banks were first established, the jealousy of the existing banks was +powerful enough to exclude them altogether from the use of the +Clearing-House; and it was not until 1854 that this feeling was removed +so as to allow them to be admitted. + +At first the Clearing-House was simply a place of meeting, but it came +to be perceived that the sorting and distribution of cheques, bills, &c, +could be more expeditiously conducted by the appointment of two or three +common clerks to whom each banker's clerk could give all the instruments +of exchange he wished to collect, and from whom he could receive all +those payable at his own house. The payment of the balance settled the +transaction, but the arrangements were afterwards so perfected that the +balance is now settled by means of transfers made at the Bank of England +between the Clearing-House account and those of the various banks, the +Clearing-House, as well as each banker using it, having an account at +the Bank of England. The use of the Clearing-House was still further +extended in 1858, so as to include the settlement of exchanges between +the country bankers of England. Before that time each country banker +receiving cheques on other country bankers sent them to those other +bankers by post (supposing they were not carrying on business in the +same place), and requested that the amount should be paid by the London +agent of the banker on whom the cheques were drawn to the London agent +of the banker remitting them. Cheques were thus collected by +correspondence, and each remittance involved a separate payment in +London. Since 1858, accordingly, a country banker sends cheques on other +country banks to his London correspondent, who exchanges them at the +Clearing-House with the correspondents of the bankers on whom they are +drawn. + +The Clearing-House consists of one long room, lighted from the roof. +Around the walls and down the centre are placed desks, allotted to the +various banks, according to the amount of their business. The desks are +arranged alphabetically, so that the clerks may lose no time in passing +round the room and delivering their "charges" or batches of cheques to +the representatives of the various banks. There are three clearings in +London each day. The first is at 10.30 A.M., the second at noon, and the +third at 2.30 P.M. It is the busiest of all, and continues until five +minutes past four, when the last delivery must be made. The three +clearings were, in 1907, divided into town, metropolitan and country +clearings, each with a definite area. All the clearing banks have their +cheques marked with the letters "T," "M" and "C," according to the +district in which the issuing bank is situated. Every cheque issued by +the clearing banks, even though drawn in the head office of a bank, goes +through the Clearing-House. + +The amount of business transacted at the Clearing-House varies very much +with the seasons of the year, the busiest time being when dividends are +paid and stock exchange settlements are made, but the volume of +transactions averages roughly from 200 to 300 millions sterling a week, +and the yearly clearances amount to something like L12,000,000,000. +There are provincial clearing-houses at Manchester, Liverpool, +Birmingham, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Leeds, Sheffield, Leicester and Bristol. +There are also clearing-houses in most of the large towns of Scotland +and Ireland. In New York and the other large cities of the United States +there are clearing-houses providing accommodation for the various +banking institutions (see BANKS AND BANKING). + +The progress of banking on the continent of Europe has been slow in +comparison with that of the United Kingdom, and the use of cheques is +not so general, consequently the need for clearing-houses is not so +great. In France, too, the greater proportion of the banking business +is carried on through three banks only, the Banque de France, the +Societe Generale and the Credit Lyonnais, and a great part of their +transactions are settled at their own head offices. But at the same time +large sums pass through the Paris Chambre de Compensation (the +clearing-house), established in 1872. + +There are clearing-houses also in Berlin, Hamburg and many other +European cities. + +_Railways._--The British Railway Clearing-House was established in 1842, +its purpose, as defined by the Railway Clearing-House Act of 1850, being +"to settle and adjust the receipts arising from railway traffic within, +or partly within, the United Kingdom, and passing over more than one +railway within the United Kingdom, booked or invoiced at throughout +rates or fares." It is an independent body, governed by a committee +which is composed of delegates (usually the chairman or one of the +directors) from each of the railways that belong to it. Any railway +company may be admitted a party to the clearing-system with the assent +of the committee, may cease to be a member at a month's notice, and may +be expelled if such expulsion be voted for by two-thirds of the +delegates present at a specially convened meeting. The cost of +maintaining it is defrayed by contributions from the companies +proportional to the volume of business passed through it by each. It has +two main functions. (1) When passengers or goods are booked through +between stations belonging to different railway companies at an +inclusive charge for the whole journey, it distributes the money +received in due proportions between the companies concerned in rendering +the service. To this end it receives, in the case of passenger traffic, +a monthly return of the tickets issued at each station to stations on +other lines, and, in the case of goods traffic, it is supplied by both +the sending and receiving stations (when these are on different +companies' systems) with abstracts showing the character, weight, &c., +of the goods that have travelled between them. By the aid of these +particulars it allocates the proper share of the receipts to each +company, having due regard to the distance over which the traffic has +been carried on each line, to the terminal services rendered by each +company, to any incidental expenses to which it may have been put, and +to the existence of any special agreements for the division of traffic. +(2) To avoid the inconvenience of a change of train at points where the +lines of different companies meet, passengers are often, and goods and +minerals generally, carried in through vehicles from their +starting-point to their destination. In consequence, vehicles belonging +to one company are constantly forming part of trains that belong to, and +run over the lines of, other companies, which thus have the temporary +use of rolling stock that does not belong to them. By the aid of a large +staff of "number takers" who are stationed at junctions all over the +country, and whose business is to record particulars of the vehicles +which pass through those junctions, the Clearing-House follows the +movements of vehicles which have left their owners' line, ascertains how +far they have run on the lines of other companies, and debits each of +the latter with the amount it has to pay for their use. This charge is +known as "mileage"; another charge which is also determined by the +Clearing-House is "demurrage," that is, the amount exacted from the +detaining company if a vehicle is not returned to its owners within a +prescribed time. By the exercise of these functions the Clearing-House +accumulates a long series of credits to, and debits against, each +company; these are periodically added up and set against each other, +with the result that the accounts between it and the companies are +finally settled by the transfer of comparatively small balances. It also +distributes the money paid by the post-office to the railways on account +of the conveyance of parcel-post traffic, and through its lost luggage +department many thousands of articles left in railway carriages are +every year returned to their owners. Its situation in London further +renders it a convenient meeting-place for several "Clearing-House +Conferences" of railway officials, as of the general managers, the goods +managers, and the superintendents of the line, held four times a year +for the consideration of questions in which all the companies are +interested. The Irish Railway Clearing-House, established in 1848, has +its headquarters in Dublin, and was incorporated by act of parliament in +1860. + +_General_.--The principle of clearing adopted by banks and railways has +been applied with considerable success in other businesses. + +In 1874 the London Stock Exchange Clearing-House was established for the +purpose of settling transactions in stock, the clearing being effected +by balance-sheets and tickets; the balance of stock to be received or +delivered is shown on a balance-sheet sent in by each member, and the +items are then cancelled against one another and tickets issued for the +balances outstanding. The New York Stock Exchange Clearing-House was +established in 1892. The settlements on the Paris Bourse are cleared +within the Bourse itself, through the Compagnie des Agents de Change de +Paris. + +In 1888 a society was formed in London called the Beetroot Sugar +Association for clearing bargains in beetroot sugar. For every 500 bags +of sugar of a definite weight which a broker sells, he issues a +_filiere_ (a form something like a dock-warrant), giving particulars as +to the ship, the warehouse, trade-marks, &c. The filiere contains also a +series of transfer forms which are filled up and signed by each +successive holder, so transferring the property to a new purchaser. The +new purchaser also fills up a coupon attached to the transfer, quoting +the date and hour of sale. This coupon is detached by the seller and +retained by him as evidence to determine any liability through +subsequent delay in the delivery of the sugar. Any purchaser requiring +delivery of the sugar forwards the filiere to the clearing-house, and +the officials then send on his name to the first seller who tenders him +the warrant direct. These filieres pass from hand to hand within a limit +of six days, a stamp being affixed on each transfer as a clearing-house +fee. The difference between each of the successive transactions is +adjusted by the clearing-house to the profit or loss of the seller. + +The London Produce Clearing-House was established in 1888 for regulating +and adjusting bargains in foreign and colonial produce. The object of +the association is to guarantee both to the buyer and the seller the +fulfilment of bargains for future delivery. The transactions on either +side are allowed to accumulate during a month and an adjustment made at +the end by a settlement of the final balance owing. On the same lines +are the Caisse de Liquidation at Havre and the Waaren Liquidations Casse +at Hamburg. The Cotton Association also has a clearing-house at +Liverpool for clearing the transactions which arise from dealings in +cotton. + + AUTHORITIES.--W. Howarth, _Our Clearing System and Clearing Houses_ + (1897), _The Banks in the Clearing House_ (1905); J.G. Cannon, + _Clearing-houses, their History, Methods and Administration_ (1901); + H.T. Easton, _Money, Exchange and Banking_ (1905); and the various + volumes of the _Journal of the Institute of Bankers_. (T.A.I.) + + + + +CLEAT (a word common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, in the +sense of a wedge or lump, cf. "clod" and "clot"), a wedge-shaped piece +of wood fastened to ships' masts and elsewhere to prevent a rope, collar +or the like from slipping, or to act as a step; more particularly a +piece of wood or metal with double or single horns used for belaying +ropes. A "cleat" is also a wedge fastened to a ship's side to catch the +shores in a launching cradle or dry dock. "Cleat" is also used in mining +for the vertical cleavage-planes of coal. + + + + +CLEATOR MOOR, an urban district in the Egremont parliamentary division +of Cumberland, England, 4 m. S.E. of White-haven, served by the Furness, +London & North-Western and Cleator & Workington Junction railways. Pop. +(1901) 8120. The town lies between the valleys of the Ehen and its +tributary the Dub Beck, in a district rich in coal and iron ore. The +mining of these, together with blast furnaces and engineering works, +occupies the large industrial population. + + + + +CLEAVERS, or GOOSE-GRASS, _Galium Aparine_ (natural order Rubiaceae), a +common plant in hedges and waste places, with a long, weak, straggling, +four-sided, green stem, bearing whorls of 6 to 8 narrow leaves, 1/2 to 2 +in. long, and, like the angles of the stem, rough from the presence of +short, stiff, downwardly-pointing, hooked hairs. The small, white, +regular flowers are borne, a few together, in axillary clusters, and are +followed by the large, hispid, two-celled fruit, which, like the rest of +the plant, readily clings to a rough surface, whence the common name. +The plant has a wide distribution throughout the north temperate zone, +and is also found in temperate South America. + + + + +CLEBURNE, a town and the county-seat of Johnson county, Texas, U.S.A., +25 m. S. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1890) 3278; (1900) 7493, including 611 +negroes; (1910) 10,364. It is served by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, +the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Trinity & Brazos Valley railways. +It is the centre of a prosperous farming, fruit and stock-raising +region, has large railway repair shops, flour-mills, cotton gins and +foundries, a canning factory and machine shops. It has a Carnegie +library, and St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic; for girls). The town +was named in honour of Patrick Ronayne Cleburne (1828-1864), a +major-general of the Confederate army, who was of Irish birth, practised +law in Helena, Arkansas, served at Shiloh, Perryville, Stone River, +Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Ring-gold Gap, Jonesboro and Franklin, +and was killed in the last-named battle; he was called the "Stonewall of +the West." + + + + +CLECKHEATON, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary division +of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 51/2 m. S. by E. of Bradford, on +the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern and London & North-Western +railways. Pop. (1901) 12,524. A chamber of commerce has held meetings +here since 1878. The industries comprise the manufacture of woollens, +blankets, flannel, wire-card and machinery. + + + + +CLEETHORPES, a watering-place of Lincolnshire, England; within the +parliamentary borough of Great Grimsby, 3 m. S.E. of that town by a +branch of the Great Central railway. Pop. of urban district of +Cleethorpe with Thrunscoe (1901) 12,578. Cleethorpes faces eastward to +the North Sea, but its shore of fine sand, affording good bathing, +actually belongs to the estuary of the Humber. There is a pier, and the +sea-wall extends for about a mile, forming a pleasant promenade. The +suburb of New Clee connects Cleethorpes with Grimsby. The church of the +Holy Trinity and St Mary is principally Norman of various dates, but +work of a date apparently previous to the Conquest appears in the tower. +Cleethorpes is greatly favoured by visitors from the midland counties, +Lancashire and Yorkshire. + + + + +CLEFT PALATE and HARE-LIP, in surgery. _Cleft Palate_ is a congenital +cleavage, or incomplete development in the roof of the mouth, and is +frequently associated with hare-lip. The infant is prevented from +sucking, and an operation is necessary. Cleft-palate is often a +hereditary defect. The most favourable time for operating is between the +age of two weeks and three months, and if the cleft is closed at this +early date, not only are the nutrition and general development of the +child greatly improved, but the voice is probably saved from much of the +unpleasant tone which is usually associated with a defective roof to the +mouth and is apt to persist even if a cleft has been successfully +operated on later in childhood. The greatest advance which has been made +in the operative treatment of cleft palate is due to the teaching of Dr +Truman W. Brophy, who adopted the ingenious plan of thrusting together +to the middle line of the mouth the halves of the palate which nature +had unfortunately left apart. But, as noted above, this operation must, +to give the best results, be undertaken in the earliest months of +infancy. After the cleft in the palate has been effectually dealt with, +the hare-lip can be repaired with ease and success. + +_Hare-lip_.--In the hare the splitting of the lip is in the middle line, +but in the human subject it is on one side, or on both sides of the +middle line. This is accounted for on developmental grounds: a cleft in +the exact middle line is of extremely rare occurrence. Hare-lip is often +associated with cleft palate. Though we are at present unable to explain +why development should so frequently miss the mark in connexion with the +formation of the lip and palate, it is unlikely that maternal +impressions have anything to do with it. As a rule, the supposed +"fright" comes long after the lips are developed. They are completely +formed by the ninth week. Heredity has a powerful influence in many +cases. The best time for operating on a hare-lip depends upon various +circumstances. Thus, if it is associated with cleft palate, the palatine +cleft has first to be closed, in which case the child will probably be +several months old before the lip is operated on. If the infant is in so +poor a state of nutrition that it appears unsuitable for surgical +treatment, the operation must be postponed until his condition is +sufficiently improved. But, assuming that the infant is in fair health, +that he is taking his food well and thriving on it, that he is not +troubled by vomiting or diarrhoea, and that the hare-lip is not +associated with a defective palate, the sooner it is operated on the +better. It may be successfully done even within a few hours of birth. +When a hare-lip is unassociated with cleft palate, the infant may +possibly be enabled to take the breast within a short time of the gap +being closed. In such a case the operation may be advisably undertaken +within the first few days of birth. The case being suitable, the +operation may be conveniently undertaken at any time after the tenth +day. (E. O.*) + + + + +CLEISTHENES, the name of two Greek statesmen, (1) of Athens, (2) of +Sicyon, of whom the first is far the more important. + + +1. CLEISTHENES, the Athenian statesman, was the son of Megacles and +Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He thus belonged, through +his father, to the noble family of the Alcmaeonidae (q.v.), who bore +upon them the curse of the Cylonian massacre, and had been in exile +during the rule of the Peisistratids. In the hope of washing out the +stigma, which damaged their prestige, they spent the latter part of +their exile in carrying out with great splendour the contract given out +by the Amphictyons for the rebuilding of the temple at Delphi (destroyed +by fire in 548 B.C.). By building the pronaos of Parian marble instead +of limestone as specified in the contract, they acquired a high +reputation for piety; the curse was consigned to oblivion, and their +reinstatement was imposed by the oracle itself upon the Spartan king, +Cleomenes (q.v.). Cleisthenes, to whom this far-seeing atonement must +probably be attributed, had also on his side (1) the malcontents in +Athens who were disgusted with the growing severity of Hippias, and (2) +the oligarchs of Sparta, partly on religious grounds, and partly owing +to their hatred of tyranny. Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_, +however, treats the alliance of the Peisistratids with Argos, the rival +of Sparta in the Peloponnese, as the chief ground for the action of +Sparta (_c._ 19). In _c._ 513 B.C. Cleisthenes invaded Attica, but was +defeated by the tyrant's mercenaries at Leipsydrium (S. of Mt. Parnes). +Sparta then, in tardy obedience to the oracle, threw off her alliance +with the Peisistratids, and, after one failure, expelled Hippias in +511-510 B.C., leaving Athens once again at the mercy of the powerful +families. + + + Home and foreign policy. + +Cleisthenes, on his return, was in a difficulty; he realized that Athens +would not tolerate a new tyranny, nor were the other nobles willing to +accept him as leader of a constitutional oligarchy. It was left for him +to "take the people into partnership" as Peisistratus had in a different +way done before him. Solon's reforms had failed, primarily because they +left unimpaired the power of the great landed nobles, who, in their +several districts, doubled the roles of landlord, priest and patriarch. +This evil of local influence Peisistratus had concealed by satisfying +the nominally sovereign people that in him they had a sufficient +representative. It was left to Cleisthenes to adopt the remaining remedy +of giving substance to the form of the Solonian constitution. His first +attempts roused the aristocrats to a last effort; Isagoras appealed to +the Spartans (who, though they disliked tyranny, had no love for +democracy) to come to his aid. Cleisthenes retired on the arrival of a +herald from Cleomenes, reviving the old question of the curse; Isagoras +thus became all-powerful[1] and expelled seven hundred families. The +democrats, however, rose, and after besieging Cleomenes and Isagoras in +the Acropolis, let them go under a safe-conduct, and brought back the +exiles. + +Apart from the reforms which Cleisthenes was now able to establish, the +period of his ascendancy is a blank, nor are we told when and how it +came to an end. It is clear, however--and it is impossible in connexion +with the Pan-hellenic patriotism to which Athens laid claim, to overrate +the importance of the fact--that Cleisthenes, hard pressed in the war +with Boeotia, Euboea and Sparta (Herod, v. 73 and foll.), sent +ambassadors to ask the help of Persia. The story, as told by Herodotus, +that the ambassadors of their own accord agreed to give "earth and +water" (i.e. submission) in return for Persian assistance, and that the +Ecclesia subsequently disavowed their action as unauthorized, is +scarcely credible. Cleisthenes (1) was in full control and must have +instructed the ambassadors; (2) he knew that any help from Persia meant +submission. It is practically certain, therefore, that he (cf. the +Alcmaeonids and the story of the shield at Marathon) was the first to +"medize" (see Curtius, _History of Greece_). Probably he had hoped to +persuade the Ecclesia that the agreement was a mere form. Aelian says +that he himself was a victim to his own device of ostracism (q.v.); +this, though apparently inconsistent with the _Constitution of Athens_ +(_c._ 22), may perhaps indicate that his political career ended in +disgrace, a hypothesis which is explicable on the ground of this act of +treachery in respect of the attempted Persian alliance. Whether to +Cleisthenes are due the final success over Boeotia and Euboea, the +planting of the 4000 cleruchs on the Lelantine Plain, and the policy of +the Aeginetan War (see AEGINA), in which Athens borrowed ships from +Corinth, it is impossible to determine. The eclipse of Cleisthenes in +all records is one of the most curious facts in Greek history. It is +also curious that we do not know in what official capacity Cleisthenes +carried his reforms. Perhaps he was given extraordinary _ad hoc_ powers +for a specified time; conceivably he used the ordinary mechanism. It +seems clear that he had fully considered his scheme in advance, that he +broached it before the last attack of Isagoras, and that it was only +after the final expulsion of Isagoras and his Spartan allies that it +became possible for him to put it into execution. + + + Analysis of his reforms + + The ten tribes + +Cleisthenes aimed at being the leader of a self-governing people; in +other words he aimed at making the democracy actual. He realized that +the dead-weight which held the democracy down was the influence on +politics of the local religious unit. Therefore his prime object was to +dissociate the clans and the phratries from politics, and to give the +democracy a totally new electoral basis in which old associations and +vested interests would be split up and become ineffective. It was +necessary that no man should govern a pocket-constituency merely by +virtue of his religious, financial or ancestral prestige, and that there +should be created a new local unit with administrative powers of a +democratic character which would galvanize the lethargic voters into a +new sense of responsibility and independence. His first step was to +abolish the four Solonian tribes and create ten new ones.