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margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; } + div.condensed1 p {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4 + "Cincinnatus" to "Cleruchy" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: March 14, 2010 [EBook #31641] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6, SL 4 *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber's note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. They +appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME VI SLICE IV<br /><br /> +Cincinnatus to Cleruchy</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 180%;">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CINCINNATUS, LUCIUS QUINCTIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CLARINA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CINDERELLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CLARINET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CINEAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CLARK, SIR ANDREW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CINEMATOGRAPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CINERARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CINGOLI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CLARK, SIR JAMES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CINNA</a> (Roman family)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CLARK, JOHN BATES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CINNABAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CLARK, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CINNAMIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CINNAMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CLARKE, ADAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CINNAMON-STONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CLARKE, SIR ANDREW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CINNAMUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CINNOLIN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CINO DA PISTOIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CINQ-MARS, D’EFFIAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CINQUE CENTO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CINQUE PORTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CINTRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CLARKE, MARY ANNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CIPHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CLARKE, SAMUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CIPPUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CIRCAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CLARKSON, THOMAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CIRCASSIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CLARKSVILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CIRCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CLASSICS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CIRCEIUS MONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CLASSIFICATION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CIRCLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CLASTIDIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CIRCLEVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CLAUBERG, JOHANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CIRCUIT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CLAUDE, JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CIRCULAR NOTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CLAUDE OF LORRAINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CIRCUMCISION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CLAUDIUS</a> (Nero Germanicus)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CIRCUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CLAUDIUS</a> (famous Roman gens.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CIRENCESTER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CIRILLO, DOMENICO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CIRQUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CLAUSEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CIRTA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CLAUSEN, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CISSEY, ERNEST COURTOT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CISSOID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF EMMANUEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CIS-SUTLEJ STATES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CLAUSTHAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CIST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CLAVECIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CISTERCIANS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CLAVICEMBALO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CITATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CLAVICHORD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CÎTEAUX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CLAVICYTHERIUM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CITHAERON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CLAVIE, BURNING THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CITHARA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CLAVIÈRE, ÉTIENNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CITIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CITIZEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSÉ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CITOLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CITRIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">CLAY, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CITRON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">CLAY, FREDERIC</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CITTADELLA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">CLAY, HENRY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CITTÀ DELLA PIEVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">CLAY</a> (substance)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CITTÀ DI CASTELLO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">CLAY CROSS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CITTÀ VECCHIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">CLAYMORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CITTERN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">CLAYS, PAUL JEAN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CIUDAD BOLÍVAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CIUDAD DE CURA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">CLAY-WITH-FLINTS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CIUDAD JUAREZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">CLAZOMENAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">CLEANTHES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CIUDAD REAL</a> (province of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">CLEARCHUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CIUDAD REAL</a> (city in Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">CLEARFIELD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CIUDAD RODRIGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">CLEARING-HOUSE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">CLEAT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CIVET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">CLEATOR MOOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">CLEAVERS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">CLEBURNE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CIVILIZATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">CLECKHEATON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CIVIL LAW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">CLEETHORPES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CIVIL LIST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">CLEFT PALATE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CIVIL SERVICE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">CLEISTHENES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CIVITA CASTELLANA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">CLEITARCHUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CIVITA VECCHIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">CLEITHRAL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CLACKMANNAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">CLEITOR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CLACKMANNANSHIRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">CLELAND, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CLACTON-ON-SEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">CLEMATIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CLADEL, LÉON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">CLEMENCÍN, DIEGO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CLAIRAULT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">CLEMENT</a> (popes)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CLAIRON, LA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CLAIRVAUX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">CLÉMENT, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CLAIRVOYANCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">CLÉMENT, JACQUES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CLAMECY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">CLEMENTI, MUZIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CLAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">CLEMENTINE LITERATURE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH</a> (Earl)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">CLEOBULUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH</a> (Marquess)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">CLEOMENES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">CLEON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CLAPARÈDE, JEAN LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">CLEOPATRA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CLAPPERTON, HUGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">CLEPSYDRA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CLAQUE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">CLERESTORY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CLARA, SAINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">CLERFAYT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CLARE</a> (English family)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">CLERGY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CLARE, JOHN</a> (English poet)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">CLERGY, BENEFIT OF</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">CLERGY RESERVES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CLARE</a> (county in Ireland)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">CLERK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CLAREMONT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">CLERKE, AGNES MARY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CLARENCE, DUKES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">CLERKENWELL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CLARENDON, GEORGE VILLIERS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">CLERMONT-FERRAND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">CLERMONT-L’HERAULT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CLARES, POOR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">CLERMONT-TONNERRE</a> (French family)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CLARET</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CLARETIE, JULES ARNAUD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">CLERUCHY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span></p> + +<p><span class="bold">CINCINNATUS,</span><a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">LUCIUS QUINCTIUS<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span>, (b. c. 519 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), one of +the heroes of early Rome, a model of old Roman virtue and +simplicity. A persistent opponent of the plebeians, he resisted +the proposal of Terentilius Arsa (or Harsa) to draw up a code of +written laws applicable equally to patricians and plebeians. He +was in humble circumstances, and lived and worked on his own +small farm. The story that he became impoverished by paying +a fine incurred by his son Caeso is an attempt to explain the needy +position of so distinguished a man. Twice he was called from +the plough to the dictatorship of Rome in 458 and 439. In 458 +he defeated the Aequians in a single day, and after entering +Rome in triumph with large spoils returned to his farm. The +story of his success, related five times under five different years, +possibly rests on an historical basis, but the account given in Livy +of the achievements of the Roman army is obviously incredible.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Livy iii. 26-29; Dion. Halic. x. 23-25; Florus i. 11. For a +critical examination of the story see Schwegler, <i>Römische Geschichte</i>, +bk. xxviii. 12; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, <i>Credibility of early Roman +History</i>, ch. xii. 40; W. Ihne, <i>History of Rome</i>, i.; E. Pais, +<i>Storia di Roma</i>, i. ch. 4 (1898).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> I.e. the “curly-haired.”</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINDERELLA<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost +universal fairy-tale. Its essential features are (1) the persecuted +maiden whose youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy +of her step-mother and sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or +other supernatural instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who +falls in love with and marries her. In the English version, a +translation of Perrault’s <i>Cendrillon</i>, the <i>glass</i> slipper which she +drops on the palace stairs is due to a mistranslation of <i>pantoufle +en vair</i> (a <i>fur</i> slipper), mistaken for <i>en verre</i>. It has been +suggested that the story originated in a nature-myth, Cinderella being +the dawn, oppressed by the night-clouds (cruel relatives) and +finally rescued by the sun (prince).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Marian Rolfe Cox, <i>Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five +Variants</i> (1893); A Lang, <i>Perrault’s Popular Tales</i> (1888).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINEAS<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span>, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of +Epirus. He studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the +most eloquent man of his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus +from invading Italy, and after the defeat of the Romans at +Heraclea (280 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was sent to Rome to discuss terms of peace. +These terms, which are said by Appian (<i>De Rebus Samniticis</i>, +10, 11) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy +and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of +all that had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through +the vehement and patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius +Caecus the censor. The withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was +demanded, and Cineas returned to his master with the report +that Rome was a temple and its senate an assembly of kings. +Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations with +Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities, +and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for +Pyrrhus’s campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is +said to have made an epitome of the <i>Tactica</i> of Aeneas, probably +referred to by Cicero, who speaks of a Cineas as the author of a +treatise <i>De Re Militari</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Plutarch, <i>Pyrrhus</i>, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12; +Cicero, <i>Ad Fam.</i> ix. 25.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINEMATOGRAPH<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Kinematograph</span> (from <span class="grk" title="khinêma">κίνημα</span>, motion, +and <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>, to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views +representing closely successive phases of a moving object are +exhibited in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to +persistence of vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous +motion. It is a development of the zoetrope or “wheel of life,” +described by W.G. Horner about 1833, which consists of a +hollow cylinder turning on a vertical axis and having its surface +pierced with a number of slots. Round the interior is arranged +a series of pictures representing successive stages of such a subject +as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated an observer +looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently in +motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photography +was afterwards applied to their production. E. Muybridge +about 1877 obtained successive pictures of a running +horse by employing a row of cameras, the shutters of which +were opened and closed electrically by the passage of the horse +in front of them, and in 1883 E.J. Marey of Paris established +a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar +photographic methods.</p> + +<p>The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the +invention of the celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1890), +on which the serial pictures are impressed by instantaneous +photography, a long sensitized film being moved across the focal +plane of a camera and exposed intermittently. In one apparatus +for making the exposures a cam jerks the film across the field +once for each picture, the slack being gathered in on a drum +at a constant rate. In another four lenses are rotated so as to +give four images for each rotation, the film travelling so as to +present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place. +Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films +are developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric +light may be fixed to enable the process to be watched. A +positive is made from the negative thus obtained, and is passed +through an optical lantern, the images being thus successively +projected through an objective lens upon a distant screen. +For an hour’s exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures are needed. +To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the film +for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in +position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the +picture dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another +method of exhibiting cinematographic effects is to bind the +pictures together in book form by one edge, and then release +them from the other in rapid succession by means of the thumb +or some mechanical device as the book is bent backwards. In +this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but directly, +either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.</p> + +<p>Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic +processes, being in black and white only, fail to reproduce the +colouring of the subjects they represent. To some extent this +defect has been remedied by painting them by hand, but this +method is too expensive for general adoption, and moreover +does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt +three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films, +each with a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining +the three images on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties +in regard to maintenance of register, because very minute errors +of adjustment between the pictures on the films are magnified +to an intolerable extent by projection. In a process devised by +G.A. Smith, the results of which were exhibited at the Society +of Arts, London, in December 1908, the number of colour records +was reduced to two. The films were specially treated to increase +their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were taken through +two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the film; +both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition +specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and +the other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and +violet. The camera was arranged to take not less than 16 +pictures a second through each filter, or 32 a second in all. The +positive transparency made from the negative thus obtained +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span> +was used in a lantern so arranged that beams of red (composed +of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow and +blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting +the pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those +made with the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary +shutter was provided to introduce violet and blue, to compensate +for the deficiency in those colours caused by the necessity of +cutting them out in the camera owing to the over-sensitiveness +of the film to them, and the result was that the successive pictures, +blending on the screen by persistence of vision, gave a +reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which were +sensibly the same as those of the original.</p> + +<p>The cinematograph enables “living” or “animated pictures” +of such subjects as an army on the march, or an express train +at full speed, to be presented with marvellous distinctness +and completeness of detail. Machines of this kind have been +devised in enormous numbers and used for purposes of amusement +under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope, mutograph, +&c.) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin words +for life, movement, change, &c., with suffixes taken from such +words as <span class="grk" title="skopein">σκοπεῖν</span>, to see, <span class="grk" title="graphein">γράφειν</span>, to depict; they have also +been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for +example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer +are simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they +are used in public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme +inflammability of the celluloid film and its employment in close +proximity to a powerful source of light and heat, such as is +required if the pictures are to show brightly on the screen, +precautions must be taken to prevent, as far as possible, the heat +rays from reaching it, and effective means must be provided +to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of films +composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the +attention of inventors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H.V. Hopwood, <i>Living Pictures</i> (London, 1899), containing +a bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is supplemented +in the <i>Optician</i>, vol. xviii. p. 85; Eugène Trutat, <i>La Photographie +animée</i> (1899), which contains a list of the French patents. +For the camera see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>: <i>Apparatus</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINERARIA<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span>. The garden plants of this name have originated +from a species of <i>Senecio</i>, <i>S. cruentus</i> (nat. ord. Compositae), a +native of the Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at +Kew in 1777. It was known originally as <i>Cineraria cruenta</i>, +but the genus <i>Cineraria</i> is now restricted to a group of South +African species, and the Canary Island species has been transferred +to the large and widespread genus <i>Senecio</i>. Cinerarias can +be raised freely from seeds. For spring flowering in England the +seeds are sown in April or May in well-drained pots or pans, in +soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with one-sixth +sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the surface +firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them +out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot +them singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They +should be grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so +situated that the sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the +day, they must be slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never +allow them to get dry. When well established with roots, shift +them into 6-in. pots, which should be liberally supplied with +manure water as they get filled with roots. In winter remove +to a pit or house, where a little heat can be supplied whenever +there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should stand on a +moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts. +When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every +alternate watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown on in this +way, will be in bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of +from 40° to 45° at night, with a little more warmth in the day; +and those sown in April and May will succeed them during the +early spring months, the latter set of plants being subjected to a +temperature of 38° or 40° during the night. If grown much +warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make its appearance +in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and lower +surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such +affected leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a +great pest on young plants, and can only be kept down by +fumigating or vaporizing the houses, and syringing with a solution +of quassia chips, soft soap and tobacco.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINGOLI<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (anc. <i>Cingulum</i>), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the +province of Macerata, about 14 m. N.W. direct, and 17 m. by +road, from the town of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The +Gothic church of S. Esuperanzio contains interesting works of +art. The town occupies the site of the ancient Cingulum, a +town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by Caesar’s +lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier village) +in 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft.) made +it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is +heard of it. Under the empire it was a <i>municipium</i>.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINNA<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span>, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The +most prominent member was <span class="sc">Lucius Cornelius Cinna</span>, a +supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla. After serving in +the war with the Marsi as praetorian legate, he was elected +consul in 87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Breaking the oath he had sworn to Sulla that +he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna allied +himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took possession +of the city. Soon after his triumphant entry and the +massacre of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his +vengeance, Marius died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna’s +colleague, and on the murder of Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo. +In 84, however, Cinna, who was still consul, was forced to advance +against Sulla; but while embarking his troops to meet him in +Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter Cornelia was +the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, <span class="sc">L. Cornelius +Cinna</span>, praetor in 44 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, nevertheless sided with the murderers +of Caesar and publicly extolled their action.</p> + +<p>The hero of Corneille’s tragedy <i>Cinna</i> (1640) was Cn. Cornelius +Cinna, surnamed <i>Magnus</i> (after his maternal grandfather +Pompey), who was magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for +conspiring against him.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span>, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian +age. Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was +the friend of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the +suite of the praetor Memmius. The circumstances of his death +have given rise to some discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus, +Appian and Dio Cassius all state that, at Caesar’s funeral, a +certain Helvius Cinna was killed by mistake for Cornelius Cinna, +the conspirator. The last three writers mentioned above add +that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch, referring to +the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna who +was killed by the mob was a poet. This points to the identity +of Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet. +The chief objection to this view is based upon two lines in the +9th eclogue of Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +Here reference is made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such importance +that Virgil deprecates comparison with him; it is argued +that the manner in which this Cinna, who could hardly have been +any one but Helvius Cinna, is spoken of implies that he was +then alive; if so, he could not have been killed in 44. But such +an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by no means +absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a reference +to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that +it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at +Caesar’s funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities. +Cinna’s chief work was a mythological epic poem called <i>Smyrna</i>, +the subject of which was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or +Myrrha) for her father Cinyras, treated after the manner of the +Alexandrian poets. It is said to have taken nine years to finish. +A <i>Propempticon Pollionis</i>, a send-off to [Asinius] Pollio, is also +attributed to him. In both these poems, the language of which +was so obscure that they required special commentaries, his +model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Weichert, <i>Poëtarum Latinorum Vitae</i> (1830); L. Müller’s +edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna’s poems are +printed; A. Kiessling, “De C. Helvio Cinna Poëta” in <i>Commentationes +Philologicae in honorem T. Mommsen</i> (1878); O. Ribbeck, +<i>Geschichte der römischen Dichtung</i>, i. (1887); Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist. +of Roman Lit.</i> (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5); Plessis, <i>Poésie latine</i> (1909).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span></p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINNABAR<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Zinnober</i>), sometimes written cinnabarite, +a name applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native +vermilion, the common ore of mercury. The name comes from +the Greek <span class="grk" title="kinnabari">κιννάβαρι</span>, used by Theophrastus, and probably +applied to several distinct substances. Cinnabar is generally +found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of bright red colour, +but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a metallic adamantine +lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system, and are +generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar +presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and +optical characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization, +and A. Des Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the +rotatory power of quartz (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polarization of Light</a></span>). Cinnabar +has higher refractive power than any other known mineral, its +mean index for sodium light being 3.02, whilst the index for +diamond—a substance of remarkable refraction—is only 2.42 (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Refraction</a></span>). The hardness of cinnabar is 3, and its specific +gravity 8.998.</p> + +<p>Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver, +notably Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria +(Austria), Landsberg, near Ober-Moschel in the Palatinate, +Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps (Tuscany), the mountain +Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the province of Kweichow +in China, whence very fine crystals have been obtained. +Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from the +hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat +Springs, Nevada.</p> + +<p>Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola, +in which the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy +matter.</p> + +<p>Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this +compound being dimorphous.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a general description of cinnabar, see G.F. Becker’s <i>Geology +of the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope</i>, U.S. Geol. Surv. +Monographs, No. xiii. (1888).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINNAMIC ACID<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Phenylacrylic Acid</span>, C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">2</span> or +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>.CH:CH.COOH, an acid found in the form of its benzyl +ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in storax and in some gum-benzoins. +It can be prepared by the reduction of phenyl propiolic +acid with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal malonic +acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde +in the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called “Perkin +reaction”; the latter being the method commonly employed. +In making the acid by this process benzaldehyde, acetic anhydride +and anhydrous sodium acetate are heated for some +hours to about 1800 C, the resulting product is made alkaline +with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed +by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and +acidified with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipitated, +C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO+CH<span class="su">3</span>COONa = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH:CH.COONa + H<span class="su">2</span>O. It +may be purified by recrystallization from hot water. Considerable +controversy has taken place as to the course pursued by +this reaction, but the matter has been definitely settled by the +work of R. Fittig and his pupils (<i>Annalen</i>, 1883, 216, pp. 100, +115; 1885, 227, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown that the +aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt +of the fatty acid, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of +a dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or +prisms, melting at 133°C; on reduction it gives <i>phenyl propionic +acid</i>, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>.CH<span class="su">2</span>.CH<span class="su">2</span>.COOH. Nitric acid oxidizes it to benzoic +acid and acetic acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic +and acetic acids. Being an unsaturated acid it combines directly +with hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, bromine, &c. On +nitration it gives a mixture of ortho and para nitrocinnamic +acids, the former of which is of historical importance, as by +converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A. Baeyer was +enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo (<i>q.v.</i>). +Reduction of orthonitrocinnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic +acid, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(NH<span class="su">2</span>)CH:CH.COOH, which is of theoretical importance, +as it readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of +cinnamic acid known as <i>allo-cinnamic acid</i> is also known.</p> + +<p>For the oxy-cinnamic adds see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coumarin</a></span>.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINNAMON<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span>, the inner bark of <i>Cinnamomum zeylanicum</i>, a +small evergreen tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae, +native to Ceylon. The leaves are large, ovate-oblong in shape, +and the flowers, which are arranged in panicles, have a greenish +colour and a rather disagreeable odour. Cinnamon has been +known from remote antiquity, and it was so highly prized among +ancient nations that it was regarded as a present fit for monarchs +and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod. xxx. 23, +where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon (<i>Kinnamon</i>) +and cassia, and it is alluded to by Herodotus under the +name <span class="grk" title="Kinnamômon">κιννάμωμον</span>, and by other classical writers. The tree is +grown at Tellicherry, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil and Egypt, +but the produce of none of these places approaches in quality +that grown in Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon of fine quality is a very +thin smooth bark, with a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly +fragrant odour, and a peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing +aromatic taste. Its flavour is due to an aromatic oil which it +contains to the extent of from 0.5 to 1%. This essential oil, +as an article of commerce, is prepared by roughly pounding the +bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly distilling the +whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the peculiar odour +of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. It consists essentially +of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the absorption of oxygen as +it becomes old it darkens in colour and develops resinous compounds. +Cinnamon is principally employed in cookery as a +condiment and flavouring material, being largely used in the +preparation of some kinds of chocolate and liqueurs. In medicine +it acts like other volatile oils and has a reputation as a cure for +colds. Being a much more costly spice than cassia, that comparatively +harsh-flavoured substance is frequently substituted +for or added to it. The two barks when whole are easily enough +distinguished, and their microscopical characters are also quite +distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine, +little effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality, +but when cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the +intensity of the coloration depending on the proportion of the +cassia.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINNAMON-STONE<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, a variety of garnet, belonging to the +lime-alumina type, known also as essonite or hessonite, from +the Gr. <span class="grk" title="êssôn">ἣσσων</span>, “inferior,” in allusion to its being less hard and +less dense than most other garnet. It has a characteristic red +colour, inclining to orange, much like that of hyacinth or +jacinth. Indeed it was shown many years ago, by Sir A.H. +Church, that many gems, especially engraved stones, commonly +regarded as hyacinth, were really cinnamon-stone. The difference +is readily detected by the specific gravity, that of hessonite being +3.64 to 3.69, whilst that of hyacinth (zircon) is about 4.6. +Hessonite is rather a soft stone, its hardness being about that of +quartz or 7, whilst the hardness of most garnet reaches 7.5. +Cinnamon-stone comes chiefly from Ceylon, where it is found +generally as pebbles, though its occurrence in its native matrix +is not unknown.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINNAMUS<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Kinnamos</span>], <span class="bold">JOHN</span>, Byzantine historian, flourished +in the second half of the 12th century. He was imperial secretary +(probably in this case a post connected with the military administration) +to Manuel I. Comnenus (1143-1180), whom he +accompanied on his campaigns in Europe and Asia Minor. He +appears to have outlived Andronicus I., who died in 1185. +Cinnamus was the author of a history of the period 1118-1176, +which thus continues the <i>Alexiad</i> of Anna Comnena, and embraces +the reigns of John II. and Manuel I., down to the unsuccessful +campaign of the latter against the Turks, which ended +with the disastrous battle of Myriokephalon and the rout of +the Byzantine army. Cinnamus was probably an eye-witness +of the events of the last ten years which he describes. The work +breaks off abruptly; originally it no doubt went down to the +death of Manuel, and there are indications that, even in its +present form, it is an abridgment. The text is in a very corrupt +state. The author’s hero is Manuel; he is strongly impressed +with the superiority of the East to the West, and is a determined +opponent of the pretensions of the papacy. But he +cannot be reproached with undue bias; he writes with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span> +straightforwardness of a soldier, and is not ashamed on occasion +to confess his ignorance. The matter is well arranged, the style +(modelled on that of Xenophon) simple, and on the whole free +from the usual florid bombast of the Byzantine writers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Editio princeps</i>, C. Tollius (1652); in Bonn, <i>Corpus Scriptorum +Hist. Byz.</i>, by A. Meineke (1836), with Du Cange’s valuable notes; +Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, cxxxiii.; see also C. Neumann, <i>Griechische +Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert</i> (1888); H. von Kap-Herr, +<i>Die abendländische Politik Kaiser Manuels</i> (1881); C. Krumbacher, +<i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINNOLIN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span>, C<span class="su">8</span>H<span class="su">6</span>N<span class="su">2</span>, a compound isomeric with phthalazine, +prepared by boiling dihydrocinnolin dissolved in benzene with +freshly precipitated mercuric oxide. The solution is filtered +and the hydrochloride of the base precipitated by alcoholic +hydrochloric acid; the free base is obtained as an oil by adding +caustic soda. It may be obtained in white silky needles, melting +at 24-25°C. and containing a molecule of ether of crystallization +by cooling the oil dissolved in ether. The free base melts at +39°C. It is a strong base, forming stable salts with mineral +acids, and is easily soluble in water and in the ordinary organic +solvents. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate, +and leaves a sharp irritation for some time on the tongue; it is +also very poisonous (M. Busch and A. Rast, <i>Berichte</i>, 1897, 30, +p. 521). Cinnolin derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin +carboxylic acid, which is formed by digesting orthophenyl +propiolic acid diazo chloride with water. Oxycinnolin carboxylic +acid on heating gives oxycinnolin, melting at 225°, +which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin. This +substance is reduced by iron filings and sulphuric acid to dihydrocinnolin.</p> + +<p>The relations of these compounds are here shown:—</p> + +<div class="figcenter"> +<img style="border:0; width:550px; height:112px" + src="images/img377.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINO DA PISTOIA<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1270-1336), Italian poet and jurist, +whose full name was <span class="sc">Guittoncino de’ Sinibaldi</span>, was born in +Pistoia, of a noble family. He studied law at Bologna under +Dinus Muggelanus (Dino de Rossonis: d. 1303) and Franciscus +Accursius, and in 1307 is understood to have been assessor of +civil causes in his native city. In that year, however, Pistoia +was disturbed by the Guelph and Ghibelline feud. The Ghibellines, +who had for some time been the stronger party, being +worsted by the Guelphs, Cino, a prominent member of the former +faction, had to quit his office and the city of his birth. Pitecchio, +a stronghold on the frontiers of Lombardy, was yet in the hands +of Filippo Vergiolesi, chief of the Pistoian Ghibellines; Selvaggia, +his daughter, was beloved by Cino (who was probably already +the husband of Margherita degli Unghi); and to Pitecchio did +the lawyer-poet betake himself. It is uncertain how long he +remained at the fortress; it is certain, however, that he was not +with the Vergiolesi at the time of Selvaggia’s death, which +happened three years afterwards (1310), at the Monte della +Sambuca, in the Apennines, whither the Ghibellines had been +compelled to shift their camp. He visited his mistress’s grave +on his way to Rome, after some time spent in travel in France +and elsewhere, and to this visit is owing his finest sonnet. At +Rome Cino held office under Louis of Savoy, sent thither by +the Ghibelline leader Henry of Luxemburg, who was crowned +emperor of the Romans in 1312. In 1313, however, the emperor +died, and the Ghibellines lost their last hope. Cino appears to +have thrown up his party, and to have returned to Pistoia. +Thereafter he devoted himself to law and letters. After filling +several high judicial offices, a doctor of civil law of Bologna in +his forty-fourth year, he lectured and taught from the professor’s +chair at the universities of Treviso, Siena, Florence and Perugia +in succession; his reputation and success were great, his judicial +experience enabling him to travel out of the routine of the schools. +In literature he continued in some sort the tradition of Dante +during the interval dividing that great poet from his successor +Petrarch. The latter, besides celebrating Cino in an obituary +sonnet, has coupled him and his Selvaggia with Dante and +Beatrice in the fourth <i>capitolo</i> of his <i>Trionfi d’ Amore</i>.</p> + +<p>Cino, the master of Bartolus, and of Joannes Andreae the +celebrated canonist, was long famed as a jurist. His commentary +on the statutes of Pistoia, written within two years, is said to +have great merit; while that on the code (<i>Lectura Cino Pistoia +super codice</i>, Pavia, 1483; Lyons, 1526) is considered by Savigny +to exhibit more practical intelligence and more originality of +thought than are found in any commentary on Roman law since +the time of Accursius. As a poet he also distinguished himself +greatly. He was the friend and correspondent of Dante’s later +years, and possibly of his earlier also, and was certainly, with +Guido Cavalcanti and Durante da Maiano, one of those who +replied to the famous sonnet <i>A ciascun’ alma presa e gentil core</i> +of the <i>Vita Nuova</i>. In the treatise <i>De Vulgari Eloquio</i> Dante +refers to him as one of “those who have most sweetly and subtly +written poems in modern Italian,” but his works, printed at +Rome in 1559, do not altogether justify the praise. Strained and +rhetorical as many of his outcries are, however, Cino is not +without moments of true passion and fine natural eloquence. +Of these qualities the sonnet in memory of Selvaggia, <i>Io +fui in sull’ alto e in sul beato monte</i>, and the canzone to Dante, +<i>Avegnachè di omaggio più per tempo</i>, are interesting examples.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The text-book for English readers is D.G. Rossetti’s <i>Early Italian +Poets</i>, wherein will be found not only a memoir of Cino da Pistoia, +but also some admirably translated specimens of his verse—the +whole wrought into significant connexion with that friendship of +Cino’s which is perhaps the most interesting fact about him. See +also Ciampi, <i>Vita e poesie di messer Cino da Pistoia</i> (Pisa, 1813).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINQ-MARS, HENRI COIFFIER RUZÉ D’EFFIAT<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Marquis +de</span> (1620-1642), French courtier, was the second son of Antoine +Coiffier Ruzé, marquis d’Effiat, marshal of France (1581-1632), +and was introduced to the court of Louis XIII. by Richelieu, +who had been a friend of his father and who hoped he would +counteract the influence of the queen’s favourite Mlle. de +Hautefort. Owing to his handsome appearance and agreeable +manners he soon became a favourite of the king, and was made +successively master of the wardrobe and master of the horse. +After distinguishing himself at the siege of Arras in 1640, Cinq-Mars +wished for a high military command, but Richelieu opposed +his pretensions and the favourite talked rashly about overthrowing +the minister. He was probably connected with the +abortive rising of the count of Soissons in 1641; however that +may be, in the following year he formed a conspiracy with the +duke of Bouillon and others to overthrow Richelieu. This plot +was under the nominal leadership of the king’s brother Gaston +of Orleans. The plans of the conspirators were aided by the +illness of Richelieu and his absence from the king, and at the +siege of Narbonne Cinq-Mars almost induced Louis to agree to +banish his minister. Richelieu, however, recovered, became +acquainted with the attempt of Cinq-Mars to obtain assistance +from Spain, and laid the proofs of his treason before the king, +who ordered his arrest. Cinq-Mars was brought to trial, admitted +his guilt, and was condemned to death. He was executed at +Lyons on the 12th of September 1642. It is possible that +Cinq-Mars was urged to engage in this conspiracy by his affection +for Louise Marie de Gonzaga (1612-1667), afterwards queen of +Poland, who was a prominent figure at the court of Louis XIII.; +and this tradition forms part of the plot of Alfred de Vigny’s +novel <i>Cinq-Mars</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Le P. Griffet, <i>Histoire de Louis XIII</i>; A. Bazin, <i>Histoire de +Louis XIII</i> (1846); L. D’Astarac de Frontrailles, <i>Relations des +choses particulières de la cour pendant la faveur de M. de Cinq-Mars</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINQUE CENTO<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (Italian for five hundred; short for 1500), in +architecture, the style which became prevalent in Italy in the +century following 1500, now usually called “16th-century work.” +It was the result of the revival of classic architecture known as +Renaissance, but the change had commenced already a century +earlier, in the works of Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture, +and of Brunelleschi and Alberti in architecture.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINQUE PORTS<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span>, the name of an ancient jurisdiction in the +south of England, which is still maintained with considerable +modifications and diminished authority. As the name implies, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span> +the ports originally constituting the body were only five in +number—Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich; +but to these were afterwards added the “ancient towns” of +Winchelsea and Rye with the same privileges, and a good many +other places, both corporate and non-corporate, which, with +the title of limb or member, held a subordinate position. To +Hastings were attached the corporate members of Pevensey +and Seaford, and the non-corporate members of Bulvarhythe, +Petit Iham (Yham or Higham), Hydney, Bekesbourn, Northeye +and Grenche or Grange; to Romney, Lydd, and Old Romney, +Dengemarsh, Orwaldstone, and Bromehill or Promehill; to +Dover, Folkestone and Faversham, and Margate, St John’s, +Goresend (now Birchington), Birchington Wood (now Woodchurch), +St Peter’s, Kingsdown and Ringwould; to Sandwich, +Fordwich and Deal, and Walmer, Ramsgate, Reculver, Stonor +(Estanor), Sarre (or Serre) and Brightlingsea (in Essex). To +Rye was attached the corporate member of Tenterden, and to a +Hythe the non-corporate member of West Hythe. The jurisdiction +thus extends along the coast from Seaford in Sussex +to Birchington near Margate in Kent; and it also includes a +number of inland districts, at a considerable distance from the +ports with which they are connected. The non-incorporated +members are within the municipal jurisdiction of the ports to +which they are attached; but the corporate members are as +free within their own liberties as the individual ports themselves.</p> + +<p>The incorporation of the Cinque Ports had its origin in the +necessity for some means of defence along the southern seaboard +of England, and in the lack of any regular navy. Up to the +reign of Henry VII. they had to furnish the crown with nearly +all the ships and men that were needful for the state; and for +a long time after they were required to give large assistance to +the permanent fleet. The oldest charter now on record is one +belonging to the 6th year of Edward I.; and it refers to previous +documents of the time of Edward the Confessor and William +the Conqueror. In return for their services the ports enjoyed +extensive privileges. From the Conquest or even earlier they +had, besides various lesser rights—(1) exemption from tax +and tallage; (2) soc and sac, or full cognizance of all criminal +and civil cases within their liberties; (3) tol and team, or the +right of receiving toll and the right of compelling the person +in whose hands stolen property was found to name the person +from whom he received it; (4) blodwit and fledwit, or the right +to punish shedders of blood and those who were seized in an +attempt to escape from justice; (5) pillory and tumbrel; (6) +infangentheof and outfangentheof, or power to imprison and +execute felons; (7) mundbryce (the breaking into or violation +of a man’s <i>mund</i> or property in order to erect banks or +dikes as a defence against the sea); (8) waives and strays, +or the right to appropriate lost property or cattle not claimed +within a year and a day; (9) the right to seize all flotsam, +jetsam, or ligan, or, in other words, whatever of value was cast +ashore by the sea; (10) the privilege of being a gild with power +to impose taxes for the common weal; and (11) the right of +assembling in portmote or parliament at Shepway or Shepway +Cross, a few miles west of Hythe (but afterwards at Dover), +the parliament being empowered to make by-laws for the +Cinque Ports, to regulate the Yarmouth fishery, to hear appeals +from the local courts, and to give decision in all cases of treason, +sedition, illegal coining or concealment of treasure trove. The +ordinary business of the ports was conducted in two courts +known respectively as the court of brotherhood and the court +of brotherhood and guestling,—the former being composed of +the mayors of the seven principal towns and a number of jurats +and freemen from each, and the latter including in addition the +mayors, bailiffs and other representatives of the corporate +members. The court of brotherhood was formerly called the +brotheryeeld, brodall or brodhull; and the name guestling +seems to owe its origin to the fact that the officials of the +“members” were at first in the position of invited guests.</p> + +<p>The highest office in connexion with the Cinque Ports is that +of the lord warden, who also acts as governor of Dover Castle, +and has a maritime jurisdiction (<i>vide infra</i>) as admiral of the +ports. His power was formerly of great extent, but he has now +practically no important duty to exercise except that of chairman +of the Dover harbour board. The emoluments of the office are +confined to certain insignificant admiralty droits. The patronage +attached to the office consists of the right to appoint the judge +of the Cinque Ports admiralty court, the registrar of the Cinque +Ports and the marshal of the court; the right of appointing +salvage commissioners at each Cinque Port and the appointment +of a deputy to act as chairman of the Dover harbour board in +the absence of the lord warden. Walmer Castle was for long +the official residence of the lord warden, but has, since the +resignation of Lord Curzon in 1903, ceased to be so used, and +those portions of it which are of historic interest are now open +to the public. George, prince of Wales (lord warden, 1903-1907), +was the first lord warden of royal blood since the office was held +by George, prince of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne.</p> + +<p><i>Admiralty Jurisdiction.</i>—The court of admiralty for the +Cinque Ports exercises a co-ordinate but not exclusive admiralty +jurisdiction over persons and things found within the territory +of the Cinque Ports. The limits of its jurisdiction were declared +at an inquisition taken at the court of admiralty, held by the +seaside at Dover in 1682, to extend from Shore Beacon in Essex +to Redcliff, near Seaford, in Sussex; and with regard to salvage, +they comprise all the sea between Seaford in Sussex to a point +five miles off Cape Grisnez on the coast of France, and the coast +of Essex. An older inquisition of 1526 is given by R.G. Marsden +in his <i>Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty</i>, II. xxx. The court +is an ancient one. The judge sits as the official and commissary +of the lord warden, just as the judge of the high court of admiralty +sat as the official and commissary of the lord high admiral. And, +as the office of lord warden is more ancient than the office of +lord high admiral (<i>The Lord Warden</i> v. <i>King in his office of +Admiralty</i>, 1831, 2 Hagg. Admy. Rep. 438), it is probable that +the Cinque Ports court is the more ancient of the two.</p> + +<p>The jurisdiction of the court has been, except in one matter +of mere antiquarian curiosity, unaffected by statute. It exercises +only, therefore, such jurisdiction as the high court of admiralty +exercised, apart from restraining statutes of 1389 and 1391 and +enabling statutes of 1840 and 1861. Cases of collision have been +tried in it (the “Vivid,” 1 <i>Asp. Maritime Law Cases</i>, 601). +But salvage cases (the “Clarisse,” <i>Swabey</i>, 129; the “Marie,” +<i>Law. Rep. 7 P.D.</i> 203) are the principal cases now tried. It has +no prize jurisdiction. The one case in which jurisdiction has +been given to it by statute is to enforce forfeitures under the +statute of 1538.</p> + +<p>Dr (afterwards the Right Hon. Robert Joseph) Phillimore +succeeded his father as judge of the court from 1855 to 1875, +being succeeded by Mr Arthur Cohen, K.C. As Sir R. Phillimore +was also the last judge of the high court of admiralty, from 1867 +(the date of his appointment to the high court) to 1875, the two +offices were, probably for the first time in history, held by the +same person. Dr Phillimore’s patent had a grant of the “place +or office of judge official and commissary of the court of admiralty +of the Cinque Ports, and their members and appurtenances, +and to be assistant to my lieutenant of Dover castle in all such +affairs and business concerning the said court of admiralty +wherein yourself and assistance shall be requisite and necessary.” +Of old the court sat sometimes at Sandwich, sometimes at other +ports. But the regular place for the sitting of the court has for +a long time been, and still is, the aisle of St James’s church, +Dover. For convenience the judge often sits at the royal courts +of justice. The office of marshal in the high court is represented +in this court by a serjeant, who also bears a silver oar. There +is a registrar, as in the high court. The appeal is to the king in +council, and is heard by the judicial committee of the privy +council. The court can hear appeals from the Cinque Ports +salvage commissioners, such appeals being final (Cinque Ports +Act 1821). Actions may be transferred to it, and appeals made +to it, from the county courts in all cases, arising within the +jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports as defined by that act. At the +solemn installation of the lord warden the judge as the next +principal officer installs him.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span></p> + +<p>The Cinque Ports from the earliest times claimed to be exempt +from the jurisdiction of the admiral of England. Their early +charters do not, like those of Bristol and other seaports, express +this exemption in terms. It seems to have been derived from +the general words of the charters which preserve their liberties +and privileges.</p> + +<p>The lord warden’s claim to prize was raised in, but not finally +decided by, the high court of admiralty in the “Ooster Ems,” +1 <i>C. Rob.</i> 284, 1783.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S. Jeake, <i>Charters of the Cinque Ports</i> (1728); Boys, <i>Sandwich +and Cinque Ports</i>; Knocker, <i>Grand Court of Shepway</i> (1862); M, +Burrows, <i>Cinque Ports</i> (1895); F.M. Hueffer, <i>Cinque Ports</i> (1900); +<i>Indices of the Great White and Black Books of the Cinque Ports</i> (1905).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CINTRA<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span>, a town of central Portugal, in the district of Lisbon, +formerly included in the province of Estramadura; 17 m. +W.N.W. of Lisbon by the Lisbon-Caçem-Cintra railway, and +6 m. N. by E. of Cape da Roca, the westernmost promontory of +the European mainland. Pop. (1900) 5914. Cintra is magnificently +situated on the northern slope of the Serra da Cintra, a +rugged mountain mass, largely overgrown with pines, eucalyptus, +cork and other forest trees, above which the principal summits +rise in a succession of bare and jagged grey peaks; the highest +being Cruz Alta (1772 ft.), marked by an ancient stone cross, +and commanding a wonderful view southward over Lisbon and +the Tagus estuary, and north-westward over the Atlantic and +the plateau of Mafra. Few European towns possess equal +advantages of position and climate; and every educated +Portuguese is familiar with the verses in which the beauty of +Cintra is celebrated by Byron in <i>Childe Harold</i> (1812), and by +Camoens in the national epic <i>Os Lusiadas</i> (1572). One of the +highest points of the Serra is surmounted by the Palacio da Pena, +a fantastic imitation of a medieval fortress, built on the site of a +Hieronymite convent by the prince consort Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg +(d. 1885); while an adjacent part of the range is occupied +by the Castello des Mouros, an extensive Moorish fortification, +containing a small ruined mosque and a very curious set of +ancient cisterns. The lower slopes of the Serra are covered +with the gardens and villas of the wealthier inhabitants of +Lisbon, who migrate hither in spring and stay until late +autumn.</p> + +<p>In the town itself the most conspicuous building is a 14th-15th-century +royal palace, partly Moorish, partly debased Gothic +in style, and remarkable for the two immense conical chimneys +which rise like towers in the midst. The 18th-century Palacio +de Seteaes, built in the French style then popular in Portugal, +is said to derive its name (“Seven <i>Ahs</i>”) from a sevenfold echo; +here, on the 22nd of August 1808, was signed the convention of +Cintra, by which the British and Portuguese allowed the French +army to evacuate the kingdom without molestation. Beside the +road which leads for 3½ m. W. to the village of Collares, celebrated +for its wine, is the Penha Verde, an interesting country house and +chapel, founded by João de Castro (1500-1548), fourth viceroy +of the Indies. De Castro also founded the convent of Santa Cruz, +better known as the Convento de Cortiça or Cork convent, which +stands at the western extremity of the Serra, and owes its name +to the cork panels which formerly lined its walls. Beyond the +Penha Verde, on the Collares road, are the palace and park of +Montserrate. The palace was originally built by William +Beckford, the novelist and traveller (1761-1844), and was +purchased in 1856 by Sir Francis Cook, an Englishman who +afterwards obtained the Portuguese title viscount of Montserrate. +The palace, which contains a valuable library, is built of pure +white stone, in Moorish style; its walls are elaborately sculptured. +The park, with its tropical luxuriance of vegetation and its variety +of lake, forest and mountain scenery, is by far the finest example +of landscape gardening in the Iberian Peninsula, and probably +among the finest in the world. Its high-lying lawns, which +overlook the Atlantic, are as perfect as any in England, and +there is one ravine containing a whole wood of giant tree-ferns +from New Zealand. Other rare plants have been systematically +collected and brought to Montserrate from all parts of the world +by Sir Francis Cook, and afterwards by his successor, Sir +Frederick Cook, the second viscount. The Praia das Maçãs, or +“beach of apples,” in the centre of a rich fruit-bearing valley, +is a favourite sea-bathing station, connected with Cintra by an +extension of the electric tramway which runs through the town.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIPHER<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cypher</span> (from Arab, <i>şifr</i>, void), the symbol 0, +nought, or zero; and so a name for symbolic or secret writing +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cryptography</a></span>), or even for shorthand (<i>q.v.</i>), and also in +elementary education for doing simple sums (“ciphering”).</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIPPUS<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (Lat. for a “post” or “stake”), in architecture, +a low pedestal, either round or rectangular, set up by the Romans +for various purposes such as military or mile stones, boundary +posts, &c. The inscriptions on some in the British Museum show +that they were occasionally funeral memorials.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1727-1785), Italian painter +and engraver, Pistoiese by descent, was born in Florence in 1727. +His first lessons were given him by an Englishman, Ignatius +Heckford or Hugford, and under his second master, Antonio +Domenico Gabbiani, he became a very clever draughtsman. +He was in Rome from 1750 to 1753, where he became acquainted +with Sir William Chambers, the architect, and Joseph Wilton, +the sculptor, whom he accompanied to England in August 1755. +He had already painted two pictures for the abbey of San +Michele in Pelago, Pistoia, which had brought him reputation, +and on his arrival in England he was patronized by Lord Tilney, +the duke of Richmond and other noblemen. His acquaintance +with Sir William Chambers no doubt helped him on, for when +Chambers designed the Albany in London for Lord Holland, +Cipriani painted a ceiling for him. He also painted part of a +ceiling in Buckingham Palace, and a room with poetical subjects +at Standlynch in Wiltshire. Some of his best and most permanent +work was, however, done at Somerset House, built by his friend +Chambers, upon which he lavished infinite pains. He not only +prepared the decorations for the interior of the north block, but, +says Joseph Baretti in his <i>Guide through the Royal Academy</i> +(1780), “the whole of the carvings in the various fronts of +Somerset Place—excepting Bacon’s bronze figures—were carved +from finished drawings made by Cipriani.” These designs +include the five masks forming the keystones to the arches on the +courtyard side of the vestibule, and the two above the doors +leading into the wings of the north block, all of which are believed +to have been carved by Nollekens. The grotesque groups +flanking the main doorways on three sides of the quadrangle +and the central doorway on the terrace appear also to have been +designed by Cipriani. The apartments in Sir William Chambers’s +stately palace that were assigned to the Royal Academy, into +which it moved in 1780, owed much to Cipriani’s graceful, if +mannered, pencil. The central panel of the library ceiling was +painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, but the four compartments +in the coves, representing Allegory, Fable, Nature and History, +were Cipriani’s. These paintings still remain at Somerset House, +together with the emblematic painted ceiling, also his work, of +what was once the library of the Royal Society. It was natural +that Cipriani should thus devote himself to adorning the apartments +of the academy, since he was an original member (1768) +of that body, for which he designed the diploma so well engraved +by Bartolozzi. In recognition of his services in this respect the +members presented him in 1769 with a silver cup with a commemorative +inscription. He was much employed by the publishers, +for whom he made drawings in pen and ink, sometimes +coloured. His friend Bartolozzi engraved most of them. Drawings +by him are in both the British Museum and Victoria and +Albert Museum. His best autograph engravings are “The Death +of Cleopatra,” after Benvenuto Cellini; “The Descent of the +Holy Ghost,” after Gabbiani; and portraits for Hollis’s memoirs, +1780. He painted allegorical designs for George III.’s state +coach—which is still in use—in 1782, and repaired Verrio’s +paintings at Windsor and Rubens’s ceiling in the Banqueting +House at Whitehall. If his pictures were often weak, his decorative +treatment of children was usually exceedingly happy. Some +of his most pleasing work was that which, directly or indirectly, +he executed for the decoration of furniture. He designed many +groups of nymphs and <i>amorini</i> and medallion subjects to form +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span> +the centre of Pergolesi’s bands of ornament, and they were +continually reproduced upon the elegant satin-wood furniture +which was growing popular in his later days and by the end of +the 18th century became a rage. Sometimes these designs were +inlaid in marqueterie, but most frequently they were painted +upon the satin-wood by other hands with delightful effect, since +in the whole range of English furniture there is nothing more +enchanting than really good finished satin-wood pieces. There +can be little doubt that some of the beautiful furniture designed +by the Adams was actually painted by Cipriani himself. He also +occasionally designed handles for drawers and doors. Cipriani +died at Hammersmith in 1785 and was buried at Chelsea, where +Bartolozzi erected a monument to his memory. He had married +an English lady, by whom he had two sons.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCAR<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span>, an Indian term applied to the component parts of a +<i>subah</i> or province, each of which is administered by a deputy-governor. +In English it is principally employed in the name +of the <span class="sc">Northern Circars</span>, used to designate a now obsolete +division of the Madras presidency, which consisted of a narrow +slip of territory lying along the western side of the Bay of Bengal +from 15° 40′ to 20° 17′ N. lat. These Northern Circars were +five in number, Chicacole, Rajahmundry, Ellore, Kondapalli +and Guntur, and their total area was about 30,000 sq. m.</p> + +<p>The district corresponds in the main to the modern districts +of Kistna, Godavari, Vizagapatam, Ganjam and a part of +Nellore. It was first invaded by the Mahommedans in 1471; +in 1541 they conquered Kondapalli, and nine years later they +extended their conquests over all Guntur and the districts of +Masulipatam. But the invaders appear to have acquired only +an imperfect possession of the country, as it was again wrested +from the Hindu princes of Orissa about the year 1571, during +the reign of Ibrahim, of the Kutb Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad +or Golconda. In 1687 the Circars were added, along with the +empire of Hyderabad, to the extensive empire of Aurangzeb. +Salabat Jang, the son of the nizam ul mulk Asaf Jah, who was +indebted for his elevation to the throne to the French East +India Company, granted them in return for their services the +district of Kondavid or Guntur, and soon afterwards the other +Circars. In 1759, by the conquest of the fortress of Masulipatam, +the dominion of the maritime provinces on both sides, from the +river Gundlakamma to the Chilka lake, was necessarily transferred +from the French to the British. But the latter left them +under the administration of the nizam, with the exception of +the town and fortress of Masulipatam, which were retained by +the English East India Company. In 1765 Lord Clive obtained +from the Mogul emperor Shah Alam a grant of the five Circars. +Hereupon the fort of Kondapalli was seized by the British, and +on the 12th of November 1766 a treaty of alliance was signed +with Nizam Ali by which the Company, in return for the grant +of the Circars, undertook to maintain troops for the nizam’s +assistance. By a second treaty, signed on the 1st of March +1768, the nizam acknowledged the validity of Shah Alam’s +grant and resigned the Circars to the Company, receiving as a +mark of friendship an annuity of £50,000. Guntur, as the +personal estate of the nizam’s brother Basalat Jang, was excepted +during his lifetime under both treaties. He died in 1782, +but it was not till 1788 that Guntur came under British administration. +Finally, in 1823, the claims of the nizam over the +Northern Circars were bought outright by the Company, and +they became a British possession.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCASSIA<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, a name formerly given to the north-western +portion of the Caucasus, including the district between the +mountain range and the Black Sea, and extending to the north +of the central range as far as the river Kuban. Its physical +features are described in the article on the Russian province of +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kuban</a></span>, with which it approximately coincides. The present +article is confined to a consideration of the ethnographical +relations and characteristics of the people, their history being +treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caucasia</a></span>.</p> + +<p>The Cherkesses or Circassians, who gave their name to this +region, of which they were until lately the sole inhabitants, are a +peculiar race, differing from the other tribes of the Caucasus in +origin and language. They designate themselves by the name +of Adigheb, that of Cherkesses being a term of Russian origin. +By their long-continued struggles with the power of Russia, +during a period of nearly forty years, they attracted the attention +of the other nations of Europe in a high degree, and were at the +same time an object of interest to the student of the history of +civilization, from the strange mixture which their customs +exhibited of chivalrous sentiment with savage customs. For +this reason it may be still worth while to give a brief summary +of their national characteristics and manners, though these +must now be regarded as in great measure things of the past.</p> + +<p>In the patriarchal simplicity of their manners, the mental +qualities with which they were endowed, the beauty of form +and regularity of feature by which they were distinguished, they +surpassed most of the other tribes of the Caucasus. At the +same time they were remarkable for their warlike and intrepid +character, their independence, their hospitality to strangers, +and that love of country which they manifested in their determined +resistance to an almost overwhelming power during the +period of a long and desolating war. The government under +which they lived was a peculiar form of the feudal system. The +free Circassians were divided into three distinct ranks, the princes +or <i>pshi</i>, the nobles or <i>uork</i> (Tatar <i>usden</i>), and the +peasants or <i>hokotl</i>. Like the inhabitants of the other regions of the +Caucasus, they were also divided into numerous families, tribes +or clans, some of which were very powerful, and carried on war +against each other with great animosity. The slaves, of whom +a large proportion were prisoners of war, were generally employed +in the cultivation of the soil, or in the domestic service of some +of the principal chiefs.</p> + +<p>The will of the people was acknowledged as the supreme +source of authority; and every free Circassian had a right to +express his opinion in those assemblies of his tribe in which the +questions of peace and war, almost the only subjects which +engaged their attention, were brought under deliberation. The +princes and nobles, the leaders of the people in war and their +rulers in peace, were only the administrators of a power which +was delegated to them. As they had no written laws, the +administration of justice was regulated solely by custom and +tradition, and in those tribes professing Mahommedanism by +the precepts of the Koran. The most aged and respected +inhabitants of the various <i>auls</i> or villages frequently sat in +judgment, and their decisions were received without a murmur +by the contending parties. The Circassian princes and nobles +were professedly Mahommedans; but in their religious services +many of the ceremonies of their former heathen and Christian +worship were still preserved. A great part of the people had +remained faithful to the worship of their ancient gods—Shible, +the god of thunder, of war and of justice; Tleps, the god of fire; +and Seosseres, the god of water and of winds. Although the +Circassians are said to have possessed minds capable of the +highest cultivation, the arts and sciences, with the exception +of poetry and music, were completely neglected. They possessed +no written language. The wisdom of their sages, the knowledge +they had acquired, and the memory of their warlike deeds were +preserved in verses, which were repeated from mouth to mouth +and descended from father to son.</p> + +<p>The education of the young Circassian was confined to riding, +fencing, shooting, hunting, and such exercises as were calculated +to strengthen his frame and prepare him for a life of active +warfare. The only intellectual duty of the <i>atalik</i> or instructor, +with whom the young men lived until they had completed +their education, was that of teaching them to express their +thoughts shortly, quickly and appropriately. One of their +marriage ceremonies was very strange. The young man who +had been approved by the parents, and had paid the stipulated +price in money, horses, oxen, or sheep for his bride, was expected +to come with his friends fully armed, and to carry her off by force +from her father’s house. Every free Circassian had unlimited +right over the lives of his wife and children. Although polygamy +was allowed by the laws of the Koran, the custom of the country +forbade it, and the Circassians were generally faithful to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span> +marriage bond. The respect for superior age was carried to +such an extent that the young brother used to rise from his seat +when the elder entered an apartment, and was silent when he +spoke. Like all the other inhabitants of the Caucasus, the +Circassians were distinguished for two very opposite qualities—the +most generous hospitality and implacable vindictiveness. +Hospitality to the stranger was considered one of the most +sacred duties. Whatever were his rank in life, all the members +of the family rose to receive him on his entrance, and conduct +him to the principal seat in the apartment. The host was considered +responsible with his own life for the security of his guest, +upon whom, even although his deadliest enemy, he would inflict +no injury while under the protection of his roof. The chief who +had received a stranger was also bound to grant him an escort +of horse to conduct him in safety on his journey, and confide +him to the protection of those nobles with whom he might be on +friendly terms. The law of vengeance was no less binding on +the Circassian. The individual who had slain any member of a +family was pursued with implacable vengeance by the relatives, +until his crime was expiated by death. The murderer might, +indeed, secure his safety by the payment of a certain sum of +money, or by carrying off from the house of his enemy a newly-born +child, bringing it up as his own, and restoring it when its +education was finished. In either case, the family of the slain +individual might discontinue the pursuit of vengeance without +any stain upon its honour. The man closely followed by his +enemy, who, on reaching the dwelling of a woman, had merely +touched her hand, was safe from all other pursuit so long as he +remained under the protection of her roof. The opinions of the +Circassians regarding theft resembled those of the ancient +Spartans. The commission of the crime was not considered so +disgraceful as its discovery; and the punishment of being +compelled publicly to restore the stolen property to its original +possessor, amid the derision of his tribe, was much dreaded by +the Circassian who would glory in a successful theft. The greatest +stain upon the Circassian character was the custom of selling +their children, the Circassian father being always willing to +part with his daughters, many of whom were bought by Turkish +merchants for the harems of Eastern monarchs. But no degradation +was implied in this transaction, and the young women +themselves were generally willing partners in it. Herds of cattle +and sheep constituted the chief riches of the inhabitants. The +princes and nobles, from whom the members of the various tribes +held the land which they cultivated, were the proprietors of the +soil. The Circassians carried on little or no commerce, and the +state of perpetual warfare in which they lived prevented them +from cultivating any of the arts of peace.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Kirkê">Κίρκη</span>), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, the +daughter of Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. Having +murdered her husband, the prince of Colchis, she was expelled +by her subjects and placed by her father on the solitary island +of Aeaea on the coast of Italy. She was able by means of drugs +and incantations to change human beings into the forms of +wolves or lions, and with these beings her palace was surrounded. +Here she was found by Odysseus and his companions; the +latter she changed into swine, but the hero, protected by the herb +<i>moly</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), which he had received from Hermes, not only forced her +to restore them to their original shape, but also gained her love. +For a year he relinquished himself to her endearments, and +when he determined to leave, she instructed him how to sail +to the land of shades which lay on the verge of the ocean stream, +in order to learn his fate from the prophet Teiresias. Upon his +return she also gave him directions for avoiding the dangers of +the journey home (Homer, <i>Odyssey</i>, x.-xii.; Hyginus, <i>Fab.</i> +125). The Roman poets associated her with the most ancient +traditions of Latium, and assigned her a home on the promontory +of Circei (Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, vii. 10). The metamorphoses of Scylla +and of Picus, king of the Ausonians, by Circe, are narrated in +Ovid (<i>Metamorphoses</i>, xiv.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>The Myth of Kirke</i>, by R. Brown (1883), in which Circe is explained +as a moon-goddess of Babylonian origin, contains an exhaustive +summary of facts, although many of the author’s speculations may +be proved untenable (review by H. Bradley in <i>Academy</i>, January 19, +1884); see also J.E. Harrison, <i>Myths of the Odyssey</i> (1882); +C. Seeliger in W.H. Roscher’s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCEIUS MONS<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (mod. <i>Monte Circeo</i>), an isolated promontory +on the S.W. coast of Italy, about 80 m. S.E. of Rome. It is a +ridge of limestone about 3½ m. long by 1 m. wide at the base, +running from E. to W. and surrounded by the sea on all sides +except the N. The land to the N. of it is 53 ft. above sea-level, +while the summit of the promontory is 1775 ft. The origin of +the name is uncertain: it has naturally been connected with the +legend of Circe, and Victor Bérard (in <i>Les Phéniciens et l’Odyssée</i>, +ii. 261 seq.) maintains in support of the identification that <span class="grk" title="Ahiaiê">Αἰαίη</span>, +the Greek name for the island of Circe, is a faithful transliteration +of a Semitic name, meaning “island of the hawk,” of which +<span class="grk" title="nêsos Kirkês">νῆσος Κίρκης</span> is the translation. The difficulty has been raised, +especially by geologists, that the promontory ceased to be an +island at a period considerably before the time of Homer; but +Procopius very truly remarked that the promontory has all the +appearance of an island until one is actually upon it. Upon the +E. end of the ridge of the promontory are the remains of an +enceinte, forming roughly a rectangle of about 200 by 100 yds. +of very fine polygonal work, on the outside, the blocks being +very carefully cut and jointed and right angles being intentionally +avoided. The wall stands almost entirely free, as at Arpinum—polygonal +walls in Italy are as a rule embanking walls—and +increases considerably in thickness as it descends. The blocks +of the inner face are much less carefully worked both here and at +Arpinum. It seems to have been an acropolis, and contains no +traces of buildings, except for a subterranean cistern, circular, +with a beehive roof of converging blocks. The modern village +of S. Felice Circeo seems to occupy the site of the ancient town, +the citadel of which stood on the mountain top, for its medieval +walls rest upon ancient walls of Cyclopean work of less careful +construction than those of the citadel, and enclosing an area of +200 by 150 yds.</p> + +<p>Circei was founded as a Roman colony at an early date—according +to some authorities in the time of Tarquinius Superbus, +but more probably about 390 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The existence of a previous +population, however, is very likely indicated by the revolt of +Circei in the middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, so that it is doubtful +whether the walls described are to be attributed to the Romans +or the earlier Volscian inhabitants. At the end of the republic, +however, or at latest at the beginning of the imperial period, +the city of Circei was no longer at the E. end of the promontory, +but on the E. shores of the Lago di Paola (a lagoon—now a +considerable fishery—separated from the sea by a line of +sandhills and connected with it by a channel of Roman date: +Strabo speaks of it as a small harbour) one mile N. of the W. +end of the promontory. Here are the remains of a Roman town, +belonging to the 1st and 2nd centuries, extending over an area +of some 600 by 500 yards, and consisting of fine buildings along +the lagoons, including a large open <i>piscina</i> or basin, surrounded +by a double portico, while farther inland are several very large +and well-preserved water-reservoirs, supplied by an aqueduct +of which traces may still be seen. An inscription speaks of an +amphitheatre, of which no remains are visible. The transference +of the city did not, however, mean the abandonment of the E. +end of the promontory, on which stand the remains of several +very large villas. An inscription, indeed, cut in the rock near +S. Felice, speaks of this part of the <i>promunturium Veneris</i> (the +only case of the use of this name) as belonging to the city of +Circei. On the S. and N. sides of the promontory there are +comparatively few buildings, while, at the W. end there is a +sheer precipice to the sea. The town only acquired municipal +rights after the Social War, and was a place of little importance, +except as a seaside resort. For its villas Cicero compares it +with Antium, and probably both Tiberius and Domitian possessed +residences there. The beetroot and oysters of Circei had a +certain reputation. The view from the highest summit of the +promontory (which is occupied by ruins of a platform attributed +with great probability to a temple of Venus or Circe) is of remarkable +beauty; the whole mountain is covered with fragrant +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span> +shrubs. From any point in the Pomptine Marshes or on the +coast-line of Latium the Circeian promontory dominates the +landscape in the most remarkable way.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T. Ashby, “Monte Circeo,” in <i>Mélanges de l’école française de +Rome</i>, xxv. (1905) 157 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCLE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>circulus</i>, the diminutive of <i>circus</i>, a +ring; the cognate Gr. word is <span class="grk" title="kirkos">κιρκος</span>, generally used in the form +<span class="grk" title="krikos">κρίκος</span>), a plane curve definable as the locus of a point which +moves so that its distance from a fixed point is constant.</p> + +<div style="float: left;" class="figleft1"> +<img style="border:0; width:400px; height:426px" + src="images/img382.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The form of a circle is familiar to all; and we proceed to define +certain lines, points, &c., which constantly occur in studying +its geometry. The fixed point in the preceding definition is +termed the “centre” (C in fig. 1); the constant distance, <i>e.g.</i> +CG, the “radius.” The curve itself is sometimes termed the +“circumference.” Any line through the centre and terminated +at both extremities by the curve, <i>e.g.</i> AB, is a “diameter”; +any other line similarly terminated, <i>e.g.</i> EF, a “chord.” Any +line drawn from an external point to cut the circle in two points, +<i>e.g.</i> DEF, is termed a “secant”; if it touches the circle, <i>e.g.</i> +DG, it is a “tangent.” Any portion of the circumference +terminated by two points, <i>e.g.</i> AD (fig. 2), is termed an “arc”; +and the plane figure enclosed by a chord and arc, <i>e.g.</i> ABD, is +termed a “segment”; +if the chord be a diameter, +the segment +is termed a “semicircle.” +The figure +included by two radii +and an arc is a +“sector,” <i>e.g.</i> ECF +(fig. 2). “Concentric +circles” are, as the +name obviously +shows, circles having +the same centre; the +figure enclosed by the +circumferences of two +concentric circles is +an “annulus” (fig. 3), +and of two non-concentric +circles a “lune,” the shaded portions in fig. 4; the +clear figure is sometimes termed a “lens.”</p> + +<p>The circle was undoubtedly known to the early civilizations, +its simplicity specially recommending it as an object for study. +Euclid defines it (Book I. def. 15) as a “plane figure enclosed +by one line, all the straight lines drawn to which from one point +within the figure are equal to one another.” In the succeeding +three definitions the centre, diameter and the semicircle are +defined, while the third postulate of the same book demands +the possibility of describing a circle for every “centre” and +“distance.” Having employed the circle for the construction +and demonstration of several propositions in Books I. and II. +Euclid devotes his third book entirely to theorems and problems +relating to the circle, and certain lines and angles, which he +defines in introducing the propositions. The fourth book deals +with the circle in its relations to inscribed and circumscribed +triangles, quadrilaterals and regular polygons. Reference +should be made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Euclidean</i>, for a +detailed summary of the Euclidean treatment, and the elementary +properties of the circle.</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Analytical Geometry of the Circle.</i></p> + +<p>In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Analytical</i>, it is shown that the +general equation to a circle in rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates +is x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, <i>i.e.</i> in the general equation +of the second degree the co-efficients of x<span class="sp">2</span> and y<span class="sp">2</span> are +<span class="sidenote">Cartesian co-ordinates.</span> +equal, and of xy zero. The co-ordinates of its centre +are -g/c, -f/c; and its radius is (g<span class="sp">2</span> + f<span class="sp">2</span> - c)<span class="sp">½</span>. The +equations to the chord, tangent and normal are readily derived +by the ordinary methods.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Consider the two circles:—</p> + +<p class="center">x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,  x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + 2g′x + 2f′y + c’ = 0.</p> + +<p class="noind">Obviously these equations show that the curves intersect in +four points, two of which lie on the intersection of the line, +2(g - g′)x + 2(f - f′)y + c - c′ = 0, the radical axis, with the circles, and +the other two where the lines x² + y² = (x + iy) (x - iy) = 0 (where +i = √-1) intersect the circles. The first pair of intersections may +be either real or imaginary; we proceed to discuss the second pair.</p> + +<p>The equation x² + y² = 0 denotes a pair of perpendicular imaginary +lines; it follows, therefore, that circles always intersect in two +imaginary points at infinity along these lines, and since the terms +x² + y² occur in the equation of every circle, it is seen that all circles +pass through two fixed points at infinity. The introduction of these +lines and points constitutes a striking achievement in geometry, +and from their association with circles they have been named +the “circular lines” and “circular points.” Other names for the +circular lines are “circulars” or “isotropic lines.” Since the +equation to a circle of zero radius is x² + y² = 0, <i>i.e.</i> identical with the +circular lines, it follows that this circle consists of a real point and the +two imaginary lines; conversely, the circular lines are both a pair +of lines and a circle. A further deduction from the principle of +continuity follows by considering the intersections of concentric +circles. The equations to such circles may be expressed in the form +x² + y² = α², x² + y² = β². These equations show that the circles touch +where they intersect the lines x² + y² = 0, <i>i.e.</i> concentric circles have +double contact at the circular points, the chord of contact being the +line at infinity.</p> +</div> + +<p>In various systems of triangular co-ordinates the equations +to circles specially related to the triangle of reference assume +comparatively simple forms; consequently they provide elegant +algebraical demonstrations of properties concerning a triangle +and the circles intimately associated with its geometry. In this +article the equations to the more important circles—the circumscribed, +inscribed, escribed, self-conjugate—will be given; +reference should be made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Triangle</a></span> for the consideration +of other circles (nine-point, Brocard, Lemoine, &c.); +while in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Analytical</i>, the principles of the +different systems are discussed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> + +<p>The equation to the circumcircle assumes the simple form +aβγ + bγα + cαβ = 0, the centre being cos A, cos B, cos C. The inscribed +circle is cos ½A √(α) cos ½B √(β) + cos ½C √(γ) = 0, with centre +α = β = γ; while the escribed circle opposite the angle A +<span class="sidenote">Trilinear co-ordinates.</span> +is cos ½A √(-α) + sin ½B √(β) + sin ½C √(γ) = 0, with centre +-α = β = γ. The self-conjugate circle is α² sin 2A + β² sin 2B ++ γ² sin 2C = 0, or the equivalent form a cosA α² ++ b cos B β² + c cos C γ² = 0, +the centre being sec A, sec B, sec C.</p> + +<p>The general equation to the circle in trilinear co-ordinates is readily +deduced from the fact that the circle is the only curve which intersects +the line infinity in the circular points. Consider the equation</p> + +<p class="center">aβγ + bγα + Cαβ + (lα + mβ + nγ) (aα + bβ + cγ) = 0  (1).</p> + +<p>This obviously represents a conic intersecting the circle aβγ + bγα ++ cαβ = 0 in points on the common chords lα + mβ + nγ = 0, aα + bβ ++ cγ = 0. The line lα + mβ + nγ is the radical axis, and since aα + bβ ++ cγ = 0 is the line infinity, it is obvious that equation (1) represents +a conic passing through the circular points, <i>i.e.</i> a circle. If we +compare (1) with the general equation of the second degree +uα² + vβ² + wγ² + 2u′βγ + 2v′γα + 2w′αβ = 0, it is readily seen that for +this equation to represent a circle we must have</p> + +<p class="center">-kabc = vc² + wb² - 2u′bc = wa² + uc² - 2v′ca = ub² + va² - 2w′ab.</p> + +<p>The corresponding equations in areal co-ordinates are readily +derived by substituting x/a, y/b, z/c for α, β, γ respectively in +the trilinear equations. The circumcircle is thus seen +<span class="sidenote">Areal co-ordinates.</span> +to be a²yz + b²zx + c²xy = 0, with centre sin 2A, sin 2B, +sin 2C; the inscribed circle is √(x cot ½A) + √(y cot ½B) ++ √(z cot ½C) = 0, with centre sin A, sin B, sin C; the +escribed circle opposite the angle A is √(-x cot ½A) + √(y tan ½B) ++ √(z tan ½C)=0, with centre - sin A, sin B, sin C; and the self-conjugate +circle is x² cot A + y² cot B + z² cot C = 0, with centre tan A, +tan B, tan C. Since in areal co-ordinates the line infinity is represented +by the equation x + y + z = 0 it is seen that every circle is +of the form a²yz + b²zx + c²xy + (lx + my + nz)(x + y + z) = 0. Comparing +this equation with ux² + vy² + wz² + 2u′yz + 2v′zx + 2w′xy = 0, we +obtain as the condition for the general equation of the second degree +to represent a circle:—</p> + +<p class="center">(v + w - 2u′)/a² = (w + u - 2v′)/b² = (u + v - 2w′)/c².</p> + +<p>In tangential (p, q, r) co-ordinates the inscribed circle has for its +equation (s - a)qr + (s - b)rp + (s - c)pq = 0, s being equal to ½(a + b + c); +an alternative form is qr cot ½A + rp cot ½B + pq cot ½C = 0; +the centre is ap + bq + cr = 0, or p sin A + q sin B + r sin C = 0. +<span class="sidenote">Tangential co-ordinates.</span> +The escribed circle opposite the angle A is -sqr + (s - c)rp ++ (s - b)pq = 0 or -qr cot ½A + rp tan ½B + pq tan ½C = 0, with +centre -ap + bq + cr = 0. The circumcircle is a √(p) + b √(q) + c √(r) = 0, +the centre being p sin 2A + q sin 2B + r sin 2C = 0. The general +equation to a circle in this system of co-ordinates is deduced as +follows: If ρ be the radius and lp + mq + nr = 0 the centre, we have +ρ = (lp<span class="su">1</span> - mq<span class="su">1</span> + nr<span class="su">1</span>/(l + m + n), in which p<span class="su">1</span>, q<span class="su">1</span>, r<span class="su">1</span> is a line distant ρ +from the point lp + mq + nr = 0. Making this equation homogeneous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span> +by the relation Σa²(p - q) (p - r) = 4Δ² (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Analytical</i>), +which is generally written {ap, bq, cr}² = 4Δ², we obtain +{ap, bq, cr}²ρ² = 4Δ² {(lp + mq + nr)/(l + m + n)}², the accents being +dropped, and p, q, r regarded as current co-ordinates. This equation, +which may be more conveniently written {ap, bq, cr}² += (λp + μq + νr)², obviously represents a circle, +the centre being λp + μq + νr = 0, +and radius 2Δ/(λ + μ + ν). +If we make λ = μ = ν = 0, +ρ is infinite, and we obtain {ap, bq, cr}² = 0 as the equation to the +circular points.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Systems of Circles.</i></p> + +<p><i>Centres and Circle of Similitude.</i>—The “centres of similitude” +of two circles may be defined as the intersections of the common +tangents to the two circles, the direct common tangents giving +rise to the “external centre,” the transverse tangents to the +“internal centre.” It may be readily shown that the external +and internal centres are the points where the line joining the +centres of the two circles is divided externally and internally in +the ratio of their radii.</p> + +<p>The circle on the line joining the internal and external centres +of similitude as diameter is named the “circle of similitude.” +It may be shown to be the locus of the vertex of the triangle +which has for its base the distance between the centres of the +circles and the ratio of the remaining sides equal to the ratio of the +radii of the two circles.</p> + +<p>With a system of three circles it is readily seen that there +are six centres of similitude, viz. two for each pair of circles, +and it may be shown that these lie three by three on four lines, +named the “axes of similitude.” The collinear centres are the +three sets of one external and two internal centres, and the three +external centres.</p> + +<p><i>Coaxal Circles.</i>—A system of circles is coaxal when the locus +of points from which tangents to the circles are equal is a straight +line. Consider the case of two circles, and in the first place +suppose them to intersect in two real points A and B. Then by +Euclid iii. 36 it is seen that the line joining the points A and B is +the locus of the intersection of equal tangents, for if P be any +point on AB and PC and PD the tangents to the circles, then +PA·PB = PC² = PD², and therefore PC = PD. Furthermore it is +seen that AB is perpendicular to the line joining the centres, +and divides it in the ratio of the squares of the radii. The line +AB is termed the “radical axis.” A system coaxal with the two +given circles is readily constructed by describing circles through +the common points on the radical axis and any third point; +the minimum circle of the system is obviously that which has +the common chord of intersection for diameter, the maximum +is the radical axis—considered as +a circle of infinite radius. In the +case of two non-intersecting circles +it may be shown that the radical +axis has the same metrical relations +to the line of centres.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<div style="float: left;" class="figleft1"> +<img style="border:0; width:350px; height:328px" + src="images/img383.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>There are several methods of constructing +the radical axis in this case. +One of the simplest is: Let P and P′ +(fig. 5) be the points of contact of +a common tangent; drop perpendiculars +PL, P′L′, from P and P’ +to OO′, the line joining the centres, +then the radical axis bisects LL’ (at X) and is perpendicular to OO′. +To prove this let AB, AB¹ be the tangents from any point on the +line AX. Then by Euc. i. 47, AB² = AO² - OB² = AX² + OX² + OP²; +and OX² = OD² - DX² = OP² + PD² - DX². Therefore AB² = AX² + - DX² + PD². Similarly AB′² = AX² - DX² + DP′². Since PD = PD′, +it follows that AB = AB′.</p> + +<p>To construct circles coaxal with the two given circles, draw the +tangent, say XR, from X, the point where the radical axis intersects +the line of centres, to one of the given circles, and with centre X and +radius XR describe a circle. Then circles having the intersections of +tangents to this circle and the line of centres for centres, and the +lengths of the tangents as radii, are members of the coaxal system.</p> +</div> + +<p>In the case of non-intersecting circles, it is seen that the +minimum circles of the coaxal system are a pair of points I and I′, +where the orthogonal circle to the system intersects the line of +centres; these points are named the “limiting points.” In the +case of a coaxal system having real points of intersection the +limiting points are imaginary. Analytically, the Cartesian +equation to a coaxal system can be written in the form +x² + y² + 2ax ± k² = 0, where a varies from member to member, +while k is a constant. The radical axis is x = 0, and it may be +shown that the length of the tangent from a point (0, h) is +h² ± k², <i>i.e.</i> it is independent of a, and therefore of any particular +member of the system. The circles intersect in real or imaginary +points according to the lower or upper sign of k², and the limiting +points are real for the upper sign and imaginary for the lower sign. +The fundamental properties of coaxal systems may be summarized:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>1. The centres of circles forming a coaxal system are collinear;</p> + +<p>2. A coaxal system having real points of intersection has imaginary +limiting points;</p> + +<p>3. A coaxal system having imaginary points of intersection has +real limiting points;</p> + +<p>4. Every circle through the limiting points cuts all circles of the +system orthogonally;</p> + +<p>5. The limiting points are inverse points for every circle of the +system.</p> +</div> + +<p>The theory of centres of similitude and coaxal circles affords +elegant demonstrations of the famous problem: To describe a +circle to touch three given circles. This problem, also termed +the “Apollonian problem,” was demonstrated with the aid of +conic sections by Apollonius in his book on <i>Contacts</i> or <i>Tangencies</i>; +geometrical solutions involving the conic sections were also given +by Adrianus Romanus, Vieta, Newton and others. The earliest +analytical solution appears to have been given by the princess +Elizabeth, a pupil of Descartes and daughter of Frederick V. +John Casey, professor of mathematics at the Catholic university +of Dublin, has given elementary demonstrations founded on +the theory of similitude and coaxal circles which are reproduced +in his <i>Sequel to Euclid</i>; an analytical solution by Gergonne is +given in Salmon’s <i>Conic Sections</i>. Here we may notice that +there are eight circles which solve the problem.</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Mensuration of the Circle.</i></p> + +<p>All exact relations pertaining to the mensuration of the circle +involve the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. This +ratio, invariably denoted by π, is constant for all circles, but +it does not admit of exact arithmetical expression, being of the +nature of an incommensurable number. Very early in the history +of geometry it was known that the circumference and area of a +circle of radius r could be expressed in the forms 2πr and πr². +The exact geometrical evaluation of the second quantity, viz. +πr², which, in reality, is equivalent to determining a square +equal in area to a circle, engaged the attention of mathematicians +for many centuries. The history of these attempts, together +with modern contributions to our knowledge of the value and +nature of the number π, is given below (<i>Squaring of the Circle</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The following table gives the values of this constant and several +expiessions involving it:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="data"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Number.</td> <td class="tccm tb bb rb2 lb">Logarithm.</td> + <td class="tccm allb"> </td> <td class="tccm allb">Number.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Logarithm.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">π</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1415927</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.4971499</td> + <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2">π²</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">9.8696044</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.9942997</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2π</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.2831858</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.7981799</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4π</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.5663706</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.0992099</td> + <td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.0168869</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">2.2275490</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">½π</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5707963</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.1961199</td> + <td class="tcc lb rb ov">6π²</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>π</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.0471976</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.0200286</td> + <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2">√π</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.7724539</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.2485750</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">¼π</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.7853982</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.8950899</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>π</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5235988</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.7189986</td> + <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2"><span class="sp">3</span>√π</td> + <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.4645919</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.1657166</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>π</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.3926991</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.5940599</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>π</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2617994</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.4179686</td> + <td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.5641896</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.7514251</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>π</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1887902</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.6220886</td> + <td class="tcc lb rb ov">√π</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">π</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.0174533</td> <td class="tcrm rb2" rowspan="2">2.2418774</td> + <td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.1283792</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.0524551</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov">180</td> + <td class="tcc lb rb ov">√π</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.3183099</td> <td class="tcrm rb2" rowspan="2">1.5028501</td> + <td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.2820948</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.4503951</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov">π</td> + <td class="tcc lb rb ov">2√π</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.2732395</td> <td class="tcrm rb2" rowspan="2">0.1049101</td> + <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2"><span class="sp">3</span>√(<span class="spp">6</span>⁄<span class="suu">π</span>)</td> + <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.2820948</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.4503951</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov">π</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.0795775</td> <td class="tcrm rb2" rowspan="2">2.9097901</td> + <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2"><span class="sp">3</span>√(<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">4π</span>)</td> + <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.6203505</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.7926371</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov">4π</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">180</td> <td class="tcrm rb bb" rowspan="2">57.2957795</td> <td class="tcrm rb2 bb" rowspan="2">1.7581226</td> + <td class="tccm lb rb bb" rowspan="2">log<span class="su">e</span> π</td> + <td class="tcrm rb bb" rowspan="2">1.1447299</td> <td class="tcrm rb bb" rowspan="2">0.0587030</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov bb">π</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">Useful fractional approximations are <span class="spp">22</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> and <span class="spp">355</span>⁄<span class="suu">113</span>.</p> + +<p>A synopsis of the leading formula connected with the circle will +now be given.</p> + +<p>1. <i>Circle.</i>—Data: radius = a.  Circumference = 2πa.  Area = πa².</p> + +<p>2. <i>Arc</i> and <i>Sector</i>.—Data: radius = a; θ = circular measure of +angle subtended at centre by arc; c = chord of arc; c<span class="su">2</span> = chord of +semi-arc; c<span class="su">4</span> = chord of quarter-arc.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span></p> + +<p>Exact formulae are:—Arc = aθ, where θ may be given directly, +or indirectly by the relation c = 2a sin ½θ. Area of sector = ½a²θ += ½ radius × arc.</p> + +<p>Approximate formulae are:—Arc = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>(8c<span class="su">2</span> - c) (Huygen’s formula); +arc = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">45</span>(c - 40c<span class="su">2</span> + 256c<span class="su">4</span>).</p> + +<p>3. <i>Segment.</i>—Data: a, θ, c, c<span class="su">2</span>, as in (2); h = height of segment, +<i>i.e.</i> distance of mid-point of arc from chord.</p> + +<p>Exact formulae are:—Area = ½a²(θ - sin θ) = ½a²θ - ¼c² cot ½θ += ½a² - ½c √(a² - ¼c²). If h be given, we can use c² + 4h² = 8ah, 2h += c tan ¼θ to determine θ.</p> + +<p>Approximate formulae are:—Area = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">15</span>(6c + 8c<span class="su">2</span>)h; = <span class="spp">2</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> √(c² + 8/5h²)·h; += <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">15</span>(7c + 3α)h, α being the true length of the arc.</p> + +<p>From these results the mensuration of any figure bounded by +circular arcs and straight lines can be determined, <i>e.g.</i> the area +of a <i>lune</i> or <i>meniscus</i> is expressible as the difference or sum of two +segments, and the circumference as the sum of two arcs.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. E.*)</div> + +<p class="center1"><i>Squaring of the Circle.</i></p> + +<p>The problem of finding a square equal in area to a given circle, +like all problems, may be increased in difficulty by the imposition +of restrictions; consequently under the designation there may +be embraced quite a variety of geometrical problems. It has +to be noted, however, that, when the “squaring” of the circle +is especially spoken of, it is almost always tacitly assumed that +the restrictions are those of the Euclidean geometry.</p> + +<p>Since the area of a circle equals that of the rectilineal triangle +whose base has the same length as the circumference and whose +altitude equals the radius (Archimedes, <span class="grk" title="Kyklou metrêsis">Κύκλου μέτρησις</span>, prop. 1), +it follows that, if a straight line could be drawn equal in length +to the circumference, the required square could be found by +an ordinary Euclidean construction; also, it is evident that, +conversely, if a square equal in area to the circle could be obtained +it would be possible to draw a straight line equal to the circumference. +Rectification and quadrature of the circle have thus been, +since the time of Archimedes at least, practically identical +problems. Again, since the circumferences of circles are proportional +to their diameters—a proposition assumed to be true +from the dawn almost of practical geometry—the rectification +of the circle is seen to be transformable into finding the ratio of +the circumference to the diameter. This correlative numerical +problem and the two purely geometrical problems are inseparably +connected historically.</p> + +<p>Probably the earliest value for the ratio was 3. It was so +among the Jews (1 Kings vii. 23, 26), the Babylonians (Oppert, +<i>Journ. asiatique</i>, August 1872, October 1874), the Chinese (Biot, +<i>Journ. asiatique</i>, June 1841), and probably also the Greeks. +Among the ancient Egyptians, as would appear from a calculation +in the Rhind papyrus, the number (<span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>)<span class="sp">4</span>, <i>i.e.</i> 3.1605, was at one +time in use.<a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The first attempts to solve the purely geometrical +problem appear to have been made by the Greeks (Anaxagoras, +&c.)<a name="FnAnchor_2b" id="FnAnchor_2b" href="#Footnote_2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a>, one of whom, Hippocrates, doubtless raised hopes of a +solution by his quadrature of the so-called <i>meniscoi</i> or <i>lune</i>.<a name="FnAnchor_3b" id="FnAnchor_3b" href="#Footnote_3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:550px; height:237px" + src="images/img384a.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>[The Greeks were in possession of several relations pertaining +to the quadrature of the lune. The following are among the more +interesting. In fig. 6, ABC is an isosceles triangle right +angled at C, ADB is the semicircle described on AB as diameter, +AEB the circular arc described with centre C and radius +CA = CB. It is easily shown that the areas of the lune ADBEA +and the triangle ABC are equal. In fig. 7, ABC is any triangle +right angled at C, semicircles are described on the three sides, +thus forming two lunes AFCDA and CGBEC. The sum of the +areas of these lunes equals the area of the triangle ABC.]</p> + +<p>As for Euclid, it is sufficient to recall the facts that the original +author of prop. 8 of book iv. had strict proof of the ratio being +< 4, and the author of prop. 15 of the ratio being > 3, and to +direct attention to the importance of book x. on incommensurables +and props. 2 and 16 of book xii., viz. that “circles are to +one another as the squares on their diameters” and that “in +the greater of two concentric circles a regular 2n-gon can be +inscribed which shall not meet the circumference of the less,” +however nearly equal the circles may be.</p> + +<div style="float: right;" class="figright1"> +<img style="border:0; width:250px; height:164px" + src="images/img384b.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>With Archimedes (287-212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) a notable advance was made. +Taking the circumference as intermediate between the perimeters +of the inscribed and the circumscribed regular n-gons, he showed +that, the radius of the circle being given and the perimeter of +some particular circumscribed regular polygon obtainable, the +perimeter of the circumscribed regular polygon of double the +number of sides could be calculated; that the like was true of +the inscribed polygons; and that consequently a means was +thus afforded of approximating to the +circumference of the circle. As a +matter of fact, he started with a semi-side +AB of a circumscribed regular +hexagon meeting the circle in B (see +fig. 8), joined A and B with O the +centre, bisected the angle AOB by +OD, so that BD became the semi-side of a circumscribed regular +12-gon; then as AB:BO:OA::1: √3:2 he sought an approximation +to √3 and found that AB:BO > 153:265. Next +he applied his theorem<a name="FnAnchor_4b" id="FnAnchor_4b" href="#Footnote_4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> BO + OA:AB::OB:BD to calculate +BD; from this in turn he calculated the semi-sides of the +circumscribed regular 24-gon, 48-gon and 96-gon, and so finally +established for the circumscribed regular 96-gon that +perimeter:diameter < 3<span class="sp">1</span>⁄<span class="su">7</span>:1. In a quite analogous manner he proved for +the inscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter:diameter > 3<span class="sp">10</span>⁄<span class="su">71</span>:1. +The conclusion from these therefore was that the ratio of circumference +to diameter is < 3<span class="sp">1</span>⁄<span class="su">7</span> and > 3<span class="sp">10</span>⁄<span class="su">71</span>. This is a most notable +piece of work; the immature condition of arithmetic at the time +was the only real obstacle preventing the evaluation of the ratio +to any degree of accuracy whatever.<a name="FnAnchor_5b" id="FnAnchor_5b" href="#Footnote_5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>No advance of any importance was made upon the achievement +of Archimedes until after the revival of learning. His +immediate successors may have used his method to attain a +greater degree of accuracy, but there is very little evidence +pointing in this direction. Ptolemy (fl. 127-151), in the <i>Great +Syntaxis</i>, gives 3.141552 as the ratio<a name="FnAnchor_6b" id="FnAnchor_6b" href="#Footnote_6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a>; and the Hindus +(c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500), who were very probably indebted to the Greeks, +used <span class="spp">62832</span>⁄<span class="suu">20000</span>, that is, the now familiar 3.1416.<a name="FnAnchor_7b" id="FnAnchor_7b" href="#Footnote_7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p> + +<p>It was not until the 15th century that attention in Europe +began to be once more directed to the subject, and after the +resuscitation a considerable length of time elapsed before any +progress was made. The first advance in accuracy was due to a +certain Adrian, son of Anthony, a native of Metz (1527), and +father of the better-known Adrian Metius of Alkmaar. In +refutation of Duchesne(Van der Eycke), he showed that the ratio +was < 3<span class="spp">17</span>⁄<span class="suu">120</span> and > 3<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">106</span>, and thence made the exceedingly lucky +step of taking a mean between the two by the quite unjustifiable +process of halving the sum of the two numerators for a new +numerator and halving the sum of the two denominators for +a new denominator, thus arriving at the now well-known approximation +3<span class="spp">16</span>⁄<span class="suu">113</span> or <span class="spp">335</span>⁄<span class="suu">113</span>, which, being equal to 3.1415929..., +is correct to the sixth fractional place.<a name="FnAnchor_8b" id="FnAnchor_8b" href="#Footnote_8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span></p> + +<p>The next to advance the calculation was Francisco Vieta. +By finding the perimeter of the inscribed and that of the circumscribed +regular polygon of 393216 (<i>i.e.</i> 6 × 2<span class="sp">16</span>) sides, he proved +that the ratio was > 3.1415926535 and < 3.1415926537, so that +its value became known (in 1579) correctly to 10 fractional places. +The theorem for angle-bisection which Vieta used was not that +of Archimedes, but that which would now appear in the form +1 - cos θ = 2 sin² ½θ. With Vieta, by reason of the advance in +arithmetic, the style of treatment becomes more strictly trigonometrical; +indeed, the <i>Universales Inspectiones</i>, in which the +calculation occurs, would now be called plane and spherical +trigonometry, and the accompanying <i>Canon mathematicus</i> a +table of sines, tangents and secants.<a name="FnAnchor_9b" id="FnAnchor_9b" href="#Footnote_9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Further, in comparing +the labours of Archimedes and Vieta, the effect of increased +power of symbolical expression is very noticeable. Archimedes’s +process of unending cycles of arithmetical operations could at +best have been expressed in his time by a “rule” in words; in +the 16th century it could be condensed into a “formula.” +Accordingly, we find in Vieta a formula for the ratio of diameter +to circumference, viz. the interminate product<a name="FnAnchor_10b" id="FnAnchor_10b" href="#Footnote_10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a>—</p> + +<p class="center">½√<span class="ov">½</span> · √<span class="ov">½ + ½√½</span> · √<span class="tb">½ + ½√<span class="ov">(½ + ½√½)</span></span> ...</p> + +<p>From this point onwards, therefore, no knowledge whatever +of geometry was necessary in any one who aspired to determine +the ratio to any required degree of accuracy; the problem +being reduced to an arithmetical computation. Thus in connexion +with the subject a genus of workers became possible who may +be styled “π-computers or circle-squarers”—a name which, if +it connotes anything uncomplimentary, does so because of the +almost entirely fruitless character of their labours. Passing over +Adriaan van Roomen (Adrianus Romanus) of Louvain, who +published the value of the ratio correct to 15 places in his <i>Idea +mathematica</i> (1593),<a name="FnAnchor_11b" id="FnAnchor_11b" href="#Footnote_11b"><span class="sp">11</span></a> we come to the notable computer Ludolph +van Ceulen (d. 1610), a native of Germany, long resident in +Holland. His book, <i>Van den Circkel</i> (Delft, 1596), gave the ratio +correct to 20 places, but he continued his calculations as long +as he lived, and his best result was published on his tombstone +in St Peter’s church, Leiden. The inscription, which is not +known to be now in existence,<a name="FnAnchor_12b" id="FnAnchor_12b" href="#Footnote_12b"><span class="sp">12</span></a> is in part as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>... Qui in vita sua multo labore circumferentiae circuli proximam +rationem ad diametrum invenit sequentem—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcl">quando diameter est 1</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">tum circuli circumferentia plus est</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="2">quam</td> <td class="tcl">314159265358979323846264338327950288</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">100000000000000000000000000000000000</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl"> </td> <td class="tcc">et minus</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="2">quam</td> <td class="tcl">314159265358979323846264338327950289</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">100000000000000000000000000000000000 ...</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>This gives the ratio correct to 35 places. Van Ceulen’s process +was essentially identical with that of Vieta. Its numerous root +extractions amply justify a stronger expression than “multo +labore,” especially in an epitaph. In Germany the “Ludolphische +Zahl” (Ludolph’s number) is still a common name for the ratio.<a name="FnAnchor_13b" id="FnAnchor_13b" href="#Footnote_13b"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p> + +<div style="float: left;" class="figleft1"> +<img style="border:0; width:300px; height:131px" + src="images/img385a.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>Up to this point the credit of most that had been done may be +set down to Archimedes. A new departure, however, was made +by Willebrord Snell of Leiden +in his <i>Cyclometria</i>, published +in 1621. His achievement +was a closely approximate +geometrical solution of the +problem of rectification (see +fig. 9): ACB being a semicircle +whose centre is O, and AC the arc to be rectified, he produced +AB to D, making BD equal to the radius, joined DC, +and produced it to meet the tangent at A in E; and then his +assertion (not established by him) was that AE was nearly equal +to the arc AC, the error being in defect. For the purposes of +the calculator a solution erring in excess was also required, and +this Snell gave by slightly varying the former construction. +Instead of producing AB +(see fig. 10) so that BD was + +<span style="float: right;" class="figright1"> +<img style="border:0; width:300px; height:132px" + src="images/img385b.jpg" + alt="" /> +</span> + +equal to r, he produced it +only so far that, when the +extremity D′ was joined with +C, the part D′F outside the +circle was equal to r; in +other words, by a non-Euclidean construction he trisected the +angle AOC, for it is readily seen that, since FD′ = FO = OC, the +angle FOB = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>AOC.<a name="FnAnchor_14b" id="FnAnchor_14b" href="#Footnote_14b"><span class="sp">14</span></a> This couplet of constructions is as important +from the calculator’s point of view as it is interesting +geometrically. To compare it on this score with the fundamental +proposition of Archimedes, the latter must be put into a form +similar to Snell’s. AMC being an arc of a circle (see fig. 11) +whose centre is O, AC its chord, and HK the tangent drawn at +the middle point of the arc and bounded by OA, OC produced, +then, according to Archimedes, AMC < HK, but > AC. In +modern trigonometrical notation the propositions to be compared +stand as follows:—</p> + +<p class="center">2 tan ½θ > θ > 2 sin ½θ   (Archimedes);</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="data"> +<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="2">tan <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>θ + 2 sin <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>θ > θ > </td> <td class="tccm">3 sin θ</td> + <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">(Snell).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm ov">2 + cos θ</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">It is readily shown that the latter gives the best approximation +to θ; but, while the former requires for its application a +knowledge of the trigonometrical ratios of only one angle (in +other words, the ratios of the sides of only one right-angled +triangle), the latter requires the same for two angles, θ and <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>θ.</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:550px; height:255px" + src="images/img385c.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="noind">Grienberger, using Snell’s method, calculated the ratio correct +to 39 fractional places.<a name="FnAnchor_15b" id="FnAnchor_15b" href="#Footnote_15b"><span class="sp">15</span></a> C. Huygens, in his <i>De Circuli Magnitudine +Inventa</i>, 1654, proved the propositions of Snell, giving +at the same time a number of other interesting theorems, for +example, two inequalities which may be written as follows<a name="FnAnchor_16b" id="FnAnchor_16b" href="#Footnote_16b"><span class="sp">16</span></a>—</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> +<tr><td rowspan="2">chd θ +</td> + <td>4 chd θ + sin θ</td> + <td rowspan="2"><span class="spp">. 1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>(chd θ - sin θ) > θ > chd θ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>(chd θ - sin θ).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2 chd θ + 3 sin θ</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>As might be expected, a fresh view of the matter was taken +by René Descartes. The problem he set himself was the exact +converse of that of Archimedes. A given straight line being +viewed as equal in length to the circumference of a circle, he +sought to find the diameter of the circle. His construction is +as follows (see fig. 12). Take AB equal to one-fourth of the given +line; on AB describe a square ABCD; join AC; in AC produced +find, by a known process, a point C<span class="su">1</span> such that, when C<span class="su">1</span>B<span class="su">1</span> is +drawn perpendicular to AB produced and C<span class="su">1</span>D<span class="su">1</span> perpendicular +to BC produced, the rectangle BC<span class="su">1</span> will be equal to ¼ABCD; by +the same process find a point C<span class="su">2</span> such that the rectangle B<span class="su">1</span>C<span class="su">2</span> will +be equal to ¼BC<span class="su">1</span>; and so on <i>ad infinitum</i>. The diameter sought +is the straight line from A to the limiting position of the series of +B’s, say the straight line AB<span class="su">∞</span>. As in the case of the process of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span> +Archimedes, we may direct our attention either to the infinite +series of geometrical operations or to the corresponding infinite +series of arithmetical operations. Denoting the number of units +in AB by ¼c, we can express BB<span class="su">1</span>, B<span class="su">1</span>B<span class="su">2</span>, ... in terms of ¼c, and +the identity AB<span class="su">∞</span> = AB + BB<span class="su">1</span> + B<span class="su">1</span>B<span class="su">2</span> + ... gives us at once +an expression for the diameter in terms of the circumference by +means of an infinite series.<a name="FnAnchor_17b" id="FnAnchor_17b" href="#Footnote_17b"><span class="sp">17</span></a> The proof of the correctness of the +construction is seen to be involved in the following theorem, +which serves likewise to throw new light on the subject:—AB +being any straight line whatever, and the above construction +being made, then AB is the diameter of the circle circumscribed +by the square ABCD (self-evident), AB<span class="su">1</span> is the diameter of the +circle circumscribed by the regular 8-gon having the same +perimeter as the square, AB<span class="su">2</span> is the diameter of the circle circumscribed +by the regular 16-gon having the same perimeter as the +square, and so on. Essentially, therefore, Descartes’s process +is that known later as the process of <i>isoperimeters</i>, and often +attributed wholly to Schwab.<a name="FnAnchor_18b" id="FnAnchor_18b" href="#Footnote_18b"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p> + +<p>In 1655 appeared the <i>Arithmetica Infinitorum</i> of John Wallis, +where numerous problems of quadrature are dealt with, the +curves being now represented in Cartesian co-ordinates, and +algebra playing an important part. In a very curious manner, +by viewing the circle y = (1 - x²)<span class="sp">½</span> as a member of the series of +curves y = (1 - x²)¹, y = (1 - x²)², &c., he was led to the proposition +that four times the reciprocal of the ratio of the circumference +to the diameter, <i>i.e.</i> <span class="spp">4</span>⁄<span class="suu">π</span>;, is equal to the infinite product</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + +<tr><td>3 · 3 · 5 · 5 · 7 · 7 · 9 ...</td> <td rowspan="2">;</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 · 8 · 8 ...</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">and, the result having been communicated to Lord Brounker, +the latter discovered the equally curious equivalent continued +fraction</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + +<tr><td rowspan="2">1 + </td> <td>1²</td> <td> </td> <td>3²</td> <td> </td> <td>5²</td> <td> </td> <td>7²</td> <td rowspan="2"> ...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td> + </td> <td class="denom">2</td> <td> + </td> <td class="denom">2</td> <td> + </td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">The work of Wallis had evidently an important influence +on the next notable personality in the history of the subject, +James Gregory, who lived during the period when the higher +algebraic analysis was coming into power, and whose genius +helped materially to develop it. He had, however, in a certain +sense one eye fixed on the past and the other towards the +future. His first contribution<a name="FnAnchor_19b" id="FnAnchor_19b" href="#Footnote_19b"><span class="sp">19</span></a> was a variation of the method +of Archimedes. The latter, as we know, calculated the perimeters +of successive polygons, passing from one polygon to another of +double the number of sides; in a similar manner Gregory +calculated the areas. The general theorems which enabled him +to do this, after a start had been made, are</p> + +<p class="center">A<span class="su">2n</span> = √<span class="ov">A<span class="su">n</span>A′<span class="su">n</span></span> (Snell’s <i>Cyclom.</i>),</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + +<tr><td rowspan="2">A′<span class="su">2n</span> = </td> + <td>2A<span class="su">n</span> A′<span class="su">n</span></td> <td rowspan="2"> or </td> + <td>2A′<span class="su">n</span> A<span class="su">2n</span></td> <td rowspan="2">(Gregory),</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="denom">A<span class="su">n</span> + A′<span class="su">2n</span></td> + <td class="denom">A′<span class="su">n</span> + A<span class="su">2n</span></td></tr> + +</table> + +<p class="noind">where A<span class="su">n</span>, A′<span class="su">n</span> are the areas of the inscribed and the circumscribed +regular n-gons respectively. He also gave approximate +rectifications of circular arcs after the manner of Huygens; +and, what is very notable, he made an ingenious and, according +to J.E. Montucla, successful attempt to show that quadrature +of the circle by a Euclidean construction was impossible.<a name="FnAnchor_20b" id="FnAnchor_20b" href="#Footnote_20b"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Besides +all this, however, and far beyond it in importance, was his use +of infinite series. This merit he shares with his contemporaries +N. Mercator, Sir I. Newton and G.W. Leibnitz, and the exact +dates of discovery are a little uncertain. As far as the circle-squaring +functions are concerned, it would seem that Gregory +was the first (in 1670) to make known the series for the arc in +terms of the tangent, the series for the tangent in terms of the +arc, and the secant in terms of the arc; and in 1669 Newton +showed to Isaac Barrow a little treatise in manuscript containing +the series for the arc in terms of the sine, for the sine in terms of +the arc, and for the cosine in terms of the arc. These discoveries +formed an epoch in the history of mathematics generally, and +had, of course, a marked influence on after investigations +regarding circle-quadrature. Even among the mere computers +the series</p> + +<p class="center">θ = tan - <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> tan<span class="sp">3</span> θ + <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> tan<span class="sp">5</span> θ - ...,</p> + +<p class="noind">specially known as Gregory’s series, has ever since been a +necessity of their calling.</p> + +<p>The calculator’s work having now become easier and more +mechanical, calculation went on apace. In 1699 Abraham +Sharp, on the suggestion of Edmund Halley, took Gregory’s +series, and, putting tan θ = <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span>√3, found the ratio equal to</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + +<tr><td rowspan="2">√<span class="ov">12</span> <span style="font-size: 200%;">(</span> 1 -</td> + <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">-</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+ ... <span style="font-size: 200%;">)</span>,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="denom">3 · 3</td> <td class="denom">5 · 3²</td> <td class="denom">7 · 3³</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">from which he calculated it correct to 71 fractional places.<a name="FnAnchor_21b" id="FnAnchor_21b" href="#Footnote_21b"><span class="sp">21</span></a> +About the same time John Machin calculated it correct to 100 +places, and, what was of more importance, gave for the ratio the +rapidly converging expression</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + +<tr><td>16</td> <td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%;">(</span> 1 -</td> + <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">-</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+ ... <span style="font-size: 200%;">)</span> -</td> + <td>4</td> <td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%;">(</span> 1 -</td> + <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td> <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">- ... <span style="font-size: 200%;">)</span>,</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="denom">5</td> <td class="denom">3 · 5²</td> <td class="denom">5 · 5<span class="sp">4</span></td> <td class="denom">7 · 5<span class="sp">6</span></td> + <td class="denom">239</td> <td class="denom">3 · 239²</td> <td class="denom">5 · 239<span class="sp">4</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">which long remained without explanation.<a name="FnAnchor_22b" id="FnAnchor_22b" href="#Footnote_22b"><span class="sp">22</span></a> Fautet de Lagny, +still using tan 30°, advanced to the 127th place.<a name="FnAnchor_23b" id="FnAnchor_23b" href="#Footnote_23b"><span class="sp">23</span></a></p> + +<p>Leonhard Euler took up the subject several times during his +life, effecting mainly improvements in the theory of the various +series.<a name="FnAnchor_24b" id="FnAnchor_24b" href="#Footnote_24b"><span class="sp">24</span></a> With him, apparently, began the usage of denoting +by π the ratio of the circumference to the diameter.<a name="FnAnchor_25b" id="FnAnchor_25b" href="#Footnote_25b"><span class="sp">25</span></a></p> + +<p>The most important publication, however, on the subject +in the 18th century was a paper by J.H. Lambert,<a name="FnAnchor_26b" id="FnAnchor_26b" href="#Footnote_26b"><span class="sp">26</span></a> read before +the Berlin Academy in 1761, in which he demonstrated the +irrationality of π. The general test of irrationality which he +established is that, if</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + +<tr><td>a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td> </td> + <td>a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td> </td> + <td>a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td> </td> + <td rowspan="2">...</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="denom">b<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>±</td> + <td class="denom">b<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>±</td> + <td class="denom">b<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>±</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">be an interminate continued fraction, a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., b<span class="su">1</span>, b<span class="su">2</span> ... +be integers, a<span class="su">1</span>/b<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>/b<span class="su">2</span>, ... be proper fractions, and the value +of every one of the interminate continued fractions</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + +<tr><td>a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td> </td> + <td>a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td> </td> + <td rowspan="2">...</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="denom">b<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>± ...,</td> + <td class="denom">b<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>± ...,</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">be < 1, then the given continued fraction represents +an irrational quantity. If this be applied to the right-hand +side of the identity</p> + +<table class="math0" summary="math"> + +<tr><td rowspan="2">tan</td> <td>m</td> <td rowspan="2"> = </td> <td>m</td> <td> </td> <td>m²</td> <td> </td> <td>m²</td> <td rowspan="2">...</td></tr> +<tr><td class="denom">n</td> <td class="denom">n</td> <td>-</td> <td class="denom">3n</td> <td>-</td> <td class="denom">5n</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="noind">it follows that the tangent of every arc commensurable with +the radius is irrational, so that, as a particular case, an arc of +45°, having its tangent rational, must be incommensurable +with the radius; that is to say, <span class="spp">π</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> is an incommensurable +number.<a name="FnAnchor_27b" id="FnAnchor_27b" href="#Footnote_27b"><span class="sp">27</span></a></p> + +<p>This incontestable result had no effect, apparently, in repressing +the π-computers. G. von Vega in 1789, using series +like Machin’s, viz. Gregory’s series and the identities</p> + +<p class="center"><span class="spp">π</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> = 5 tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> + 2 tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">79</span> (Euler, 1779),</p> +<p class="center"><span class="spp">π</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> =   tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">7</span> + 2 tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> (Hutton, 1776),</p> + +<p class="noind">neither of which was nearly so advantageous as several found +by Charles Hutton, calculated π correct to 136 places.<a name="FnAnchor_28b" id="FnAnchor_28b" href="#Footnote_28b"><span class="sp">28</span></a> This +achievement was anticipated or outdone by an unknown calculator, +whose manuscript was seen in the Radcliffe library, +Oxford, by Baron von Zach towards the end of the century, +and contained the ratio correct to 152 places. More astonishing +still have been the deeds of the π-computers of the 19th century. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span> +A condensed record compiled by J.W.L. Glaisher (<i>Messenger +of Math.</i> ii. 122) is as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="data"> + +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Date.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Computer.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />fr. digits<br />calcd.</td> <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />fr. digits<br />correct.</td> + <td class="tccm allb">Place of Publication.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1842</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rutherford</td> <td class="tccm rb">208</td> <td class="tccm rb">152</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>Trans. Roy. Soc.</i> (London, 1841), p. 283.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1844</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dase</td> <td class="tccm rb">205</td> <td class="tccm rb">200</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>Crelle’s Journ.</i>. xxvii. 198.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1847</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clausen</td> <td class="tccm rb">250</td> <td class="tccm rb">248</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>Astron. Nachr.</i> xxv. col. 207.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td> <td class="tcl rb">Shanks</td> <td class="tccm rb">318</td> <td class="tccm rb">318</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> (London, 1853), 273.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rutherford</td> <td class="tccm rb">440</td> <td class="tccm rb">440</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td> <td class="tcl rb">Shanks</td> <td class="tccm rb">530</td> <td class="tccm rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibid.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td> <td class="tcl rb">Shanks</td> <td class="tccm rb">607</td> <td class="tccm rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">W. Shanks, <i>Rectification of the Circle</i> (London, 1853).</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td> <td class="tcl rb">Richter</td> <td class="tccm rb">333</td> <td class="tccm rb">330</td> <td class="tcl rb"><i>Grunert’s Archiv</i>, xxi. 119.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1854</td> <td class="tcl rb">Richter</td> <td class="tccm rb">400</td> <td class="tccm rb">330</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibid. xxii. 473.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1854</td> <td class="tcl rb">Richter</td> <td class="tccm rb">400</td> <td class="tccm rb">400</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibid. xxiii. 476.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1854</td> <td class="tcl rb">Richter</td> <td class="tccm rb">500</td> <td class="tccm rb">500</td> <td class="tcl rb">Ibid. xxv. 472.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm lb rb bb">1873</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Shanks</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">707</td> <td class="tccm rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> (London), xxi.</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>By these computers Machin’s identity, or identities analogous +to it, <i>e.g.</i></p> + +<p class="center"><span class="spp">π</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> =   tan<span class="sp">-1</span> ½ + tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> + tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> (Dase, 1844),</p> +<p class="center"><span class="spp">π</span>⁄<span class="suu">4</span> = 4tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> - tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">70</span> + tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">99</span> (Rutherford),</p> + + +<p class="noind">and Gregory’s series were employed.<a name="FnAnchor_29b" id="FnAnchor_29b" href="#Footnote_29b"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p> + +<p>A much less wise class than the π-computers of modern times +are the pseudo-circle-squarers, or circle-squarers technically so +called, that is to say, persons who, having obtained by illegitimate +means a Euclidean construction for the quadrature or a +finitely expressible value for π, insist on using faulty reasoning +and defective mathematics to establish their assertions. Such +persons have flourished at all times in the history of mathematics; +but the interest attaching to them is more psychological than +mathematical.<a name="FnAnchor_30b" id="FnAnchor_30b" href="#Footnote_30b"><span class="sp">30</span></a></p> + +<p>It is of recent years that the most important advances in the +theory of circle-quadrature have been made. In 1873 Charles +Hermite proved that the base η of the Napierian logarithms +cannot be a root of a rational algebraical equation of any degree.<a name="FnAnchor_31b" id="FnAnchor_31b" href="#Footnote_31b"><span class="sp">31</span></a> +To prove the same proposition regarding π is to prove that a +Euclidean construction for circle-quadrature is impossible. +For in such a construction every point of the figure is obtained +by the intersection of two straight lines, a straight line and a +circle, or two circles; and as this implies that, when a unit of +length is introduced, numbers employed, and the problem +transformed into one of algebraic geometry, the equations to +be solved can only be of the first or second degree, it follows that +the equation to which we must be finally led is a rational equation +of even degree. Hermite<a name="FnAnchor_32b" id="FnAnchor_32b" href="#Footnote_32b"><span class="sp">32</span></a> did not succeed in his attempt on π; +but in 1882 F. Lindemann, following exactly in Hermite’s steps, +accomplished the desired result.<a name="FnAnchor_33b" id="FnAnchor_33b" href="#Footnote_33b"><span class="sp">33</span></a> (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trigonometry</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">References</span>.—Besides the various writings mentioned, see for +the history of the subject F. Rudio, <i>Geschichte des Problems von der +Quadratur des Zirkels</i> (1892); +M. Cantor, <i>Geschichte der Mathematik</i> (1894-1901); +Montucla, <i>Hist. des. math.</i> (6 vols., Paris, 1758, 2nd ed. 1799-1802); +Murhard, <i>Bibliotheca Mathematica</i>, ii. 106-123 (Leipzig, 1798); +Reuss, <i>Repertorium Comment.</i> vii. 42-44 (Göttingen, 1808). +For a few approximate geometrical solutions, see +Leybourn’s <i>Math. Repository</i>, vi. 151-154; +<i>Grunert’s Archiv</i>, xii. 98, xlix. 3; +<i>Nieuw Archief v. Wisk.</i> iv. 200-204. For experimental +determinations of π, dependent on the theory of probability, +see <i>Mess. of Math.</i> ii. 113, 119; <i>Casopis pro pïstováni +math. a fys.</i> x. 272-275; <i>Analyst</i>, ix. 176.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. MU.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Eisenlohr, <i>Ein math. Handbuch d. alten Ägypter, übers. u. +erklärt</i> (Leipzig, 1877); Rodet, <i>Bull. de la Soc. Math. de France</i>, vi. +pp. 139-149.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2b" id="Footnote_2b" href="#FnAnchor_2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> H. Hankel, <i>Zur Gesch. d. Math. im Alterthum</i>, &c., chap, v +(Leipzig, 1874); M. Cantor, <i>Vorlesungen über Gesch. d. Math.</i> i. +(Leipzig, 1880); Tannery, <i>Mém. de la Soc.</i>, &c., <i>à Bordeaux</i>; Allman, +in <i>Hermathena</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3b" id="Footnote_3b" href="#FnAnchor_3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Tannery. <i>Bull. des sc. math.</i> [2], x. pp. 213-226.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4b" id="Footnote_4b" href="#FnAnchor_4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In modern trigonometrical notation, 1 + sec θ:tan θ::1:tan ½θ.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5b" id="Footnote_5b" href="#FnAnchor_5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Tannery, “Sur la mesure du cercle d’Archimède,” in <i>Mém....Bordeaux</i>[2], +iv. pp. 313-339; Menge, <i>Des Archimedes Kreismessung</i> +(Coblenz, 1874).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6b" id="Footnote_6b" href="#FnAnchor_6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> De Morgan, in <i>Penny Cyclop,</i> xix. p. 186.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7b" id="Footnote_7b" href="#FnAnchor_7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Kern, <i>Aryabhattíyam</i> (Leiden, 1874), trans. by Rodet (Paris,1879).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8b" id="Footnote_8b" href="#FnAnchor_8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> De Morgan, art. “Quadrature of the Circle,” in <i>English Cyclop.</i>; +Glaisher, <i>Mess. of Math.</i> ii. pp. 119-128, iii. pp. 27-46; de Haan, +<i>Nieuw Archief v. Wisk.</i> i. pp. 70-86, 206-211.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9b" id="Footnote_9b" href="#FnAnchor_9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Vieta, <i>Opera math.</i> (Leiden, 1646); Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences +math.</i> iii. 27 seq. (Paris, 1884).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10b" id="Footnote_10b" href="#FnAnchor_10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Klügel, <i>Math. Wörterb.</i> ii. 606, 607.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11b" id="Footnote_11b" href="#FnAnchor_11b"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Kästner, <i>Gesch. d. Math.</i> i. (Göttingen, 1796-1800).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12b" id="Footnote_12b" href="#FnAnchor_12b"><span class="fn">12</span></a> But see <i>Les Délices de Leide</i> (Leiden, 1712); or de Haan, <i>Mess. +of Math.</i> iii. 24-26.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13b" id="Footnote_13b" href="#FnAnchor_13b"><span class="fn">13</span></a> For minute and lengthy details regarding the quadrature of the +circle in the Low Countries, see de Haan, “Bouwstoffen voor de +geschiedenis, &c.,” in <i>Versl. en Mededeel. der K. Akad. van Wetensch.</i> +ix., x., xi., xii. (Amsterdam); also his “Notice sur quelques quadrateurs, +&c.,” in <i>Bull. di bibliogr. e di storia delle sci. mat. e fis.</i> vii. +99-144.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14b" id="Footnote_14b" href="#FnAnchor_14b"><span class="fn">14</span></a> It is thus manifest that by his first construction Snell gave an +approximate solution of two great problems of antiquity.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15b" id="Footnote_15b" href="#FnAnchor_15b"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Elementa trigonometrica</i> (Rome, 1630); Glaisher, <i>Messenger of +Math.</i> iii. 35 seq.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16b" id="Footnote_16b" href="#FnAnchor_16b"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See Kiessling’s edition of the <i>De Circ. Magn. Inv.</i> (Flensburg, +1869); or Pirie’s tract on <i>Geometrical Methods of Approx. to the Value +of π</i> (London, 1877).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17b" id="Footnote_17b" href="#FnAnchor_17b"><span class="fn">17</span></a> See Euler, “Annotationes in locum quendam Cartesii,” in <i>Nov. +Comm. Acad. Petrop.</i> viii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18b" id="Footnote_18b" href="#FnAnchor_18b"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Gergonne, <i>Annales de math.</i> vi.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19b" id="Footnote_19b" href="#FnAnchor_19b"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See <i>Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura</i> (Padua, 1667); and +the <i>Appendicula</i> to the same in his <i>Exercitationes geometricae</i> +(London, 1668).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20b" id="Footnote_20b" href="#FnAnchor_20b"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Penny Cyclop.</i> xix. 187.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21b" id="Footnote_21b" href="#FnAnchor_21b"><span class="fn">21</span></a> See Sherwin’s <i>Math. Tables</i> (London, 1705), p. 59.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22b" id="Footnote_22b" href="#FnAnchor_22b"><span class="fn">22</span></a> See W. Jones, <i>Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos</i> (London, 1706); +Maseres, <i>Scriptores Logarithmici</i> (London, 1791-1796), iii. 159 seq.; +Hutton, <i>Tracts</i>, i. 266.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23b" id="Footnote_23b" href="#FnAnchor_23b"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See <i>Hist. de l’Acad.</i> (Paris, 1719); 7 appears instead of 8 in the +113th place.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24b" id="Footnote_24b" href="#FnAnchor_24b"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Comment. Acad. Petrop.</i> ix., xi.; <i>Nov. Comm. Ac. Pet.</i> xvi.; +<i>Nova Acta Acad. Pet.</i> xi.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25b" id="Footnote_25b" href="#FnAnchor_25b"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Introd. in Analysin Infin.</i> (Lausanne, 1748), chap. viii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26b" id="Footnote_26b" href="#FnAnchor_26b"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Mém. sur quelques propriétés remarquables des quantités transcendantes, +circulaires, et logarithmiques.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27b" id="Footnote_27b" href="#FnAnchor_27b"><span class="fn">27</span></a> See Legendre, <i>Eléments de géométrie</i> (Paris, 1794), note iv.; +Schlömilch, <i>Handbuch d. algeb. Analysis</i> (Jena, 1851), chap. xiii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28b" id="Footnote_28b" href="#FnAnchor_28b"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Nova Acta Petrop.</i> ix. 41; <i>Thesaurus Logarithm. Completus</i>, 633.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29b" id="Footnote_29b" href="#FnAnchor_29b"><span class="fn">29</span></a> On the calculations made before Shanks, see Lehmann, “Beitrag +zur Berechnung der Zahl π,” in <i>Grunert’s Archiv</i>, xxi. 121-174.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30b" id="Footnote_30b" href="#FnAnchor_30b"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See Montucla, <i>Hist. des rech. sur la quad. du cercle</i> (Paris, 1754, +2nd ed. 1831); de Morgan, <i>Budget of Paradoxes</i> (London, 1872).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31b" id="Footnote_31b" href="#FnAnchor_31b"><span class="fn">31</span></a> “Sur la fonction exponentielle,” <i>Comples rendus</i> (Paris), lxxvii. +18, 74, 226, 285.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32b" id="Footnote_32b" href="#FnAnchor_32b"><span class="fn">32</span></a> See <i>Crelle’s Journal</i>, lxxvi. 342.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33b" id="Footnote_33b" href="#FnAnchor_33b"><span class="fn">33</span></a> See “Über die Zahl π,” in <i>Math. Ann.</i> xx. 213.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCLEVILLE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Pickaway +county, Ohio, U.S.A., about 26 m. S. by E. of Columbus, on the +Scioto river and the Ohio Canal. Pop. (1890) 6556; (1900) +6991 (551 negroes); (1910) 6744. It is served by the Cincinnati +& Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania lines) and the Norfolk & +Western railways, and by the Scioto Valley electric line. Circleville +is situated in a farming region, and its leading industries +are the manufacture of straw boards and agricultural implements, +and the canning of sweet corn and other produce. The +city occupies the site of prehistoric earth-works, from one of +which, built in the form of a circle, it derived +its name. Circleville, first settled about 1806, +was chosen as the county-seat in 1810. The +court-house was built in the form of an octagon +at the centre of the circle, and circular streets +were laid out around it; but this arrangement +proved to be inconvenient, the court-house was +destroyed by fire in 1841, and at present no +trace of the ancient landmarks remains. Circleville +was incorporated as a village in 1814, and +was chartered as a city in 1853.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCUIT<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (Lat. <i>circuitus</i>, from <i>circum</i>, round, +and <i>ire</i>, to go), the act of moving round; so +circumference, or anything encircling or encircled. +The word is particularly known as a law term, +signifying the periodical progress of a legal tribunal for +the purpose of carrying out the administration of the law in the +several provinces of a country. It has long been applied to the +journey or progress which the judges have been in the habit of +making through the several counties of England, to hold courts +and administer justice, where recourse could not be had to the +king’s court at Westminster (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assize</a></span>).</p> + +<p>In England, by sec. 23 of the Judicature Act 1875, power was +conferred on the crown, by order in council, to make regulations +respecting circuits, including the discontinuance of any circuit, +and the formation of any new circuit, and the appointment of +the place at which assizes are to be held on any circuit. Under +this power an order of council, dated the 5th of February 1876, +was made, whereby the circuit system was remodelled. A new +circuit, called the North-Eastern circuit, was created, consisting +of Newcastle and Durham taken out of the old Northern circuit, +and York and Leeds taken out of the Midland circuit. Oakham, +Leicester and Northampton, which had belonged to the Norfolk +circuit, were added to the Midland. The Norfolk circuit and the +Home circuit were abolished and a new South-Eastern circuit +was created, consisting of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ipswich, +Norwich, Chelmsford, Hertford and Lewes, taken partly out +of the old Norfolk circuit and partly out of the Home circuit. +The counties of Kent and Surrey were left out of the circuit +system, the assizes for these counties being held by the judges +remaining in London. Subsequently Maidstone and Guildford +were united under the revived name of the Home circuit for the +purpose of the summer and winter assizes, and the assizes in +these towns were held by one of the judges of the Western circuit, +who, after disposing of the business there, rejoined his colleague +in Exeter. In 1899 this arrangement was abolished, and Maidstone +and Guildford were added to the South-Eastern circuit. +Other minor changes in the assize towns were made, which it is +unnecessary to particularize. Birmingham first became a +circuit town in the year 1884, and the work there became, +by arrangement, the joint property of the Midland and Oxford +circuits. There are alternative assize towns in the following +counties, viz.:—On the Western circuit, Salisbury and Devizes +for Wiltshire, and Wells and Taunton for Somerset; on the +South-Eastern, Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds for Suffolk; +on the North Wales circuit, Welshpool and Newtown for Montgomery; +and on the South Wales circuit, Cardiff and Swansea for Glamorgan.</p> + +<p>According to the arrangements in force in 1909 there are +four assizes in each year. There are two principal assizes, viz. +the winter assizes, beginning in January, and the summer assizes, +beginning at the end of May. At these two assizes criminal and +civil business is disposed of in all the circuits. There are two +other assizes, viz. the autumn assizes and the Easter assizes. +The autumn assizes are regulated by acts of 1876 and 1877 +(Winter Assizes Acts 1876 and 1877), and orders of council made +under the former act. They are held for the whole of England +and Wales, but for the purpose of these assizes the work is to a +large extent “grouped,” so that not every county has a separate +assize. For example, on the South-Eastern circuit Huntingdon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span> +is grouped with Cambridge; on the Midland, Rutland is grouped +with Lincoln; on the Northern, Westmorland is grouped with +Cumberland; and the North Wales and South Wales circuits +are united, and no assizes are held at some of the smaller towns. +At these assizes criminal business only is taken, except at +Manchester, Liverpool, Swansea, Birmingham and Leeds. +The Easter assizes are held in April and May on two circuits +only, viz. at Manchester and Liverpool on the Northern and at +Leeds on the North-Eastern. Both civil and criminal business +is taken at Manchester and Liverpool, but criminal business +only at Leeds.</p> + +<p>Other changes were made, with a view to preventing the +complete interruption of the London sittings in the common law +division by the absence of the judges on circuit. The assizes +were so arranged as to commence on different dates in the various +circuits. For example, the summer assizes begin in the +South-Eastern and Western circuits on the 29th of May; in the +Northern circuit on the 28th of June; in the Midland and +Oxford circuits on the 16th of June; in the North-Eastern +circuit on the 6th of July; in the North Wales circuit on the +7th of July; and in the South Wales circuit on the 11th of July. +Again, there has been a continuous development of what may +be called the single-judge system. In the early days of the new +order the members of the court of appeal and the judges of the +chancery division shared the circuit work with the judges in the +common law division. This did not prove to be a satisfactory +arrangement. The assize work was not familiar and was +uncongenial to the chancery judges, who had but little training +or experience to fit them for it. Arrears increased in chancery, +and the appeal court was shorn of much of its strength for a +considerable part of the year. The practice was discontinued +in or about the year 1884. The appeal and chancery judges were +relieved of the duty of going on circuit, and an arrangement +was made by the treasury for making an allowance for expenses +of circuit to the common law judges, on whom the whole work +of the assizes was thrown. In order to cope with the assize +work, and at the same time keep the common law sittings going +in London, an experiment, which had been previously tried +by Lord Cairns and Lord Cross (then home secretary) and +discontinued, was revived. Instead of two judges going together +to each assize town, it was arranged that one judge should go +by himself to certain selected places—practically, it may be +said, to all except the more important provincial centres. The +only places to which two judges now go are Exeter, Winchester, +Bristol, Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Stafford, Birmingham, +Newcastle, Durham, York, Leeds, Chester, and Cardiff or Swansea.</p> + +<p>It could scarcely be said that, even with the amendments +introduced under orders in council, the circuit system was +altogether satisfactory or that the last word had been pronounced +on the subject. In the first report of the Judicature Commission, +dated March 25th, 1869, p. 17 (<i>Parl. Papers</i>, 1868-1869), the +majority report that “the necessity for holding assizes in every +county without regard to the extent of the business to be transacted +in such county leads, in our judgment, to a great waste of +judicial strength and a great loss of time in going from one +circuit town to another, and causes much unnecessary cost and +inconvenience to those whose attendance is necessary or customary +at the assizes.” And in their second report, dated July 3rd, +1872 (<i>Parl. Papers</i>, 1872, vol. xx.), they dwell upon the +advisability of grouping or a discontinuance of holding assizes “in +several counties, for example, Rutland and Westmorland, where +it is manifestly an idle waste of time and money to have assizes.” +It is thought that the grouping of counties which has been effected +for the autumn assizes might be carried still further and applied +to all the assizes; and that the system of holding the assizes +alternately in one of two towns within a county might be extended +to two towns in adjoining counties, for example, Gloucester +and Worcester. The facility of railway communication renders +this reform comparatively easy, and reforms in this direction +have been approved by the judges, but ancient custom and +local patriotism, interests, or susceptibility bar the way. The +Assizes and Quarter Sessions Act 1908 contributed something +to reform by dispensing with the obligation to hold assizes +at a fixed date if there is no business to be transacted. Nor +can it be said that the single-judge system has been altogether +a success. When there is only one judge for both civil and +criminal work, he properly takes the criminal business first. +He can fix only approximately the time when he can hope to +be free for the civil business. If the calendar is exceptionally +heavy or one or more of the criminal cases prove to be unexpectedly +long (as may easily happen), the civil business necessarily +gets squeezed into the short residue of the allotted time. Suitors +and their solicitors and witnesses are kept waiting for days, and +after all perhaps it proves to be impossible for the judge to take +the case, and a “remanet” is the result. It is the opinion of +persons of experience that the result has undoubtedly been to +drive to London much of the civil business which properly +belongs to the provinces, and ought to be tried there, and thus +at once to increase the burden on the judges and jurymen in +London, and to increase the costs of the trial of the actions sent +there. Some persons advocate the continuous sittings of the +high court in certain centres, such as Manchester, Liverpool, +Leeds, Newcastle, Birmingham and Bristol, or (in fact) a +decentralization of the judicial system. There is already an +excellent court for chancery cases for Lancashire in the county +palatine court, presided over by the vice-chancellor, and with a +local bar which has produced many men of great ability and +even eminence. The Durham chancery court is also capable +of development. Another suggestion has been made for continuous +circuits throughout the legal year, so that a certain +number of the judges, according to a rota, should be continuously +in the provinces while the remaining judges did the London +business. The value of this suggestion would depend on an +estimate of the number of cases which might thus be tried in the +country in relief of the London list. This estimate it would be +difficult to make. The opinion has also been expressed that it +is essential in any changes that may be made to retain the +occasional administration by judges of the high court of criminal +jurisdiction, both in populous centres and in remote places. It +promotes a belief in the importance and dignity of justice and +the care to be given to all matters affecting a citizen’s life, +liberty or character. It also does something, by the example +set by judges in country districts, to check any tendency to +undue severity of sentences in offences against property.</p> + +<p>Counsel are not expected to practise on a circuit other than +that to which they have attached themselves, unless they receive +a special retainer. They are then said to “go special,” and the +fee in such a case is one hundred guineas for a king’s counsel, +and fifty guineas for a junior. It is customary to employ one +member of the circuit on the side on which the counsel comes +special. Certain rules have been drawn up by the Bar Committee +for regulating the practice as to retainers on circuit. +(1) A special retainer must be given for a particular assize (a +circuit retainer will not, however, make it compulsory upon +counsel retained to go the circuit, but will give the right to +counsel’s services should he attend the assize and the case be +entered for trial); (2) if the venue is changed to another place +on the same circuit, a fresh retainer is not required; (3) if the +action is not tried at the assize for which the retainer is given, +the retainer must be renewed for every subsequent assize until +the action is disposed of, unless a brief has been delivered; +(4) a retainer may be given for a future assize, without a retainer +for an intervening assize, unless notice of trial is given for such +intervening assize. There are also various regulations enforced +by the discipline of the circuit bar mess.