[2] Each of the +new tribes was subdivided into "demes'" (roughly "townships"); this +organization did not, except politically, supersede the system of clans +and phratries whose old religious signification remained untouched. The +new tribes, however, though geographically arranged, did not represent +local interests. Further, the tribe names were taken from legendary +heroes (Cecropis, Pandionis, Aegeis recalled the storied kings of +Attica), and, therefore, contributed to the idea of a national unity; +even Ajax, the eponym of the tribe Aeantis, though not Attic, was famous +as an ally (Herod, v. 66) and ranked as a national hero. Each tribe had +its shrine and its particular hero-cult, which, however, was free from +local association and the dominance of particular families. This +national idea Cleisthenes further emphasized by setting up in the +market-place at Athens a statue of each tribal hero. + + + Demes. + +The next step was the organization of the deme. Within each tribe he +grouped ten demes (see below), each of which had (1) its hero and its +chapel, and (2) its census-list kept by the demarch. The demarch (local +governor), who was elected popularly and held office for one year, +presided over meetings affecting local administration and the provision +of crews for the state-navy, and was probably under a system of scrutiny +like the _dokimasia_ of the state-magistrates. According to the +Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_, Cleisthenes further divided +Attica into three districts, Urban and Suburban, Inland (_Mesogaios_), +and Maritime (_Paralia_), each of which was subdivided into ten +_trittyes_; each tribe had three trittyes in each of these districts. +The problem of establishing this decimal system in connexion with the +demes and trittyes is insoluble. Herodotus says that there were ten[3] +demes to each tribe ([Greek: deka eis tas phylas]); but each tribe was +composed of three trittyes, one in each of the three districts. Since +the deme was, as will be seen, the electoral unit, it is clear that in +tribal voting the object of ending the old threefold schism of the +Plain, the Hill and the Shore was attained, but the relation of deme and +trittys is obviously of an unsymmetrical kind. The _Constitution of +Athens_ says nothing of the ten-deme-to-each-tribe arrangement, and +there is no sufficient reason for supposing that the demes originally +were exactly a hundred in number. We know the names of 168 demes, and +Polemon (3rd century B.C.) enumerated 173. It has been suggested that +the demes did originally number exactly a hundred, and that new demes +were added as the population increased. This theory, however, +presupposes that the demes were originally equal in numbers. In the 5th +and 4th centuries this was certainly not the case; the number of +demesmen in some cases was only one hundred or two hundred, whereas the +deme Acharnae is referred to as a "great part" of the whole state, and +is known to have furnished three thousand hoplites. The theory is +fundamentally at fault, inasmuch as it regards the deme as consisting of +all those _resident within its borders_. In point of fact membership was +hereditary, not residential; Demosthenes "of the Paeanian deme" might +live where he would without severing his deme connexion. Thus the +increase of population could be no reason for creating new demes. This +distinction in a deme between demesmen and residents belonging to +another deme (the [Greek: egkektemenoi]), who paid a deme-tax for their +privilege, is an important one. It should further be noted that the +demes belonging to a particular tribe do not, as a fact, appear always +in three separate groups; the tribe Aeantis consisted of Phalerum and +eleven demes in the district of Marathon; other tribes had demes in five +or six groups. It must, therefore, be admitted that the problem is +insoluble for want of data. Nor are we better equipped to settle the +relation between the Cleisthenean division into Urban, Maritime and +Inland, and the old divisions of the Plain, the Shore and the Upland or +Hill. The "Maritime" of Cleisthenes and the old "Shore" are certainly +not coincident, nor is the "Inland" identical with the "Upland." + +Lastly, it has been asked whether we are to believe that Cleisthenes +invented the demes. To this the answer is in the negative. The demes +were undoubtedly primitive divisions of Attica; Herodotus (ix. 73) +speaks of the Dioscuri as ravaging the demes of Decelea (see R.W. Macan +_ad loc._) and we hear of opposition between the city and the demes. The +most logical conclusion perhaps is that Cleisthenes, while he _did_ +create the demes which Athens itself comprised, did not create the +country demes, but merely gave them definition as political divisions. +Thus the city itself had six demes in five different tribes, and the +other five tribes were represented in the suburbs and the Peiraeus. It +is clear that in the Cleisthenean system there was one great source of +danger, namely that the residents in and about Athens must always have +had more weight in elections than those in distant demes. There can be +little doubt that the preponderating influence of the city was +responsible for the unwisdom of the later imperial policy and the +Peloponnesian war. + + + The diapsephismus. + +A second problem is the franchise reform of Cleisthenes. Aristotle in +the _Politics_ (iii. 2. 3 = 1275 b) says that Cleisthenes created new +citizens by enrolling in the tribes "many resident aliens and +emancipated slaves."[4] But the Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_ +asserts that he gave "citizenship to the masses." These two statements +are not compatible. It is perfectly clear that Cleisthenes is to be +regarded as a democrat, and it would have been no bribe to the people +merely to confer a boon on aliens and slaves. Moreover, a revision of +the citizen-roll (_diapsephismus_) had recently taken place (after the +end of the tyranny) and a great many citizens had been struck off the +roll as being of impure descent ([Greek: _oi to genei me katharoi_]). +This class had existed from the time of Solon, and, through fear of +political extinction by the oligarchs, had been favourable to +Peisistratus. Cleisthenes may have enfranchised aliens and slaves, but +it seems certain that he must have dealt with these free Athenians who +had lost their rights. Now Isagoras presumably did not carry out this +revision of the roll (_diapsephismus_); as "the friend of the tyrants" +(so _Ath. Pol._ 20; by Meyer, Busolt and others contest this) he would +not have struck a blow at a class which favoured his own views. A +reasonable hypothesis is that Cleisthenes was the originator of the +measure of expulsion, and that he now changed his policy, and +strengthened his hold on the democracy by reinstating the disfranchised +in much larger numbers. The new citizens, whoever they were, must, of +course, have been enrolled also in the (hitherto exclusive) phratry +lists and the deme-rolls. + + + The council and boards of ten. + +The Boul[=e] (q.v.) was reorganized to suit the new tribal arrangement, +and was known henceforward as the Council of the Five Hundred, fifty +from each tribe. Its exact constitution is unknown, but it was certainly +more democratic than the Solonian Four Hundred. Further, the system of +ten tribes led in course of time to the construction of boards of ten to +deal with military and civil affairs, e.g. the Strategi (see STRATEGUS), +the Apodectae, and others. Of these the former cannot be attributed to +Cleisthenes, but on the evidence of Androtion it is certain that it was +Cleisthenes who replaced the Colacretae[5] by the Apodectae +("receivers"), who were controllers and auditors of the finance +department, and, before the council in the council-chamber, received the +revenues. The Colacretae, who had done this work before, remained in +authority over the internal expenses of the Prytaneum. A further change +which followed from the new tribal system was the reconstitution of the +army; this, however, probably took place about 501 B.C., and cannot be +attributed directly to Cleisthenes. It has been said that the deme +became the local political unit, replacing the naucrary (q.v.). But the +naucraries still supplied the fleet, and were increased in number from +forty-eight to fifty; if each naucrary still supplied a ship and two +mounted soldiers as before, it is interesting to learn that, only +seventy years before the Peloponnesian War, Athens had but fifty ships +and a hundred horse.[6] + +The device of ostracism is the final stone in the Cleisthenean +structure. An admirable scheme in theory, and, at first, in practice, it +deteriorated in the 5th century into a mere party weapon, and in the +case of Hyperbolus (417) became an absurdity. + + + Summary. + +In conclusion it should be noticed that Cleisthenes was the founder of +the Athens which we know. To him was due the spirit of nationality, the +principle of liberty duly apportioned and controlled by centralized and +decentralized administration, which prepared the ground for the rich +developments of the Golden Age with its triumphs of art and literature, +politics and philosophy. It was Cleisthenes who organized the structure +which, for a long time, bore the heavy burden of the Empire against +impossible odds, the structure which the very different genius of +Pericles was able to beautify. He was the first to appreciate the unique +power in politics, literature and society of an organized public +opinion. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Ancient:_ Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_ (ed. J.E. + Sandys), cc. 20-22, 41; Herodotus v, 63-73, vi. 131; Aristotle, + _Politics_, iii. 2, 3 (= 1275 b, for franchise reforms). _Modern:_ + Histories of Greece in general, especially those of Grote and Curtius + (which, of course, lack the information contained in the _Constitution + of Athens_), and J.B. Bury. See also E. Meyer, _Geschichte des + Altertums_ (vol. ii.); G. Busolt, _Griech. Gesch._ (2nd ed., 1893 + foll.); Milchhoefer, "Ueber die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes" in + appendix to _Abhandlung d. Berl. Akad._ (1892); R. Loeper in _Athen. + Mitteil._ (1892), pp. 319-433; A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek + Constitutional History_ (1896); Gilbert, _Greek Constitutional + Antiquities_ (Eng. trans., 1895); R.W. Macan, _Herodotus iv.-vi._, + vol. ii. (1895), pp. 127-148; U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Arist. + und Athen._ See also BOLL[=E]; ECCLESIA; OSTRACISM; NAUCRARY; SOLON. + + +2. CLEISTHENES OF SICYON (c. 600-570), grandfather of the above, became +tyrant of Sicyon as the representative of the conquered Ionian section +of the inhabitants. He emphasized the destruction of Dorian predominance +by giving ridiculous epithets to their tribal units, which from Hylleis, +Dymanes and Pamphyli become Hyatae ("Swine-men"), Choireatae ("Pig-men") +and Oneatae ("Ass-men"). He also attacked Dorian Argos, and suppressed +the Homeric "rhapsodists" who sang the exploits of Dorian heroes. He +championed the cause of the Delphic oracle against the town of Crisa +(Cirrha) in the Sacred War (c. 590). Crisa was destroyed, and Delphi +became one of the meeting-places of the old amphictyony of Anthela, +henceforward often called the Delphic amphictyony. The Pythian games, +largely on the initiative of Cleisthenes, were re-established with new +magnificence, and Cleisthenes won the first chariot race in 582. He +founded Pythian games at Sicyon, and possibly built a new Sicyonian +treasury at Delphi. His power was so great that when he offered his +daughter Agariste in marriage, some of the most prominent Greeks sought +the honour, which fell upon Megacles, the Alcmaeonid. The story of the +rival wooers with the famous retort, "Hippocleides don't care," is told +in Herod. vi. 125; see also Herod, v. 67 and Thuc. i. 18. + + CLEISTHENES is also the name of an Athenian, pilloried by Aristophanes + (_Clouds_, 354; _Thesm._ 574) as a fop and a profligate. (J. M. M.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] The archonship of Isagoras in 508 is important as showing that + Cleisthenes, three years after his return, had so far failed to + secure the support of a majority in Athens. There is no sufficient + reason for supposing that the election of Isagoras was procured by + Cleomenes; all the evidence points to its having been brought about + in the ordinary way. Probably, therefore, Cleisthenes did not take + the people thoroughly into partnership till after the spring of 508. + + [2] The explanation given for this step by Herodotus (v. 67) is an + amusing example of his incapacity as a critical historian. To compare + Cleisthenes of Sicyon (see below), bent on humiliating the Dorians of + Sicyon by giving opprobrious names to the Dorian tribes, with his + grandson, whose endeavour was to elevate the very persons whose + tribal organization he replaced, is clearly absurd. + + [3] Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (_Arist. und Athen_, pp. 149-150) + suggests [Greek: dekacha], "in ten batches," instead of [Greek: + deka]. + + [4] It should be observed that there are other translations of the + difficult phrase [Greek: xenous kai doulous metoikous]. + + [5] _Colacretae_ were very ancient Athenian magistrates; either (1) + those who "cut up the joints" in the Prytaneum ([Greek: kola, + keiro]), or (2) those who "collected the joints" ([Greek: kola, + ageiro]) which were left over from public sacrifices, and consumed in + the Prytaneum. These officials were again important in the time of + Aristophanes (_Wasps_, 693, 724; _Birds_, 1541), and they presided + over the payment of the dicasts instituted by Pericles. They are not + mentioned, though they may have existed, after 403 B.C. At Sicyon + also magistrates of this name are found. + + [6] It is, however, more probable that the right reading of the + passage is [Greek: deka ippeis] instead of [Greek: duo], which would + give a cavalry force in early Athens of 480, a reasonable number in + proportion to the total fighting strength. + + + + +CLEITARCHUS, one of the historians of Alexander the Great, son of +Deinon, also an historian, was possibly a native of Egypt, or at least +spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy Lagus. Quintilian +(_Instit._ x. i. 74) credits him with more ability than trustworthiness, +and Cicero (_Brutus_, 11) accuses him of giving a fictitious account of +the death of Themistocles. But there is no doubt that his history was +very popular, and much used by Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius, Justin +and Plutarch, and the authors of the Alexander romances. His unnatural +and exaggerated style became proverbial. + + The fragments, some thirty in number, chiefly preserved in Aelian and + Strabo, will be found in C. Mueller's _Scriptores Rerum Alexandri + Magni_ (in the Didot _Arrian_, 1846); monographs by C. Raun, _De + Clitarcho Diodori, Curtii, Justini auctore_ (1868), and F. Reuss, + "Hellenistische Beitraege" in _Rhein. Mus._ lxiii. (1908), pp. 58-78. + + + + +CLEITHRAL (Gr. [Greek: kleithron], an enclosed or shut-up place), an +architectural term applied to a covered Greek temple, in +contradistinction to _hypaethral_, which designates one that is +uncovered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it. + + + + +CLEITOR, or CLITOR, a town of ancient Greece, in that part of Arcadia +which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta in the nomos of +Elis and Achaea. It stood in a fertile plain to the south of Mt Chelmos, +the highest peak of the Aroanian Mountains, and not far from a stream +of its own name, which joined the Aroanius, or Katzana. In the +neighbourhood was a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive +those who drank them of the taste for wine. The town was a place of +considerable importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants were noted for +their love of liberty. It extended its territory over several +neighbouring towns, and in the Theban war fought against Orchomenus. It +joined the other Arcadian cities in the foundation of Megalopolis. As a +member of the Achaean league it was besieged by the Aetolians in 220 +B.C., and was on several occasions the seat of the federal assemblies. +It coined money up to the time of Septimius Severus. The ruins, which +bear the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen +about 3 m. from a village that preserves the ancient designation. The +greater part of the walls which enclose an area of about a mile and +several of the semi-circular towers with which they were strengthened +can be clearly made out; and there are also remains of three Doric +temples and a small theatre. + + + + +CLELAND, WILLIAM (1661?-1689), Scottish poet and soldier, son of Thomas +Cleland, gamekeeper to the marquis of Douglas, was born about 1661. He +was probably brought up on the marquess of Douglas's estate in +Lanarkshire, and was educated at St Andrews University. Immediately on +leaving college he joined the army of the Covenanters, and was present +at Drumclog, where, says Robert Wodrow, some attributed to Cleland the +manoeuvre which led to the victory. He also fought at Bothwell Bridge. +He and his brother James were described in a royal proclamation of the +16th of June 1679 among the leaders of the insurgents. He escaped to +Holland, but in 1685 was again in Scotland in connexion with the +abortive invasion of the earl of Argyll. He escaped once more, to return +in 1688 as agent for William of Orange. He was appointed +lieutenant-colonel of the Cameronian regiment raised from the minority +of the western Covenanters who consented to serve under William III. The +Cameronians were entrusted with the defence of Dunkeld, which they held +against the fierce assault of the Highlanders on the 26th of August. The +repulse of the Highlanders before Dunkeld ended the Jacobite rising, but +Cleland fell in the struggle. He wrote _A Collection of several Poems +and Verses_ composed upon various occasions (published posthumously, +1697). Of "Hullo, my fancie, whither wilt thou go?" only the last nine +stanzas are by Cleland. His poems have small literary merit, and are +written, not in pure Lowland Scots, but in English with a large +admixture of Scottish words. The longest and most important of them are +the "mock poems" "On the Expedition of the Highland Host who came to +destroy the western shires in winter 1678" and "On the clergie when they +met to consult about taking the Test in the year 1681." + + An Exact Narrative of the _Conflict of Dunkeld ... collected from + several officers of the regiment ..._ appeared in 1689. + + + + +CLEMATIS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Ranunculaceae, +containing nearly two hundred species, and widely distributed. It is +represented in England by _Clematis Vitalba_, "old man's beard" or +"traveller's joy," a common plant on chalky or light soil. The plants +are shrubby climbers with generally compound opposite leaves, the stalk +of which is sensitive to contact like a tendril, becoming twisted round +suitable objects and thereby giving support to the plant. The flowers +are arranged in axillary or terminal clusters; they have no petals, but +white or coloured, often very large sepals, and an indefinite number of +stamens and carpels. They contain no honey, and are visited by insects +for the sake of the pollen, which is plentiful. The fruit is a head of +achenes, each bearing the long-bearded persistent style, suggesting the +popular name. This feathery style is an important agent in the +distribution of the seed by means of the wind. Several of the species, +especially the large-flowered ones, are favourite garden plants, well +adapted for covering trellises or walls, or trailing over the ground. +Many garden forms have been produced by hybridization; among the best +known is _C. Jackmanni_, due to Mr George Jackman of Woking. + + Further information may be obtained from _The Clematis as a Garden + Flower_, by Thos. Moore and George Jackman. See also G. Nicholson, + _Dictionary of Gardening_, i. (1885) and _Supplements_. + + + + +CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES (1841- ), French statesman, was born at +Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vendee, on the 28th of September 1841. Having +adopted medicine as his profession, he settled in 1869 in Montmartre; +and after the revolution of 1870 he had become sufficiently well known +to be nominated mayor of the 18th arrondissement of Paris +(Montmartre)--an unruly district over which it was a difficult task to +preside. On the 8th of February 1871 he was elected as a Radical to the +National Assembly for the department of the Seine, and voted against the +peace preliminaries. The execution, or rather murder, of Generals +Lecomte and Clement Thomas by the communists on 18th March, which he +vainly tried to prevent, brought him into collision with the central +committee sitting at the hotel de ville, and they ordered his arrest, +but he escaped; he was accused, however, by various witnesses, at the +subsequent trial of the murderers (November 29th), of not having +intervened when he might have done, and though he was cleared of this +charge it led to a duel, for his share in which he was prosecuted and +sentenced to a fine and a fortnight's imprisonment. + +Meanwhile, on the 20th of March 1871, he had introduced in the National +Assembly at Versailles, on behalf of his Radical colleagues, the bill +establishing a Paris municipal council of eighty members; but he was not +returned himself at the elections of the 26th of March. He tried with +the other Paris mayors to mediate between Versailles and the hotel de +ville, but failed, and accordingly resigned his mayoralty and his seat +in the Assembly, and temporarily gave up politics; but he was elected to +the Paris municipal council on the 23rd of July 1871 for the +Clignancourt _quartier_, and retained his seat till 1876, passing +through the offices of secretary and vice-president, and becoming +president in 1875. In 1876 he stood again for the Chamber of Deputies, +and was elected for the 18th arrondissement. He joined the Extreme Left, +and his energy and mordant eloquence speedily made him the leader of the +Radical section. In 1877, after the _Seize Mai_ (see FRANCE: _History_), +he was one of the republican majority who denounced the Broglie +ministry, and he took a leading part in resisting the anti-republican +policy of which the _Seize Mai_ incident was a symptom, his demand in +1879 for the indictment of the Broglie ministry bringing him into +particular prominence. In 1880 he started his newspaper, _La Justice_, +which became the principal organ of Parisian Radicalism; and from this +time onwards throughout M. Grevy's presidency his reputation as a +political critic, and as a destroyer of ministries who yet would not +take office himself, rapidly grew. He led the Extreme Left in the +Chamber. He was an active opponent of M. Jules Ferry's colonial policy +and of the Opportunist party, and in 1885 it was his use of the Tongking +disaster which principally determined the fall of the Ferry cabinet. At +the elections of 1885 he advocated a strong Radical programme, and was +returned both for his old seat in Paris and for the Var, selecting the +latter. Refusing to form a ministry to replace the one he had +overthrown, he supported the Right in keeping M. Freycinet in power in +1886, and was responsible for the inclusion of General Boulanger in the +Freycinet cabinet as war minister. When Boulanger (q.v.) showed himself +as an ambitious pretender, Clemenceau withdrew his support and became a +vigorous combatant against the Boulangist movement, though the Radical +press and a section of the party continued to patronize the general. + +By his exposure of the Wilson scandal, and by his personal plain +speaking, M. Clemenceau contributed largely to M. Grevy's resignation of +the presidency in 1887, having himself declined Grevy's request to form +a cabinet on the downfall of that of M. Rouvier; and he was primarily +responsible, by advising his followers to vote neither for Floquet, +Ferry nor Freycinet, for the election of an "outsider" as president in +M. Carnot. He had arrived, however, at the height of his influence, and +several factors now contributed to his decline. The split in the Radical +party over Boulangism weakened his hands, and its collapse made his help +unnecessary to the moderate republicans. A further misfortune occurred +in the Panama affair, Clemenceau's relations with Cornelius Herz leading +to his being involved in the general suspicion; and, though he remained +the leading spokesman of French Radicalism, his hostility to the Russian +alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the election for 1893 he +was defeated for the Chamber, after having sat in it continuously since +1876. After his defeat for the Chamber, M. Clemenceau confined his +political activities to journalism, his career being further +overclouded--so far as any immediate possibility of regaining his old +ascendancy was concerned--by the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which +he took an active and honourable part as a supporter of M. Zola and an +opponent of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaign. In 1900 he +withdrew from _La Justice_ to found a weekly review, _Le Bloc_, which +lasted until March 1902. On the 6th of April 1902 he was elected senator +for the Var, although he had previously continually demanded the +suppression of the Senate. He sat with the Socialist Radicals, and +vigorously supported the Combes ministry. In June 1903 he undertook the +direction of the journal _L'Aurore_, which he had founded. In it he led +the campaign for the revision of the Dreyfus affair, and for the +separation of Church and State. + +In March 1906 the fall of the Rouvier ministry, owing to the riots +provoked by the inventories of church property, at last brought +Clemenceau to power as minister of the interior in the Sarrien cabinet. +The strike of miners in the Pas de Calais after the disaster at +Courrieres, leading to the threat of disorder on the 1st of May 1906, +obliged him to employ the military; and his attitude in the matter +alienated the Socialist party, from which he definitely broke in his +notable reply in the Chamber to Jean Jaures in June 1906. This speech +marked him out as the strong man of the day in French politics; and when +the Sarrien ministry resigned in October, he became premier. During 1907 +and 1908 his premiership was notable for the way in which the new +_entente_ with England was cemented, and for the successful part which +France played in European politics, in spite of difficulties with +Germany and attacks by the Socialist party in connexion with Morocco +(see FRANCE: _History_). But on July 20th, 1909, he was defeated in a +discussion in the Chamber on the state of the navy, in which bitter +words were exchanged between him and Delcasse; and he at once resigned, +being succeeded as premier by M. Briand, with a reconstructed cabinet. + + + + +CLEMENCIN, DIEGO (1765-1834), Spanish scholar and politician, was born +on the 27th of September 1765, at Murcia, and was educated there at the +Colegio de San Fulgencio. Abandoning his intention of taking orders, he +found employment at Madrid in 1788 as tutor to the sons of the +countess-duchess de Benavente, and devoted himself to the study of +archaeology. In 1807 he became editor of the _Gaceta de Madrid_, and in +the following year was condemned to death by Murat for publishing a +patriotic article; he fled to Cadiz, and under the Junta Central held +various posts from which he was dismissed by the reactionary government +of 1814. During the liberal regime of 1820-1823 Clemencin took office as +colonial minister, was exiled till 1827, and in 1833 published the first +volume of his edition (1833-1839) of _Don Quixote_. Its merits were +recognized by his appointment as royal librarian, but he did not long +enjoy his triumph: he died on the 30th of July 1834. His commentary on +_Don Quixote_ owes something to John Bowle, and is disfigured by a +patronizing, carping spirit; nevertheless it is the most valuable work +of its kind, and is still unsuperseded. Clemencin is also the author of +an interesting _Elogio de la reina Isabel la Catolica_, published as the +sixth volume of the _Memorias_ of the Spanish Academy of History, to +which body he was elected on the 12th of September 1800. + + + + +CLEMENT (Lat. _Clemens_, i.e. merciful; Gr. [Greek: Klemes]), the name +of fourteen popes and two anti-popes. + + +CLEMENT I., generally known as