</p> + +<p>In the United States the English circuit system still exists +in some states, as in Massachusetts, where the judges sit in +succession in the various counties of the state. The term <i>circuit +courts</i> applies distinctively in America to a certain class of +inferior federal courts of the United States, exercising jurisdiction, +concurrently with the state courts, in certain matters +where the United States is a party to the litigation, or in cases +of crime against the United States. The circuit courts act in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span> +nine judicial circuits, divided as follows: <i>1st circuit</i>, Maine, +Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island; <i>2nd circuit</i>, +Connecticut, New York, Vermont; <i>3rd circuit</i>, Delaware, New +Jersey, Pennsylvania; <i>4th circuit</i>, Maryland, North Carolina, +South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia; <i>5th circuit</i>, Alabama, +Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas; <i>6th circuit</i>, +Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee; <i>7th circuit</i>, Illinois, +Indiana, Wisconsin; <i>8th circuit</i>, Arkansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, +Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New +Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming; <i>9th +circuit</i>, Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, +Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii. A circuit court of appeals +is made up of three judges of the circuit court, the +judges of the district courts of the circuit, and the judge of the +Supreme Court allotted to the circuit.</p> + +<p>In Scotland the judges of the supreme criminal court, or high +court of justiciary, form also three separate circuit courts, +consisting of two judges each; and the country, with the exception +of the Lothians, is divided into corresponding districts, +called the Northern, Western and Southern circuits. On the +Northern circuit, courts are held at Inverness, Perth, Dundee +and Aberdeen; on the Western, at Glasgow, Stirling and +Inveraray; and on the Southern, at Dumfries, Jedburgh and Ayr.</p> + +<p>Ireland is divided into the North-East and the North-West +circuits, and those of Leinster, Connaught and Munster.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCULAR NOTE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span>, a documentary request by a bank to its +foreign correspondents to pay a specified sum of money to a +named person. The person in whose favour a circular note is +issued is furnished with a letter (containing the signature of an +official of the bank and the person named) called a letter of +indication, which is usually referred to in the circular note, +and must be produced on presentation of the note. Circular +notes are generally issued against a payment of cash to the +amount of the notes, but the notes need not necessarily be +cashed, but may be returned to the banker in exchange for the +amount for which they were originally issued. A forged signature +on a circular note conveys no right, and as it is the duty of the +payer to see that payment is made to the proper person, he +cannot recover the amount of a forged note from the banker +who issued the note. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Letter of Credit</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (Lat. for “circle in proving”), +in logic, a phrase used to describe a form of argument in which +the very fact which one seeks to demonstrate is used as a premise, +<i>i.e.</i> as part of the evidence on which the conclusion is based. +This argument is one form of the fallacy known as <i>petitio +principii</i>, “begging the question.” It is most common in +lengthy arguments, the complicated character of which enables +the speaker to make his hearers forget the data from which he +began. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fallacy</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCUMCISION<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (Lat. <i>circum</i>, round, and <i>caedere</i>, to cut), +the cutting off of the foreskin. This surgical operation, which is +commonly prescribed for purely medical reasons, is also an +initiation or religious ceremony among Jews and Mahommedans, +and is a widespread institution in many Semitic races. It +remains, with Jews, a necessary preliminary to the admission of +proselytes, except in some Reformed communities. The origin +of the rite among the Jews is in Genesis (xvii.) placed in the age +of Abraham, and at all events it must have been very ancient, +for flint stones were used in the operation (Exodus iv. 25; +Joshua v. 2). The narrative in Joshua implies that the custom +was introduced by him, not that it had merely been in abeyance +in the Wilderness. At Gilgal he “rolled away the reproach of +the Egyptians” by circumcising the people. This obviously +means that whereas the Egyptians practised circumcision the +Jews in the land of the Pharaohs did not, and hence were regarded +with contempt. It was an old theory (Herodotus ii. 36) that +circumcision originated in Egypt; at all events it was practised +in that country in ancient times (Ebers, <i>Egypten und die Bücher +Mosis</i>, i. 278-284), and the same is true at the present day. +But it is not generally thought probable that the Hebrews +derived the rite directly from the Egyptians. As Driver puts it +(<i>Genesis</i>, p. 190): “It is possible that, as Dillmann and Nowack +suppose, the peoples of N. Africa and Asia who practised the rite +adopted it from the Egyptians, but it appears in so many parts +of the world that it must at any rate in these cases have originated +independently.” In another biblical narrative (Exodus iv. 25) +Moses is subject to the divine anger because he had not made +himself “a bridegroom of blood,” that is, had not been circumcised +before his marriage.</p> + +<p>The rite of circumcision was practised by all the inhabitants +of Palestine with the exception of the Philistines. It was an +ancient custom among the Arabs, being presupposed in the +Koran. The only important Semitic peoples who most probably +did not follow the rite were the Babylonians and Assyrians +(Sayce, <i>Babyl. and Assyrians</i>, p. 47). Modern investigations have +brought to light many instances of the prevalence of circumcision +in various parts of the world. These facts are collected by Andrée +and Ploss, and go to prove that the rite is not only spread through +the Mahommedan world (Turks, Persians, Arabs, &c.), but also is +practised by the Christian Abyssinians and the Copts, as well +as in central Australia and in America. In central Australia +(Spencer and Gillen, pp. 212-386) circumcision with a stone knife +must be undergone by every youth before he is reckoned a full +member of the tribe or is permitted to enter on the married state. +In other parts, too (<i>e.g.</i> Loango), no uncircumcised man may +marry. Circumcision was known to the Aztecs (Bancroft, +<i>Native Races</i>, vol. iii.), and is still practised by the Caribs of +the Orinoco and the Tacunas of the Amazon. The method and +period of the operation vary in important particulars. Among +the Jews it is performed in infancy, when the male child is eight +days old. The child is named at the same time, and the ceremony +is elaborate. The child is carried in to the godfather (<i>sandek</i>, +a hebraized form of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="sunteknos">σύντεκνος</span>, “godfather,” post-class.), +who places the child on a cushion, which he holds on his knees +throughout the ceremony. The operator (<i>mohel</i>) uses a steel +knife, and pronounces various benedictions before and after the +rite is performed (see S. Singer, <i>Authorized Daily Prayer Book</i>, +pp. 304-307; an excellent account of the domestic festivities +and spiritual joys associated with the ceremony among medieval +and modern Jews may be read in S. Schechter’s <i>Studies in +Judaism</i>, first series, pp. 351 seq.). Some tribes in South America +and elsewhere are said to perform the rite on the eighth day, +like the Jews. The Mazequas do it between the first and second +months. Among the Bedouins the rite is performed on children +of three years, amid dances and the selection of brides (Doughty, +<i>Arabia Deserta</i>, i. 340); among the Somalis the age is seven +(Reinisch, <i>Somalisprache</i>, p. 110). But for the most part the +tribes who perform the rite carry it out at the age of puberty. +Many facts bearing on this point are given by B. Stade in <i>Zeitschrift +für die alttest. Wissenschaft</i>, vi. (1886) pp. 132 seq.</p> + +<p>The significance of the rite of circumcision has been much +disputed. Some see in it a tribal badge. If this be the true +origin of circumcision, it must go back to the time when men +went about naked. Mutilations (tattooing, removal of teeth +and so forth) were tribal marks, being partly sacrifices and +partly means of recognition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mutilation</a></span>). Such initiatory +rites were often frightful ordeals, in which the neophyte’s +courage was severely tested (Robertson Smith, <i>Religion of the +Semites</i>, p. 310). Some regard circumcision as a substitute for +far more serious rites, including even human sacrifice. Utilitarian +explanations have also been suggested. Sir R. Burton (<i>Memoirs +Anthrop. Soc.</i> i. 318) held that it was introduced to promote +fertility, and the claims of cleanliness have been put forward +(following Philo’s example, see ed. Mangey, ii. 210). Most +probably, however, circumcision (which in many tribes is performed +on both sexes) was connected with marriage, and was a +preparation for connubium. It was in Robertson Smith’s words +“originally a preliminary to marriage, and so a ceremony of +introduction to the full prerogative of manhood,” the transference +to infancy among the Jews being a later change. On +this view, the decisive Biblical reference would be the Exodus +passage (iv. 25), in which Moses is represented as being in danger +of his life because he had neglected the proper preliminary to +marriage. In Genesis, on the other hand, circumcision is an +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span> +external sign of God’s covenant with Israel, and later Judaism +now regards it in this symbolical sense. Barton (<i>Semitic Origins</i>, +p. 100) declares that “the circumstances under which it is performed +in Arabia point to the origin of circumcision as a sacrifice +to the goddess of fertility, by which the child was placed under +her protection and its reproductive powers consecrated to her +service.” But Barton admits that initiation to the connubium +was the primitive origin of the rite.</p> + +<p>As regards the non-ritual use of male circumcision, it may be +added that in recent years the medical profession has been +responsible for its considerable extension among other than +Jewish children, the operation being recommended not merely +in cases of malformation, but generally for reasons of health.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—On the present diffusion of circumcision see H. +Ploss, <i>Das Kind im Brauch und Sitte der Völker</i>, i. 342 seq., and his +researches in <i>Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin</i>, viii. +312-344; Andrée, “Die Beschneidung” in <i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i>, +xiii. 76; and Spencer and Gillen, <i>Tribes of Central Australia</i>. +The articles in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i> and <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i> +contain useful bibliographies as well as historical accounts of the +rite and its ceremonies, especially as concerns the Jews. The <i>Jewish +Encyclopedia</i> in particular gives an extensive list of books on the +Jewish customs connected with circumcision, and the various articles +in that work are full of valuable information (vol. iv. pp. 92-102). +On the rite among the Arabs, see Wellhausen, <i>Reste arabischen +Heidentums</i>, 154.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(I. A.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>circum</i>, round, +and <i>vallum</i>, a rampart), in fortification, a continuous circle of +entrenchments surrounding a besieged place. “Lines of +Contravallation” were similar works by which the besieger protected +himself against the attack of a relieving army from any +quarter. These continuous lines of circumvallation and contravallation +were used only in the days of small armies and small +fortresses, and both terms are now obsolete.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRCUS<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (Lat. <i>circus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kirkos">κίρκος</span> or <span class="grk" title="krikos">κρίκος</span>, a ring or circle; +probably “circus” and “ring” are of the same origin), a space, +in the strict sense circular, but sometimes oval or even oblong, +intended for the exhibition of races and athletic contests generally. +The circus differs from the theatre inasmuch as the +performance takes place in a central circular space, not on a stage +at one end of the building.</p> + +<p>1. <i>In Roman antiquities</i> the circus was a building for the +exhibition of horse and chariot races and other amusements. +It consisted of tiers of seats running parallel with the sides of +the course, and forming a crescent round one of the ends. The +other end was straight and at right angles to the course, so that +the plan of the whole had nearly the form of an ellipse cut in +half at its vertical axis. Along the transverse axis ran a fence +(<i>spina</i>) separating the return course from the starting one. The +straight end had no seats, but was occupied by the stalls (<i>carceres</i>) +where the chariots and horses were held in readiness. This end +constituted also the front of the building with the main entrance. +At each end of the course were three conical pillars (<i>metae</i>) to +mark its limits.</p> + +<p>The oldest building of this kind in Rome was the <i>Circus +Maximus</i>, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine +hills, where, before the erection of any permanent structure, +races appear to have been held beside the altar of the god +Consus. The first building is assigned to Tarquin the younger, +but for a long time little seems to have been done to complete +its accommodation, since it is not till 329 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that we hear +of stalls being erected for the chariots and horses. It was not +in fact till under the empire that the circus became a conspicuous +public resort. Caesar enlarged it to some extent, and also made +a canal 10 ft. broad between the lowest tier of seats (<i>podium</i>) +and the course as a precaution for the spectators’ safety when +exhibitions of fighting with wild beasts, such as were afterwards +confined to the amphitheatre, took place. When these exhibitions +were removed, and the canal (<i>euripus</i>) was no longer +necessary, Nero had it filled up. Augustus is said to have placed +an obelisk on the <i>spina</i> between the <i>metae</i>, and to have built a +new <i>pulvinar</i>, or imperial box; but if this is taken in connexion +with the fact that the circus had been partially destroyed by +fire in 31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it may be supposed that besides this he had +restored it altogether. Only the lower tiers of seats were of +stone, the others being of wood, and this, from the liability to +fire, may account for the frequent restorations to which the circus +was subject; it would also explain the falling of the seats by +which a crowd of people were killed in the time of Antoninus +Pius. In the reign of Claudius, apparently after a fire, the +<i>carceres</i> of stone (tufa) were replaced by marble, and the <i>metae</i> +of wood by gilt bronze. Under Domitian, again, after a fire, the +circus was rebuilt and the carceres increased to 12 instead +of 8 as before. The work was finished by Trajan. See further +for seating capacity, &c., <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>Archaeology</i>, § “Places of +Amusement.”</p> + +<p>The circus was the only public spectacle at which men and +women were not separated. The lower seats were reserved for +persons of rank; there were also various state boxes, <i>e.g.</i> for +the giver of the games and his friends (called <i>cubicula</i> or <i>suggestus</i>). +The principal object of attraction apart from the racing must +have been the <i>spina</i> or low wall which ran down the middle +of the course, with its obelisks, images and ornamental shrines. +On it also were seven figures of dolphins and seven oval objects, +one of which was taken down at every round made in a race, +so that spectators might see readily how the contest proceeded. +The chariot race consisted of seven rounds of the course. The +chariots started abreast, but in an oblique line, so that the outer +chariot might be compensated for the wider circle it had to make +at the other end. Such a race was called a <i>missus</i>, and as many +as 24 of these would take place in a day. The competitors +wore different colours, originally white and red (<i>albata</i> and +<i>russata</i>), to which green (<i>prasina</i>) and blue (<i>veneta</i>) were added. +Domitian introduced two more colours, gold and purple (<i>purpureus +et auratus pannus</i>), which probably fell into disuse after +his death. To provide the horses and large staff of attendants +it was necessary to apply to rich capitalists and owners of studs, +and from this there grew up in time four select companies +(<i>factiones</i>) of circus purveyors, which were identified with the +four colours, and with which those who organized the races had +to contract for the proper supply of horses and men. The drivers +(<i>aurigae, agitatores</i>), who were mostly slaves, were sometimes +held in high repute for their skill, although their calling was +regarded with contempt. The horses most valued were those of +Sicily, Spain and Cappadocia, and great care was taken in training +them. Chariots with two horses (<i>bigae</i>) or four (<i>quadrigae</i>) +were most common, but sometimes also they had three (<i>trigae</i>), +and exceptionally more than four horses. Occasionally there +was combined with the chariots a race of riders (<i>desultores</i>), +each rider having two horses and leaping from one to the other +during the race. At certain of the races the proceedings were +opened by a <i>pompa</i> or procession in which images of the gods +and of the imperial family deified were conveyed in cars drawn +by horses, mules or elephants, attended by the colleges of priests, +and led by the presiding magistrate (in some cases by the +emperor himself) seated in a chariot in the dress and with the +insignia of a triumphator. The procession passed from the +capitol along the forum, and on to the circus, where it was received +by the people standing and clapping their hands. The +presiding magistrate gave the signal for the races by throwing +a white flag (<i>mappa</i>) on to the course.</p> + +<p>Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome was the +<i>Circus Flaminius</i>, erected 221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in the censorship of C. +Flaminius, from whom it may have taken its name; or the +name may have been derived from Prata Flaminia, where it +was situated, and where also were held plebeian meetings. +The only games that are positively known to have been celebrated +in this circus were the <i>Ludi Taurii</i> and <i>Plebeii</i>. There is no +mention of it after the 1st century. Its ruins were identified +in the 16th century at S. Catarina dei Funari and the Palazzo +Mattei.</p> + +<p>A third circus in Rome was erected by Caligula in the gardens +of Agrippina, and was known as the <i>Circus Neronis</i>, from the +notoriety which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of +Nero. A fourth was constructed by Maxentius outside the +Porta Appia near the tomb of Caecilia Metella, where its ruins +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span> +are still, and now afford the only instance from which an idea +of the ancient circi in Rome can be obtained. It was traced to +Caracalla, till the discovery of an inscription in 1825 showed +it to be the work of Maxentius. Old topographers speak of six +circi, but two of these appear to be imaginary, the Circus Florae +and the Circus Sallustii.</p> + +<p>Circus races were held in connexion with the following public +festivals, and generally on the last day of the festival, if it +extended over more than one day:—(1) The <i>Consualia</i>, +August 21st, December 15th; (2) <i>Equirria</i>, February 27th, +March 14th; (3) <i>Ludi Romani</i>, September 4th-19th; (4) <i>Ludi +Plebeii</i>, November 4th-17th; (5) <i>Cerialia</i>, April 12th-19th; +(6) <i>Ludi Apollinares</i>, July 6th-13th; (7) <i>Ludi Megalenses</i>, +April 4th-10th; (8) <i>Floralia</i>, April 28th-May 3rd.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In addition to Smith’s <i>Dictionary of Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1890), +see articles in Daremberg and Saglio’s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>, +Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, +iii. 2 (1899), and Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii. +(2nd ed., 1885), p. 504. For existing remains see works quoted +under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>Archaeology</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <i>The Modern Circus.</i>—The “circus” in modern times is +a form of popular entertainment which has little in common +with the institution of classical Rome. It is frequently nomadic +in character, the place of the permanent building known to the +ancients as the circus being taken by a tent, which is carried +from place to place and set up temporarily on any site procurable +at country fairs or in provincial towns, and in which spectacular +performances are given by a troupe employed by the proprietor. +The centre of the tent forms an arena arranged as a horse-ring, +strewn with tan or other soft substance, where the performances +take place, the seats of the spectators being arranged in ascending +tiers around the central space as in the Roman circus. The +traditional type of exhibition in the modern travelling circus +consists of feats of horsemanship, such as leaping through hoops +from the back of a galloping horse, standing with one foot on +each of two horses galloping side by side, turning somersaults +from a springboard over a number of horses standing close +together, or accomplishing acrobatic tricks on horseback. These +performances, by male and female riders, are varied by the +introduction of horses trained to perform tricks, and by drolleries +on the part of the clown, whose place in the circus is as firmly +established by tradition as in the pantomime.</p> + +<p>The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that +kept by Philip Astley (d. 1814) in London at the end of the 18th +century. Astley was followed by Ducrow, whose feats of horsemanship +had much to do with establishing the traditions of the +circus, which were perpetuated by Hengler’s and Sanger’s +celebrated shows in a later generation. In America a circus-actor +named Ricketts is said to have performed before George Washington +in 1780, and in the first half of the 19th century the establishments +of Purdy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a +wide popularity to the circus in the United States. All former +circus-proprietors were, however, far surpassed in enterprise and +resource by P.T. Barnum (<i>q.v.</i>), whose claim to be the possessor +of “the greatest show on earth” was no exaggeration. The +influence of Barnum, however, brought about a considerable +change in the character of the modern circus. In arenas too +large for speech to be easily audible, the traditional comic dialogue +of the clown assumed a less prominent place than formerly, +while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties relegated +to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which +were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and +by exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the +employment of immense numbers of performers and often of +complicated and expensive machinery. These tendencies are, +as is natural, most marked in shows given in permanent buildings +in large cities, such as the London Hippodrome, which was built +as a combination of the circus, the menagerie and the variety +theatre, where wild animals such as lions and elephants from +time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions of +nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have +been produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display. +At the Hippodrome in Paris—unlike its London namesake, a +circus of the true classical type in which the arena is entirely +surrounded by the seats of the spectators—chariot races after +the Roman model were held in the latter part of the 19th +century, at which prizes of considerable value were given by the +management.</p> + + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRENCESTER<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (traditionally pronounced <i>Ciceter</i>), a market +town in the Cirencester parliamentary division of Gloucestershire, +England, on the river Churn, a tributary of the Thames, 93 m. +W.N.W. of London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7536. It is +served by a branch of the Great Western railway, and there is +also a station on the Midland and South-Western Junction +railway. This is an ancient and prosperous market town of +picturesque old houses clustering round a fine parish church, +with a high embattled tower, and a remarkable south porch with +parvise. The church is mainly Perpendicular, and among its +numerous chapels that of St Catherine has a beautiful roof of +fan-tracery in stone dated 1508. Of the abbey founded in +1117 by Henry I. there remain a Norman gateway and a few +capitals. There are two good museums containing mosaics, +inscriptions, carved and sculptured stones, and many smaller +remains, for the town was the Roman <i>Corinium</i> or <i>Durocornovium +Dobunorum</i>. Little trace of Corinium, however, can be seen +<i>in situ</i>, except the amphitheatre and some indications of the walls. +To the west of the town is Cirencester House, the seat of Earl +Bathurst. The first Lord Bathurst (1684-1775) devoted himself +to beautifying the fine demesne of Oakley Park, which he +planted and adorned with remarkable artificial ruins. This +nobleman, who became baron in 1711 and earl in 1772, was a +patron of art and literature no less than a statesman; and Pope, +a frequent visitor here, was allowed to design the building known +as Pope’s Seat, in the park, commanding a splendid prospect +of woods and avenues. Swift was another appreciative visitor. +The house contains portraits by Lawrence, Gainsborough, +Romney, Lely, Reynolds, Hoppner, Kneller and many others. +A mile west of the town is the Royal Agricultural College, +incorporated by charter in 1845. Its buildings include a chapel, +a dining hall, a library, a lecture theatre, laboratories, classrooms, +private studies and dormitories for the students, apartments +for resident professors, and servants’ offices; also a +museum containing a collection of anatomical and pathological +preparations, and mineralogical, botanical and geological specimens. +The college farm comprises 500 acres, 450 of which +are arable; and on it are the well-appointed farm-buildings +and the veterinary hospital. Besides agriculture, the course of +instruction at the college includes chemistry, natural and +mechanical philosophy, natural history, mensuration, surveying +and drawing, and other subjects of practical importance to the +farmer, proficiency in which is tested by means of sessional +examinations. The industries of Cirencester comprise various +branches of agriculture. It has connexion by a branch canal +with the Thames and Severn canal.</p> + +<p>Corinium was a flourishing Romano-British town, at first +perhaps a cavalry post, but afterwards, for the greater part of +the Roman period, purely a civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 m. +N.E., is one of the most noteworthy Roman villas in England. +Cirencester (<i>Cirneceaster</i>, <i>Cyrenceaster</i>, <i>Cyringceaster</i>) is described +in Domesday as ancient demesne of the crown. The manor was +granted by William I. to William Fitzosbern; on reverting to +the crown it was given in 1189, with the township, to the Augustinian +abbey founded here by Henry I. The struggle of the +townsmen to prove that Cirencester was a borough probably +began in the same year, when they were amerced for a false +presentment. Four inquisitions during the 13th century supported +the abbot’s claims, yet in 1343 the townsmen declared +in a chancery bill of complaint that Cirencester was a borough +distinct from the manor, belonging to the king but usurped by +the abbot, who since 1308 had abated their court of provostry. +Accordingly they produced a copy of a forged charter from +Henry I. to the town; the court ignored this and the abbot +obtained a new charter and a writ of <i>supersedeas</i>. For their +success against the earls of Kent and Salisbury Henry IV. in +1403 gave the townsmen a gild merchant, although two +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span> +inquisitions reiterated the abbot’s rights. These were confirmed +in 1408-1409 and 1413; in 1418 the charter was annulled, and +in 1477 parliament declared that Cirencester was not corporate. +After several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish the gild +merchant, the government in 1592 was vested in the bailiff of the +lord of the manor. Cirencester became a parliamentary borough +in 1572, returning two members, but was deprived of representation +in 1885. Besides the “new market” of Domesday +Book the abbots obtained charters in 1215 and 1253 for fairs +during the octaves of All Saints and St Thomas the Martyr. +The wool trade gave these great importance; in 1341 there +were ten wool merchants in Cirencester, and Leland speaks of +the abbots’ cloth-mill, while Camden calls it the greatest market +for wool in England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Transactions</i> of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological +Society, vols. ii., ix., xviii.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRILLO, DOMENICO<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1739-1799), Italian physician and +patriot, was born at Grumo in the kingdom of Naples. Appointed +while yet a young man to a botanical professorship, Cirillo went +some years afterwards to England, where he was elected fellow +of the Royal Society, and to France. On his return to Naples +he was appointed successively to the chairs of practical and +theoretical medicine. He wrote voluminously and well on +scientific subjects and secured an extensive medical practice. +On the French occupation of Naples and the proclamation of +the Parthenopean republic (1799), Cirillo, after at first refusing +to take part in the new government, consented to be chosen a +representative of the people and became a member of the +legislative commission, of which he was eventually elected +president. On the abandonment of the republic by the French +(June 1799), Cardinal Ruffo and the army of King Ferdinand +IV. returned to Naples, and the Republicans withdrew, ill-armed +and inadequately provisioned, to the forts. After a short siege +they surrendered on honourable terms, life and liberty being +guaranteed them by the signatures of Ruffo, of Foote, and of +Micheroux. But the arrival of Nelson changed the complexion +of affairs, and he refused to ratify the capitulation. Secure +under the British flag, Ferdinand and his wife, Caroline of +Austria, showed themselves eager for revenge, and Cirillo was +involved with the other republicans in the vengeance of the +royal family. He asked Lady Hamilton (wife of the British +minister to Naples) to intercede on his behalf, but Nelson wrote +in reference to the petition: “Domenico Cirillo, who had been +the king’s physician, might have been saved, but that he chose +to play the fool and lie, denying that he had ever made any +speeches against the government, and saying that he only took +care of the poor in the hospitals” (<i>Nelson and the Neapolitan +Jacobins</i>, Navy Records Society, 1903). He was condemned +and hanged on the 29th of October 1799. Cirillo, whose favourite +study was botany, and who was recognized as an entomologist +by Linnaeus, left many books, in Latin and Italian, all of them +treating of medical and scientific subjects, and all of little value +now. Exception must, however, be made in favour of the +<i>Virtù morali dell’ Asino</i>, a pleasant philosophical pamphlet +remarkable for its double charm of sense and style. He introduced +many medical innovations into Naples, particularly +inoculation for smallpox.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Giglioli, <i>Naples in 1799</i> (London, 1903); L. Conforti, <i>Napoli +nel 1799</i> (Naples, 1889); C. Tivaroni, <i>L’ Italia durante il dominio +francese</i>, vol. ii. pp. 179-204. Also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naples</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nelson</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand Iv. Of Naples</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRQUE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (Lat. <i>circus</i>, ring), a French word used in physical +geography to denote a semicircular crater-like amphitheatre +at the head of a valley, or in the side of a glaciated mountain. +The valley cirque is characteristic of calcareous districts. In +the Chiltern Hills especially, and generally along the chalk +escarpments, a flat-bottomed valley with an intermittent +stream winds into the hill and ends suddenly in a cirque. There +is an excellent example at Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire, where +it appears as though an enormous flat-bottomed scoop had been +driven into the hillside and dragged outwards to the plain. In +all cases it is found that the valley floor consists of hard or +impervious rock above which lies a permeable or soluble stratum +of considerable thickness. In the case of the chalk hills the +upper strata are very porous, and the descending water with +atmospheric and humous acids in solution has great solvent +power. During the winter this upper layer becomes saturated +and some of the water drains away along joints in the escarpment. +An underground stream is thus developed carrying away a great +deal of material in solution, and in consequence the ground above +slowly collapses over the stream, while the cirque at the head, +where the stream issues, gradually works backward and may +pass completely through the hills, leaving a gap of which another +drainage system may take possession. In the limestone country +of the Cotteswold Hills, many small intermittent tributary +streams are headed by cirques, and some of the longer dry valleys +have springs issuing from beneath their lower ends, the dry +valleys being collapsed areas above underground streams not +yet revealed. In this case the pervious limestone is underlain +by beds of impervious clay. There are many of these in the +Jura Mountains. The Cirque de St Sulpice is a fine example +where the impervious bed is a marly clay.</p> + +<p>The origin of the glacial cirque is entirely different and is +said by W.D. Johnson (<i>Journal of Geology</i>, xii. No. 7, 1904) to +be due to basal sapping and erosion under the <i>bergschrund</i> of +the glacier. In this he is supported by G.K. Gilbert in the same +journal, who produces some remarkable examples from the +Sierra Nevada in California, where the mountain fragments +have been left behind “like a sheet of dough upon a board after +the biscuit tin has done its work”; so that above the head +of the glaciers “the rock detail is rugged and splintered but its +general effect is that of a great symmetrical arc.” Descending +one of the bergschrunds of Mt. Lyell to a depth of 150 ft., +Johnson found a rock floor cumbered with ice and blocks of +rock and the rock face a literally vertical cliff “much riven, its +fracture planes outlining sharp angular masses in all stages of +displacement and dislodgment.” Judging from these facts, +he interprets the deep valleys with cirques at their head in +formerly glaciated regions where at the head there is a “reversed +grade” of slope, as due to ice-erosion at valley-heads where +scour is impossible at the sides of the mountain but strongest +under the glacier head where the ice is deepest. The opponents +of ice-erosion nevertheless recognize the very frequent occurrence +of glacial cirques often containing small lakes such as that +under Cader Idris in Wales, or at the head of Little Timber +Creek, Montana, and numerous examples in Alpine districts.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIRTA<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (mod. <i>Constantine</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), an ancient city of Numidia, +in Africa, in the country of the Massyli. It was regarded by +the Romans as the strongest position in Numidia, and was made +by them the converging point of all their great military roads +in that country. By the early emperors it was allowed to fall +into decay, but was afterwards restored by Constantine, from +whom it took its modern name.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CISSEY, ERNEST LOUIS OCTAVE COURTOT DE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1810-1882), +French general, was born at Paris on the 23rd of September +1810, and after passing through St Cyr, entered the army in +1832, becoming captain in 1839. He saw active service in Algeria, +and became <i>chef d’escadron</i> in 1849 and lieutenant-colonel in +1850. He took part as a colonel in the Crimean War, and after +the battle of Inkerman received the rank of general of brigade. +In 1863 he was promoted general of division. When the Franco-German +War broke out in 1870, de Cissey was given a divisional +command in the Army of the Rhine, and he was included in +the surrender of Bazaine’s army at Metz. He was released from +captivity only at the end of the war, and on his return was at +once appointed by the Versailles government to a command +in the army engaged in the suppression of the Commune, a task +in the execution of which he displayed great rigour. From July +1871 de Cissey sat as a deputy, and he had already become +minister of war. He occupied this post several times during the +critical period of the reorganization of the French army. In +1880, whilst holding the command of the XI. corps at Nantes, +he was accused of having relations with a certain Baroness +Kaula, who was said to be a spy in the pay of Germany, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span> +he was in consequence relieved from duty. An inquiry subsequently +held resulted in de Cissey’s favour (1881). He died on +the 15th of June 1882 at Paris.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CISSOID<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kissos">κισσός</span>, ivy, and <span class="grk" title="eidos">εἰδος</span>, form), a +curve invented by the Greek mathematician Diocles about +180 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, for the purpose of constructing two mean proportionals +between two given lines, and in order to solve the problem of +duplicating the cube. It was further investigated by John Wallis, +Christiaan Huygens (who determined the length of any arc in +1657), and Pierre de Fermat (who evaluated the area between +the curve and its asymptote in 1661). It is constructed in the +following manner. Let APB be a semicircle, BT the tangent +at B, and APT a line cutting the circle in P and BT at T; take + +<span class="figleft1" style="float: left"> +<img style="border:0; width:200px; height:376px" + src="images/img393.jpg" + alt="" /> +</span> + +a point Q on AT so that AQ always equals +PT; then the locus of Q is the cissoid. +Sir Isaac Newton devised the following +mechanical construction. Take a rod LMN +bent at right angles at M, such that +MN = AB; let the leg LM always pass +through a fixed point O on AB produced +such that OA = CA, where C is the middle +point of AB, and cause N to travel along +the line perpendicular to AB at C; then +the midpoint of MN traces the cissoid. +The curve is symmetrical about the axis +of x, and consists of two infinite branches +asymptotic to the line BT and forming a +cusp at the origin. The cartesian equation, +when A is the origin and AB = 2a, is +y²(2a - x) = x³; the polar equation is r = 2a sin θ tan θ. The +cissoid is the first positive pedal of the parabola y² + 8ax = 0 +for the vertex, and the inverse of the parabola y² = 8ax, the +vertex being the centre of inversion, and the semi-latus rectum +the constant of inversion. The area between the curve and its +asymptote is 3πa², <i>i.e.</i> three times the area of the generating +circle.</p> + +<p>The term cissoid has been given in modern times to curves +generated in similar manner from other figures than the circle, +and the form described above is distinguished as the cissoid of +Diocles.</p> + +<p>A <i>cissoid angle</i> is the angle included between the concave sides +of two intersecting curves; the convex sides include the <i>sistroid +angle</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See John Wallis, <i>Collected Works</i>, vol. i.; T.H. Eagles, <i>Plane +Curves</i> (1885).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIS-SUTLEJ STATES<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span>, the southern portion of the Punjab, +India. The name, now obsolete, came into use in 1809, when the +Sikh chiefs south of the Sutlej passed under British protection, +and was generally applied to the country south of the Sutlej +and north of the Delhi territory, bounded on the E. by the +Himalayas, and on the W. by Sirsa district. Before 1846 the +greater part of this territory was independent, the chiefs being +subject merely to control from a political officer stationed at +Umballa, and styled the agent of the governor-general for the +Cis-Sutlej states. After the first Sikh War the full administration +of the territory became vested in this officer. In 1849 occurred +the annexation of the Punjab, when the Cis-Sutlej states commissionership, +comprising the districts of Umballa, Ferozepore, +Ludhiana, Thanesar and Simla, was incorporated with the new +province. The name continued to be applied to this division +until 1862, when, owing to Ferozepore having been transferred +to the Lahore, and a part of Thanesar to the Delhi division, it +ceased to be appropriate. Since then, the tract remaining has +been known as the Umballa division. Patiala, Jind and Nabha +were appointed a separate political agency in 1901. Excluding +Bahawalpur, for which there is no political agent, and Chamba, +the other states are grouped under the commissioners of Jullunder +and Delhi, and the superintendent of the Simla hill states.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIST<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kistê">κίστη</span>, Lat. <i>cista</i>, a box; cf. Ger. <i>Kiste</i>, Welsh <i>kistvaen</i>, +stone-coffin, and also the other Eng. form “chest”), in +Greek archaeology, a wicker-work receptacle used in the Eleusinian +and other mysteries to carry the sacred vessels; also, +in the archaeology of prehistoric man, a coffin formed of flat +stones placed edgeways with another flat stone for a cover. +The word is also used for a sepulchral chamber cut in the rock +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coffin</a></span>).</p> + +<p>“Cistern,” the common term for a water-tank, is a derivation +of the same word (Lat. <i>cisterna</i>; cf. “cave” and “cavern”).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CISTERCIANS<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span>, otherwise <span class="sc">Grey</span> or <span class="sc">White Monks</span> (from the +colour of the habit, over which is worn a black scapular or apron). +In 1098 St Robert, born of a noble family in Champagne, at first +a Benedictine monk, and then abbot of certain hermits settled at +Molesme near Châtillon, being dissatisfied with the manner of +life and observance there, migrated with twenty of the monks +to a swampy place called Cîteaux in the diocese of Châlons, not +far from Dijon. Count Odo of Burgundy here built them a +monastery, and they began to live a life of strict observance +according to the letter of St Benedict’s rule. In the following +year Robert was compelled by papal authority to return to +Molesme, and Alberic succeeded him as abbot of Cîteaux and +held the office till his death in 1109, when the Englishman St +Stephen Harding became abbot, until 1134. For some years +the new institute seemed little likely to prosper; few novices +came, and in the first years of Stephen’s abbacy it seemed +doomed to failure. In 1112, however, St Bernard and thirty +others offered themselves to the monastery, and a rapid and +wonderful development at once set in. The next three years +witnessed the foundation of the four great “daughter-houses of +Cîteaux”—La Ferté, Pontigny, Clairvaux and Morimond. +At Stephen’s death there were over 30 Cistercian houses; at +Bernard’s (1154) over 280; and by the end of the century over +500; and the Cistercian influence in the Church more than kept +pace with this material expansion, so that St Bernard saw one of +his monks ascend the papal chair as Eugenius III.</p> + +<p>The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance +of St Benedict’s rule—how literal may be seen from the controversy +between St Bernard and Peter the Venerable, abbot of +Cluny (see Maitland, <i>Dark Ages</i>, § xxii.). The Cistercians rejected +alike all mitigations and all developments, and tried to reproduce +the <span class="correction" title="amended from 'lire'">life</span> exactly as it had been in St Benedict’s time, indeed in +various points they went beyond it in austerity. The most +striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour, +and especially to field-work, which became a special characteristic +of Cistercian life. In order to make time for this work they cut +away the accretions to the divine office which had been steadily +growing during three centuries, and in Cluny and the other +Black Monk monasteries had come to exceed greatly in length +the regular canonical office: one only of these accretions did +they retain, the daily recitation of the Office of the Dead (Edm. +Bishop, <i>Origin of the Primer</i>, Early English Text Society, original +series, 109, p. xxx.).</p> + +<p>It was as agriculturists and horse and cattle breeders that, +after the first blush of their success and before a century had +passed, the Cistercians exercised their chief influence on the +progress of civilization in the later middle ages: they were the +great farmers of those days, and many of the improvements in +the various farming operations were introduced and propagated +by them; it is from this point of view that the importance of +their extension in northern Europe is to be estimated. The +Cistercians at the beginning renounced all sources of income +arising from benefices, tithes, tolls and rents, and depended for +their income wholly on the land. This developed an organized +system for selling their farm produce, cattle and horses, and +notably contributed to the commercial progress of the countries +of western Europe. Thus by the middle of the 13th century the +export of wool by the English Cistercians had become a feature +in the commerce of the country. Farming operations on so +extensive a scale could not be carried out by the monks alone, +whose choir and religious duties took up a considerable portion +of their time; and so from the beginning the system of lay +brothers was introduced on a large scale. The lay brothers +were recruited from the peasantry and were simple uneducated +men, whose function consisted in carrying out the various field-works +and plying all sorts of useful trades; they formed a body +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span> +of men who lived alongside of the choir monks, but separate +from them, not taking part in the canonical office, but having +their own fixed round of prayer and religious exercises. A lay +brother was never ordained, and never held any office of +superiority. It was by this system of lay brothers that the +Cistercians were able to play their distinctive part in the progress +of European civilization. But it often happened that the number +of lay brothers became excessive and out of proportion to the +resources of the monasteries, there being sometimes as many +as 200, or even 300, in a single abbey. On the other hand, at +any rate in some countries, the system of lay brothers in course +of time worked itself out; thus in England by the close of the +14th century it had shrunk to relatively small proportions, and +in the 15th century the régime of the English Cistercian houses +tended to approximate more and more to that of the Black +Monks.</p> + +<p>The Cistercian polity calls for special mention. Its lines were +adumbrated by Alberic, but it received its final form at a meeting +of the abbots in the time of Stephen Harding, when was drawn +up the <i>Carta Caritatis</i> (Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> clxvi. 1377), a +document which arranged the relations between the various +houses of the Cistercian order, and exercised a great influence +also upon the future course of western monachism. From one +point of view, it may be regarded as a compromise between +the primitive Benedictine system, whereby each abbey was +autonomous and isolated, and the complete centralization of +Cluny, whereby the abbot of Cluny was the only true superior +in the body. Cîteaux, on the one hand, maintained the independent +organic life of the houses—each abbey had its own +abbot, elected by its own monks; its own community, belonging +to itself and not to the order in general; its own property +and finances administered by itself, without interference from +outside. On the other hand, all the abbeys were subjected to +the general chapter, which met yearly at Cîteaux, and consisted +of the abbots only; the abbot of Cîteaux was the president of +the chapter and of the order, and the visitor of each and every +house, with a predominant influence and the power of enforcing +everywhere exact conformity to Cîteaux in all details of the +exterior life—observance, chant, customs. The principle was +that Cîteaux should always be the model to which all the other +houses had to conform. In case of any divergence of view at +the chapter, the side taken by the abbot of Cîteaux was always +to prevail (see F.A. Gasquet, <i>Sketch of Monastic Constitutional +History</i>, pp. xxxv-xxxviii, prefixed to English trans, of Montalembert’s +<i>Monks of the West</i>, ed. 1895).</p> + +<p>By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered +500; in the 13th a hundred more were added; and in the 15th, +when the order attained its greatest extension, there were close +on 750 houses: the larger figures sometimes given are now +recognized as apocryphal. Nearly half of the houses had been +founded, directly or indirectly, from Clairvaux, so great was +St Bernard’s influence and prestige: indeed he has come almost +to be regarded as the founder of the Cistercians, who have often +been called Bernardines. The order was spread all over western +Europe,—chiefly in France, but also in Germany, England, +Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, Italy and Sicily, +Spain and Portugal,—where some of the houses, as Alcobaça, +were of almost incredible magnificence. In England the first +foundation was Furness (1127), and many of the most beautiful +monastic buildings of the country, beautiful in themselves and +beautiful in their sites, were Cistercian,—as Tintern, Rievaulx, +Byland, Fountains. A hundred were established in England in +the next hundred years, and then only one more up to the +Dissolution (for list, see table and map in F.A. Gasquet’s <i>English +Monastic Life</i>, or <i>Catholic Dictionary</i>, art. “Cistercians”).</p> + +<p>For a hundred years, till the first quarter of the 13th century, +the Cistercians supplanted Cluny as the most powerful order +and the chief religious influence in western Europe. But then +in turn their influence began to wane, chiefly, no doubt, because +of the rise of the mendicant orders, who ministered more directly +to the needs and ideas of the new age. But some of the reasons +of Cistercian decline were internal. In the first place, there was +the permanent difficulty of maintaining in its first fervour a +body embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of +monks, spread all over Europe; and as the Cistercian very +<i>raison d’être</i> consisted in its being a “reform,” a return to +primitive monachism, with its field-work and severe simplicity, +any failures to live up to the ideal proposed worked more +disastrously among Cistercians than among mere Benedictines, +who were intended to live a life of self-denial, but not of great +austerity. Relaxations were gradually introduced in regard to +diet and to simplicity of life, and also in regard to the sources +of income, rents and tolls being admitted and benefices incorporated, +as was done among the Benedictines; the farming +operations tended to produce a commercial spirit; wealth and +splendour invaded many of the monasteries, and the choir +monks abandoned field-work.</p> + +<p>The later history of the Cistercians is largely one of attempted +revivals and reforms. The general chapter for long battled +bravely against the invasion of relaxations and abuses. In 1335 +Benedict XII., himself a Cistercian, promulgated a series of +regulations to restore the primitive spirit of the order, and in +the 15th century various popes endeavoured to promote reforms. +All these efforts at a reform of the great body of the order proved +unavailing; but local reforms, producing various semi-independent +offshoots and congregations, were successfully carried +out in many parts in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries. +In the 17th another great effort at a general reform was made, +promoted by the pope and the king of France; the general +chapter elected Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Cîteaux, +thinking he would protect them from the threatened reform. +In this they were disappointed, for he threw himself wholly on +the side of reform. So great, however, was the resistance, and +so serious the disturbances that ensued, that the attempt to +reform Cîteaux itself and the general body of the houses had +again to be abandoned, and only local projects of reform could +be carried out. In 1598 had arisen the reformed congregation +of the Feuillants, which spread widely in France and Italy, in +the latter country under the name of “Improved Bernardines.” +The French congregation of Sept-Fontaines (1654) also deserves +mention. In 1663 de Rancé reformed La Trappe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trappists</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The Reformation, the ecclesiastical policy of Joseph II., the +French Revolution, and the revolutions of the 19th century, +almost wholly destroyed the Cistercians; but some survived, +and since the beginning of the last half of the 19th century +there has been a considerable recovery. They are at present +divided into three bodies: (1) the Common Observance, with +about 30 monasteries and 800 choir monks, the large majority +being in Austria-Hungary; they represent the main body of +the order and follow a mitigated rule of life; they do not carry +on field-work, but have large secondary schools, and are in +manner of life little different from fairly observant Benedictine +Black monks; of late years, however, signs are not wanting +of a tendency towards a return to older ideas; (2) the Middle +Observance, embracing some dozen monasteries and about 150 +choir monks; (3) the Strict Observance, or Trappists (<i>q.v.</i>), with +nearly 60 monasteries, about 1600 choir monks and 2000 lay +brothers.</p> + +<p>In all there are about 100 Cistercian monasteries and about +4700 monks, including lay brothers. There have always been a +large number of Cistercian nuns; the first nunnery was founded +at Tart in the diocese of Langres, 1125; at the period of their +widest extension there are said to have been 900 nunneries, +and the communities were very large. The nuns were devoted +to contemplation and also did field-work. In Spain and France +certain Cistercian abbesses had extraordinary privileges. Numerous +reforms took place among the nuns. The best known of +all Cistercian convents was probably Port-Royal (<i>q.v.</i>), reformed +by Angélique Arnaud, and associated with the story of the +Jansenist controversy. After all the troubles of the 19th century +there still exist 100 Cistercian nunneries with 3000 nuns, choir +and lay; of these, 15 nunneries with 900 nuns are Trappist.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Accounts of the beginnings of the Cistercians and of the primitive +life and spirit will be found in the lives of St Bernard, the best +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span> +whereof is that of Abbé E. Vacandard (1895); also in the Life of +St Stephen Harding, in the <i>English Saints</i>. See also Henry Collins +(one of the Oxford Movement, who became a Cistercian), <i>Spirit and +Mission of the Cistercian Order</i> (1866). The facts are related in +Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1792), v. cc. 33-46, vi cc. 1, 2. +Useful sketches, with references to the literature, are supplied in +Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3), art. “Cistercienser”; Wetzer +und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (ed. 2), art. “Cistercienserorden”; +Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896), i. §§ 33, 34. +Prof. Brewer’s discriminating, yet on the whole sympathetic, +Preface to vol. iv. of the Works of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls Series +of <i>Chronicles and Memorials</i>) is very instructive. Denis Murphy’s +<i>Triumphalia Monasterii S. Crucis</i> (1891) contains a general sketch, +with a particular account of the Irish Cistercians.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITATION<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (Lat. <i>citare</i>, to cite), in law, a summons to appear, +more particularly applied in England to process in the probate +and divorce division of the high court. In the ecclesiastical +courts, citation was a method of commencing a probate suit, +answering to a writ of summons at common law, and it is now +in English probate practice an instrument issuing from the +principal probate registry, chiefly used when a person, having +the superior right to take a grant, delays or declines to do so, +and another having an inferior right desires to obtain a grant; +the party having the prior right is cited to appear and either to +renounce the grant or show cause why it should not be decreed +to the citator. In divorce practice, when a petitioner has filed his +petition and affidavit, he extracts a citation, <i>i.e.</i> a command +drawn in the name of the sovereign and signed by one of the +registrars of the court, calling upon the alleged offender to appear +and make answer to the petition. In Scots law, citation is used +in the sense of a writ of summons. The word in its more general +literary sense means the act of quoting, or the referring to an +authority in support of an argument.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CÎTEAUX<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span>, a village of eastern France, in the department of +Côte d’Or, 16 m. S.S.E. of Dijon by road. It is celebrated +for the great abbey founded by Robert, abbot of Molesme, +in 1098, which became the headquarters of the Cistercian +order. The buildings which remain date chiefly from the 18th +century and are of little interest. The church, destroyed +in 1792, used to contain the tombs of the earlier dukes of +Burgundy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITHAERON<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span>, now called from its pine forests Elatea, a famous +mountain range (4626 ft.) in the south of Boeotia, separating +that state from Megaris and Attica. It was famous in Greek +mythology, and is frequently mentioned by the great poets, +especially by Sophocles. It was on Cithaeron that Aetaeon +was changed into a stag, that Pentheus was torn to pieces by +the Bacchantes whose orgies he had been watching, and that the +infant Oedipus was exposed. This mountain, too, was the scene +of the mystic rites of Dionysus, and the festival of the Daedala +in honour of Hera. The carriage-road from Athens to Thebes +crosses the range by a picturesque defile (the pass of Dryoscephalae, +“Oak-heads”), which was at one time guarded on the +Attic side by a strong fortress, the ruins of which are known as +Ghyphto-kastro (“Gipsy Castle”). Plataea is situated on the +north slope of the mountain, and the strategy of the battle of +479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was considerably affected by the fact that it was necessary +for the Greeks to keep their communications open by the passes +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plataea</a></span>). The best known of these is that of Dryoscephalae, +which must then, as now, have been the direct route +from Athens to Thebes. Two other passes, farther to the west, +were crossed by the roads from Plataea to Athens and to Megara +respectively.</p> +<div class="author">(E. GR.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:499px" src="images/img395a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—Nero Citharoedus (<i>Mus. +Pio-Clementino</i>), showing back of a +Roman Cithara.</td></tr></table> + +<p><span class="bold">CITHARA<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (Assyrian <i>chetarah</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="kithara">κιθάρα</span>; Lat. <i>cithara</i>; perhaps +Heb. <i>kinura, kinnor</i>), one of the most ancient stringed +instruments, traced back to 1700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> among the Semitic races, +in Egypt, Assyria, Asia Minor, Greece and the Roman empire, +whence the use of it spread over Europe. The main feature of +the Greek <i>kithara</i>, its shallow sound-chest, being the most +important part of it, is also that in which developments are most +noticeable; its contour varied considerably during the many +musical ages, but the characteristic in respect of which it fore-shadowed +the precursors of the violin family, and by which they +were distinguished from other contemporary stringed instruments +of the middle ages, was preserved throughout in all European +descendants bearing derived names. This <span class="correction" title="amended from characteristc">characteristic</span> box +sound-chest (fig. 1) consisted of two resonating tables, either flat +or delicately arched, connected by ribs or sides of equal width. +The cithara may be regarded as an attempt by a more skilful +craftsman or race to improve upon the lyre (<i>q.v.</i>), while retaining +some of its features. The construction of the cithara can fortunately +be accurately studied from two actual specimens found in +Egypt and preserved in the +museums of Berlin and +Leiden. The Leiden cithara +(fig. 2), which forms part of +the d’Anastasy Collection in +the Museum of Antiquities, +is in a very good state of +preservation. The sound-chest, +in the form of an +irregular square (17 cm. × 17 +cm.), is hollowed out of a +solid block of wood from +the base, which is open; +the little bar, seen through +the open base and measuring +2½ cm. (1 in.), is also of +the same piece of wood. +The arms, one short and +one long, are solid and are +fixed to the body by means +of wooden pins; they are +glued as well for greater +strength. W. Pleyte, through +whose courtesy the sketch +was revised and corrected, +states that there are no +indications on the instrument of any kind of bridge or attachment +for strings except the little half-hoop of iron wire which +passes through the base from back to front. To this the strings +were probably attached, and the little bar performed the double +duty of sound-post and support for strengthening the tail-piece +and enabling it to resist the tension of the strings. The oblique +transverse bar, rendered necessary by the increasing length of +the strings, was characteristic of the +Egyptian cithara,<a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> whereas the Asiatic +and Greek instruments were generally +constructed with horizontal bars resting +on arms of equal length, the pitch of the +strings being varied by thickness and +tension, instead of by length. (For the +Berlin cithara see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lyre</a></span>.)</p> + +<div style="clear: both;"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:200px; height:393px" src="images/img395b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—Ancient +Egyptian Cithara from Thebes. Museum of Antiquities, Leiden.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The number of strings with which the +cithara was strung varied from 4 to 19 +or 20 at different times; they were +added less for the purpose of increasing +the compass in the modern sense than +to enable the performer to play in the +different modes of the Greek musical +system. Terpander is credited with having +increased the number of strings +to seven; Euclid, quoting him as his +authority, states that “loving no more +the tetrachordal chant, we will sing aloud +new hymns to a seven-toned phorminx.”</p> + +<p>What has been said of the scale of the lyre applies also to the +cithara, and need therefore not be repeated here. The strings +were vibrated by means of the fingers or plectrum (<span class="grk" title="plêktron">πλῆκτρον</span>, +from <span class="grk" title="plêssein">πλήσσειν</span>, to strike; Lat. <i>plectrum</i>, from <i>plango</i>, I strike). +Twanging with the fingers for strings of gut, hemp or silk was +undoubtedly the more artistic method, since the player was able +to command various shades of expression which are impossible +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span> +with a rigid plectrum.<a name="FnAnchor_2c" id="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Loudness of accent and great brilliancy +of tone, however, can only be obtained by the use of the plectrum.</p> + +<p>Quotations from the classics abound to show what was the +practice of the Greeks and Romans in this respect. The plectrum +was held in the right hand, with elbow outstretched and palm +bent inwards, and the strings were plucked with the straightened +fingers of the left hand.<a name="FnAnchor_3c" id="FnAnchor_3c" href="#Footnote_3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Both methods were used with intention +according to the dictates of art for the sake of the variation in +tone colour obtainable thereby.<a name="FnAnchor_4c" id="FnAnchor_4c" href="#Footnote_4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p> + +<p>The strings of the cithara were either knotted round the +transverse tuning bar itself (<i>zugon</i>) or to rings threaded over +the bar, which enabled the performer to increase or decrease +the tension by shifting the knots or rings; or else they were +wound round pegs,<a name="FnAnchor_5c" id="FnAnchor_5c" href="#Footnote_5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> knobs<a name="FnAnchor_6c" id="FnAnchor_6c" href="#Footnote_6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a> or pins<a name="FnAnchor_7c" id="FnAnchor_7c" href="#Footnote_7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a> fixed to the zugon. The +other end of the strings was secured to a tail-piece after passing +over a flat bridge, or the two were combined in the curious +high box tail-piece which acted as a bridge. Plutarch<a name="FnAnchor_8c" id="FnAnchor_8c" href="#Footnote_8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a> states +that this contrivance was added to the cithara in the days of +Cepion, pupil of Terpander. These boxes were hinged in order +to allow the lid to be opened for the purpose of securing the +strings to some contrivance concealed +therein. It is a curious fact +that no sculptured cithara provided +with this box tail-piece is +represented with strings, and in +many cases there could never have +been any, for the hand and arm<a name="FnAnchor_9c" id="FnAnchor_9c" href="#Footnote_9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +are visible across the space that +would be filled by the strings, +which are always carved in a solid +block.</p> + +<div style="clear: both;"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:220px; height:452px" src="images/img396a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.—Apollo Citharoedus, +showing Cithara with box tail-pieces.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Like the lyre the cithara was +made in many sizes, conditioned +by the pitch and the use to which +the instrument was to be put. +These instruments may have been +distinguished by different names; +the <i>pectis</i>, for instance, is declared +by Sappho (22nd fragment) to +have been small and shrill; the +<i>phorminx</i>, on the other hand, seems +to have been identical with the +cithara.<a name="FnAnchor_10c" id="FnAnchor_10c" href="#Footnote_10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<p>The Greek <i>kithara</i> was the instrument +of the professional singer +or citharoedus (<span class="grk" title="kitharôdos">κιθαρῳδός</span>) and of +the instrumentalist or citharista (<span class="grk" title="kitharistês">κιθαριστής</span>), and thus served +the double purpose of (1) accompanying the voice—a use +placed by the Greeks far above mere instrumental music—in +epic recitations and rhapsodies, in odes and lyric songs; +and (2) of accompanying the dance; it was also used for +playing solos at the national games, at receptions and banquets +and at trials of skill. The costume of the citharoedus and +citharista was rich and recognized as being distinctive; it +varied but little throughout the ages, as may be deduced from +a comparison of representations of the citharoedus on a coin +and on a Greek vase of the best period (fig. 4). The costume +consisted of a <i>palla</i> or long tunic with sleeves embroidered +with gold and girt high above the waist, falling in graceful +folds to the feet. This <i>palla</i> must not be confounded with the +mantle of the same name worn by women. Over one shoulder, +or hanging down the back, was the purple <i>chlamys</i> or cloak, +and on his brow a golden wreath of laurels. All the citharoedi +bear instruments of the type here described as the cithara, and +never one of the lyre type. The records of the citharoedi extend +over more than thirteen centuries and fall into two natural +divisions: (1) The mythological period, approximately from the +13th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the first Olympiad, 776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and (2) the +historical period to the days of Ptolemy, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 161. One of the +very few authentic Greek odes extant is a Pythian ode by Pindar, +in which the phorminx of Apollo is mentioned; the solo is followed +by a chorus of citharoedi. The scope of the solemn games and +processions, called <i>Panathenaea</i>, held every four years in honour +of the goddess Athena, which originally consisted principally of +athletic sports and horse and chariot races, was extended under +Peisistratus (c. 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and the celebration made to include +contests of singers and instrumentalists, recitations of portions +of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>, such as are represented on the frieze +of the Parthenon (in the Elgin Room at the British Museum) +and later on friezes by Pheidias. It was at the same period that +the first contests for solo-playing on the cithara (<span class="grk" title="kitharistus">κιθαριστύς</span>) +and for solo <i>aulos</i>-playing were instituted at the 8th Pythian +Games.<a name="FnAnchor_11c" id="FnAnchor_11c" href="#Footnote_11c"><span class="sp">11</span></a> One of the +principal items at these +contests for aulos and +cithara was the <i>Nomos +Pythikos</i>, descriptive of +the victory of Apollo +over the python and +of the defeat of the +monster.<a name="FnAnchor_12c" id="FnAnchor_12c" href="#Footnote_12c"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p> + +<div style="clear: both;"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:350px; height:464px" src="images/img396b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.—Cithara or Phorminx, from a vase +in the British Museum.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The Pythian Games +survived the classic +Greek period and +were continued under +Roman sway until +about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 394. Not +only were these games +held at Delphi, but +smaller contests, called +Pythia, modelled on +the great Pythian, were +instituted in various +provinces of the empire, +and more especially +in Asia Minor. +The games lasted for several days, the first being devoted +to music. To the games at Delphi came musicians from +all parts of the civilized world; and the Spaniards, at the +beginning of our era, had attained to such a marvellous proficiency +in playing the cithara, an instrument which they had +learnt to know from the Phoenician colonists before the conquest +by the Romans, that some of their citharoedi easily carried off +the honours at the musical contests. The consul Metellus was +so charmed with the music of the Spanish competitors that he +sent some to Rome for the festivals, where the impression created +was so great that the Spanish citharoedi obtained a permanent +footing in Rome. Aulus Gellius (<i>Noct. Att.</i>) describes an incident +at a banquet which corroborates this statement.</p> + +<p>The degeneration of music as an art among the Romans, and its +gradual degradation by association with the sensual amusements +of corrupt Rome, nearly brought about its extinction at the +end of the 4th century, when the condemnation of the Church +closed the theatres, and the great national games came to an end. +Instrumental music was banished from civil life and from +religious rites, and thenceforth the slender threads which connect +the musical instruments of Greeks and Romans with those of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span> +the middle ages must be sought among the unconverted barbarians +of northern and western Europe, who kept alive the +traditions taught them by conquerors and colonists; but as +civilization was in its infancy with them the instruments sent +out from their workshops must have been crude and primitive. +Asia, the cradle of the cithara, also became its foster-mother; +it was among the Greeks of Asia Minor that the several steps +in the transition from cithara into guitar<a name="FnAnchor_13c" id="FnAnchor_13c" href="#Footnote_13c"><span class="sp">13</span></a> (<i>q.v.</i>) took place.</p> + +<div style="clear: both;"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 500px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:263px; height:450px" src="images/img397a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figleft1"><img style="width:173px; height:450px" src="images/img397b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—Asiatic Cithara in transition (or rotta). From a fresco at Beni-Hasan (c. 1700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td> +<td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.—Roman Cithara in transition, of the Lycian Apollo (Rome Mus. Capit.).</td> +</tr></table> + +<p>The first of these steps produced the rotta (<i>q.v.</i>), by the +construction of body, arms and transverse bar in one piece. +The Semitic races used the rotta at a very remote period (1700 +<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), as we know from a fresco at Beni-Hasan, dating from the +reign of Senwosri II., which depicts a procession of strangers +bringing tribute; among them is a bearded musician of Semitic +type bearing a rotta which he holds horizontally in front of him +in the Assyrian manner, and quite unlike the Greeks, who always +played the lyre and cithara in an upright position. A unique +specimen of this rectangular rotta was found in an Alamannic +tomb of the 5th or 6th century at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. +The instrument was clasped in the arms of an armed knight; +it is now preserved in the Völker Museum in Berlin. This old +German rotta is an exact counterpart of instruments pictured in +illuminated MSS. of the 8th century, and is derived from the +cithara with rectangular +body, while +from the cithara with +a body having the +curve of the lower +half of the violin was +produced a rotta with +the outline of the +body of the guitar. +Both types were +common in Europe +until the 14th century, +some played +with a bow, others +twanged by the +fingers, and bearing +indifferently both +names, cithara and +rotta. The addition +of a finger-board, +stretching like a short neck from body to transverse bar, +leaving on each side of the finger-board space for the hand to pass +through in order to stop the strings, produced the crwth or crowd +(<i>q.v.</i>), and brought about the reduction in the number of the +strings to three or four. The conversion of the rotta into the +guitar (<i>q.v.</i>) was an easy transition effected by the addition of a +long neck to a body derived from the oval rotta. When the bow +was applied the result was the guitar or troubadour fiddle. At +first the instrument called <i>cithara</i> in the Latin versions of the +Psalms was glossed <i>citran, citre</i> in Anglo-Saxon, but in the 11th +century the same instrument was rendered <i>hearpan</i>, and in +French and English <i>harpe</i> or <i>harp</i>, and our modern versions +have retained this translation. The <i>cittern</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), a later +descendant of the cithara, although preserving the characteristic +features of the cithara, the shallow sound-chest with ribs, adopted +the pear-shaped outline of the Eastern instruments of the lute +tribe.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A drawing of an Egyptian cithara, similar to the Leiden specimen, +may be seen in Champollion, <i>Monuments de l’Égypte et de la Nubie</i>, +ii. pl. 175.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2c" id="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Plutarch, <i>Apophthegm. Lacon.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3c" id="Footnote_3c" href="#FnAnchor_3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Philostratus the Elder, <i>Imagines</i>, No. 10, “Amphion,” and +Philostratus the Younger, <i>Imagines</i>, No. 7, “Orpheus,” p. 403.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4c" id="Footnote_4c" href="#FnAnchor_4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Tibullus, <i>Eleg.</i> iii. 4. 39.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5c" id="Footnote_5c" href="#FnAnchor_5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Le Antichità de Ercolano</i>, vol. iii. p. 5.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6c" id="Footnote_6c" href="#FnAnchor_6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, vol. iv. p. 201.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7c" id="Footnote_7c" href="#FnAnchor_7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Thomas Hope, <i>Costumes of the Ancients</i>, vol. ii. p. 193; also +Edward Buhle, <i>Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen +des frühen Mittelalters</i> (Leipzig, 1903), frontispiece.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8c" id="Footnote_8c" href="#FnAnchor_8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See <i>De Musica</i>, ch. vi.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9c" id="Footnote_9c" href="#FnAnchor_9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Visconti, <i>Museo Clementino</i>, pl. 22, Erato’s cithara, and in +the same work that of Apollo Citharoedus (fig. 3 above).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10c" id="Footnote_10c" href="#FnAnchor_10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See <i>Od.</i> i. 153, 155; <i>Il.</i> xviii. 569-570. In Homer the form is +always <span class="grk" title="kitharis">κἰθαρις</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11c" id="Footnote_11c" href="#FnAnchor_11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See Pausanias x. 7, § 4 et seq.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12c" id="Footnote_12c" href="#FnAnchor_12c"><span class="fn">12</span></a> For a description of the <i>Nomos Pythikos</i> in its relation to Greek +music see Kathleen Schlesinger, “Researches into the Origin of the +Organs of the Ancients,” <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i> Sbd. ii. (1901), 2, p. 177, +and Strabo ix. p. 421.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13c" id="Footnote_13c" href="#FnAnchor_13c"><span class="fn">13</span></a> For a discussion of this question see Kathleen Schlesinger, +<i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, part ii., and especially chapters on +the cithara in transition during the middle ages, and the question +of the origin of the Utrecht Psalter, in which the evolution of the +cithara is traced at some length.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITIUM<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (Gr. <i>Kition</i>), the principal Phoenician city in Cyprus, +situated at the north end of modern Larnaca, on the bay of the +same name on the S.E. coast of the island. Converging currents +from E. and W. meet and pass seawards off Cape Kiti a few miles +south, and greatly facilitated ancient trade. To S. and W. the +site is protected by lagoons, the salt from which was one of the +sources of its prosperity. The earliest remains near the site go +back to the Mycenaean age (c. 1400-1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and seem to mark +an Aegean colony.<a name="FnAnchor_1d" id="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but in historic times Citium is the chief +centre of Phoenician influence in Cyprus. That this was still a +recent settlement in the 7th century is suggested by an allusion +in a list of the allies of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to a +King Damasu of Ķartihadasti (Phoenician for “New-town”), +where Citium would be expected. A Phoenician dedication to +“Baal of Lebanon” found here, and dated also to the 7th +century, suggests that Citium may have belonged to Tyre. The +biblical name Kittim, derived from Citium, is in fact used quite +generally for Cyprus as a whole;<a name="FnAnchor_2d" id="FnAnchor_2d" href="#Footnote_2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> later also for Greeks and +Romans in general.<a name="FnAnchor_3d" id="FnAnchor_3d" href="#Footnote_3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The discovery here of an official monument +of Sargon II. suggests that Citium was the administrative centre +of Cyprus during the Assyrian protectorate (700-668 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="FnAnchor_4d" id="FnAnchor_4d" href="#Footnote_4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +During the Greek revolts of 500, 386 foll. and 352 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Citium +led the side loyal to Persia and was besieged by an Athenian +force in 449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; its extensive necropolis proves that it remained +a considerable city even after the Greek cause triumphed with +Alexander. But like other cities of Cyprus, it suffered repeatedly +from earthquake, and in medieval times when its harbour became +silted the population moved to Larnaca, on the open roadstead, +farther south. Harbour and citadel have now quite disappeared, +the latter having been used to fill up the former shortly after the +British occupation; some gain to health resulted, but an +irreparable loss to science. Traces remain of the circuit wall, +and of a sanctuary with copious terra-cotta offerings; the large +necropolis yields constant loot to illicit excavation.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—W.H. Engel, <i>Kypros</i> (Berlin, 1841), (classical +allusions); J.L. Myres, <i>Journ. Hellenic Studies</i>, xvii. 147 ff. +(excavations); <i>Cyprus Museum Catalogue</i> (Oxford, 1899), p. 5-6; +153-155; Index (Antiquities); G.F. Hill, <i>Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of +Cyprus</i> (London, 1904), (Coins).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. L. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1d" id="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. the name Kathian in a Ramessid list of cities of Cyprus, +Oberhummer, <i>Die Insel Cypern</i> (Munich, 1903), p. 4.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2d" id="Footnote_2d" href="#FnAnchor_2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Gen. x. 4; Num. xxiv. 24; Is. xxiii. 1, 12; Jer. ii. 10; Ezek. +xxvii. 6.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3d" id="Footnote_3d" href="#FnAnchor_3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Dan. xi. 30; I Macc. i. 1; viii. 5.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4d" id="Footnote_4d" href="#FnAnchor_4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Schrader, “Die Sargonstele des Berliner Museums,” in <i>Abh. +d. k. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.</i> (1881); <i>Zur Geogr. d. assyr. Reiches</i> +(Berlin, 1890), pp. 337-344.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITIZEN<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with “denizen,” +from O. Fr. <i>citeain</i>, mod. Fr. <i>citoyen</i>), etymologically +the inhabitant of a city, <i>cité</i> or <i>civitas</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">City</a></span>), +and in England the term still used primarily of persons possessing +civic rights in a borough; thus used also of a townsman as +opposed to a countryman. The more extended use of the word, +however, corresponding to <i>civitas</i>, gives “citizen” the meaning +of one who is a constituent member of a state in international +relations and as such has full national rights and owes a certain +allegiance (<i>q.v.</i>) as opposed to an “alien”; in republican countries +the term is then commonly employed as the equivalent of +“subject” in monarchies of feudal origin. For the rules governing +the obtaining of citizenship in this latter sense in the United +States and elsewhere see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naturalization</a></span>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITOLE<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span>, also spelled <span class="sc">Sytole, Cythole, Gytolle</span>, &c. (probably +a Fr. diminutive form of <i>cithara</i>, and not from Lat. <i>cista</i>, +a box), an obsolete musical instrument of which the exact form +is uncertain. It is frequently mentioned by poetical writers of +the 13th to the 15th centuries, and is found in Wycliffe’s Bible +(1360) in 2 Samuel vi. 5, “Harpis and sitols and tympane.” +The Authorized Version has “psaltiries,” and the Vulgate +“lyrae.” It has been supposed to be another name for the +psaltery (<i>q.v.</i>), a box-shaped instrument often seen in the +illuminated missals of the middle ages.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITRIC ACID<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span>, <i>Acidum citricum</i>, or <span class="sc">Oxytricarballylic Acid</span>, +C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(OH) (CO·OH)<span class="su">3</span>, a tetrahydroxytribasic acid, first obtained +in the solid state by Karl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1784, from the juice +of lemons. It is present also in oranges, citrons, currants, +gooseberries and many other fruits, and in several bulbs and tubers. +It is made on a large scale from lime or lemon juice, and also by +the fermentation of glucose under the influence of <i>Citromycetes +pfefferianus, C. glaber</i> and other ferments. Lemon juice is +fermented for some time to free it from mucilage, then boiled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span> +and filtered, and neutralized with powdered chalk and a little +milk of lime; the precipitate of calcium citrate so obtained +is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, the solution filtered, +evaporated to remove calcium sulphate and concentrated, preferably +in vacuum pans. The acid is thus obtained in colourless +rhombic prisms of the composition C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">7</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O. Crystals +of a different form are deposited from a strong boiling solution +of the acid. About 20 gallons of lemon juice should yield about +10 lb of crystallized citric acid. The acid may also be prepared +from the juice of unripe gooseberries. Calcium citrate must be +manufactured with care to avoid an excess of chalk or lime, +which would precipitate constituents of the juice that cause the +fermentation of the citrate and the production of calcium acetate +and butyrate.</p> + +<p>The synthesis of citric acid was accomplished by L.E. +Grimaux and P. Adam in 1881. Glycerin when treated with +hydrochloric acid gives propenyl dichlorhydrin, which may be +oxidized to s-dichloracetone. This compound combines with +hydrocyanic acid to form a nitrile which hydrolyses to dichlor-hydroxy +iso-butyric acid. Potassium cyanide reacts with this +acid to form the corresponding dinitrile, which is converted by +hydrochloric acid into citric acid. This series of operations +proves the constitution of the acid. A. Haller and C.A. Held +synthesized the acid from ethyl chlor-acetoacetate (from chlorine +and acetoacetic ester) by heating with potassium cyanide and +saponifying the resulting nitrile. The acetone dicarboxylic +acid, CO(CH<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">2</span>H)<span class="su">2</span>, so obtained combines with hydrocyanic +acid, and this product yields citric acid on hydrolysis.</p> + +<p>Citric acid has an agreeable sour taste. It is soluble in ¾ths +of its weight of cold, and in half its weight of boiling water, and +dissolves in alcohol, but not in ether. At 150°C. it melts, and on +the continued application of heat boils, giving off its water of +crystallization. At 175° C. it is resolved into water and aconitic +acid, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">6</span>, a substance found in <i>Equisetum fluviatile</i>, +monks-hood and other plants. A higher temperature decomposes this +body into carbon dioxide and itaconic acid, C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">6</span>C<span class="su">4</span>, which, +again, by the expulsion of a molecule of water, yields citraconic +anhydride, C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. Citric acid digested at a temperature +below 40°C. with concentrated sulphuric acid gives off carbon +monoxide and forms acetone dicarboxylic acid. With fused +potash it forms potassium oxalate and acetate. It is a strong +acid, and dissolved in water decomposes carbonates and attacks +iron and zinc.</p> + +<p>The citrates are a numerous class of salts, the most soluble +of which are those of the alkaline metals; the citrates of the +alkaline earth metals are insoluble. Citric acid, being tribasic, +forms either acid monometallic, acid dimetallic or neutral +trimetallic salts; thus, mono-, di- and tri-potassium and sodium +citrates are known. On warming citric acid with an excess of +lime-water a precipitate of calcium citrate is obtained which is +redissolved as the liquid cools.</p> + +<p>The impurities occasionally present in commercial citric acid +are salts of potassium and sodium, traces of iron, lead and copper +derived from the vessels used for its evaporation and crystallization, +and free sulphuric, tartaric and even oxalic acid. Tartaric +acid, which is sometimes present in large quantities as an adulterant +in commercial citric acid, may be detected in the presence +of the latter, by the production of a precipitate of acid potassium +tartrate when potassium acetate is added to a cold solution. +Another mode of separating the two acids is to convert them +into calcium salts, which are then treated with a perfectly +neutral solution of cupric chloride, soluble cupric citrate and +calcium chloride being formed, while cupric tartrate remains +undissolved. Citric acid is also distinguished from tartaric +acid by the fact that an ammonia solution of silver tartrate +produces a brilliant silver mirror when boiled, whereas silver +citrate is reduced only after prolonged ebullition.</p> + +<p>Citric acid is used in calico printing, also in the preparation +of effervescing draughts, as a refrigerant and sialogogue, and +occasionally as an antiscorbutic, instead of fresh lemon juice. +In the form of lime juice it has long been known as an antidote for +scurvy. Several of the citrates are much employed as medicines, +the most important being the scale preparations of iron. Of +these iron and ammonium citrate is much used as a haematinic, +and as it has hardly any tendency to cause gastric irritation or +constipation it can be taken when the ordinary forms of iron are +inadmissible. Iron and quinine citrate is used as a bitter +stomachic and tonic. In the blood citrates are oxidized into +carbonates; they therefore act as <i>remote alkalis</i>, increasing the +alkalinity of the blood and thereby the general rate of chemical +change within the body (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Acetic Acid</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITRON<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span>, a species of <i>Citrus</i> (<i>C. medica</i>), belonging to the tribe +<i>Aurantieae</i>, of the botanical natural order Rutaceae; the same +genus furnishes also the orange, lime and shaddock. The citron +is a small evergreen tree or shrub growing to a height of about +10 ft.; it has irregular straggling spiny branches, large pale-green +broadly oblong, slightly serrate leaves and generally unisexual +flowers purplish without and white within. The large fruit is +ovate or oblong, protuberant at the tip, and from 5 to 6 in. long, +with a rough, furrowed, adherent rind, the inner portion of which +is thick, white and fleshy, the outer, thin, greenish-yellow and +very fragrant. The pulp is sub-acid and edible, and the seeds +are bitter. There are many varieties of the fruit, some of them +of great weight and size. The Madras citron has the form of an +oblate sphere; and in the “fingered citron” of China the lobes +are separated into finger-like divisions formed by separation +of the constituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in the orange.</p> + +<p>The citron-tree thrives in the open air in China, Persia, the +West Indies, Madeira, Sicily, Corsica, and the warmer parts of +Spain and Italy; and in conservatories it is often to be seen +in more northerly regions. Sir Joseph Hooker (<i>Flora of British +India</i>, i. 514) regards it as a native of the valleys at the +foot of the Himalaya, and of the Khasia hills and the Western +Ghauts; Dr Bonavia, however, considers it to have originated +in Cochin China or China, and to have been introduced into +India, whence it spread to Media and Persia. It was described +by Theophrastus as growing in Media, three centuries before +Christ, and was early known to the ancients, and the fruit was +held in great esteem by them; but they seem to have been acquainted +with no other member of the <i>Aurantieae</i>, the introduction +of oranges and lemons into the countries of the Mediterranean +being due to the Arabs, between the 10th and 15th centuries. +Josephus tells us that “the law of the Jews required that at the +feast of tabernacles every one should have branches of palm-tree +and citron-tree” (<i>Antiq.</i> xiii. 13. 5); and the Hebrew +word <i>tappuach</i>, rendered “apples” and “apple-tree” in Cant. ii. +3, 5, Prov. xxv. 11, &c., probably signifies the citron-tree and +its fruit. Oribasius in the 4th century describes the fruit, +accurately distinguishing the three parts of it. About the 3rd +century the tree was introduced into Italy; and, as Gallesio +informs us, it was much grown at Salerno in the 11th century. +In China citrons are placed in apartments to make them fragrant. +The rind of the citron yields two perfumes, <i>oil of cedra</i> and +<i>oil of citron</i>, isomeric with oil of turpentine; and when candied +it is much esteemed as a dessert and in confectionery. The lemon +(<i>q.v.</i>) is now generally regarded as a subspecies <i>Limonum</i> of +<i>Citrus medica</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Oribasii Sardiani, <i>Collectorum Medicinalium Libri XVII.</i> i. 64 +(<i>De citrio</i>); Gallesio, <i>Traité du citrus</i> (1811); Darwin, +<i>Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>, i. 334-336 (1868); +Brandis, <i>Forest Flora of North-West and Central India</i>, p. 51 (1874); E. +Bonavia, <i>The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons, &c., of India and +Ceylon</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITTADELLA<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span>, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of +Padua, 20 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Padua; 160 ft. +above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 3616; commune, 9686. The +town was founded in 1220 by the Paduans to counterbalance +the fortification of Castelfranco, 8 m. to the E., in 1218 by the +Trevisans, and retains its well-preserved medieval walls, surrounded +by a wet ditch. It was always a fortress of importance, +and in modern times is a centre for the agricultural produce of +the district, being the junction of the lines from Padua to Bassano +and from Vicenza to Treviso.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITTÀ DELLA PIEVE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, +Italy, in the province of Perugia, situated 1666 ft. above the sea, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span> +3 m. N.E. of its station on the railway between Chiusi and +Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 8381. Etruscan tombs have been found +in the neighbourhood, but it is not certain that the present town +stands on an ancient site. It was the birthplace of the painter +Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), and possesses several of his works, +but none of the first rank.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITTÀ DI CASTELLO<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, +Italy, in the province of Perugia, 38 m. E. of Arezzo by rail +(18 m. direct), situated on the left bank of the Tiber, 945 ft. +above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 6096; of commune, +26,885. It occupies, as inscriptions show, the site of the ancient +<i>Tifernum Tiberinum</i>, near which Pliny had a villa (<i>Epist.</i> v. 6; +cf. H. Winnefeld in <i>Jahrbuch des deutschen archäologischen +Instituts</i>, vi. Berlin, 1891, 203), but no remains exist above +ground. The town was devastated by Totila, but seems to have +recovered. We find it under the name of <i>Castrum Felicitatis</i> +at the end of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from the +7th century. The town went through various political vicissitudes +in the middle ages, being subject now to the emperor, +now to the Church, until in 1468 it came under the Vitelli: +but when they died out it returned to the allegiance of the +Church. It is built in the form of a rectangle and surrounded +by walls of 1518. It contains fine buildings of the Renaissance, +especially the palaces of the Vitelli, and the cathedral, originally +Romanesque. The 12th-century altar front of the latter in +silver is fine. The Palazzo Comunale is of the 14th century. +Some of Raphael’s earliest works were painted for churches in +this town, but none of them remains there. There is, however, +a small collection of pictures.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Magherini Graziani, <i>L’Arte a Città di Castello</i> (1897).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITTÀ VECCHIA<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Città Notabile</span>, a fortified city of +Malta, 7 m. W. of Valletta, with which it is connected by railway. +Pop. (1901) 7515. It lies on high, sharply rising ground which +affords a view of a large part of the island. It is the seat of a +bishop, and contains an ornate cathedral, overthrown by an +earthquake in 1693, but rebuilt, which is said by an acceptable +tradition to occupy the site of the house of the governor Publius, +who welcomed the apostle Paul. It contains some rich stalls +of the 15th century and other objects of interest. In the rock +beneath the city there are some remarkable catacombs in part +of pre-Christian origin, but containing evidence of early Christian +burial; and a grotto, reputed to have given shelter to the apostle, +is pointed out below the church of San Paolo. Remains of +Roman buildings have been excavated in the town. About +2 m. E. of the town is the residence of the English governor, +known as the palace of S. Antonio; and at a like distance to +the south is the ancient palace of the grand masters of the order +of St John, with an extensive public garden called Il Boschetto. +Città Vecchia was called Civitas Melita by the Romans and +oldest writers, Medina (<i>i.e.</i> the city) by the Saracens, Notabile +(<i>locale notabile, et insigne coronae regiae</i>, as it is called +in a charter by Alphonso, 1428) under the Sicilian rule, +and Città Vecchia (old city) by the knights. It was the +capital of the island till its supersession by Valletta in 1570. +(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Malta</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITTERN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (also <span class="sc">Cithern, Cithron, Cythren, Citharen</span>, &c.; +Fr. <i>citre, cistre, cithre, guitare allemande</i> or <i>anglaise</i>; Ger. <i>Cither</i>, +Zither (<i>mit Hals</i>, with neck); Ital. <i>cetera, cetra</i>), a medieval +stringed instrument with a neck terminating in a grotesque and +twanged by fingers or plectrum. The popularity of the cittern +was at its height in England and Germany during the 16th and + +<span class="figleft1" style="float: left"> +<img style="border:0; width:400px; height:96px" + src="images/img399a.jpg" + alt="" /> +</span> + +17th centuries. The cittern consisted +of a pear-shaped body +similar to that of the lute but +with a flat back and sound-board +joined by ribs. The neck was provided with a fretted finger-board; +the head was curved and surmounted by a grotesque +head of a woman or of an animal.<a name="FnAnchor_1e" id="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The strings were of wire in +pairs of unisons, known as courses, usually four in number in +England. A peculiarity of the cittern lay in the tuning of the +courses, the third course known as bass being lower than the +fourth styled tenor.</p> + +<p>According to Vincentio Galilei (the father of the great astronomer) +England was the birthplace of the cittern.<a name="FnAnchor_2e" id="FnAnchor_2e" href="#Footnote_2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Several +lesson books for this popular instrument were published during +the 17th century in England. A very rare book (of which the +British Museum does not possess a copy), <i>The Cittharn Schoole</i>, +written by Anthony Holborne in 1597, is mentioned in Sir +P. Leycester’s manuscript commonplace book<a name="FnAnchor_3e" id="FnAnchor_3e" href="#Footnote_3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> dated 1656, +“For the little Instrument called a <i>Psittyrne</i> Anthony Holborne +and Tho. Robinson were most famous of any before them and +have both of them set out a booke of Lessons for this Instrument. +Holborne has composed a Basse-parte for the Viole to play unto +the Psittyrne with those Lessons set out in his booke. These +lived about Anno Domini 1600.” Thomas Robinson’s <i>New +Citharen Lessons with perfect tunings for the same from Foure course +of strings to Fourteene course</i>, &c. (printed London, 1609, by +William Barley), contains illustrations of both kinds of instruments. +The fourteen-course cittern was also known in England +as <i>Bijuga</i>; the seven courses in pairs were stretched over the +finger-board, and the seven single strings, +fastened to the grotesque +head, were stretched as in the lyre <i>à vide</i> alongside the +neck; all the strings rested on the one flat bridge near the tail-piece. +Robinson gives instructions for learning to play the +cittern and for reading the tablature. John Playford’s <i>Musick’s +Delight on the Cithren</i> (London, 1666) also contains illustrations +of the instrument as well as of the viol da Gamba and Pochette; +he claims to have revived the instrument and restored it to what +it was in the reign of Queen Mary.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:550px; height:190px" src="images/img399b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1">From Thomas Robinson’s <i>New Citharen Lessons</i>, 1609.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="center">Four-course Cittern.</td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The cittern probably owed its popularity at this time to the +ease with which it might be mastered and used to accompany +the voice; it was one of four instruments generally found in +barbers’ shops, the others being the gittern, the lute and the +virginals. The customers while waiting took down the instrument +from its peg and played a merry tune to pass the time.<a name="FnAnchor_4e" id="FnAnchor_4e" href="#Footnote_4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +We read that when Konstantijn Huygens came over to England +and was received by James I. at Bagshot, he played to the +king on the cittern (cithara), and that his performance was +duly appreciated and applauded. He tells us that, although he +learnt to play the barbiton in a few weeks with skill, he had +lessons from a master for two years on the cittern.<a name="FnAnchor_5e" id="FnAnchor_5e" href="#Footnote_5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> On the +occasion of a third visit he witnessed the performance of some +fine musicians and was astonished to hear a lady, mother of +twelve, singing in divine fashion, accompanying herself on the +cittern; one of these artists he calls Lanivius, the British +Orpheus, whose performance was really enchanting.</p> + +<p>Michael Praetorius<a name="FnAnchor_6e" id="FnAnchor_6e" href="#Footnote_6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> gives various tunings for the cittern as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span> +well as an illustration (sounded an octave higher than the +notation).</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:600px; height:72px" + src="images/img400a.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>During the 18th century the cittern, citra or English guitar, +had twelve wire strings in six pairs of unisons tuned thus:</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:250px; height:51px" + src="images/img400b.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The introduction of the Spanish guitar, which at once leapt +into favour, gradually displaced the English variety. The +Spanish guitar had gut strings twanged by the fingers. The +last development of the cittern before its disappearance was the +addition of keys. The keyed cithara<a name="FnAnchor_7e" id="FnAnchor_7e" href="#Footnote_7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> was first made by Claus +& Co. of London in 1783. The keys, six in number, were +placed on the left of the sound-board, and on being depressed +they acted on hammers inside the sound-chest, which rising +through the rose sound-hole struck the strings. Sometimes +the keys were placed in a little box right over the strings, the +hammers striking from above. M.J.B. Vuillaume of Paris +possessed an Italian cetera (not keyed) by Antoine Stradivarius,<a name="FnAnchor_8e" id="FnAnchor_8e" href="#Footnote_8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> +1700 (now in the Museum of the Conservatoire, Paris), with +twelve strings tuned in pairs of unisons to E, D, G, B, C, A, +which was exhibited in London in 1871.</p> + +<p>The cittern of the 16th century was the result of certain +transitions which took place during the evolution of the violin +from the Greek kithara (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cithara</a></span>).</p> + +<p class="center1"><i>Genealogical Table of the Cittern.</i></p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:600px; height:287px" + src="images/img400c.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p>The cittern has retained the following characteristics of the +archetype. (1) The derivation of the name, which after the +introduction of the bow was used to characterize various instruments +whose strings were twanged by fingers or plectrum, such +as the harp and the rotta (both known as <i>cithara</i>), the citola and +the zither. In an interlinear Latin and Anglo-Saxon version +of the Psalms, dated <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700 (Brit. Mus., Vesp. A. 1), <i>cithara</i> +is translated <i>citran</i>, from which it is not difficult to trace the +English <i>cithron, citteran, cittarn</i>, of the 16th century. (2) The +construction of the sound-chest with flat back and sound-board +connected by ribs. The pear-shaped outline was possibly +borrowed from the Eastern instruments, both bowed as the +rebab and twanged as the lute, so common all over Europe +during the middle ages, or more probably derived from the +<i>kithara</i> of the Greeks of Asia Minor, which had the corners +rounded. These early steps in the transition from the <i>cithara</i> +may be seen in the miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter,<a name="FnAnchor_9e" id="FnAnchor_9e" href="#Footnote_9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> a unique +and much-copied Carolingian MS. executed at Reims (9th +century), the illustrations of which were undoubtedly adapted +from an earlier psalter from the Christian East. The instruments +which remained true to the prototype in outline as well as in +construction and in the derivation of the name were the ghittern +and the guitar, so often confused with the cittern. It is evident +that the kinship of cittern and guitar was formerly recognized, +for during the 18th century, as stated above, the cittern was +known as the English guitar to distinguish it from the Spanish +guitar. The grotesque head, popularly considered the characteristic +feature of the cittern, was probably added in the 12th +century at a time when this style of decoration was very noticeable +in other musical instruments, such as the cornet or <i>Zinck</i>, the +<i>Platerspiel</i>, the chaunter of the bagpipe, &c. The cittern of the +middle ages was also to be found in oval shape. From the 13th +century representations of the pear-shaped instrument abound in +miniatures and carvings.<a name="FnAnchor_10e" id="FnAnchor_10e" href="#Footnote_10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A very clearly drawn cittern of the 14th century occurs in a MS. +treatise on astronomy (Sloane MS. 3983, Brit. Mus.) translated from +the Persian of Albumazar into Latin by Georgius Zothari Zopari +Fenduli, priest and philosopher, with a prologue and numerous +illustrations by his own hand; the cittern is here called <i>giga</i> in an +inscription at the side of the drawing.</p> + +<p>References to the cittern are plentiful in the literature of the +16th and 17th centuries. Robert Fludd<a name="FnAnchor_11e" id="FnAnchor_11e" href="#Footnote_11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> describes it thus: +“Cistrona quae quatuor tantum chordas duplicatas habet easque +cupreas et ferreas de quibus aliquid dicemus quo loco.” Others are +given in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, “Cittern,” and in Godefroy’s +<i>Dict. de l’anc. langue franç. du IXe au XVe siècle</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1e" id="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Shakespeare, <i>Love’s Labour’s Lost</i>, act v. sc. 2, where Boyet +compares the countenance of Holofernes to a cittern head; John +Forde, <i>Lovers’ Melancholy</i> (1629), act ii. sc. 1, “Barbers shall wear +thee on their citterns.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2e" id="Footnote_2e" href="#FnAnchor_2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Dialogo della musica</i> (Florence, 1581), p. 147.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3e" id="Footnote_3e" href="#FnAnchor_3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The musical extracts from the commonplace book were prepared +by Dr Rimbault for the Early English Text Society. Holborne’s +work is mentioned in his <i>Bibliotheca Madrigaliana</i>. The descriptive +list of the musical instruments in use in England during Leycester’s +lifetime (about 1656) has been extracted and published by Dr F.J. +Furnivall, in <i>Captain Cox, his Ballads and Books, or Robert Laneham’s +Letter</i> (1575), (London, 1871), pp. 65-68.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4e" id="Footnote_4e" href="#FnAnchor_4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Knight’s <i>London</i>, i. 142.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5e" id="Footnote_5e" href="#FnAnchor_5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See <i>De Vita propria sermonum inter liberos libri duo</i> (Haarlem, +1817) and E. van der Straeten, <i>La Musique aux Pays-Bas</i>, ii. +348-35O.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6e" id="Footnote_6e" href="#FnAnchor_6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Syntagma Musicum</i> (1618). See also M. Mersenne, <i>Harmonie +universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xv., who gives different +accordances.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7e" id="Footnote_7e" href="#FnAnchor_7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See Carl Engel, <i>Catalogue</i> of the Exhibition of Ancient Musical +Instruments (London, 1872), Nos. 289 and 290.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8e" id="Footnote_8e" href="#FnAnchor_8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See note above. Illustration in A.J. Hipkins, <i>Musical Instruments; +Historic, Rare and Unique</i> (Edinburgh, 1888).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9e" id="Footnote_9e" href="#FnAnchor_9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> For a résumé of the question of the origin of this famous +psalter, and an inquiry into its bearing on the history of musical instruments +with illustrations and facsimile reproductions, see Kathleen +Schlesinger, <i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, part ii. “The Precursors +of the Violin Family,” pp. 127-166 (London, 1908-1909).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10e" id="Footnote_10e" href="#FnAnchor_10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> An oval cittern and a ghittern, side by side, occur in the beautiful +13th-century Spanish MS. known as <i>Cantigas de Santa Maria</i> in the +Escorial. For a fine facsimile in colours see marquis de Valmar, +<i>Real. Acad. Esq.</i>, publ. by L. Aguado (Madrid, 1889). Reproductions +in black and white in Juan F. Riaño, <i>Critical and Bibliog. +Notes on Early Spanish Music</i> (London, 1887). See also K. +Schlesinger, op. cit. fig. 167, p. 223, also boat-shaped citterns, +figs. 155 and 156, p. 197. Cittern with woman’s head, 15th century, +on one of six bas-reliefs on the under parts of the seats of the choir +of the Priory church, Great Malvern, reproduced in J. Carter’s +<i>Ancient Sculptures</i>, &c., vol. ii. pl. following p. 12. Another without +a head, ibid. pl. following p. 16, from a brass monumental plate +in St Margaret’s, King’s Lynn.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11e" id="Footnote_11e" href="#FnAnchor_11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Historia utriusque Cosmi</i> (Oppenheim, ed. 1617) i. 226.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CITY<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>cité</i>, from Lat. <i>civitas</i>). In the United +Kingdom, strictly speaking, “city” is an honorary title, officially +applied to those towns which, in virtue of some preeminence +(<i>e.g.</i> as episcopal sees, or great industrial centres), have by +traditional usage or royal charter acquired the right to the +designation. In the United Kingdom the official style of “city” +does not necessarily involve the possession of municipal power +greater than those of the ordinary boroughs, nor indeed the +possession of a corporation at all (<i>e.g.</i> Ely). In the United +States and the British colonies, on the other hand, the official +application of the term “city” depends on the kind and extent +of the municipal privileges possessed by the corporations, and +charters are given raising towns to the rank of cities. Both in +France and England the word is used to distinguish the older +and central nucleus of some of the large towns, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Cité</i> in +Paris, and the “square mile” under the jurisdiction of the lord +mayor which is the “City of London.”</p> + +<p>In common usage, however, the word implies no more than a +somewhat vague idea of size and dignity, and is loosely applied +to any large centre of population. Thus while, technically, +the City of London is quite small, London is yet properly described +as the largest city in the world. In the United States +this use of the word is still more loose, and any town, whether +technically a city or not, is usually so designated, with little +regard to its actual size or importance.</p> + +<p>It is clear from the above that the word “city” is incapable +of any very clear and inclusive definition, and the attempt to +show that historically it possesses a meaning that clearly differentiates +it from “town” or “borough” has led to some controversy. +As the translation of the Greek <span class="grk" title="polis">πόλις</span> or Latin <i>civitas</i> +it involves the ancient conception of the state or “city-state,” +<i>i.e.</i> of the state as not too large to prevent its government +through the body of the citizens assembled in the <i>agora</i>, and is +applied not to the place but to the whole body politic. From +this conception both the word and its dignified connotation are +without doubt historically derived. On the occupation of Gaul +the Gallic states and tribes were called <i>civitates</i> by the Romans, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span> +and subsequently the name was confined to the chief towns of +the various administrative districts. These were also the seats +of the bishops. It is thus affirmed that in France from the 5th +to the 15th century the name <i>civitas</i> or <i>cité</i> was confined to such +towns as were episcopal sees, and Du Cange (<i>Gloss.</i> s.v. <i>civitas</i>) +defines that word as <i>urbs episcopalis</i>, and states that other +towns were termed <i>castra</i> or <i>oppida</i>. How far any such +distinction can be sharply drawn may be doubted. With regard to +England no definite line can be drawn between those towns +to which the name <i>civitas</i> or <i>cité</i> is given in medieval documents +and those called <i>burgi</i> or boroughs (see J.H. Round, <i>Feudal +England</i>, p. 338; F.W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book and After</i>, +p. 183). It was, however, maintained by Coke and Blackstone +that a city is a town incorporate which is or has been the see +of a bishop. It is true, indeed, that the actual sees in England +all have a formal right to the title; the boroughs erected into +episcopal sees by Henry VIII. thereby became “cities”; but +towns such as Thetford, Sherborne and Dorchester are never +so designated, though they are regularly incorporated and were +once episcopal sees. On the other hand, it has only been since +the latter part of the 19th century that the official style of “city” +has, in the United Kingdom, been conferred by royal authority +on certain important towns which were not episcopal sees, +Birmingham in 1889 being the first to be so distinguished. It +is interesting to note that London, besides 27 boroughs, now +contains two cities, one (the City of London) outside, the other +(the City of Westminster) included in the administrative county.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the history of the origin and development of modern city +government see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borough</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commune</a></span>: <i>Medieval</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD BOLÍVAR<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span>, an inland city and river port of Venezuela, +capital of the state of Bolívar, on the right bank of the Orinoco +river, 240 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1891) 11,686. It stands +upon a small hill about 187 ft. above sea-level, and faces the +river where it narrows to a width of less than half a mile. The +city is largely built upon the hillside. It is the seat of the +bishopric of Guayana (founded in 1790), and is the commercial +centre of the great Orinoco basin. Among its noteworthy edifices +are the cathedral, federal college, theatre, masonic temple, +market, custom-house, and hospital. The mean temperature +is 83°. The city has a public water-supply, a tramway line, +telephone service, subfluvial cable communication with Soledad +near the mouth of the Orinoco, where connexion is made with the +national land lines, and regular steamship communication with +the lower and upper Orinoco. Previous to the revolution of +1901-3 Ciudad Bolívar ranked fourth among the Venezuelan +custom-houses, but the restrictions placed upon transit trade +through West Indian ports have made her a dependency of the +La Guaira custom-house to a large extent. The principal exports +from this region include cattle, horses, mules, tobacco, cacáo, +rubber, tonka beans, bitters, hides, timber and many valuable +forest products. The town was founded by Mendoza in 1764 as +San Tomás de la Nueva Guayana, but its location at this particular +point on the river gave to it the popular name of <i>Angostura</i>, +the Spanish term for “narrows.” This name was used until +1849, when that of the Venezuelan liberator was bestowed upon +it. Ciudad Bolívar played an important part in the struggle for +independence and was for a time the headquarters of the revolution. +The town suffered severely in the struggle for its possession, +and the political disorders which followed greatly retarded its +growth.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD DE CURA<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>, an inland town of the state of Aragua, +Venezuela, 55 m. S.W. of Carácas, near the Lago de Valencia. +Pop. (1891) 12,198. The town stands in a broad, fertile valley, +between the sources of streams running southward to the Guárico +river and northward to the lake, with an elevation above sea-level +of 1598 ft. Traffic between Puerto Cabello and the Guárico +plains has passed through this town since early colonial times, +and has made it an important commercial centre, from which +hides, cheese, coffee, cacao and beans are sent down to the coast +for export; it bears a high reputation in Venezuela for commercial +enterprise. Ciudad de Cura was founded in 1730, and suffered +severely in the war of independence.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD JUAREZ<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span>, formerly <span class="sc">El Paso del Norte</span>, a northern +frontier town of Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua, 1223 m. by +rail N.N.W. of Mexico City. Pop. (1895) 6917. Ciudad Juarez +stands 3800 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Rio +Grande del Norte, opposite the city of El Paso, Texas, with which +it is connected by two bridges. It is the northern terminus of +the Mexican Central railway, and has a large and increasing +transit trade with the United States, having a custom-house +and a United States consulate. It is also a military post with a +small garrison. The town has a straggling picturesque appearance, +a considerable part of the habitations being small adobe +or brick cabins. In the fertile neighbouring district cattle are +raised, and wheat, Indian corn, fruit and grapes are grown, wine +and brandy being made. The town was founded in 1681-1682; +its present importance is due entirely to the railway. It was the +headquarters of President Juarez in 1865, and was renamed +in 1885 because of its devotion to his cause.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span>, formerly <span class="sc">Piedras Negras</span>, a +northern frontier town of Mexico in the state of Coahuila, 1008 m. +N. by W. from Mexico City, on the Rio Grande del Norte, 720 ft. +above sea-level, opposite the town of Eagle Pass, Texas. Pop. +(1900, estimate) 5000. An international bridge connects the two +towns, and the Mexican International railway has its northern +terminus in Mexico at this point. The town has an important +transfer trade with the United States, and is the centre of a +fertile district devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. Coal is +found in the vicinity. The Mexican government maintains a +custom-house and military post here. The town was founded +in 1849.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD REAL<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span>, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 +of districts taken from New Castile, and bounded on the N. +by Toledo, E. by Albacete, S. by Jaen and Cordova and W. by +Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 321,580; area, 7620 sq. m. The surface +of Ciudad Real consists chiefly of a level or slightly undulating +plain, with low hills in the north-east and south-west; but along +the south-western frontier the Sierra de Alcudia rises in two +parallel ridges on either side of the river Alcudia, and is continued +in the Sierra Madrona on the east. The river Guadiana drains +almost the entire province, which it traverses from east to west; +only the southernmost districts being watered by tributaries of +the Guadalquivir. Numerous smaller streams flow into the +Guadiana, which itself divides near Herencia into two branches,—the +northern known as the Giguela, the southern as the Zancara. +The eastern division of Ciudad Real forms part of the region +known as La Mancha, a flat, thinly-peopled plain, clothed with +meagre vegetation which is often ravaged by locusts. La Mancha +(<i>q.v.</i>) is sometimes regarded as coextensive with the whole province. +Severe drought is common here, although some of the +rivers, such as the Jabalon and Azuer, issue fully formed from +the chalky soil, and from their very sources give an abundant +supply of water to the numerous mills. Towards the west, where +the land is higher, there are considerable tracts of forest.</p> + +<p>The climate is oppressively hot in summer, and in winter the +plains are exposed to violent and bitterly cold winds; while the +cultivation of grain, the vine and the olive is further impeded +by the want of proper irrigation, and the general barrenness of +the soil. Large flocks of sheep and goats find pasture in the +plains; and the swine which are kept in the oak and beech +forests furnish bacon and hams of excellent quality. Coal is +mined chiefly at Puertollano, lead in various districts, mercury +at Almadén. There are no great manufacturing towns. The +roads are insufficient and ill-kept, especially in the north-east +where they form the sole means of communication; and neither +the Guadiana nor its tributaries are navigable. The main railway +from Madrid to Lisbon passes through the capital, Ciudad Real, +and through Puertollano; farther east, the Madrid-Lináres line +passes through Manzanares and Valdepeñas. Branch railways +also connect the capital with Manzanares, and Valdepeñas with +the neighbouring town of La Calzada.</p> + +<p>The principal towns, Alcázar de San Juan (11,499), Almadén +(7375), Almodóvar del Campo (12,525), Ciudad Real (15,255), +Manzanares (11,229) and Valdepeñas (21,015), are described in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span> +separate articles. Almagro (7974) and Daimiel (11,825), in the +district of La Mancha known as the Campo de Calatrava, belonged +in the later middle ages to the knightly Order of Calatrava, +which was founded in 1158 to keep the Moors in check. Almagro +was long almost exclusively inhabited by monks and knights, and +contains several interesting churches and monasteries, besides +the castle of the knights, now used as barracks. Almagro is +further celebrated for its lace, Daimiel for its medicinal salts. +Tomelloso (13,929) is one of the chief market towns of La Mancha. +Education is very backward, largely owing to the extreme poverty +which has frequently brought the inhabitants to the verge of +famine. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castile</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD REAL<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span>, the capital formerly of La Mancha, and +since 1833 of the province described above; 107 m. S. of Madrid, +on the Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon and Ciudad Real-Manzanares +railways. Pop. (1900) 15,255. Ciudad Real lies in the midst +of a wide plain, watered on the north by the river Guadiana, +and on the south by its tributary the Jabalon. Apart from the +remnants of its 13th-century fortifications, and one Gothic +church of immense size, built without aisles, the town contains +little of interest; its public buildings—town-hall, barracks, +churches, hospital and schools—being in no way distinguished +above those of other provincial capitals. There are no important +local manufactures, and the trade of the town consists chiefly +in the weekly sales of <span class="correction" title="amended from agricultrual">agricultrural</span> produce and live-stock. +Ciudad Real was founded by Alphonso X. of Castile (1252-1284), +and fortified by him as a check upon the Moorish power. Its +original name of <i>Villarreal</i> was changed to <i>Ciudad Real</i> by John +VI. in 1420. During the Peninsular War a Spanish force was +defeated here by the French, on the 27th of March 1809.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD RODRIGO<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span>, a town of western Spain, in the province +of Salamanca, situated 8 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier, on +the right bank of the river Agueda, and the railway from +Salamanca to Coimbra in Portugal. Pop. (1900) 8930. Ciudad +Rodrigo is an episcopal see, and was for many centuries an +important frontier fortress. Its cathedral dates from 1190, +but was restored in the 15th century. The remnants of a Roman +aqueduct, the foundations of a bridge across the Agueda, and +other remains, seem to show that Ciudad Rodrigo occupies the +site of a Roman settlement. It was founded in the 12th century +by Count Rodrigo Gonzalez, from whom its name is derived. +During the Peninsular War, it was captured by the French +under Marshal Ney, in 1810; but on the 19th of January 1812 +it was retaken by the British under Viscount Wellington, who, +for this exploit, was created earl of Wellington, duke of Ciudad +Rodrigo, and marquess of Torres Vedras, in Portugal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span>, an early 16th-century Italian painter, +born at Crema. There are altar-pieces by him at Brescia, and +at Crema the altar-piece at the duomo (1509). His “Birth of +Christ” is in the Brera, Milan; and at Lovere are other of +his works dating from 1539 and 1540.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVET<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span>, or properly <span class="sc">Civet-cat</span>, the designation of the more +typical representatives of the mammalian family <i>Viverridae</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>). Civets are characterized by the possession +of a deep pouch in the neighbourhood of the genital organs, +into which the substance known as civet is poured from the +glands by which it is secreted. This fatty substance is at first +semifluid and yellow, but afterwards acquires the consistency +of pomade and becomes darker. It has a strong musky odour, +exceedingly disagreeable to those unaccustomed to it, but “when +properly diluted and combined with other scents it produces +a very pleasing effect, and possesses a much more floral fragrance +than musk, indeed it would be impossible to imitate some +flowers without it.” The African civet (<i>Viverra civetta</i>) is from +2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the tail, which is half the length +of the body, and stands from 10 to 12 in. high. It is covered +with long hair, longest on the middle line of the back, where it +is capable of being raised or depressed at will, of a dark-grey +colour, with numerous transverse black bands and spots. In +habits it is chiefly nocturnal, and by preference carnivorous, +feeding on birds and the smaller quadrupeds, in pursuit of which +it climbs trees, but it is said also to eat fruits, roots and other +vegetable matters. In a state of captivity the civet is never +completely tamed, and only kept for the sake of its perfume, +which is obtained in largest quantity from the male, especially +when in good condition and subjected to irritation, being scraped +from the pouch with a small spoon usually twice a week. The +zibeth (<i>Viverra zibetha</i>) is a widely distributed species extending +from Arabia to Malabar, and throughout several of the larger +islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is smaller than the true +civet, and wants the dorsal crest. In the wild state it does +great damage among poultry, and frequently makes off with +the young of swine and sheep. When hunted it makes a determined +resistance, and emits a scent so strong as even to sicken +the dogs, who nevertheless are exceedingly fond of the sport, +and cannot be got to pursue any other game while the stench +of the zibeth is in their nostrils. In confinement, it becomes +comparatively tame, and yields civet in considerable quantity. +In preparing this for the market it is usually spread out on the +leaves of the pepper plant in order to free it from the hairs that +have become detached from the pouch. On the Malabar coast +this species is replaced by <i>V. civettina</i>. The small Indian civet +or rasse (<i>Viverricula malaccensis</i>) ranges from Madagascar +through India to China, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands +of the Archipelago. It is almost 3 ft. long including the tail, +and prettily marked with dark longitudinal stripes, and spots +which have a distinctly linear arrangement. The perfume, +which is extracted in the same way as in the two preceding +species, is highly valued and much used by the Javanese. Although +this animal is said to be an expert climber it usually +inhabits holes in the ground. It is frequently kept in captivity +in the East, and becomes tame. Fossil remains of extinct +civets are found in the Miocene strata of Europe.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (anc. <i>Forum Iulii</i>), a town of Venetia, +Italy, in the province of Udine, 10 m. E. by N. by rail from the +town of Udine; 453 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town, 4143; +commune, 9061. It is situated on the river Natisone, which +forms a picturesque ravine here. It contains some interesting +relics of the art of the 8th century. The cathedral of the 15th +century contains an octagonal marble canopy with sculptures +in relief, with a font below it belonging to the 8th century, but +altered later. The high altar has a fine silver altar front of 1185. +The museum contains various Roman and Lombard antiquities, +and valuable MSS. and works of art in gold, silver and ivory +formerly belonging to the cathedral chapter. The small church +of S. Maria in Valle belongs to the 8th century, and contains +fine decorations in stucco which probably belong to the 11th +or 12th century. The fine 15th-century Ponte del Diavolo +leads to the church of S. Martino, which contains an altar of +the 8th century with reliefs executed by order of the Lombard +king Ratchis. At Cividale were born Paulus Diaconus, the +historian of the Lombards in the time of Charlemagne, and the +actress Adelaide Ristori (1822-1906).</p> + +<p>The Roman town (a <i>municipium</i>) of Forum Iulii was founded +either by Julius Caesar or by Augustus, no doubt at the same +time as the construction of the Via Iulia Augusta, which passed +through Utina (Udine) on its way north. After the decay of +Aquileia and Iulium Carnicum (Zuglio) it became the chief town +of the district of Friuli and gave its name to it. The patriarchs +of Aquileia resided here from 773 to 1031, when they returned +to Aquileia, and finally in 1238 removed to Udine. This last +change of residence was the origin of the antagonism between +Cividale and Udine, which was only terminated by their surrender +to Venice in 1419 and 1420 respectively.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span>, or more correctly, <span class="sc">Julius</span>, leader of the +Batavian revolt against Rome (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69-70). He was twice +imprisoned on a charge of rebellion, and narrowly escaped +execution. During the disturbances that followed the death +of Nero, he took up arms under pretence of siding with Vespasian +and induced the inhabitants of his native country to rebel. +The Batavians, who had rendered valuable aid under the early +emperors, had been well treated in order to attach them to the +cause of Rome. They were exempt from tribute, but were +obliged to supply a large number of men for the army, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span> +burden of conscription and the oppressions of provincial governors +were important incentives to revolt. The Batavians were +immediately joined by several neighbouring German tribes, +the most important of whom were the Frisians. The Roman +garrisons near the Rhine were driven out, and twenty-four ships +captured. Two legions under Mummius Lupercus were defeated +at Castra Vetera (near the modern Xanten) and surrounded. +Eight cohorts of Batavian veterans joined their countrymen, +and the troops sent by Vespasian to the relief of Vetera threw in +their lot with them. The result of these accessions to the forces of +Civilis was a rising in Gaul. Hordeonius Flaccus was murdered +by his troops (70), and the whole of the Roman forces were induced +by two commanders of the Gallic auxiliaries—Julius +Classicus and Julius Tutor—to revolt from Rome and join +Civilis. The whole of Gaul thus practically declared itself +independent, and the foundation of a new kingdom of Gaul +was contemplated. The prophetess Velleda predicted the complete +success of Civilis and the fall of the Roman Empire. But +disputes broke out amongst the different tribes and rendered +co-operation impossible; Vespasian, having successfully ended +the civil war, called upon Civilis to lay down his arms, and on +his refusal resolved to take strong measures for the suppression +of the revolt. The arrival of Petillius Cerialis with a strong force +awed the Gauls and mutinous troops into submission; Civilis was +defeated at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Trèves) and Vetera, +and forced to withdraw to the island of the Batavians. He +finally came to an agreement with Cerialis whereby his countrymen +obtained certain advantages, and resumed amicable +relations with Rome. From this time Civilis disappears from +history.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authority for the history of the insurrection is Tacitus, +<i>Historiae</i>, iv., v., whose account breaks off at the beginning of Civilis’s +speech to Cerialis; see also Josephus, <i>Bellum Judaicum</i>, vii. 4. +There is a monograph by E. Meyer, <i>Der Freiheitskrieg der Bataver +unter Civilis</i> (1856); see also Merivale, <i>Hist. of the Romans under +the Empire</i>, ch. 58; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, +bk. ii. ch. 2, § 54 (1883).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVILIZATION<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span>. The word “civilization” is an obvious +derivative of the Lat. <i>civis</i>, a citizen, and <i>civilis</i>, pertaining to +a citizen. Etymologically speaking, then, it would be putting no +undue strain upon the word to interpret it as having to do with +the entire period of human progress since mankind attained +sufficient intelligence and social unity to develop a system of +government. But in practice “civilization” is usually interpreted +in a somewhat narrower sense, as having application +solely to the most recent and comparatively brief period of time +that has elapsed since the most highly developed races of men +have used systems of writing. This restricted usage is probably +explicable, in part at least, by the fact that the word, though +distinctly modern in origin, is nevertheless older than the interpretation +of social evolution that now finds universal acceptance. +Only very recently has it come to be understood that primitive +societies vastly antedating the historical period had attained +relatively high stages of development and fixity, socially and +politically. Now that this is understood, however, nothing but +an arbitrary and highly inconvenient restriction of meanings +can prevent us from speaking of the citizens of these early +societies as having attained certain stages of civilization. It will +be convenient, then, in outlining the successive stages of human +progress here, to include under the comprehensive term “civilization” +those long earlier periods of “savagery” and “barbarism” +as well as the more recent period of higher development to which +the word “civilization” is sometimes restricted.</p> + +<p>Adequate proof that civilization as we now know it is the +result of a long, slow process of evolution was put forward not +long after the middle of the 19th century by the +students of palaeontology and of prehistoric archaeology. +<span class="sidenote">Savagery and barbarism.</span> +A recognition of the fact that primitive man +used implements of chipped flint, of polished stone, +and of the softer metals for successive ages, before he attained +a degree of technical skill and knowledge that would enable +him to smelt iron, led the Danish archaeologists to classify the +stages of human progress under these captions: the Rough +Stone Age; the Age of Polished Stone; the Age of Bronze; +and the Age of Iron. These terms acquired almost universal +recognition, and they retain popularity as affording a very broad +outline of the story of human progress. It is obviously desirable, +however, to fill in the outlines of the story more in detail. +To some extent it has been possible to do so, largely through +the efforts of ethnologists who have studied the social conditions +of existing races of savages. A recognition of the principle +that, broadly speaking, progress has everywhere been achieved +along the same lines and through the same sequence of changes, +makes it possible to interpret the past history of the civilized +races of to-day in the light of the present-day conditions of other +races that are still existing under social and political conditions +of a more primitive type. Such races as the Maoris and the +American Indians have furnished invaluable information to +the student of social evolution; and the knowledge thus gained +has been extended and fortified by the ever-expanding researches +of the palaeontologist and archaeologist.</p> + +<p>Thus it has become possible to present with some confidence +a picture showing the successive stages of human development +during the long dark period when our prehistoric ancestor was +advancing along the toilsome and tortuous but on the whole +always uprising path from lowest savagery to the stage of relative +enlightenment at which we find him at the so-called “dawnings +of history.” That he was for long ages a savage before he +attained sufficient culture to be termed, in modern phraseology, +a barbarian, admits of no question. Equally little in doubt is it +that other long ages of barbarism preceded the final ascent +to civilization. The precise period of time covered by these +successive “Ages” is of course only conjectural; but something +like one hundred thousand years may perhaps be taken as a +safe minimal estimate. At the beginning of this long period, +the most advanced race of men must be thought of as a promiscuous +company of pre-troglodytic mammals, at least partially +arboreal in habit, living on uncooked fruits and vegetables, and +possessed of no arts and crafts whatever—nor even of the knowledge +of the rudest implement. At the end of the period, there +emerges into the more or less clear light of history a large-brained +being, living in houses of elaborate construction, supplying +himself with divers luxuries through the aid of a multitude +of elaborate handicrafts, associated with his fellows under the +sway of highly organized governments, and satisfying aesthetic +needs through the practice of pictorial and literary arts of a +high order. How was this amazing transformation brought +about?</p> + +<p>If an answer can be found to that query, we shall have a clue +to all human progress, not only during the prehistoric but also +during the historic periods; for we may well believe +that recent progress has not departed from the scheme +<span class="sidenote">Crucial developments.</span> +of development impressed on humanity during that +long apprenticeship. Ethnologists believe that an +answer can be found. They believe that the metamorphosis from +beast-like savage to cultured civilian may be proximally explained +(certain potentialities and attributes of the species being +taken for granted) as the result of accumulated changes that +found their initial impulses in a half-dozen or so of practical +inventions. Stated thus, the explanation seems absurdly simple. +Confessedly it supplies only a proximal, not a final, analysis +of the forces impelling mankind along the pathway of progress. +But it has the merit of tangibility; it presents certain highly +important facts of human history vividly: and it furnishes a +definite and fairly satisfactory basis for marking successive stages +of incipient civilization.</p> + +<p>In outlining the story of primitive man’s advancement, upon +such a basis, we may follow the scheme of one of the most +philosophical of ethnologists, Lewis H. Morgan, who made a +provisional analysis of the prehistoric period that still remains +among the most satisfactory attempts in this direction. Morgan +divides the entire epoch of man’s progress from bestiality to +civilization into six successive periods, which he names respectively +the Older, Middle and Later periods of Savagery, and +the Older, Middle and Later periods of Barbarism.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span></p> + +<p>The first of these periods, when mankind was in the lower +status of savagery, comprises the epoch when articulate speech +was being developed. Our ancestors of this epoch +<span class="sidenote">Speech.</span> +inhabited a necessarily restricted tropical territory, +and subsisted upon raw nuts and fruits. They had no knowledge +of the uses of fire. All existing races of men had advanced +beyond this condition before the opening of the historical period.</p> + +<p>The Middle Period of Savagery began with a knowledge of the +uses of fire. This wonderful discovery enabled the developing +race to extend its habitat almost indefinitely, and to +include flesh, and in particular fish, in its regular +<span class="sidenote">Fire.</span> +dietary. Man could now leave the forests, and wander along +the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less enervating +than those to which he had previously been confined. Doubtless +he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly equipped +for hunting, being provided, probably, with no weapon more +formidable than a crude hatchet and a roughly fashioned spear. +The primitive races of Australia and Polynesia had not advanced +beyond this middle status of savagery when they were discovered +a few generations ago. It is obvious, then, that in dealing with +the further progress of nascent civilization we have to do with +certain favoured portions of the race, which sought out new +territories and developed new capacities while many tribes of +their quondam peers remained static and hence by comparison +seemed to retrograde.</p> + +<p>The next great epochal discovery, in virtue of which a portion +of the race advanced to the Upper Status of Savagery, was that +of the bow and arrow,—a truly wonderful implement. +The possessor of this device could bring down the +<span class="sidenote">Bow and arrow.</span> +fleetest animal and could defend himself against the +most predatory. He could provide himself not only with food +but with materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus +could migrate at will back from the seas and large rivers, and +far into inhospitable but invigorating temperate and sub-Arctic +regions. The meat diet, now for the first time freely available, +probably contributed, along with the stimulating climate, to +increase the physical vigour and courage of this highest savage, +thus urging him along the paths of progress. Nevertheless +many tribes came thus far and no further, as witness the Athapascans +of the Hudson’s Bay Territory and the Indians of the +valley of the Columbia.</p> + +<p>We now come to the marvellous discovery that enabled our +ancestor to make such advances upon the social conditions of +his forbears as to entitle him, in the estimate of his +remote descendants, to be considered as putting +<span class="sidenote">Pottery.</span> +savagery behind him and as entering upon the Lower Status of +Barbarism. The discovery in question had to do with the +practice of the art of making pottery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>). Hitherto +man had been possessed of no permanent utensils that could +withstand the action of fire. He could not readily boil water +except by some such cumbersome method as the dropping of +heated stones into a wooden or skin receptacle. The effect +upon his dietary of having at hand earthen vessels in which +meat and herbs could be boiled over a fire must have been +momentous. Various meats and many vegetables become +highly palatable when boiled that are almost or quite inedible +when merely roasted before a fire. Bones, sinews and even +hides may be made to give up a modicum of nutriment in this +way; and doubtless barbaric man, before whom starvation +always loomed threateningly, found the crude pot an almost +perennial refuge. And of course its use as a cooking utensil +was only one of many ways in which the newly discovered +mechanism exerted a civilizing influence.</p> + +<p>The next great progressive movement, which carried man +into the Middle Status of Barbarism, is associated with the +domestication of animals in the Eastern hemisphere, +and with the use of irrigation in cultivating the soil and +<span class="sidenote">Domestic animals.</span> +of adobe bricks and stone in architecture in the Western +hemisphere. The dog was probably the first animal to be +domesticated, but the sheep, the ox, the camel and the horse +were doubtless added in relatively rapid succession, so soon +as the idea that captive animals could be of service had been +clearly conceived. Man now became a herdsman, no longer +dependent for food upon the precarious chase of wild animals. +Milk, procurable at all seasons, made a highly important addition +to his dietary. With the aid of camel and horse he could traverse +wide areas hitherto impassable, and come in contact with +distant peoples. Thus commerce came to play an extended +rôle in the dissemination of both commodities and ideas. In +particular the nascent civilization of the Mediterranean region +fell heir to numerous products of farther Asia,—gums, spices, +oils, and most important of all, the cereals. The cultivation of +the latter gave the finishing touch to a comprehensive and +varied diet, while emphasizing the value of a fixed abode. For +the first time it now became possible for large numbers of people +to form localized communities. A natural consequence was +the elaboration of political systems, which, however, proceeded +along lines already suggested by the experience of earlier epochs. +All this tended to establish and emphasize the idea of nationality, +based primarily on blood-relationship; and at the same +time to develop within the community itself the idea of property,—that +is to say, of valuable or desirable commodities which have +come into the possession of an individual through his enterprise +or labour, and which should therefore be subject to his voluntary +disposal. At an earlier stage of development, all property had +been of communal, not of individual, ownership. It appears, then, +that our mid-period barbarian had attained—if the verbal contradiction +be permitted—a relatively high stage of civilization.</p> + +<p>There remained, however, one master craft of which he had +no conception. This was the art of smelting iron. When, +ultimately, his descendants learned the wonderful +secrets of that art, they rose in consequence to the +<span class="sidenote">Iron.</span> +Upper Status of Barbarism. This culminating practical invention, +it will be observed, is the first of the great discoveries +with which we have to do that was not primarily concerned +with the question of man’s food supply. Iron, to be sure, has +abundant uses in the same connexion, but its most direct and +obvious utilities have to do with weapons of war and with +implements calculated to promote such arts of peace as house-building, +road-making and the construction of vehicles. Wood +and stone could now be fashioned as never before. Houses +could be built and cities walled with unexampled facility; to +say nothing of the making of a multitude of minor implements +and utensils hitherto quite unknown, or at best rare and costly. +Nor must we overlook the aesthetic influence of edged implements, +with which wood and stone could readily be sculptured +when placed in the hands of a race that had long been accustomed +to scratch the semblance of living forms on bone or ivory and to +fashion crude images of clay. In a word, man, the “tool-making +animal,” was now for the first time provided with tools worthy +of his wonderful hands and yet more wonderful brain.</p> + +<p>Thus through the application of one revolutionary invention +after another, the most advanced races of men had arrived, +after long ages of effort, at a relatively high stage of development. +A very wide range of experiences had enabled man to evolve +a complex body politic, based on a fairly secure social basis, +and his brain had correspondingly developed into a relatively +efficient and stable organ of thought. But as yet he had devised +no means of communicating freely with other people at a distance +except through the medium of verbal messages; nor had he +any method by which he could transmit his experiences to +posterity more securely than by fugitive and fallible oral traditions. +A vague symbolization of his achievements was preserved +from generation to generation in myth-tale and epic, but he +knew not how to make permanent record of his history. Until +he could devise a means to make such record, he must remain, +in the estimate of his descendants, a barbarian, though he might +be admitted to have become a highly organized and even in a +broad sense a cultured being.</p> + +<p>At length, however, this last barrier was broken. Some race +or races devised a method of symbolizing events and ultimately +of making even abstruse ideas tangible by means of +graphic signs. In other words, a system of writing +<span class="sidenote"><b>Writing.</b></span> +was developed. Man thus achieved a virtual conquest over time +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span> +as he had earlier conquered space. He could now transmit +the record of his deeds and his thoughts to remote posterity. +Thus he stood at the portals of what later generations would term +secure history. He had graduated out of barbarism, and become +in the narrower sense of the word a civilized being. Henceforth, +his knowledge, his poetical dreamings, his moral aspirations +might be recorded in such form as to be read not merely by his +contemporaries but by successive generations of remote posterity. +The inspiring character of such a message is obvious. The validity +of making this great culminating intellectual achievement the +test of “civilized” existence need not be denied. But we should +ill comprehend the character of the message which the earlier +generations of civilized beings transmit to us from the period +which we term the “dawning of history” did we not bear +constantly in mind the long series of progressive stages of +“savagery” and “barbarism” that of necessity preceded the +final stage of “civilization” proper. The achievements of +those earlier stages afforded the secure foundation for the progress +of the future. A multitude of minor arts, in addition +to the important ones just outlined, had been developed; and +for a long time civilized man was to make no other epochal +addition to the list of accomplishments that came to him as a +heritage from his barbaric progenitor. Indeed, even to this +day the list of such additions is not a long one, nor, judged in +the relative scale, so important as might at first thought be +supposed. Whoever considers the subject carefully must admit +the force of Morgan’s suggestion that man’s achievements as a +barbarian, considered in their relation to the sum of human +progress, “transcend, in relative importance, all his subsequent +works.”</p> + +<p>Without insisting on this comparison, however, let us ask +what discoveries and inventions man has made within the +historical period that may fairly be ranked with the half-dozen +great epochal achievements that have been put forward as +furnishing the keys to all the progress of the prehistoric periods. +In other words, let us sketch the history of progress during the ten +thousand years or so that have elapsed since man learned the +art of writing, adapting our sketch to the same scale which we +have already applied to the unnumbered millenniums of the prehistoric +period. The view of world-history thus outlined will be +a very different one from what might be expected by the student +of national history; but it will present the essentials of the +progress of civilization in a suggestive light.</p> + +<p>Without pretending to fix an exact date,—which the historical +records do not at present permit,—we may assume that the +most advanced race of men elaborated a system of +writing not less than six thousand years before the +<span class="sidenote">Civilization proper.</span> +beginning of the Christian era. Holding to the +terminology already suggested for the earlier periods, +we may speak of man’s position during the ensuing generations +as that of the First or Lowest Status of civilization. If we review +the history of this period we shall find that it extends unbroken +over a stretch of at least four or five thousand years. During +the early part of this period such localized civilizations as those +of the Egyptians, the Sumerians, the Babylonians and the Hittites +rose, grew strong and passed beyond their meridian. This suggests +that we must now admit the word “civilization” to yet +another definition, within its larger meaning: we must speak +of “<i>a</i> civilization,” as that of Egypt, of Babylonia, of Assyria, +and we must understand thereby a localized phase of society bearing +the same relation to civilization as a whole that a wave bears +to the ocean or a tree to the forest. Such other localized civilizations +as those of Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, Rome, Byzantium, +the Sassanids, in due course waxed and waned, leaving a tremendous +imprint on national history, but creating only minor +and transitory ripples in the great ocean of civilization. Progress +in the elaboration of the details of earlier methods and inventions +took place as a matter of course. Some nation, probably the +Phoenicians, gave a new impetus to the art of writing by developing +a phonetic alphabet; but this achievement, remarkable as +it was in itself, added nothing fundamental to human capacity. +Literatures had previously flourished through the use of hieroglyphic +and syllabic symbols; and the Babylonian syllabics +continued in vogue throughout western Asia for a long time +after the Phoenician alphabet had demonstrated its intrinsic +superiority.</p> + +<p>Similarly the art of Egyptian and Assyrian and Greek was but +the elaboration and perfection of methods that barbaric man +had practised away back in the days when he was a cave-dweller. +The weapons of warfare of Greek and Roman were the spear +and the bow and arrow that their ancestors had used in the period +of savagery, aided by sword and helmet dating from the upper +period of barbarism. Greek and Roman government at their +best were founded upon the system of <i>gentes</i> that barbaric man +had profoundly studied,—as witness, for example, the federal +system of the barbaric Iroquois Indians existing in America +before the coming of Columbus. And if the Greeks had better +literature, the Romans better roads and larger cities, than their +predecessors, these are but matters of detailed development, +the like of which had marked the progress of the more important +arts and the introduction of less important ancillary ones in +each antecedent period. The axe of steel is no new implement, +but a mere perfecting of the axe of chipped flint. The <i>Iliad</i> +represents the perfecting of an art that unnumbered generations +of barbarians practised before their camp-fires.</p> + +<p>Thus for six or seven thousand years after man achieved +civilization there was rhythmic progress in many lines, but there +came no great epochal invention to usher in a new +ethnic period. Then, towards the close of what +<span class="sidenote">Great inventions of the middle ages.</span> +historians of to-day are accustomed to call the middle +ages, there appeared in rapid sequence three or four +inventions and a great scientific discovery that, taken +together, were destined to change the entire aspect of European +civilization. The inventions were gunpowder, the mariner’s +compass, paper and the printing-press, three of which appear to +have been brought into Europe by the Moors, whether or not +they originated in the remote East. The scientific discovery +which must be coupled with these inventions was the Copernican +demonstration that the sun and not the earth is the centre of our +planetary system. The generations of men that found themselves +(1) confronted with the revolutionary conception of the +universe given by the Copernican theory; (2) supplied with the +new means of warfare provided by gunpowder; (3) equipped +with an undreamed-of guide across the waters of the earth; and +(4) enabled to promulgate knowledge with unexampled speed and +cheapness through the aid of paper and printing-press—such +generations of men might well be said to have entered upon a new +ethnic period. The transition in their mode of thought and in +their methods of practical life was as great as can be supposed +to have resulted, in an early generation, from the introduction +of iron, or in a yet earlier from the invention of the bow and +arrow. So the Europeans of about the 15th century of the +Christian era may be said to have entered upon the Second or +Middle Status of civilization.</p> + +<p>The new period was destined to be a brief one. It had compassed +only about four hundred years when, towards the close +of the 18th century, James Watt gave to the world +the perfected steam-engine. Almost contemporaneously +<span class="sidenote">Steam machinery.</span> +Arkwright and Hargreaves developed revolutionary +processes of spinning and weaving by machinery. +Meantime James Hutton and William Smith and their successors +on the one hand, and Erasmus Darwin, François Lamarck, and +(a half-century later) Charles Darwin on the other, turned men’s +ideas topsy-turvy by demonstrating that the world as the +abiding-place of animals and man is enormously old, and that +man himself instead of deteriorating from a single perfect pair +six thousand years removed, has ascended from bestiality through +a slow process of evolution extending over hundreds of centuries. +The revolution in practical life and in the mental life of our race +that followed these inventions and this new presentation of +truth probably exceeded in suddenness and in its far-reaching +effects the metamorphosis effected at any previous transition +from one ethnic period to another. The men of the 19th century, +living now in the period that may be termed the Upper Status +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span> +of civilization, saw such changes effected in the practical affairs +of their everyday lives as had not been wrought before during the +entire historical period. Their fathers had travelled in vehicles +drawn by horses, quite as their remoter ancestors had done since +the time of higher barbarism. It may be doubted whether +there existed in the world in the year 1800 a postal service that +could compare in speed and efficiency with the express service +of the Romans of the time of Caesar; far less was there a telegraph +service that could compare with that of the ancient +Persians. Nor was there a ship sailing the seas that a Phoenician +trireme might not have overhauled. But now within the +lifetime of a single man the world was covered with a network +of steel rails on which locomotives drew gigantic vehicles, laden +with passengers at an hourly speed almost equalling Caesar’s +best journey of a day; over the land and under the seas were +stretched wires along which messages coursed from continent +to continent literally with the speed of lightning; and the waters +of the earth were made to teem with gigantic craft propelled +without sail or oar at a speed which the Phoenician captain of +three thousand years ago and the English captain of the 18th +century would alike have held incredible.</p> + +<p>There is no need to give further details here of the industrial +revolutions that have been achieved in this newest period of +civilization, since in their broader outlines at least +they are familiar to every one. Nor need we dwell +<span class="sidenote">Social and political organization.</span> +upon the revolution in thought whereby man has for +the first time been given a clear inkling as to his +origin and destiny. It suffices to point out that such periods +of fermentation of ideas as this suggests have probably always +been concomitant with those outbursts of creative genius that +gave the world the practical inventions upon which human +progress has been conditioned. The same attitude of receptivity +to new ideas is pre-requisite to one form of discovery as to the +other. Nor, it may be added, can either form of idea become +effective for the progress of civilization except in proportion as a +large body of any given generation are prepared to receive it. +Doubtless here and there a dreamer played with fire, in a literal +sense, for generations before the utility of fire as a practical aid +to human progress came to be recognized in practice. And—to +seek an illustration at the other end of the scale—we know +that the advanced thinkers of Greece and Rome believed in the +antiquity of the earth and in the evolution of man two thousand +years before the coming of Darwin. We have but partly solved +the mysteries of the progress of civilization, then, when we have +pointed out that each tangible stage of progress owed its initiative +to a new invention or discovery of science. To go to the root +of the matter we must needs explain how it came about that a +given generation of men was in mental mood to receive the new +invention or discovery.</p> + +<p>The pursuit of this question would carry us farther into the +realm of communal and racial psychology—to say nothing of +the realm of conjecture—than comports with the purpose of +this article. It must suffice to point out that alertness of mind—that +all mentality—is, in the last analysis, a reaction to the +influences of the environment. It follows that man may subject +himself to new influences and thus give his mind a new stimulus +by changing his habitat. A fundamental secret of progress is +revealed in this fact. Man probably never would have evolved +from savagery had he remained in the Tropics where he doubtless +originated. But successive scientific inventions enabled him, +as has been suggested, to migrate to distant latitudes, and thus +more or less involuntarily to become the recipient of new creative +and progressive impulses. After migrations in many directions +had resulted in the development of divers races, each with +certain capacities and acquirements due to its unique environment, +there was opportunity for the application of the principle +of environmental stimulus in an indirect way, through the +mingling and physical intermixture of one race with another. +Each of the great localized civilizations of antiquity appears +to have owed its prominence in part at least—perhaps very +largely—to such intermingling of two or more races. Each +of these civilizations began to decay so soon as the nation had +remained for a considerable number of generations in its localized +environment, and had practically ceased to receive accretions +from distant races at approximately the same stage of development. +There is a suggestive lesson for present-day civilization +in that thought-compelling fact. Further evidence of the +application of the principle of environmental stimulus, operating +through changed habitat and racial intermixture, is furnished +by the virility of the colonial peoples of our own day. The +receptiveness to new ideas and the rapidity of material progress +of Americans, South Africans and Australians are proverbial. +No one doubts, probably, that one or another of these countries +will give a new stimulus to the progress of civilization, through +the promulgation of some great epochal discovery, in the not +distant future. Again, the value of racial intermingling is +shown yet nearer home in the long-continued vitality of the +British nation, which is explicable, in some measure at least, by +the fact that the Celtic element held aloof from the Anglo-Saxon +element century after century sufficiently to maintain racial +integrity, yet mingled sufficiently to give and receive the fresh +stimulus of “new blood.” It is interesting in this connexion +to examine the map of Great Britain with reference to the +birthplaces of the men named above as being the originators +of the inventions and discoveries that made the close of the 18th +century memorable as ushering in a new ethnic era. It may be +added that these names suggest yet another element in the +causation of progress: the fact, namely, that, however necessary +racial receptivity may be to the dynamitic upheaval of a new +ethnic era, it is after all <i>individual</i> genius that applies its +detonating spark.</p> + +<p>Without further elaboration of this aspect of the subject +it may be useful to recapitulate the analysis of the evolution +of civilization above given, prior to characterizing +it from another standpoint. It appears that the entire +<span class="sidenote">Nine periods of progress.</span> +period of human progress up to the present may be +divided into nine periods which, if of necessity more +or less arbitrary, yet are not without certain warrant of logic. +They may be defined as follows: (1) The Lower Period of +Savagery, terminating with the discovery and application of the +uses of fire. (2) The Middle Period of Savagery, terminating +with the invention of the bow and arrow. (3) The Upper Period +of Savagery, terminating with the invention of pottery. (4) The +Lower Period of Barbarism, terminating with the domestication +of animals. (5) The Middle Period of Barbarism, terminating +with the discovery of the process of smelting iron ore. (6) The +Upper Period of Barbarism, terminating with the development +of a system of writing meeting the requirements of literary +composition. (7) The First Period of Civilization (proper) +terminating with the introduction of gunpowder. (8) The Second +Period of Civilization, terminating with the invention of a +practical steam-engine. (9) The Upper Period of Civilization, +which is still in progress, but which, as will be suggested in a +moment, is probably nearing its termination.