Clement of Rome, or CLEMENS ROMANUS +(flor. c. A.D. 96), was one of the "Apostolic Fathers," and in the lists +of bishops of Rome is given the third or fourth place--Peter, Linus, +(Anencletus), Clement. There is no ground for identifying him with the +Clement of Phil. iv. 3. He may have been a freedman of T. Flavius +Clemens, who was consul with his cousin, the Emperor Domitian, in A.D. +95. A 9th-century tradition says he was martyred in the Crimea in 102; +earlier authorities say he died a natural death; he is commemorated on +the 23rd of November. + +In _The Shepherd of Hermas_ (q.v.) (Vis. 11. iv. 3) mention is made of +one Clement whose office it is to communicate with other churches, and +this function agrees well with what we find in the letter to the church +at Corinth by which Clement is best known. Whilst being on our guard +against reading later ideas into the title "bishop" as applied to +Clement, there is no reason to doubt that he was one of the chief +personalities in the Christian community at Rome, where since the time +of Paul the separate house congregations (Rom. xvi.) had been united +into one church officered by presbyters and deacons (Clem. 40-42). The +letter in question was occasioned by a dispute in the church of Corinth, +which had led to the ejection of several presbyters from their office. +It does not contain Clement's name, but is addressed by "the Church of +God which sojourneth in Rome to the Church of God which sojourneth in +Corinth." But there is no reason for doubting the universal tradition +which ascribes it to Clement, or the generally accepted date, c. A.D. +96. No claim is made by the Roman Church to interfere on any ground of +superior rank; yet it is noteworthy that in the earliest document +outside the canon which we can securely date, the church in the imperial +city comes forward as a peacemaker to compose the troubles of a church +in Greece. Nothing is known of the cause of the discontent; no moral +offence is charged against the presbyters, and their dismissal is +regarded by Clement as high-handed and unjustifiable, and as a revolt of +the younger members of the community against the elder. After a +laudatory account of the past conduct of the Corinthian Church, he +enters upon a denunciation of vices and a praise of virtues, and +illustrates his various topics by copious citations from the Old +Testament scriptures. Thus he paves the way for his tardy rebuke of +present disorders, which he reserves until two-thirds of his epistle is +completed. Clement is exceedingly discursive, and his letter reaches +twice the length of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Many of his general +exhortations are but very indirectly connected with the practical issue +to which the epistle is directed, and it is very probable that he was +drawing largely upon the homiletical material with which he was +accustomed to edify his fellow-Christians at Rome. + +This view receives some support from the long liturgical prayer at the +close, which almost certainly represents the intercession used in the +Roman eucharists. But we must not allow such a theory to blind us to the +true wisdom with which the writer defers his censure. He knows that the +roots of the quarrel lie in a wrong condition of the church's life. His +general exhortations, courteously expressed in the first person plural, +are directed towards a wide reformation of manners. If the wrong spirit +can be exorcised, there is hope that the quarrel will end in a general +desire for reconciliation. The most permanent interest of the epistle +lies in the conception of the grounds on which the Christian ministry +rests according to the view of a prominent teacher before the 1st +century has closed. The orderliness of nature is appealed to as +expressing the mind of its Creator. The orderliness of Old Testament +worship bears a like witness; everything is duly fixed by God; high +priests, priests and Levites, and the people in the people's place. +Similarly in the Christian dispensation all is in order due. "The +apostles preached the gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus +Christ was sent from God. Christ then is from God, and the apostles from +Christ. . . . They appointed their first-fruits, having tested them by +the Spirit, as bishops and deacons of those who should believe. . . . +Our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that there would be +strife about the name of the bishop's office. For this cause therefore, +having received perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid, and +afterwards gave a further injunction ([Greek: heptnomen] has now the +further evidence of the Latin _legem_) that, if these should fall +asleep, other approved men should succeed to their ministry. . . . It +will be no small sin in us if we eject from the bishop's office those +who have offered the gifts blamelessly and holily" (cc. xlii. xliv.). + +Clement's familiarity with the Old Testament points to his being a +Christian of long standing rather than a recent convert. We learn from +his letter (i. 7) that the church at Rome, though suffering persecution, +was firmly held together by faith and love, and was exhibiting its unity +in an orderly worship. The epistle was publicly read from time to time +at Corinth, and by the 4th century this usage had spread to other +churches. We even find it attached to the famous Alexandrian MS. (Codex +A) of the New Testament, but this does not imply that it ever reached +canonical rank. For the mass of early Christian literature that was +gradually attached to his name see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE. + + The epistle was published in 1633 by Patrick Young from Cod. + Alexandrinus, in which a leaf near the end was missing, so that the + great prayer (cc. lv.-lxiv.) remained unknown. In 1875 (six years + after J.B. Lightfoot's first edition) Bryennius (q.v.) published a + complete text from the MS. in Constantinople (dated 1055), from which + in 1883 he gave us the _Didache_. In 1876 R.L. Bensly found a complete + Syriac text in a MS. recently obtained by the University library at + Cambridge. Lightfoot made use of these new materials in an Appendix + (1877); his second edition, on which he had been at work at the time + of his death, came out in 1890. This must remain the standard edition, + notwithstanding Dom Morin's most interesting discovery of a Latin + version (1894), which was probably made in the 3rd century, and is a + valuable addition to the authorities for the text. Its evidence is + used in a small edition of the epistle by R. Knopf (Leipzig, 1899). + See also W. Wrede, _Untersuchungen zum ersten Clemensbrief_ (1891), + and the other literature cited in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopaedie_, + vol. iv. (A. J. G.; J. A. R.) + + +CLEMENT II. (Suidger) became pope on the 25th of December 1046. He +belonged to a noble Saxon family, was bishop of Bamberg, and chancellor +to the emperor Henry III., to whom he was indebted for his elevation to +the papacy upon the abdication of Gregory VI. He was the first pope +placed on the throne by the power of the German emperors, but his short +pontificate was only signalized by the convocation of a council in which +decrees were enacted against simony. He died on the 9th of October 1047, +and was buried at Bamberg. (L. D.*) + + +CLEMENT III. (Paolo Scolari), pope from 1187 to 1191, a Roman, was made +cardinal bishop of Palestrina by Alexander III. in 1180 or 1181. On the +19th of December 1187 he was chosen at Pisa to succeed Gregory VIII. On +the 31st of May 1188 he concluded a treaty with the Romans which removed +difficulties of long standing, and in April 1189 he made peace with the +emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa. He settled a controversy with William +of Scotland concerning the choice of the archbishop of St Andrews, and +on the 13th of March 1188 removed the Scottish church from under the +legatine jurisdiction of the archbishop of York, thus making it +independent of all save Rome. In spite of his conciliatory policy, +Clement angered Henry VI. of Germany by bestowing Sicily on Tancred. The +crisis was acute when the pope died, probably in the latter part of +March 1191. + + See "Epistolae et Privilegia," in J.P. Migne, _Patrologiae cursus + completes_, tom. 204 (Paris, 1853), 1253 ff.; additional material in + _Neues Archiv fuer die aeltere deutsche Geschichtskunde_, 2. 219; 6. + 293; 14. 178-182; P. Jaffe, _Regesta Pontificum Romanorum_, tom. 2 + (2nd edition, Leipzig, 1888), 535 ff. (W. W. R.*) + + +CLEMENT IV. (Gui Foulques), pope from 1265 to 1268, son of a successful +lawyer and judge, was born at St Gilles-sur-Rhone. He studied law, and +became a valued adviser of Louis IX. of France. He married, and was the +father of two daughters, but after the death of his wife took orders. In +1257 he became bishop of Le Puy; in 1259 he was elected archbishop of +Narbonne; and on the 24th of December 1261 Urban IV. created him +cardinal bishop of Sabina. He was appointed legate in England on the +22nd of November 1263, and before his return was elected pope at Perugia +on the 5th of February 1265. On the 26th of February he invested Charles +of Anjou with the kingdom of Sicily; but subsequently he came into +conflict with Charles, especially after the death of Manfred in February +1266. To the cruelty and avarice of Charles he opposed a generous +humanity. When Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, appeared in Italy +the pope excommunicated him and his supporters, but it is improbable +that he was in the remotest degree responsible for his execution. At +Viterbo, where he spent most of his pontificate, Clement died on the +29th of November 1268, leaving a name unsullied by nepotism. As the +benefactor and protector of Roger Bacon he has a special title to the +gratitude of posterity. + + See A. Potthast, _Regesta Pontificum Romanorum_, vol. ii. (Berlin, + l875). 1542 ff.; E. Jordan, _Les Registres de Clement IV_ (Paris, 1893 + ff.); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie_ (3rd ed., vol. iv., Leipzig, + 1898), 144 f.; J. Heidemann, _Papst Clemens IV., I. Teil: Das Vorleben + des Papstes und sein Legationsregister = Kirchengeschichtliche + Studien, herausgegeben von Knoepfler_, &c., 6. Band, 4. Heft (Muenster, + 1903), reprints _Processus legationis in Angliam_. (W. W. R.*) + + +CLEMENT V. (Bertrand de Gouth), pope from 1305 to 1314, was born of a +noble Gascon family about 1264. After studying the arts at Toulouse and +law at Orleans and Bologna, he became a canon at Bordeaux and then +vicar-general to his brother the archbishop of Lyons, who in 1294 was +created cardinal bishop of Albano. Bertrand was made a chaplain to +Boniface VIII., who in 1295 nominated him bishop of Cominges (Haute +Garonne), and in 1299 translated him to the archbishopric of Bordeaux. +Because he attended the synod at Rome in 1302 in the controversy between +France and the Pope, he was considered a supporter of Boniface VIII., +yet was by no means unfavourably regarded at the French court. At +Perugia on the 5th of June 1305 he was chosen to succeed Benedict XI; +the cardinals by a vote of ten to five electing one neither an Italian +nor a cardinal, in order to end a conclave which had lasted eleven +months. The chronicler Villani relates that Bertrand owed his election +to a secret agreement with Philip IV., made at St Jean d'Angely in +Saintonge; this may be dismissed as gossip, but it is probable that the +future pope had to accept certain conditions laid down by the cardinals. +At Bordeaux Bertrand was formally notified of his election and urged to +come to Italy; but he caused his coronation to take place at Lyons on +the 14th of November 1305. From the beginning Clement V. was subservient +to French interests. Among his first acts was the creation of nine +French cardinals. Early in 1306 he modified or explained away those +features of the bulls _Clericis Laicos_ and _Unam sanctam_ which were +particularly offensive to the king. Most of the year 1306 he spent at +Bordeaux because of ill-health; subsequently he resided at Poitiers and +elsewhere, and in March 1309 the entire papal court settled at Avignon, +an imperial fief held by the king of Sicily. Thus began the seventy +years "Babylonian captivity of the Church." On the 13th of October 1307 +came the arrest of all the Knights Templar in France, the breaking of a +storm conjured up by royal jealousy and greed. From the very day of +Clement's coronation the king had charged the Templars with heresy, +immorality and abuses, and the scruples of the weak pope were at length +overcome by apprehension lest the State should not wait for the Church, +but should proceed independently against the alleged heretics, as well +as by the royal threats of pressing the accusation of heresy against the +late Boniface VIII. In pursuance of the king's wishes Clement summoned +the council of Vienne (see VIENNE, COUNCIL OF), which was unable to +conclude that the Templars were guilty of heresy. The pope abolished the +order, however, as it seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived its +usefulness. Its French estates were granted to the Hospitallers, but +actually Philip IV. held them until his death. + +In his relations to the Empire Clement was an opportunist. He refused to +use his full influence in favour of the candidacy of Charles of Valois, +brother of Philip IV., lest France became too powerful; and recognized +Henry of Luxemburg, whom his representatives crowned emperor at the +Lateran in 1312. When Henry, however, came into conflict with Robert of +Naples, Clement supported Robert and threatened the emperor with ban and +interdict. But the crisis passed with the unexpected death of Henry, +soon followed by that of the pope on the 20th of April 1314 at +Roquemaure-sur-Rhone. Though the sale of offices and oppressive taxation +which disgraced his pontificate may in part be explained by the +desperate condition of the papal finances and by his saving up gold for +a crusade, nevertheless he indulged in unbecoming pomp. Showing +favouritism toward his family and his nation, he brought untold +disaster on the Church. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY--See "Clementis V. . . . et aliorum epistolae," in S. + Baluzius, _Vitae Paparum Avenionensium_, tom. ii. (Paris, 1693), 55 + ff.; "Tractatus cum Henrico VII. imp. Germ. anno 1309," in Pertz, + _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, legum ii. I. 492-496; J.F. Rabanis, + _Clement V et Philippe le Bel. Suivie du journal de la visite + pastorale de Bertrand de Got dans la province ecclesiastique de + Bordeaux en 1304 et 1305_ (Paris, 1858); "Clementis Papae V. + Constitutiones," in _Corpus Iuris Canonici_, ed. Aemilius Friedberg, + vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1881), 1125-1200; P.B. Gams, _Series Episcoporum + Ecclesiae Catholicae_ (Regensburg, 1873); Wetzer und Welte, + _Kirchenlexikon_, vol. iii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1884), 462-473; + _Regestum Clementis Papae V. ex Vaticanis archetypis cura et studio + monachorum ord. Ben._ (Rome, 1885-1892), 9 vols. and appendix; J. + Gmelin, _Schuld oder Unschuld des Templerordens_ (Stuttgart, 1893); + Gachon, _Pieces relatifs au debat du pape Clement V avec l'empereur + Henri VII_ (Montpellier 1894); Lacoste, _Nouvelles Etudes sur Clement + V_ (1896); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie_, vol. iv. (3rd ed., + Leipzig, 1898), 144 f.; J. Loserth, _Geschichte des spaeteren + Mittelalters_ (Munich, 1903); and A. Eitel, _Der Kirchenstaat unter + Klemens V._ (Berlin, 1907). (W. W. R.*) + + +CLEMENT VI. (Pierre Roger), pope from the 7th of May 1342 to the 6th of +December 1352, was born at Maumont in Limousin in 1291, the son of the +wealthy lord of Rosieres, entered the Benedictine order as a boy, +studied at Paris, and became successively prior of St Baudil, abbot of +Fecamp, bishop of Arras, chancellor of France, archbishop of Sens and +archbishop of Rouen. He was made cardinal-priest of Sti Nereo ed +Achilleo and administrator of the bishopric of Avignon by Benedict XII. +in 1338, and four years later succeeded him as pope. He continued to +reside at Avignon despite the arguments of envoys and the verses of +Petrarch, but threw a sop to the Romans by reducing the Jubilee term +from one hundred years to fifty. He appointed Cola di Rienzo to a civil +position at Rome, and, although at first approving the establishment of +the tribunate, he later sent a legate who excommunicated Rienzo and, +with the help of the aristocratic faction, drove him from the city +(December 1347). Clement continued the struggle of his predecessors with +the emperor Louis the Bavarian, excommunicating him after protracted +negotiations on the 13th of April 1346, and directing the election of +Charles of Moravia, who received general recognition after the death of +Louis in October 1347, and put an end to the schism which had long +divided Germany. Clement proclaimed a crusade in 1343, but nothing was +accomplished beyond a naval attack on Smyrna (29th of October 1344). He +also carried on fruitless negotiations for church unity with the +Armenians and with the Greek emperor, John Cantacuzenus. He tried to end +the Hundred Years' War between England and France, but secured only a +temporary truce. He excommunicated Casimir of Poland for marital +infidelity and forced him to do penance. He successfully resisted +encroachments on ecclesiastical jurisdiction by the kings of England, +Castile and Aragon. He made Prague an archbishopric in 1344, and three +years later founded the university there. During the disastrous plague +of 1347-1348 Clement did all he could to alleviate the distress, and +condemned the Flagellants and Jew-baiters. He tried Queen Joanna of +Naples for the murder of her husband and acquitted her. He secured full +ownership of the county of Avignon through purchase from Queen Joanna +(9th of June 1348) and renunciation of feudal claims by Charles IV. of +France, and considerably enlarged the papal palace in that city. To +supply money for his many undertakings Clement revived the practice of +selling reservations and expectancies, which had been abolished by his +predecessor. Oppressive taxation and unblushing nepotism were Clement's +great faults. On the other hand, he was famed for his engaging manners, +eloquence and theological learning. He died on the 6th of December 1352, +and was buried in the Benedictine abbey at Auvergne, but his tomb was +destroyed by Calvinists in 1562. His successor was Innocent VI. + + The chief sources for the life of Clement VI. are in Baluzius, _Vitae + Pap. Avenion._, vol. i. (Paris, 1693); E. Werunsky, _Excerpta ex + registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI._ (Innsbruck, 1885); and F. + Cerasoli, _Clemente VI. e Giovanni I. di Napoli--Documenti inedite + dell' Archivio Vaticano_ (1896, &c). + + See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans, by F.I. + Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_, + vol. vi. trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J.B. + Christophe, _Histoire de la papaute pendant le XIVe siecle_, vol. ii. + (Paris, 1853); also article by L. Kuepper in the _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd + ed.). (C.H.HA.) + + +CLEMENT VII. (Robert of Geneva), (d. 1394), antipope, brother of Peter, +count of Genevois, was connected by blood or marriage with most of the +sovereigns of Europe. After occupying the episcopal sees of Therouanne +and Cambrai, he attained to the cardinalate at an early age. In 1377, as +legate of Pope Gregory XI. in the Romagna, he directed, or rather +assisted in, the savage suppression of the revolt of the inhabitants of +Cesena against the papal authority. In the following year he took part +in the election of Pope Urban VI. at Rome, and was perhaps the first to +express doubts as to the validity of that tumultuous election. After +withdrawing to Fondi to reconsider the election, the cardinals finally +resolved to regard Urban as an intruder and the Holy See as still +vacant, and an almost unanimous vote was given in favour of Robert of +Geneva (20th of September 1378), who took the name of Clement VII. Thus +originated the Great Schism of the West. + +To his high connexions and his adroitness, as well as to the gross +mistakes of his rival, Clement owed the immediate support of Queen +Joanna of Naples and of several of the Italian barons; and the king of +France, Charles V., who seems to have been sounded beforehand on the +choice of the Roman pontiff, soon became his warmest protector. Clement +eventually succeeded in winning to his cause Scotland, Castile, Aragon, +Navarre, a great part of the Latin East, and Flanders. He had adherents, +besides, scattered through Germany, while Portugal on two occasions +acknowledged him, but afterwards forsook him. From Avignon, however, +where he had immediately fixed his residence, his eyes were always +turned towards Italy, his purpose being to wrest Rome from his rival. To +attain this end he lavished his gold--or rather the gold provided by the +clergy in his obedience--without stint, and conceived a succession of +the most adventurous projects, of which one at least was to leave a +lasting mark on history. + +By the bait of a kingdom to be carved expressly out of the States of the +Church and to be called the kingdom of Adria, coupled with the +expectation of succeeding to Queen Joanna, Clement incited Louis, duke +of Anjou, the eldest of the brothers of Charles V., to take arms in his +favour. These tempting offers gave rise to a series of expeditions into +Italy carried out almost exclusively at Clement's expense, in the first +of which Louis lost his life. These enterprises on several occasions +planted Angevin domination in the south of the Italian peninsula, and +their most decisive result was the assuring of Provence to the dukes of +Anjou and afterwards to the kings of France. After the death of Louis, +Clement hoped to find equally brave and interested champions in Louis' +son and namesake; in Louis of Orleans, the brother of Charles VI.; in +Charles VI. himself; and in John III., count of Armagnac. The prospect +of his briliant progress to Rome was ever before his eyes; and in his +thoughts force of arms, of French arms, was to be the instrument of his +glorious triumph over his competitor. + +There came a time, however, when Clement and more particularly his +following had to acknowledge the vanity of these illusive dreams; and +before his death, which took place on the 16th of September 1394, he +realized the impossibility of overcoming by brute force an opposition +which was founded on the convictions of the greater part of Catholic +Europe, and discerned among his adherents the germs of disaffection. By +his vast expenditure, ascribable not only to his wars in Italy, his +incessant embassies, and the necessity of defending himself in the +Comtat Venaissin against the incursions of the adventurous Raymond of +Turenne, but also to his luxurious tastes and princely habits, as well +as by his persistent refusal to refer the question of the schism to a +council, he incurred general reproach. Unity was the crying need; and +men began to fasten upon him the responsibility of the hateful schism, +not on the score of insincerity--which would have been very unjust,--but +by reason of his obstinate persistence in the course he had chosen. + + See N. Valois, _La France el le grand schisme d'occident_ (Paris, + 1896). (N.V.) + + +CLEMENT VII. (Giulio de' Medici), pope from 1523 to 1534, was the son of +Giuliano de' Medici, assassinated in the conspiracy of the Pazzi at +Florence, and of a certain Fioretta, daughter of Antonia. Being left an +orphan he was taken into his own house by Lorenzo the Magnificent and +educated with his sons. In 1494 Giulio went with them into exile; but, +on Giovanni's restoration to power, returned to Florence, of which he +was made archbishop by his cousin Pope Leo X., a special dispensation +being granted on account of his illegitimate birth, followed by a formal +declaration of the fact that his parents had been secretly married and +that he was therefore legitimate. On the 23rd of September 1513 the pope +conferred on him the title of cardinal and made him legate at Bologna. +During the reign of the pleasure-loving Leo, Cardinal Giulio had +practically the whole papal government in his hands and displayed all +the qualities of a good administrator; and when, on the death of Adrian +VI.