</p> + +<p>It requires but a glance at the characteristics of these successive +epochs to show the ever-increasing complexity of the inventions +that delimit them and of the conditions of life that they +connote. Were we to attempt to characterize in a few phrases the +entire story of achievement thus outlined, we might say that +during the three stages of Savagery man was attempting to make +himself master of the geographical climates. His unconscious +ideal was, to gain a foothold and the means of subsistence in +every zone. During the three periods of Barbarism the ideal +of conquest was extended to the beasts of the field, the vegetable +world, and the mineral contents of the earth’s crust. During the +three periods of Civilization proper the ideal of conquest has +become still more intellectual and subtle, being now extended +to such abstractions as an analysis of speech-sounds, and to such +intangibles as expanding gases and still more elusive electric +currents: in other words, to the forces of nature, no less than +to tangible substances. Hand in hand with this growing +complexity of man’s relations with the external world has +gone a like increase of complexity in the social and political +organizations that characterize man’s relations with his fellowmen. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span> +In savagery the family expanded into the tribe; in +barbarism the tribe developed into the nation. The epoch of +civilization proper is aptly named, because it has been a time in +which citizenship, in the narrower national significance, has +probably been developed to its apogee. Throughout this period, +in every land, the highest virtue has been considered to be +patriotism,—by which must be understood an instinctive +willingness on the part of every individual to defend even with +his life the interests of the nation into which he chances to be +born, regardless of whether the national cause in which he struggles +be in any given case good or bad, right or wrong. The communal +judgment of this epoch pronounces any man a traitor who will +not uphold his own nation even in a wrong cause—and the word +“traitor” marks the utmost brand of ignominy.</p> + +<p>But while the idea of nationality has thus been accentuated, +there has been a never-ending struggle within the bounds of the +nation itself to adjust the relations of one citizen to +another. The ideas that might makes right, that the +<span class="sidenote">Nationality and cosmopolitanism.</span> +strong man must dominate the weak, that leadership +in the community properly belongs to the man who is +physically most competent to lead—these ideas were +a perfectly natural, and indeed an inevitable, outgrowth of the +conditions under which man fought his way up through savagery +and barbarism. Man in the first period of civilization inherited +these ideas, along with the conditions of society that were their +concomitants. So throughout the periods when the oriental +civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria and Persia +were dominant, a despotic form of government was accepted +as the natural order of things. It does not appear that any other +form was even considered as a practicality. A despot might +indeed be overthrown, but only to make way for the coronation +of another despot. A little later the Greeks and Romans modified +the conception of a heaven-sent individual monarch; but they +went no further than to substitute a heaven-favoured community, +with specially favoured groups (<i>Patricii</i>) within the community. +With this, national egoism reached its climax; for each people +regarded its own citizens as the only exemplars of civilization, +openly branding all the rest of the world as “barbarians,” fit +subjects for the exaction of tribute or for the imposition of the +bonds of actual slavery. During the middle ages there was a +reaction towards individualism as opposed to nationalism: +but the entire system of feudalism, with its clearly recognized +conditions of over-lordship and of vassaldom, gave expression, +no less clearly than oriental despotism and classical “democracy” +had done, to the idea of individual inequality; of +divergence of moral and legal status based on natural inheritance. +Thus this idea, a reminiscence of barbarism, maintained its +dominance throughout the first period of civilization.</p> + +<p>But gunpowder, marking the transition to the second period +of civilization, came as a great levelling influence. With its aid +the weakest peasant might prove more than a match for the most +powerful knight. Before its assaults the castle of the lord ceased +to be an impregnable fortress. And while gunpowder thus +levelled down the power of the mighty, the printing-press levelled +up the intelligence, and hence the power and influence of the +lowly. Meantime the mariner’s compass opened up new territories +beyond the seas, and in due course men of lowly origin were +seen to attain to wealth and power through commercial pursuits, +thus tending to break in upon the established social order. In +the colonial territories themselves all men were subjected more +or less to the same perils and dependent upon their own efforts. +Success and prominence in the community came not as a birthright, +but as the result of demonstrated fitness. The great +lesson that the interests of all members of a community are, +in the last analysis, mutual could be more clearly distinguished +in these small colonies than in larger and older bodies politic. +Through various channels, therefore, in the successive generations +of this middle period of civilization, the idea gained ground +that intelligence and moral worth, rather than physical prowess, +should be the test of greatness; that it is incumbent on the strong +in the interests of the body politic to protect the weak; and that, +in the long run, the best interests of the community are conserved +if all its members, without exception, are given moral equality +before the law. This idea of equal rights and privileges for all +members of the community—for each individual “the greatest +amount of liberty consistent with a like liberty of every other +individual”—first found expression as a philosophical doctrine +towards the close of the 18th century; at which time also tentative +efforts were made to put it into practice. It may be said +therefore to represent the culminating sociological doctrine of +the middle period of civilization,—the ideal towards which all +the influences of the period had tended to impel the race.</p> + +<p>It will be observed, however, that this ideal of individual +equality within the body politic in no direct wise influences the +status of the body politic itself as the centre of a localized +civilization that may be regarded as in a sense antagonistic to +all other similarly localized civilizations. If there were any such +influence, it would rather operate in the direction of accentuating +the patriotism of the member of a democratical community, as +against that of the subject of a despot, through the sense of +personal responsibility developed in the former. The developments +of the middle period of civilization cannot be considered, +therefore, to have tended to decrease the spirit of nationality, +with its concomitant penalty of what is sometimes called provincialism. +The history of this entire period, as commonly +presented, is largely made up of the records of international +rivalries and jealousies, perennially culminating in bitterly +contested wars. It was only towards the close of the epoch that +the desirability of free commercial intercourse among nations +began to find expression as a philosophical creed through the +efforts of Quesnay and his followers; and the doctrine that both +parties to an international commercial transaction are gainers +thereby found its first clear expression in the year 1776 in the +pages of Condillac and of Adam Smith.</p> + +<p>But the discoveries that ushered in the third period of civilization +were destined to work powerfully from the outset for the +breaking down of international barriers, though, of course, +their effects would not be at once manifest. Thus the substitution +of steam power for water power, besides giving a tremendous +impetus to manufacturing in general, mapped out new industrial +centres in regions that nature had supplied with coal but not +always with other raw materials. To note a single result, +England became the manufacturing centre of the world, drawing +its raw materials from every corner of the globe; but in so +doing it ceased to be self-supporting as regards the production +of food-supplies. While growing in national wealth, as a result +of the new inventions, England has therefore lost immeasurably +in national self-sufficiency and independence; having become +in large measure dependent upon other countries both for the +raw materials without which her industries must perish and for +the foods to maintain the very life of her people.</p> + +<p>What is true of England in this regard is of course true in +greater or less measure of all other countries. Everywhere, +thanks to the new mechanisms that increase industrial efficiency, +there has been an increasing tendency to specialization; and +since the manufacturer must often find his raw materials in one +part of the world and his markets in another, this implies +an ever-increasing intercommunication and interdependence +between the nations. This spirit is obviously fostered by the +new means of transportation by locomotive and steamship, and +by the electric communication that enables the Londoner, for +example, to transact business in New York or in Tokio with +scarcely an hour’s delay; and that puts every one in touch at +to-day’s breakfast table with the happenings of the entire world. +Thanks to the new mechanisms, national isolation is no longer +possible; globe-trotting has become a habit with thousands of +individuals of many nations; and Orient and Occident, representing +civilizations that for thousands of years were almost +absolutely severed and mutually oblivious of each other, have +been brought again into close touch for mutual education and +betterment. The Western mind has learned with amazement +that the aforetime <i>Terra Incognita</i> of the far East has nurtured +a gigantic civilization having ideals in many ways far different +from our own. The Eastern mind has proved itself capable, in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span> +self-defence, of absorbing the essential practicalities of Western +civilization within a single generation. Some of the most +important problems of world-civilization of the immediate +future hinge upon the mutual relations of these two long-severed +communities, branched at some early stage of progress to +opposite hemispheres of the globe, but now brought by the new +mechanisms into daily and even hourly communication.</p> + +<p>While the new conditions of the industrial world have thus +tended to develop a new national outlook, there has come about, +as a result of the scientific discoveries already referred +to, a no less significant broadening of the mental and +<span class="sidenote">Modern humanism.</span> +spiritual horizons. Here also the trend is away from +the narrowly egoistic and towards the cosmopolitan view. +About the middle of the 19th century Dr Pritchard declared +that many people debated whether it might not be permissible +for the Australian settlers to shoot the natives as food for their +dogs; some of the disputants arguing that savages were without +the pale of human brotherhood. To-day the thesis that all +mankind are one brotherhood needs no defence. The most +primitive of existing aborigines are regarded merely as brethren +who, through some defect or neglect of opportunity, have lagged +behind in the race. Similarly the defective and criminal classes +that make up so significant a part of the population of even +our highest present-day civilizations, are no longer regarded +with anger or contempt, as beings who are suffering just punishment +for wilful transgressions, but are considered as pitiful +victims of hereditary and environmental influences that they +could neither choose nor control. Insanity is no longer thought +of as demoniac possession, but as the most lamentable of diseases.</p> + +<p>The changed attitude towards savage races and defective +classes affords tangible illustrations of a fundamental transformation +of point of view which doubtless represents the most important +result of the operation of new scientific knowledge in the +course of the 19th century. It is a transformation that is only +partially effected as yet, to be sure; but it is rapidly making +headway, and when fully achieved it will represent, probably, +the most radical metamorphosis of mental view that has taken +place in the entire course of the historical period. The essence +of the new view is this: to recognize the universality and the +invariability of natural law; stated otherwise, to understand +that the word “supernatural” involves a contradiction of +terms and has in fact no meaning. Whoever has grasped the +full import of this truth is privileged to sweep mental horizons +wider by far than ever opened to the view of any thinker of an +earlier epoch. He is privileged to forecast, as the sure heritage +of the future, a civilization freed from the last ghost of superstition—an +Age of Reason in which mankind shall at last find +refuge from the hosts of occult and invisible powers, the fearsome +galaxies of deities and demons, which have haunted him thus +far at every stage of his long journey through savagery, barbarism +and civilization. Doubtless here and there a thinker, even in +the barbaric eras, may have realized that these ghosts that so +influenced the everyday lives of his fellows were but children +of the imagination. But the certainty that such is the case +could not have come with the force of demonstration even to +the most clear-sighted thinker until 19th-century science had +investigated with penetrating vision the realm of molecule +and atom; had revealed the awe-inspiring principle of the +conservation of energy; and had offered a comprehensible +explanation of the evolution of one form of life from another, +from monad to man, that did not presuppose the intervention of +powers more “supernatural” than those that operate about +us everywhere to-day.</p> + +<p>The stupendous import of these new truths could not, of +course, make itself evident to the generality of mankind in a +single generation, when opposed to superstitions of a thousand +generations’ standing. But the new knowledge has made its +way more expeditiously than could have been anticipated; +and its effects are seen on every side, even where its agency is +scarcely recognized. As a single illustration, we may note the +familiar observation that the entire complexion of orthodox +teaching of religion has been more altered in the past fifty +years than in two thousand years before. This of course is not +entirely due to the influence of physical and biological science; +no effect has a unique cause, in the complex sociological scheme. +Archaeology, comparative philology and textual criticism have +also contributed their share; and the comparative study of +religions has further tended to broaden the outlook and to make +for universality, as opposed to insularity, of view. It is coming +to be more and more widely recognized that all theologies are +but the reflex of the more or less faulty knowledge of the times +in which they originate, that the true and abiding purpose of +religion should be the practical betterment of humanity—the +advancement of civilization in the best sense of the word; and +that this end may perhaps be best subserved by different systems +of theology, adapted to the varied genius of different times and +divers races. Wherefore there is not the same enthusiastic +desire to-day that found expression a generation ago, to impose +upon the cultured millions of the East a religion that seems to +them alien to their manner of thought, unsuited to their needs +and less distinctly ethical in teaching than their own religions.</p> + +<p>Such are but a few of the illustrations that might be cited from +many fields to suggest that the mind of our generation is becoming +receptive to a changed point of view that augurs the coming +of a new ethnic era. If one may be permitted to enter very +tentatively the field of prophecy, it seems not unlikely that the +great revolutionary invention which will close the third period +of civilization and usher in a new era is already being evolved. +It seems not over-hazardous to predict that the air-ship, in one +form or another, is destined to be the mechanism that will give +the new impetus to human civilization; that the next era will +have as one of its practical ideals the conquest of the air; and +that this conquest will become a factor in the final emergence of +humanity from the insularity of nationalism to the broad view +of cosmopolitanism, towards which, as we have seen, the tendencies +of the present era are verging. That the gap to be +covered is a vastly wide one no one need be reminded who recalls +that the civilized nations of Europe, together with America and +Japan, are at present accustomed to spend more than three +hundred million pounds each year merely that they may keep +armaments in readiness to fly at one another’s throats should +occasion arise. Formidable as these armaments now seem, +however, the developments of the not very distant future will +probably make them quite obsolete; and sooner or later, as +science develops yet more deadly implements of destruction, +the time must come when communal intelligence will rebel at +the suicidal folly of the international attitude that characterized, +for example, the opening decade of the 20th century. At some +time, after the first period of cosmopolitanism shall be ushered +in as a tenth ethnic period, it will come to be recognized that +there is a word fraught with fuller meanings even than the word +patriotism. That word is humanitarianism. The enlightened +generation that realizes the full implications of that word will +doubtless marvel that their ancestors of the third period of +civilization should have risen up as nations and slaughtered one +another by thousands to settle a dispute about a geographical +boundary. Such a procedure will appear to have been quite as +barbarous as the cannibalistic practices of their yet more remote +ancestors, and distinctly less rational, since cannibalism might +sometimes save its practiser from starvation, whereas warfare +of the civilized type was a purely destructive agency.</p> + +<p>Equally obvious must it appear to the cosmopolite of some +generation of the future that quality rather than mere numbers +must determine the efficiency of any given community. Race +suicide will then cease to be a bugbear; and it will no longer be +considered rational to keep up the census at the cost of propagating +low orders of intelligence, to feed the ranks of paupers, +defectives and criminals. On the contrary it will be thought +fitting that man should become the conscious arbiter of his own +racial destiny to the extent of applying whatever laws of heredity +he knows or may acquire in the interests of his own species, as +he has long applied them in the case of domesticated animals. +The survival and procreation of the unfit will then cease to be +a menace to the progress of civilization. It does not follow that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span> +all men will be brought to a dead level of equality of body and +mind, nor that individual competition will cease; but the average +physical mental status of the race will be raised immeasurably +through the virtual elimination of that vast company of defectives +which to-day constitutes so threatening an obstacle to racial +progress. There are millions of men in Europe and America +to-day whose whole mental equipment—despite the fact that they +have been taught to read and write—is far more closely akin to +the average of the Upper Period of Barbarism than to the highest +standards of their own time; and these undeveloped or atavistic +persons have on the average more offspring than are produced +by the more highly cultured and intelligent among their contemporaries. +“Race suicide” is thereby prevented, but the progress +of civilization is no less surely handicapped. We may well +believe that the cosmopolite of the future, aided by science, +will find rational means to remedy this strange illogicality. In so +doing he will exercise a more consciously purposeful function, +and perhaps a more directly potent influence, in determining +the line of human progress than he has hitherto attempted to +assume, notwithstanding the almost infinitely varied character +of the experiments through which he has worked his way from +savagery to civilization.</p> + +<p>All these considerations tend to define yet more clearly the +ultimate goal towards which the progressive civilization of past +and present appears to be trending. The contemplation +of this goal brings into view the outlines of a vastly +<span class="sidenote">Ethical evolution.</span> +suggestive evolutionary cycle. For it appears that +the social condition of cosmopolite man, so far as the present-day +view can predict it, will represent a state of things, magnified +to world-dimensions, that was curiously adumbrated by the social +system of the earliest savage. At the very beginning of the +journey through savagery, mankind, we may well believe, consisted +of a limited tribe, representing no great range or variety +of capacity, and an almost absolute identity of interests. Thanks +to this community of interests,—which was fortified by the +recognition of blood-relationship among all members of the tribe,—a +principle which we now define as “the greatest ultimate +good to the greatest number” found practical, even if unwitting, +recognition; and therein lay the germs of all the moral development +of the future. But obvious identity of interests could be +recognized only so long as the tribe remained very small. So +soon as its numbers became large, patent diversities of interest, +based on individual selfishness, must appear, to obscure the +larger harmony. And as savage man migrated hither and thither, +occupying new regions and thus developing new tribes and +ultimately a diversity of “races,” all idea of community of +interests, as between race and race, must have been absolutely +banished. It was the obvious and patent fact that each race was +more or less at rivalry, in disharmony, with all the others. In +the hard struggle for subsistence, the expansion of one race meant +the downfall of another. So far as any principle of “greatest +good” remained in evidence, it applied solely to the members of +one’s own community, or even to one’s particular phratry or +gens.</p> + +<p>Barbaric man, thanks to his conquest of animal and vegetable +nature, was able to extend the size of the unified community, +and hence to develop through diverse and intricate channels +the application of the principle of “greatest good” out of which +the idea of right and wrong was elaborated. But quite as little +as the savage did he think of extending the application of the +principle beyond the bounds of his own race. The laws with +which he gave expression to his ethical conceptions applied, +of necessity, to his own people alone. The gods with which his +imagination peopled the world were local in habitat, devoted +to the interests of his race only, and at enmity with the gods of +rival peoples. As between nation and nation, the only principle +of ethics that ever occurred to him was that might makes right. +Civilized man for a long time advanced but slowly upon this view +of international morality. No Egyptian or Babylonian or +Hebrew or Greek or Roman ever hesitated to attack a weaker +nation on the ground that it would be wrong to do so. And +few indeed are the instances in which even a modern nation has +judged an international question on any other basis than that +of self-interest. It was not till towards the close of the 19th +century that an International Peace Conference gave tangible +witness that the idea of fellowship of nations was finding recognition; +and in the same recent period history has recorded the first +instance of a powerful nation vanquishing a weaker one without +attempting to exact at least an “indemnifying” tribute.</p> + +<p>But the citizen of the future, if the auguries of the present +prove true, will be able to apply principles of right and wrong +without reference to national boundaries. He will understand +that the interests of the entire human family are, in the last +analysis, common interests. The census through which he +attempts to estimate “the greatest good of the greatest number” +must include, not his own nation merely, but the remotest +member of the human race. On this universal basis must be +founded that absolute standard of ethics which will determine +the relations of cosmopolite man with his fellows. When this +ideal is attained, mankind will again represent a single family, +as it did in the day when our primeval ancestors first entered +on the pathway of progress; but it will be a family whose habitat +has been extended from the narrow glade of some tropical forest +to the utmost habitable confines of the globe. Each member of +this family will be permitted to enjoy the greatest amount of +liberty consistent with the like liberty of every other member; +but the interests of the few will everywhere be recognized as +subservient to the interests of the many, and such recognition +of mutual interests will establish the practical criterion for the +interpretation of international affairs.</p> + +<p>But such an extension of the altruistic principle by no means +presupposes the elimination of egoistic impulses—of individualism. +On the contrary, we must suppose that man at +the highest stages of culture will be, even as was the +<span class="sidenote">Progress and efficiency.</span> +savage, a seeker after the greatest attainable degree of +comfort for the least necessary expenditure of energy. +The pursuit of this ideal has been from first to last the ultimate +impelling force in nature urging man forward. The only change +has been a change in the interpretation of the ideal, an altered +estimate as to what manner of things are most worth the purchase-price +of toil and self-denial. That the things most worth the +having cannot, generally speaking, be secured without such toil +and self-denial, is a lesson that began to be inculcated while man +was a savage, and that has never ceased to be reiterated generation +after generation. It is the final test of progressive civilization +that a given effort shall produce a larger and larger modicum +of average individual comfort. That is why the great inventions +that have increased man’s efficiency as a worker have been the +necessary prerequisites to racial progress. Stated otherwise, that +is why the industrial factor is everywhere the most powerful +factor in civilization; and why the economic interpretation is +the most searching interpretation of history at its every stage. +It is the basal fact that progress implies increased average +working efficiency—a growing ratio between average effort and +average achievement—that gives sure warrant for such a prognostication +as has just been attempted concerning the future +industrial unification of our race. The efforts of civilized man +provide him, on the average, with a marvellous range of comforts, +as contrasted with those that rewarded the most strenuous +efforts of savage or barbarian, to whom present-day necessaries +would have been undreamed-of luxuries. But the ideal ratio +between effort and result has by no means been achieved; +nor will it have been until the inventive brain of man has provided +a civilization in which a far higher percentage of citizens +will find the life-vocations to which they are best adapted by +nature, and in which, therefore, the efforts of the average worker +may be directed with such vigour, enthusiasm and interest as can +alone make for true efficiency; a civilization adjusted to such +an economic balance that the average man may live in reasonable +comfort without heart-breaking strain, and yet accumulate a +sufficient surplus to ensure ease and serenity for his declining +days. Such, seemingly, should be the normal goal of progressive +civilization. Doubtless mankind in advancing towards that +goal will institute many changes that could by no possibility be +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span> +foretold, but (to summarize the views just presented) it seems a +safe augury from present-day conditions and tendencies that the +important lines of progress will include (1) the organic betterment +of the race through wise application of the laws of heredity; +(2) the lessening of international jealousies and the consequent +minimizing of the drain upon communal resources that attends +a military régime; and (3) an ever-increasing movement towards +the industrial and economic unification of the world.</p> +<div class="author">(H. S. WI.)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—A list of works dealing with the savage and +barbarous periods of human development will be found appended +to the article ANTHROPOLOGY. Special reference may here be made +to E.B. Tylor’s <i>Early History of Mankind</i> (1865), <i>Primitive Culture</i> +(1871) and <i>Anthropology</i> (1881); Lord Avebury’s <i>Prehistoric Times</i> +(new edition, 1900) and <i>Origin of Civilization</i> (new edition, 1902); +A.H. Keane’s <i>Man Past and Present</i> (1899); and Lewis H. Morgan’s +<i>Ancient Society</i> (1877). The earliest attempt at writing a history +of civilization which has any value for the 20th-century reader +was F. Guizot’s in 1828-1830, a handy English translation by +William Hazlitt being included in Bohn’s Standard Library under +the title of <i>The History of Civilization</i>. The earlier lectures, delivered +at the Old Sorbonne, deal with the general progress of +European civilization, whilst the greater part of the work is an +account of the growth of civilization in France. Guizot’s attitude +is somewhat antiquated, but this book still has usefulness as a storehouse +of facts. T.H. Buckle’s famous work, <i>The History of Civilization +in England</i> (1857-1861), though only a gigantic unfinished +introduction to the author’s proposed enterprise, holds an important +place in historical literature on account of the new method which +it introduced, and has given birth to a considerable number of +valuable books on similar lines, such as Lecky’s <i>History of European +Morals</i> (1869) and <i>Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe</i> +(1865). J.W. Draper’s <i>History of the Intellectual Development of +Europe</i> (1861) undertook, from the American stand-point, “the +labour of arranging the evidence offered by the intellectual history +of Europe in accordance with physiological principles, so as to +illustrate the orderly progress of civilization.” Its objective treatment +and wealth of learning still give it great value to the student. +Since the third quarter of the 19th century it may be said that all +serious historical work has been more or less a history of civilization +as displayed in all countries and ages, and a bibliography of the +works bearing on the subject would be coextensive with the catalogue +of a complete historical library. Special mention, however, +may be made of such important and suggestive works as C.H. +Pearson’s <i>National Life and Character</i> (1893); Benjamin Kidd’s +<i>Social Evolution</i> (1894) and <i>Principles of Western Civilization</i> +(1902); Edward Eggleston’s <i>Transit of Civilization</i> (1901); C. +Seignobos’s <i>Histoire de la civilisation</i> (1887); C. Faulmann’s <i>Illustrirte +Culturgeschichte</i> (1881); G. Ducoudray’s <i>Histoire de la +civilisation</i> (1886); J. von Hellwald’s <i>Kulturgeschichte</i> (1896); +J. Lippert’s <i>Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit</i> (1886); O. Henne-am-Rhyn’s +<i>Die Kultur der Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft</i> (1890); +G. Kurth’s <i>Origines de la civilisation moderne</i> (1886), &c. The vast +collection of modern works on sociology, from Herbert Spencer +onwards, should also be consulted; see bibliography attached to +the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sociology</a></span>. The historical method on which practically +all the articles of the present edition of the <i>Ency. Brit.</i> are planned, +makes the whole work itself in essentials the most comprehensive +history of civilization in existence.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVIL LAW<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span>, a phrase which, with its Latin equivalent <i>jus +civile</i>, has been used in a great variety of meanings. <i>Jus civile</i> +was sometimes used to distinguish that portion of the Roman +law which was the proper or ancient law of the city or state of +Rome from the <i>jus gentium</i>, or the law common to all the nations +comprising the Roman world, which was incorporated with +the former through the agency of the praetorian edicts. This +historical distinction remained as a permanent principle of division +in the body of the Roman law. One of the first propositions of +the Institutes of Justinian is the following:—“Jus autem civile +vel gentium ita dividitur. Omnes populi qui legibus et moribus +reguntur partim suo proprio, partim communi omnium hominum +jure utuntur; nam quod quisque populus ipsi sibi jus constituit, +id ipsius civitatis proprium est, vocaturque jus civile quasi jus +proprium ipsius civitatis. Quod vero naturalis ratio inter omnes +homines constituit, id apud omnes peraeque custoditur, vocaturque +jus gentium quasi quo jure omnes gentes utuntur.” The +<i>jus gentium</i> of this passage is elsewhere identified with <i>jus naturale</i>, +so that the distinction comes to be one between civil law and +natural or divine law. The municipal or private law of a state +is sometimes described as civil law in distinction to public or +international law. Again, the municipal law of a state may be +divided into civil law and criminal law. The phrase, however, +is applied <i>par excellence</i> to the system of law created by the +genius of the Roman people, and handed down by them to the +nations of the modern world (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>). The civil law +in this sense would be distinguished from the local or national +law of modern states. The civil law in this sense is further to +be distinguished from that adaptation of its principles to ecclesiastical +purposes which is known as the canon law (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVIL LIST<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span>, the English term for the account in which are +contained all the expenses immediately applicable to the support +of the British sovereign’s household and the honour and +dignity of the crown. An annual sum is settled by the British +parliament at the beginning of the reign on the sovereign, and is +charged on the consolidated fund. But it is only from the reign +of William IV. that the sum thus voted has been restricted solely +to the personal expenses of the crown. Before his accession +many charges properly belonging to the ordinary expenses of +government had been placed on the civil list. The history +<span class="sidenote">History</span> +of the civil list dates from the reign of William and +Mary. Before the Revolution no distinction had +been made between the expenses of government in time of +peace and the expenses relating to the personal dignity and +support of the sovereign. The ordinary revenues derived from +the hereditary revenues of the crown, and from certain taxes +voted for life to the king at the beginning of each reign, were +supposed to provide for the support of the sovereign’s dignity +and the civil government, as well as for the public defence in +time of peace. Any saving made by the king in the expenditure +touching the government of the country or its defence would go to +swell his privy purse. But with the Revolution a step forward +was made towards the establishment of the principle that the +expenses relating to the support of the crown should be separated +from the ordinary expenses of the state. The evils of the old +system under which no appropriation was made of the ordinary +revenue granted to the crown for life had been made manifest +in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.; it was their control +of these large revenues that made them so independent of +parliament. Moreover, while the civil government and the defences +suffered, the king could use these revenues as he liked. The +parliament of William and Mary fixed the revenue of the crown +in time of peace at £1,200,000 per annum; of this sum about +£700,000 was appropriated towards the “civil list.” But from +this the sovereign was to defray the expenses of the civil service +and the payment of pensions, as well as the cost of the support +of the royal household and his own personal expenses. It was +from this that the term “civil list” arose, to distinguish it from +the statement of military and naval charges. The revenue voted +to meet the civil list consisted of the hereditary revenues of the +crown and a part of the excise duties. Certain changes and additions +were made in the sources of revenue thus appropriated +between the reign of William and Mary and the accession of +George III., when a different system was adopted. Generally +speaking, however, the sources of revenue remained as settled +at the Revolution.</p> + +<p>Anne had the same civil list, estimated to produce an annual +income of £700,000. During her reign a debt of £1,200,000 was +incurred. This debt was paid by parliament and +charged on the civil list itself. George I. enjoyed the +<span class="sidenote">Anne, George I. and George II.</span> +same revenue by parliamentary grant, in addition to +an annual sum of £120,000 on the aggregate fund. +A debt of £1,000,000 was incurred, and discharged by parliament +in the same manner as Anne’s debt had been. To George II. +a civil list of £800,000 as a minimum was granted, parliament +undertaking to make up any deficiency if the sources of income +appropriated to its service fell short of that sum. Thus in 1746 +a debt of £456,000 was paid by parliament on the civil list. +On the accession of George III. a change was made in the system +of the civil list. Hitherto the sources of revenue appropriated +<span class="sidenote">George III.</span> +to the service of the civil list had been settled on +the crown. If these revenues exceeded the sum they +were computed to produce annually, the surplus went to the king. +George III., however, surrendered the life-interest in the hereditary +revenues and the excise duties hitherto voted to defray +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span> +the civil list expenditure, and any claim to a surplus for a fixed +amount. The king still retained other large sources of revenue +which were not included in the civil list, and were free from the +control of parliament. The revenues from which the civil list +had been defrayed were henceforward to be carried into, and +made part of, the aggregate fund. In their place a fixed civil +list was granted—at first of £723,000 per annum, to be increased +to £800,000 on the falling in of certain annuities to members +of the royal family. From this £800,000 the king’s household +and the honour and dignity of the crown were to be supported, +as well as the civil service offices, pensions and other charges +still laid on the list.</p> + +<p>During the reign of George III. the civil list played an important +part in the history of the struggle on the part of the king +to establish the royal ascendancy. From the revenue appropriated +to its service came a large portion of the money employed +by the king in creating places and pensions for his supporters +in parliament, and, under the colour of the royal bounty, bribery +was practised on a large scale. No limit was set to the amount +applicable to the pensions charged on the civil list, so long as the +sum granted could meet the demand; and there was no principle +on which the grant was regulated. Secret pensions at the king’s +pleasure were paid out of it, and in every way the independence +of parliament was menaced; and though the more legitimate +expenses of the royal household were diminished by the king’s +penurious style of living, and though many charges not directly +connected with the king’s personal expenditure were removed, +the amount was constantly exceeded, and applications were +made from time to time to parliament to pay off debts incurred; +and thus opportunity was given for criticism. In 1769 a debt +of £513,511 was paid off in arrears; and in spite of the demand +for accounts and for an inquiry into the cause of the debt, the +<span class="sidenote">Indebtedness of civil list.</span> +ministry succeeded in securing this vote without +granting such information. All attempts to investigate +the civil list were successfully resisted, though Lord +Chatham went so far as to declare himself convinced +that the funds were expended in corrupting members of parliament. +Again, in 1777, an application was made to parliament +to pay off £618,340 of debts; and in view of the growing discontent +Lord North no longer dared to withhold accounts. Yet, +in spite of strong opposition and free criticism, not only was the +amount voted, but also a further £100,000 per annum, thus +raising the civil list to an annual sum of £900,000.</p> + +<p>In 1779, at a time when the expenditure of the country and +the national debt had been enormously increased by the American +War, the general dissatisfaction found voice in parliament, +and the abuses of the civil list were specially singled out for +attack. Many petitions were presented to the House of Commons +praying for its reduction, and a motion was made in the House +of Lords in the same sense, though it was rejected. In 1780 +Burke brought forward his scheme of economic reform, but his +name was already associated with the growing desire to remedy +the evils of the civil list by the publication in 1769 of his pamphlet +on “The Causes of the Present Discontent.” In this scheme +Burke freely animadverts on the profusion and abuse of the +civil list, criticizing the useless and obsolete offices and the +offices performed by deputy. In every department he discovers +jobbery, waste and peculation. His proposal was that the many +offices should be reduced and consolidated, that the pension +list should be brought down to a fixed sum of £60,000 per annum, +and that pensions should be conferred only to reward merit or +fulfil real public charity. All pensions were to be paid at the +exchequer. He proposed also that the civil list should be +divided into classes, an arrangement which later was carried +into effect. In 1780 Burke succeeded in bringing in his Establishment +Bill; but though at first it met with considerable support, +and was even read a second time, Lord North’s government +defeated it in committee. The next year the bill was again +introduced into the House of Commons, and Pitt made his +first speech in its favour. The bill was, however, lost on the +second reading.</p> + +<p>In 1782 the Rockingham ministry, pledged to economic +reform, came into power; and the Civil List Act 1782 was +introduced and carried with the express object of limiting the +patronage and influence of ministers, or, in other +<span class="sidenote">Civil List Act 1782.</span> +words, the ascendancy of the crown over parliament. +Not only did the act effect the abolition of a +number of useless offices, but it also imposed restraints on the +issue of secret service money, and made provision for a more +effectual supervision of the royal expenditure. As to the pension +list, the annual amount was to be limited to £95,000; no pension +to any one person was to exceed £1200, and all pensions were to +be paid at the exchequer, thus putting a stop to the secret +pensions payable during pleasure. Moreover, pensions were +only to be bestowed in the way of royal bounty for persons in +distress or as a reward for merit. Another very important +change was made by this act: the civil list was divided into +classes, and a fixed amount was to be appropriated to each +class. The following were the classes:—</p> + +<div class="condensed1"> +<p>1. Pensions and allowances of the royal family.</p> +<p>2. Payment of salaries of lord chancellor, speaker and judges.</p> +<p>3. Salaries of ministers to foreign courts resident at the same.</p> +<p>4. Approved bills of tradesmen, artificers and labourers for any + article supplied and work done for His Majesty’s service.</p> +<p>5. Menial servants of the household.</p> +<p>6. Pension list.</p> +<p>7. Salaries of all other places payable out of the civil list revenues.</p> +<p>8. Salaries and pensions of treasurer or commissioners of the + treasury and of the chancellor of the exchequer.</p> +</div> + +<p>Yet debt was still the condition of the civil list down to the +end of the reign, in spite of the reforms established by the +Rockingham ministry, and notwithstanding the removal from +the list of many charges unconnected with the king’s personal +expenses. The debts discharged by parliament between 1782, +the date of the passing of the Civil List Act, and the end of +George III.’s reign, amounted to £2,300,000. In all, during +his reign £3,398,061 of debt owing by the civil list was paid off.</p> + +<p>With the regency the civil list was increased by £70,000 per +annum, and a special grant of £100,000 was settled on the prince +regent. In 1816 the annual amount was settled at £1,083,727, +including the establishment of the king, now insane; though +the civil list was relieved from some annuities payable to the +royal family. Nevertheless, the fund still continued charged +with such civil expenses as the salaries of judges, ambassadors +and officers of state, and with pensions granted for public +services. Other reforms were made as regards the definition +of the several classes of expenditure, while the expenses of the +royal household were henceforth to be audited by a treasury +official—the auditor of the civil list. On the accession of George +IV. the civil list, freed from the expenses of the late king, was +settled at £845,727. On William IV. coming to the throne a +sum of £510,000 per annum was fixed for the service of the civil +list. The king at the same time surrendered all the sources of +revenue enjoyed by his predecessors, apart from the civil list, +represented by the hereditary revenues of Scotland—the Irish +civil list, the droits of the crown and admiralty, the 4½% duties, +the West India duties, and other casual revenues hitherto vested +in the crown, and independent of parliament. The revenues +of the duchy of Lancaster were still retained by the crown. +In return for this surrender and the diminished sum voted, +the civil list was relieved from all the charges relating rather +to the civil government than to the support of the dignity of the +crown and the royal household. The future expenditure was +divided into five classes, and a fixed annual sum was appropriated +to each class. The pension list was reduced to £75,000. The +king resisted an attempt on the part of the select committee to +reduce the salaries of the officers of state on the grounds that +this touched his prerogative, and the ministry of Earl Grey +yielded to his remonstrance.</p> + +<p>The civil list of Queen Victoria was settled on the same principles +as that of William IV. A considerable reduction +was made in the aggregate annual sum voted, +from £510,000 to £385,000, and the pension list was +<span class="sidenote">Queen Victoria’s civil list.</span> +separated from the ordinary civil list. The civil list +proper was divided into the following five classes, with a fixed +sum appropriated to each:—</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl">Privy purse</td> <td class="tcr">£60,000</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Salaries of household</td> <td class="tcr">131,260</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Expenses of household</td> <td class="tcr">172,500</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Royal bounty, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">13,200</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Unappropriated</td> <td class="tcr">8,040</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In addition the queen might, on the advice of her ministers, +grant pensions up to £1200 per annum, in accordance with a +resolution of the House of Commons of February 18th, 1834, +“to such persons as have just claims on the royal beneficence +or who, by their personal services to the crown, by the performance +of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in +science and attainments in literature and art, have merited the +gracious consideration of the sovereign and the gratitude of +their country.” The service of these pensions increased the +annual sum devoted to support the dignity of the crown and the +expenses of the household to about £409,000. The list of pensions +must be laid before parliament within thirty days of 20th June. +Thus the civil list was reduced in amount, and relieved from the +very charges which gave it its name as distinct from the statement +of military and naval charges. It now really only dealt +with the support of the dignity and honour of the crown and +the royal household. The arrangement was most successful, +and during the last three reigns there was no application to +parliament for the discharge of debts incurred on the civil list.</p> + +<p>The death of Queen Victoria rendered it necessary that +a renewed provision should be made for the civil list; and King +Edward VII., following former precedents, placed +unreservedly at the disposal of parliament his hereditary +<span class="sidenote">Civil List Act 1901.</span> +revenues. A select committee of the House of +Commons was appointed to consider the provisions of the civil +list for the crown, and to report also on the question of grants +for the honourable support and maintenance of Her Majesty the +Queen and the members of the royal family. The committee in +their conclusions were guided to a considerable extent by the +actual civil list expenditure during the last ten years of the last +reign, and made certain recommendations which, without undue +interference with the sovereign’s personal arrangements, tended +towards increased efficiency and economy in the support of the +sovereign’s household and the honour and dignity of the crown. +On their report was based the Civil List Act 1901, which established +the new civil list. The system that the hereditary revenues +should as before be paid into the exchequer and be part of the +consolidated fund was maintained. The amount payable for +the civil list was increased from £385,000 to £470,000. In the +application of this sum the number of classes of expenditure +to which separate amounts were to be appropriated was increased +from five to six. The following was the new arrangement of +classes:—1st class, Their Majesties’ privy purse, £110,000; +2nd class, salaries of His Majesty’s household and retired allowances, +£125,800; 3rd class, expenses of His Majesty’s household, +£193,000; 4th class, works (the interior repair and decoration +of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle), £20,000; 5th class, +royal bounty, alms and special services, £13,200; 6th class, +unappropriated, £8000. The system relating to civil list pensions, +established by the Civil List Act 1837, continued to apply, but +the pensions were not regarded as chargeable on the sum paid +for the civil list. The committee also advised that the mastership +of the Buckhounds should not be continued; and the king, on +the advice of his ministers, agreed to accept their recommendation. +The maintenance of the royal hunt thus ceased to be a +charge on the civil list. The annuities of £20,000 to the prince +of Wales, of £10,000 to the princess of Wales, and of £18,000 to +His Majesty’s three daughters, were not included in the civil +list, though they were conferred by the same act. Other grants +made by special acts of parliament to members of the royal +family were also excluded from it; these were £6000 to the +princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, £6000 to the princess +Louise (duchess of Argyll), £25,000 to the duke of Connaught, +£6000 to the duchess of Albany, £6000 to the princess Beatrice +(Henry of Battenberg), and £3000 to the duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It may be interesting to compare with the British civil list the +corresponding figures in other countries. These are as follows, +the figures being those, for convenience, of 1905. Spain, £280,000, +exclusive of allowances to members of the royal family; Portugal, +<span class="sidenote">Figures in other countries.</span> +£97,333, in addition to £1333 to the queen-consort—total +grant to the royal family, £116,700; Italy, £602,000, +from which was deducted £16,000 for the children of the +deceased Prince Amedeo, duke of Aosta, £16,000 to Prince +Tommaso, duke of Genoa, and £40,000 to Queen Margherita; +Belgium, £140,000; Netherlands, £50,000, with, in addition, +£4000 for the maintenance of the royal palaces; Germany, £770,500 +(<i>Krondotations Rente</i>), the sovereign also possessing large private +property (<i>Kronfideikommiss und Schatullgüter</i>), the revenue from +which contributed to the expenditure of the court and the members +of the royal family; Denmark, £55,500, in addition to £6600 to +the heir-apparent; Norway, £38,888; Sweden, £72,700; Greece, +£52,000, which included £4000 each from Great Britain, France +and Russia; Austria-Hungary, £941,666, made up of £387,500 as +emperor of Austria out of the revenues of Austria, and £554,166 as +king of Hungary out of the revenues of Hungary; Japan, £300,000; +Rumania, £47,000, in addition to revenues from certain crown lands; +Servia, £48,000; Bulgaria, £40,000, besides £30,000 for maintenance +of palaces, &c.; Montenegro, £8300; Russia had no civil list, the +sovereign having all the revenue from the crown domains (actual +amount unknown, but supposed to amount to over £4,000,000); +the president of the French Republic had a salary of £24,000 a +year, with a further £24,000 for expenses; and the president of the +United States had a salary of $50,000 (from 1909, $75,000).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVIL SERVICE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span>, the generic name given to the aggregate of +all the public servants, or paid civil administrators and clerks, +of a state. It is the machinery by which the executive, through +the various administrations, carries on the central government +of the country.</p> + +<p><i>British Empire.</i>—The appointments to the civil service until +the year 1855 were made by nomination, with an examination +not sufficient to form an intellectual or even a physical test. +It was only after much consideration and almost years of discussion +that the nomination system was abandoned. Various +commissions reported on the civil service, and orders in council +were issued. Finally in 1855 a qualifying examination of a +stringent character was instituted, and in 1870 the principle +of open competition was adopted as a general rule. On the +report of the Playfair Commission (1876), an order in council +was issued dividing the civil service into an upper and lower +division. The order in council directed that a lower division +should be constituted, and men and boy clerks holding permanent +positions replaced the temporary assistants and writers. +The “temporary” assistant was not found to be advantageous +to the service. In December 1886 a new class of assistant +clerks was formed to replace the men copyists. In 1887 the +Ridley Commission reported on the civil service establishment. +In 1890 two orders in council were issued based on the reports +of the Ridley Commission, which sat from 1886 to 1890. The +first order constituted what is now known as the second division +of the civil service. The second order in council concerned the +officers of the 1st class; and provision was made for the possible +promotion of the second division clerks to the first division after +eight years’ service.</p> + +<p>The whole system is under the administration of the civil +service commissioners, and power is given to them, with the +approval of the treasury, to prescribe the subjects of examination, +limits of age, &c. The age is fixed for compulsory retirement +at sixty-five. In exceptional cases a prolongation of five +years is within the powers of the civil service commissioners. +The examination for 1st class clerkships is held concurrently +with that of the civil service of India and Eastern cadetships +in the colonial service. Candidates can compete for all three +or for two. In addition to the intellectual test the candidate +must fulfil the conditions of age (22 to 24), must present recommendations +as to character, and pass a medical examination. +This examination approximates closely to the university type +of education. Indeed, there is little chance of success except +for candidates who have had a successful university career, +and frequently, in addition, special preparation by a private +teacher. The subjects include the language and literature of +England, France, Germany, Italy, ancient Greece and Rome, +Sanskrit and Arabic, mathematics (pure and applied), natural +science (chemistry, physics, zoology, &c.), history (English, +Greek, Roman and general modern), political economy and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span> +economic history, mental and moral philosophy, Roman and +English law and political science. The candidate is obliged to +reach a certain standard of knowledge in each subject before +any marks at all are allowed him. This rule was made to prevent +success by mere cramming, and to ensure competent knowledge +on the basis of real study.</p> + +<p>The maximum scale of the salaries of clerks of Class I. is as +follows:—3rd class, £200 a year, increasing by £20 a year to +£500; 2nd class, £600, increasing by £25 a year to £800; 1st +class, £850, increasing by £50 a year to £1000. Their pensions +are fixed by the Superannuation Act 1859, 22 Vict. c. 26:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“To any person who shall have served ten years and upwards, +and under eleven years, an annual allowance of ten-sixtieths of +the annual salary and emoluments of his office:</p> + +<p>“For eleven years and under twelve years, an annual allowance +of eleven-sixtieths of such salary and emoluments:</p> + +<p>“And in like manner a further addition to the annual allowance +of one-sixtieth in respect of each additional year of such service, +until the completion of a period of service of forty years, when the +annual allowance of forty-sixtieths may be granted; and no additions +shall be made in respect of any service beyond forty years.”</p> + +<p>The “ordinary annual holidays allowed to officers” (1st class) +“shall not exceed thirty-six week-days during each of their first +ten years of service and forty-eight week-days thereafter.” Order +in Council, 15th August 1890.</p> + +<p>“Within that maximum heads of departments have now, as +they have hitherto had, an absolute discretion in fixing the annual +leave.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Sick leave can be granted on full salary for not more than six +months, on half-salary for another six months.</p> + +<p>The scale of salary for 2nd division clerks begins at £70 a year, +increasing by £5 to £100; then £100 a year, increasing by £7, 10s. +to £190; and then £190 a year, increasing by £10 to £250. The +highest is £300 to £500. Advancement in the 2nd division to the +higher ranks depends on merit, not seniority. The ordinary +annual holiday of the 2nd division clerks is 14 working days for +the first five years, and 21 working days afterwards. They can +be allowed sick leave for six months on full pay and six months +on half-pay. The subjects of their examination are: (1) handwriting +and orthography, including copying MS.; (2) arithmetic; +(3) English composition; (4) précis, including indexing and digest +of returns; (5) book-keeping and shorthand writing; (6) geography +and English history; (7) Latin; (8) French; (9) German; +(10) elementary mathematics; (11) inorganic chemistry +with elements of physics. Not more than four of the subjects +(4) to (11) can be taken. The candidate must be between the +ages of 17 and 20. A certain number of the places in the 2nd +division were reserved for the candidates from the boy clerks +appointed under the old system. The competition is severe, only +about one out of every ten candidates being successful. Candidates +are allowed a choice of departments subject to the exigencies +of the services.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There is also a class of boy copyists who are almost entirely +employed in London, a few in Dublin and Edinburgh, and, very +seldom, in some provincial towns. The subjects of their examination +are: <i>Obligatory</i>—handwriting and orthography, arithmetic and +English composition. <i>Optional</i>—(any two of the following): (1) +copying MS.; (2) geography; (3) English history; (4) translation +from one of the following languages—Latin, French or German; +(5) Euclid, bk. i. and ii., and algebra, up to and including simple +equations; (6) rudiments of chemistry and physics. Candidates +must be between the ages of 15 and 18. They have no claims to +superannuation or compensation allowance. Boy copyists are not +retained after the age of 20.</p> +</div> + +<p>Candidates for the civil service of India take the same examination +as for 1st class clerkships. Candidates successful in +the examination must subsequently spend one year in England. +They receive for that year £150 if they elect to live at one of the +universities or colleges approved by the secretary of state for +India. They are submitted to a final examination in the following +subjects—Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure, +the principal vernacular language of the province to which they +are assigned, the Indian Evidence Act (these three subjects are +compulsory), either Hindu and Mahommedan Law, or Sanskrit, +Arabic or Persian, Burmese (for Burma only). A candidate may +not take Arabic or Sanskrit both in the first examination and in +the final. They must also pass a thorough examination in riding. +On reaching India their salary begins at 400 rupees a month. +They may take, as leave, one-fourth of the time on active +service in periods strictly limited by regulation. After 25 years’ +service (of which 21 must be active service) they can retire on a +pension of £1000 a year. The unit of administration is the district. +At the head of the district is an executive officer called either +collector-magistrate or deputy-commissioner. In most provinces +he is responsible to the commissioner, who corresponds directly +with the provincial government. The Indian civilian after four +years’ probation in both branches of the service is called upon +to elect whether he will enter the revenue or judicial department, +and this choice as a rule is held to be final for his future work.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Candidates for the Indian Forest Service have to pass a competitive +examination, one of the compulsory subjects being German +or French. They have also to pass a severe medical examination, +especially in their powers of vision and hearing. They must be +between the ages of 18 and 22. Successful candidates are required +to pass a three years’ course, with a final examination, seven +terms of the course at an approved school of forestry, the rest of +the time receiving practical instruction in continental European +forests. On reaching India they start as assistant conservators at +380 rupees a month. The highest salary, that of inspector-general +of forests, in the Indian Forest Service is 2650 rupees a month.</p> + +<p>The Indian Police Service is entered by a competitive examination +of very much the same kind as for the forest service, except that +special subjects such as German and botany are not included. The +candidates are limited in age to 19 and 21. They must pass a +riding examination. A free passage out is given them. They are +allotted as probationers, their wishes being consulted as far as +possible as to their province. A probationer receives 300 rupees +a month. A district superintendent can rise to 1200 rupees a +month, while there are a few posts with a salary of 3000 rupees a +month in the police service. The leave and pension in both these +departments follow the general rules for Indian services.</p> +</div> + +<p>The civil service also includes student interpreterships for +China, Japan and Siam, and for the Ottoman dominions, Persia, +Greece and Morocco. Both these classes of student interpreters +are selected by open competition. Their object is to supply the +consular service in the above-named countries with persons +having a thorough knowledge of the language of the country +in which they serve.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In the first case, China, Japan, &c., they learn their language in +the country itself, receiving £200 as probationers. Then they become +assistants in a consulate. The highest post is that of consul-general. +In the case of student interpreters for the Ottoman dominions, +Persia, Greece and Morocco, the successful candidates learn +their languages at Oxford. Turkish is taught gratuitously, but +they pay the usual fees for other languages. At Oxford they receive +£200 a year for two years. On leaving Oxford they become assistants +under the embassy at Constantinople, the legations at Teheran, +Athens or Morocco, or at one of H.B.M. consulates. As assistants +they receive £300 a year. The consuls, the highest post to which +they can reach, receive in the Levant from £500 to £1600 a year. +The civil services of Ceylon, Hong-Kong, the Straits Settlements, +and the Malay Peninsula are supplied by the Eastern cadetships. +The limits of age for the examination are 18 and 24. The cadets +are required to learn the native language of the colony or +dependency to which they are assigned. In the case of the Straits +Settlements and Malay cadets they may have to learn Chinese or +Tamil, as well as the native language. The salaries are: passed +cadets, 3500 rupees per annum, gradually increasing until first-class +officers receive from 12,000 to 18,000 rupees per annum. They are +allowed three months’ vacation on full pay in two years, and leave +of absence on half-pay after six years’ service, or before that if +urgently needed. They can retire for ill-health after ten years with +fifteen-sixtieths of their annual salary. Otherwise they can add +one-sixtieth of their annual salary to their pension for every +additional year’s service up to thirty-five years’ service.</p> +</div> + +<p>In spite of the general rule of open competition, there are still +a few departments where the system of <i>nomination</i> obtains, +accompanied by a severe test of knowledge, either active or +implied. Such are the foreign office, British Museum, and board +of education.</p> + +<p>The employment of women in the civil service has been +principally developed in the post office. Women are employed +in the post office as female clerks, counter clerks, telegraphists, +returners, sorters and post-mistresses all over the United Kingdom. +The board of agriculture, the customs and the India office +employ women. The department of agriculture, the board of +education generally, the local government board, all to a certain +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span> +extent employ women, whilst in the home office there are an +increasing number of women inspectors of workshops and +factories.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1881 the postmaster-general took a decided step in favour of +female employment, and with the consent of the treasury instituted +female clerkships. Female clerks do not come in contact with the +public. Their duties are purely clerical, and entirely in the accountant-general’s +department at the savings bank. Their leave is one +month per annum; their pension is on the ordinary civil service +scale. The examination is competitive; the subjects are handwriting +and spelling, arithmetic, English composition, geography, +English history, French or German. Candidates must be between +the ages of 18 and 20. Whether unmarried or widows they must +resign on marriage. The class of girl clerks take the same subjects +in a competitive examination. They must be between the ages of +16 and 18; they serve only in the Savings Bank department. If +competent they can pass on later to female clerkships. The salaries +of the female clerkships range from £200 to £500 in the higher +grade, £55 to £190 in the 2nd class, whilst girl clerks are paid from +£35 to £40, with the chance of advancement to higher posts.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>United States.</i>—Civil service reform, like other great administrative +reforms, began in America in the latter half of the 19th +century. Personal and partisan government, with all the entailed +evils of the patronage system, culminated in Great Britain +during the reign of George III., and was one of the efficient +causes of the American revolution. Trevelyan characterizes the +use of patronage to influence legislation, and the giving of colonial +positions as sinecures to the privileged classes and personal +favourites of the administration, by saying, “It was a system +which, as its one achievement of the first order, brought about +the American War, and made England sick, once and for all, +of the very name of personal government.” It was natural that +the founders of the new government in America, after breaking +away from the mother-country, should strive to avoid the evils +which had in a measure brought about the revolution. Their +intention that the administrative officers of the government +should hold office during good behaviour is manifest, and was +given thorough and practical effect by every administration +during the first forty years of the life of the government. The +constitution fixed no term of office in the executive branch of +the government except those of president and vice-president; +and Madison, the expounder of the constitution, held that the +wanton removal of a meritorious officer was an impeachable +offence. Not until nine years after the passage of the Four Years’ +Tenure of Office Act in 1820 was there any material departure +from this traditional policy of the government. This act +(suggested by an appointing officer who wished to use the +power it gave in order to secure his own nomination for the +presidency, and passed without debate and apparently without +any adequate conception of its full effect) opened the doors of +the service to all the evils of the “spoils system.” The foremost +statesmen of the time were not slow to perceive the baleful +possibilities of this legislation, Jefferson,<a name="FnAnchor_1f" id="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Webster, Clay, Calhoun, +Benton and many others being recorded as condemning and +deploring it in the strongest terms. The transition to the +“spoils system” was not, however, immediate, and for the next +nine years the practice of reappointing all meritorious officers +was practically universal; but in 1829 this practice ceased, +and the act of 1820 lent the sanction of law to the system of +<span class="sidenote">The “spoils system”.</span> +proscriptions which followed, which was a practical +application of the theory that “to the victor belong +the spoils of the enemy.” In 1836 the provisions of +this law, which had at first been confined mainly to +officers connected with the collection of revenue, were extended +to include also all postmasters receiving a compensation of $1000 +per annum or more. It rapidly became the practice to regard all +these four years’ tenure offices as agencies not so much for the +transaction of the public business as for the advancement of +political ends. The revenue service from being used for political +purposes merely came to be used for corrupt purposes as well, +with the result that in one administration frauds were practised +upon the government to the extent of $75,000,000. The corrupting +influences permeated the whole body politic. Political retainers +were selected for appointment not on account of their +ability to do certain work but because they were followers of +certain politicians; these “public servants” acknowledged +no obligation except to those politicians, and their public duties, +if not entirely disregarded, were negligently and inefficiently +performed. Thus grew a saturnalia of spoils and corruption +which culminated in the assassination of a president.</p> + +<p>Acute conditions, not theories, give rise to reforms. In +the congressional election of November 1882, following the +assassination of President Garfield as an incident in the operation +of the spoils system, the voice of the people commanding +reform was unmistakable. Congress assembled in December 1882, +and during the same month a bill looking to the improvement +of the civil service, which had been pending in the Senate for +nearly two years, was finally taken up and considered by that +body. In the debate upon this bill its advocates declared that +it would “vastly improve the whole civil service of the country,” +which they characterized as being at that time “inefficient, +expensive and extravagant, and in many instances corrupt.”<a name="FnAnchor_2f" id="FnAnchor_2f" href="#Footnote_2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +<span class="sidenote">Law of 1883.</span> +This bill passed the Senate on the 27th of December +1882, and the House on the 4th of January 1883, and +was signed by the president on the 16th of January +1883, coming into full operation on the 16th of July 1883. +It is now the national civil service law. The fundamental principles +of this law are:—(1) selection by competitive examination +for all appointments to the “classified service,” with a +period of probationary service before absolute appointment; +(2) apportionment among the states and territories, according +to population, of all appointments in the departmental service +at Washington; (3) freedom of all the employees of the government +from any necessity to contribute to political campaign +funds or to render political services. For putting these principles +into effect the Civil Service Commission was created, and penalties +were imposed for the solicitation or collection from government +employees of contributions for political purposes, and for the +use of official positions in coercing political action. The commission, +in addition to its regular duties of aiding in the preparation +of civil service rules, of regulating and holding examinations, +and certifying the results thereof for use in making appointments, +and of keeping records of all changes in the service, was given +authority to investigate and report upon any violations of the +act or rules. The “classified” service to which the act applies +has grown, by the action of successive presidents in progressively +including various branches of tne service within it, from 13,924 +positions in 1883 to some 80,000 (in round numbers) in 1900, +constituting about 40% of the entire civil service of the government +and including practically all positions above the grade of +mere labourer or workman to which appointment is <i>not</i> made +directly by the president with the consent of the Senate.<a name="FnAnchor_3f" id="FnAnchor_3f" href="#Footnote_3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> A +very large class to which the act is expressly applicable, and +which has been partly brought within its provisions by executive +action, is that of fourth-class postmasters, of whom there are +between 70,000 and 80,000 (about 15,000 classified in 1909).</p> + +<p>In order to provide registers of eligibles for the various grades +of positions in the classified service, the United States Civil +Service Commission holds annually throughout the country +about 300 different kinds of examinations. In the work of +preparing these examinations and of marking the papers of +competitors in them the commission is authorized by law +to avail itself, in addition to its own corps of trained men, of +the services of the scientific and other experts in the various +executive departments. In the work of holding the examinations +it is aided by about 1300 local boards of examiners, which +are its local representatives throughout the country and are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span> +located at the principal post offices, custom houses and other +government offices, being composed of three or more Federal +employees in those offices. About 50,000 persons annually +compete in these examinations, and about 10,000 of those who +are successful receive appointments through regular certification. +Persons thus appointed, however, must serve six months “on +probation” before their appointment can be made absolute. +At the end of this probation, if his service has not been +satisfactory, the appointee is simply dropped; and the fact that less +than 1% of those appointed prove thus deficient on trial is high +testimony to the practical nature of the examinations held by +the commission, and to their aptness for securing persons qualified +for all classes of positions.</p> + +<p>The effects of the Civil Service Act within the scope of its +actual operation have amply justified the hopes and promises of +its advocates. After its passage, absentee holders of lucrative +appointments were required to report for duty or to sever their +connexion with the service. Improved methods were adopted +in the departments, and superfluous and useless work was no +longer devised in order to provide a show of employment and a +<i>locus standi</i> for the parasites upon the public service. Individual +clerks were required, and by reason of the new conditions were +enabled, to do more and better work; and this, coupled with +the increase in efficiency in the service on account of new blood +coming in through the examinations, made possible an actual +decrease in the force required in many offices, notwithstanding +the natural growth in the amount of work to be done.<a name="FnAnchor_4f" id="FnAnchor_4f" href="#Footnote_4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +Experience proves that the desire to create new and unnecessary +positions was in direct proportion to the power to control them, +for where the act has taken away this power of control the desire +had disappeared naturally. There is no longer any desire on +the part of heads of departments to increase the number or +salaries of classified positions which would fall by law within the +civil service rules and be subject to competitive examinations. +Thus the promises of improvement and economy in the service +have been fulfilled.</p> + +<p>The chief drawback to the full success of the act within its +intended scope of operation has been the withholding of +certain positions in the service from the application of the +vital principle of competition. The Civil Service Act contemplated +no exceptions, within the limits to which it was made +applicable, to the general principle of competition upon merit +for entrance to the service. In framing the first civil service +rules, however, in 1883, the president, yielding to the pressure +of the heads of some of the departments, and against the +urgent protest of the Civil Service Commission, excepted from +the requirement of examination large numbers of positions in the +higher grades of the service, chiefly fiduciary and administrative +positions such as cashiers, chief clerks and chiefs of division. +These positions being thus continued under the absolute control +of the appointing officer, the effect of their exception from +examination was to retain just that much of the old or “spoils” +system within the nominal jurisdiction of the new or “merit” +system. Even more: under the old system, while appointments +from the outside had been made regardless of fitness, still those +appointments had been made in the lower grades, the higher +positions being filled by promotion within the service, usually of +the most competent, but under the new system with its exceptions, +while appointments to the lower grades were filled on the basis of +merit, the pressure for spoils at each change of administration +forced inexperienced, political or personal favourites in at the top. +This blocked promotions and demoralized the service. Thus, while +the general effect of the act was to limit very greatly the number +of vicious appointments, at the same time the effect of these +exceptions was to confine them to the upper grades, where the +demoralizing effect of each upon the service would be a maximum. +By constant efforts the Civil Service Commission succeeded in +having position after position withdrawn from this excepted +class, until by the action of the president, on the 6th of May 1896, +it was finally reduced almost to a minimum. By subsequent +presidential action, however, on the 29th of May 1899, the +excepted class was again greatly extended.<a name="FnAnchor_5f" id="FnAnchor_5f" href="#Footnote_5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p> + +<p>A further obstacle to the complete success of the merit system, +and one which prevents the carrying forward of the reform to +the extent to which it has been carried in Great Britain, is +inherent in the Civil Service Act itself. All postmasters who +receive compensation of $1000 or more per annum, and all +collectors of customs and collectors of internal revenue, are +appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, and +are therefore, by express provision of the act, not “required +to be classified.” The universal practice of treating these +offices as political agencies instead of as administrative business +offices is therefore not limited by the act. Such officers are +active in political work throughout the country, and their +official position adds greatly to their power to affect the political +prospects of the leaders in their districts. Accordingly the +Senate, from being, as originally intended, merely a confirming +body as to these officers, has become in a large measure, actually +if not formally, a nominating body, and holds with tenacity +to the power thus acquired by the individual senators. Thorough +civil service reform requires that these positions also, and all +those of fourth-class postmasters (partly classified by order of +1st Dec. 1908), be made subject to the merit system, for in +them is the real remaining stronghold of the spoils system. Even +though all their subordinates be appointed through examination, +it will be impossible to carry the reform to ultimate and complete +success so long as the officers in charge are appointed mainly +for political reasons and are changed with every change of +administration.</p> + +<p>The purpose of the act to protect the individual employees +in the service from the rapacity of the “political barons” has +been measurably, if not completely, successful. The power +given the Civil Service Commission, to investigate and report +upon violations of the law, has been used to bring to light such +abuses as the levying of political contributions, and to set the +machinery of the law in motion against them. While comparatively +few actual prosecutions have been brought about, and +although the penalties imposed by the act for this offence have +been but seldom inflicted, still the publicity given to all such +cases by the commission’s investigations has had a wholesome +deterrent effect. Before the passage of the act, positions were +as a general rule held upon a well-understood lease-tenure, the +political contributions for them being as securely and as certainly +collected as any rent. Now, however, it can be said that these +forced contributions have almost entirely disappeared. The +efforts which are still made to collect political funds from government +employees in evasion of the law are limited in the main +to persuasion to make “voluntary” contributions, and it has +been possible so to limit and obstruct these efforts that their +practical effect upon the character of the service is now very +small.</p> + +<p>The same evils that the Federal Civil Service Act was designed +to remedy exist to a large degree in many of the state governments, +and are especially aggravated in the administration +of the local governments of some of the larger +<span class="sidenote">State examination.</span> +cities. The chief, if not the only, test of fitness for +office in many cases has been <span class="correction" title="amended from partly">party</span> loyalty, honesty +and capacity being seldom more than secondary considerations. +The result has been the fostering of dishonesty and extravagance, +which have brought weakness and gross corruption into the +administration of the local governments. In consequence of +this there has been a constantly growing tendency, among the +more intelligent class of citizens, to demand that honest business +methods be applied to local public service, and that appointments +be made on the basis of intelligence and capacity, rather than +of party allegiance. The movement for the reform of the civil +service of cities is going hand in hand with the movement for +general municipal reform, those reformers regarding the merit +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span> +system of appointments as not merely the necessary and only +safe bulwark to preserve the results of their labours, but also as +the most efficient means for bringing about other reforms. +Hence civil service reform is given a leading position in all +programmes for the reform of state and municipal governments. +This has undoubtedly been due, in the first instance, at least, to +the success which attended the application of the merit system +to the Federal service, municipal and state legislation following +in the wake of the national civil service law. In New York an act +similar to the Federal Civil Service Act was passed on the 4th +of May 1883, and in 1894 the principles of the merit system +were introduced by an amendment into the state constitution, +and made applicable to cities and villages as well. In Massachusetts +an act was passed on the 3rd of June 1884 which in +its general features was based upon the Federal act and the +New York act. Similar laws were passed in Illinois and Wisconsin +in 1895, and in New Jersey in 1908; the laws provide for the +adoption of the merit system in state and municipal government. +In New Orleans, La., and in Seattle, Wash., the merit +system was introduced by an amendment to the city charter +in 1896. The same result was accomplished by New Haven, +Conn., in 1897, and by San Francisco, Cal., in 1899. In still +other cities the principles of the merit system have been enacted +into law, in some cases applying to the entire service and in +others to only a part of it.