--whose election he had done most to secure--he was chosen pope (Nov. +18, 1523), his accession was hailed as the dawn of a happier era. It +soon became clear, however, that the qualities which had made Clement an +excellent second in command were not equal to the exigencies of supreme +power at a time of peculiar peril and difficulty. + +Though free from the grosser vices of his predecessors, a man of taste, +and economical without being avaricious, Clement VII. was essentially a +man of narrow outlook and interests. He failed to understand the great +spiritual movement which was convulsing the Church; and instead of +bending his mind to the problem of the Reformation, he from the first +subordinated the cause of Catholicism and of the world to his interests +as an Italian prince and a Medici. Even in these purely secular affairs, +moreover, his timidity and indecision prevented him from pursuing a +consistent policy; and his ill fortune, or his lack of judgment, placed +him, as long as he had the power of choice, ever on the losing side. + +Clement's accession at once brought about a political change in favour +of France; yet he was unable to take a strong line, and wavered between +the emperor and Francis I., concluding a treaty of alliance with the +French king, and then, when the crushing defeat of Pavia had shown him +his mistake, making his peace with Charles (April 1, 1525), only to +break it again by countenancing Girolamo Morone's League of Freedom, of +which the aim was to assert the independence of Italy from foreign +powers. On the betrayal of this conspiracy Clement made a fresh +submission to the emperor, only to follow this, a year later, by the +Holy League of Cognac with Francis I. (May 22, 1526). Then followed the +imperial invasion of Italy and Bourbon's sack of Rome (May 1527) which +ended the Augustan age of the papal city in a horror of fire and blood. +The pope himself was besieged in the castle of St Angelo, compelled on +the 6th of June to ransom himself with a payment of 400,000 scudi, and +kept in confinement until, on the 26th of November, he accepted the +emperor's terms, which besides money payments included the promise to +convene a general council to deal with Lutheranism. On the 6th of +December Clement escaped, before the day fixed for his liberation, to +Orvieto, and at once set to work to establish peace. After the signature +of the treaty of Cambrai on the 3rd of August 1529 Charles met Clement +at Bologna and received from him the imperial crown and the iron crown +of Lombardy. The pope was now restored to the greater part of his +temporal power; but for some years it was exercised in subservience to +the emperor. During this period Clement was mainly occupied in urging +Charles to arrest the progress of the Reformation in Germany and in +efforts to elude the emperor's demand for a general council, which +Clement feared lest the question of the mode of his election and his +legitimacy should be raised. It was due to his dependence on Charles V., +rather than to any conscientious scruples, that Clement evaded Henry +VIII.'s demand for the nullification of his marriage with Catherine of +Aragon, and so brought about the breach between England and Rome. Some +time before his death, however, the dynastic interests of his family led +him once more to a rapprochement with France. On the 9th of June 1531 an +agreement was signed for the marriage of Henry of Orleans with +Catherine de' Medici; but it was not till October 1533 that Clement met +Francis at Marseilles, the wedding being celebrated on the 27th. Before, +however, the new political alliance, thus cemented, could take effect, +Clement died, on the 25th of September 1534. + + See E. Casanova, _Lettere di Carlo V. a Clemente VII._ (Florence, + 1893); Hugo Laemmer, _Monumenta Vaticana_, &c (Freiburg, 1861); P. + Balan, _Monumenta saeculi XVI. hist. illustr._ (Innsbruck, 1885); ib. + _Mon. Reform. Luther_ (Regensburg, 1884); Stefan Ehses, _Roem. Dokum. + z. Gesch. der Ehescheidung Heinrichs VIII._ (Paderborn, 1893); + _Calendar of State Papers_ (London, 1869, &c.); J.J.I. von Doellinger, + _Beitraege zur politischen, kirchlichen und Kulturgeschichte_ (3 vols., + Vienna, 1882); F. Guicciardini, _Istoria d'Italia_; L. von Ranke, _Die + roemischen Paepste in den letzten vier Jahrhunderten_, and _Deutsche + Gesch. im Zeitalter der Reformation_; W. Hellwig, _Die politischen + Beziehungen Clements VII. zu Karl V., 1526_ (Leipzig, 1889); H. + Baumgarten, _Gesch. Karls V._ (Stuttgart, 1888); F. Gregorovius, + _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. viii. p. 414. (2nd ed., 1874); P. + Balan, _Clemente VII. e l' Italia de' suoi tempi_ (Milan, 1887); E. + Armstrong, _Charles the Fifth_ (2 vols., London, 1902); M. Creighton, + _Hist. of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation_ (London, + 1882); and H.M. Vaughan, _The Medici Popes_ (1908). Further references + will be found in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie, s. Clemens VII_. See + also _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ii. chap. i. and bibliography. + (W. A. P.) + + +CLEMENT VIII. (Aegidius Munoz), antipope from 1425 to the 26th of July +1429, was a canon at Barcelona until elected at Peniscola by three +cardinals whom the stubborn antipope Benedict XIII. had named on his +death-bed. Clement was immediately recognized by Alphonso V. of Aragon, +who was hostile to Pope Martin V. on account of the latter's opposition +to his claims to the kingdom of Naples, but abdicated as soon as an +agreement was reached between Alphonso and Martin through the exertions +of Cardinal Pierre de Foix, an able diplomat and relation of the king's. +Clement spent his last years as bishop of Majorca, and died on the 28th +of December 1446. + + See. L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i. trans, by F.I. + Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol. + ii. (London, 1899); and consult bibliography on MARTIN V. (C.H.HA.) + + +CLEMENT VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope from 1592 to 1605, was born +at Fano, in 1535. He became a jurist and filled several important +offices. In 1585 he was made a cardinal, and subsequently discharged a +delicate mission to Poland with skill. His moderation and experience +commended him to his fellow cardinals, and on the 30th of January 1592 +he was elected pope, to succeed Innocent IX. While not hostile to Philip +II., Clement desired to emancipate the papacy from undue Spanish +influence, and to that end cultivated closer relations with France. In +1595 he granted absolution to Henry IV., and so removed the last +objection to the acknowledgment of his legitimacy. The peace of Vervins +(1598), which marked the end of Philip's opposition to Henry, was mainly +the work of the pope. Clement also entertained hopes of recovering +England. He corresponded with James I. and with his queen, Anne of +Denmark, a convert to Catholicism. But James was only half in earnest, +and, besides, dared not risk a breach with his subjects. Upon the +failure of the line of Este, Clement claimed the reversion of Ferrara +and reincorporated it into the States of the Church (1598). He +remonstrated against the exclusion of the Jesuits from France, and +obtained their readmission. But in their doctrinal controversy with the +Dominicans (see MOLINA, LUIS) he refrained from a decision, being +unwilling to offend either party. Under Clement the publication of the +revised edition of the Vulgate, begun by Sixtus V., was finished; the +Breviary, Missal and Pontifical received certain corrections; the Index +was expanded; the Vatican library enlarged; and the Collegium +Clementinum founded. Clement was an unblushing nepotist; three of his +nephews he made cardinals, and to one of them gradually surrendered the +control of affairs. But on the other hand among those whom he promoted +to the cardinalate were such men as Baronius, Bellarmine and Toledo. +During this pontificate occurred the burning of Giordano Bruno for +heresy; and the tragedy of the Cenci (see the respective articles). +Clement died on the 5th of March 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XI. + + See the contemporary life by Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum + Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1601-1602); Francolini, _Ippolito Aldobrandini, + che fu Clemente VIII._ (Perugia, 1867); Ranke's excellent sketch, + _Popes_ (Eng. trans. Austin), ii. 234 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der + Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 599 seq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des Kirchenstaates_ + (1880), i. 301 seq. (T. F. C.) + + +CLEMENT IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi) was born in 1600, became successively +auditor of the Rota, archbishop of Tarsus _in partibus_, and cardinal, +and was elected pope on the 20th of June 1667. He effected a temporary +adjustment of the Jansenist controversy; was instrumental in concluding +the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668); healed a long-standing breach +between the Holy See and Portugal; aided Venice against the Turks, and +laboured unceasingly for the relief of Crete, the fall of which hastened +his death on the 9th of October 1669. + + See Oldoin, continuator of Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum + Pontiff. Rom._; Palazzi, _Gesta Pontiff. Rom._ (Venice, 1687-1688), + iv. 621 seq. (both contemporary); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans. Austin), + iii. 59 seq.; and v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 634 seq. + (T.F.C.) + + +CLEMENT X. (Emilio Altieri) was born in Rome, on the 13th of July 1590. +Before becoming pope, on the 29th of April 1670 he had been auditor in +Poland, governor of Ancona, and nuncio in Naples. His advanced age +induced him to resign the control of affairs to his adopted nephew, +Cardinal Paluzzi, who embroiled the papacy in disputes with the resident +ambassadors, and incurred the enmity of Louis XIV., thus provoking the +long controversy over the regalia (see INNOCENT XI.). Clement died on +the 22nd of July 1676. + + See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751), + (contin. of Ciaconius), i. 1 seq.; Palazzi, _Gesta Pontiff. Rom._ + (Venice, 1687-1688), iv. 655 seq.; and Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans. + Austin), iii. 172 seq. (T.F.C.) + + +CLEMENT XI (Giovanni Francesco Albani), pope from 1700 to 1721, was born +in Urbino, on the 22nd of July 1649, received an extraordinary education +in letters, theology and law, filled various important offices in the +Curia, and finally, on the 23rd of November 1700, succeeded Innocent +XII. as pope. His private life and his administration were blameless, +but it was his misfortune to reign in troublous times. In the war of the +Spanish Succession he would willingly have remained neutral, but found +himself between two fires, forced first to recognize Philip V., then +driven by the emperor to recognize the Archduke Charles. In the peace of +Utrecht he was ignored; Sardinia and Sicily, Parma and Piacenza, were +disposed of without regard to papal claims. When he quarrelled with the +duke of Savoy, and revoked his investiture rights in Sicily (1715), his +interdict was treated with contempt. The prestige of the papacy had +hardly been lower within two centuries. About 1702 the Jansenist +controversy broke out afresh. Clement reaffirmed the infallibility of +the pope, in matters of _fact_ (1705), and, in 1713, issued the bull +_Unigenitus_, condemning 101 Jansenistic propositions extracted from the +_Moral Reflections_ of Pasquier Quesnel. The rejection of this bull by +certain bishops led to a new party division and a further prolonging of +the controversy (see JANSENISM and QUESNEL, PASQUIER). Clement also +forbade the practice of the Jesuit missionaries in China of +"accommodating" their teachings to pagan notions or customs, in order to +win converts. Clement was a polished writer, and a generous patron of +art and letters. He died on the 19th of March 1721. + + For contemporary lives see Elci, _The Present State of the Court of + Rome_, trans, from the Ital. (London, 1706); Polidoro, _De Vita et + Reb. Gest. Clem. XI._ (Urbino, 1727); Reboulet, _Hist. de Clem. XI. + Pape_ (Avignon, 1752); Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gest. Pontiff. Rom._ + (Rome, 1751); Sandini, _Vitae Pontiff Rom._ (Padua, 1739); Buder, + _Leben u. Thaten Clementis XI._ (Frankfort, 1720-1721). See also + _Clementis XI. Opera Omnia_ (Frankfort, 1729); the detailed "Studii + sul pontificato di Clem. XI.," by Pometti in the _Archivio della R. + Soc. romana di storia patria_, vols. 21, 22, 23 (1898-1900), and the + extended bibliography in Hergenroether, _Allg. Kirchengesch._ (1880), + iii. 506. (T. F. C.) + + +CLEMENT XII. (Lorenzo Corsini), pope from 1730 to 1740, succeeded +Benedict XIII. on the 12th of July 1730, at the age of seventy-eight. +The rascally Cardinal Coscia, who had deluded Benedict, was at once +brought to justice and forced to disgorge his dishonest gains. +Politically the papacy had sunk to the level of pitiful helplessness, +unable to resist the aggressions of the Powers, who ignored or coerced +it at will. Yet Clement entertained high hopes for Catholicism; he +laboured for a union with the Greek Church, and was ready to facilitate +the return of the Protestants of Saxony. He deserves well of posterity +for his services to learning and art; the restoration of the Arch of +Constantine; the enrichment of the Capitoline museum with antique +marbles and inscriptions, and of the Vatican library With oriental +manuscripts (see ASSEMANI); and the embellishment of the city with many +buildings. He died on the 6th of February 1740, and was succeeded by +Benedict XIV. + + See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751); + Sandini, _Vitae Pontiff. Rom._ (Padua, 1739); Fabroni, _De Vita et + Reb. Gest. Clementis XII_. (Rome, 1760); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans. + Austin), iii. 191 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, + 653 seq. (T.F.C.) + + +CLEMENT XIII. (Carlo della Torre Rezzonico), pope from 1758 to 1769, was +born in Venice, on the 7th of March 1693, filled various important posts +in the Curia, became cardinal in 1737, bishop of Padua in 1743, and +succeeded Benedict XIV. as pope on the 6th of July 1758. He was a man of +upright, moderate and pacific intentions, but his pontificate of eleven +years was anything but tranquil. The Jesuits had fallen upon evil days; +in 1758 Pombal expelled them from Portugal; his example was followed by +the Bourbon countries--France, Spain, the Two Sicilies and Parma +(1764-1768). The order turned to the pope as its natural protector; but +his protests (cf. the bull _Apostolicum pascendi munus_, 7th of January +1765) were unheeded (see JESUITS). A clash with Parma occurred to +aggravate his troubles. The Bourbon kings espoused their relative's +quarrel, seized Avignon, Benevento and Ponte Corvo, and united in a +peremptory demand for the suppression of the Jesuits (January 1769). +Driven to extremities, Clement consented to call a Consistory to +consider the step, but on the very eve of the day set for its meeting he +died (2nd of February 1769), not without suspicion of poison, of which, +however, there appears to be no conclusive evidence. + + A contemporary account of Clement was written by Augustin de Andres y + Sobinas, ... _el nacimiento, estudios y empleos de ... Clem. XIII_. + (Madrid, 1759). Ravignan's _Clement XIII. e Clement XIV._ (Paris, + 1854) is partisan but free from rancour; and appends many interesting + documents. See also the bibliographical note under Clement XIV. + _infra_.; and the extended bibliography in Hergenroether, _Allg. + Kirchengesch._ (1880), iii. 509. (T. F. C.) + + +CLEMENT XIV. (Lorenzo Ganganelli), pope from 1769 to 1774, son of a +physician of St Arcangelo, near Rimini, was born on the 31st of October +1705, entered the Franciscan order at the age of seventeen, and became a +teacher of theology and philosophy. As regent of the college of S. +Bonaventura, Rome, he came under the notice of Benedict XIV., who +conceived a high opinion of his talents and made him consulter of the +Inquisition. Upon the recommendation of Ricci, general of the Jesuits, +Clement XIII. made him a cardinal; but, owing to his disapproval of the +pope's policy, he found himself out of favour and without influence. The +conclave following the death of Clement XIII. was the most momentous of +at least two centuries. The fate of the Jesuits hung in the balance; and +the Bourbon princes were determined to have a pope subservient to their +hostile designs. The struggle was prolonged three months. At length, on +the 19th of May 1769, Ganganelli was chosen, not as a declared enemy of +the Jesuits, but as being least objectionable to each of the contending +factions. The charge of simony was inspired by Jesuit hatred; there is +absolutely no evidence that Ganganelli pledged himself to suppress the +order. + +The outlook for the papacy was dark; Portugal was talking of a +patriarchate; France held Avignon; Naples held Ponte Corvo and +Benevento; Spain was ill-affected; Parma, defiant; Venice, aggressive; +Poland meditating a restriction of the rights of the nuncio. Clement +realized the imperative necessity of conciliating the powers. He +suspended the public reading of the bull _In Coena Domini_, so obnoxious +to civil authority; resumed relations with Portugal; revoked the +_monitorium_ of his predecessor against Parma. But the powers were bent +upon the destruction of the Jesuits, and they had the pope at their +mercy. Clement looked abroad for help, but found none. Even Maria +Theresa, his last hope, suppressed the order in Austria. Temporizing +and partial concessions were of no avail. At last, convinced that the +peace of the Church demanded the sacrifice, Clement signed the brief +_Dominus ac Redemptor_, dissolving the order, on the 21st of July 1773. +The powers at once gave substantial proof of their satisfaction; +Benevento, Ponte Corvo, Avignon and the Venaissin were restored to the +Holy See. But it would be unfair to accept this as evidence of a +bargain. Clement had formerly indignantly rejected the suggestion of +such an exchange of favours. + +There is no question of the legality of the pope's act; whether he was +morally culpable, however, continues to be a matter of bitter +controversy. On the one hand, the suppression is denounced as a base +surrender to the forces of tyranny and irreligion, an act of treason to +conscience, which reaped its just punishment of remorse; on the other +hand, it is as ardently maintained that Clement acted in full accord +with his conscience, and that the order merited its fate by its own +mischievous activities which made it an offence to religion and +authority alike. But whatever the guilt or innocence of the Jesuits, and +whether their suppression were ill-advised or not, there appears to be +no ground for impeaching the motives of Clement, or of doubting that he +had the approval of his conscience. The stories of his having swooned +after signing the brief, and of having lost hope and even reason, are +too absurd to be entertained. The decline in health, which set in +shortly after the suppression, and his death (on the 22nd of September +1774) proceeded from wholly natural causes. The testimony of his +physician and of his confessor ought to be sufficient to discredit the +oft-repeated story of slow poisoning (see Duhr, _Jesuiten Fabeln_, 4th +ed., 1904, pp. 69 seq.). + +The suppression of the Jesuits bulks so large in the pontificate of +Clement that he has scarcely been given due credit for his praiseworthy +attempt to reduce the burdens of taxation and to reform the financial +administration, nor for his liberal encouragement of art and learning, +of which the museum Pio-Clementino is a lasting monument. + +No pope has been the subject of more diverse judgments than Clement XIV. +Zealous defenders credit him with all virtues, and bless him as the +instrument divinely ordained to restore the peace of the Church; +virulent detractors charge him with ingratitude, cowardice and +double-dealing. The truth is at neither extreme. Clement's was a deeply +religious and poetical nature, animated by a lofty and refined spirit. +Gentleness, equanimity and benevolence were native to him. He cherished +high purposes and obeyed a lively conscience. But he instinctively +shrank from conflict; he lacked the resoluteness and the sterner sort of +courage that grapples with a crisis. + + Caraccioli's _Vie de Clement XIV_ (Paris, 1775) (freq. translated), is + incomplete, uncritical and too laudatory. The middle of the 19th + century saw quite a spirited controversy over Clement XIV.; St Priest, + in his _Hist. de la chute des Jesuites_ (Paris, 1846), represented + Clement as lamentably, almost culpably, weak; Cretineau-Joly, in his + _Hist. ... de la Comp. de Jesus_ (Paris, 1844-1845), and his _Clement + XIV et les Jesuites_ (Paris, 1847), was outspoken and bitter in his + condemnation; this provoked Theiner's _Gesch. des Pontificats Clemens' + XIV._ (Leipzig and Paris, 1852), a vigorous defence based upon + original documents to which, as custodian of the Vatican archives, the + author had freest access; Cretineau-Joly replied with _Le Pape Clement + XIV; Lettres au P. Theiner_ (Paris, 1852). Ravignan's _Clem. XIII. e + Clem. XIV._ (Paris, 1854) is a weak, half-hearted apology for Clement + XIV. See also v. Reumont, _Ganganelli, Papst Clemens XIV._ (Berlin, + 1847); and Reinerding, _Clemens XIV. u. d. Aufhebung der Gesellschaft + Jesu_ (Augsburg, 1854). The letters of Clement have frequently been + printed; the genuineness of Caraccioli's collection (Paris, 1776; + freq. translated) has been questioned, but most of the letters are now + generally accepted as genuine; see also _Clementis XIV. Epp. ac + Brevia_, ed. Theiner (Paris, 1852). An extended bibliography is to be + found in Hergenroether, _Allg. Kirchengesch._ (1880), iii. 510 seq. + (T. F. C.) + + + + +CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (_Clemens Alexandrinus_), Greek Father of the +Church. The little we know of him is mainly derived from his own works. +He was probably born about A.D. 150 of heathen parents in Athens. The +earliest writer after himself who gives us any information with regard +to him is Eusebius. The only points on which his works now extant inform +us are his date and his instructors. In the _Stromateis_, while +attempting to show that the Jewish Scriptures were older than any +writings of the Greeks, he invariably brings down his dates to the death +of Commodus, a circumstance which at once suggests that he wrote in the +reign of the emperor Severus, from 193 to 211 A.D. (see _Strom._ lib. i. +cap. xxi. 140, p. 403, Potter's edition). The passage in regard to his +teachers is corrupt, and the sense is therefore doubtful (_Strom._ lib. +i. cap. i. 11, p. 322, P.). + + "This treatise," he says, speaking of the _Stromateis_, "has not been + contrived for mere display, but memoranda are treasured up in it for + my old age to be a remedy for forgetfulness,--an image, truly, and an + outline of those clear and living discourses, and those men truly + blessed and noteworthy I was privileged to hear. One of these was in + Greece, the Ionian, the other was in Magna Graecia; the one of them + was from Coele Syria, the other from Egypt; but there were others in + the East, one of whom belonged to the Assyrians, but the other was in + Palestine, originally a Jew. The last of those whom I met was first in + power. On falling in with him I found rest, having tracked him while + he lay concealed in Egypt. He was in truth the Sicilian bee, and, + plucking the flowers of the prophetic and apostolic meadow, he + produced a wonderfully pure knowledge in the souls of the listeners." + +Some have supposed that in this passage seven teachers are named, others +that there are only five, and various conjectures have been hazarded as +to what persons were meant. The only one about whom conjecture has any +basis for speculating is the last, for Eusebius states (_H.E._ v. 11) +that Clement made mention of Pantaenus as his teacher in the +_Hypotyposes_. The reference in this passage is plainly to one whom he +might well designate as his teacher. + +To the information which Clement here supplies subsequent writers add +little. By Eusebius and Photius he is called Titus Flavius Clemens, and +"the Alexandrian" is added to his name. Epiphanius tells us that some +said Clement was an Alexandrian, others that he was an Athenian (_Haer._ +xxxii. 6), and a modern writer imagined that he reconciled this +discordance by the supposition that he was born at Athens, but lived at +Alexandria. We know nothing of his conversion except that he passed from +heathenism to Christianity. This is expressly stated by Eusebius +(_Praep. Evangel._ lib. ii. cap. 2), though it is likely that Eusebius +had no other authority than the works of Clement. These works, however, +warrant the inference. They show a singularly minute acquaintance with +the ceremonies of pagan religion, and there are indications that Clement +himself had been initiated in some of the mysteries (_Protrept._ cap. +ii. sec. 14, p. 13, P.). There is no means of determining the date of +his conversion. He attained the position of presbyter in the church of +Alexandria (Eus. _H.E._ vi. 11, and Jerome, _De Vir. Ill._ 38), and +became perhaps the assistant, and certainly the successor of Pantaenus +in the catechetical school of that place. Among his pupils were Origen +(Eus. _H.E._ vi. 7) and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem (Eus. _H.E._ vi. +14.). How long he continued in Alexandria, and when and where he died, +are all matters of pure conjecture. The only further notice of Clement +that we have in history is in a letter written in 211 by Alexander, +bishop of Jerusalem, to the Antiochians, and preserved by Eusebius +(_H.E._ vi. 11). The words are as follows:--"This letter I sent through +Clement the blessed presbyter, a man virtuous and tried, whom ye know +and will come to know completely, who being here by the providence and +guidance of the Ruler of all strengthened and increased the church of +the Lord." A statement of Eusebius in regard to the persecution of +Severus in 202 (_H.E._ vi. 3) would render it likely that Clement left +Alexandria on that occasion. It is conjectured that he went to his old +pupil Alexander, who was at that time bishop of Flaviada in Cappadocia, +and that when his pupil was raised to the see of Jerusalem Clement +followed him there. The letter implies that he was known to the +Antiochians, and that it was likely he would be still better known. Some +have conjectured that he returned to Alexandria, but there is not the +shadow of evidence for such conjecture. Alexander, writing to Origen (c. +216), mentions Clement as dead (Eus. _H.E._ vi. 14, 9). + + Eusebius and Jerome give us lists of the works which Clement left + behind him. Photius has also described some of them. They are as + follows:--(1) [Greek: Pros Hellenas logos o protreptikos], _A + Hortatory Address to the Greeks_. (2) [Greek: O Paidagogos], _The + Tutor_, in three books. (3) [Greek: Stromateis], or _Patch-work_, in + eight books. (4) [Greek: Tis o sozomenos plousios]; _Who is the Rich + Man that is Saved?