</p> + +<p>The application of the merit system to state and municipal +governments has proved successful wherever it has been given +a fair trial.<a name="FnAnchor_6f" id="FnAnchor_6f" href="#Footnote_6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> As experience has fostered public confidence in the +system, and at the same time shown those features of the law +which are most vulnerable, and the best means for fortifying +them, numerous and important improvements upon the pioneer +act applying to the Federal service have been introduced in +the more recent legislation. This is particularly true of the acts +now in force in New York (passed in 1899) and in Chicago. +The power of the commission to enforce these acts is materially +greater than the power possessed by the Federal commission. +In making investigations they are not confined to taking the +testimony of voluntary witnesses, but may administer oaths, +and compel testimony and the production of books and papers +where necessary; and in taking action they are not confined +to the making of a report of the findings in their investigations, +but may themselves, in many cases, take final judicial action. +Further than this, the payment of salaries is made dependent +upon the certificate of the commission that the appointments +of the recipients were made in accordance with the civil service +law and rules. Thus these commissions have absolute power +to prevent irregular or illegal appointments by refractory +appointing officers. Their powers being so much greater than +those of the national commission, their action can be much +more drastic in most cases, and they can go more directly to the +heart of an existing abuse, and apply more quickly and effectually +the needed remedy.</p> + +<p>Upon the termination of the Spanish-American War, the +necessity for the extension of the principles of the merit system +to the new territories, the responsibility for whose government +the results of this war had thrown upon the United States, was +realized. By the acts providing for civil government in Porto +Rico (April 12th, 1900) and Hawaii (April 30th, 1900), the +provisions of the Civil Service Act and Rules were applied to +those islands. Under this legislation the classification applies +to all positions which are analogous to positions in the Federal +service, those which correspond to positions in the municipal +and state governments being considered as local in character, +and not included in the classification.</p> + +<p>On the 19th of September 1900 the United States Philippine +Commission passed an act “for the establishment and maintenance +of an efficient and honest civil service in the Philippine +Islands.” This act, in its general features, is based upon the +national civil service law, but includes also a number of the +stronger points to be found in the state and municipal law +mentioned above. Among these are the power given the civil +service board to administer oaths, summon witnesses, and require +the production of official records; and the power to stop payment +of salaries to persons illegally appointed. Promotions are +determined by competitive examinations, and are made throughout +the service, as there are no excepted positions. A just +right of preference in local appointments is given to natives. +The president of the Philippine commission in introducing this +bill said: “The purpose of the United States government ... +in these islands is to secure for the Filipino people as honest +and as efficient a government as may be possible.... It is the +hope of the commission to make it possible for one entering the +lowest ranks to reach the highest, under a tenure based solely +upon merit.” Judging by past experience it is believed that +this law is well adapted to accomplish the purpose above stated.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For fuller information upon the details of the present workings +of the merit system in the Federal service, recourse should be had +to the publications of the U.S. Civil Service Commission, which are +to be found in the public libraries in all the principal cities in the +United States, or which may be had free of charge upon application +to the commission. The <i>Manual of Examinations</i>, published semi-annually, +gives full information as to the character of the examinations +held by the commission, together with the schedule of dates +and places for the holding of those examinations. The <i>Annual +Reports</i> of the commission contain full statistics of the results of its +work, together with comprehensive statements as to the difficulties +encountered in enforcing the law, and the means used to overcome +them. In the <i>Fifteenth Report</i>, pp. 443-485, will be found a very +valuable historical compilation from original sources, upon the +“practice of the presidents in appointments and removals in the +executive civil service, from 1789 to 1883.” In the same report, +pp. 511-517, is a somewhat comprehensive bibliography of “civil +service” in periodical literature in the 19th century, brought down +to the end of 1898. See also C.R. Fish, <i>The Civil Service and the +Patronage</i> (New York, 1905).</p> + +<p>In most European countries the civil service is recruited on much +the same lines as in the United Kingdom and the United States, +that is, either by examination or by nomination or by both. In +some cases the examination is purely competitive, in other cases, +as in France, holders of university degrees get special privileges, such +as being put at the head of the list, or going up a certain number of +places; or, as in Germany, many departmental posts are filled by +nomination, combined with the results of general examinations, +either at school or university. In the publications of the United +States Department of Labour and Commerce for 1904-1905 will +be found brief details of the systems adopted by the various foreign +countries for appointing their civil service employees.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1f" id="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See letter to Monroe, November 29th, 1820, Jefferson’s <i>Writings</i>, +vii. 190. A quotation from this letter is given at p. 454 of the +<i>Fifteenth Report of the U.S. Civil Service Commission</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2f" id="Footnote_2f" href="#FnAnchor_2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See <i>Senate Report No. 576</i>, 47th Congress, 1st session; also <i>U.S. +Civil Service Commission’s Third Report</i>, p. 16 et seq., <i>Tenth Report</i>, +pp. 136, 137, and <i>Fifteenth Report</i>, pp. 483, 484.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3f" id="Footnote_3f" href="#FnAnchor_3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The progressive classification of the executive civil service, +showing the growth of the merit system, is discussed, with statistics, +in the <i>U.S. Civil Service Commission’s Sixteenth Report</i>, pp. 129-137. +A revision of this discussion, with important additions, appears in +the <i>Seventeenth Report</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4f" id="Footnote_4f" href="#FnAnchor_4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For details justifying these statements, see <i>U.S. Civil Service +Commission’s Fourteenth Report</i>, pp. 12-14.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5f" id="Footnote_5f" href="#FnAnchor_5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For the scope of these exceptions, see Civil Service Rule VI., +at p. 57 of the <i>U.S. Civil Service Commission’s Fifteenth and Sixteenth +Reports</i>. A statement of the number of positions actually affected +by this action of the president appears in the <i>Seventeenth Report</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6f" id="Footnote_6f" href="#FnAnchor_6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> In the <i>U.S. Civil Service Commission’s Fifteenth Report</i>, pp. 489-502, +the “growth of the civil service reform in states and cities” is +historically treated, briefly, but with some thoroughness.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVITA CASTELLANA<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (anc. <i>Falerii</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), a town and episcopal +see of the province of Rome, 45 m. by rail from the city of Rome +(the station is 5 m. N.E. of the town). Population (1901) 5265. +The cathedral of S. Maria possesses a fine portico, erected in +1210 by Laurentius Romanus, his son Jacobus and his grandson +Cosmas, in the cosmatesque style, with ancient columns and +mosaic decorations: the interior was modernized in the 18th +century, but has some fragments of cosmatesque ornamentation. +The citadel was erected by Pope Alexander VI. from the designs +of Antonio da Sangallo the elder, and enlarged by Julius II. +and Leo X. The lofty bridge by which the town is approached +belongs to the 18th century. Mount Soracte lies about 6 m. +to the south-east.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CIVITA VECCHIA<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>, a seaport town and episcopal see of Italy, +in the province of Rome, 50 m. N.W. by rail and 35 m. direct +from the city of Rome. Pop. (1871) 8143; (1901) 17,589. It +is the ancient <i>Centum Cellae</i>, founded by Trajan. Interesting +descriptions of it are given by Pliny the Younger (<i>Epist.</i> vi. 31) +and Rutilius Namat. i. 237. The modern harbour works rest +on the ancient foundations, and near it the cemetery of detachments +of the <i>Classes Misenensis</i> and <i>Ravennas</i> has been found +(<i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> vol. xi., Berlin, 1888, pp. 3520 seq.). Remains +of an aqueduct and other Roman buildings are preserved; the +imperial family had a villa here. Procopius mentions it in the +6th century as a strong and populous place, but it was destroyed +in 813 by the Saracens. Leo IV. erected a new city for the +inhabitants on the site where they had taken refuge, about 8 m. +N.N.E. of Civita Vecchia towards the hills, near La Farnesina, +where its ruins may still be seen; the city walls and some of +the streets and buildings may be traced, and an inscription +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span> +(which must have stood over one of the city gates) recording +its foundation has been discovered. It continued to exist under +the name Cencelle as a feudal castle until the 15th century. +In the meantime, however, the inhabitants returned to the old +town by the shore in 889 and rebuilt it, giving it the name +Civitas Vetus, the modern Civita Vecchia (see O. Marucchi in +<i>Nuovo Bullettino di archeologia cristiana</i>, vi., 1900, p. 195 seq.). +In 1508 Pope Julius II. began the construction of the castle +from the designs of Bramante, Michelangelo being responsible +for the addition of the central tower. It is considered by Burckhardt +the finest building of its kind. Pius IV. added a convict +prison. The arsenal was built by Alexander VII. and designed +by Bernini. Civita Vecchia was the chief port of the Papal +State and has still a considerable trade. There are cement +factories in the town, and calcium carbide is an important article +of export. The principal imports are coal, cattle for the home +markets, and fire-bricks from the United Kingdom. Three +miles N.E. were the <i>Aquae Tauri</i>, warm springs, now known +as <i>Bagni della Ferrata</i>: considerable remains of the Roman +baths are still preserved. About 1 m. W. of these are other +hot springs, those of the <i>Ficoncella</i>, also known in Roman times.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLACKMANNAN<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span>, the county town of Clackmannanshire, +Scotland. Pop. 1505. It lies near the north bank of the Forth, +2 m. E. of Alloa, with two stations on the North British railway. +Among the public buildings are the parish church, the tower of +which, standing on a commanding eminence, is a conspicuous +landmark. Clackmannan Tower is now a picturesque ruin, +but at one time played an important part in Scottish history, +and was the seat of a lineal descendant of the Bruce family +after the failure of the male line. The old market cross still +exists, and close to it stands the stone that gives the town its +name (Gaelic, <i>clach</i>, stone; Manann, the name of the district). +A large spinning-mill and coalpits lend a modern touch in +singular contrast with the quaint, old-world aspect of the place. +About 1 m. to the S.E. is Kennet House, the seat of Lord Balfour +of Burleigh, another member of the Bruce family.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLACKMANNANSHIRE<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span>, the smallest county in Scotland, +bounded S.W. by the Forth, W. by Stirlingshire, N.N.E. and +N.W. by Perthshire, and E. by Fifeshire. It has an area of +35,160 acres, or about 55 sq. m. An elevated ridge starting on +the west, runs through the middle of the county, widening +gradually till it reaches the eastern boundary, and skirting +the alluvial or carse lands in the valleys of the Forth and Devon. +Still farther to the N. the Ochil hills form a picturesque feature +in the landscape, having their generally verdant surface broken +by bold projecting rocks and deeply indented ravines. The +principal summits are within the limits of the shire, among +them Ben Cleuch (2363 ft.), King’s Seat (2111 ft.), Whitewisp +(2110 ft.), the Law (above Tillicoultry, 2094 ft.) and Blairdenon +(2072 ft.), on the northern slope, in which the river Devon takes +its rise. The rivers of importance are the Devon and the Black +or South Devon. The former, noted in the upper parts for its +romantic scenery and its excellent trout-fishing, runs through the +county near the base of the Ochils, and falls into the Forth at +the village of Cambus, after a winding course of 33 m., although +as the crow flies its source is only 5¼ m. distant. The Black +Devon, rising in the Cleish Hills, flows westwards in a direction +nearly parallel to that of the Devon, and falls into the Forth +near Clackmannan. It supplies motive power to numbers of +mills and collieries; and its whole course is over coal strata. +The Forth is navigable as far as it forms the boundary of the +county, and ships of 500 tons burden run up as far as Alloa. +The only lake is Gartmorn, 1 m. long by about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> of a mile broad, +which has been dammed in order to furnish water to Alloa and +power to mills. The Ochils are noted for the number of their +glens. Though these are mostly small, they are well wooded +and picturesque, and those at Menstrie, Alva, Tillicoultry and +Dollar are particularly beautiful.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—This county is divided geologically into two areas, the +boundary line skirting the southern margin of the Ochils and running +westwards from a point north of Dollar by Alva in the direction of +Airthrev in Stirlingshire. The northern portion forms part of the +volcanic range of the Ochils which belongs to the Old Red Sandstone +period, and consists of a great succession of lavas—basalts and +andesites—with intercalations of tuff and agglomerate. As the +rocks dip gently towards the north and form the highest ground +in the county they must reach a great thickness. They are pierced +by small intrusive masses of diorite, north of Tillicoultry House. +The well-marked feature running E. and W. along the southern +base of the Ochils indicates a line of fault or dislocation which +abruptly truncates the Lower Old Red volcanic rocks and brings +down an important development of Carboniferous strata occupying +the southern part of the county. These belong mainly to the Coal-measures +and comprise a number of valuable coal-seams which +have been extensively worked. The Clackmannan field is the +northern continuation of the great Lanarkshire basin which extends +northwards by Slamannan, Falkirk and the Carron Ironworks to +Alloa. Along the eastern margin between Cairnmuir and Brucefield +the underlying Millstone Grit, consisting mainly of false-bedded +sandstones, comes to the surface. Close to the river Devon +south of Dollar the Vicars Bridge Limestone, which there marks the +top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, rises from beneath the +Millstone Grit. The structure of the Clackmannan field is interesting. +The strata are arranged in synclinal form, the highest seams being +found near the Devon ironworks, and they are traversed by a series +of parallel east and west faults each with a downthrow to the south, +whereby the coals are repeated and the field extended. During +mining operations evidence has been obtained of the existence of +a buried river-channel, filled with boulder clay and stratified deposits +along the course of the Devon, which extends below the +present sea-level and points to greater elevation of the land in +pre-glacial time. An excellent example of a dolerite dyke trending +slightly north of west occurs in the north part of the county where +it traverses the volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sandstone age.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—The soil is generally productive and well cultivated, +though the greater part of the elevated range which is +interposed between the carse lands on the Forth and the vale +of Devon at the base of the Ochils on the north consists of inferior +soils, often lying upon an impervious clay. Oats are the chief +crop, but wheat and barley are profitably grown. Sheep-farming +is successfully pursued, the Ochils affording excellent +pasturage, and cattle, pigs and horses are also raised. There is +a small tract of moorland in the east, called the Forest, bounded +on its northern margin by the Black Devon. Iron-ore (haematite), +copper, silver, lead, cobalt and arsenic have all been +discovered in small quantity in the Ochils, between Alva and +Dollar. Ironstone—found either in beds, or in oblate balls +embedded in slaty clay, and yielded from 25 to 30% of iron—is +mined for the Devon iron-works, near Clackmannan. Coal +has been mined for a long period. The strata which compose the +field are varieties of sandstone, shale, fire-clay and argillaceous +ironstone. There is a heavy continuous output of coal at the +mines at Sauchie, Fishcross, Coalsnaughton, Devonside, Clackmannan +and other pits. The spinning-mills at Alloa, Tillicoultry +and Alva are always busy, Alloa yarns and fingering being widely +famous. The distilleries at Glenochil and Carsebridge and the +breweries in Alloa and Cambus do a large export business. +The minor trades include glass-blowing, pottery, coopering, +tanning, iron-founding, electrical apparatus making, ship-building +and paper-making.</p> + +<p>The north British railway serves the whole county, while the +Caledonian has access to Alloa.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Government.</i>—The population was 33,140 +in 1891 and 32,029 in 1901, when 170 persons spoke Gaelic and +English and one person Gaelic only. The county unites with +Kinross-shire in returning one member to parliament. Clackmannan +(pop. 1505) is the county town, but Alloa (14,458), +Alva (4624), and Tillicoultry (3338) take precedence in population +and trade. Menstrie (pop. 898) near Alloa has a large +furniture factory and the great distillery of Glenochil. To the +north-east of Alloa is the thriving mining village of Sauchie. +Clackmannan forms a sheriffdom with Stirling and Dumbarton +shires, and a sheriff-substitute sits at Alloa. Most of the schools +in the shire are under school-board control, but there are a +few voluntary schools, besides an exceptionally well-equipped +technical school in Alloa and a well-known academy at Dollar.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See James Wallace, <i>The Sheriffdom of Clackmannan: a Sketch +of its History</i> (Edinburgh, 1890); D. Beveridge, <i>Between the Ochils +and the Forth</i> (Edinburgh, 1888); John Crawford, <i>Memorials of +Alloa</i> (1885); William Gibson, <i>Reminiscences of Dollar, Tillicoultry</i>,</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLACTON-ON-SEA<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span>, a watering-place in the Harwich parliamentary +division of Essex, England; 71 m. E.N.E. from London +by a branch from Colchester of the Great Eastern railway; +served also by steamers from London in the summer months. +Pop. of urban district (1901) 7456. Clay cliffs of slight altitude +rise from the sandy beach and face south-eastward. In the +neighbourhood, however, marshes fringe the shore. The church +of Great Clacton, at the village 1½ m. inland, is Norman and +later, and of considerable interest. Clacton is provided with +a pier, promenade and marine parade; and is the seat of various +convalescent and other homes.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLADEL, LÉON<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1835-1892), French novelist, was born at +Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne) on the 13th of March 1835. +The son of an artisan, he studied law at Toulouse and became +a solicitor’s clerk in Paris. He made a reputation in a limited +circle by his first book, <i>Les Martyrs ridicules</i> (1862), a novel for +which Charles Baudelaire, whose literary disciple Cladel was, +wrote a preface. He then returned to his native district of +Quercy, where he produced a series of pictures of peasant life in +<i>Eral le dompteur</i> (1865), <i>Le Nommé Qouael</i> (1868) and other +volumes. Returning to Paris he published the two novels +which are generally acknowledged as his best work, <i>Le Bouscassié</i> +(1869) and <i>La Fête votive de Saint Bartholomée Porte-glaive</i> (1872). +<i>Une Maudite</i> (1876) was judged dangerous to the public morals +and cost its author a month’s imprisonment. Other works by +Cladel are <i>Les Va-nu-pieds</i> (1873), a volume of short stories; +<i>N’a qu’un œil</i> (1882), <i>Urbains et ruraux</i> (1884), <i>Gueux de +marque</i> (1887), and the posthumous <i>Juive errante</i> (1897). He died at +Sèvres on the 20th of July 1892.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>La Vie de Léon Cladel</i> (Paris, 1905), by his daughter Judith +Cladel, containing also an article on Cladel by Edmond Picard, a +complete list of his works, and of the critical articles on his work.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1811-1885), American +merchant, was born in Milford, Massachusetts, on the 18th of +December 1811. He was educated at Milford Academy, became +a clerk in his father’s store in Milford, and in 1831, with his +brother Aaron and his brother-in-law Samuel Daniels, succeeded +to his father’s business. In 1832 the firm opened a branch store +in Worcester, Mass., and in 1833 Horace B. Claflin and Daniels +secured the sole control of this establishment and restricted their +dealing to dry goods. In 1843 Claflin removed to New York +City and became a member of the firm of Bulkley & Claflin, +wholesale dry goods merchants. In 1851 and in 1864 the firm +was reorganized, being designated in these respective years +as Claflin, Mellin & Company and H.B. Claflin & Company. +Under Claflin’s management the business increased so rapidly +that the sales for a time after 1865 probably exceeded those +of any other mercantile house in the world. Though the firm +was temporarily embarrassed at the beginning of the Civil War, +on account of its large business interests in the South, and during +the financial panic of 1873, the promptness with which Mr +Claflin met these crises and paid every dollar of his liabilities +greatly increased his reputation for business ability and integrity. +He died at Fordham, New York, on the 14th of November 1885.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAIRAULT<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Clairaut</span>), <span class="bold">ALEXIS CLAUDE</span> (1713-1765), +French mathematician, was born on the 13th or 7th of May 1713, +at Paris, where his father was a teacher of mathematics. Under +his father’s tuition he made such rapid progress in mathematical +studies that in his thirteenth year he read before the French +Academy an account of the properties of four curves which he +had then discovered. When only sixteen he finished a treatise, +<i>Recherches sur les courbes à double courbure</i>, which, on its +publication in 1731, procured his admission into the Academy of +Sciences, although even then he was below the legal age. In +1736, together with Pierre Louis Maupertuis, he took part in the +expedition to Lapland, which was undertaken for the purpose +of estimating a degree of the meridian, and on his return he +published his treatise <i>Théorie de la figure de la terre</i> (1743). In +this work he promulgated the theorem, known as “Clairault’s +theorem,” which connects the gravity at points on the surface +of a rotating ellipsoid with the compression and the centrifugal +force at the equator (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Earth, Figure of the</a></span>). He obtained +an ingenious approximate solution of the problem of the three +bodies; in 1750 he gained the prize of the St Petersburg Academy +for his essay <i>Théorie de la lune</i>; and in 1759 he calculated the +perihelion of Halley’s comet. He also detected singular solutions +in differential equations of the first order, and of the second and +higher degrees. Clairault died at Paris, on the 17th of May 1765.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAIRON, LA<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1723-1803), French actress, whose real name +was <span class="sc">Claire Joseph Hippolyte Leris</span>, was born at Condé sur +l’Escaut, Hainaut, on the 25th of January 1723, the natural +daughter of <span class="correction" title="amended from any">an</span> army sergeant. In 1736 she made her first stage +appearance at the Comédie Italienne, in a small part in Marivaux’s +<i>Île des esclaves</i>. After several years in the provinces she returned +to Paris. Her life, meanwhile, had been decidedly irregular, +even if not to the degree indicated by the libellous pamphlet +<i>Histoire de la demoiselle Cronel, dite Frétillon, actrice de la Comédie +de Rouen, écrite par elle-même</i> (The Hague, 1746), or to be inferred +from the disingenuousness of her own <i>Mémoires d’Hippolyte +Clairon</i> (1798); and she had great difficulty in obtaining an +order to make her <i>début</i> at the Comédie Française. Succeeding, +however, at last, she had the courage to select the title-rôle of +<i>Phèdre</i> (1743), and she obtained a veritable triumph. During +her twenty-two years at this theatre, dividing the honours +with her rival Mlle Dumesnil, she filled many of the classical +rôles of tragedy, and created a great number of parts in the plays +of Voltaire, Marmontel, Saurin, de Belloy and others. She +retired in 1766, and trained pupils for the stage, among them +Mlle Raucourt. Goldsmith called Mlle Clairon “the most perfect +female figure I have ever seen on any stage” (<i>The Bee</i>, 2nd No.); +and Garrick, while recognizing her unwillingness or inability +to make use of the inspiration of the instant, admitted that +“she has everything that art and a good understanding with +great natural spirit can give her.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAIRVAUX<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span>, a village of north-eastern France, in the department +of Aube, 40 m. E.S.E. of Troyes on the Eastern railway to +Belfort. Clairvaux (<i>Clara Vallis</i>) is situated in the valley of the +Aube on the eastern border of the Forest of Clairvaux. Its +celebrity is due to the abbey founded in 1115 by St Bernard, +which became the centre of the Cistercian order. The buildings +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbey</a></span>) belong for the most part to the 18th century, but +there is a large storehouse which dates from the 12th century. +The abbey, suppressed at the Revolution, now serves as a prison, +containing on an average 800 inmates, who are employed in +agricultural and industrial occupations. Clairvaux has iron-works +of some importance.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAIRVOYANCE<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Fr. for “clear-seeing”), a technical term in +psychical research, properly equivalent to lucidity, a supernormal +power of obtaining knowledge in which no part is played +by (<i>a</i>) the ordinary processes of sense-perception or (<i>b</i>) supernormal +communication with other intelligences, incarnate, or +discarnate. The word is also used, sometimes qualified by the +word <i>telepathic</i>, to mean the power of gaining supernormal +knowledge from the mind of another (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telepathy</a></span>). It is +further commonly used by spiritualists to mean the power of +seeing spirit forms, or, more vaguely, of discovering facts by some +supernormal means.</p> + +<p><i>Lucidity.</i>—Few experiments have been made to test the +existence of this faculty. If communications from discarnate +minds are regarded as possible, there are no means of distinguishing +facts obtained in this way from facts obtained by independent +clairvoyance. In practice no evidence has been obtained +pointing to the possession by a discarnate spirit of knowledge not +possessed by any living person (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medium</a></span>). As explanation of +the few successful experiments in independent clairvoyance we +have the choice of three explanations: (1) lucidity; (2) telepathy +from living persons; (3) hyperaesthesia. The second possibility +was overlooked in Richet’s diagram experiments; it cannot be +assumed that a picture put into an envelope and not consciously +recalled has been in reality forgotten. Similarly the clairvoyant +diagnosis of diseases may depend on knowledge gained telepathically +from the patient, who may be subliminally aware of +diseased states of the body. The most elaborate experiments are +by Prof. Richet with a hypnotized subject who succeeded in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span> +naming twelve cards out of sixty-eight. But no precautions were +taken against hyperaesthesia further than enclosing the card in a +second envelope. There is a power possessed by a certain number +of people, of naming a card drawn by them or held in the hand +face downwards, so that there is no normal knowledge of its suit +and number. Few thorough trials have been made; but it seems +to point to some kind of hyperaesthesia rather than to clairvoyance; +in the Richet experiments even if the envelopes +excluded hyperaesthesia of touch on the part of the medium, +there may have been subliminal knowledge on Prof. Richet’s +part of the card which he put in the envelope. The experience +known as the <i>déjà vu</i> has sometimes been explained as due to +clairvoyance.</p> + +<p><i>Telepathic Clairvoyance.</i>—For a discussion of this see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telepathy</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystal-gazing</a></span>. It may be noted here that some +curious relation seems to exist between apparently telepathic +acquisition of knowledge and the arrival of a letter, newspaper, +&c, from which the same knowledge could be directly gained. +We are confronted with a similar problem in attempting an +explanation of the power of mediums to state correctly facts +relating to objects placed in their hands. Of a somewhat +different character is retrocognition (<i>q.v.</i>), where the knowledge in +many cases, if telepathic, must be derived from a discarnate mind.</p> + +<p>Clairvoyance, as a term of spiritualism, with its correlative +<i>clairaudience</i>, is the name given to the power of seeing and hearing +discarnate spirits of dead relatives and others, with whom the +living are said to be surrounded. More vaguely it includes the +power of gaining knowledge, either through the spirit world or by +means of psychometry (<i>i.e.</i> the supernormal acquisition of +knowledge about owners of objects, writers of letters, &c). +Some evidence for these latter powers has been accumulated by +the Society for Psychical Research, but in many cases the +piecing together of normally acquired knowledge, together with +shrewd guessing, suffices to explain the facts, especially where the +investigator has had no special training for his task.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Richet, <i>Experimentelle Studien</i> (1891); also in <i>Proc. S.P.R.</i> +vi. 66. For a criticism see N.W. Thomas, <i>Thought Transference</i>, +pp. 44-48. For Clairvoyance in general see F.W.H. Myers, <i>Human +Personality</i>, and in <i>Proc. S.P.R.</i> xi. 334 et seq. For a criticism of the +evidence see Mrs Sidgwick in <i>Proc. S.P.R.</i> vii. 30, 356.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAMECY<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span>, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement +in the department of Nièvre, at the confluence of the Yonne +and Beuvron and on the Canal du Nivernais, 46 m. N.N.E. of +Nevers on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4455. Its +principal building is the church of St Martin, which dates chiefly +from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The tower and façade +are of the 16th century. The chevet, which is surrounded by an +aisle, is rectangular—a feature found in few French churches. +Of the old castle of the counts of Nevers, vaulted cellars alone +remain. A church in the suburb of Bethlehem, dating from the +12th and 13th centuries, now serves as part of an hotel. The +public institutions include the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first +instance and of commerce and a communal college. Among the +industrial establishments are saw-mills, fulling-mills and flour-mills, +tanneries and manufactories of boots and shoes and +chemicals; and there is considerable trade in wine and cattle and +in wood and charcoal, which is conveyed principally to Paris, by +way of the Yonne.</p> + +<p>In the early middle ages Clamecy belonged to the abbey of St +Julian at Auxerre; in the 11th century it passed to the counts of +Nevers, one of whom, Hervé, enfranchised the inhabitants in +1213. After the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1188, +Clamecy became the seat of the bishops of Bethlehem, who till the +Revolution resided in the hospital of Panthenor, bequeathed by +William IV., count of Nevers. On the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851 an +insurrection broke out in the town, and was repressed by the new +authorities with great severity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (Gaelic <i>clann</i>, O. Ir. <i>cland</i>, connected with Lat. <i>planta</i>, +shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p), +a group of people united by common blood, and usually settled in +a common habitat. The clan system existed in Ireland and the +Highlands of Scotland from early times. In its strictest sense the +system was peculiar to those countries, but, in its wider meaning +of a group of kinsmen forming a self-governing community, the +system as represented by the village community has been shown +by Sir H. Maine and others to have existed at one time or +another in all lands.</p> + +<p>Before the use of surnames and elaborate written genealogies, +a tribe in its definite sense was called in Celtic a <i>tuath</i>, a word +of wide affinities, from a root <i>tu</i>, to grow, to multiply, existing +in all European languages. When the tribal system began to +be broken up by conquest and by the rise of towns and of territorial +government, the use of a common surname furnished a +new bond for keeping up a connexion between kindred. The +head of a tribe or smaller group of kindred selected some ancestor +and called himself his <i>Ua</i>, grandson, or as it has been anglicized +<i>O’, e.g. Ua Conchobair</i> (O’ Conor), <i>Ua Suilleabhain</i> (O’Sullivan). +All his kindred adopted the same name, the chief using no +fore-name however. The usual mode of distinguishing a person +before the introduction of surnames was to name his father and +grandfather, <i>e.g.</i> Owen, son of Donal, son of Dermot. This +naturally led some to form their surnames with <i>Mac</i>, son, instead +of <i>Ua</i>, grandson, <i>e.g.</i> <i>MacCarthaigh</i>, son of <i>Carthach</i> (MacCarthy), +<i>MacRuaidhri</i>, son of Rory (Macrory). Both methods have been +followed in Ireland, but in Scotland <i>Mac</i> came to be exclusively +used. The adoption of such genealogical surnames fostered the +notion that all who bore the same surname were kinsmen, and +hence the genealogical term <i>clann</i>, which properly means the +descendants of some progenitor, gradually became synonymous +with <i>tuath</i>, tribe. Like all purely genealogical terms, <i>clann</i> may +be used in the limited sense of a particular tribe governed by a +chief, or in that of many tribes claiming descent from a common +ancestor. In the latter sense it was synonymous with <i>síl, siol,</i> +seed <i>e.g.</i> <i>Siol Alpine</i>, a great clan which included the smaller +clans of the Macgregors, Grants, Mackinnons, Macnabs, Macphies, +Macquarries and Macaulays.</p> + +<p>The clan system in the most archaic form of which we have +any definite information can be best studied in the Irish <i>tuath</i>, +or tribe.<a name="FnAnchor_1g" id="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> This consisted of two classes: (1) tribesmen, and +(2) a miscellaneous class of slaves, criminals, strangers and their +descendants. The first class included tribesmen by blood in the +male line, including all illegitimate children acknowledged by +their fathers, and tribesmen by adoption or sons of tribeswomen +by strangers, foster-sons, men who had done some signal service +to the tribe, and lastly the descendants of the second class after +a certain number of generations. Each <i>tuath</i> had a chief called +a <i>ríg</i>, king, a word cognate with the Gaulish <i>ríg-s</i> or <i>rix</i>, the +Latin <i>reg-s</i> or <i>rex</i>, and the Old Norse <i>rik-ir</i>. The tribesmen +formed a number of communities, each of which, like the tribe +itself, consisted of a head, <i>ceann fine</i>, his kinsmen, slaves and +other retainers. This was the <i>fine</i>, or sept. Each of these +occupied a certain part of the tribe-land, the arable part being +cultivated under a system of co-tillage, the pasture land co-grazed +according to certain customs, and the wood, bog and +mountains forming the marchland of the sept being the unrestricted +common land of the sept. The sept was in fact a +village community.</p> + +<p>What the sept was to the tribe, the homestead was to the sept. +The head of a homestead was an <i>aire</i>, a representative freeman +capable of acting as a witness, compurgator and bail. These +were very important functions, especially when it is borne in +mind that the tribal homestead was the home of many of the +kinsfolk of the head of the family as well as of his own children. +The descent of property being according to a gavel-kind custom, +it constantly happened that when an <i>aire</i> died the share of his +property which each member of his immediate family was entitled +to receive was not sufficient to qualify him to be an <i>aire</i>. +In this case the family did not divide the inheritance, but +remained together as “a joint and undivided family,” one of the +members being elected chief of the family or household, and in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span> +this capacity enjoyed the rights and privileges of an <i>aire</i>. Sir +H.S. Maine directed attention to this kind of family as an +important feature of the early institutions of all Indo-European +nations. Beside the “joint and undivided family,” there was +another kind of family which we might call “the joint family.” +This was a partnership composed of three or four members of a +sept whose individual wealth was not sufficient to qualify each +of them to be an <i>aire</i>, but whose joint wealth qualified one of the +co-partners as head of the joint family to be one.</p> + +<p>So long as there was abundance of land each family grazed +its cattle upon the tribe-land without restriction; unequal +increase of wealth and growth of population naturally led to its +limitation, each head of a homestead being entitled to graze +an amount of stock in proportion to his wealth, the size of his +homestead, and his acquired position. The arable land was no +doubt applotted annually at first; gradually, however, some +of the richer families of the tribe succeeded in evading this +exchange of allotments and converting part of the common land +into an estate in sevralty. Septs were at first colonies of the +tribe which settled on the march-land; afterwards the conversion +of part of the common land into an estate in sevralty enabled +the family that acquired it to become the parent of a new sept. +The same process might, however, take place within a sept +without dividing it; in other words, several members of the +sept might hold part of the land of the sept as separate estate. +The possession of land in sevralty introduced an important +distinction into the tribal system—it created an aristocracy. +An <i>aire</i> whose family held the same land for three generations +was called a <i>flaith</i>, or lord, of which rank there were several +grades according to their wealth in land and chattels. The <i>aires</i> +whose wealth consisted in cattle only were called <i>bó-aires</i>, or +cow-<i>aires</i>, of whom there were also several grades, depending +on their wealth in stock. When a <i>bó-aire</i> had twice the wealth +of the lowest class of <i>flaith</i> he might enclose part of the land +adjoining his house as a lawn; this was the first step towards +his becoming a <i>flaith</i>. The relations which subsisted between +the <i>flaiths</i> and the <i>bó-aires</i> formed the most curious part of the +Celtic tribal system, and throw a flood of light on the origin +of the feudal system. Every tribesman without exception owed +<i>ceilsinne</i> to the <i>ríg</i>, or chief, that is, he was bound to become +his <i>ceile</i>, or vassal. This consisted in paying the <i>ríg</i> a tribute +in kind, for which the <i>ceile</i> was entitled to receive a proportionate +amount of stock without having to give any bond for their +return, giving him service, <i>e.g.</i> in building his <i>dun</i>, or stronghold, +reaping his harvest, keeping his roads clean and in repair, killing +wolves, and especially service in the field, and doing him homage +three times while seated every time he made his return of tribute. +Paying the “<i>calpe</i>” to the Highland chiefs represented this +kind of vassalage, a <i>colpdach</i> or heifer being in many cases the +amount of food-rent paid by a free or <i>saer ceile</i>. A tribesman +might, however, if he pleased, pay a higher rent on receiving +more stock together with certain other chattels for which no +rent was chargeable. In this case he entered into a contract, +and was therefore a bond or <i>daer ceile</i>. No one need have +accepted stock on these terms, nor could he do so without the +consent of his sept, and he might free himself at any time from +his obligation by returning what he had received, and the rent +due thereon.</p> + +<p>What every one was bound to do to his <i>ríg</i>, or chief, he might +do voluntarily to the <i>flaith</i> of his sept, to any <i>flaith</i> of the tribe, +or even to one of another tribe. He might also become a bond +<i>ceile</i>. In either case he might renounce his ceileship by returning +a greater or lesser amount of stock than what he had received +according to the circumstances under which he terminated his +vassalage. In cases of disputed succession to the chiefship of a +tribe the rival claimants were always anxious to get as many +as possible to become their vassals. Hence the anxiety of minor +chieftains, in later times in the Highlands of Scotland, to induce +the clansmen to pay the “<i>calpe</i>” where there happened to be a +doubt as to who was entitled to be chief.</p> + +<p>The effect of the custom of gavel-kind was to equalize the +wealth of each and leave no one wealthy enough to be chief. +The “joint and undivided family” and the formation of “joint +families,” or gilds, was one way of obviating this result; another +way was the custom of tanistry. The headship of the tribe was +practically confined to the members of one family; this was +also the case with the headship of a sept. Sometimes a son +succeeded his father, but the rule was that the eldest and most +capable member of the <i>geilfine</i>, that is, the relatives of the actual +chief to the fifth degree,<a name="FnAnchor_2g" id="FnAnchor_2g" href="#Footnote_2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> was selected during his lifetime to be +his successor—generally the eldest surviving brother or son of +the preceding chief. The man selected as successor to a chief +of a tribe, or chieftain of a sept, was called the tanist, and +should be “the most experienced, the most noble, the most +wealthy, the wisest, the most learned, the most truly popular, +the most powerful to oppose, the most steadfast to sue for +profits and (be sued) for losses.” In addition to these qualities +he should be free from personal blemishes and deformities and +of fit age to lead his tribe or sept, as the case may be, to battle.<a name="FnAnchor_3g" id="FnAnchor_3g" href="#Footnote_3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +So far as selecting the man of the <i>geilfine</i> who was supposed to +possess all those qualities, the office of chief of a tribe or chieftain +of a sept was elective, but as the <i>geilfine</i> was represented by four +persons, together with the chief or chieftain, the election was +practically confined to one of the four. In order to support +the dignity of the chief or chieftain a certain portion of the tribe +or sept land was attached as an apanage to the office; this land, +with the <i>duns</i> or fortified residences upon it, went to the successor, +but a chief’s own property might be gavelled. This +custom of tanistry applied at first probably to the selection of +the successors of a <i>ríg</i>, but was gradually so extended that even +a <i>bó-aire</i> had a tanist.</p> + +<p>A sept might have only one <i>flaith</i>, or lord, connected with +it, or might have several. It sometimes happened, however, +that a sept might be so broken and reduced as not to have even +one man qualified to rank as a <i>flaith</i>. The rank of a <i>flaith</i> +depended upon the number of his <i>ceiles</i>, that is, upon his wealth. +The <i>flaith</i> of a sept, and the highest when there was more than +one, was <i>ceann fine</i>, or head of the sept, or as he was usually +called in Scotland, the chieftain. He was also called the <i>flaith +geilfine</i>, or head of the <i>geilfine</i>, that is, the kinsmen to the fifth +degree from among whom should be chosen the tanist, and who, +according to the custom of gavel-kind, were the immediate heirs +who received the personal property and were answerable for the +liabilities of the sept. The <i>flaiths</i> of the different septs were the +vassals of the <i>ríg</i>, or chief of the tribe, and performed certain +functions which were no doubt at first individual, but in time +became the hereditary right of the sept. One of those was the +office of <i>maer</i>, or steward of the chief’s rents, &c.;<a name="FnAnchor_4g" id="FnAnchor_4g" href="#Footnote_4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and another +that of <i>aire tuisi</i>, leading <i>aire</i>, or <i>taoisech</i>, a word cognate with +the Latin <i>duc-s</i> or <i>dux</i>, and Anglo-Saxon here-<i>tog</i>, leader of the +“here,” or army. The <i>taoisech</i> was leader of the tribe in battle; +in later times the term seems to have been extended to several +offices of rank. The cadet of a Highland clan was always called +the <i>taoisech</i>, which has been translated captain; after the +conquest of Wales the same term, <i>tywysaug</i>, was used for a ruling +prince. Slavery was very common in Ireland and Scotland; +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span> +in the former slaves constituted a common element in the +stipends or gifts which the higher kings gave their vassal <i>sub-reguli</i>. +Female slaves, who were employed in the houses of +chiefs and <i>flaiths</i> in grinding meal with the hand-mill or quern, +and in other domestic work, must have been very common, for +the unit or standard for estimating the wealth of a <i>bó-aire</i>, blood-fines, +&c., was called a <i>cumhal</i>, the value of which was three +cows, but which literally meant a female slave. The descendants +of those slaves, prisoners of war, forfeited hostages, refugees +from other tribes, broken tribesmen, &c., gathered round the +residence of the <i>ríg</i> and <i>flaiths</i>, or squatted upon their march-lands, +forming a motley band of retainers which made a considerable +element in the population, and one of the chief sources of +the wealth of chiefs and <i>flaiths</i>. The other principal source of +their income was the food-rent paid by <i>ceiles</i>, and especially +by the <i>daer</i> or bond <i>ceiles</i>, who were hence called <i>biathachs</i>, +from <i>biad</i>, food. A <i>flaith</i>, but not a <i>ríg</i>, might, if he liked, go to +the house of his <i>ceile</i> and consume his food-rent in the house of +the latter.</p> + +<p>Under the influence of feudal ideas and the growth of the +modern views as to ownership of land, the chiefs and other +lords of clans claimed in modern times the right of best owing +the tribe-land as <i>turcrec</i>, instead of stock, and receiving rent not +for cattle and other chattels as in former times, but proportionate +to the extent of land given to them. The <i>turcrec</i>-land seems to +have been at first given upon the same terms as <i>turcrec</i>-stock, +but gradually a system of short leases grew up; sometimes, +too, it was given on mortgage. In the Highlands of Scotland +<i>ceiles</i> who received <i>turcrec</i>-land were called “taksmen.” On the +death of the chief or lord, his successor either bestowed the +land upon the same person or gave it to some other relative. +In this way in each generation new families came into possession +of land, and others sank into the mass of mere tribesmen. Sometimes +a “taksman” succeeded in acquiring his land in perpetuity, +by gift, marriage or purchase, or even by the “strong hand.” +The universal prevalence of exchangeable allotments, or the +rundale system, shows that down to even comparatively modern +times some of the land was still recognized as the property of +the tribe, and was cultivated in village communities.</p> + +<p>The chief governed the clan by the aid of a council called +the <i>sabaid</i> (<i>sab</i>, a prop), but the chief exercised much power, +especially over the miscellaneous body of non-tribesmen who +lived on his own estate. This power seems to have extended +to life and death. Several of the <i>flaiths</i>, perhaps, all heads of +septs, also possessed somewhat extensive powers of the same +kind.</p> + +<p>The Celtic dress, at least in the middle ages, consisted of a +kind of shirt reaching to a little below the knees called a <i>lenn</i>, +a jacket called an <i>inar</i>, and a garment called a <i>brat</i>, consisting +of a single piece of cloth. This was apparently the garb of the +<i>aires</i>, who appear to have been further distinguished by the +number of colours in their dress, for we are told that while a +slave had clothes of one colour, a <i>rég tuatha</i>, or chief of a tribe, +had five, and an <i>ollamh</i> and a superior king six. The breeches +was also known, and cloaks with a cowl or hood, which buttoned +up tight in front. The <i>lenn</i> is the modern kilt, and the <i>brat</i> the +plaid, so that the dress of the Irish and Welsh in former times +was the same as that of the Scottish Highlander.</p> + +<p>By the abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Highland +chiefs, and the general disarmament of the clans by the acts +passed in 1747 after the rebellion of 1745, the clan system was +practically broken up, though its influence still lingers in the +more remote districts. An act was also passed in 1747 forbidding +the use of the Highland garb; but the injustice and +impolicy of such a law being generally felt it was afterwards +repealed.</p> +<div class="author">(W. K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1g" id="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The following account of the Irish clan-system differs in some +respects from that in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brehon Laws</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>); but it is +retained here in view of the authority of the writer and the admitted +obscurity of the whole subject.</p> +<div class="author">(ED. <i>E. B.</i>)</div> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2g" id="Footnote_2g" href="#FnAnchor_2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The explanation here given of <i>geilfine</i> is different from that given +in the introduction to the third volume of the <i>Ancient Laws of +Ireland</i>, which was followed by Sir H.S. Maine in his account of it +in his <i>Early History of Institutions</i>, and which the present writer +believes to be erroneous.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3g" id="Footnote_3g" href="#FnAnchor_3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It should also be mentioned that illegitimacy was not a bar. +The issue of “handfast” marriages in Scotland were eligible to be +chiefs, and even sometimes claimed under feudal law.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4g" id="Footnote_4g" href="#FnAnchor_4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This office is of considerable importance in connexion with early +Scottish history. In the Irish annals the <i>ríg</i>, or chief of a great tribe +(<i>mor tuath</i>), such as of Ross, Moray, Marr, Buchan, &c., is called a +<i>mor maer</i>, or great <i>maer</i>. Sometimes the same person is called king +also in these annals. Thus <i>Findlaec</i>, or Finlay, son of <i>Ruadhri</i>, the +father of Shakespeare’s Macbeth, is called king of Moray in the +<i>Annals of Ulster</i>, and <i>mor maer</i> in the <i>Annals of Tighernach</i>. The +term is never found in Scottish charters, but it occurs in the Book +of the Abbey of Deir in Buchan, now in the library of the university +of Cambridge. The Scotic kings and their successors obviously +regarded the chiefs of the great tribes in question merely as their +<i>maers</i>, while their tribesmen only knew them as kings. From these +“mor-maerships,” which corresponded with the ancient <i>mor tuatha</i>, +came most, if not all, the ancient Scottish earldoms.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Bourke</span> or <span class="sc">Burke</span>), +1st <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (d. 1544), styled MacWilliam, and Ne-gan or Na-gCeann +(<i>i.e.</i> “of the Heads,” “having made a mount of the +heads of men slain in battle which he covered up with earth”), +was the son of Richard or Rickard de Burgh, lord of Clanricarde, +by a daughter of Madden of Portumna, and grandson of Ulick de +Burgh, lord of Clanricarde (1467-1487), the collateral heir male of +the earls of Ulster. On the death of the last earl in 1333, his only +child Elizabeth had married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and the +earldom became merged in the crown, in consequence of which +the de Burghs abjured English laws and sovereignty, and chose +for their chiefs the sons of Sir William, the “Red” earl of +Ulster’s brother, the elder William taking the title of MacWilliam +Eighter (Uachtar, <i>i.e.</i> Upper), and becoming the ancestor of the +earls of Clanricarde, and his brother Sir Edmond that of MacWilliam +Oughter (Ochtar, <i>i.e.</i> Lower), and founding the family +of the earls of Mayo. In 1361 the duke of Clarence was sent over +as lord-lieutenant to Ireland to enforce his claims as husband of +the heir general, but failed, and the chiefs of the de Burghs +maintained their independence of English sovereignty for several +generations. Ulick de Burgh succeeded to the headship of his +clan, exercised a quasi-royal authority and held vast estates in +county Galway, in Connaught, including Loughry, Dunkellin, Kiltartan +(Hilltaraght) and Athenry, as well as Clare and Leitrim. +In March 1541, however, he wrote to Henry VIII., lamenting the +degeneracy of his family, “which have been brought to Irish and +disobedient rule by reason of marriage and nurseing with those +Irish, sometime rebels, near adjoining to me,” and placing +himself and his estates in the king’s hands. The same year he was +present at Dublin, when the act was passed making Henry VIII. +king of Ireland. In 1543, in company with other Irish chiefs, he +visited the king at Greenwich, made full submission, undertook to +introduce English manners and abandon Irish names, received a +regrant of the greater part of his estates with the addition of +other lands, was confirmed in the captainship and rule of Clanricarde, +and was created on the 1st of July 1543 earl of Clanricarde +and baron of Dunkellin in the peerage of Ireland, with unusual +ceremony. “The making of McWilliam earl of Clanricarde +made all the country during his time quiet and obedient,” states +Lord Chancellor Cusake in his review of the state of Ireland in +1553.<a name="FnAnchor_1g1" id="FnAnchor_1g1" href="#Footnote_1g1"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He did not live long, however, to enjoy his new English +dignities, but died shortly after returning to Ireland about March +1544. He is called by the annalist of Loch Cé “a haughty and +proud lord,” who reduced many under his yoke, and by the Four +Masters “the most illustrious of the English in Connaught.”</p> + +<p>Clanricarde married (1) Grany or Grace, daughter of Mulrone +O’Carroll, “prince of Ely,” by whom he had Richard or Rickard +“the Saxon,” who succeeded him as 2nd earl of Clanricarde +(grandfather of the 4th earl, whose son became marquess of +Clanricarde), this alliance being the only one declared valid. +After parting with his first wife he married (2) Honora, sister +of Ulick de Burgh, from whom he also parted. He married +(3) Mary Lynch, by whom he had John, who claimed the +earldom in 1568. Other sons, according to Burke’s <i>Peerage</i>, +were Thomas “the Athlete,” shot in 1545, Redmond “of the +Broom” (d. 1595), and Edmund (d. 1597).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also <i>Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters</i> (ed. by O. Connellan, +1846), p. 132 note, and reign of Henry VIII.; +<i>Annals of Loch Cé (Rerum Brit. Medii Aevi Scriptores</i>) (54) (1871); +<i>Hist. Mem. of the O’Briens</i>, by J.O. Donoghue (i860), pp 159, 519; +<i>Ireland under the Tudors</i>, by R. Bagwell, vol. i.; +<i>State Papers, Ireland, Carew MSS.</i> +and Gairdner’s <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Cotton MSS.</i> +Brit. Mus., Titus B xi. f. 388.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1g1" id="Footnote_1g1" href="#FnAnchor_1g1"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Carew MSS.</i> 1515-1574, p. 246.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Bourke</span> or <span class="sc">Burke</span>), +<span class="sc">Marquess of</span> (1604-1657 or 1658), son of Richard, 4th earl of +Clanricarde, created in 1628 earl of St Albans, and of Frances, +daughter and heir of Sir Francis Walsingham, and widow of Sir +Philip Sidney and of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, was born in +1604. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Burgh in +1628, and succeeded his father as 5th earl in 1635. He sat in the +Short Parliament of 1640 and attended Charles I. in the Scottish +expedition. On the outbreak of the Irish rebellion Clanricarde +had powerful inducements for joining the Irish—the ancient +greatness and independence of his family, his devotion to the +Roman Catholic Church, and strongest of all, the ungrateful +treatment meted out by Charles I. and Wentworth to his father, +one of Elizabeth’s most stanch adherents in Ireland, whose lands +were appropriated by the crown and whose death, it was popularly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span> +asserted, was hastened by the harshness of the lord-lieutenant. +Nevertheless at the crisis his loyalty never wavered. Alone of the +Irish Roman Catholic nobility to declare for the king, he returned +to Ireland, took up his residence at Portumna, kept Galway, of +which he was governor, neutral, and took measures for the +defence of the county and for the relief of the Protestants, +making “his house and towns a refuge, nay, even a hospital for +the distressed English.”<a name="FnAnchor_1h" id="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In 1643 he was one of the commissioners +appointed by the king to confer with the Irish confederates, +and urged the wisdom of a cessation of hostilities in a +document which he publicly distributed. He was appointed +commander of the English forces in Connaught in 1644, and in +1646 was created a marquess and a privy councillor. He supported +the same year the treaty between Charles I. and the +confederates, and endeavoured after its failure to persuade +Preston, the general of the Irish, to agree to a peace; but the +latter, being advised by Rinuccini, the papal nuncio, refused in +December. Together with Ormonde, Clanricarde opposed the +nuncio’s policy; and the royalist inhabitants of Galway +having through the latter’s influence rejected the cessation of +hostilities, arranged with Lord Inchiquin in 1648, he besieged the +town and compelled its acquiescence. In 1649 he reduced Sligo. +On Ormonde’s departure in December 1650 Clanricarde was +appointed deputy lord-lieutenant, but he was not trusted by the +Roman Catholics, and was unable to stem the tide of the parliamentary +successes. In 1651 he opposed the offer of Charles, duke +of Lorraine, to supply money and aid on condition of being +acknowledged “Protector” of the kingdom. In May 1652 +Galway surrendered to the parliament, and in June Clanricarde +signed articles with the parliamentary commissioners which +allowed his departure from Ireland. In August he was excepted +from pardon for life and estate, but by permits, renewed from +time to time by the council, he was enabled to remain in England +for the rest of his life, and in 1653 £500 a year was settled upon +him by the council of state in consideration of the protection +which he had given to the Protestants in Ireland at the time of +the rebellion. He died at Somerhill in Kent in 1657 or 1658 and +was buried at Tunbridge.</p> + +<p>The “great earl,” as he was called, supported Ormonde in his +desire to unite the English royalists with the more moderate +Roman Catholics on the basis of religious toleration under the +authority of the sovereign, against the papal scheme advocated by +Rinuccini, and in opposition to the parliamentary and Puritan +policy. By the author of the <i>Aphorismical Discovery</i>, who +represents the opinion of the native Irish, he is denounced as the +“masterpiece of the treasonable faction,” “a foe to his king, +nation and religion,” and by the duke of Lorraine as “a traitor +and a base fellow”; but there is no reason to doubt Clarendon’s +opinion of him as “a person of unquestionable fidelity. . . and +of the most eminent constancy to the Roman Catholic religion of +any man in the three kingdoms,” or the verdict of Hallam, who +describes him “as perhaps the most unsullied character in the +annals of Ireland.”</p> + +<p>He married Lady Anne Compton, daughter of William +Compton, 1st earl of Northampton, but had issue only one +daughter. On his death, accordingly, the marquessate and the +English peerages became extinct, the Irish titles reverting to his +cousin Richard, 6th earl, grandson of the 3rd earl of Clanricarde. +Henry, the 12th earl (1742-1797), was again created a marquess in +1789, but the marquessate expired at his death without issue, the +earldom going to his brother. In 1825 the 14th earl (1802-1874) +was created a marquess; he was ambassador at St Petersburg, +and later postmaster-general and lord privy seal, and married +George Canning’s daughter. His son (b. 1832), who achieved +notoriety in the Irish land agitation, succeeded him as 2nd +marquess.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—See the article “Burgh, Ulick de,” in the <i>Dict. of Nat. +Biography</i>, and authorities there given; <i>Hist. of the Irish +Confederation</i>, by R. Bellings, ed. by J.T. Gilbert (1882); +<i>Aphorismical Discovery</i> (Irish Archaeological Society, 1879); +<i>Memoirs of the Marquis of Clanricarde</i> (1722, repr. 1744); <i>Memoirs of Ulick</i>, +<i>Marquis of Clanricarde</i>, by John, 11th earl (1757); <i>Life of Ormonde</i>, +by T. Carte (1851); S.R. Gardiner’s <i>Hist. of the Civil War</i> and +of the <i>Commonwealth; Thomason Tracts</i> (Brit. Mus.) E 371 (11), +456 (10); <i>Cal. of State Papers, Irish</i>, esp. <i>Introd.</i> 1633-1647 and +<i>Domestic; Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Ormonde</i> and <i>Earl +of Egmont</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1h" id="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS of Earl of Egmont</i>, i. 223.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span>, the name of an English poet first +mentioned in the history of English literature by F.S. Ellis in +1896, when, in editing the text of <i>The Book of Cupid, God of Love, +or The Cuckoo and the Nightingale</i>, for the Kelmscott Press, he +stated that Professor Skeat had discovered that at the end of the +best of the MSS. the author was called Clanvowe. In 1897 this +information was confirmed and expanded by Professor Skeat in +the supplementary volume of his Clarendon Press <i>Chaucer</i> (1894-1897). +The beautiful romance of <i>The Cuckoo and the Nightingale</i> +was published by Thynne in 1532, and was attributed by him, and +by successive editors down to the days of Henry Bradshaw, to +Chaucer. It was due to this error that for three centuries +Chaucer was supposed to be identified with the manor of Woodstock, +and even painted, in fanciful pictures, as lying</p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr f90"> + +<p>“Under a maple that is fair and green,</p> +<p class="i05">Before the chamber-window of the Queen</p> +<p class="i05">At Wodëstock, upon the greenë lea.”</p> + +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p>But this queen could only be Joan of Navarre, who arrived +in 1403, three years after Chaucer’s death, and it is to the +spring of that year that Professor Skeat attributes the composition +of the poem. Sir Thomas Clanvowe was of a Herefordshire +family, settled near Wigmore. He was a prominent figure in the +courts of Richard II. and Henry IV., and is said to have been a +friend of Prince Hal. He was one of those who “had begun to +mell of Lollardy, and drink the gall of heresy.” He was one of the +twenty-five knights who accompanied John Beaufort (son of +John of Gaunt) to Barbary in 1390.</p> + +<p>The date of his birth is unknown, and his name is last mentioned +in 1404. The historic and literary importance of <i>The Cuckoo and +the Nightingale</i> is great. It is the work of a poet who had studied +the prosody of Chaucer with more intelligent care than either +Occleve or Lydgate, and who therefore forms an important link +between the 14th and 15th centuries in English poetry. Clanvowe +writes with a surprising delicacy and sweetness, in a five-line +measure almost peculiar to himself. Professor Skeat points out a +unique characteristic of Clanvowe’s versification, namely, the +unprecedented freedom with which he employs the suffix of the +final <i>-e</i>, and rather avoids than seeks elision. <i>The Cuckoo and the +Nightingale</i> was imitated by Milton in his sonnet to the Nightingale, +and was rewritten in modern English by Wordsworth. It is +a poem of so much individual beauty, that we must regret the +apparent loss of everything else written by a poet of such unusual +talent.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also a critical edition of the <i>Boke of Cupide</i> by Dr Erich +Vollmer (Berlin, 1898).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. G.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAPARÈDE, JEAN LOUIS RENÉ ANTOINE ÉDOUARD<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> +(1832-1870), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of +April 1832. He belonged to a French family, some members of +which had taken refuge in that city after the revocation of the +Edict of Nantes. In 1852 he began to study medicine and natural +science at Berlin, where he was greatly influenced by J. Müller +and C.G. Ehrenberg, the former being at that period engaged in +his important researches on the Echinoderms. In 1855 he +accompanied Müller to Norway, and there spent two months on a +desolate reef that he might obtain satisfactory observations. +The latter part of his stay at Berlin he devoted, along with J. +Lachmann, to the study of the Infusoria and Rhizopods. In 1857 +he obtained the degree of doctor, and in 1862 he was chosen +professor of comparative anatomy at Geneva. In 1859 he +visited England, and in company with W.B. Carpenter made a +voyage to the Hebrides; and in 1863 he spent some months in the +Bay of Biscay. On the appearance of Darwin’s work on the +<i>Origin of Species</i>, he adopted his theories and published a +valuable series of articles on the subject in the <i>Revue Germanique</i> +(1861). During 1865 and 1866 ill-health rendered him incapable +of work, and he determined to pass the winter of 1866-1867 in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span> +Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and +his energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the +Annelidae of the gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage +in 1868; but in 1870, instead of recovering as before, he grew +worse, and on the 31st of May he died at Siena on his way home. +His <i>Recherches sur la structure des annélides sédentaires</i> were +published posthumously in 1873.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAPPERTON, HUGH<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1788-1827), Scottish traveller in West-Central +Africa, was born in 1788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where +his father was a surgeon. He gained some knowledge of practical +mathematics and navigation, and at thirteen was apprenticed on +board a vessel which traded between Liverpool and North +America. After having made several voyages across the Atlantic +he was impressed for the navy, in which he soon rose to the rank +of midshipman. During the Napoleonic wars he saw a good deal +of active service, and at the storming of Port Louis, Mauritius, in +November 1810, he was first in the breach and hauled down the +French flag. In 1814 he went to Canada, was promoted to the +rank of lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the +Canadian lakes. In 1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was +dismantled, he returned home on half-pay.</p> + +<p>In 1820 Clapperton removed to Edinburgh, where he made +the acquaintance of Walter Oudney, M.D., who aroused in him an +interest in African travel. Lieut. G.F. Lyon, R.N., having +returned from an unsuccessful attempt to reach Bornu from +Tripoli, the British government determined on a second expedition +to that country. Dr Oudney was appointed by Lord +Bathurst, then colonial secretary, to proceed to Bornu as consul +with the object of promoting trade, and Clapperton and Major +Dixon Denham (<i>q.v.</i>) were added to the party. From Tripoli, +early in 1822, they set out southward to Murzuk, and from this +point Clapperton and Oudney visited the Ghat oasis. Kuka, the +capital of Bornu, was reached in February 1823, and Lake Chad +seen for the first time by Europeans. At Bornu the travellers +were well received by the sultan; and after remaining in the +country till the 14th of December they again set out for the +purpose of exploring the course of the Niger. At Murmur, on the +road to Kano, Oudney died (January 1824). Clapperton continued +his journey alone through Kano to Sokoto, the capital of +the Fula empire, where by order of Sultan Bello he was obliged to +stop, though the Niger was only five days’ journey to the west. +Worn out with his travel he returned by way of Zaria and +Katsena to Kuka, where he again met Denham. The two +travellers then set out for Tripoli, reached on the 26th of January +1825. An account of the travels was published in 1826 under the +title of <i>Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and +Central Africa in the years 1822-1824</i>.</p> + +<p>Immediately after his return Clapperton was raised to the rank +of commander, and sent out with another expedition to Africa, +the sultan Bello of Sokoto having professed his eagerness to open +up trade with the west coast. Clapperton landed at Badagry in +the Bight of Benin, and started overland for the Niger on the 7th +of December 1825, having with him his servant Richard Lander +(<i>q.v.</i>), Captain Pearce, R.N., and Dr Morrison, navy surgeon and +naturalist. Before the month was out Pearce and Morrison were +dead of fever. Clapperton continued his journey, and, passing +through the Yoruba country, in January 1826 he crossed the +Niger at Bussa, the spot where Mungo Park had died twenty years +before. In July he arrived at Kano. Thence he went to Sokoto, +intending afterwards to go to Bornu. The sultan, however, +detained him, and being seized with dysentery he died near +Sokoto on the 13th of April 1827.</p> + +<p>Clapperton was the first European to make known from +personal observation the semi-civilized Hausa countries, which he +visited soon after the establishment of the Sokoto empire by the +Fula. In 1829 appeared the <i>Journal of a Second Expedition into +the Interior of Africa</i>, &c, by the late Commander Clapperton, +to which was prefaced a biographical sketch of the explorer by his +uncle, Lieut.-colonel S. Clapperton. Lander, who had brought +back the journal of his master, also published <i>Records of Captain +Clapperton’s Last Expedition to Africa . . . with the subsequent +Adventures of the Author</i> (2 vols., London, 1830).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAQUE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (Fr. <i>claquer</i>, to clap the hands), an organized body +of professional applauders in the French theatres. The hiring +of persons to applaud dramatic performances was common in +classical times, and the emperor Nero, when he acted, had his +performance greeted by an encomium chanted by five thousand +of his soldiers, who were called Angustals. The recollection of +this gave the 16th-century French poet, Jean Daurat, an idea +which has developed into the modern claque. Buying up a +number of tickets for a performance of one of his plays, he distributed +them gratuitously to those who promised publicly to +express their approbation. It was not, however, till 1820 that +a M. Sauton seriously undertook the systematization of the +claque, and opened an office in Paris for the supply of <i>claqueurs</i>. +By 1830 the claque had become a regular institution. The +manager of a theatre sends an order for any number of <i>claqueurs</i>. +These people are usually under a <i>chef de claque</i>, whose duty it is +to judge where their efforts are needed and to start the demonstration +of approval. This takes several forms. Thus there are +<i>commissaires</i>, those who learn the piece by heart, and call the +attention of their neighbours to its good points between the +acts. The <i>rieurs</i> are those who laugh loudly at the jokes. The +<i>pleureurs</i>, generally women, feign tears, by holding their handkerchiefs +to their eyes. The <i>chatouilleurs</i> keep the audience in a +good humour, while the <i>bisseurs</i> simply clap their hands and cry +<i>bis! bis!</i> to secure encores.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARA, SAINT<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1194-1253), foundress of the Franciscan +nuns, was born of a knightly family in Assisi in 1194. At +eighteen she was so impressed by a sermon of St Francis that +she was filled with the desire to devote herself to the kind of life +he was leading. She obtained an interview with him, and to +test her resolution he told her to dress in penitential sackcloth +and beg alms for the poor in the streets of Assisi. Clara readily +did this, and Francis, satisfied as to her vocation, told her to +come to the Portiuncula arrayed as a bride. The friars met her +with lighted candles, and at the foot of the altar Francis shore +off her hair, received her vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, +and invested her with the Franciscan habit, 1212. He placed +her for a couple of years in a Benedictine convent in Assisi, +until the convent at St Damian’s, close to the town, was ready. +Her two younger sisters, and, after her father’s death, her +mother and many others joined her, and the Franciscan nuns +spread widely and rapidly (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clares, Poor</a></span>). The relations +of friendship and sympathy between St Clara and St Francis +were very close, and there can be no doubt that she was one of +the truest heirs of Francis’s inmost spirit. After his death +Clara threw herself wholly on the side of those who opposed +mitigations in the rule and manner of life, and she was one of +the chief upholders of St Francis’s primitive idea of poverty +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franciscans</a></span>). She was the close friend of Brother Leo +and the other “Companions of St Francis,” and they assisted +at her death. For forty years she was abbess at St Damian’s, +and the great endeavour of her life was that the rule of the nuns +should be purged of the foreign elements that had been introduced, +and should become wholly conformable to St Francis’s +spirit. She lived just long enough to witness the fulfilment of +her great wish, a rule such as she desired being approved by the +pope two days before her death on the 11th of August 1253.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The sources for her life are to be found in the Bollandist <i>Acta +Sanctorum</i> on the 11th of August, and sketches in such <i>Lives of the +Saints</i> as Alban Butler’s. See also Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchen-lexicon</i> +(2nd ed.), art. “Clara.”</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span>, the name of a famous English family. The ancestor +of this historic house, “which played,” in Freeman’s words, +“so great a part alike in England, Wales and Ireland,” was +Count Godfrey, eldest of the illegitimate sons of Richard the +Fearless, duke of Normandy. His son, Count Gilbert of Brionne, +had two sons, Richard, lord of Bienfaite and Orbec, and Baldwin, +lord of Le Sap and Meulles, both of whom accompanied the +Conqueror to England. Baldwin, known as “De Meulles” or +“of Exeter,” received the hereditary shrievalty of Devon with +great estates in the West Country, and left three sons, William, +Robert and Richard, of whom the first and last were in turn +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span> +sheriffs of Devon. Richard, known as “de Bienfaite,” or +“of Tunbridge,” or “of Clare,” was the founder of the house +of Clare.</p> + +<p>Richard derived his English appellation from his strongholds +at Tunbridge and at Clare, at both of which his castle-mounds +still remain. The latter, on the borders of Essex and Suffolk, +was the head of his great “honour” which lay chiefly in the +eastern counties. Appointed joint justiciar in the king’s absence +abroad, he took a leading part in suppressing the revolt of 1075. +By his wife, Rohese, daughter of Walter Giffard, through whom +great Giffard estates afterwards came to his house, he left five +sons and two daughters. Roger was his heir in Normandy, +Walter founded Tintern Abbey, Richard was a monk, and +Robert, receiving the forfeited fief of the Baynards in the eastern +counties, founded, through his son Walter, the house of FitzWalter +(extinct 1432), of whom the most famous was Robert +FitzWalter, the leader of the barons against King John. Of +this house, spoken of by Jordan Fantosme as “Clarreaus,” +the Daventrys of Daventry (extinct 1380) and Fawsleys of +Fawsley (extinct 1392) were cadets. One of Richard’s two +daughters married the famous Walter Tirel.</p> + +<p>Gilbert, Richard’s heir in England, held his castle of Tunbridge +against William Rufus, but was wounded and captured. Under +Henry I., who favoured the Clares, he obtained a grant of +Cardigan, and carried his arms into Wales. Dying about 1115, +he left four sons, of whom Gilbert, the second, inherited Chepstow, +with Nether-Gwent, from his uncle, Walter, the founder +of Tintern, and was created earl of Pembroke by Stephen about +1138; he was father of Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke +(<i>q.v.</i>). The youngest son Baldwin fought for Stephen at the +battle of Lincoln (1141) and founded the priories of Bourne +and Deeping on lands acquired with his wife. The eldest son +Richard, who was slain by the Welsh on his way to Cardigan +in 1135 or 1136, left two sons Gilbert and Roger, of whom +Gilbert was created earl of Hertfordshire by Stephen.</p> + +<p>It was probably because he and the Clares had no interests in +Hertfordshire that they were loosely and usually styled the +earls of (de) Clare. Dying in 1152, Gilbert was succeeded by +his brother Roger, of whom Fitz-Stephen observes that “nearly +all the nobles of England were related to the earl of Clare, whose +sister, the most beautiful woman in England, had long been +desired by the king” (Henry II.). He was constantly fighting +the Welsh for his family possessions in Wales and quarrelled +with Becket over Tunbridge Castle. In 1173 or 1174 he was +succeeded by his son Richard as third earl, whose marriage +with Amicia, daughter and co-heir of William, earl of Gloucester, +was destined to raise the fortunes of his house to their highest +point. He and his son Gilbert were among the “barons of the +Charter,” Gilbert, who became fourth earl in 1217, obtained +also, early in 1218, the earldom of Gloucester, with its great +territorial “Honour,” and the lordship of Glamorgan, in right +of his mother; “from this time the house of Clare became the +acknowledged head of the baronage.” Gilbert had also inherited +through his father his grandmother’s “Honour of St Hilary” +and a moiety of the Giffard fief; but the vast possessions of +his house were still further swollen by his marriage with a +daughter of William (Marshal), earl of Pembroke, through +whom his son Richard succeeded in 1245 to a fifth of the Marshall +lands including the Kilkenny estates in Ireland. Richard’s +successor, Gilbert, the “Red” earl, died in 1295, the most +powerful subject in the kingdom.</p> + +<p>On his death his earldoms seem to have been somewhat +mysteriously deemed to have passed to his widow Joan, daughter +of Edward I.; for her second husband, Ralph de Monthermer, +was summoned to parliament in right of them from 1299 to 1306. +After her death, however, in 1307, Earl Gilbert’s son and namesake +was summoned in 1308 as earl of Gloucester and Hertford, +though only sixteen. A nephew of Edward II. and brother-in-law +of Gaveston, he played a somewhat wavering part in the +struggle between the king and the barons. Guardian of the +realm in 1311 and regent in 1313, he fell gloriously at Bannockburn +(June 24th, 1314), when only twenty-three, rushing on +the enemy “like a wild boar, making his sword drunk with +their blood.”</p> + +<p>The earl was the last of his mighty line, and his vast possessions +in England (in over twenty counties), Wales and Ireland +fell to his three sisters, of whom Elizabeth, the youngest, wife +of John de Burgh, obtained the “Honour of Clare” and transmitted +it to her son William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster, whose +daughter brought it to Lionel, son of King Edward III., who +was thereupon created duke of Clarence, a title associated ever +since with the royal house. The “Honour of Clare,” vested in +the crown, still preserves a separate existence, with a court and +steward of its own.</p> + +<p>Clare College, Cambridge, derived its name from the above +Elizabeth, “Lady of Clare,” who founded it as Clare Hall in +1347.</p> + +<p>Clare County in Ireland derives its name from the family, +though whether from Richard Strongbow, or from Thomas de +Clare, a younger son, who had a grant of Thomond in 1276, has +been deemed doubtful.</p> + +<p>Clarenceux King of Arms, an officer of the Heralds’ College, +derives his style, through Clarence, from Clare.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.H. Round’s <i>Geoffrey de Mandeville, Feudal England, Commune +of London</i>, and <i>Peerage Studies</i>; also his “Family of Clare” +in <i>Arch. Journ.</i> lvi., and “Origin of Armorial Bearings” in Ib. li.; +Parkinson’s “Clarence, the origin and bearers of the title,” in <i>The +Antiquary</i>, v.; Clark’s “Lords of Glamorgan” in <i>Arch. Journ.</i> +xxxv.; Planche’s “Earls of Gloucester” in <i>Journ. Arch. Assoc.