_ (5) Eight books of [Greek: Hypotyposeis], + _Adumbrations or Outlines._ (6) _On the Passover._ (7) _Discourses on + Fasting._ (8) _On Slander._ (9) _Exhortation to Patience, or to the + Newly Baptized._ (10) The [Greek: Kanon ekklesiastikos], the _Rule of + the Church, or to those who Judaize_, a work dedicated to Alexander, + bishop of Jerusalem. + + Of these, the first four have come down to us complete, or nearly + complete. The first three form together a progressive introduction to + Christianity corresponding to the stages through which the [Greek: + mystes] passed at Eleusis--purification, initiation, revelation. The + _Hortatory Address to the Greeks_ is an appeal to them to give up the + worship of their gods, and to devote themselves to the worship of the + one living and true God. Clement exhibits the absurdity and immorality + of the stories told with regard to the pagan deities, the cruelties + perpetrated in their worship, and the utter uselessness of bowing down + before images made by hands. He at the same time shows the Greeks that + their own greatest philosophers and poets recognized the unity of the + divine Being, and had caught glimpses of the true nature of God, but + that fuller light had been thrown on this subject by the Hebrew + prophets. He replies to the objection that it was not right to abandon + the customs of their forefathers, and points them to Christ as their + only safe guide to God. + + The _Paedagogue_ is divided into three books. In the first Clement + discusses the necessity for and the true nature of the Paedagogus, and + shows how Christ as the Logos acted as Paedagogus, and still acts. In + the second and third books Clement enters into particulars, and + explains how the Christian following the Logos or Reason ought to + behave in the various circumstances of life--in eating, drinking, + furnishing a house, in dress, in the relations of social life, in the + care of the body, and similar concerns, and concludes with a general + description of the life of a Christian. Appended to the _Paedagogue_ + are two hymns, which are, in all probability, the production of + Clement, though some have conjectured that they were portions of the + church service of that time. [Greek: stromateis] were bags in which + bedclothes ([Greek: stromata]) were kept. The phrase was used as a + book-title by Origen and others, and is equivalent to our + "miscellanies." It is difficult to give a brief account of the varied + contents of the book. Sometimes Clement discusses chronology, + sometimes philosophy, sometimes poetry, entering into the most minute + critical and chronological details; but one object runs through all, + and this is to show what the true Christian Gnostic is, and what is + his relation to philosophy. The work was in eight books. The first + seven are complete. The eighth now extant is really an incomplete + treatise on logic. Some critics have rejected this book as spurious, + since its matter is so different from that of the rest. Others, + however, have held to its genuineness, because in a Patch-work or Book + of Miscellanies the difference of subject is no sound objection, and + because Photius seems to have regarded our present eighth book as + genuine (Phot. cod. iii. p. 89b, Bekker). + + The treatise _Who is the Rich Man that is Saved?_ is an admirable + exposition of the narrative contained in St Mark's Gospel x. 17-31. + Here Clement argues that wealth, if rightly used, is not unchristian. + + The _Hypotyposes_[1] in eight books, have not come down to us. + Cassiodorus translated them into Latin, freely altering to suit his + own ideas of orthodoxy. Both Eusebius and Photius describe the work. + It was a short commentary on all the books of Scripture, including + some of the apocryphal works, such as the Epistle of Barnabas and the + Revelation of Peter. Photius speaks in strong language of the impiety + of some opinions in the book (_Bibl._ cod. 109, p. 89 a Bekker), but + his statements are such as to prove conclusively that he must have had + a corrupt copy, or read very carelessly, or grossly misunderstood + Clement. Notes in Latin on the first epistle of Peter, the epistle of + Jude, and the first two of John have come down to us; but whether they + are the translation of Cassiodorus, or indeed a translation of + Clement's work at all, is a matter of dispute. + + The treatise on the Passover was occasioned by a work of Melito on the + same subject. Two fragments of this treatise were given by Petavius, + and are contained in the modern editions. + + We know nothing of the work called _The Ecclesiastical Canon_ from any + external testimony. Clement himself often mentions the [Greek: + ekklesiastikos kanon], and defines it as the agreement and harmony of + the law and the prophets with the covenant delivered at the appearance + of Christ (_Strom._ vi. cap. xv. 125, p. 803, P.). No doubt this was + the subject of the treatise. Jerome and Photius call the work + _Ecclesiastical Canons_, but this seems to be a mistake. + + Of the other treatises mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome nothing is + known. A fragment of Clement, quoted by Antonius Melissa, is most + probably taken from the treatise on slander. + + Besides the treatises mentioned by Eusebius, fragments of treatises on + Providence and the Soul have been preserved. Mention is also made of a + work by Clement on the Prophet Amos, and another on Definitions. + + In addition to these Clement often speaks of his intention to write on + certain subjects, but it may well be doubted whether in most cases, if + not all, he intended to devote separate treatises to them. Some have + found an allusion to the treatise on the Soul already mentioned. The + other subjects are Marriage ([Greek: gamikos logos]), Continence, the + Duties of Bishops, Presbyters, Deacons and Widows, Prophecy, the Soul, + the Transmigration of the Soul and the Devil, Angels, the Origin of + the World, First Principles and the Divinity of the Logos, Allegorical + Interpretations of Statements made with regard to God's anger and + similar affections, the Unity of the Church, and the Resurrection. + + Two works are incorporated in the editions of Clement which are not + mentioned by himself or any ancient writer. They are [Greek: Ek ton + Theodoton kai tes anatolikes kaloumenes didaskalias kata tous + Oualentinou chronous epitomai], and [Greek: Ek ton prophetikon + eklogai]. The first, if it is the work of Clement, must be a book + merely of excerpts, for it contains many opinions which Clement + opposed. Mention is made of Pantaenus in the second, and some have + thought it more worthy of him than the first. Others have regarded it + as a work similar to the first, and derived from Theodorus. + +Clement occupies a profoundly interesting position in the history of +Christianity. He is the first to bring all the culture of the Greeks and +all the speculations of the Christian heretics to bear on the exposition +of Christian truth. He does not attain to a systematic exhibition of +Christian doctrine, but he paves the way for it, and lays the first +stones of the foundation. In some respects Justin anticipated him. He +also was well acquainted with Greek philosophy, and took a genial view +of it; but he was not nearly so widely read as Clement. The list of +Greek authors whom Clement has quoted occupies upwards of fourteen of +the quarto pages in Fabricius's _Bibliotheca Graeca_. He is at home +alike in the epic and the lyric, the tragic and the comic poets, and his +knowledge of the prose writers is very extensive. Some, however, of the +classic poets he appears to have known only from anthologies; hence he +was misled into quoting as from Euripides and others verses which were +written by Jewish forgers. He made a special study of the philosophers. +Equally minute is his knowledge of the systems of the Christian +heretics. And in all cases it is plain that he not merely read but +thought deeply on the questions which the civilization of the Greeks and +the various writings of poets, philosophers and heretics raised. But it +was in the Scriptures that he found his greatest delight. He believed +them to contain the revelation of God's wisdom to men. He quotes all the +books of the Old Testament except Ruth and the Song of Solomon, and +amongst the sacred writings of the Old Testament he evidently included +the book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus. He is +equally full in his quotations from the New Testament, for he quotes +from all the books except the epistle to Philemon, the second epistle of +St Peter, and the epistle of St James, and he quotes from _The Shepherd +of Hermas_, and the epistles of Clemens Romanus and of Barnabas, as +inspired. He appeals also to many of the lost gospels, such as those of +the Hebrews, of the Egyptians and of Matthias. + +Notwithstanding this adequate knowledge of Scripture, the modern +theologian is disappointed to find very little of what he deems +characteristically Christian. In fact Clement regarded Christianity as a +philosophy. The ancient philosophers sought through their philosophy to +attain to a nobler and holier life, and this also was the aim of +Christianity. The difference between the two, in Clement's judgment, was +that the Greek philosophers had only glimpses of the truth, that they +attained only to fragments of the truth, while Christianity revealed in +Christ the absolute and perfect truth. All the stages of the world's +history were therefore preparations leading up to this full revelation, +and God's care was not confined to the Hebrews alone. The worship of the +heavenly bodies, for instance, was given to man at an early stage that +he might rise from a contemplation of these sublime objects to the +worship of the Creator. Greek philosophy in particular was the +preparation of the Greeks for Christ. It was the schoolmaster or +paedagogue to lead them to Christ. Plato was Moses atticizing. Clement +varies in his statement how Plato got his wisdom or his fragments of the +Reason. Sometimes he thinks that they came direct from God, like all +good things, but he is also fond of maintaining that many of Plato's +best thoughts were borrowed from the Hebrew prophets; and he makes the +same statement in regard to the wisdom of the other philosophers. But +however this may be, Christ was the end to which all that was true in +philosophies pointed. Christ himself was the Logos, the Reason. God the +Father was ineffable. The Son alone can manifest Him fully. He is the +Reason that pervades the universe, that brings out all goodness, that +guides all good men. It was through possessing somewhat of this Reason +that the philosophers attained to any truth and goodness; but in +Christians he dwells more fully and guides them through all the +perplexities of life. Photius, probably on a careless reading of +Clement, argued that he could not have believed in a real incarnation. +But the words of Clement are quite precise and their meaning +indisputable. The real difficulty attaches not to the Second Person, but +to the First. The Father in Clement's mind becomes the Absolute of the +philosophers, that is to say, not the Father at all, but the Monad, a +mere point devoid of all attributes. He believed in a personal Son of +God who was the Reason and Wisdom of God; and he believed that this Son +of God really became incarnate though he speaks of him almost invariably +as the Word, and attaches little value to his human nature. The object +of his incarnation and death was to free man from his sins, to lead him +into the path of wisdom, and thus in the end elevate him to the position +of a god. But man's salvation was to be gradual. It began with faith, +passed from that to love, and ended in full and complete knowledge. +There could be no faith without knowledge. But the knowledge is +imperfect, and the Christian was to do many things in simple obedience +without knowing the reason. But he has to move upwards continually until +he at length does nothing that is evil, and he knows fully the reason +and object of what he does. He thus becomes the true Gnostic, but he can +become the true Gnostic only by contemplation and by the practice of +what is right. He has to free himself from the power of passion. He has +to give up all thoughts of pleasure. He must prefer goodness in the +midst of torture to evil with unlimited pleasure. He has to resist the +temptations of the body, keeping it under strict control, and with the +eye of the soul undimmed by corporeal wants and impulses, contemplate +God the supreme good, and live a life according to reason. In other +words, he must strive after likeness to God as he reveals himself in his +Reason or in Christ. Clement thus looks entirely at the enlightened +moral elevation to which Christianity raises man. He believed that +Christ instructed men before he came into the world, and he therefore +viewed heathenism with kindly eye. He was also favourable to the pursuit +of all kinds of knowledge. All enlightenment tended to lead up to the +truths of Christianity, and hence knowledge of every kind not evil was +its handmaid. Clement had at the same time a strong belief in evolution +or development. The world went through various stages in preparation for +Christianity. The man goes through various stages before he can reach +Christian perfection. And Clement conceived that this development took +place not merely in this life, but in the future through successive +grades. The Jew and the heathen had the gospel preached to them in the +world below by Christ and his apostles, and Christians will have to pass +through processes of purification and trial after death before they +reach knowledge and perfect bliss. + +The beliefs of Clement have caused considerable difference of opinion +among modern scholars. He sought the truth from whatever quarter he +could get it, believing that all that is good comes from God, wherever +it be found. He belongs therefore to no school of philosophers. He calls +himself an Eclectic. He was in the main a Neoplatonist, drawing from +that school his doctrines of the Monad and his strong tendency towards +mysticism. For his moral doctrine he borrowed freely from Stoicism. +Aristotelian features may be found but are quite subordinate. But +Clement always regards the articles of the Christian creed as the axioms +of a new philosophy. Daehne had tried to show that he was Neoplatonic, +and Reinkens has maintained that he was essentially Aristotelian. His +mode of viewing Christianity does not fit into any classification. It is +the result of the period in which he lived, of his wide culture and the +simplicity and noble purity of his character. + +It is needless to say that his books well deserve study; but the study +is not smoothed by simplicity of style. Clement professed to despise +rhetoric, but was himself a rhetorician, and his style is turgid, +involved and difficult. He is singularly simple in his character. In +discussing marriage he refuses to use any but the plainest language. A +euphemism is with him a falsehood. But he is temperate in his opinions; +and the practical advices in the second and third books of the +_Paedagogue_ are remarkably sound and moderate. He is not always very +critical, and he is passionately fond of allegorical interpretations, +but these were the faults of his age. + +All early writers speak of Clement in the highest terms of laudation, +and he certainly ought to have been a saint in any Church that reveres +saints. But Clement is not a saint in the Roman Church. He was a saint +up till the time of Benedict XIV., who read Photius on Clement, believed +him, and struck the Alexandrian's name out of the calendar. But many +Roman Catholic writers, though they yield a practical obedience to the +papal decision, have adduced good reason why it should be reversed +(Cognat, p. 451). + + EDITIONS.--The standard edition of the collected works will be that of + O. Staehlin (first vol. containing _Protrepticus_ and _Paedagogus_, + Leipzig, 1905). Separate editions of _Strom_. vii., Hort and Major + (1902); _Q.D.S._, Barnard in _Texts and Studies_, v. 2 (1897); W. + Dindorf's edition in 4 vols. (Oxford, 1869) is little more than a + reprint of the text of Bishop Potter, 1715. For the _Fragments_ see + Zahn, _Forschungen zur Gesch. des neut. Kanons_, part iii., or Harnack + and Preuschen, _Gesch. der altch. Litt._, vol. i. + + LITERATURE.--A copious bibliography will be found in Harnack, + _Chronologie_, vol. ii., or in Bardenhewer, _Gesch. der altk. Lit._ + Either of these will supply the names of works upon Clement's biblical + text, his use of Stoic writers, his quotations from heathen writers, + and his relation to heathen philosophy. A valuable book is de Faye, + _Clem. d'Alex_. (1898). For his theological position see Harnack, + _Dogmengeschichte_; Hort, _Six Lectures on the Ante-Nicene Fathers_; + Westcott, "Clem, of Alex." in _Dict. Christ. Biog._; Bigg, _Christian + Platonists of Alex._ (1886). A book on Clement's relation to Mysticism + is wanted. (C. Bi.; J. D.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Zahn thinks we have part of them in the _Adumbrationes Clem. + Alex. in epistolas canonicas_ (Codex Lindum, 96, sec. ix.). They were + perhaps intended as a completion of the preceding course. + + + + +CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793), French historian, was born at Beze, near +Dijon, and was educated at the Jesuit College at Dijon. At the age of +seventeen he entered the society of the Benedictines of Saint Maur, and +worked with such intense application that at the age of twenty-five he +was obliged to take a protracted rest. He now resided in Paris, where he +wrote the 11th and 12th vols. of the _Histoire litteraire de la France_, +and edited (with Dom Brial) the 12th and 13th vols. of the _Recueil des +historiens des Gauls et de la France_. The king appointed him on the +committee which was engaged in publishing charters, diplomas and other +documents connected with French history (see Xavier Charmes, _Le Comite +des travaux historiques et scientifiques_, vol. i., 1886, passim); and +the Academy of Inscriptions chose him as a member (1785). Dom Clement +also revised the _Art de verifier les dates_, edited in 1750 by Dom +Clemencet. Three volumes with the Indexes appeared from 1783 to 1792. He +was engaged in preparing another volume including the period before the +Christian era, when he died suddenly of apoplexy, at the age of +sixty-nine. The work was afterwards brought down from 1770 to 1827 by +Julien de Courcelles and Fortia d'Urban. + + + + +CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589), murderer of the French king Henry III., +was born at Sorbon in the Ardennes, and became a Dominican friar. Civil +war was raging in France, and Clement became an ardent partisan of the +League; his mind appears to have become unhinged by religious +fanaticism, and he talked of exterminating the heretics, and formed a +plan to kill Henry III. His project was encouraged by some of the heads +of the League; he was assured of temporal rewards if he succeeded, and +of eternal bliss if he failed. Having obtained letters for the king, he +left Paris on the 31st of July 1589, and reached St Cloud, the +headquarters of Henry, who was besieging Paris. On the following day he +was admitted to the royal presence, and presenting his letters he told +the king that he had an important and confidential message to deliver. +The attendants then withdrew, and while Henry was reading the letters +Clement mortally wounded him with a dagger which had been concealed +beneath his cloak. The assassin was at once killed by the attendants who +rushed in, and Henry died early on the following day. Clement's body +was afterwards quartered and burned. This deed, however, was viewed with +far different feelings in Paris and by the partisans of the League, the +murderer being regarded as a martyr and extolled by Pope Sixtus V., +while even his canonization was discussed. + + See E. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, tome vi. (Paris, 1904). + + + + +CLEMENTI, MUZIO (c. 1751-1832), Italian pianist and composer, was born +at Rome between 1750 and 1752. His father, a jeweller, encouraged his +son's early musical talent. Buroni and Cordicelli were his first +masters, and at the age of nine Clementi's theoretical and practical +studies had advanced to such a degree that he was able to win the +position of organist at a church. He continued his studies under +Santarelli and Carpani, and at the age of fourteen wrote a mass which +was performed in public. About 1766 Beckford, the author of _Vathek_, +persuaded Clementi to follow him to England, where the young composer +lived in retirement at one of the country seats of his protector in +Dorsetshire until 1770. In that year he first appeared in London, where +his success both as composer and pianist was rapid and brilliant. In +1777 he was for some time employed as conductor of the Italian opera, +but he soon afterwards left London for Paris. Here also his concerts +were crowded by enthusiastic audiences, and the same success accompanied +Clementi on a tour about the year 1780 to southern Germany and Austria. +At Vienna, which he visited between 1781 and 1782, he was received with +high honour by the emperor Joseph II., in whose presence he met Mozart, +and fought a kind of musical duel with him. His technical skill proved +to be equal if not superior to that of his rival, who on the other hand +infinitely surpassed him by the passionate beauty of his interpretation. +It is worth noting that one of the finest of Clementi's sonatas, that in +B flat, shows an exactly identical opening theme with Mozart's overture +to the _Flauto Magico_. + +In May 1782 Clementi returned to London, where for the next twelve years +he continued his lucrative occupations of fashionable teacher and +performer at the concerts of the aristocracy. He took shares in the +pianoforte business of a firm which went bankrupt in 1800. He then +established a pianoforte and music business of his own, under the name +of Clementi & Co. Other members were added to the firm, including +Collard and Davis, and the firm was ultimately taken over by Messrs +Collard alone. Amongst his pupils on the pianoforte during this period +may be mentioned John Field, the composer of the celebrated _Nocturnes_. +In his company Clementi paid, in 1804, a visit to Paris, Vienna, St +Petersburg, Berlin and other cities. While he was in Berlin, Meyerbeer +became one of his pupils. He also revisited his own country after an +absence of more than thirty years. In 1810 Clementi returned to London, +but refused to play again in public, devoting the remainder of his life +to composition. Several symphonies belong to this time, and were played +with much success at contemporary concerts, but none of them seem to +have been published. His intellectual and musical faculties remained +unimpaired until his death, on the 9th of March 1832, at Evesham, +Worcester. + +Of Clementi's playing in his youth, Moscheles wrote that it was "marked +by a most beautiful _legato_, a supple touch in lively passages, and a +most unfailing _technique_." Mozart may be said to have closed the old +and Clementi to have founded the newer school of _technique_ on the +piano. Amongst Clementi's compositions the most remarkable are sixty +sonatas for pianoforte, and the great collection of _Etudes_ called +_Gradus ad Parnassum_. + + + + +CLEMENTINE LITERATURE, the name generally given to the writings which at +one time or another were fathered upon Pope Clement I. (q.v.), commonly +called Clemens Romanus, who was early regarded as a disciple of St +Peter. Thus they are for the most part a species of the larger +pseudo-Petrine genus. Chief among them are: (1) The so-called Second +Epistle; (2) two Epistles on Virginity; (3) the _Homilies_ and +_Recognitions_; (4) the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (q.v.); and (5) five +epistles forming part of the Forged Decretals (see DECRETALS). The +present article deals mainly with the third group, to which the title +"Clementine literature" is usually confined, owing to the stress laid +upon it in the famous Tuebingen reconstruction of primitive Christianity, +in which it played a leading part; but later criticism has lowered its +importance as its true date and historical relations have been +progressively ascertained. (1) and (2) became "Clementine" only by +chance, but (3) was so originally by literary device or fiction, the +cause at work also in (4) and (5). But while in all cases the suggestion +of Clement's authorship came ultimately from his prestige as writer of +the genuine Epistle of Clement (see CLEMENT I.), both (3) and (4) were +due to this idea as operative on Syrian soil; (5) is a secondary +formation based on (3) as known to the West. + +(1) _The "Second Epistle of Clement."