</i> +xxvi.; Dugdale’s <i>Baronage</i>, vol. i., and <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>; +G.E. C[okayne]’s <i>Complete Peerage</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARE, JOHN<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1793-1864), English poet, commonly known +as “the Northamptonshire Peasant Poet,” the son of a farm +labourer, was born at Helpstone near Peterborough, on the +13th of July 1793. At the age of seven he was taken from +school to tend sheep and geese; four years later he began to +work on a farm, attending in the winter evenings a school where +he is said to have learnt some algebra. He then became a pot-boy +in a public-house and fell in love with Mary Joyce, but her +father, a prosperous farmer, forbade her to meet him. Subsequently +he was gardener at Burghley Park. He enlisted in the +militia, tried camp life with gipsies, and worked as a lime burner +in 1817, but in the following year he was obliged to accept +parish relief. Clare had bought a copy of Thomson’s <i>Seasons</i> +out of his scanty earnings and had begun to write poems. In +1819 a bookseller at Stamford, named Drury, lighted on one of +Clare’s poems, <i>The Setting Sun</i>, written on a scrap of paper +enclosing a note to his predecessor in the business. He befriended +the author and introduced his poems to the notice +of John Taylor, of the publishing firm of Taylor & Hussey, +who issued the <i>Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery</i> +in 1820. This book was highly praised, and in the next year +his <i>Village Minstrel and other Poems</i> were published. He was +greatly patronized; fame, in the shape of curious visitors, broke +the tenor of his life, and the convivial habits that he had formed +were indulged more freely. He had married in 1820, and an +annuity of 15 guineas from Lord Exeter, in whose service he had +been, was supplemented by subscription, and he became possessed +of £45 annually, a sum far beyond what he had ever +earned, but new wants made his income insufficient, and in +1823 he was nearly penniless. The <i>Shepherd’s Calendar</i> (1827) +met with little success, which was not increased by his hawking +it himself. As he worked again on the fields his health temporarily +improved; but he soon became seriously ill. Lord +Fitzwilliam presented him with a new cottage and a piece of +ground, but Clare could not settle in his new home. Gradually +his mind gave way. His last and best work, the <i>Rural Muse</i> +(1835), was noticed by “Christopher North” alone. He had +for some time shown symptoms of insanity; and in July 1837 he +was removed to a private asylum, and afterwards to the Northampton +general lunatic asylum, where he died on the 20th of +May 1864. Clare’s descriptions of rural scenes show a keen and +loving appreciation of nature, and his love-songs and ballads +charm by their genuine feeling; but his vogue was no doubt +largely due to the interest aroused by his humble position in life.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the <i>Life of John Clare</i>, by Frederick Martin (1865); and <i>Life +and Remains of John Clare</i>, by J.L. Cherry (1873), which, though +not so complete, contains some of the poet’s asylum verses and prose +fragments.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span>, <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1749-1802), lord +chancellor of Ireland, was the second son of John Fitzgibbon, +who had abandoned the Roman Catholic faith in order to +pursue a legal career. He was educated at Trinity College, +Dublin, where he was highly distinguished as a classical scholar, +and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1770. In +1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and quickly acquired a very +lucrative practice; he also inherited his father’s large fortune +on the death of his elder brother. In 1778 he entered the Irish +House of Commons as member for Dublin University, and at +first gave a general support to the popular party led by Henry +Grattan (<i>q.v.</i>). He was, however, from the first hostile to that +part of Grattan’s policy which aimed at removing the disabilities +of the Roman Catholics; he endeavoured to impede the Relief +Bill of 1778 by raising difficulties about its effect on the Act of +Settlement. He especially distrusted the priests, and many +years later explained that his life-long resistance to all concession +to the Catholics was based on his “unalterable opinion” that +“a conscientious Popish ecclesiastic never will become a well-attached +subject to a Protestant state, and that the Popish +clergy must always have a commanding influence on every +member of that communion.” As early as 1780 Fitzgibbon +began to separate himself from the popular or national party, +by opposing Grattan’s declaration of the Irish parliament’s +right to independence. There is no reason to suppose that in +this change of view he was influenced by corrupt or personal +motives. His cast of mind naturally inclined to authority +rather than to democratic liberty; his hostility to the Catholic +claims, and his distrust of parliamentary reform as likely to +endanger the connexion of Ireland with Great Britain, made him +a sincere opponent of the aims which Grattan had in view. +In reply, however, to a remonstrance from his constituents +Fitzgibbon promised to support Grattan’s policy in the future, +and described the claim of Great Britain to make laws for Ireland +as “a daring usurpation of the rights of a free people.”</p> + +<p>For some time longer there was no actual breach between him +and Grattan. Grattan supported the appointment of Fitzgibbon +as attorney-general in 1783, and in 1785 the latter highly eulogized +Grattan’s character and services to the country in a speech +in which he condemned Flood’s volunteer movement. He also +opposed Flood’s Reform Bill of 1784; and from this time +forward he was in fact the leading spirit in the Irish government, +and the stiffest opponent of all concession to popular demands. +In 1784 the permanent committee of revolutionary reformers in +Dublin, of whom Napper Tandy was the most conspicuous, +invited the sheriffs of counties to call meetings for the election of +delegates to attend a convention for the discussion of reform; and +when the sheriff of the county of Dublin summoned a meeting for +this purpose Fitzgibbon procured his imprisonment for contempt +of court, and justified this procedure in parliament, though Lord +Erskine declared it grossly illegal. In the course of the debates +on Pitt’s commercial propositions in 1785, which Fitzgibbon +supported in masterly speeches, he referred to Curran in terms +which led to a duel between the two lawyers, when Fitzgibbon +was accused of a deliberation in aiming at his opponent that was +contrary to etiquette. His antagonism to Curran was life-long +and bitter, and after he became chancellor his hostility to the +famous advocate was said to have driven the latter out of +practice. In January 1787 Fitzgibbon introduced a stringent +bill for repressing the Whiteboy outrages. It was supported by +Grattan, who, however, procured the omission of a clause +enacting that any Roman Catholic chapel near which an illegal +oath had been tendered should be immediately demolished. His +influence with the majority in the Irish parliament defeated +Pitt’s proposed reform of the tithe system in Ireland, Fitzgibbon +refusing even to grant a committee to investigate the subject. +On the regency question in 1789 Fitzgibbon, in opposition to +Grattan, supported the doctrine of Pitt in a series of powerful +speeches which proved him a great constitutional lawyer; he +intimated that the choice for Ireland might in certain eventualities +rest between complete separation from England and +legislative union; and, while he exclaimed as to the latter +alternative, “God forbid that I should ever see that day!” he +admitted that separation would be the worse evil of the two.</p> + +<p>In the same year Lord Lifford resigned the chancellorship, and +Fitzgibbon was appointed in his place, being raised to the peerage +as Baron Fitzgibbon. His removal to the House of Lords +greatly increased his power. In the Commons, though he had +exercised great influence as attorney-general, his position had +been secondary; in the House of Lords and in the privy council +he was little less than despotic. “He was,” says Lecky, “by far +the ablest Irishman who had adopted without restriction the +doctrine that the Irish legislature must be maintained in a +condition of permanent and unvarying subjection to the English +executive.” But the English ministry were now embarking on a +policy of conciliation in Ireland. The Catholic Relief Bill of 1793 +was forced on the Irish executive by the cabinet in London, but +it passed rapidly and easily through the Irish parliament. +Lord Fitzgibbon, while accepting the bill as inevitable under the +circumstances that had arisen, made a most violent though +exceedingly able speech against the principle of concession, +which did much to destroy the conciliatory effect of the measure; +and as a consequence of this act he began persistently to urge the +necessity for a legislative union. From this date until the union +was carried, the career of Fitzgibbon is practically the history of +Ireland. True to his inveterate hostility to the popular claims, +he was opposed to the appointment of Lord Fitzwilliam (<i>q.v.</i>) as +viceroy in 1795, and was probably the chief influence in procuring +his recall; and it was Fitzgibbon who first put it into the head of +George III. that the king would violate his coronation oath if he +consented to the admission of Catholics to parliament. When +Lord Camden, Fitzwilliam’s successor in the viceroyalty, arrived +in Dublin on the 31st of March 1795, Fitzgibbon’s carriage was +violently assaulted by the mob, and he himself was wounded; +and in the riots that ensued his house was also attacked. But as +if to impress upon the Catholics the hopelessness of their case, the +government who had made Fitzgibbon a viscount immediately +after his attack on the Catholics in 1793 now bestowed on him a +further mark of honour. In June 1795 he was created earl of +Clare. On the eve of the rebellion he warned the government +that while emancipation and reform might be the objects aimed +at by the better classes, the mass of the disaffected had in view +“the separation of the country from her connexion with Great +Britain, and a fraternal alliance with the French Republic.” +Clare advocated stringent measures to prevent an outbreak; but +he was neither cruel nor immoderate, and was inclined to mercy +in dealing with individuals. He attempted to save Lord Edward +Fitzgerald (<i>q.v.</i>) from his fate by giving a friendly warning to his +friends, and promising to facilitate his escape from the country; +and Lord Edward’s aunt, Lady Louisa Conolly, who was conducted +to his death-bed in prison by the chancellor in person, +declared that “nothing could exceed Lord Clare’s kindness.” +His moderation and humanity after the rebellion was extolled by +Cornwallis. He threw his great influence on the side of clemency, +and it was through his intervention that Oliver Bond, when +sentenced to death, was reprieved; and that an arrangement was +made by which Arthur O’Connor, Thomas Emmet and other +state prisoners were allowed to leave the country.</p> + +<p>In October 1798 Lord Clare, who since 1793 had been convinced +of the necessity for a legislative union if the connexion +between Great Britain and Ireland was to be maintained, and +who was equally determined that the union must be unaccompanied +by Catholic emancipation, crossed to England and +successfully pressed his views on Pitt. In 1799 he induced the +Irish House of Lords to throw out a bill for providing a permanent +endowment of Maynooth. On the 10th of February 1800 Clare in +the House of Lords moved the resolution approving the union in +a long and powerful speech, in which he reviewed the history of +Ireland since the Revolution, attributing the evils of recent years +to the independent constitution of 1782, and speaking of Grattan +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span> +in language of deep personal hatred. He was not aware of the +assurance which Cornwallis had been authorized to convey to the +Catholics that the union was to pave the way for emancipation, +and when he heard of it after the passing of the act he bitterly +complained that Pitt and Castlereagh had deceived him. After +the union Clare became more violent than ever in his opposition +to any policy of concession in Ireland. He died on the 28th of +January 1802; his funeral in Dublin was the occasion of a riot +organized “by a gang of about fourteen persons under orders of +a leader.” His wife, in compliance with his death-bed request, +destroyed all his papers. His two sons, John (1792-1851) and +Richard Hobart (1793-1864), succeeded in turn to the earldom, +which became extinct on the death of the latter, whose only +son, John Charles Henry, Viscount Fitzgibbon (1829-1854), was +killed in the charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava.</p> + +<p>Lord Clare was in private life an estimable and even an amiable +man; many acts of generosity are related of him; the determination +of his character swayed other wills to his purpose, and his +courage was such as no danger, no obloquy, no public hatred or +violence could disturb. Though not a great orator like Flood or +Grattan, he was a skilful and ready debater, and he was by far +the ablest Irish supporter of the union. He was, however, +arrogant, overbearing and intolerant to the last degree. He was +the first Irishman since the Revolution to hold the office of lord +chancellor of Ireland. “Except where his furious personal antipathies +and his ungovernable arrogance were called into action, +he appears to have been,” says Lecky, “an able, upright and +energetic judge”; but as a politician there can be little question +that Lord Clare’s bitter and unceasing resistance to reasonable +measures of reform did infinite mischief in the history of Ireland, +by inflaming the passions of his countrymen, driving them into +rebellion, and perpetuating their political and religious divisions.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century</i> +(5 vols., London, 1892); J.R. O’Flanagan, <i>The Lives of the Lord +Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal in Ireland</i> (2 vols., London, +1870); <i>Cornwallis Correspondence</i>, ed. by C. Ross (3 vols., London, +1859); Charles Phillips, <i>Recollections of Curran and some of his +Contemporaries</i> (London, 1822); Henry Grattan, <i>Memoirs of the +Life and Times of the Right Honble. Henry Grattan</i> (5 vols., London, +1839-1846); Lord Auckland, <i>Journal and Correspondence</i> (4 vols., +London, 1861); Charles Coote, <i>History of the Union of Great Britain +and Ireland</i> (London, 1802).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARE<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span>, a county in the province of Munster, Ireland, bounded +N. by Galway Bay and Co. Galway, E. by Lough Derg, the river +Shannon, and counties Tipperary and Limerick, S. by the estuary +of the Shannon, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is +852,389 acres, or nearly 1332 sq. m. Although the surface of the +county is hilly, and in some parts even mountainous, it nowhere +rises to a great elevation. Much of the western baronies of +Moyarta and Ibrickan is composed of bog land. Bogs are +frequent also in the mountainous districts elsewhere, except in +the limestone barony of Burren, the inhabitants of some parts of +which supply themselves with turf from the opposite shores of +Connemara. Generally speaking, the eastern parts of the county +are mountainous, with tracts of rich pasture-land interspersed; +the west abounds with bog; and the north is rocky and best +adapted for grazing sheep. In the southern part, along the banks +of the Fergus and Shannon, are the bands of rich low grounds +called corcasses, of various breadth, indenting the land in a great +variety of shapes. They are composed of deep rich loam, and are +distinguished as the black corcasses, adapted for tillage, and the +blue, used more advantageously as meadow land. The coast is +in general rocky, and occasionally bold and precipitous in the +extreme, as may be observed at the picturesque cliffs of Moher +within a few miles of Ennistimon and Lisdoonvarna, which rise +perpendicularly at O’Brien’s Tower to an elevation of 580 ft. +The coast of Clare is indented with several bays, the chief of +which are Ballyvaghan, Liscannor and Malbay; but from +Black Head to Loop Head, that is, along the entire western +boundary of the county formed by the Atlantic, there is no safe +harbour except Liscannor Bay. Malbay takes its name from its +dangers to navigators, and the whole coast has been the scene of +many fatal disasters. The county possesses only one large river, +the Fergus; but nearly 100 m. of its boundary-line are washed by +the river Shannon, which enters the Atlantic Ocean between this +county and Kerry. The numerous bays and creeks on both sides +of this great river render its navigation safe in every wind; but +the passage to and from Limerick is often tedious, and the port of +Kilrush has from that cause gained in importance. The river +Fergus is navigable from the Shannon to the town of Clare, which +is the terminating point of its natural navigation, and the port of +all the central districts of the county.</p> + +<p>There are a great number of lakes and tarns in the county, of +which the largest are Loughs Muckanagh, Graney, Atedaun and +Dromore; but they are more remarkable for beauty than for +size or utility, with the exception of the extensive and navigable +Lough Derg, formed by the river Shannon between this county +and Tipperary. The salmon fishery of the Shannon, both as a +sport and as an industry, is famous; the Fergus also holds +salmon, and there is much good trout-fishing in the lakes for +which Ennis is a centre, and in the streams of the Atlantic seaboard. +Clare is a county which, like all the western counties of +Ireland, repays visitors in search of the pleasures of seaside +resorts, sport, scenery or antiquarian interest. Yet, again like +other western counties, it was long before it was rendered +accessible. Communications, however, are now satisfactory.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology.</i>—Upper Carboniferous strata cover the county west of +Ennis, the coast-sections in them being particularly fine. Shales +and sandstones alternate, now horizontal, as in the Cliffs of Moher, +now thrown into striking folds. The Carboniferous Limestone forms +a barren terraced country, often devoid of soil, through the Burren +in the north, and extends to the estuary of the Fergus and the +Shannon. On the east, the folding has brought up two bold masses +of Old Red Sandstone, with Silurian cores. Slieve Bernagh, the more +southerly of these, rises to 1746 ft. above Killaloe, and the hilly +country here traversed by the Shannon is in marked contrast with +the upper course of the river through the great limestone plain.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Minerals.</i>—Although metals and minerals have been found in +many places throughout the county, they do not often show +themselves in sufficient abundance to induce the application of +capital for their extraction. The principal metals are lead, iron +and manganese. The Milltown lead mine in the barony of Tulla +is probably one of the oldest mines in Ireland, and formerly, if the +extent of the ancient excavations may be taken as a guide, there +must have been a very rich deposit. Copper pyrites occurs in +several parts of Burren, but in small quantity. Coal exists at +Labasheeda on the right bank of the Shannon, but the few and +thin seams are not productive. The nodules of clay-ironstone in +the strata that overlie the limestone were mined and smelted +down to 1750. Within half a mile of the Milltown lead mine are +immense natural vaulted passages of limestone, through which +the river Ardsullas winds a singular course. The lower limestone +of the eastern portion of the county has been found to contain +several very large deposits of argentiferous galena. Flags, easily +quarried, are procured near Kilrush, and thinner flags near +Ennistimon. Slates are quarried in several places, the best being +those of Broadford and Killaloe, which are nearly equal to the +finest procured in Wales. A species of very fine black marble is +obtained near Ennis; it takes a high polish, and is free from the +white spots with which the black Kilkenny marble is marked.</p> + +<p>The mineral springs, which are found in many places, are +chiefly chalybeate. That of Lisdoonvarna, a sulphur spa, about +8 m. from Ennistimon, has been celebrated since the 18th century +for its medicinal qualities, and now attracts a large number of +visitors annually. It lies 9 m. by road N. of Ennistimon. There +are chalybeate springs of less note at Kilkishen, Burren, Broadfoot, +Lehinch, Kilkee, Kilrush, Killadysart, and near Milltown +Malbay. Springs called by the people “holy” or “blessed” +wells, generally mineral waters, are common; but the belief in +their power of performing cures in inveterate maladies is nearly +extinct.</p> + +<p><i>Watering-places.</i>—The Atlantic Ocean and the estuary of the +Shannon afford many situations admirably adapted for summer +bathing-places. Among the most frequented of these localities +are Milltown Malbay; with one of the best beaches on the western +coast; and the neighbouring Spanish Point (named from the +scene of the wreck of two ships of the Armada); Lehinch, about +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span> +2 m. from Ennistimon on Liscannor Bay, and near the interesting +cliffs of Moher, has a magnificent beach. Kilkee is the most +fashionable watering-place on the western coast of Ireland; and +Kilrush on the Shannon estuary is also favoured.</p> + +<p><i>Industries.</i>—The soil and surface of the county are in general +better adapted for grazing than for tillage, and the acreage +devoted to the former consequently exceeds three times that of +the latter. Agriculture is in a backward state, and not a fifth of +the total area is under cultivation, while the acreage shows a +decrease even in the principal crops of oats and potatoes. Cattle, +sheep, poultry and pigs, however, all receive considerable +attention. Owing to the mountainous nature of the county nearly +one-seventh of the total area is quite barren.</p> + +<p>There are no extensive manufactures, although flannels and +friezes are made for home use, and hosiery of various kinds, +chiefly coarse and strong, is made around Ennistimon and other +places. There are several fishing stations on the coast, and cod, +haddock, ling, sole, turbot, ray, mackerel and other fish abound, +but the rugged nature of the coast and the tempestuous sea +greatly hinder the operations of the fishermen. Near Pooldoody +is the great Burren oyster bed called the Red Bank, where a +large establishment is maintained, from which a constant supply +of the excellent Red Bank oysters is furnished to the Dublin +and other large markets. Crabs and lobsters are caught on the +shores of the Bay of Galway in every creek from Black Head to +Ardfry. In addition to the Shannon salmon fishery mentioned +above, eels abound in every rivulet, and form an important +article of consumption.</p> + +<p>The Great Southern & Western railway line from Limerick to +Sligo intersects the centre of the county from north to south. +From Ennis on this line the West Clare railway runs to Ennistimon +on the coast, where it turns south and follows the coast by +Milltown Malbay to Kilkee and Kilrush. Killaloe in the east of +the county is the terminus of a branch of the Great Southern +& Western railway.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—The population (126,244 +in 1891; 112,334 in 1901; almost wholly Roman Catholic and +rural) shows a decrease among the most serious of the Irish +counties, and the emigration returns are proportionately heavy. +The principal towns, all of insignificant size, are Ennis (pop. +5093, the county town), Kilrush (4179), Kilkee (1661) and +Killaloe (885); but several of the smaller settlements, as resorts, +are of more than local importance. The county, which is divided +into 11 baronies, contains 79 parishes, and includes the Protestant +diocese of Kilfenora, the greater part of Killaloe, and a +very small portion of the diocese of Limerick. It is within the +Roman Catholic dioceses of Killaloe and Limerick. The assizes +are held at Ennis, and quarter sessions here and at Ennistimon, +Killaloe, Kilrush and Tulla. The county is divided into the +East and West parliamentary divisions, each returning one +member.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—This county, together with part of the neighbouring +district, was anciently called Thomond, that is, North Munster, +and formed part of the monarchy of the celebrated Brian +Boroihme, who held his court at Kincora near Killaloe, where +his palace was situated on the banks of the Shannon. The site +is still distinguished by extensive earthen ramparts. Settlements +were effected by the Danes, and in the 13th century by +the Anglo-Normans, but without permanently affecting the +possession of the district by its native proprietors. In 1543 +Murrogh O’Brien, after dispossessing his nephew and vainly +attempting a rebellion against the English rule, proceeded +to England and submitted to Henry VIII., resigning his name +and possessions. He soon received them back by an English +tenure, together with the title of earl of Thomond, on condition +of adopting the English dress, manners and customs. In 1565 +this part of Thomond (sometimes called O’Brien’s country) +was added to Connaught, and made one of the six new counties +into which that province was divided by Sir Henry Sidney. +It was named Clare, the name being traceable either to Richard +de Clare (Strongbow), earl of Pembroke, or to his younger +brother, Thomas de Clare, who obtained a grant of Thomond +from Edward I. in 1276, and whose family for some time maintained +a precarious position in the district. Towards the close +of the reign of Elizabeth, Clare was detached from the government +of Connaught and given a separate administration; but +at the Restoration it was reunited to Munster.</p> + +<p><i>Antiquities.</i>—The county abounds with remains of antiquities, +both military and ecclesiastical, especially in the north-western +part. There still exist above a hundred fortified castles, several +of which are inhabited. They are mostly of small extent, a +large portion being fortified dwellings. The chief of them is +Bunratty Castle, built in 1277, once inhabited by the earls of +Thomond, 10 m. W. of Limerick, on the Shannon. Those of +Ballykinvarga, Ballynalackan and Lemaneagh, all in the +north-west, should also be mentioned. Raths or encampments are +to be found in every part. They are generally circular, composed +either of large stones without mortar or of earth thrown +up and surrounded by one or more ditches. The list of abbeys +and other religious houses formerly flourishing here (some now +only known by name, but many of them surviving in ruins) +comprehends upwards of twenty. The most remarkable are—Quin, +considered one of the finest and most perfect specimens +of ancient monastic architecture in Ireland; Corcomroe; Ennis, +in which is a very fine window of uncommonly elegant workmanship; +and those on Inniscattery or Scattery Island, in the +Shannon, said to have been founded by St Senan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kilrush</a></span>). +Kilfenora, 5 m. N.E. of Ennistimon, was until 1752 a separate +diocese, and its small cathedral is of interest, with several +neighbouring crosses and a holy well. The ruined churches +of Kilnaboy, Nouhaval and Teampul Cronan are the most +noteworthy of many in the north-west. Five round towers are +to be found in various stages of preservation—at Scattery +Island, Drumcliffe, Dysert O’Dea, Kilnaboy and Inniscaltra +(Lough Derg). The cathedral of the diocese of Killaloe is at +the town of that name. Cromlechs are found, chiefly in the +rocky limestone district of Burren in the N.W., though there +are some in other baronies. That at Ballygannor is formed of a +stone 40 ft. long and 10 broad.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See papers by T.J. Westropp in <i>Proceedings of the Royal Irish +Academy</i>—“Distribution of Cromlechs in County Clare” (1897); +and “Churches of County Clare, and Origin of Ecclesiastical +Divisions” (1900).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAREMONT<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span>, a city of Sullivan county, New Hampshire, +U.S.A., situated in the W. part of the state, bordering on the +Connecticut river. Pop. (1890) 5565; (1900) 6498 (1442 +foreign-born); (1910) 7529. Area, 6 sq. m. It is served by two +branches of the Boston & Maine railway. In Claremont is the +Fiske free library (1873), housed in a Carnegie building (1904). +The Stevens high school is richly endowed by the gift of Paran +Stevens, a native of Claremont. The city contains several +villages, the principal being Claremont, Claremont Junction +and West Claremont. Sugar river, flowing through the city +into the Connecticut and falling 223 ft. within the city limits, +furnishes good water-power. Among the manufactures are +woollen and cotton goods, paper, mining and quarrying +machinery, rubber goods, linens, shoes, wood trim and pearl +buttons. The first settlement here was made in 1762, and a +township was organized in 1764; in 1908 Claremont was +chartered as a city. It was named from Claremont, Lord +Clive’s country place.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARENCE, DUKES OF<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>. The early history of this English +title is identical with that of the family of Clare (<i>q.v.</i>), earls of +Gloucester, who are sometimes called earls of Clare, of which +word Clarence is a later form. The first duke of Clarence was +Lionel of Antwerp (see below), third son of Edward III., who +was created duke in 1362, and whose wife Elizabeth was a +direct descendant of the Clares, the “Honour of Clare” being +among the lands which she brought to her husband. When +Lionel died without sons in 1368 the title became extinct; but +in 1412 it was revived in favour of Thomas (see below), the +second son of Henry IV. The third creation of a duke of Clarence +took place in 1461, and was in favour of George (see below), +brother of the King Edward IV. When this duke, accused by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span> +the king, was attainted and killed in 1478, his titles and estates +were forfeited. There appears to have been no other creation +of a duke of Clarence until 1789, when William, third son of +George III., was made a peer under this title. Having merged +in the crown when William became king of Great Britain and +Ireland in 1830, the title of duke of Clarence was again revived +in 1890 in favour of Albert Victor (1864-1892), the elder son of +King Edward VII., then prince of Wales, only to become extinct +for the fifth time on his death in 1892.</p> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Lionel of Antwerp</span>, duke of Clarence (1338-1368), third +son of Edward III., was born at Antwerp on the 29th of November +1338. Betrothed when a child to Elizabeth (d. 1363), daughter +and heiress of William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster (d. 1332), +he was married to her in 1352; but before this date he had +entered nominally into possession of her great Irish inheritance. +Having been named as his father’s representative in England +in 1345 and again in 1346, Lionel was created earl of Ulster, and +joined an expedition into France in 1355, but his chief energies +were reserved for the affairs of Ireland. Appointed governor +of that country, he landed at Dublin in 1361, and in November +of the following year was created duke of Clarence, while his +father made an abortive attempt to secure for him the crown +of Scotland. His efforts to secure an effective authority over +his Irish lands were only moderately successful; and after +holding a parliament at Kilkenny, which passed the celebrated +statute of Kilkenny in 1367, he threw up his task in disgust +and returned to England. About this time a marriage was +arranged between Clarence and Violante, daughter of Galeazzo +Visconti, lord of Pavia (d. 1378); the enormous dowry which +Galeazzo promised with his daughter being exaggerated by the +rumour of the time. Journeying to fetch his bride, the duke +was received in great state both in France and Italy, and was +married to Violante at Milan in June 1368. Some months were +then spent in festivities, during which Lionel was taken ill at +Alba, where he died on the 7th of October 1368. His only child +Philippa, a daughter by his first wife, married in 1368 Edmund +Mortimer, 3rd earl of March (1351-1381), and through this +union Clarence became the ancestor of Edward IV. The poet +Chaucer was at one time a page in Lionel’s household.</p> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Thomas</span>, duke of Clarence (c. 1388-1421), who was nominally +lieutenant of Ireland from 1401 to 1413, and was in command of +the English fleet in 1405, acted in opposition to his elder brother, +afterwards King Henry V., and the Beauforts during the later +part of the reign of Henry IV.; and was for a short time at the +head of the government, leading an unsuccessful expedition +into France in 1412. When Henry V., however, became king +in 1413 no serious dissensions took place between the brothers, +and as a member of the royal council Clarence took part in the +preparations for the French war. He was with the English king +at Harfleur, but not at Agincourt, and shared in the expedition +of 1417 into Normandy, during which he led the assault on Caen, +and distinguished himself as a soldier in other similar +undertakings. When Henry V. returned to England in 1421, the duke +remained in France as his lieutenant, and was killed at Beaugé +whilst rashly attacking the French and their Scottish allies on +the 22nd of March 1421. He left no legitimate issue, and the +title again became extinct.</p> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">George</span>, duke of Clarence (1449-1478), younger son of Richard, +duke of York, by his wife Cicely, daughter of Ralph Neville, +1st earl of Westmorland, was born in Dublin on the 21st of +October 1449. Soon after his elder brother became king as +Edward IV. in March 1461, he was created duke of Clarence, +and his youth was no bar to his appointment as lord-lieutenant +of Ireland in the following year. Having been mentioned as a +possible husband for Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, +afterwards duke of Burgundy, Clarence came under the influence of +Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, and in July 1469 was married +at Calais to the earl’s elder daughter Isabella. With his +father-in-law he then acted in a disloyal manner towards the king. +Both supported the rebels in the north of England, and when +their treachery was discovered Clarence was deprived of his +office as lord-lieutenant and fled to France. Returning to +England with Warwick in September 1470, he witnessed the +restoration of Henry VI., when the crown was settled upon +himself in case the male line of Henry’s family became extinct. +The good understanding, however, between Warwick and his +son-in-law was not lasting, and Clarence was soon secretly +reconciled with Edward. The public reconciliation between +the brothers took place when the king was besieging Warwick +in Coventry, and Clarence then fought for the Yorkists at +Barnet and Tewkesbury. After Warwick’s death in April 1471 +Clarence appears to have seized the whole of the vast estates of +the earl, and in March 1472 was created by right of his wife earl +of Warwick and Salisbury. He was consequently greatly disturbed +when he heard that his younger brother Richard, duke of +Gloucester, was seeking to marry Warwick’s younger daughter +Anne, and was claiming some part of Warwick’s lands. A violent +quarrel between the brothers ensued, but Clarence was unable +to prevent Gloucester from marrying, and in 1474 the king +interfered to settle the dispute, dividing the estates between +his brothers. In 1477 Clarence was again a suitor for the hand +of Mary, who had just become duchess of Burgundy. Edward +objected to the match, and Clarence, jealous of Gloucester’s +influence, left the court. At length Edward was convinced +that Clarence was aiming at his throne. The duke was thrown +into prison, and in January 1478 the king unfolded the charges +against his brother to the parliament. He had slandered the +king; had received oaths of allegiance to himself and his heirs; +had prepared for a new rebellion; and was in short incorrigible. +Both Houses of Parliament passed the bill of attainder, and the +sentence of death which followed was carried out on the 17th +or 18th of February 1478. It is uncertain what share Gloucester +had in his brother’s death; but soon after the event the rumour +gained ground that Clarence had been drowned in a butt of +malmsey wine. Two of the duke’s children survived their +father: Margaret, countess of Salisbury (1473-1541), and +Edward, earl of Warwick (1475-1499), who passed the greater +part of his life in prison and was beheaded in November 1499.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>On the last-named see W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. iii. +(Oxford, 1895); Sir J.H. Ramsay, <i>Lancaster and York</i> (Oxford, +1892); C.W.C. Oman, <i>Warwick the Kingmaker</i> (London, 1891). +On the title generally see G.E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span>, <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1609-1674), +English historian and statesman, son of Henry Hyde of Dinton, +Wiltshire, a member of a family for some time established at +Norbury, Cheshire, was born on the 18th of February 1609. +He entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1622 (having been refused +a demyship at Magdalen College), and graduated B.A. in 1626. +Intended originally for holy orders, the death of two elder +brothers made him his father’s heir, and in 1625 he entered the +Middle Temple. At the university his abilities were more +conspicuous than his industry, and at the bar his time was +devoted more to general reading and to the society of eminent +scholars and writers than to the study of law treatises. This +wandering from the beaten track, however, was not without its +advantages. In later years Clarendon declared “next the +immediate blessing and providence of God Almighty” that he +“owed all the little he knew and the little good that was in him +to the friendships and conversation ... of the most excellent +men in their several kinds that lived in that age.”<a name="FnAnchor_1i" id="FnAnchor_1i" href="#Footnote_1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> These +included Ben Jonson, Selden, Waller, Hales, and especially Lord +Falkland; and from their influence and the wide reading in +which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning and +literary talent which afterwards distinguished him.</p> + +<p>In 1629 he married his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir George +Ayliffe, who died six months afterwards; and secondly, in 1634, +Frances, daughter of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests. +In 1633 he was called to the bar, and obtained quickly a good +position and practice. His marriages had gained for him influential +friends, and in December 1634 he was made keeper of +the writs and rolls of the common pleas; while his able conduct +of the petition of the London merchants against Portland earned +Laud’s approval. He was returned to the Short Parliament +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span> +in 1640 as member for Wootton Bassett. Respect and veneration +for the law and constitution of England were already +fundamental principles with Hyde, and the flagrant violations +and perversions of the law which characterized the twelve +preceding years of absolute rule drove him into the ranks of the +popular party. He served on numerous and important committees, +and his parliamentary action was directed chiefly towards +the support and restoration of the law. He assailed the +jurisdiction of the earl marshal’s court, and in the Long Parliament, +in which he sat for Saltash, renewed his attacks and +practically effected its suppression. In 1641 he served on the +committees for inquiring into the status of the councils of Wales +and of the North, distinguished himself by a speech against the +latter, and took an important part in the proceedings against +the judges. He supported Stafford’s impeachment, and did +not vote against the attainder, subsequently making an unsuccessful +attempt through Essex to avert the capital penalty.<a name="FnAnchor_2i" id="FnAnchor_2i" href="#Footnote_2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> +Hyde’s allegiance, however, to the church of England was as +staunch as his support of the law, and was soon to separate +him from the popular faction. In February 1641 he opposed +the reception of the London petition against episcopacy, and in +May the project for unity of religion with the Scots, and the bill +for the exclusion of the clergy from secular office. He showed +special energy in his opposition to the Root and Branch Bill, +and, though made chairman of the committee on the bill on the +11th of July in order to silence his opposition, he caused by his +successful obstruction the failure of the measure. In consequence +he was summoned to the king’s presence, and encouraged in his +attitude, and at the beginning of the second session was regarded +as one of the king’s ablest supporters in the Commons. He +considered the claims put forward at this time by parliament +as a violation and not as a guarantee of the law and constitution. +He opposed the demand by the parliament to choose the king’s +ministers, and also the Grand Remonstrance, to which he wrote +a reply published by the king.</p> + +<p>He now definitely though not openly joined the royal cause, +and refused office in January 1642 with Colepeper and Falkland +in order to serve the king’s interests more effectually. Charles +undertook to do nothing in the Commons without their advice. +Nevertheless a few days afterwards, without their knowledge and +by the advice of Lord Digby, he attempted the arrest of the five +members, a resort to force which reduced Hyde to despair, and +which indeed seemed to show that things had gone too far for an +appeal to the law. He persevered, nevertheless, in his legal policy, +to which Charles after the failure of his project again returned, +joined the king openly in June, and continued to compose the +king’s answers and declarations in which he appealed to the +“known Laws of the land” against the arbitrary and illegal +acts of a seditious majority in the parliament, his advice to the +king being “to shelter himself wholly under the law,... presuming +that the king and the law together would have been +strong enough for any encounter.” Hyde’s appeal had great +influence, and gained for the king’s cause half the nation. It by no +means, however, met with universal support among the royalists, +Hobbes jeering at Hyde’s love for “mixed monarchy,” and the +courtiers expressing their disapproval of the “spirit of accommodation” +which “wounded the regality.” It was destined to +failure owing principally to the invincible distrust of Charles +created in the parliament leaders, and to the fact that Charles was +simultaneously carrying on another and an inconsistent policy, +listening to very different advisers, such as the queen and Digby, +and resolving on measures (such as the attempt on Hull) without +Hyde’s knowledge or approval.</p> + +<p>War, accordingly, in spite of his efforts, broke out. He was +expelled the House of Commons on the 11th of August 1642, and +was one of those excepted later from pardon. He showed great +activity in collecting loans, was present at Edgehill, though not as +a combatant, and followed the king to Oxford, residing at All +Souls College from October 1642 till March 1645. On the 22nd of +February he was made a privy councillor and knighted, and on +the 3rd of March appointed chancellor of the exchequer. He +was an influential member of the “Junto” which met every +week to discuss business before it was laid before the council. +His aim was to gain over some of the leading Parliamentarians +by personal influence and personal considerations, and at the +Uxbridge negotiations in January 1645, where he acted as +principal manager on the king’s side, while remaining firm on the +great political questions such as the church and the militia, he +tried to win individuals by promises of places and honours. He +promoted the assembly of the Oxford parliament in December +1643 as a counterpoise to the influence and status of the Long +Parliament. Hyde’s policy and measures, however, all failed. +They had been weakly and irregularly supported by the king, and +were fiercely opposed by the military party, who were jealous of +the civil influence, and were urging Charles to trust to force and +arms alone and eschew all compromise and concessions. Charles +fell now under the influence of persons devoid of all legal and +constitutional scruples, sending to Glamorgan in Ireland “those +strange powers and instructions inexcusable to justice, piety and +prudence.”<a name="FnAnchor_3i" id="FnAnchor_3i" href="#Footnote_3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>Hyde’s influence was much diminished, and on the 4th of March +1645 he left the king for Bristol as one of the guardians of the +prince of Wales and governors of the west. Here the disputes +between the council and the army paralysed the proceedings, and +lost, according to Hyde, the finest opportunity since the outbreak +of the war of raising a strong force and gaining substantial +victories in that part of the country. After Hopton’s defeat on +the 16th of February 1646, at Torrington, Hyde accompanied the +prince, on the 4th of March, to Scilly, and on the 17th of April, for +greater security, to Jersey. He strongly disapproved of the +prince’s removal to France by the queen’s order and of the +schemes of assistance from abroad, refused to accompany him, +and signed a bond to prevent the sale of Jersey to the French +supported by Jermyn. He opposed the projected sacrifice of the +church to the Scots and the grant by the king of any but personal +or temporary concessions, declaring that peace was only possible +“upon the old foundations of government in church and state.” +He was especially averse to Charles’s tampering with the Irish +Romanists. “Oh, Mr Secretary,” he wrote to Nicholas, “those +stratagems have given me more sad hours than all the misfortunes +in war which have befallen the king and look like the +effects of God’s anger towards us.”<a name="FnAnchor_4i" id="FnAnchor_4i" href="#Footnote_4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> He refused to compound for +his own estate. While in Jersey he resided first at St Helier and +afterwards at Elizabeth Castle with Sir George Carteret. He +composed the first portion of his <i>History</i> and kept in touch with +events by means of an enormous correspondence. In 1648 he +published <i>A Full answer to an infamous and traiterous Pamphlet...</i>, +a reply to the resolution of the parliament to present no +more addresses to the king and a vindication of Charles.</p> + +<p>On the outbreak of the second Civil War Hyde left Jersey +(26th of June 1648) to join the queen and prince at Paris. He +landed at Dieppe, sailed from that port to Dunkirk, and thence +followed the prince to the Thames, where Charles had met the +fleet, but was captured and robbed by a privateer, and only joined +the prince in September after the latter’s return to the Hague. +He strongly disapproved of the king’s concessions at Newport. +When the army broke off the treaty and brought Charles to trial +he endeavoured to save his life, and after the execution drew up a +letter to the several European sovereigns invoking their assistance +to avenge it. Hyde strongly opposed Charles II.’s ignominious +surrender to the Covenanters, the alliance with the Scots, and +the Scottish expedition, desiring to accomplish whatever was +possible there through Montrose and the royalists, and inclined +rather to an attempt in Ireland. His advice was not followed, and +he gladly accepted a mission with Cottington to Spain to obtain +money from the Roman Catholic powers, and to arrange an +alliance between Owen O’Neill and Ormonde for the recovery of +Ireland, arriving at Madrid on the 26th of November 1649. The +defeat, however, of Charles at Dunbar, and the confirmation of +Cromwell’s ascendancy, influenced the Spanish government +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span> +against them, and they were ordered to leave in December 1650. +Hyde arrived at Antwerp in January 1651, and in December +rejoined Charles at Paris after the latter’s escape from Worcester. +He now became one of his chief advisers, accompanying him in +his change of residence to Cologne in October 1654 and to +Bruges in 1658, and was appointed lord chancellor on the 13th +of January 1658. His influence was henceforth maintained in +spite of the intrigues of both Romanists and Presbyterians, as +well as the violent and openly displayed hostility of the queen, +and was employed unremittingly in the endeavour to keep +Charles faithful to the church and constitution, and in the prevention +of unwise concessions and promises which might estrange +the general body of the royalists. His advice to Charles was to +wait upon the turn of events, “that all his activity was to +consist in carefully avoiding to do anything that might do him +hurt and to expect some blessed conjuncture.”<a name="FnAnchor_5i" id="FnAnchor_5i" href="#Footnote_5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> In 1656, during +the war between England and Spain, Charles received offers of +help from the latter power provided he could gain a port in +England, but Hyde discouraged small isolated attempts. He +expected much from Cromwell’s death. The same year he made +an alliance with the Levellers, and was informed of their plots to +assassinate the protector, without apparently expressing any +disapproval.<a name="FnAnchor_6i" id="FnAnchor_6i" href="#Footnote_6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> He was well supplied with information from +England,<a name="FnAnchor_7i" id="FnAnchor_7i" href="#Footnote_7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> and guided the action of the royalists with great +ability and wisdom during the interval between Cromwell’s +death and the Restoration, urged patience, and advocated the +obstruction of a settlement between the factions contending for +power and the fomentation of their jealousies, rather than +premature risings.</p> + +<p>The Restoration was a complete triumph for Hyde’s policy. +He lays no stress on his own great part in it, but it was owing +to him that the Restoration was a national one, by the consent +and invitation of parliament representing the whole people +and not through the medium of one powerful faction enforcing +its will upon a minority, and that it was not only a restoration +of Charles but a restoration of the monarchy. By Hyde’s +advice concessions to the inconvenient demands of special +factions had been avoided by referring the decision to a “free +parliament,” and the declaration of Breda reserved for parliament +the settlement of the questions of amnesty, religious +toleration and the proprietorship of forfeited lands.</p> + +<p>Hyde entered London with the king, all attempts at effecting +his fall having failed, and immediately obtained the chief place +in the government, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer +till the 13th of May 1661, when he surrendered it to Lord Ashley. +He took his seat as speaker of the House of Lords and in the +court of chancery on the 1st of June 1660. On the 3rd of +November 1660 he was made Baron Hyde of Hindon, and on +the 20th of April 1661 Viscount Cornbury and earl of Clarendon, +receiving a grant from the king of £20,000 and at different times +of various small estates and Irish rents. The marriage of his +daughter Anne to James, duke of York, celebrated in secret in +September 1660, at first alarmed Clarendon on account of the +public hostility he expected thereby to incur, but finding his +fears unconfirmed he acquiesced in its public recognition in +December, and thus became related in a special manner to the +royal family and the grandfather of two English sovereigns.<a name="FnAnchor_8i" id="FnAnchor_8i" href="#Footnote_8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p> + +<p>Clarendon’s position was one of great difficulties, but at the +same time of splendid opportunities. In particular a rare +occasion now offered itself of settling the religious question on a +broad principle of comprehension or toleration; for the monarchy +had been restored not by the supporters of the church alone +but largely by the influence and aid of the nonconformists and +also of the Roman Catholics, who were all united at that happy +moment by a common loyalty to the throne. Clarendon appears +to have approved of comprehension but not of toleration. He +had already in April 1660 sent to discuss terms with the leading +Presbyterians in England, and after the Restoration offered +bishoprics to several, including Richard Baxter. He drew up +the royal declaration of October, promising limited episcopacy +and a revised prayer-book and ritual, which was subsequently +thrown out by parliament, and he appears to have anticipated +some kind of settlement from the Savoy Conference which sat +in April 1661. The failure of the latter proved perhaps that the +differences were too great for compromise, and widened the +breach. The parliament immediately proceeded to pass the +series of narrow and tyrannical measures against the dissenters +known as the Clarendon Code. The Corporations Act, obliging +members of corporations to denounce the Covenant and take +the sacrament according to the Anglican usage, became law +on the 20th of December 1661, the Act of Uniformity enforcing +the use of the prayer-book on ministers, as well as a declaration +that it was unlawful to bear arms against the sovereign, on the +19th of May 1662, and these were followed by the Conventicle Act +in 1664 suppressing conventicles and by the Five-Mile Act in 1665 +forbidding ministers who had refused subscription to the Act of +Uniformity to teach or reside within 5 m. of a borough. Clarendon +appears to have reluctantly acquiesced in these civil measures +rather than to have originated them, and to have endeavoured +to mitigate their injustice and severity. He supported the continuance +of the tenure by presbyterian ministers of livings not +held by Anglicans and an amendment in the Lords allowing a +pension to those deprived, earning the gratitude of Baxter and +the nonconformists. On the 17th of March 1662 he introduced +into parliament a declaration enabling the king to dispense +with the Act of Uniformity in the case of ministers of merit.<a name="FnAnchor_9i" id="FnAnchor_9i" href="#Footnote_9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +But once committed to the narrow policy of intolerance, Clarendon +was inevitably involved in all its consequences. His characteristic +respect for the law and constitution rendered him +hostile to the general policy of indulgence, which, though the +favourite project of the king, he strongly opposed in the Lords, +and in the end caused its withdrawal. He declared that he could +have wished the law otherwise, “but when it was passed, he +thought it absolutely necessary to see obedience paid to it +without any connivance.”<a name="FnAnchor_10i" id="FnAnchor_10i" href="#Footnote_10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Charles was greatly angered. It +was believed in May 1663 that the intrigues of Bennet and +Buckingham, who seized the opportunity of ingratiating themselves +with the king by zealously supporting the indulgence, +had secured Clarendon’s dismissal, and in July Bristol ventured +to accuse him of high treason in the parliament; but the attack, +which did not receive the king’s support, failed entirely and only +ended in the banishment from court of its promoter. Clarendon’s +opposition to the court policy in this way acquired a personal +character, and he was compelled to identify himself more completely +with the intolerant measures of the House of Commons. +Though not the originator of the Conventicle Act or of the Five-Mile +Act, he has recorded his approval,<a name="FnAnchor_11i" id="FnAnchor_11i" href="#Footnote_11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and he ended by taking +alarm at plots and rumours and by regarding the great party +of nonconformists, through whose co-operation the monarchy +had been restored, as a danger to the state whose “faction was +their religion.”<a name="FnAnchor_12i" id="FnAnchor_12i" href="#Footnote_12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p> + +<p>Meanwhile Clarendon’s influence and direction had been +predominant in nearly all departments of state. He supported +the exception of the actual regicides from the Indemnity, but +only ten out of the twenty-six condemned were executed, and +Clarendon, with the king’s support, prevented the passing of a +bill in 1661 for the execution of thirteen more. He upheld the +Act of Indemnity against all the attempts of the royalists to +upset it. The conflicting claims to estates were left to be decided +by the law. The confiscations of the usurping government accordingly +were cancelled, while the properly executed transactions +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span> +between individuals were necessarily upheld. There can be +little doubt that the principle followed was the only safe +one in the prevailing confusion. Great injustice was indeed +suffered by individuals, but the proper remedy of such injustice +was the benevolence of the king, which there is too much reason +to believe proved inadequate and partial. The settlement of +the church lands which was directed by Clarendon presented +equal difficulties and involved equal hardships. In settling +Scotland Clarendon’s aim was to make that kingdom dependent +upon England and to uphold the Cromwellian union. He +proposed to establish a council at Whitehall to govern Scottish +affairs, and showed great zeal in endeavouring to restore episcopacy +through the medium of Archbishop Sharp. His influence, +however, ended with the ascendancy of Lauderdale in 1663. +He was, to some extent at least, responsible for the settlement +in Ireland, but, while anxious for an establishment upon a +solid Protestant basis, urged “temper and moderation and +justice” in securing it. He supported Ormonde’s wise and +enlightened Irish administration, and in particular opposed +persistently the prohibition of the import of Irish cattle into +England, incurring thereby great unpopularity. He showed +great activity in the advancement of the colonies, to whom he +allowed full freedom of religion. He was a member of the council +for foreign plantations, and one of the eight lords proprietors +of Carolina in 1663; and in 1664 sent a commission to settle +disputes in New England. In the department of foreign +affairs he had less influence. His policy was limited to the +maintenance of peace “necessary for the reducing [the king’s] +own dominions into that temper of subjection and obedience +as they ought to be in.”<a name="FnAnchor_13i" id="FnAnchor_13i" href="#Footnote_13i"><span class="sp">13</span></a> In 1664 he demanded, on behalf +of Charles, French support, and a loan of £50,000 against disturbance +at home, and thus initiated that ignominious system +of pensions and dependence upon France which proved so +injurious to English interests later. But he was the promoter +neither of the sale of Dunkirk on the 27th of October 1662, the +author of which seems to have been the earl of Sandwich,<a name="FnAnchor_14i" id="FnAnchor_14i" href="#Footnote_14i"><span class="sp">14</span></a> nor +of the Dutch War. He attached considerable value to the +possession of the former, but when its sale was decided he conducted +the negotiations and effected the bargain. He had +zealously laboured for peace with Holland, and had concluded +a treaty for the settlement of disputes on the 4th of September +1662. Commercial and naval jealousies, however, soon involved +the two states in hostilities. Cape Corso and other Dutch +possessions on the <span class="correction" title="amended from cost">coast</span> of Africa, and New Amsterdam in +America, were seized by squadrons from the royal navy in 1664, +and hostilities were declared on the 22nd of February 1665. +Clarendon now gave his support to the war, asserted the extreme +claims of the English crown over the British seas, and contemplated +fresh cessions from the Dutch and an alliance with Sweden +and Spain. According to his own account he initiated the policy +of the Triple Alliance,<a name="FnAnchor_15i" id="FnAnchor_15i" href="#Footnote_15i"><span class="sp">15</span></a> but it seems clear that his inclination +towards France continued in spite of the intervention of the +latter state in favour of Holland; and he took part in the +negotiations for ending the war by an undertaking with Louis +XIV. implying a neutrality, while the latter seized Flanders. +The crisis in this feeble foreign policy and in the general official +mismanagement was reached in June 1667, when the Dutch +burnt several ships at Chatham and when “the roar of foreign +guns were heard for the first and last time by the citizens of +London.”<a name="FnAnchor_16i" id="FnAnchor_16i" href="#Footnote_16i"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p> + +<p>The whole responsibility for the national calamity and disgrace, +and for the ignominious peace which followed it, was unjustly +thrown on the shoulders of Clarendon, though it must be admitted +that the disjointed state of the administration and want of +control over foreign policy were largely the causes of the disaster, +and for these Clarendon’s influence and obstruction of official +reforms were to some extent answerable. According to Sir +William Coventry, whose opinion has weight and who acknowledges +the chancellor’s fidelity to the king, while Clarendon “was +so great at the council board and in the administration of matters, +there was no room for anybody to propose any remedy to what +was remiss ... he managing all things with that greatness which +will now be removed.”<a name="FnAnchor_17i" id="FnAnchor_17i" href="#Footnote_17i"><span class="sp">17</span></a> He disapproved of the system of boards +and committees instituted during the Commonwealth, as giving +too much power to the parliament, and regarded the administration +by the great officers of state, to the exclusion of pure men of +business, as the only method compatible with the dignity and +security of the monarchy. The lowering of the prestige of the +privy council, and its subordination first to the parliament and +afterwards to the military faction, he considered as one of the +chief causes of the fall of Charles I. He aroused a strong feeling of +hostility in the Commons by his opposition to the appropriation of +supplies in 1665, and to the audit of the war accounts in 1666, as +“an introduction to a commonwealth” and as “a new encroachment,” +and by his high tone of prerogative and authority, while +by his advice to Charles to prorogue parliament he incurred their +resentment and gave colour to the accusation that he had advised +the king to govern without parliaments. He was unpopular +among all classes, among the royalists on account of the Act +of Indemnity, among the Presbyterians because of the Act of +Uniformity. It was said that he had invented the maxim “that +the king should buy and reward his enemies and do little for his +friends, because they are his already.”<a name="FnAnchor_18i" id="FnAnchor_18i" href="#Footnote_18i"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Every kind of maladministration +was currently ascribed to him, of designs to govern +by a standing army, and of corruption. He was credited with +having married Charles purposely to a barren queen in order to +raise his own grandchildren to the throne, with having sold +Dunkirk to France, and his magnificent house in St James’s was +nicknamed “Dunkirk House,” while on the day of the Dutch +attack on Chatham the mob set up a gibbet at his gate and broke +his windows. He had always been exceedingly unpopular at +court, and kept severely aloof from the revels and licence which +reigned there. Evelyn names “the buffoons and the misses to +whom he was an eyesore.”<a name="FnAnchor_19i" id="FnAnchor_19i" href="#Footnote_19i"><span class="sp">19</span></a> He was intensely disliked by the +royal mistresses, whose favour he did not condescend to seek, and +whose presence and influence were often the subject of his +reproaches.<a name="FnAnchor_20i" id="FnAnchor_20i" href="#Footnote_20i"><span class="sp">20</span></a> A party of younger men of the king’s own age, +more congenial to his temperament, and eager to drive the old +chancellor from power and to succeed him in office, had for some +time been endeavouring to undermine his influence by ridicule and +intrigue. Surrounded by such general and violent animosity, +Clarendon’s only hope could be in the support of the king. But +the chancellor had early and accurately gauged the nature and +extent of the king’s attachment to him, which proceeded neither +from affection nor gratitude but “from his aversion to be +troubled with the intricacies of his affairs,” and in 1661 he had +resisted the importunities of Ormonde to resign the great seal for +the lord treasurership with the rank of “first minister,” “a title +newly translated out of French into English,” on account of the +obloquy this position would incur and the further dependence +which it entailed upon the inconstant king.<a name="FnAnchor_21i" id="FnAnchor_21i" href="#Footnote_21i"><span class="sp">21</span></a> Charles, long weary +of the old chancellor’s rebukes, was especially incensed at this +time owing to his failure in securing Frances Stuart (la Belle +Stuart) for his seraglio, a disappointment which he attributed to +Clarendon, and was now alarmed by the hostility which his +administration had excited. He did not scruple to sacrifice at +once the old adherent of his house and fortunes. “The truth is,” +he wrote Ormonde, “his behaviour and humour was grown so +insupportable to myself and all the world else that I could no +longer endure it, and it was impossible for me to live with it and +do these things with the Parliament that must be done, or the +government will be lost.”<a name="FnAnchor_22i" id="FnAnchor_22i" href="#Footnote_22i"><span class="sp">22</span></a> By the direction of Charles, James +advised Clarendon to resign before the meeting of parliament, but +in an interview with the king on the 26th of August Clarendon +refused to deliver up the seal unless dismissed, and urged him not +to take a step ruinous to the interests both of the chancellor +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span> +himself and of the crown.<a name="FnAnchor_23i" id="FnAnchor_23i" href="#Footnote_23i"><span class="sp">23</span></a> He could not believe his dismissal was +really intended, but on the 30th of August he was deprived of the +great seal, for which the king received the thanks of the parliament +on the 16th of October. On the 12th of November his impeachment, +consisting of various charges of arbitrary government, +corruption and maladministration, was brought up to the Lords, +but the latter refused to order his committal, on the ground that +the Commons had only accused him of treason in general without +specifying any particular charge. Clarendon wrote humbly to +the king asking for pardon, and that the prosecution might be +prevented, but Charles had openly taken part against him, and, +though desiring his escape, would not order or assist his departure +for fear of the Commons. Through the bishop of Hereford, +however, on the 29th of November he pressed Clarendon to fly, +promising that he should not during his absence suffer in his +honour or fortune. Clarendon embarked the same night for +Calais, where he arrived on the 2nd of December. The Lords +immediately passed an act for his banishment and ordered the +petition forwarded by him to parliament to be burnt.</p> + +<p>The rest of Clarendon’s life was passed in exile. He left +Calais for Rouen on the 25th of December, returning on the +21st of January 1668, visiting the baths of Bourbon in April, +thence to Avignon in June, residing from July 1668 till June +1671 at Montpellier, whence he proceeded to Moulins and to +Rouen again in May 1674. His sudden banishment entailed +great personal hardships. His health at the time of his flight +was much impaired, and on arriving at Calais he fell dangerously +ill; and Louis XIV., anxious at this time to gain popularity +in England, sent him peremptory and repeated orders to quit +France. He suffered severely from gout, and during the greater +part of his exile could not walk without the aid of two men. +At Evreux, on the 23rd of April 1668, he was the victim of a +murderous assault by English sailors, who attributed to him the +non-payment of their wages, and who were on the point of +despatching him when he was rescued by the guard. For some +time he was not allowed to see any of his children; even correspondence +with him was rendered treasonable by the Act of +Banishment; and it was not apparently till 1671, 1673 and 1674 +that he received visits from his sons, the younger, Lawrence +Hyde, being present with him at his death.</p> + +<p>Clarendon bore his troubles with great dignity and fortitude. +He found consolation in religious duties, and devoted a portion +of every day to the composition of his <i>Contemplations on the +Psalms</i>, and of his moral essays. Removed effectually from +the public scene, and from all share in present politics, he turned +his attention once more to the past and finished his <i>History</i> and +his <i>Autobiography</i>. Soon after reaching Calais he had written, +on the 17th of December 1667, to the university of Oxford, +desiring as his last request that the university should believe +in his innocence and remember him, though there could be no +further mention of him in their public devotions, in their private +prayers.<a name="FnAnchor_24i" id="FnAnchor_24i" href="#Footnote_24i"><span class="sp">24</span></a> In 1668 he wrote to the duke and duchess of York to +remonstrate on the report that they had turned Roman Catholic, +to the former urging “You cannot be without zeal for the +Church to which your blessed father made himself a sacrifice,” +adding that such a change would bring a great storm against +the Romanists. He entertained to the last hopes of obtaining +leave to return to England. He asked for permission in June +1671 and in August 1674. In the dedication of his <i>Brief View +of Mr Hobbes’s Book Leviathan</i> he repeats “the hope which +sustains my weak, decayed spirits that your Majesty will at +some time call to your remembrance my long and incorrupted +fidelity to your person and your service”; but his petitions +were not even answered or noticed. He died at Rouen on the +9th of December 1674. He was buried in Westminster Abbey +at the foot of the steps at the entrance to Henry VII.’s chapel. +He left two sons, Henry, 2nd earl of Clarendon, and Lawrence, +earl of Rochester, his daughter Anne, duchess of York, and a +third son, Edward, having predeceased him. His male descendants +became extinct on the death of the 4th earl of Clarendon +and 2nd earl of Rochester in 1753, the title of Clarendon being +revived in 1776 in the person of Thomas Villiers, who had +married the granddaughter and heir of the last earl.</p> + +<p>As a statesman Clarendon had obvious limitations and failings. +He brought to the consideration of political questions an essentially +legal but also a narrow mind, conceiving the law, “that +great and admirable mystery,” and the constitution as fixed, +unchangeable and sufficient for all time, in contrast to Pym, +who regarded them as living organisms capable of continual +development and evolution; and he was incapable of comprehending +and governing the new conditions and forces created +by the civil wars. His character, however, and therefore to +some extent his career, bear the indelible marks of greatness. +He left the popular cause at the moment of its triumph and +showed in so doing a strict consistency. In a court degraded +by licence and self-indulgence, he maintained his self-respect +and personal dignity regardless of consequences, and in an age +of almost universal corruption and self-seeking he preserved a +noble integrity and patriotism. At the Restoration he showed +great moderation in accepting rewards. He refused a grant +of 10,000 acres in the Fens from the king on the ground that +it would create an evil precedent, and amused Charles and James +by his indignation at the offer of a present of £10,000 from the +French minister Fouquet, the only present he accepted from +Louis XIV. being a set of books printed at the Louvre. His +income, however, as lord chancellor was very large, and Clarendon +maintained considerable state, considering it due to the dignity +of the monarchy that the high officers should carry the external +marks of greatness. The house built by him in St James’s +was one of the most magnificent ever seen in England, and was +filled with a collection of portraits, chiefly those of contemporary +statesmen and men of letters. It cost Clarendon £50,000, involved +him deeply in debt and was considered one of the chief +causes of the “gust of envy” that caused his fall.<a name="FnAnchor_25i" id="FnAnchor_25i" href="#Footnote_25i"><span class="sp">25</span></a> He is +described as “a fair, ruddy, fat, middle-statured, handsome +man,” and his appearance was stately and dignified. He +expected deference from his inferiors, and one of the chief +charges which he brought against the party of the young politicians +was the want of respect with which they treated himself +and the lord treasurer. His industry and devotion to public +business, of which proofs still remain in the enormous mass of his +state papers and correspondence, were exemplary, and were +rendered all the more conspicuous by the negligence, inferiority +in business, and frivolity of his successors. As lord chancellor +Clarendon made no great impression in the court of chancery. +His early legal training had long been interrupted, and his +political preoccupations probably rendered necessary the +delegation of many of his judicial duties to others. According +to Speaker Onslow his decrees were always made with the aid +of two judges. Burnet praises him, however, as “a very good +chancellor, only a little too rough but very impartial in the +administration of justice,” and Pepys, who saw him presiding +in his court, perceived him to be “a most able and ready man.”<a name="FnAnchor_26i" id="FnAnchor_26i" href="#Footnote_26i"><span class="sp">26</span></a> +According to Evelyn, “though no considerable lawyer” he was +“one who kept up the fame and substance of things in the +nation with ... solemnity.” He made good appointments +to the bench and issued some important orders for the reform +of abuses in his court.<a name="FnAnchor_27i" id="FnAnchor_27i" href="#Footnote_27i"><span class="sp">27</span></a> As chancellor of Oxford University, +to which office he was elected on the 27th of October 1660, +Clarendon promoted the restoration of order and various educational +reforms. In 1753 his manuscripts were left to the university +by his great-grandson Lord Cornbury, and in 1868 the +money gained by publication was spent in erecting the Clarendon +Laboratory, the profits of the <i>History</i> having provided in 1713 +a building for the university press adjoining the Sheldonian +theatre, known since the removal of the press to its present +quarters as the Clarendon Building.</p> + +<p>Clarendon had risen to high office largely through his literary +and oratorical gifts. His eloquence was greatly admired by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span> +Evelyn and Pepys, though Burnet criticises it as too copious. +He was a great lover of books and collected a large library, was +well read in the Roman and in the contemporary histories both +foreign and English, and could appreciate Carew, Ben Jonson and +Cowley. As a writer and historian Clarendon occupies a high +place in English literature. His great work, the <i>History of the +Rebellion</i>, is composed in the grand style. A characteristic +feature is the wonderful series of well-known portraits, drawn +with great skill and liveliness and especially praised by Evelyn +and by Macaulay. The long digressions, the lengthy sentences, +and the numerous parentheses do not accord with modern taste +and usage, but it may be observed that these often follow more +closely the natural involutions of the thought, and express the +argument more clearly, than the short disconnected sentences, +now generally employed, while in rhythm and dignity Clarendon’s +style is immeasurably superior. The composition, however, of +the work as a whole is totally wanting in proportion, and the +book is overloaded with state papers, misplaced and tedious in the +narrative. In considering the accuracy of the history it is +important to remember the dates and circumstances of the +composition of its various portions. The published <i>History</i> is +mainly a compilation of two separate original manuscripts, the +first being the history proper, written between 1646 and 1648, +with the advantage of a fresh memory and the help of various +documents and authorities, and ending in March 1644, and the +second being the <i>Life</i>, extending from 1609 to 1660, but composed +long afterwards in exile and without the aid of papers between +1668 and 1670. The value of any statement, therefore, in the +published <i>History</i> depends chiefly on whether it is taken from the +<i>History</i> proper or the <i>Life</i>. In 1671 these two manuscripts were +united by Clarendon with certain alterations and modifications +making Books i.-vii. of the published <i>History</i>, while Books viii.-xv. +were written subsequently, and, being composed for the most +part without materials, are generally inaccurate, with the notable +exception of Book ix., made up from two narratives written at +Jersey in 1646, and containing very little from the <i>Life</i>. Sincerity +and honest conviction are present on every page, and the inaccuracies +are due not to wilful misrepresentation, but to failure +of memory and to the disadvantages under which the author +laboured in exile. But they lessen considerably the value of his +work, and detract from his reputation as chronicler of contemporary +events, for which he was specially fitted by his +practical experience in public business, a qualification declared +by himself to be the “genius, spirit and soul of an historian.” +In general, Clarendon, like many of his contemporaries, failed +signally to comprehend the real issues and principles at stake in +the great struggle, laying far too much stress on personalities +and never understanding the real aims and motives of the +Presbyterian party. The work was first published in 1702-1704 +from a copy of a transcript made by Clarendon’s secretary, with +a few unimportant alterations, and was the object of a violent +attack by John Oldmixon for supposed changes and omissions +in <i>Clarendon and Whitelocke compared</i> (1727) and again in a +preface to his <i>History of England</i> (1730), repelled and refuted by +John Burton in the <i>Genuineness of Lord Clarendon’s History +Vindicated</i> (1744). The history was first published from the +original in 1826; the best edition being that of 1888 edited by +W.D. Macray and issued by the Clarendon Press. <i>The Lord +Clarendon’s History ... Compleated</i>, a supplement containing +portraits and illustrative papers, was published in 1717, and <i>An +Appendix to the History</i>, containing a life, speeches and various +pieces, in 1724. The <i>Sutherland Clarendon</i> in the Bodleian +library at Oxford contains several thousand portraits and +illustrations of the <i>History</i>. <i>The Life of Edward, earl of Clarendon</i> +... [<i>and the</i>] <i>Continuation of the History ... </i>, the first consisting +of that portion of the <i>Life</i> not included in the <i>History</i>, and the +second of the account of Clarendon’s administration and exile in +France, begun in 1672, was published in 1759, the <i>History of the +Reign of King Charles II. from the Restoration ...</i>, published +about 1755, being a surreptitious edition of this work, of which +the latest and best edition is that of the Clarendon Press of 1857.</p> + +<p>Clarendon was also the author of <i>The Difference and Disparity +between the Estate and Condition of George, duke of Buckingham +and Robert, earl of Essex</i>, a youthful production vindicating +Buckingham, printed in <i>Reliquiae Wottonianae</i> (1672), i. 184; +<i>Animadversions on a Book entitled Fanaticism</i> (1673); <i>A Brief +View ... of the dangerous ... errors in ... Mr Hobbes’s +book entitled “Leviathan”</i> (1676); <i>The History of the Rebellion +and Civil War in Ireland</i> (1719); <i>A Collection of Several Pieces of +Edward, earl of Clarendon</i>, containing reprints of speeches from +the journals of the House of Lords and of the History of the +Rebellion in Ireland (1727); <i>A Collection of Several Tracts</i> +containing his <i>Vindication</i> in answer to his impeachment, +<i>Reflections upon several Christian Duties, Two Dialogues on +Education and on the want of Respect due to age</i>, and <i>Contemplations +on the Psalms</i> (1727); <i>Religion and Policy</i> (1811); <i>Essays +moral and entertaining on the various faculties and passions of the +human mind</i> (1815, and in <i>British Prose Writers</i>, 1819, vol. i.); +<i>Speeches</i> in <i>Rushworth’s Collections</i> (1692), pt. iii. vol. i. 230, +333; <i>Declarations and Manifestos</i> (Clarendon being the author of +nearly all on the king’s side between March 1642 and March 1645, +the first being the answer to the Grand Remonstrance in January +1642, but not of the answer to the XIX. Propositions or the +apology for the King’s attack upon Brentford) in the published +<i>History</i>, Rushworth’s <i>Collections</i>, E. Husband’s <i>Collections of +Ordinances and Declarations</i> (1646), <i>Old Parliamentary History</i> +(1751-1762), <i>Somers Tracts, State Tracts, Harleian Miscellany, +Thomasson Tracts</i> (Brit. Mus.), E. 157 (14); and a large number of +anonymous pamphlets aimed against the parliament, including +<i>Transcendent and Multiplied Rebellion and Treason</i> (1645), <i>A +Letter from a True and Lawful Member of Parliament ... to one +of the Lords of his Highness’s Council</i> (1656), and <i>Two Speeches +made in the House of Peers on Monday 19th Dec.</i> [1642] ... +(<i>Somers Tracts</i>, Scott, vi. 576); <i>Second Thoughts</i> (n.d., in favour +of a limited toleration) is ascribed to him in the Catalogue in the +British Museum; <i>A Letter ... to one of the Chief Ministers of +the Nonconforming Party</i> ... (Saumur, 7th May 1674) has been +attributed to him on insufficient evidence.</p> + +<p>Clarendon’s correspondence, amounting to over 100 volumes, +is in the Bodleian library at Oxford, and other letters are to be +found in <i>Additional MSS.</i> in the British Museum. Selections +have been published under the title of <i>State Papers Collected by +Edward, earl of Clarendon</i> (Clarendon State Papers) between 1767 +and 1786, and the collection has been calendared up to 1657 in +1869, 1872, 1876. Other letters of Clarendon are to be found in +Lister’s <i>Life of Clarendon, iii.; Nicholas Papers</i> (Camden Soc., +1886); <i>Diary</i> of J. Evelyn, <i>appendix</i>; Sir R. Fanshaw’s <i>Original +Letters</i> (1724); Warburton’s <i>Life of Prince Rupert</i> (1849): +Barwick’s <i>Life of Barwick</i> (1724); <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 10th Rep. +pt. vi. pp. 193-216, and in the <i>Harleian Miscellany</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Clarendon’s autobiographical works and Letters +enumerated above, and the MS. Collection in the Bodleian library. +The Lives of Clarendon by T.H. Lister (1838), and by C.H. Firth +in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i> (with authorities there collected), +completely supersede all earlier accounts including that in <i>Lives +of All the Lord Chancellors</i> (1708), in Macdiarmid’s <i>Lives of British +Statesmen</i> (1807), and in the different Lives by Wood in <i>Athenae +Oxonienses</i> (Bliss), iii. 1018; while those in J.H. Browne’s <i>Lives +of the Prime Ministers of England</i> (1858), in Lodge’s <i>Portraits</i>, in +Lord Campbell’s <i>Lives of the Chancellors</i>, iii. 110 (1845), and in +Foss’s <i>Judges</i>, supply no further information. In <i>Historical Inquiries +respecting the Character of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon</i>, various +charges against Clarendon were collected by G.A. Ellis (1827) and +answered by Lister, vol. ii. 529, and by Lady Th. Lewis in <i>Lives of the +Contemporaries of Lord Clarendon</i> (1852), i. preface pt. i. For criticisms +of the <i>History</i> see Gardiner’s <i>Civil Wars</i> (1893), iii. 121; +Ranke’s <i>Hist. of England</i>, vi. 3-29; <i>Die Politik Karls des Ersten</i> +... <i>und Lord Clarendon’s Darstellung</i>, by A. Buff (1868); article +in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> by C.H. Firth, and especially a series of +admirable articles by the same author in the <i>Eng. Hist. Review</i> +(1904). For description of the MS., Macray’s edition of the <i>History</i> +(1888), Lady Th. Lewis’s <i>Lives from the Clarendon Gallery</i>, i. introd. +pt. ii.; for list of earlier editions, <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> (Bliss) iii. 1017. +Lord Lansdowne defends Sir R. Granville against Clarendon’s strictures +in the <i>Vindication (Genuine Works of G. Granville, Lord Lansdowne, +i. 503 [1732])</i>, and Lord Ashburnham defends John Ashburnham +in <i>A Narrative by John Ashburnham</i> (1830). See also <i>Notes at +Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and the Earl of +Clarendon</i> (Roxburghe Club. 1896); <i>General Orders of the High +Court of Chancery</i>, by J. Beames (1815), 147-221; S.R. Gardiner’s +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span> +<i>Hist. of England, of the Civil War and of the Commonwealth; Lord +Clarendon</i>, by A. Chassant (account of the assault at Evreux) (1891); +<i>Annals of the Bodleian Library</i>, by W.D. Macray (1868); Masson’s +<i>Life of Milton</i>; <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, by H.C. Foxcroft (1898); +<i>Cal. of St. Pap. Dom.</i>, esp. 1667-1668, 58, 354, 370; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm. +Series, MSS. of J.M. Heathcote</i> and <i>Various Collections</i>, vol. ii.; +<i>Add. MSS.