_--This is really the earliest +extant Christian homily (see APOSTOLIC FATHERS). Its theme is the duty +of Christian repentance, with a view to obedience to Christ's precepts +as the true confession and homage which He requires. Its special charge +is "Preserve the flesh pure and the seal (i.e. baptism) unstained" +(viii. 6). But the peculiar way in which it enforces its morals in terms +of the Platonic contrast between the spiritual and sensuous worlds, as +archetype and temporal manifestation, suggests a special local type of +theology which must be taken into account in fixing its _provenance_. +This theology, the fact that the preacher seems to quote the _Gospel +according to the Egyptians_ (in ch. xii. and possibly elsewhere) as if +familiar to his hearers, and indeed its literary affinities generally, +all point to Alexandria as the original home of the homily, at a date +about 120-140 (see _Zeit. f. N. T. Wissenschaft_, vii. 123 ff). Neither +Corinth (as Lightfoot) nor Rome (as Harnack, who assigns it to Bishop +Soter, c. 166-174) satisfies all the internal conditions, while the +Eastern nature of the external evidence and the homily's quasi-canonical +status in the Codex-Alexandrinus strongly favour an Alexandrine origin. + +(2) _The Two Epistles to Virgins_, i.e. to Christian celibates of both +sexes. These are known in their entirety only in Syriac, and were first +published by Wetstein (1752), who held them genuine. This view is now +generally discredited, even by Roman Catholics like Funk, their best +recent editor (_Patres Apost._, vol. ii.). External evidence begins with +Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 15) and Jerome (_Ad Jovin._ i. 12); and the +silence of Eusebius tells heavily against their existence before the 4th +century, at any rate as writings of Clement. The Monophysite Timothy of +Alexandria (A.D. 457) cites one of them as Clement's, while Antiochus of +St Saba (c. A.D. 620) makes copious but unacknowledged extracts from +both in the original Greek. There is no trace of their use in the West. +Thus their Syrian origin is manifest, the more so that in the Syriac MS. +they are appended to the New Testament, like the better-known epistles +of Clement in the Codex Alexandrinus. Indeed, judging from another +Syriac MS. of earlier date, which includes the latter writings in its +canon, it seems that the Epistles on Virginity gradually replaced the +earlier pair in certain Syrian churches--even should Lightfoot be right +in doubting if this had really occurred by Epiphanius's day (_S. Clement +of Rome_, i. 412). + +Probably these epistles did not originally bear Clement's name at all, +but formed a single epistle addressed to ascetics among an actual circle +of churches. In that case they, or rather it, may date from the 3rd +century in spite of Eusebius's silence, and are not pseudo-Clementine in +any real sense. It matters little whether or not the false ascription +was made before the division into two implied already by Epiphanius (c. +A.D. 375). Special occasion for such a hortatory letter may be discerned +in its polemic against intimate relations between ascetics of opposite +sex, implied to exist among its readers, in contrast to usage in the +writer's own locality. Now we know that spiritual unions, prompted +originally by highstrung Christian idealism as to a religious fellowship +transcending the law of nature in relation to sex, did exist between +persons living under vows of celibacy during the 3rd century in +particular, and not least in Syria (cf. the case of Paul of Samosata, c. +265, and the Synod of Ancyra in Galatia, c. 314). It is natural, then, +to see in the original epistle a protest against the dangers of such +spiritual boldness (cf. "Subintroductae" in Herzog-Hauck's +_Realencyklopaedie_), prior perhaps to the famous case at Antioch just +noted. Possibly it is the feeling of south Syria or Palestine that here +expresses itself in remonstrance against usages prevalent in north +Syria. Such a view finds support also in the New Testament canon implied +in these epistles. + +(3)[a] _The Epistle of Clement to James_ (the Lord's brother). This was +originally part of (3)[b], in connexion with which its origin and date +are discussed. But as known to the West through Rufinus's Latin version, +it was quoted as genuine by the synod of Vaison (A.D. 442) and +throughout the middle ages. It became "the starting point of the most +momentous and gigantic of medieval forgeries, the Isidorian Decretals," +"where it stands at the head of the pontifical letters, extended to more +than twice its original length." This extension perhaps occurred during +the 5th century. At any rate the letter in this form, along with a +"second epistle to James" (on the Eucharist, church furniture, &c.), +dating from the early 6th century, had separate currency long before the +9th century, when they were incorporated in the _Decretals_ by the +forger who raised the Clementine epistles to five (see Lightfoot, +_Clement_, i. 414 ff.). + +(3)[b] _The "Homilies" and "Recognitions_"--"The two chief extant +Clementine writings, differing considerably in some respects in +doctrine, are both evidently the outcome of a peculiar speculative type +of Judaistic Christianity, for which the most characteristic name of +Christ was 'the true Prophet.' The framework of both is a narrative +purporting to be written by Clement (of Rome) to St James, the Lord's +brother, describing at the beginning his own conversion and the +circumstances of his first acquaintance with St Peter, and then a long +succession of incidents accompanying St Peter's discourses and +disputations, leading up to a romantic recognition of Clement's father, +mother and two brothers, from whom he had been separated since +childhood. The problems discussed under this fictitious guise are with +rare exceptions fundamental problems for every age; and, whatever may be +thought of the positions maintained, the discussions are hardly ever +feeble or trivial. Regarded simply as mirroring the past, few, if any, +remains of Christian antiquity present us with so vivid a picture of the +working of men's minds under the influence of the new leaven which had +entered into the world" (Hort, _Clem. Recog._, p. xiv.). + +The indispensable preliminary to a really historic view of these +writings is some solution of the problem of their mutual relations. The +older criticism assumed a dependence of one upon the other, and assigned +one or both to the latter part of the 2nd century. Recent criticism, +however, builds on the principle, which emerges alike from the external +and internal evidence (see Salmon in the _Dict. of Christian +Biography_), that both used a common basis. Our main task, then, is to +define the nature, origin and date of the parent document, and if +possible its own literary antecedents. Towards the solution of this +problem two contributions of prime importance have recently been made. +The earlier of these is by F.J.A. Hort, and was delivered in the form of +lectures as far back as 1884, though issued posthumously only in 1901; +the other is the elaborate monograph of Dr Hans Waitz (1904). + +_Criticism._--(i.) _External Evidence as to the Clementine Romance._ The +evidence of ancient writers really begins, not with Origen,[1] but with +Eusebius of Caesarea, who in his _Eccl. Hist._ iii. 38, writes as +follows: "Certain men have quite lately brought forward as written by +him (Clement) other verbose and lengthy writings, containing dialogues +of Peter, forsooth, and Apion, whereof not the slightest mention is to +be found among the ancients, for they do not even preserve in purity the +stamp of the Apostolic orthodoxy." Apion, the Alexandrine grammarian +and foe of Judaism, whose criticism was answered by Josephus, appears +in this character both in _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_, though mainly +in the former (iv. 6-vii. 5). Thus Eusebius implies (1) a spurious +Clementine work containing matter found also in our _Homilies_ at any +rate; and (2) its quite recent origin. Next we note that an extract in +the _Philocalia_ is introduced as follows: "Yea, and Clement the Roman, +a disciple of Peter the Apostle, after using words in harmony with these +on the present problem, in conversation with his father at Laodicea in +the _Circuits_, speaks a very necessary word for the end of arguments +touching this matter, viz. those things which seem to have proceeded +from _genesis_ (= astrological destiny), in the fourteenth book." The +extract answers to _Recognitions_, x. 10-13, but it is absent from our +_Homilies_. Here we observe that (1) the extract agrees this time with +_Recognitions_, not with _Homilies_; (2) its framework is that of the +Clementine romance found in both; (3) the tenth and last book of +_Recognitions_ is here parallel to book xiv. of a work called _Circuits_ +(_Periodoi_). + +This last point leads on naturally to the witness of Epiphanius (c. +375), who, speaking of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians of various +sorts, and particularly the Essene type, says (_Haer._ xxx. 15) that +"they use certain other books likewise, to wit, the so-called _Circuits_ +of Peter, which were written by the hand of Clement, falsifying their +contents, though leaving a few genuine things." Here Ephiphanius simply +assumes that the Ebionite _Circuits of Peter_ was based on a genuine +work of the same scope, and goes on to say that the spurious elements +are proved such by contrast with the tenor of Clement's "encyclic +epistles" (i.e. those to virgins, (2) above); for these enjoin virginity +(celibacy), and praise Elijah, David, Samson, and all the prophets, +whereas the Ebionite _Circuits_ favour marriage (even in Apostles) and +depreciate the prophets between Moses and Christ, "the true Prophet." +"In the _Circuits_, then, they adapted the whole to their own views, +representing Peter falsely in many ways, as that he was daily baptized +for the sake of purification, as these also do; and they say that he +likewise abstained from animal food and meat, as they themselves also +do." Now all the points here noted in the _Circuits_ can be traced in +our _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_, though toned down in different +degrees. + +The witness of the Arianizing _Opus Imperfectum in Matthaeum_ (c. 400) is +in general similar. Its usual form of citation is "Peter in Clement" +(_apud Clementem_). This points to "Clement" as a brief title for the +Clementine _Periodoi_, a title actually found in a Syriac MS. of A.D. 411 +which contains large parts of _Recognitions_ and _Homilies_, and twice +used by Rufinus, e.g. when he proposes to inscribe his version of the +_Recognitions_ "Rufinus _Clemens_." Rufinus in his preface to this +work--in which for the first time we meet the title +_Recognition(s)_--observes that there are two editions to which the name +applies, two collections of books differing in some points but in many +respects containing the same narrative. This he remarks in explanation of +the order of his version in some places, which he feels may strike his +friend Gaudentius as unusual, the inference being that the other edition +was the better-known one, although it lacked "the transformation of Simon" +(i.e. of Clement's father into Simon's likeness), which is common to the +close both of our _Recognitions_ and _Homilies_, and so probably belonged +to the _Circuits_. We may assume, too (e.g. on the basis of our Syriac +MS.), that the Greek edition of the _Recognition(s)_ actually used by +Rufinus was much nearer the text of the _Periodoi_ of which we have found +traces than we should imagine from its Latin form. + +So far we have no sure trace of our _Homilies_ at all, apart from the +Syriac version. Even four centuries later, Photius, in referring to a +collection of books called both _Acts of Peter_ and the _Recognition of +Clement_, does not make clear whether he means _Homilies_ or +_Recognitions_ or either. "In all the copies which we have seen (and +they are not a few) after those different epistles (viz. 'Peter to +James' and 'Clement to James,' prefixed, the one in some MSS. the other +in others) and titles, we found without variation the same treatise, +beginning, I, Clement, &c." But it is not clear that he had read more +than the opening of these MSS. The fact that different epistles are +prefixed to the same work leads him to conjecture "that there were two +editions made of the _Acts of Peter_ (his usual title for the +collection), but in course of time the one perished and that of Clement +prevailed." This is interesting as anticipating a result of modern +criticism, as will appear below. The earliest probable reference to our +_Homilies_ occurs in a work of doubtful date, the pseudo-Athanasian +_Synopsis_, which mentions "Clementines, whence came by selection and +rewriting the true and inspired form." Here too we have the first sure +trace of an expurgated recension, made with the idea of recovering the +genuine form assumed, as earlier by Epiphanius, to lie behind an +unorthodox recension of Clement's narrative. As, moreover, the extant +_Epitome_ is based on our _Homilies_, it is natural to suppose it was +also the basis of earlier orthodox recensions, one or more of which may +be used in certain Florilegia of the 7th century and later. Nowhere do +we find the title _Homilies_ given to any form of the Clementine +collection in antiquity. + +(ii.) _The Genesis of the Clementine Literature._ It has been needful to +cite so much of the evidence proving that our _Homilies_ and +_Recognitions_ are both recensions of a common basis, at first known as +the _Circuits of Peter_ and later by titles connecting it rather with +Clement, its ostensible author, because it affords data also for the +historical problems touching (a) the contents and origin of the primary +Clementine work, and (b) the conditions under which our extant +recensions of it arose. + +(a) _The Circuits of Peter_, as defined on the one hand by the epistle +of Clement to James originally prefixed to it and by patristic evidence, +and on the other by the common element in our _Homilies_ and +_Recognitions_, may be conceived as follows. It contained accounts of +Peter's teachings and discussions at various points on a route beginning +at Caesarea, and extending northwards along the coast-lands of Syria as +far as Antioch. During this tour he meets with persons of typically +erroneous views, which it was presumably the aim of the work to refute +in the interests of true Christianity, conceived as the final form of +divine revelation--a revelation given through true prophecy embodied in +a succession of persons, the chief of whom were Moses and the prophet +whom Moses foretold, Jesus the Christ. The prime exponent of the +spurious religion is Simon Magus. A second protagonist of error, this +time of Gentile philosophic criticism directed against fundamental +Judaism, is Apion, the notorious anti-Jewish Alexandrine grammarian of +Peter's day; while the role of upholder of astrological fatalism +(_Genesis_) is played by Faustus, father of Clement, with whom Peter and +Clement debate at Laodicea. Finally, all this is already embedded in a +setting determined by the romance of Clement and his lost relatives, +"recognition" of whom forms the _denouement_ of the story. + +There is no reason to doubt that such, roughly speaking, were the +contents of the Clementine work to which Eusebius alludes slightingly, +in connexion with that section of it which had to his eye least +verisimilitude, viz. the dialogues between Peter and Apion. Now Eusebius +believed the work to have been of quite recent and suspicious origin. +This points to a date about the last quarter of the 3rd century; and the +prevailing doctrinal tone of the contents, as known to us, leads to the +same result. The standpoint is that of the peculiar Judaizing or Ebonite +Christianity due to persistence among Christians of the tendencies known +among pre-Christian Jews as Essene. The Essenes, while clinging to what +they held to be original Mosaism, yet conceived and practised their +ancestral faith in ways which showed distinct traces of syncretism, or +the operation of influences foreign to Judaism proper. They thus +occupied an ambiguous position on the borders of Judaism. Similarly +Christian Essenism was syncretist in spirit, as we see from its +best-known representatives, the Elchasaites, of whom we first hear about +220, when a certain Alcibiades of Apamea in Syria (some 60 m. south of +Antioch) brought to Rome the _Book of Helxai_--the manifesto of their +distinctive message (Hippol., _Philos._ ix. 13)--and again some twenty +years later, when Origen refers to one of their leaders as having lately +arrived at Caesarea (Euseb. vi. 38). The first half of the 3rd century +was marked, especially in Syria, by a strong tendency to syncretism, +which may well have stirred certain Christian Essenes to fresh +propaganda. Other writings than the _Book of Helxai_, representing also +other species of the same genus, would take shape. Such may have been +some of the pseudo-apostolic _Acts_ to which Epiphanius alludes as in +use among the Ebionites of his own day: and such was probably the +nucleus of our Clementine writings, the _Periodoi_ of Peter. + +Harnack (_Chronologie_, ii. 522 f.), indeed, while admitting that much +(e.g. in _Homilies_, viii. 5-7) points the other way, prefers the view +that even the _Circuits_ were of Catholic origin (Chapman, as above, says +Arian, soon after 325), regarding the syncretistic Jewish-Christian +features in it as due either to its earlier basis or to an instinct to +preserve continuity of manner (e.g. absence of explicit reference to +Paul). Hort, on the contrary, assumes as author "an ingenious Helxaite ... +perhaps stimulated by the example of the many Encratite _Periodoi_" (p. +131), and writing about A.D. 200. + +Only it must not be thought of as properly Elchasaite, since it knew no +baptism distinct from the ordinary Christian one. It seems rather to +represent a later and modified Essene Christianity, already +half-Catholic, such as would suit a date after 250, in keeping with +Eusebius's evidence. Confirmation of such a date is afforded by the +silence of the Syrian _Didascalia_, itself perhaps dating from about +250, as to any visit of Simon Magus to Caesarea, in contrast to the +reference in its later form, the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (c. +350-400), which is plainly coloured (vi. 9) by the Clementine story. On +the other hand, the _Didascalia_ seems to have been evoked partly by +Judaizing propaganda in north Syria. If, then, it helps to date the +_Periodoi_ as after 250, it may also suggest as place of origin one of +the large cities lying south of Antioch, say Laodicea (itself on the +coast about 30 m. from Apamea), where the Clementine story reaches its +climax. The intimacy of local knowledge touching this region implied in +the narrative common to _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_ is notable, and +tells against an origin for the _Periodoi_ outside Syria (e.g. in Rome, +as Waitz and Harnack hold, but Lightfoot disproves, _Clem._ i. 55 f., +64,100, cf. Hort, p. 131). Further, though the curtain even in it fell +on Peter at Antioch itself (our one complete MS. of the _Homilies_ is +proved by the _Epitome_, based on the _Homilies_, to be here abridged), +the interest of the story culminates at Laodicea. + +If we assume, then, that the common source of our extant Clementines +arose in Syria, perhaps c. 265,[2] had it also a written source or +sources which we can trace? Though Hort doubts it, most recent scholars +(e.g. Waitz, Harnack) infer the existence of at least one source, +"Preachings (_Kerygmata_) of Peter," containing no reference at all to +Clement. Such a work seems implied by the epistle of Peter to James and +its appended adjuration, prefixed in our MSS. to the _Homilies_ along +with the epistle of Clement to James. Thus the later work aimed at +superseding the earlier, much as Photius suggests (see above). It was, +then, to these "Preachings of Peter" that the most Ebionite features, +and especially the anti-Pauline allusions under the guise of Simon still +inhering in the _Periodoi_ (as implied by _Homilies_ in particular), +originally belonged. The fact, however, that these were not more +completely suppressed in the later work, proves that it, too, arose in +circles of kindred, though largely modified, Judaeo-Christian sentiment +(cf. _Homilies_, vii., e.g. ch. 8). The differences of standpoint may be +due not only to lapse of time, and the emergence of new problems on the +horizon of Syrian Christianity generally, but also to change in locality +and in the degree of Greek culture represented by the two works. A +probable date for the "Preachings" used in the _Periodoi_ is c. 200.[3] + +If the home of the _Periodoi_ was the region of the Syrian Laodicea, we +can readily explain most of its characteristics. Photius refers to the +"excellences of its language and its learning"; while Waitz describes +the aim and spirit of its contents as those of an apology for +Christianity against heresy and paganism, in the widest sense of the +word, written in order to win over both Jews (cf. _Recognitions_, i. +53-70) and pagans, but mainly the latter. In particular it had in view +persons of culture, as most apt to be swayed by the philosophical +tendencies in the sphere of religion prevalent in that age, the age of +neo-Platonism. It was in fact designed for propaganda among religious +seekers in a time of singular religious restlessness and varied inquiry, +and, above all, for use by catechumens (cf. _Ep. Clem._ 2, 13) in the +earlier stages of their preparation for Christian baptism. To such its +romantic setting would be specially adapted, as falling in with the +literary habits and tastes of the period; while its doctrinal +peculiarities would least give offence in a work of the aim and +character just described. + +As regards the sources to the narrative part of the _Periodoi_, it is +possible that the "recognition" _motif_ was a literary commonplace. The +account of Peter's journeyings was no doubt based largely on local +Syrian tradition, perhaps as already embodied in written _Acts of Peter_ +(so Waitz and Harnack), but differing from the Western type, e.g. in +bringing Peter to Rome long before Nero's reign. As for the allusions, +more or less indirect, to St Paul behind the figure of Simon, as the +arch-enemy of the truth--allusions which first directed attention to the +Clementines in the last century--there can be no doubt as to their +presence, but only as to their origin and the degree to which they are +so meant in _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_. There is certainly "an +application to Simon of words used by or of St Paul, or of claims made +by or in behalf of St Paul" (Hort), especially in _Homilies_ (ii. 17 f., +xi. 35, xvii. 19), where a consciousness also of the double reference +must still be present, though this does not seem to be the case in +_Recognitions_ (in Rufinus's Latin.) Such covert reference to Paul must +designedly have formed part of the _Periodoi_, yet as adopted from its +more bitterly anti-Pauline basis, the "Preachings of Peter" (cf. +_Homilies_, ii. 17 f. with _Ep. Pet. ad Jac. 2_), which probably shared +most of the features of Ebionite Essenism as described by Epiphanius +xxx. 15 f. (including the qualified dualism of the two kingdoms--the +present one of the devil, and the future one of the angelic +Christ--which appears also in the _Periodoi_, cf. _Ep. Clem. ad Jac. 1 +fin._). + +(b) That the _Periodoi_ was a longer work than either our _Homilies_ or +_Recognitions_ is practically certain; and its mere bulk may well, as +Hort suggests (p. 88), have been a chief cause of the changes of form. +Yet _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_ are abridgments made on different +principles and convey rather different impressions to their readers. +"The _Homilies_ care most for doctrine," especially philosophical +doctrine, "and seem to transpose very freely for doctrinal purposes" +(e.g. matter in xvi.-xix. is placed at the end for effect, while xx. +1-10 gives additional emphasis to the _Homilies_' theory of evil, +perhaps over against Manichaeism). "The _Recognitions_ care most for the +story," as a means of religious edification, "and have preserved the +general framework much more nearly." They arose in different circles: +indeed, save the compiler of the text represented by the Syriac MS. of +411 A.D., "not a single ancient writer shows a knowledge of both books +in any form." But Hort is hardly right in suggesting that, while +_Homilies_ arose in Syria, _Recognitions_ took shape in Rome. Both +probably arose in Syria (so Lightfoot), but in circles varying a good +deal in religious standpoint.[4] _Homilies_ was a sort of second +edition, made largely in the spirit of its original and perhaps in much +the same locality, with a view to maintaining and propagating the +doctrines of a semi-Judaic Christianity (cf. bk. vii.), as it existed a +generation or two after the _Periodoi_ appeared. The _Recognitions_, in +both recensions, as is shown by the fact that it was read in the +original with general admiration not only by Rufinus but also by others +in the West, was more Catholic in tone and aimed chiefly at commending +the Christian religion over against all non-Christian rivals or gnostic +perversions. That is, more than one effort of this sort had been made to +adapt the story of Clement's _Recognitions_ to general Christian use. +Later the _Homilies_ underwent further adaptation to Catholic feeling +even before the _Epitome_, in its two extant forms, was made by more +drastic methods of expurgation. One kind of adaptation at least is +proved to have existed before the end of the 4th century, namely a +selection of certain discourses from the _Homilies_ under special +headings, following on _Recognitions_, i.-iii., as seen in a Syriac MS. +of A.D. 411. As this MS. contains transcriptional errors, and as its +archetype had perhaps a Greek basis, the _Recognitions_ may be dated c. +350-375[5] (its Christology suggested to Rufinus an Arianism like that +of Eunomius of Cyzicus, c. 362), and the _Homilies_ prior even to 350. +But the different circles represented by the two make relative dating +precarious. + +_Summary._--The Clementine literature throws light upon a very obscure +phase of Christian development, that of Judaeo-Christianity, and proves +that it embraced more intermediate types, between Ebionism proper and +Catholicism, than has generally been realized. Incidentally, too, its +successive forms illustrate many matters of belief and usage among +Syrian Christians generally in the 3rd and 4th centuries, notably their +apologetic and catechetical needs and methods. Further, it discusses, as +Hort observes, certain indestructible problems which much early +Christian theology passes by or deals with rather perfunctorily; and it +does so with a freshness and reality which, as we compare the original +3rd-century basis with the conventional manner of the _Epitome_, we see +to be not unconnected with origin in an age as yet free from the +trammels of formal orthodoxy. Again it is a notable specimen of early +Christian pseudepigraphy, and one which had manifold and far-reaching +results. Finally the romance to which it owed much of its popular +appeal, became, through the medium of Rufinus's Latin, the parent of the +late medieval legend of Faust, and so the ancestor of a famous type in +modern literature. + + LITERATURE.--For a full list of this down to 1904 see Hans Waitz, "Die + Pseudoklementinen" (_Texte u. Untersuchungen zur Gesch. der altchr. + Literatur, neue Folge_, Bd. x. Heft 4), and A. Harnack, _Chronologie + der altchr. Litteratur_ (1904), ii. 518 f. In English, besides Hort's + work, there are articles by G. Salmon, in _Dict. of Christ. Biog._, C. + Bigg, _Studia Biblica_, ii., A.C. Headlam, _Journal of Theol. + Studies_, iii. (J. V. B.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Dr Armitage Robinson, in his edition of the _Philocalia_ + (extracts made c. 358 by Basil and Gregory from Origen's writings), + proved that the passage cited below is simply introduced as a + parallel to an extract of Origen's; while Dom Chapman, in the + _Journal of Theol. Studies_, iii. 436 ff., made it probable that the + passages in Origen's _Comm. on Matthew_ akin to those in the _Opus + Imperf. in Matth._ are insertions in the former, which is extant only + in a Latin version. Subsequently he suggested (_Zeitsch. f. N.T. + Wissenschaft_, ix. 33 f.) that the passage in the _Philocalia_ is due + not to its authors but to an early editor, since it is the only + citation not referred to Origen. + + [2] While Hort and Waitz say c. 200, Harnack says c. 260. The reign + of Gallienus (260-268) would suit the tone of its references to the + Roman emperor (Waitz, p. 74), and also any polemic against the + Neoplatonic philosophy of revelation by visions and dreams which it + may contain. + + [3] Even Waitz agrees to this, though he argues back to a yet earlier + anti-Pauline (rather than anti-Marcionite) form, composed in + Caesarea, c. 135. + + [4] Dom Chapman maintains that the _Recognitions_ (c. 370-390,) even + attack the doctrine of God in the _Homilies_ or their archetype. + + [5] Dom Chapman (ut supra, p. 158) says during the Neoplatonist + reaction under Julian 361-363, to which period he also assigns the + _Homilies_. + + + + +CLEOBULUS, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, a native and tyrant of +Lindus in Rhodes. He was distinguished for his strength and his handsome +person, for the wisdom of his sayings, the acuteness of his riddles and +the beauty of his lyric poetry. Diogenes Laertius quotes a letter in +which Cleobulus invites Solon to take refuge with him against +Peisistratus; and this would imply that he was alive in 560 B.C. He is +said to have held advanced views as to female education, and he was the +father of the wise Cleobuline, whose riddles were not less famous than +his own (Diogenes Laertius i. 89-93). + + See F.G. Mullach, _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, i. + + + + +CLEOMENES ([Greek: Kleomenes]), the name of three Spartan kings of the +Agiad line. + + +CLEOMENES I. was the son of Anaxandridas, whom he succeeded about 520 +B.C. His chief exploit was his crushing victory near Tiryns over the +Argives, some 6000 of whom he burned to death in a sacred grove to which +they had fled for refuge (Herodotus vi. 76-82). This secured for Sparta +the undisputed hegemony of the Peloponnese. Cleomenes' interposition in +the politics of central Greece was less successful. In 510 he marched to +Athens with a Spartan force to aid in expelling the Peisistratidae, and +subsequently returned to support the oligarchical party, led by +Isagoras, against Cleisthenes (q.v.). He expelled seven hundred families +and transferred the government from the council to three hundred of the +oligarchs, but being blockaded in the Acropolis he was forced to +capitulate. On his return home he collected a large force with the +intention of making Isagoras despot of Athens, but the opposition of +the Corinthian allies and of his colleague Demaratus caused the +expedition to break up after reaching Eleusis (Herod. v. 64-76; +Aristotle, _Ath. Pol._ 19, 20). In 491 he went to Aegina to punish the +island for its submission to Darius, but the intrigues of his colleague +once again rendered his mission abortive. In revenge Cleomenes accused +Demaratus of illegitimacy and secured his deposition in favour of +Leotychides (Herod. vi. 50-73). But when it was discovered that he had +bribed the Delphian priestess to substantiate his charge he was himself +obliged to flee; he went first to Thessaly and then to Arcadia, where he +attempted to foment an anti-Spartan rising. About 488 B.C. he was +recalled, but shortly afterwards, in a fit of madness, he committed +suicide (Herod. vi. 74, 75). Cleomenes seems to have received scant +justice at the hands of Herodotus or his informants, and Pausanias (iii. +3, 4) does little more than condense Herodotus's narrative. In spite of +some failures, largely due to Demaratus's jealousy, Cleomenes +strengthened Sparta in the position, won during his father's reign, of +champion and leader of the Hellenic race; it was to him, for example, +that the Ionian cities of Asia Minor first applied for aid in their +revolt against Persia (Herod. v. 49-51). + + For the chronology see J. Wells, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ (1905), + p. 193 ff., who assigns the Argive expedition to the outset of the + reign, whereas nearly all historians have dated it in or about 495 + B.C. + + +CLEOMENES II. was the son of Cleombrotus I., brother and successor of +Agesipolis II. Nothing is recorded of his reign save the fact that it +lasted for nearly sixty-one years (370-309 B.C.). + + +CLEOMENES III., the son and successor of Leonidas II., reigned about +235-219 B.C. He made a determined attempt to reform the social condition +of Sparta along the lines laid down by Agis IV., whose widow Agiatis he +married; at the same time he aimed at restoring Sparta's hegemony in the +Peloponnese. After twice defeating the forces of the Achaean League in +Arcadia, near Mount Lycaeum and at Leuctra, he strengthened his position +by assassinating four of the ephors, abolishing the ephorate, which had +usurped the supreme power, and banishing some eighty of the leading +oligarchs. The authority of the council was also curtailed, and a new +board of magistrates, the _patronomi_, became the chief officers of +state. He appointed his own brother Eucleidas as his colleague in +succession to the Eurypontid Archidamus, who had been murdered. His +social reforms included a redistribution of land, the remission of +debts, the restoration of the old system of training ([Greek: agoge]) +and the admission of picked perioeci into the citizen body. As a general +Cleomenes did much to revive Sparta's old prestige. He defeated the +Achaeans at Dyme, made himself master of Argos, and was eventually +joined by Corinth, Phlius, Epidaurus and other cities. But Aratus, whose +jealousy could not brook to see a Spartan at the head of the Achaean +league called in Antigonus Doson of Macedonia, and Cleomenes, after +conducting successful expeditions to Megalopolis and Argos, was finally +defeated at Sellasia, to the north of Sparta, in 222 or 221 B.C. He took +refuge at Alexandria with Ptolemy Euergetes, but was arrested by his +successor, Ptolemy Philopator, on a charge of conspiracy. Escaping from +prison he tried to raise a revolt, but the attempt failed and to avoid +capture he put an end to his life. Both as general and as politician +Cleomenes was one of Sparta's greatest men, and with him perished her +last hope of recovering her ancient supremacy in Greece. + + See Polybius ii. 45-70, v. 35-39, viii. 1; Plutarch, _Cleomenes; + Aratus_, 35-46; _Philopoemen_, 5, 6; Pausanias ii. 9; Gehlert, _De + Cleomene_ (Leipzig, 1883); Holm, _History of Greece_, iv. cc. 10, 15. + (M. N. T.) + + + + +CLEON (d. 422 B.C.), Athenian politician during the Peloponnesian War, +was the son of Cleaenetus, from whom he inherited a lucrative tannery +business. He was the first prominent representative of the commercial +class in Athenian politics. He came into notice first as an opponent of +Pericles, to whom his advanced ideas were naturally unacceptable, and in +his opposition somewhat curiously found himself acting in concert with +the aristocrats, who equally hated and feared Pericles. During the dark +days of 430, after the unsuccessful expedition of Pericles to +Peloponnesus, and when the city was devastated by the plague, Cleon +headed the opposition to the Periclean regime. Pericles was accused by +Cleon of maladministration of public money, with the result that he was +actually found guilty (see Grote's _Hist. of Greece_, abridged ed., +1907, p. 406, note 1). A revulsion of feeling, however, soon took place. +Pericles was reinstated, and Cleon now for a time fell into the +background. The death of Pericles (429) left the field clear for him. +Hitherto he had only been a vigorous opposition speaker, a trenchant +critic and accuser of state officials. He now came forward as the +professed champion and leader of the democracy, and, owing to the +moderate abilities of his rivals and opponents, he was for some years +undoubtedly the foremost man in Athens. Although rough and unpolished, +he was gifted with natural eloquence and a powerful voice, and knew +exactly how to work upon the feelings of the people. He strengthened his +hold on the poorer classes by his measure for trebling the pay of the +jurymen, which provided the poorer Athenians with an easy means of +livelihood. The notorious fondness of the Athenians for litigation +increased his power; and the practice of "sycophancy" (raking up +material for false charges; see SYCOPHANT), enabled him to remove those +who were likely to endanger his ascendancy. Having no further use for +his former aristocratic associates, he broke off all connexion with +them, and thus felt at liberty to attack the secret combinations for +political purposes, the oligarchical clubs to which they mostly +belonged. Whether he also introduced a property-tax for military +purposes, and even held a high position in connexion with the treasury, +is uncertain. His ruling principles were an inveterate hatred of the +nobility, and an equal hatred of Sparta. It was mainly through him that +the opportunity of concluding an honourable peace (in 425) was lost, and +in his determination to see Sparta humbled he misled the people as to +the extent of the resources of the state, and dazzled them by promises +of future benefits. + +In 427 Cleon gained an evil notoriety by his proposal to put to death +indiscriminately all the inhabitants of Mytilene, which had put itself +at the head of a revolt. His proposal, though accepted, was, fortunately +for the credit of Athens, rescinded, although, as it was, the chief +leaders and prominent men, numbering about 1000, fell victims. In 425, +he reached the summit of his fame by capturing and transporting to +Athens the Spartans who had been blockaded in Sphacteria (see PYLOS). +Much of the credit was probably due to the military skill of his +colleague Demosthenes; but it must be admitted that it was due to +Cleon's determination that the Ecclesia sent out the additional force +which was needed. It was almost certainly due to Cleon that the tribute +of the "allies" was doubled in 425 (see DELIAN LEAGUE). In 422 he was +sent to recapture Amphipolis, but was outgeneralled by Brasidas and +killed. His death removed the chief obstacle to an arrangement with +Sparta, and in 421 the peace of Nicias was concluded (see PELOPONNESIAN +WAR). + +The character of Cleon is represented by Aristophanes and Thucydides in +an extremely unfavourable light. But neither can be considered an +unprejudiced witness. The poet had a grudge against Cleon, who had +accused him before the senate of having ridiculed (in his _Babylonians_) +the policy and institutions of his country in the presence of foreigners +and at the time of a great national war. Thucydides, a man of strong +oligarchical prejudices, had also been prosecuted for military +incapacity and exiled by a decree proposed by Cleon. It is therefore +likely that Cleon has had less than justice done to him in the portraits +handed down by these two writers. + + AUTHORITIES.--For the literature on Cleon see C.F. Hermann, _Lehrbuch + der griechischen Antiquitaeten_, i. pt. 2 (6th ed. by V. Thumser, + 1892), p. 709, and G. Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, iii. pt. 2 + (1904), p. 988, note 3. The following are the chief authorities:--(a) + _Favourable to Cleon_.--C.F. Ranke, _Commentatio de Vita Aristophanis_ + (Leipzig, 1845); J.G. Droysen, _Aristophanes_, ii., introd. to the + _Knights_ (Berlin, 1837); G. Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, chs. 50, 54; W. + Oncken, _Athen und Hellas_, ii. p. 204 (Leipzig, 1866); H. + Mueller-Struebing, _Aristophanes und die historische Kritik_ (Leipzig, + 1873); J.B. Bury, _Hist. of Greece_, i. (1902). (b) + _Unfavourable_.--J.F. Kortuem, _Geschichtliche Forschungen_ (Leipzig, + 1863), and _Zur Geschichte hellenischen Staatsverfassungen_ + (Heidelberg, 1821); F. Passow, _Vermischte Schriften_ (Leipzig, + 1843); C. Thirlwall, _Hist. of Greece_, ch. 21; E. Curtius, _Hist. of + Greece_ (Eng. tr.) iii. p. 112; J. Schvarcz, _Die Demokratie_ (Leipzig, + 1882); H. Delbrueck, _Die Strategie des Perikles_ (Berlin, 1890); E. + Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_, ii. p. 333 (Halle, 1899). + The balance between the two extreme views is fairly held by J. Beloch, + _Die attische Politik seit Perikles_ (Leipzig, 1884), and _Griechische + Geschichte_, i. p. 537; and by A. Holm, _Hist. of Greece_, ii. (Eng. + tr.), ch. 23, with the notes. + + + + +CLEOPATRA, the regular name of the queens of Egypt in the Ptolemaic +dynasty after Cleopatra, daughter of the Seleucid Antiochus the Great, +wife of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. The best known was the daughter of +Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, born 69 (or 68) B.C. At the age of seventeen she +became queen of Egypt jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy Dionysus, +whose wife, in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few +years afterwards, deprived of all royal authority, she withdrew into +Syria, and made preparation to recover her rights by force of arms. At +this juncture Julius Caesar followed Pompey into Egypt. The personal +fascinations of Cleopatra induced him to undertake a war on her behalf, +in which Ptolemy lost his life, and she was replaced on the throne in +conjunction with a younger brother, of whom, however, she soon rid +herself by poison. In Rome she lived openly with Caesar as his mistress +until his assassination, when, aware of her unpopularity, she returned +at once to Egypt. Subsequently she became the ally and mistress of Mark +Antony (see ANTONIUS). Their connexion was highly unpopular at Rome, and +Octavian (see AUGUSTUS) declared war upon them and defeated them at +Actium (31 B.C.). Cleopatra took to flight, and escaped to Alexandria, +where Antony joined her. Having no prospect of ultimate success, she +accepted the proposal of Octavian that she should assassinate Antony, +and enticed him to join her in a mausoleum which she had built in order +that "they might die together." Antony committed suicide, in the +mistaken belief that she had already done so, but Octavian refused to +yield to the charms of Cleopatra who put an end to her life, by applying +an asp to her bosom, according to the common tradition, in the +thirty-ninth year of her age (29th of August, 30 B.C.). With her ended +the dynasty of the Ptolemies, and Egypt was made a Roman province. +Cleopatra had three children by Antony, and by Julius Caesar, as some +say, a son, called Caesarion, who was put to death by Octavian. In her +the type of queen characteristic of the Macedonian dynasties stands in +the most brilliant light. Imperious will, masculine boldness, relentless +ambition like hers had been exhibited by queens of her race since the +old Macedonian days before Philip and Alexander. But the last Cleopatra +had perhaps some special intellectual endowment. She surprised her +generation by being able to speak the many tongues of her subjects. +There may have been an individual quality in her luxurious profligacy, +but then her predecessors had not had the Roman lords of the world for +wooers. + + For the history of Cleopatra see ANTONIUS, MARCUS; CAESAR, GAIUS + JULIUS; PTOLEMIES. The life of Antony by Plutarch is our main + authority; it is upon this that Shakespeare's _Antony and Cleopatra_ + is based. Her life is the subject of monographs by Stahr (1879, an + _apologia_), and Houssaye, _Aspasie, Cleopatre_, &c. (1879). + + + + +CLEPSYDRA (from Gr. [Greek: klheptein], to steal, and [Greek: hudor], +water), the chronometer of the Greeks and Romans, which measured time by +the flow of water. In its simplest form it was a short-necked +earthenware globe of known capacity, pierced at the bottom with several +small holes, through which the water escaped or "stole away." The +instrument was employed to set a limit to the speeches in courts of +justice, hence the phrases _aquam dare_, to give the advocate speaking +time, and _aquam perdere_, to waste time. Smaller clepsydrae of glass +were very early used in place of the sun-dial, to mark the hours. But as +the length of the hour varied according to the season of the year, +various arrangements, of which we have no clear account, were necessary +to obviate this and other defects. For instance, the flow of water +varied with the temperature and pressure of the air, and secondly, the +rate of flow became less as the vessel emptied itself. The latter defect +was remedied by keeping the level of the water in the clepsydra uniform, +the volume of that discharged being noted. Plato is said to have +invented a complicated clepsydra to indicate the hours of the night as +well as of the day. In the clepsydra or hydraulic clock of Ctesibius of +Alexandria, made about 135 B.C., the movement of water-wheels caused the +gradual rise of a little figure, which pointed out the hours with a +little stick on an index attached to the machine. The clepsydra is said +to have been known to the Egyptians. There was one in the Tower of the +Winds at Athens; and the turret on the south side of the tower is +supposed to have contained the cistern which supplied the water. + + See Marquardt, _Das Privatleben der Roemer_, i. (2nd ed., 1886), p. + 792; G. Bilfinger, _Die Zeitmesser der antiken Voelker_ (1886), and + _Die antiken Stundenangaben_ (1888). + + + + +CLERESTORY, or CLEARSTORY (Ital. _chiaro piano_, Fr. _clairevoie_, +_claire etage_, Ger. _Lichtgaden_), in architecture, the upper storey of +the nave of a church, the walls of which rise above the aisles and are +pierced with windows ("clere" being simply "clear," in the sense of +"lighted"). Sometimes these windows are very small, being mere +quatrefoils or spherical triangles. In large buildings, however, they +are important objects, both for beauty and utility. The windows of the +clerestories of Norman work, even in large churches, are of less +importance than in the later styles. In Early English they became +larger; and in the Decorated they are more important still, being +lengthened as the triforium diminishes. In Perpendicular work the latter +often disappears altogether, and in many later churches, as at Taunton, +and many churches in Norfolk and Suffolk, the clerestories are close +ranges of windows. The term is equally applicable to the Egyptian +temples, where the lighting of the hall of columns was obtained over the +stone roofs of the adjoining aisles, through slits pierced in vertical +slabs of stone. The Romans also in their baths and palaces employed the +same method, and probably derived it from the Greeks; in the palaces at +Crete, however, light-wells would seem to have been employed. + + + + +CLERFAYT (or CLAIRFAYT), FRANCOIS SEBASTIEN CHARLES JOSEPH DE CROIX, +COUNT OF (1733-1798), Austrian field marshal, entered the Austrian army +in 1753. In the Seven Years' War he greatly distinguished himself, +earning rapid promotion, and receiving the decoration of the order of +Maria Theresa. At the conclusion of the peace, though still under +thirty, he was already a colonel. During the outbreak of the Netherlands +in 1787, he was, as a Walloon by birth, subjected to great pressure to +induce him to abandon Joseph II., but he resisted all overtures, and in +the following year went to the Turkish war in the rank of lieutenant +field marshal. In an independent command Clerfayt achieved great +success, defeating the Turks at Mehadia and Calafat. In 1792, as one of +the most distinguished of the emperor's generals, he received the +command of the Austrian contingent in the duke of Brunswick's army, and +at Croix-sous-Bois his corps inflicted a reverse on the troops of the +French revolution. In the Netherlands, to which quarter he was +transferred after Jemappes, he opened the campaign of 1793 with the +victory of Aldenhoven and the relief of Maestricht, and on March 18th +mainly brought about the complete defeat of Dumouriez at Neerwinden. +Later in the year, however, his victorious career was checked by the +reverse at Wattignies, and in 1794 he was unsuccessful in West Flanders +against Pichegru. In the course of the campaign Clerfayt succeeded the +duke of Saxe-Coburg in the supreme command, but was quite unable to make +head against the French, and had to recross the Rhine. In 1795, now +field marshal, he commanded on the middle Rhine against Jourdan, and +this time the fortune of war changed. Jourdan was beaten at Hoechst and +Mainz brilliantly relieved. But the field marshal's action in concluding +an armistice with the French not being approved by Thugut, he resigned +the command, and became a member of the Aulic Council in Vienna. He died +in 1798. A brave and skilful soldier, Clerfayt perhaps achieved more +than any other Austrian commander (except the archduke Charles) in the +hopeless struggle of small dynastic armies against a "nation in arms." + + See von Vivenot, _Thugut, Clerfayt, und Wuermser_ (Vienna, 1869). + + + + +CLERGY (M.E. _clergie_, O. Fr. _clergie_, from Low Lat. form _clericia_ +[Skeat], by assimilation with O. Fr. _clergie_, Fr. _clerge_, from Low +Lat. _clericatus_), a collective term signifying in English strictly the +body of "clerks," i.e. men in holy orders (see CLERK). The word has, +however, undergone sundry modifications of meaning. Its M.E. senses of +"clerkship" and "learning" have long since fallen obsolete. On the other +hand, in modern times there has been an increasing tendency to depart +from its strict application to technical "clerks," and to widen it out +so as to embrace all varieties of ordained Christian ministers. While, +however, it is now not unusual to speak of "the Nonconformist clergy," +the word "clergyman" is still, at least in the United Kingdom, used of +the clergy of the Established Church in contradistinction to "minister." +As applied to the Roman Catholic Church the word embraces the whole +hierarchy, whether its _clerici_ be in holy orders or merely in minor +orders. The term has also been sometimes loosely used to include the +members of the regular orders; but this use is improper, since monks and +friars, as such, have at no time been _clerici_. The use of the word +"clergy" as a plural, though the _New English Dictionary_ quotes the +high authority of Cardinal Newman for it, is less rare than wrong; in +the case cited "Some hundred Clergy" should have been "Some hundred of +the Clergy." + +In distinction to the "clergy" we find the "laity" (Gr. [Greek: laos], +people), the great body of "faithful people" which, in nearly every +various conception of the Christian Church, stands in relation to the +clergy as a flock of sheep to its pastor. This distinction was of early +growth, and developed, with the increasing power of the hierarchy, +during the middle ages into a very lively opposition (see ORDER, HOLY; +CHURCH HISTORY; PAPACY; INVESTITURES). The extreme claim of the great +medieval popes, that the priest, as "ruler over spiritual things," was +as much superior to temporal rulers as the soul is to the body (see +INNOCENT III.), led logically to the vast privileges and immunities +enjoyed by the clergy during the middle ages. In those countries where +the Reformation triumphed, this triumph represented the victory of the +civil over the clerical powers in the long contest. The victory was, +however, by no means complete. The Presbyterian model was, for instance, +as sacerdotal in its essence as the Catholic; Milton complained with +justice that "new presbyter is but old priest writ large," and declared +that "the Title of Clergy St Peter gave to all God's people," its later +restriction being a papal and prelatical usurpation (i.e. i Peter v. 3, +for [Greek: kleros] and [Greek: kleron]). + +Clerical immunities, of course, differed largely at different times and +in different countries, the extent of them having been gradually +curtailed from a period a little earlier than the close of the middle +ages. They consisted mainly in exemption from public burdens, both as +regarded person and pocket, and in immunity from lay jurisdiction. This +last enormous privilege, which became one of the main and most efficient +instruments of the subjection of Europe to clerical tyranny, extended to +matters both civil and criminal; though, as Bingham shows, it did not +(always and everywhere) prevail in cases of heinous crime (_Origines +Eccles._ bk. v.). + +This diversity of jurisdiction, and subjection of the clergy only to the +sentences of judges bribed by their _esprit de corps_ to judge +leniently, led to the adoption of a scale of punishments for the +offences of clerks avowedly much lighter than that which was inflicted +for the same crimes on laymen; and this in turn led to the survival in +England, long after the Reformation, of the curious legal fiction of +benefit of clergy (see below), used to mitigate the extreme harshness of +the criminal law. + + + + +CLERGY, BENEFIT OF, an obsolete but once very important feature in +English criminal law. Benefit of clergy began with the claim on the part +of the ecclesiastical authorities in the 12th century that every +_clericus_ should be exempt from the jurisdiction of the temporal courts +and be subject to the spiritual courts alone. The issue of the conflict +was that the common law courts abandoned the extreme punishment of death +assigned to some offences when the person convicted was a _clericus_, +and the church was obliged to accept the compromise and let a secondary +punishment be inflicted. The term "clerk" or _clericus_ always included +a large number of persons in what were called minor orders, and in 1350 +the privilege was extended to secular as well as to religious clerks; +and, finally, the test of being a clerk was the ability to read the +opening words of verse 1 of Psalm li., hence generally known as the +"neck-verse." Even this requirement was abolished in 1705. In 1487 it +was enacted that every layman, when convicted of a clergyable felony, +should be branded on the thumb, and disabled from claiming the benefit a +second time. The privilege was extended to peers, even if they could not +read, in 1547, and to women, partially in 1622 and fully in 1692. The +partial exemption claimed by the Church did not apply to the more +atrocious crimes, and hence offences came to be divided into clergyable +and unclergyable. According to the common practice in England of working +out modern improvements through antiquated forms, this exemption was +made the means of modifying the severity of the criminal law. It became +the practice to claim and be allowed the benefit of clergy; and when it +was the intention by statute to make a crime really punishable with +death, it was awarded "without benefit of clergy." The benefit of clergy +was abolished by a statute of 1827, but as this statute did not repeal +that of 1547, under which peers were given the privilege, a further +statute was passed in 1841 putting peers on the same footing as commons +and clergy. + + For a full account of benefit of clergy see Pollock and Maitland, + _History of English Law_, vol. i. 424-440; also Stephen, _History of + the Criminal Law of England_, vol. i.; E. Friedberg, _Corpus juris + canonici_ (Leipzig, 1879-1881). + + + + +CLERGY RESERVES, in Canada. By the act of 1791, establishing the +provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, the British government set apart +one-eighth of all the crown lands for the support of "a Protestant +clergy." These reservations, after being for many years a +stumbling-block to the economic development of the province, and the +cause of much bitter political and ecclesiastical controversy, were +secularized by the Canadian parliament in 1854, and the proceeds applied +to other purposes, chiefly educational. Owing to the wording of the +imperial act, the amount set apart is often stated as one-seventh, and +was sometimes claimed as such by the clergy. + + + + +CLERK[1] (from A.S. _cleric_ or _clerc_, which, with the similar Fr. +form, comes direct from the Lat. _clericus_), in its original sense, as +used in the civil law, one who had taken religious orders of whatever +rank, whether "holy" or "minor." The word _clericus_ is derived from the +Greek [Greek: klerikos], "of or pertaining to an inheritance," from +[Greek: koeros], "lot," "allotment," "estate," "inheritance"; but the +authorities are by no means agreed in which sense the root is connected +with the sense of the derivative, some conceiving that the original idea +was that the clergy received the service of God as their lot or portion; +others that they were the portion of the Lord; while others again, with +more reason as Bingham (_Orig. Eccl._ lib. i. cap. 5, sec. 9) seems to +think, maintain that the word has reference to the choosing by lot, as +in early ages was the case of those to whom public offices were to be +entrusted. + +In the primitive times of the church the term canon was used as +synonymous with clerk, from the names of all the persons in the service +of any church having been inscribed on a roll, or [Greek: kanon], whence +they were termed _canonici_, a fact which shows that the practice of the +Roman Catholic Church of including all persons of all ranks in the +service of the church, ordained or unordained, in the term clerks, or +clergy, is at least in conformity with the practice of antiquity. Thus, +too, in English ecclesiastical law, a clerk was any one who had been +admitted to the ecclesiastical state, and had taken the tonsure. The +application of the word in this sense gradually underwent a change, and +"clerk" became more especially the term applied to those in minor +orders, while those in "major" or "holy" orders were designated in full +"clerks in holy orders," which in English law still remains the +designation of clergymen of the Established Church. After the +Reformation the word "clerk" was still further extended to include +laymen who performed duties in cathedrals, churches, &c., e.g. the +choirmen, who were designated "lay clerks." Of these lay clerks or +choirmen there was always one whose duty it was to be constantly present +at every service, to sing or say the responses as the leader or +representative of the laity. His duties were gradually enlarged to +include the care of the church and precincts, assisting at baptisms, +marriages, &c., and he thus became the precursor of the later _parish +clerk_. In a somewhat similar sense we find _bible clerk, singing +clerk_, &c. The use of the word "clerk" to denote a person ordained to +the ministry is now mainly legal or formal. + +The word also developed in a different sense. In medieval times the +pursuit of letters and general learning was confined to the clergy, and +as they were practically the only persons who could read and write all +notarial and secretarial work was discharged by them, so that in time +the word was used with special reference to secretaries, notaries, +accountants or even mere penmen. This special meaning developed into +what is now one of the ordinary senses of the word. We find, +accordingly, the term applied to those officers of courts, corporations, +&c., whose duty consists in keeping records, correspondence, and +generally managing business, as _clerk of the market, clerk of the petty +bag, clerk of the peace, town clerk_, &c. Similarly, a clerk also means +any one who in a subordinate position is engaged in writing, making +entries, ordinary correspondence, or similar "clerkly" work. In the +United States the word means also an assistant in a commercial house, a +retail salesman. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] The accepted English pronunciation, "clark," is found in southern + English as early as the 15th century; but northern dialects still + preserve the e sound ("clurk"), which is the common pronunciation in + America. + + + + +CLERKE, AGNES MARY (1842-1907), English astronomer and scientific +writer, was born on the 10th of February 1842, and died in London on the +20th of January 1907. She wrote extensively on various scientific +subjects, but devoted herself more especially to astronomy. Though not a +practical astronomer in the ordinary sense, she possessed remarkable +skill in collating, interpreting and summarizing the results of +astronomical research, and as a historian her work has an important +place in scientific literature. Her chief works were _A Popular History +of Astronomy during the 19th Century_, first edition 1885, fourth 1902; +_The System of the Stars_, first edition 1890, second 1905; and +_Problems in Astrophysics_, 1903. In addition she wrote _Familiar +Studies in Homer_ (1892), _The Herschels and Modern Astronomy_ (1895), +_Modern Cosmogonies_ (1906), and many valuable articles, such as her +contributions to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. In 1903 she was elected +an honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society. + + + + +CLERKENWELL, a district on the north side of the city of London, +England, within the metropolitan borough of Finsbury (q.v.). It is so +called from one of several wells or springs in this district, near which +miracle plays were performed by the parish clerks of London. This well +existed until the middle of the 19th century. Here was situated a +priory, founded in 1100, which grew to great wealth and fame as the +principal institution in England of the Knights Hospitallers of the +Order of St John of Jerusalem. Its gateway, erected in 1504, and +remaining in St John's Square, served various purposes after the +suppression of the monasteries, being, for example, the birthplace of +the _Gentleman's Magazine_ in 1731, and the scene of Dr Johnson's work +in connexion with that journal. In modern times the gatehouse again +became associated with the Order, and is the headquarters of the St +John's Ambulance Association. An Early English crypt remains beneath the +neighbouring parish church of St John, where the notorious deception of +the "Cock Lane Ghost," in which Johnson took great interest, was +exposed. Adjoining the priory was St Mary's Benedictine nunnery, St +James's church (1792) marking the site, and preserving in its vaults +some of the ancient monuments. In the 17th century Clerkenwell became a +fashionable place of residence. A prison erected here at this period +gave place later to the House of Detention, notorious as the scene of a +Fenian outrage in 1867, when it was sought to release certain prisoners +by blowing up part of the building. Clerkenwell is a centre of the +watch-making and jeweller's industries, long established here; and the +Northampton Polytechnic Institute, Northampton Square, a branch of the +City Polytechnic, has a department devoted to instruction in these +trades. + + + + +CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS, or CLERMONT-DE-L'OISE, a town of northern +France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Oise, on the +right bank of the Breche, 41 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway to +Amiens. Pop. (1906) 4014. The hill on which the town is built is +surmounted by a keep of the 14th century, the relic of a fortress the +site of which is partly occupied by a large penitentiary for women. The +church dates from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The hotel-de-ville, +built by King Charles IV., who was born at Clermont in 1294, is the +oldest in the north of France. The most attractive feature of the town +is the Promenade du Chatellier on the site of the old ramparts. Clermont +is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a +communal college and a large lunatic asylum. It manufactures felt and +corsets, and carries on a trade in horses, cattle and grain. + +The town was probably founded during the time of the Norman invasions, +and was an important military post, during the middle ages. It was +several times taken and retaken by the contending parties during the +Hundred Years' War, and the Wars of Religion, and in 1615 Henry II., +prince of Conde, was besieged and captured there by the marshal d'Ancre. + +COUNTS OF CLERMONT. Clermont was at one time the seat of a countship, +the lords of which were already powerful in the 11th century. Raoul de +Clermont, constable of France, died at Acre in 1191, leaving a daughter +who brought Clermont to her husband, Louis, count of Blois and Chartres. +Theobald, count of Blois and Clermont, died in 1218 without issue, and +King Philip Augustus, having received the countship of Clermont from the +collateral heirs of this lord, gave it to his son Philip Hurepel, whose +daughter Jeanne, and his widow, Mahaut, countess of Dammartin, next held +the countship. It was united by Saint Louis to the crown, and afterwards +given by him (1269) to his son Robert, from whom sprang the house of +Bourbon. In 1524 the countship of Clermont was confiscated from the +constable de Bourbon, and later (1540) given to the duke of Orleans, to +Catherine de' Medici (1562), to Eric, duke of Brunswick (1569), from +whom it passed to his brother-in-law Charles of Lorraine (1596), and +finally to Henry II., prince of Conde (1611). In 1641 it was again +confiscated from Louis de Bourbon, count of Soissons, then in 1696 sold +to Louis Thomas Amadeus of Savoy, count of Soissons, in 1702 to +Francoise de Brancas, princesse d'Harcourt, and in 1719 to Louis-Henry, +prince of Conde. From a branch of the old lords of Clermont were +descended the lords of Nesle and Chantilly. + + + + +CLERMONT-FERRAND, a city of central France, capital of the department of +Puy-de-Dome, 113 m. W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) +town, 44,113; commune, 58,363. Clermont-Ferrand is situated on an +eminence on the western border of the fertile plain of Limagne. On the +north, west and south it is surrounded by hills, with a background of +mountains amongst which the Puy-de-Dome stands out prominently. A small +river, the Tiretaine, borders the town on the north. Since 1731 it has +been composed of the two towns of Clermont and Montferrand, now +connected by a fine avenue of walnut trees and willows, 2 m. in length, +bordered on one side by barracks. The watering-place of Royat lies a +little more than a mile to the west. Clermont has several handsome +squares ornamented with fountains, the chief of which is a graceful +structure erected by Bishop Jacques d'Amboise in 1515. The streets of +the older and busier quarter of Clermont in the neighbourhood of the +cathedral and the Place de Jaude, the principal square, are for the most +part narrow, sombre and bordered by old houses built of lava; boulevards +divide this part from more modern and spacious quarters, which adjoin +it. To the south lies the fine promenade known as the Jardin Lecoq. + +The principal building is the cathedral, a Gothic edifice begun in the +13th century. It was not completed, however, till the 19th century, when +the west portal and towers and two bays of the nave were added, +according to the plans of Viollet-le-Duc. The fine stained glass of the +windows dates from the 13th to the 15th centuries. A monument of the +Crusades with a statue of Pope Urban II. stands in the Cathedral square. +The church of Notre-Dame du Port is a typical example of the Romanesque +style of Auvergne, dating chiefly from the 11th and 12th centuries. The +exterior of the choir, with its four radiating chapels, its jutting +cornices supported by modillions and columns with carved capitals, and +its mosaic decoration of black and white stones, is the most interesting +part of the exterior. The rest of the church comprises a narthex +surmounted by a tower, three naves and a transept, over which rises +another tower. There are several churches of minor importance in the +town. Among the old houses one, dating from the 16th century, was the +birthplace of Blaise Pascal, whose statue stands in a neighbouring +square. There is a statue of General Louis Charles Desaix de Veygoux in +the Place de Jaude. Montferrand has several interesting houses of the +15th and 16th centuries, and a church of the 13th, 14th and 15th +centuries. + +Clermont-Ferrand is the seat of a bishopric and a prefecture and +headquarters of the XIII. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance +and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an +exchange and a branch of the Bank of France. The town is the centre of +an educational division (_academie_), and has faculties of science and +of literature. It also has lycees and training colleges for both sexes, +ecclesiastical seminaries, a preparatory school of medicine and +pharmacy, schools of architecture, music, commerce and industry, museums +of art and antiquities and natural history and a library. A great +variety of industries is carried on, the chief being the manufacture of +semolina and other farinaceous foods, confectionery, preserved fruit and +jams, chemicals and rubber goods. Liqueurs, chicory, chocolate, candles, +hats, boots and shoes, and woollen and linen goods are also made, and +tanning is practised. Clermont is the chief market for the grain and +other agricultural produce of Auvergne and Velay. Its waters are in +local repute. On the bank of the Tiretaine there is a remarkable +calcareous spring, the fountain of St Allyre, the copious deposits of +which have formed a curious natural bridge over the stream. + +Clermont is identified with the ancient _Augustonemetum_, the chief town +of the Arverni, and it still preserves some remains of the Roman period. +The present name, derived from Clarus Mons and originally applied only +to the citadel, was used of the town as early as the 9th century. During +the disintegration of the Roman empire Clermont suffered as much perhaps +from capture and pillage as any city in the country; its history during +the middle ages chiefly records the struggles between its bishops and +the counts of Auvergne, and between the citizens and their overlord the +bishop. It was the seat of seven ecclesiastical councils, held in the +years 535, 549, 587, 1095, 1110, 1124 and 1130; and of these the council +of 1095 is for ever memorable as that in which Pope Urban II. proclaimed +the first crusade. In the wars against the English in the 14th and 15th +centuries and the religious wars of the 16th century the town had its +full participation; and in 1665 it acquired a terrible notoriety by the +trial and execution of many members of the nobility of Auvergne who had +tyrannized over the neighbouring districts. The proceedings lasted six +months, and the episode is known as _les Grands Jours de Clermont_. +Before the Revolution the town possessed several monastic +establishments, of which the most important were the abbey of Saint +Allyre, founded, it is said, in the 3rd century by St Austremonius (St +Stremoine), the apostle of Auvergne and first bishop of Clermont, and +the abbey of St Andre, where the counts of Clermont were interred. + + + + +CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON (1846- ), French Orientalist, the son of +a sculptor of some repute, was born in Paris on the 19th of February 1846. +After an education at the Ecole des Langues Orientales, he entered the +diplomatic service as dragoman to the consulate at Jerusalem, and +afterwards at Constantinople. He laid the foundation of his reputation by +his discovery (in 1870) of the "stele" of Mesha (Moabite Stone), which +bears the oldest Semitic inscription known. In 1874 he was employed by the +British government to take charge of an archaeological expedition to +Palestine, and was subsequently entrusted by his own government with +similar missions to Syria and the Red Sea. He was made chevalier of the +Legion of Honour in 1875. After serving as vice-consul at Jaffa from 1880 +to 1882, he returned to Paris as "secretaire-interprete" for oriental +languages, and in 1886 was appointed consul of the first class. He +subsequently accepted the post of director of the Ecole des Langues +Orientales and professor at the College de France. In 1889 he was elected +a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, of which he +had been a correspondent since 1880. In 1896 he was promoted to be +consul-general, and was minister plenipotentiary in 1906. He was the first +in England to expose the famous forgeries of Hebrew texts offered to the +British Museum by M.W. Shapira (q.v.) in 1883, and in 1903 he took a +prominent part in the investigation of the so-called "tiara of +Saitapharnes." This tiara had been purchased by the Louvre for 400,000 +francs, and exhibited as a genuine antique. Much discussion arose as to +the perpetrators of the fraud, some believing that it came from southern +Russia. It was agreed, however, that the whole object, except perhaps the +band round the tiara, was of modern manufacture. + + His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to journals, + are:--_Palestine inconnue_ (1886), _Etudes d'archeologie orientale_ + (1880, &c.), _Les Fraudes archeologiques_ (1885), _Recueil + d'archeologie orientale_ (1885, &c.), _Album d'antiquites orientales_ + (1897, &c.). + + + + +CLERMONT-L'HERAULT, or CLERMONT DE LODEVE, a town of southern France in +the department of Herault, 10 m. S.S.E. by rail of Lodeve. Pop. (1906) +4731. The town is built on the slope of a hill which is crowned by an +ancient castle and skirted by the Rhonel, a tributary of the Lergue. It +has an interesting church of the 13th and 14th centuries. The chief +manufacture is that of cloth for military clothing, and woollen goods, +an industry which dates from the latter half of the 17th century. +Tanning and leather-dressing are also carried on, and there is trade in +wine, wool and grain. Among the public institutions are a tribunal of +commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of +trade-arbitration and a communal college. The town was several times +taken and retaken in the religious wars of the 16th century. + + + + +CLERMONT-TONNERRE, the name of a French family, members of which played +some part in the history of France, especially in Dauphine, from about +1100 to the Revolution. Sibaud, lord of Clermont in Viennois, who first +appears in 1080, was the founder of the family. His descendant, another +Sibaud, commanded some troops which aided Pope Calixtus II. in his +struggle with the anti-pope Gregory VIII.; and in return for this +service it is said that the pope allowed him to add certain emblems--two +keys and a tiara--to the arms of his family. A direct descendant, Ainard +(d. 1349), called vicomte de Clermont, was granted the dignity of +captain-general and first baron of Dauphine by his suzerain Humbert, +dauphin of Viennois, in 1340; and in 1547 Clermont was made a county for +Antoine (d. 1578), who was governor of Dauphine and the French king's +lieutenant in Savoy. In 1572 Antoine's son Henri was created a duke, but +as this was only a "brevet" title it did not descend to his son. Henri +was killed before La Rochelle in 1573. In 1596 Henri's son, Charles +Henri, count of Clermont (d. 1640), added Tonnerre to his heritage; but +in 1648 this county was sold by his son and successor, Francois (d. +1679). + +A member of a younger branch of Charles Henri's descendants was Gaspard +de Clermont-Tonnerre (1688-1781). This soldier served his country during +a long period, fighting in Bohemia and Alsace, and then distinguishing +himself greatly at the battles of Fontenoy and Lawfeldt. In 1775 he was +created duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, and made a peer of France; as the +senior marshal (cr. 1747) of France he assisted as constable at the +coronation of Louis XVI. in 1774. His son and successor, Charles Henri +Jules, governor of Dauphine, was guillotined in July 1794, a fate which +his grandson, Gaspard Charles, had suffered at Lyons in the previous +year. A later duke, Aime Marie Gaspard (1779-1865), served for some +years as a soldier, afterwards becoming minister of marine and then +minister of war under Charles X., and retiring into private life after +the revolution of 1830. Aime's grandson, Roger, duke of +Clermont-Tonnerre, was born in 1842. + +Among other distinguished members of this family was Catherine (c. +1545-1603), only daughter of Claude de Clermont-Tonnerre. This lady, +_dame d'honneur_ to Henry II.'s queen, Catherine de' Medici, and +afterwards wife of Albert de Gondi, due de Retz, won a great reputation +by her intellectual attainments, being referred to as the "tenth muse" +and the "fourth grace." One of her grandsons was the famous cardinal de +Retz. Other noteworthy members of collateral branches of the family +were: Francois (1629-1701), bishop of Noyon from 1661 until his death, a +member of the French Academy, notorious for his inordinate vanity; +Stanislas M. A., comte de Clermont-Tonnerre (q.v.); and Anne Antoine +Jules (1740-1830), cardinal and bishop of Chalons, who was a member of +the states-general in 1789, afterwards retiring into Germany, and after +the return of the Bourbons to France became archbishop of Toulouse. + + + + +CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS MARIE ADELAIDE, COMTE DE (1757-1792), +French politican, was born at Pont-a-Mousson on the 10th of October +1757. At the beginning of the Revolution he was a colonel, with some +reputation as a freemason and a Liberal. He was elected to the +states-general of 1789 by the noblesse of Paris, and was the spokesman +of the minority of Liberal nobles who joined the Third Estate on the +25th of June. He desired to model the new constitution of France on that +of England. He was elected president of the Constituent Assembly on the +17th of August 1789; but on the rejection by the Assembly of the scheme +elaborated by the first constitutional committee, he attached himself to +the party of moderate royalists, known as _monarchiens_, led by P.V. +Malouet. His speech in favour of reserving to the crown the right of +absolute veto under the new constitution drew down upon him the wrath of +the advanced politicians of the Palais Royal; but in spite of threats +and abuse he continued to advocate a moderate liberal policy, especially +in the matter of removing the political disabilities of Jews and +Protestants and of extending the system of trial by jury. In January +1790 he collaborated with Malouet in founding the Club des Impartiaux +and the _Journal des Impartiaux_, the names of which were changed in +November to the Societe des Amis de la Constitution Monarchique and +_Journal de la Societe, &c._. in order to emphasize their opposition to +the Jacobins (Societe des Amis de la Constitution). This club was +denounced by Barnave in the Assembly (January 21st, 1791), and on the +28th of March it was attacked by a mob, whereupon it was closed by order +of the Assembly. Clermont-Tonnerre was murdered by the populace during +the rising of the 9th and 10th of August 1792. He was an excellent +orator, having acquired practice in speaking, before the Revolution, in +the masonic lodges. He is a good representative of the type of the +_grands seigneurs_ holding advanced and liberal ideas, who helped to +bring about the movement of 1789, and then tried in vain to arrest its +course. + + See _Recueil des opinions de Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre_ (4 vols., + Paris, 1791), the text of his speeches as published by himself; A. + Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Constituante_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1905). + + + + +CLERUCHY (Gr. [Greek: klerouchia], from [Greek: kleros], a lot, [Greek: +echein], to have), in ancient Greek history a kind of colony composed of +Athenian[1] citizens planted, practically as a garrison, in a conquered +country. Strictly, the settlers (cleruchs) were not colonists, inasmuch +as they retained their status as citizens of Athens (e.g. _ho demos ho +en Hphaistia_), and their allotments were politically part of Attic +soil. These settlements were of three kinds: (1) where the earlier +inhabitants were extirpated or expatriated, and the settlers occupied +the whole territory; (2) where the settlers occupied allotments in the +midst of a conquered people; and (3) where the inhabitants gave up +portions of land to settlers in return for certain pecuniary +concessions. The primary object (cf. the 4000 cleruchs settled in 506 +B.C. upon the lands of the conquered oligarchs of Euboea, known as the +Hippobotae) was unquestionably military, and in the later days of the +Delian League the system was the simplest precaution against +disaffection on the part of the allies, the strength of whose resentment +may be gathered from an inscription (Hicks and Hill, 101 [81]), which, +in setting forth the terms of the second Delian Confederacy, expressly +forbids the holding of land by Athenians in allied territory. + +A secondary object of the cleruchies was social or agrarian, to provide +a source of livelihood to the poorer Athenians. Plutarch (_Pericles_, +11) suggests that Pericles by this means rid the city of the idle and +mischievous loafers; but it would appear that the cleruchs were selected +by lot, and in any case a wise policy would not deliberately entrust +important military duties to recognized wastrels. When we remember that +in 50 years of the 5th century some 10,000 cleruchs went out, it is +clear that the drain on the citizen population was considerable. + +It is impossible to decide precisely how far the state retained control +over the cleruchs. Certainly they were liable to military service and +presumably to that taxation which fell upon Athenians at home. That they +were not liable for the tribute which members of the Delian League paid +is clear from the fact that the assessments of places where cleruchs +were settled immediately went down considerably (cf. the Periclean +cleruchies, 450-445); indeed, this follows from their status as Athenian +citizens, which is emphasized by the fact that they retained their +membership of deme and tribe. In internal government the cleruchs +adopted the Boul[=e] and Assembly system of Athens itself; so we read of +Polemarchs, Archons Eponymi, Agoranomi, Strategi, in various places. +With a measure of local self-government there was also combined a +certain central authority (e.g. in the matter of jurisdiction, some +case being tried by the Nautodicae at Athens); in fact we may assume +that the more important cases, particularly those between a cleruch and +a citizen at home, were tried before the Athenian dicasts. In a few +cases, the cleruchs, e.g. in the case of Lesbos (427), were apparently +allowed to remain in Athens receiving rent for their allotments from the +original Lesbian owners (Thuc. iii. 50); but this represents the +perversion of the original idea of the cleruchy to a system of reward +and punishment. + + See G. Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta_ + (Eng. trans., London, 1895), but note that Brea, wrongly quoted as an + example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41 [29]); + A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional Antiquities_ + (London, 1896); for the Periclean cleruchs see PERICLES; DELIAN + LEAGUE. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] It seems (Strabo, p. 635) that similar colonies were sent out by + the Milesians, e.g. to Leros. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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