</i> in the British Museum; <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 6 ser. v. 283, +9 ser. xi. 182, 1 ser. ix. 7; Pepys’s <i>Diary</i>; J. Evelyn’s <i>Diary and +Correspondence</i>; Gen. Catalogue in British Museum; <i>Edward Hyde, +earl of Clarendon</i> (1909), a lecture delivered at Oxford during the +Clarendon centenary by C.H. Firth.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1i" id="Footnote_1i" href="#FnAnchor_1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Life</i>, i. 25.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2i" id="Footnote_2i" href="#FnAnchor_2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Hist. of the Rebellion</i>, iii. 164, the account being substantially +accepted by Gardiner, in spite of inaccuracies in details (<i>Hist.</i> ix. +341, note).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3i" id="Footnote_3i" href="#FnAnchor_3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Clarendon St. Pap.</i> ii. 337.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4i" id="Footnote_4i" href="#FnAnchor_4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Ibid.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5i" id="Footnote_5i" href="#FnAnchor_5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Hist. of the Rebellion</i>, xiii. 140.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6i" id="Footnote_6i" href="#FnAnchor_6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Clarendon State Papers</i>, iii. 316, 325, 341, 343.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7i" id="Footnote_7i" href="#FnAnchor_7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham</i>, 227.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8i" id="Footnote_8i" href="#FnAnchor_8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Anne Hyde (1637-1671), eldest daughter of the chancellor, was +the mother by James of Queen Mary and Queen Anne, besides six +other children, including four sons who all died in infancy. She +became a Roman Catholic in 1670 shortly before her death, and +was buried in the vault of Mary, queen of Scots, in Henry VII.’s +chapel in Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9i" id="Footnote_9i" href="#FnAnchor_9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various Collections</i>, ii. 118, and <i>MSS. +of Duke of Somerset</i>, 94.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10i" id="Footnote_10i" href="#FnAnchor_10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 339.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11i" id="Footnote_11i" href="#FnAnchor_11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Ib. 511, 776.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12i" id="Footnote_12i" href="#FnAnchor_12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Lister’s <i>Life of Clarendon</i>, ii. 295; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various +Collections</i>, ii. 379.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13i" id="Footnote_13i" href="#FnAnchor_13i"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 1170.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14i" id="Footnote_14i" href="#FnAnchor_14i"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham</i>, 250.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15i" id="Footnote_15i" href="#FnAnchor_15i"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 1066.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16i" id="Footnote_16i" href="#FnAnchor_16i"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Macaulay’s <i>Hist. of England</i>, i. 193.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17i" id="Footnote_17i" href="#FnAnchor_17i"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Pepys’s <i>Diary</i>, Sept. 2, 1667.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18i" id="Footnote_18i" href="#FnAnchor_18i"><span class="fn">18</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i>, 7th Rep. 162.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19i" id="Footnote_19i" href="#FnAnchor_19i"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>Diary</i>, iii. 95, 96.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20i" id="Footnote_20i" href="#FnAnchor_20i"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Lives from the Clarendon Gallery</i>, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 39; +Burnet’s <i>Hist. of his own Times</i>, i. 209.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21i" id="Footnote_21i" href="#FnAnchor_21i"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 88.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22i" id="Footnote_22i" href="#FnAnchor_22i"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Lister’s <i>Life of Clarendon</i>, ii. 416.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23i" id="Footnote_23i" href="#FnAnchor_23i"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 1137.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24i" id="Footnote_24i" href="#FnAnchor_24i"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Clarendon St. Pap.</i> iii. Suppl. xxxvii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25i" id="Footnote_25i" href="#FnAnchor_25i"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Evelyn witnessed its demolition in 1683—<i>Diary</i>, May 19th, +Sept. 18th; <i>Lives from the Clarendon Gallery</i>, by Lady Th. Lewis, +i. 40.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26i" id="Footnote_26i" href="#FnAnchor_26i"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Diary</i>, July 14th, 1664.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27i" id="Footnote_27i" href="#FnAnchor_27i"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Lister</i>, ii. 528.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span>, +<span class="sc">4th Earl of</span> (in the Villiers line) (1800-1870), English diplomatist +and statesman, was born in London on the 12th of January 1800. +He was the eldest son of Hon. George Villiers (1750-1827), +youngest son of the 1st earl of Clarendon (second creation), by +Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord Boringdon, and +granddaughter of the first Lord Grantham. The earldom of the lord +chancellor Clarendon became extinct in the Hyde line by the +death of the 4th earl, his last male descendant. Jane Hyde, +countess of Essex, the sister of that nobleman (she died in 1724), +left two daughters; of these the eldest, Lady Charlotte, became +heiress of the Hyde family. She married Thomas Villiers (1709-1786), +second son of the 2nd earl of Jersey, who served with +distinction as English minister in Germany, and in 1776 the +earldom of Clarendon was revived in his favour. The connexion +with the Hyde family was therefore in the female line and +somewhat remote. But a portion of the pictures and plate of the +great chancellor was preserved to this branch of the family, and +remains at The Grove, their family seat at Hertfordshire. The +2nd and 3rd earls were sons of the 1st, and, neither of them +having sons, the title passed, on the death of the 3rd earl (John +Charles) in 1838, to their younger brother’s son.</p> + +<p>Young George Villiers entered upon life in circumstances +which gave small promise of the brilliancy of his future career. +He was well born; he was heir presumptive to an earldom; +and his mother was a woman of great energy, admirable good +sense, and high feeling. But the means of his family were +contracted; his education was desultory and incomplete; he +had not the advantages of a training either at a public school or +in the House of Commons. He went up to Cambridge at the +early age of sixteen, and entered St John’s College on the 29th +of June 1816. In 1820, as the eldest son of an earl’s brother +with royal descent, he was enabled to take his M.A. degree +under the statutes of the university then in force. In the same +year he was appointed attaché to the British embassy at St +Petersburg, where he remained three years, and gained that +practical knowledge of diplomacy which was of so much use to +him in after-life. He had received from nature a singularly +handsome person, a polished and engaging address, a ready +command of languages, and a remarkable power of composition.</p> + +<p>Upon his return to England in 1823 he was appointed to a +commissionership of customs, an office which he retained for +about ten years. In 1831 he was despatched to France to +negotiate a commercial treaty, which, however, led to no result. +On the 16th of August 1833 he was appointed minister at the +court of Spain. Ferdinand VII. died within a month of his +arrival at Madrid, and the infant queen Isabella, then in the +third year of her age, was placed by the old Spanish law of female +inheritance on her contested throne. Don Carlos, the late +king’s brother, claimed the crown by virtue of the Salic law of +the House of Bourbon which Ferdinand had renounced before +the birth of his daughter. Isabella II. and her mother Christina, +the queen regent, became the representatives of constitutional +monarchy, Don Carlos of Catholic absolutism. The conflict +which had divided the despotic and the constitutional powers +of Europe since the French Revolution of 1830 broke out into +civil war in Spain, and by the Quadruple Treaty, signed on the +22nd of April 1834, France and England pledged themselves to +the defence of the constitutional thrones of Spain and Portugal. +For six years Villiers continued to give the most active and +intelligent support to the Liberal government of Spain. He +was accused, though unjustly, of having favoured the revolution +of La Granja, which drove Christina, the queen mother, out of +the kingdom, and raised Espartero to the regency. He +undoubtedly supported the chiefs of the Liberal party, such as +Espartero, against the intrigues of the French court; but the +object of the British government was to establish the throne +of Isabella on a truly national and liberal basis and to avert +those complications, dictated by foreign influence, which +eventually proved so fatal to that princess. Villiers received the +grand cross of the Bath in 1838 in acknowledgment of his services, +and succeeded, on the death of his uncle, to the title of earl of +Clarendon; in the following year, having left Madrid, he married +Katharine, eldest daughter of James Walter, first earl of Verulam.</p> + +<p>In January 1840 he entered Lord Melbourne’s administration +as lord privy seal, and from the death of Lord Holland in the +autumn of that year Lord Clarendon also held the office of +chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster until the dissolution of the +ministry in 1841. Deeply convinced that the maintenance of a +cordial understanding with France was the most essential +condition of peace and of a liberal policy in Europe, he reluctantly +concurred in the measures proposed by Lord Palmerston for +the expulsion of the pasha of Egypt from Syria; he strenuously +advocated, with Lord Holland, a more conciliatory policy +towards France; and he was only restrained from sending in +his resignation by the dislike he felt to break up a cabinet he +had so recently joined.</p> + +<p>The interval of Sir Robert Peel’s great administration (1841-1846) +was to the leaders of the Whig party a period of repose; +but Lord Clarendon took the warmest interest in the triumph +of the principles of free trade and in the repeal of the corn-laws, +of which his brother, Charles Pelham Villiers (<i>q.v.</i>), had been +one of the earliest champions. For this reason, upon the formation +of Lord John Russell’s first administration, Lord Clarendon +accepted the office of president of the Board of Trade. Twice +in his career the governor-generalship of India was offered him, +and once the governor-generalship of Canada;—these he refused +from reluctance to withdraw from the politics of Europe. But +in 1847 a sense of duty compelled him to take a far more laborious +and uncongenial appointment. The desire of the cabinet was +to abolish the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, and Lord Clarendon +was prevailed upon to accept that office, with a view to transform +it ere long into an Irish secretaryship of state. But he had not +been many months in Dublin before he acknowledged that the +difficulties then existing in Ireland could only be met by the +most vigilant and energetic authority, exercised on the spot. +The crisis was one of extraordinary peril. Agrarian crimes of +horrible atrocity had increased threefold. The Catholic clergy +were openly disaffected. This was the second year of the Irish +famine, and extraordinary measures were required to regulate +the bounty of the government and the nation. In 1848 the +revolution in France let loose fresh elements of discord, which +culminated in an abortive insurrection, and for a lengthened +period Ireland was a prey to more than her wonted symptoms +of disaffection and disorder. Lord Clarendon remained viceroy +of Ireland till 1852, and left behind him permanent marks of +improvement. His services were expressly acknowledged in the +queen’s speech to both Houses of Parliament on the 5th of +September 1848—this being the first time that any <i>civil</i> services +obtained that honour; and he was made a knight of the Garter +(retaining also the grand cross of the Bath by special order) on +the 23rd of March 1849.</p> + +<p>Upon the formation of the coalition ministry between the +Whigs and the Peelites, in 1853, under Lord Aberdeen, Lord +Clarendon became foreign minister. The country was already +“drifting” into the Crimean War, an expression of his own +which was never forgotten. Clarendon was not responsible for +the policy which brought war about; but when it occurred he +employed every means in his power to stimulate and assist the +war departments, and above all he maintained the closest +relations with the French. The tsar Nicholas had speculated +on the impossibility of the sustained joint action of France and +England in council and in the field. It was mainly by Lord +Clarendon at Whitehall and by Lord Raglan before Sevastopol +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span> +that such a combination was rendered practicable, and did +eventually triumph over the enemy. The diplomatic conduct +of such an alliance for three years between two great nations +jealous of their military honour and fighting for no separate +political advantage, tried by excessive hardships and at moments +on the verge of defeat, was certainly one of the most arduous +duties ever performed by a minister. The result was due in the +main to the confidence with which Lord Clarendon had inspired +the emperor of the French, and to the affection and regard of +the empress, whom he had known in Spain from her childhood.</p> + +<p>In 1856 Lord Clarendon took his seat at the congress of Paris +convoked for the restoration of peace, as first British +plenipotentiary. It was the first time since the appearance of Lord +Castlereagh at Vienna that a secretary of state for foreign +affairs had been present in person at a congress on the continent. +Lord Clarendon’s first care was to obtain the admission of +Italy to the council chamber as a belligerent power, and to +raise the barrier which still excluded Prussia as a neutral one. +But in the general anxiety of all the powers to terminate the war +there was no small danger that the objects for which it had +been undertaken would be abandoned or forgotten. It is due +entirely to the firmness of Lord Clarendon that the principle +of the neutralization of the Black Sea was preserved, that the +Russian attempt to trick the allies out of the cession in Bessarabia +was defeated, and that the results of the war were for a time +secured. The congress was eager to turn to other subjects, +and perhaps the most important result of its deliberations was +the celebrated Declaration of the Maritime Powers, which +abolished privateering, defined the right of blockade, and +limited the right of capture to enemy’s property in enemy’s +ships. Lord Clarendon has been accused of an abandonment +of what are termed the belligerent rights of Great Britain, which +were undoubtedly based on the old maritime laws of Europe. +But he acted in strict conformity with the views of the British +cabinet, and the British cabinet adopted those views because it +was satisfied that it was not for the benefit of the country to +adhere to practices which exposed the vast mercantile interests +of Britain to depredation, even by the cruisers of a secondary +maritime power, and which, if vigorously enforced against +neutrals, could not fail to embroil her with every maritime +state in the world.</p> + +<p>Upon the reconstitution of the Whig administration in 1859, +Lord John Russell made it a condition of his acceptance of office +under Lord Palmerston that the foreign department should be +placed in his own hands, which implied that Lord Clarendon +should be excluded from office, as it would have been inconsistent +alike with his dignity and his tastes to fill any other post in the +government. The consequence was that from 1859 till 1864 +Lord Clarendon remained out of office, and the critical relations +arising out of the Civil War in the United States were left to the +guidance of Earl Russell. But he re-entered the cabinet in May +1864 as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; and upon the +death of Lord Palmerston in 1865, Lord Russell again became +prime minister, when Lord Clarendon returned to the foreign +office, which was again confided to him for the third time upon +the formation of Mr Gladstone’s administration in 1868. To +the last moment of his existence, Lord Clarendon continued to +devote every faculty of his mind and every instant of his life +to the public service; and he expired surrounded by the boxes +and papers of his office on the 27th of June 1870. No man owed +more to the influence of a generous, unselfish and liberal disposition. +If he had rivals he never ceased to treat them with the +consideration and confidence of friends, and he cared but little +for the ordinary prizes of ambition in comparison with the +advancement of the cause of peace and progress.</p> + +<p>He was succeeded as 5th earl by his eldest son, <span class="sc">Edward Hyde +Villiers</span> (b. 1846), who became lord chamberlain in 1900.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also the article (by Henry Reeve) in <i>Fraser’s Magazine</i>, August +1876.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span>, <span class="sc">2nd Earl of</span> (1638-1709), +English statesman, eldest son of the first earl, was born on the +2nd of June 1638. He accompanied his parents into exile and +assisted his father as secretary, returning with them in 1660. +In 1661 he was returned to parliament for Wiltshire as Lord +Cornbury. He became secretary in 1662 and lord chamberlain +to the queen in 1665. He took no part in the life of the court, +and on the dismissal of his father became a vehement opponent +of the administration, defended his father in the impeachment, +and subsequently made effective attacks upon Buckingham +and Arlington. In 1674 he became earl of Clarendon by his +father’s death, and in 1679 was made a privy councillor. He +was not included in Sir W. Temple’s council of that year, but +was reappointed in 1680. In 1682 he supported Halifax’s +proposal of declaring war on France. On the accession of James +in 1685 he was appointed lord privy seal, but shortly afterwards, +in September, was removed from this office to that of lord-lieutenant +of Ireland. Clarendon was embarrassed in his +estate, and James required a willing agent to carry out his +design by upsetting the Protestant government and the Act of +Settlement. Clarendon arrived in Dublin on the 9th of January +1686. He found himself completely in the power of Tyrconnel, +the commander-in-chief; and though, like his father, a staunch +Protestant, elected this year high steward of Oxford University, +and detesting the king’s policy, he obeyed his orders to introduce +Roman Catholics into the government and the army and upon the +bench, and clung to office till after the dismissal of his brother, +the earl of Rochester, in January 1687, when he was recalled +and succeeded by Tyrconnel. He now supported the church +in its struggle with James, opposed the Declaration of Indulgence, +wrote to Mary an account of the resistance of the bishops,<a name="FnAnchor_1j" id="FnAnchor_1j" href="#Footnote_1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and +visited and advised the latter in the Tower. He had no share, +however, in inviting William to England. He assured James +in September that the Church would be loyal, advised the +calling of the parliament, and on the desertion of his son, Lord +Cornbury, to William on the 14th of November, expressed to +the king and queen the most poignant grief. In the council +held on the 27th, however, he made a violent and unseasonable +attack upon James’s conduct, and on the 1st of December set +out to meet William, joined him on the 3rd at Berwick near +Salisbury, and was present at the conference at Hungerford +on the 8th, and again at Windsor on the 16th. His wish was +apparently to effect some compromise, saving the crown for +James. According to Burnet, he advised sending James to +Breda, and according to the duchess of Marlborough to the +Tower, but he himself denies these statements.<a name="FnAnchor_2j" id="FnAnchor_2j" href="#Footnote_2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> He opposed +vehemently the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary, +voted for the regency, and refused to take the oaths of the new +sovereigns, remaining a non-juror for the rest of his life. He +subsequently retired to the country, engaged in cabals against +the government, associated himself with Richard Graham, Lord +Preston, and organizing a plot against William, was arrested on +the 24th of June 1690 by order of his niece, Queen Mary, and +placed in the Tower. Liberated on the 15th of August, he immediately +recommenced his intrigues. On Preston’s arrest on +the 31st of December, a compromising letter from Clarendon +was found upon him, and he was named by Preston as one of his +accomplices. He was examined before the privy council and +again imprisoned in the Tower on the 4th of January 1691, +remaining in confinement till the 3rd of July. This closed his +public career. In 1702, on Queen Anne’s accession, he presented +himself at court, “to talk to his niece,” but the queen refused to +see him till he had taken the oaths. He died on the 31st of +October 1709, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p> + +<p>His public career had been neither distinguished nor useful, but +it seems natural to ascribe its failure to small abilities and to the +conflict between personal ties and political convictions which +drew him in opposite directions, rather than, following Macaulay, +to motives of self-interest. He was a man of some literary taste, +a fellow of the Royal Society (1684), the author of <i>The History and +Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of Winchester ... continued +by S. Gale</i> (1715), and he collaborated with his brother Rochester +in the publication of his father’s <i>History</i> (1702-1704). He +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span> +married (1) in 1660, Theodosia, daughter of Lord Capel, and (2) +in 1670, Flower, daughter of William Backhouse of Swallowfield +in Berkshire, and widow of William Bishopp and of Sir William +Backhouse, Bart. He was succeeded by his only son, Edward +(1661-1724), as 3rd earl of Clarendon; and, the latter having no +surviving son, the title passed to Henry, 2nd earl of Rochester +(1672-1753), at whose death without male heirs it became extinct +in the Hyde line.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1j" id="Footnote_1j" href="#FnAnchor_1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of the Duke of Buccleuch</i>, ii. 31.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2j" id="Footnote_2j" href="#FnAnchor_2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Correspondence and Diary</i> (1828), ii. 286.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span>, a body of English laws +issued at Clarendon in 1164, by which Henry II. endeavoured to +settle the relations between Church and State. Though they +purported to declare the usages on the subject which prevailed in +the reign of Henry I. they were never accepted by the clergy, and +were formally renounced by the king at Avranches in September +1172. Some of them, however, were in part at least, as they all +purported to be, declaratory of ancient usage and remained in +force after the royal renunciation. Of the sixteen provisions the +one which provoked the greatest opposition was that which +declared in effect that criminous clerks were to be summoned to +the king’s court, and from there, after formal accusation and +defence, sent to the proper ecclesiastical court for trial. If found +guilty they were to be degraded and sent back to the king’s court +for punishment. Another provision, which in spite of all opposition +obtained a permanent place in English law, declared that all +suits even between clerk and clerk concerning advowsons and +presentations should be tried in the king’s court. By other +provisions appeals to Rome without the licence of the king were +forbidden. None of the clergy were to leave the realm, nor were +the king’s tenants-in-chief and ministers to be excommunicated or +their lands interdicted without the royal permission. Pleas of +debt, whether involving a question of good faith or not, were to +be in the jurisdiction of the king’s courts. Two most interesting +provisions, to which the clergy offered no opposition, were: (1) if +a dispute arose between a clerk and a layman concerning a +tenement which the clerk claimed as free-alms (frankalmoign) +and the layman as a lay-fee, it should be determined by the +recognition of twelve lawful men before the king’s justice whether +it belonged to free-alms or lay-fee, and if it were found to belong +to free-alms then the plea was to be held in the ecclesiastical +court, but if to lay-fee, in the court of the king or of one of his +magnates; (2) a declaration of the procedure for election to +bishoprics and royal abbeys, generally considered to state the +terms of the settlement made between Henry I. and Anselm in +1107.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—J.C. Robertson, <i>Materials for History of Thomas +Becket</i>, Rolls Series (1875-1885); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland, +<i>History of English Law before the Time of Ed. I.</i> (Cambridge, +1898), and F.W. Maitland, <i>Roman Canon Law in the Church of +England</i> (1898); the text of the Constitutions is printed by W. +Stubbs in <i>Select Charters</i> (Oxford, 1895).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(G. J. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARES, POOR<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span>, otherwise <i>Clarisses</i>, Franciscan nuns, so +called from their foundress, St Clara (<i>q.v.</i>). She was professed by +St Francis in the Portiuncula in 1212, and two years later she +and her first companions were established in the convent of St +Damian’s at Assisi. The nuns formed the “Second Order of St +Francis,” the friars being the “First Order,” and the Tertiaries +(<i>q.v.</i>) the “Third.” Before Clara’s death in 1253, the Second +Order had spread all over Italy and into Spain, France and +Germany; in England they were introduced c. 1293 and established +in London, outside Aldgate, where their name of Minoresses +survives in the Minories; there were only two other English +houses before the Dissolution. St Francis gave the nuns no rule, +but only a “Form of Life” and a “Last Will,” each only five +lines long, and coming to no more than an inculcation of his idea +of evangelical poverty. Something more than this became +necessary as soon as the institute began to spread; and during +Francis’s absence in the East, 1219, his supporter Cardinal +Hugolino composed a rule which made the Franciscan nuns +practically a species of unduly strict Benedictines, St Francis’s +special characteristics being eliminated. St Clara made it her +life work to have this rule altered, and to get the Franciscan +character of the Second Order restored; in 1247 a “Second +Rule” was approved which went a long way towards satisfying +her desires, and finally in 1253 a “Third,” which practically gave +what she wanted. This rule has come to be known as the “Rule +of the Clares”; it is one of great poverty, seclusion and austerity +of life. Most of the convents adopted it, but several clung to +that of 1247. To bring about conformity, St Bonaventura, while +general (1264), obtained papal permission to modify the rule of +1253, somewhat mitigating its austerities and allowing the +convents to have fixed incomes,—thus assimilating them to the +Conventual Franciscans as opposed to the Spirituals. This rule +was adopted in many convents, but many more adhered to the +strict rule of 1253. Indeed a counter-tendency towards a greater +strictness set in, and a number of reforms were initiated, introducing +an appalling austerity of life. The most important of +these reforms were the Coletines (St Colette, c. 1400) and the +Capucines (c. 1540; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capuchins</a></span>). The half-dozen forms of +the Franciscan rule for women here mentioned are still in use in +different convents, and there are also a great number of religious +institutes for women based on the rule of the Tertiaries. By the +term “Poor Clares” the Coletine nuns are now commonly +understood; there are various convents of these nuns, as of other +Franciscans, in England and Ireland. Franciscan nuns have +always been very numerous; there are now about 150 convents of +the various observances of the Second Order, in every part of the +world, besides innumerable institutions of Tertiaries.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1792), vii. cc. 25-28 and +38-42; Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (2nd ed.), art. “Clara”; +Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896), i. §§ 47, 48, +who gives references to all the literature. For a scientific study +of the beginnings see Lempp, “Die Anfänge des Klarissenordens” +in <i>Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte</i>, xiii. (1892), 181 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARET<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>vin claret</i>, mod. <i>clairet</i>, wine of a light +clear colour, from Lat. <i>clarus</i>, clear), the English name for the red +Bordeaux wines. The term was originally used in France for +light-yellow or light-red wines, as distinguished from the <i>vins +rouges</i> and the <i>vins blancs</i>; later it was applied to red wines +generally, but is rarely used in French, and never with the +particular English meaning (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wine</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARETIE, JULES ARSÈNE ARNAUD<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1840-  ), French +man of letters and director of the Théâtre Français, was born at +Limoges on the 3rd of December 1840. After studying at the +lycée Bonaparte in Paris, he became an active journalist, achieving +great success as dramatic critic to the <i>Figaro</i> and to the +<i>Opinion nationale</i>. He was a newspaper correspondent during +the Franco-German War, and during the Commune acted as staff-officer +in the National Guard. In 1885 he became director of the +Théâtre Français, and from that time devoted his time chiefly to +its administration. He was elected a member of the Academy in +1888, and took his seat in <span class="correction" title="amended from Feburary">February</span> 1889, being received by +Ernest Renan. The long list of his works includes <i>Histoire de la +révolution de 1870-1871</i> (new ed., 5 vols., 1875-1876); <i>Cinq ans +après; l’Alsace et la Lorraine depuis l’annexion</i> (1876); some +annual volumes of reprints of his articles in the weekly press, +entitled <i>La Vie à Paris; La Vie moderne au théâtre</i> (1868-1869); +<i>Molière, sa vie et son œuvre</i> (1871); <i>Histoire de la littérature +française, 900-1900</i> (2nd ed. 1905); <i>Candidat!</i> (1887), a novel of +contemporary life; <i>Brichanteau, comédien français</i> (1896); +several plays, some of which are based on novels of his own—<i>Les +Muscadins</i> (1874), <i>Le Régiment de Champagne</i> (1877), <i>Les Mirabeau</i> +(1879), <i>Monsieur le ministre</i> (1883), and others; and the opera, +<i>La Navarraise</i>, based on his novel <i>La Cigarette</i>, and written with +Henri Cain to the music of Massenet. <i>La Navarraise</i> was first +produced at Covent Garden (June 1894) with Mme Calvé in the +part of Anita. His <i>Œuvres complètes</i> were published in 1897-1904.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span>, Italian musical composer, +chapel-master at Pistoia, was born at Pisa about the year +1669. The time of his death is unknown. He was the most +celebrated pupil of Colonna, chapel-master of S. Petronio, at +Bologna. He became <i>maestro di cappella</i> at Pistoia about 1712, at +Bologna in 1720, and at Pisa in 1736. He is supposed to have +died about 1745. The works by which Clari distinguished +himself pre-eminently are his vocal duets and trios, with a <i>basso +continuo</i>, published between 1740 and 1747. These compositions, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span> +which combine graceful melody with contrapuntal learning, were +much admired by Cherubini. They appear to have been admired +by Handel also, since he did not hesitate to make appropriations +from them. Clari composed one opera, <i>Il Savio delirante</i>, +produced at Bologna in 1695, and a large quantity of church +music, several specimens of which were printed in Novello’s +<i>Fitzwilliam Music</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARINA<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span>, a comparatively new instrument of the wood-wind +class (although actually made of metal), a hybrid possessing +characteristics of both oboe and clarinet. The clarina was +invented by W. Heckel of Biebrich-am-Rhein, and has been used +since 1891 at the Festspielhaus, Bayreuth, in <i>Tristan und Isolde</i>, +as a substitute for the <i>Holztrompete</i> made according to Wagner’s +instructions. The clarina has been found more practical and more +effective in producing the desired tone-colour. The clarina is a +metal instrument with the conical bore and fingering of the oboe +and the clarinet single-reed mouthpiece. The compass of the +instrument is as shown, and it stands in the key of B♭. Like the +clarinet, the clarina is a transposing instrument, for which the +music must be written in a key a tone higher than that of the +composition. The timbre resulting from the combination of +conical bore and single-reed mouthpiece has in the lowest +register affinities with the <i>cor anglais</i>, in the middle with the +saxophone, and in the highest with the clarinet. Other +German orchestras have followed the example of Bayreuth. +The clarina has also been found very effective as a solo +instrument.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:500px; height:85px" + src="images/img437a.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARINET<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clarionet</span> (Fr. <i>clarinette</i>; Ger. <i>Clarinette, +Klarinett</i>; Ital. <i>clarinetto, chiarinetto</i>), a wood-wind instrument +having a cylindrical bore and played by means of a single-reed +mouthpiece. The word “clarinet” is said to be derived from +<i>clarinetto</i>, a diminutive of <i>clarino</i>, the Italian for (1) the soprano +trumpet, (2) the highest register of the instrument, (3) the +trumpet played musically without the blare of the martial +instrument. The word “clarionet” is similarly derived from +“clarion,” the English equivalent of <i>clarino</i>. It is suggested that +the name <i>clarinet</i> or <i>clarinetto</i> was bestowed on account of the +resemblance in timbre between the high registers of the clarino +and clarinet. By adding the speaker-hole to the old chalumeau, +J.C. Denner gave it an additional compass based on the overblowing +of the harmonic twelfth, and consisting of an octave and +a half of harmonics, which received the name of <i>clarino</i>, while +the lower register retained the name of <i>chalumeau</i>. There is +something to be said also in favour of another suggested derivation +from the Italian <i>chiarina</i>, the name for reed instruments and +the equivalent for tibia and aulos. At the beginning of the 18th +century in Italy <i>clarinetto</i>, the diminutive of <i>clarino</i>, would be +masculine, whereas <i>chiarinetta</i> or <i>clarinetta</i> would be feminine,<a name="FnAnchor_1k" id="FnAnchor_1k" href="#Footnote_1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> as +in Doppelmayr’s account of the invention written in 1730. The +word “clarinet” is sometimes used in a generic sense to denote +the whole family, which consists of the clarinet, or discant +corresponding to the violin, oboe, &c; the alto clarinet in E; +the basset horn in F (<i>q.v.</i>); the bass clarinet (<i>q.v.</i>), and the +pedal clarinet (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The modern clarinet consists of five (or four) separate pieces: +(1) the mouthpiece; (2) the bulb; (3) the upper middle joint, or +left-hand joint; (4) the lower middle joint, or right-hand joint<a name="FnAnchor_2k" id="FnAnchor_2k" href="#Footnote_2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a>; +(5) the bell; which (the bell excepted) when joined together, form +a tube with a continuous cylindrical bore, 2 ft. or more in length, +according to the pitch of the instrument. The mouthpiece, +including the beating or single-reed common to the whole +clarinet family, has the appearance of a beak with the point +bevelled off and thinned at the edge to correspond with the end of +the reed shaped like a spatula. The under part of the mouthpiece +(fig. 2) is flattened in order to form a table for the support of the +reed which is adjusted thereon with great nicety, allowing just +the amount of play requisite to set in vibration +the column of air within the tube.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 120px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:72px; height:550px" src="images/img437b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Clarinet (Albert Model).</td></tr></table> + +<p>The mouthpiece, which is subject to continual +fluctuations of dampness and dryness, +and to changes of temperature, requires to be +made of a material having great powers of +resistance, such as cocus wood, ivory or +vulcanite, which are mostly used for the +purpose in England. A longitudinal aperture +1 in. long and ½ in. wide, communicating with +the bore, is cut in the table and covered by +the reed. The aperture is thus closed except +towards the point, where, for the distance of +<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">3</span> to ¼ in., the reed is thinned and the table +curves backwards towards the point, leaving +a gap between the ends of the mouthpiece and +of the reed of 1 mm. or about the thickness of +a sixpence for the B flat clarinet. The curve +of the table and the size of the gap are therefore +of considerable importance. The reed is +cut from a joint of the <i>Arundo donax</i> or <i>sativa</i>, +which grows wild in the regions bordering on +the Mediterranean. A flat slip of the reed is +cut, flattened on one side and thinned to a +very delicate edge on the other. At first the +reed was fastened to the table by means of +many turns of a fine waxed cord. The metal +band adjusted by means of two screws, known +as the “ligature,” was introduced about 1817 +by Ivan Müller. The reed is set in vibration +by the breath of the performer, and being +flexible it beats against the table, opening +and closing the gap at a rate depending on +the rate of the vibrations it sets up in the +air column, this rate varying according to the +length of the column as determined by opening +the lateral holes and keys. A cylindrical tube +played by means of a reed has the acoustic +properties of a stopped pipe, <i>i.e.</i> the fundamental +tone produced by the tube is an +octave lower than the corresponding tone of +an open pipe of the same length, and overblows +a twelfth; whereas tubes having a conical bore like the +oboe, and played by means of a reed, speak as open pipes and +overblow an octave. This forms the fundamental difference +between the instruments of the oboe and +clarinet families. Wind instruments depending +upon lateral holes for the production +of their scale must either have as +many holes pierced in the bore as they +require notes, or make use of the property +possessed by the air-column of dividing +into harmonics or partials of the fundamental +tones. Twenty to twenty-two +holes is the number generally accepted as +the practical limit for the clarinet; beyond +that number the fingering and mechanism +become too complicated. The compass of +the clarinet is therefore extended through +the medium of the harmonic overtones. +In stopped pipes a node is formed near +the mouthpiece, and they are therefore only +able to produce the uneven harmonics, such +as the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, &c, corresponding +to the fundamental, and the diatonic intervals of the 5th +one octave above, and of the 3rd and 7th two octaves above the +fundamental. By pressing the reed with the lip near the base +where it is thicker and stiffer, and increasing the pressure of the +breath, the air-column is forced to divide and to sound the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span> +harmonics, a principle well understood by the ancient Greeks +and Romans in playing upon the aulos and tibia.<a name="FnAnchor_3k" id="FnAnchor_3k" href="#Footnote_3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> This is +easier to accomplish with the double reed than with the beating +reed; in fact with a tube of wide diameter, such as that of the +modern clarinet, it would not be possible by this means alone +to do justice to the tone of the instrument or to the music now +written for it. The bore of the aulos was very much narrower +than that of the clarinet.</p> +<div style="clear: both;"> </div> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:180px" src="images/img437c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Clarinet Mouthpiece. <i>a</i>, the mouthpiece +showing the position of the bore inside; <i>b</i>, the single or +beating reed.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In order to facilitate the production of the harmonic notes +on the clarinet, a small hole, closed by means of a key and called +the “speaker,” is bored near the mouthpiece. By means of +this small hole the air-column is placed in communication with +the external atmosphere, a ventral segment is formed, and the +air-column divides into three equal parts, producing a triple +number of vibrations resulting in the third note of the harmonic +series, at an interval of a twelfth above the fundamental.<a name="FnAnchor_4k" id="FnAnchor_4k" href="#Footnote_4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> In a +wind instrument with lateral holes the fundamental note corresponding +to any particular hole is produced when all the holes +below that hole are open and it itself and all above it are closed, +the effective length of the resonating tube being shortened as +each of the closed holes is successively uncovered. In order to +obtain a complete chromatic scale on the clarinet at least eighteen +holes are required. This series produces with the bell-note a +succession of nineteen semitones, giving the range of a twelfth +and known as the fundamental scale or <i>chalumeau</i> register, so +called, no doubt, because it was the compass (without chromatic +semitones) of the more primitive predecessor of the clarinet, +known as the <i>chalumeau</i>, which must not be confounded with +the shawm or schalmey of the middle ages.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p style="clear: both;">The fundamental scale of the modern clarinet in C extends from +<img style="border:0; width:137px; height:60px" src="images/img438a.jpg" alt="" /> The next octave and a half is obtained by opening +the speaker key, whereby each of the fundamental notes is reproduced +a twelfth higher; the bell-note thus jumps from E to B♮, +the first key gives instead of F its twelfth C♯, and so on, extending +the compass to <img style="border:0; width:70px; height:60px" src="images/img438b.jpg" alt="" />, which ends the natural compass of the +instrument, although a skilful performer may obtain another octave +by cross-fingering. The names of the holes and keys on the +clarinet are derived not from the notes of the fundamental +scale, but from the name of the twelfth produced by overblowing +with the speaker key open; for instance, the first key near +the bell is known not as the E key but as the B♮. The use of +the speaker key forms the greatest technical difficulty in learning +to play the clarinet, on account of the thumb having to do double +duty, closing one hole and raising the lever of the speaker key +simultaneously. In a clarinet designed by Richard Carte this +difficulty was ingeniously overcome by placing the left thumb-hole +towards the front, and closing it by a thumb-lever or with a ring +action by the first or second finger of the left hand, thus leaving the +thumb free to work the speaker key alone.</p> + +<p>There is good reason to think that the ancient Greeks understood +the advantage of a speaker-hole, which they called <i>Syrinx</i>, for +facilitating the production of harmonics on the aulos. The credit +of the discovery of this interesting fact is due to A.A. Howard,<a name="FnAnchor_5k" id="FnAnchor_5k" href="#Footnote_5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +of Harvard University; it explains many passages in the classics +which before were obscure (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aulos</a></span>). Plutarch relates<a name="FnAnchor_6k" id="FnAnchor_6k" href="#Footnote_6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> that +Telephanes of Megara was so incensed with the syrinx that he never +allowed his instrument-makers to place one on any of his auloi; he +even went so far as to absent himself, principally on account of the +syrinx, from the Pythian games. Telephanes was a great virtuoso +who scorned the use of a speaker-hole, being able to obtain his harmonics +on the aulos by the mere control of lips and teeth.</p> + +<p>The modern clarinet has from thirteen to nineteen keys, some being +normally open and others closed. In order to understand why, +when once the idea of adding keys to the chalumeau had been +conceived, the number rose so slowly, keys being added one or two +at a time by makers of various nationalities at long intervals, it is +necessary to consider the effect of boring holes in the side of a +cylindrical tube. If it were possible to proceed from an absolute +theoretical basis, there would be but little difficulty; there are, however, +practical reasons which make this a matter of great difficulty. +According to V. Mahillon,<a name="FnAnchor_7k" id="FnAnchor_7k" href="#Footnote_7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the theoretical length of a B♭ clarinet +(French pitch diapason normal A = 435 vibrations), is 39 cm. when +the internal diameter of the bore measures exactly 1.4 cm. Any +increase in the diameter of the cylindrical bore for a given length +of tube raises the pitch proportionally and in the same way a decrease +lowers it. A bore narrow in proportion to the length facilitates the +production of the harmonics, which is no doubt the reason why the +aulos was made with a very narrow diameter, and produced such +deep notes in proportion to its length. In determining the position +of the holes along the tube, the thickness of the wood to be pierced +must be taken into consideration, for the length of the passage from +the main bore to the outer air adds to the length of the resonating +column; as, however, the clarinet tube is reckoned as a closed one, +only half the extra length must be taken into account. When placed +in its correct theoretical position, a hole should have its diameter +equal to the diameter of the main bore, which is the ideal condition +for obtaining a full, rich tone; it is, however, feasible to give the +hole a smaller diameter, altering its position by placing it nearer +the mouthpiece. These laws, which were likewise known to the +Greeks and Romans,<a name="FnAnchor_8k" id="FnAnchor_8k" href="#Footnote_8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> had to be rediscovered by experience in the +18th and 19th centuries, during which the mechanism of the key +system was repeatedly improved. Due consideration having been +given to these points, it will also be necessary to remember that +the stopping of the seven open holes leaves only the two little fingers +(the thumb of the right hand being in the ordinary clarinet engaged +in supporting the instrument) free at all times for key service, +the other fingers doing duty when momentarily disengaged. The +fingering of the clarinet is the most difficult of any instrument in +the orchestra, for it differs in all four octaves of its compass. Once +mastered, however, it is the same for all clarinets, the music being +always written in the key of C.</p> + +<p>The actual tonality of the clarinet is determined by the diatonic +scale produced when, starting with keys untouched and finger and +thumb-holes closed, the fingers are raised one by one from the holes. +In the B flat clarinet, the <i>real sounds</i> thus produced are</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:350px; height:60px" + src="images/img438c.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="noind">being part of the scale of B flat major. By the closing of two <i>open</i> +keys, the lower E flat and D are added.</p> + +<p>The following are the various sizes of clarinets with the key proper +to each:</p> + + <p class="c">E flat, a minor third above the C clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">B flat, a tone below the C clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">The high F, 4 tones above the C clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">The D, 1 tone above the C clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">The low G, a fourth below the C clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">The A, a minor third below the C clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">The B♮ 1 semintone below the C clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">The alto clarinet in E♭, a fifth below the B♭ clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">The tenor or basset horn, in F, a fifth below the C clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">The bass clarinet in B♭, an 8ve below that in B♭.</p> + <p class="c">The pedal clarinet in B♭, an 8ve below the bass clarinet.</p> + <p class="c">The clarinets in B♭ and A are used in the orchestra; those in +C and E♭ in military bands.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>History</i>.—Although the single beating-reed associated with +the instruments of the clarinet family has been traced in ancient +Egypt, the double reed, characteristic of the oboe family, being +of simpler construction, was probably of still greater antiquity. +An ancient Egyptian pipe found in a mummy-case and now +preserved in the museum at Turin was found to contain a beating-reed +sunk 3 in. below the end of the pipe, which is the principle +of the drone. It would appear that the double chalumeau, +called arghoul (<i>q.v.</i>) by the modern Egyptians, was known in +ancient Egypt, although it was not perhaps in common use. +The Musée Guimet possesses a copy of a fresco from the tombs at +Saqqarah (executed under the direction of Mariette Bey) assigned +to the 4th or 5th dynasty, on which is shown a concert +with dancing; the instruments used are two harps, the long +oblique flute “nay,” blown from the end without any mouthpiece +or embouchure, and an instrument identified as an arghoul<a name="FnAnchor_9k" id="FnAnchor_9k" href="#Footnote_9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span> +from its resemblance to the modern instrument of the same +name. This is believed to be the only illustration of the ancient +double chalumeau yet found in Egypt, with the single exception +of a hieroglyph occurring also once only, <i>i.e.</i> the sign read <i>As-it</i>, +consisting of a cylindrical pipe with a beak mouthpiece bound +round with a cord tied in a bow. The bow is taken to indicate +the double parallel pipes bound together; the same sign without +the bow occurs frequently and is read <i>Ma-it</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_10k" id="FnAnchor_10k" href="#Footnote_10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and is considered +to be the generic name for reed wind instruments. The beating-reed +was probably introduced into classic Greece from Egypt or +Asia Minor. A few ancient Greek instruments are extant, five +of which are in the British Museum. They are as nearly cylindrical +as would be the natural growing reed itself. The probability +is that both single and double reeds were at times used with the +Greek aulos and the Roman tibia. V. Mahillon and A.A. +Howard of Harvard have both obtained facsimiles of actual +instruments, some found at Pompeii and now deposited in the +museum at Naples, and others in the British Museum. Experiments +made with these instruments, whose original mouthpieces +have perished, show that with pipes of such narrow diameter +the fundamental scale and pitch are the same whether sounded +by means of a single or of a double reed, but the modern combination +of single reed and cylindrical tube alone gives the full +pure tone quality. The subject is more fully discussed in the +article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aulos</a></span>.<a name="FnAnchor_11k" id="FnAnchor_11k" href="#Footnote_11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a> The Roman tibia, if monuments can be trusted, +sometimes had a beak-shaped mouthpiece, as for instance that +attached to a pipe discovered at Pompeii, or that shown in a +scene on Trajan’s column.<a name="FnAnchor_12k" id="FnAnchor_12k" href="#Footnote_12k"><span class="sp">12</span></a> It is probable that when, at the +decline of the Roman empire, instrumental music was placed +by the church under a ban—and the tibia more especially from +its association with every form of licence and moral depravity—this +instrument, sharing the common fate, survived chiefly among +itinerant musicians who carried it into western Europe, where +it was preserved from complete extinction. An instrument +of difficult technique requiring an advanced knowledge of +acoustics was not, however, likely to flourish or even to be +understood among nations whose culture was as yet in its +infancy.</p> + +<p>The tide of culture from the Byzantine empire filtered through +to the south and west, leaving many traces; a fresh impetus +was received from the east through the Arabs; and later, as a +result of the Crusades, the prototype of the clarinet, together +with the practical knowledge necessary for making the instrument +and playing upon it, may have been re-introduced through +any one or all of these sources. However this may be, the +instrument was during the Carolingian period identified with +the tibia of the Romans until such time as the new western +civilization ceased to be content to go back to classical Rome for +its models, and began to express itself, at first naively and +awkwardly, as the 11th century dawned. The name then +changed to the derivatives of the Greek <i>kalamos</i>, assuming an +almost bewildering variety of forms, of which the commonest +are chalemie, chalumeau, schalmey, scalmeye, shawm, calemel, +kalemele.<a name="FnAnchor_13k" id="FnAnchor_13k" href="#Footnote_13k"><span class="sp">13</span></a> The derivation of the name seems to point to a +Byzantine rather than an Arab source for the revival of the +instruments which formed the prototype of both oboe and +clarinet, but it must not be forgotten that the instruments with +a conical bore—more especially those played by a reed—are +primarily of Asiatic origin. At the beginning of the 13th century +in France, where the instrument remained a special favourite +until it was displaced by the clarinet, the chalumeau is mentioned +in some of the early romances:—“Tabars et chalemiaux et +estrumens sonner” (<i>Aye d’Avignon</i>, v. 4137); “Grelles et +chelimiaus et buisines bruians” (<i>Gui de Bourgogne</i>, v. 1374), +&c. By the end of the 13th century, the German equivalent +<i>Schalmey</i> appears in the literature of that country,—“Pusûnen +und Schalmeyen schal moht niemen da gehoeren wal” (<i>Frauendienst</i>, +492, fol. 5, Ulrich von Lichtenstein). The schalmey or +shawm is frequently represented in miniatures from the 13th +century, but it must have been known long before, since it was +at that period in use as the chaunter of the bag-pipe (<i>q.v.</i>), +a fully-developed complex instrument which presupposes a +separate previous existence for its component parts.</p> + +<p>We have no reason to suppose that any distinction was drawn +between the single and double reed instruments during the +early middle ages—if indeed the single reed was then known at +all—for the derivatives of <i>kalamos</i> were applied to a variety of +pipes. The first clear and unmistakable drawing yet found of +the single reed occurs in Mersenne’s <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (p. 282), +where the primitive reed pipe is shown with the beating-reed +detached from the tube of the instrument itself, by making a +lateral slit and then splitting back a little tongue of reed towards +a knot. Mersenne calls this the simplest form of chalumeau or +wheat-stalk (<i>tuyau de blé</i>). It is evident that no significance +was then attached to the form of the vibrating reed, whether +single or double, for Mersenne and other writers of his time +call the chaunters of the musette and cornemuse chalumeaux +whether they are of cylindrical or of conical bore. The difference +in timbre produced by the two kinds of reeds was, however, +understood, for Mersenne states that a special kind of cornemuse +was used in concert with the <i>hautbois de Poitou</i> (an oboe whose +double reed was enclosed in an air chamber) and was distinguished +from the shepherd’s cornemuse by having double reeds throughout, +whereas the drones of the latter instrument were furnished +with beating reeds. It is therefore evident that as late as 1636 +(the date at which Mersenne wrote) in France the word “chalumeau” +was not applied to the instrument transformed some +sixty years later into the clarinet, nor was it applied exclusively +to any one kind of pipe except when acting as the chaunter of +the bagpipe, and that independently of any structural characteristics. +The chaunter was still called chalumeau in 1737.<a name="FnAnchor_14k" id="FnAnchor_14k" href="#Footnote_14k"><span class="sp">14</span></a> +Of the instrument which has been looked upon as the chalumeau, +there is but little trace in Germany or in France at the beginning +of the 17th century. A chalumeau with beak mouthpiece and +characteristic short cylindrical tube pierced with six holes +figures among the musical instruments used for the triumphal +procession of the emperor Maximilian I., commemorated by a +fine series of plates,<a name="FnAnchor_15k" id="FnAnchor_15k" href="#Footnote_15k"><span class="sp">15</span></a> engraved on wood by Hans Burgkmair, +the friend and colleague of A. Dürer. On the same plate (No. +79) are five schalmeys with double reeds and five chalumeaux +with single-reed beak mouthpieces; the latter instruments were +in all probability made in the Netherlands, which excelled from +the 12th century in the manufacture of all musical instruments. +No single-reed instrument, with the exception of the regal (<i>q.v.</i>), +is figured by S. Virdung,<a name="FnAnchor_16k" id="FnAnchor_16k" href="#Footnote_16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a> M. Agricola<a name="FnAnchor_17k" id="FnAnchor_17k" href="#Footnote_17k"><span class="sp">17</span></a> or M. Praetorius.<a name="FnAnchor_18k" id="FnAnchor_18k" href="#Footnote_18k"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 160px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:63px; height:550px" src="images/img440a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1" style="font-size: 80%">(From Diderot and d’Alembert’s <i>Encyclopédie</i>.)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3. Chalumeau, 1767. <br />(<i>a</i>) Front, <br />(<i>b</i>) Back view.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A good idea of the primitive chalumeau may be gained from a +reproduction of one of the few specimens from the 16th or 17th +century still extant, which belonged to Césare Snoeck and was +exhibited at the Royal Military Exhibition in London in 1890.<a name="FnAnchor_19k" id="FnAnchor_19k" href="#Footnote_19k"><span class="sp">19</span></a> +The tube is stopped at the mouthpiece end by a natural joint of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span> +the reed, and a tongue has been detached just under the joint; +there are six finger-holes and one for the thumb. An instrument +almost identical with the above, but with a rudimentary bell, +and showing plainly the detached tongue, is +figured by Jost Amman in 1589.<a name="FnAnchor_20k" id="FnAnchor_20k" href="#Footnote_20k"><span class="sp">20</span></a> A plate in +Diderot and d’Alembert’s <i>Encyclopédie</i><a name="FnAnchor_21k" id="FnAnchor_21k" href="#Footnote_21k"><span class="sp">21</span></a> shows a +less primitive instrument, outwardly cylindrical +and having a separate mouthpiece joint and a +clarinet reed but no keys. A chalumeau without +keys, but consisting apparently of three joints—mouthpiece, +main tube and bell,—is figured on +the title-page of a musical work<a name="FnAnchor_22k" id="FnAnchor_22k" href="#Footnote_22k"><span class="sp">22</span></a> dated 1690; +it is very similar to the one represented in fig. 3, +except that only six holes are visible.</p> + +<p>In his biographical notice of J. Christian +Denner (1655-1707), J.G. Doppelmayr<a name="FnAnchor_23k" id="FnAnchor_23k" href="#Footnote_23k"><span class="sp">23</span></a> states +that at the beginning of the 18th century +“Denner invented a new kind of pipe, the so-called +clarinet, which greatly delighted lovers of +music; he also made great improvements in the +stock or rackett-fagottos, known in the olden +time and finally also in the chalumeaux.” It +is probable that the improvements in the +chalumeau to which Doppelmayr alludes without +understanding them consisted (<i>a</i>) in giving +the mouthpiece the shape of a beak and adding +a separate reed tongue as in that of the modern +clarinet, unless this change had already taken +place in the Netherlands, the country which the +unremitting labours of E. van der Straeten<a name="FnAnchor_24k" id="FnAnchor_24k" href="#Footnote_24k"><span class="sp">24</span></a> +have revealed as taking the lead in Europe from +the 14th to the 16th century in the construction +of musical instruments of all kinds; (<i>b</i>) in +the boring of two additional holes for A and B +near the mouthpiece and covering them with +two keys; (<i>c</i>) in replacing the long cylindrical +mouthpiece joint by a bulb, thus restoring one +of the characteristic features of the tibia,<a name="FnAnchor_25k" id="FnAnchor_25k" href="#Footnote_25k"><span class="sp">25</span></a> known +as the <span class="grk" title="holmos">ὅλμος</span>. There are a few of these improved +chalumeaux in existence, two being in the +Bavarian national museum at Munich, the one in high A, in a bad +state of preservation, the second in C, marked J.C. Denner, of +which V. Mahillon has made a facsimile<a name="FnAnchor_26k" id="FnAnchor_26k" href="#Footnote_26k"><span class="sp">26</span></a> for the museum of the +Brussels Conservatoire. There are two keys and eight holes; +the first consists of two small holes on the same level giving a +semitone if only one be closed. If the thumb-key be left open, +the sounds of the fundamental scale (shown in the black notes +below) rise a twelfth to form the second register (the white notes).</p> + +<div class="figcenter1"> +<img style="border:0; width:600px; height:111px" + src="images/img440b.jpg" + alt="" /> +</div> + +<p class="noind">This early clarinet or improved chalumeau has a clarinet mouthpiece, +but no bulb; it measures 50 cm. (20 in.), whereas the one in +A mentioned above is only 28 cm. in length, the long cylindrical +tube between mouthpiece and key-joint, afterwards turned into +the bulb, being absent. Mahillon was probably the first to point +out that the so-called invention of the clarinet by J.C. Denner +consisted in providing a device—the speaker-key—to facilitate +the production of the harmonics of the fundamental. Can we be +sure that the same result was not obtained on the old chalumeau +before keys were added, by partially uncovering the hole for the thumb?</p> + +<p>The Berlin museum possesses an early clarinet with two keys, +marked J.B. Oberlender, derived from the Snoeck collection. +Paul de Wit’s collection has a similar specimen by Enkelmer. +The Brussels Conservatoire possesses clarinets with two keys by +Flemish makers, G.A. Rottenburgh and J.B. Willems<a name="FnAnchor_27k" id="FnAnchor_27k" href="#Footnote_27k"><span class="sp">27</span></a>; the +latter, with a small bulb and bell, is in G a fifth above the C +clarinet. The next improvements in the clarinet, made in 1720, +are due to J. Denner, probably a son of J.C. Denner. They +consisted in the addition of a bell and in the removal of the +speaker-hole and key nearer the mouthpiece, involving the +reduction of the diameter of the hole. The effect of this change of +position was to turn the B♮ into B♭, for J. Denner introduced into +the hole, nearly as far as the axis of the bore, a small metal +drainage tube<a name="FnAnchor_28k" id="FnAnchor_28k" href="#Footnote_28k"><span class="sp">28</span></a> for the moisture of the breath. In the modern +clarinet, the same result is attained by raising this little tube +slightly above the surface of the main tube, placing a key on the +top of it, and bending the lever. In order to produce the missing +B♮, J. Denner lengthened the tube and pierced another hole, the +low E, covered by an open key with a long lever which, when +closed, gives the desired B as its twelfth, thus forming a connexion +between the two registers. A clarinet with three keys, of similar +construction (about 1750), marked J.W. Kenigsperger, is preserved +in the Bavarian national museum, at Munich. Another +in B♭ marked Lindner<a name="FnAnchor_29k" id="FnAnchor_29k" href="#Footnote_29k"><span class="sp">29</span></a> belongs to the collection at Brussels. +About the middle of the 18th century, the number of keys was +raised to five, some say<a name="FnAnchor_30k" id="FnAnchor_30k" href="#Footnote_30k"><span class="sp">30</span></a> by Barthold Fritz of Brunswick +(1697-1766), who added keys for C♯ and D♯. + +<img style="border:0; width:120px; height:63px" src="images/img440c.jpg" alt="" /> + +According to Altenburg<a name="FnAnchor_31k" id="FnAnchor_31k" href="#Footnote_31k"><span class="sp">31</span></a> the E♭ or D♯ key is due to the virtuoso +Joseph Beer (1744-1811). The sixth key was added about 1790 +by the celebrated French virtuoso Xavier Lefébure (or Lefèvre), +and produced G♯. + +<img style="border:0; width:87px; height:63px" src="images/img440d.jpg" alt="" /> + +Anton Stadler and his brother, +both clarinettists in the Vienna court orchestra and instrument-makers, +are said to have lengthened the tube of the B♭ clarinet, +extending the compass down to C (real sound B♭). It was for +the Stadler brothers that Mozart wrote his quintet for strings, +with a fine obbligato for the clarinet in A (1789), and the clarinet +concerto with orchestra in 1791.</p> + +<p>This, then, was the state of the clarinet in 1810 when Ivan +Müller, then living in Paris, carried the number of keys up to +thirteen, and made several structural improvements already +mentioned, which gave us the modern instrument and inaugurated +a new era in the construction and technique of the +clarinet. Müller’s system is still adopted in principle by most +clarinet makers. The instrument was successively improved +during the 19th century by the Belgian makers Bachmann, the +elder Sax, Albert and C. Mahillon, whose invention in 1862 of the +C♯ key with double action is now generally adopted. In Paris the +labours of Lefébure, Buffet-Crampon, and Goumas are pre-eminent. +In 1842 H.E. Klosé conceived the idea of adapting to +the clarinet the ingenious mechanism of movable rings, invented +by Boehm for the flute, and he entrusted the execution of this +innovation to Buffet-Crampon; this is the type of clarinet +generally adopted in French orchestras. From this adaptation +has sprung the erroneous notion that Klosé’s clarinet was +constructed according to the Boehm system; Klosé’s lateral +divisions of the tube do not follow those applied by Boehm to +the flute.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 160px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:65px; height:550px" src="images/img441.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Clarinet (Boehm model, Klussmann’s patent).</td></tr></table> + +<p>In England the clarinet has also passed through several +progressive stages since its introduction about 1770, and first of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span> +all at the hands of Cornelius Ward. The principal improvements +were due to Richard Carte, who took out a patent in 1858 for an +improved Boehm clarinet which possessed some claim to the +name, since Boehm’s principle of boring the holes at theoretically +correct intervals and of venting the holes +by means of open holes below was carried +out. Carte made several modifications of +his original patent, his chief endeavour +being to so dispose the key-work as to +reduce the difficulties in fingering. By the +extension of the principle of the ring +action, the work of the third and little +fingers of the left hand was simplified and +the fingering of certain difficult notes and +shakes greatly facilitated. Messrs Rudall, +Carte & Company have made further +improvements in the clarinet, which are +embodied in Klussmann’s patent (fig. 4); +these consist in the introduction of the +duplicate G♯ key, a note which has +hitherto formed a serious obstacle to +perfect execution. The duplicate key, +operated by the third or second finger of +the right hand, releases the fourth finger +of the left hand. The old G♯ is still retained +and may be used in the usual way +if desired. The body of the instrument +is now made in one joint, and the position +of the G♯ hole is mathematically correct, +whereby perfect intonation for C♯, G♯ and +F♮ is secured. Other improvements were +made in Paris by Messrs Evette & Schaeffer +and by M. Paradis,<a name="FnAnchor_32k" id="FnAnchor_32k" href="#Footnote_32k"><span class="sp">32</span></a> a clarinet-player in +the band of the Garde Républicaine, and +very great improvements in boring and in +key mechanism were effected by Albert +of Brussels (see fig. 1).</p> + +<p>The clarinet appears to have received +appreciation in the Netherlands earlier +than in its own native land. According +to W. Altenburg (op. cit. p. 11),<a name="FnAnchor_33k" id="FnAnchor_33k" href="#Footnote_33k"><span class="sp">33</span></a> a MS. is +preserved in the cathedral at Antwerp of +a mass written by A.J. Faber in 1720, +which is scored for a clarinet. Johann +Mattheson,<a name="FnAnchor_34k" id="FnAnchor_34k" href="#Footnote_34k"><span class="sp">34</span></a> <i>Kapellmeister</i> at Hamburg, +mentions clarinet music in 1713, although +Handel, whose rival he was, does not appear to have known the +instrument. Joh. Christ. Bach scored for the clarinet in 1763 in +his opera <i>Orione</i> performed in London, and Rameau had already +employed the instrument in 1751 in a theatre for his pastoral +entitled <i>Acante et Céphise</i>.<a name="FnAnchor_35k" id="FnAnchor_35k" href="#Footnote_35k"><span class="sp">35</span></a> The clarinet was formally introduced +into the orchestra in Vienna in 1767,<a name="FnAnchor_36k" id="FnAnchor_36k" href="#Footnote_36k"><span class="sp">36</span></a> Gluck having contented +himself with the use of the chalumeau in <i>Orfeo</i> (1762) and in +<i>Alceste</i> (1767).<a name="FnAnchor_37k" id="FnAnchor_37k" href="#Footnote_37k"><span class="sp">37</span></a> The clarinet had already been adopted in +military bands in France in 1755, where it very speedily completely +replaced the oboe. One of Napoleon Bonaparte’s bands +is said to have had no less than twenty clarinets.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For further information on the clarinet at the beginning of the +19th century, consult the <i>Methods</i> by Ivan Müller and Xavier +Lefébure, and Joseph Froehlich’s admirable work on the instruments +of the orchestra; and Gottfried Weber’s articles in Ersch and +Gruber’s <i>Encyclopaedia</i>. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basset Horn</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bass Clarinet</a></span> +and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pedal Clarinet</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1k" id="Footnote_1k" href="#FnAnchor_1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Gottfried Weber’s objection to this derivation in “Über +Clarinette und Basset-horn,” <i>Caecilia</i> (Mainz, 1829), vol. xi. pp. 36 +and 37, note.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2k" id="Footnote_2k" href="#FnAnchor_2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Nos. 3 and 4 are sometimes made in one, as for instance in +Messrs Rudall, Carte & Company’s modification, the Klussmann +patent.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3k" id="Footnote_3k" href="#FnAnchor_3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Aristotle (<i>de Audib.</i> 802 b 18, and 804 a) and Porphyry (ed. +Wallis, pp. 249 and 252) mention that if the performer presses the +<i>zeuge</i> (mouthpiece) or the <i>glottai</i> (reeds) of the pipes, a sharper tone +is produced.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4k" id="Footnote_4k" href="#FnAnchor_4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Cf. V.C. Mahillon, <i>Éléments d’acoustique musicale et instrumentale</i> +(Brussels, 1874), p. 161; and Fr. Zamminer, <i>Die Musik +und die musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen +der Akustik ...</i> (Giessen, 1855), pp. 297 and 298.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5k" id="Footnote_5k" href="#FnAnchor_5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> “The Aulos or Tibia,” <i>Harvard Studies</i>, iv. (Boston, 1893).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6k" id="Footnote_6k" href="#FnAnchor_6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>De Musica</i>, 1138.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_7k" id="Footnote_7k" href="#FnAnchor_7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> pp. 160 et seq.; and Wilhelm Altenburg, <i>Die Klarinette</i> +(Heilbronn, 1904), p. 9, who refers to Mahillon.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_8k" id="Footnote_8k" href="#FnAnchor_8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See Macrobius, <i>Comm. in somnium Scipionis</i>, ii. 4. 5 “nec +secus probamus in tibiis de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis +ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis, +gravior: item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_9k" id="Footnote_9k" href="#FnAnchor_9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Victor Loret, <i>L’Égypte au temps des Pharaons—la vie, le +science, et l’art</i> (Paris, 1889), illustration p. 139 and p. 143. The +author gives no information about this fresco except that it is in the +Musée Guimet. It is probably identical with the second of the +mural paintings described on p. 190 of <i>Petit guide illustré au Musée +Guimet</i>, par L. de Milloue.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_10k" id="Footnote_10k" href="#FnAnchor_10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See Victor Loret, “Les flûtes égyptiennes antiques,” <i>Journal +asiatique</i> (Paris, 1889), [8], xiv. pp. 129, 130, 132.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11k" id="Footnote_11k" href="#FnAnchor_11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See also A.A. Howard, “Study on the Aulos or Tibia,” <i>Harvard +Studies</i>, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893); F.C. Gevaert, <i>Musique de l’antiquité</i>; +Carl von Jan, article “Floete” in August Baumeister’s +<i>Denkmäler des klassischen Alterthums</i> (Leipzig, 1884-1888), vol. i.; +Dr Hugo Riemann, <i>Handbuch der Musikgesch.</i> vol. i. p. 90, &c. +(Leipzig, 1904); all of whom have not come to the same conclusions.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_12k" id="Footnote_12k" href="#FnAnchor_12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Wilhelm Froehner, <i>La Colonne trajane</i> (Paris, 1872), t. ii. pl. 76.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_13k" id="Footnote_13k" href="#FnAnchor_13k"><span class="fn">13</span></a></p> + +<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> +<div class="poemr"> + +<p>“Aveuc aus ert vestus Guis</p> +<p class="i05">Ki leur cante et Kalemele,</p> +<p class="i05">En la muse au grant bourdon.”</p> +<p class="s i4">J.A.U. Scheler’s <i>Trouvères belges</i>.</p> +</div> +</td></tr></table> + +<p><a name="Footnote_14k" id="Footnote_14k" href="#FnAnchor_14k"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See Ernest Thoinan, <i>Les Hotteterre et les Chédeville, célèbres +facteurs de flûtes, hautbois, bassons et musettes</i> (Paris, 1894), p. 15 +et seq., and <i>Méthode pour la musette</i>, &c., par Hotteterre le Romain +(Paris, 1737).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_15k" id="Footnote_15k" href="#FnAnchor_15k"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The whole series of 135 plates has been reproduced in <i>Jahrb. d. +Samml. des Alterh. Kaiserhauses</i> (Vienna, 1883-1884).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_16k" id="Footnote_16k" href="#FnAnchor_16k"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_17k" id="Footnote_17k" href="#FnAnchor_17k"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch</i> (Nuremberg, 1528 and 1545).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_18k" id="Footnote_18k" href="#FnAnchor_18k"><span class="fn">18</span></a> <i>Syntagma Musicum</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618). This work and those +mentioned in the two previous notes have been reprinted by the Ges. +f. Musikforschung in vols. xi., xx. and xiii. of <i>Publikationen</i> (Berlin).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_19k" id="Footnote_19k" href="#FnAnchor_19k"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See <i>Descriptive Catalogue</i>, by Capt. C.R. Day (London, 1891), +pl. iv. A and p. 110, No. 221.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_20k" id="Footnote_20k" href="#FnAnchor_20k"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Wappenbuch</i>, p. 111, “Musica.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_21k" id="Footnote_21k" href="#FnAnchor_21k"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Paris, 1767, vol. v. “Planches,” pl. ix. 20, 21, 22.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_22k" id="Footnote_22k" href="#FnAnchor_22k"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Dr Theofilo Muffat, “Componimenti musicali per il cembalo,” +in <i>Denkmäler d. Tonkunst in Österreich</i>, Bd. iii.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_23k" id="Footnote_23k" href="#FnAnchor_23k"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Historische Nachricht von den Nürnbergischen Mathematicis u. +Künstlern</i>, &c. (Nuremberg, 1730), p. 305.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24k" id="Footnote_24k" href="#FnAnchor_24k"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Histoire de la musique aux Pays Bas avant le XIXe siècle.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_25k" id="Footnote_25k" href="#FnAnchor_25k"><span class="fn">25</span></a> For a facsimile of one of the Pompeii tibiae, see Capt. C.R. +Day, <i>op. cit.</i> pl. iv. C. and p. 109.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_26k" id="Footnote_26k" href="#FnAnchor_26k"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Catalogue descriptif</i> (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 211, No. 911, where +an illustration is given. See also Capt. C.R. Day, <i>op. cit.</i> pl. iv. +B and <i>Errata</i> where the description is printed.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_27k" id="Footnote_27k" href="#FnAnchor_27k"><span class="fn">27</span></a> For a description with illustration see V. Mahillon’s <i>Catalogue +descriptif</i> (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 215, No. 916.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_28k" id="Footnote_28k" href="#FnAnchor_28k"><span class="fn">28</span></a> See Wilhelm Altenburg, op. cit. p. 6.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29k" id="Footnote_29k" href="#FnAnchor_29k"><span class="fn">29</span></a> See V. Mahillon, <i>Catal. descript.</i> (1896), p. 213, No. 913.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_30k" id="Footnote_30k" href="#FnAnchor_30k"><span class="fn">30</span></a> H. Welcker von Gontershausen, <i>Die musikalischen Tonwerk-zeuge</i> +(Frankfort-on-Main, 1855), p. 141.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_31k" id="Footnote_31k" href="#FnAnchor_31k"><span class="fn">31</span></a> Op. cit. p. 6.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_32k" id="Footnote_32k" href="#FnAnchor_32k"><span class="fn">32</span></a> See Capt. C.R. Day, op. cit. p. 106.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_33k" id="Footnote_33k" href="#FnAnchor_33k"><span class="fn">33</span></a> V. Mahillon, <i>Catal. desc.</i> (1880), p. 182, refers his statement to +the Chevalier L. de Burbure.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34k" id="Footnote_34k" href="#FnAnchor_34k"><span class="fn">34</span></a> <i>Das neu-eröffnete Orchester</i> (Hamburg, 1713).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35k" id="Footnote_35k" href="#FnAnchor_35k"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Mahillon, <i>Catal. desc.</i> (1880), vol. i. p. 182.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36k" id="Footnote_36k" href="#FnAnchor_36k"><span class="fn">36</span></a> See Chevalier Ludwig von Koechel, <i>Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-kapelle +zu Wien, 1543-1867</i> (Vienna, 1869).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_37k" id="Footnote_37k" href="#FnAnchor_37k"><span class="fn">37</span></a> In the Italian edition of 1769 the part is scored for clarinet.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARK, SIR ANDREW<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>, Bart. (1826-1893), British physician, +was born at Aberdeen on the 28th of October 1826. His father, +who also was a medical man, died when he was only a few years +old. After attending school in Aberdeen, he was sent by his +guardians to Dundee and apprenticed to a druggist; then +returning to Aberdeen he began his medical studies in the university +of that city. Soon, however, he went to Edinburgh, +where in the extra-academical school he had a student’s career of +the most brilliant description, ultimately becoming assistant to +J. Hughes Bennett in the pathological department of the Royal +Infirmary, and assistant demonstrator of anatomy to Robert +Knox. But symptoms of pulmonary phthisis brought his +academic life to a close, and in the hope that the sea might +benefit his health he joined the medical department of the navy in +1848. Next year he became pathologist to the Haslar hospital, +where T.H. Huxley was one of his colleagues, and in 1853 he was +the successful candidate for the newly-instituted post of curator +to the museum of the London hospital. Here he intended to +devote all his energies to pathology, but circumstances brought +him into active medical practice. In 1854, the year in which he +took his doctor’s degree at Aberdeen, the post of assistant-physician +to the hospital became vacant and he was prevailed +upon to apply for it. He was fond of telling how his phthisical +tendencies gained him the appointment. “He is only a poor +Scotch doctor,” it was said, “with but a few months to live; let +him have it.” He had it, and two years before his death publicly +declared that of those who were on the staff of the hospital at the +time of his selection he was the only one remaining alive. In +1854 he became a member of the College of Physicians, and in +1858 a fellow, and then went in succession through all the offices +of honour the college has to offer, ending in 1888 with the +presidency, which he continued to hold till his death. From the +time of his selection as assistant physician to the London +hospital, his fame rapidly grew until he became a fashionable +doctor with one of the largest practices in London, counting +among his patients some of the most distinguished men of the +day. The great number of persons who passed through his +consulting-room every morning rendered it inevitable that to +a large extent his advice should become stereotyped and his +prescriptions often reduced to mere stock formulae, but in really +serious cases he was not to be surpassed in the skill and carefulness +of his diagnosis and in his attention to detail. In spite +of the claims of his practice he found time to produce a good +many books, all written in the precise and polished style on +which he used to pride himself. Doubtless owing largely to +personal reasons, lung diseases and especially fibroid phthisis +formed his favourite theme, but he also discussed other subjects, +such as renal inadequacy, anaemia, constipation, &c. He died +in London on the 6th of November 1893, after a paralytic stroke +which was probably the result of persistent overwork.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1851-  ), American clergyman, +was born of New England ancestry at Aylmer, Province of +Quebec, Canada, on the 12th of September 1851. He was the son +of Charles C. Symmes, but took the name of an uncle, the Rev. +E.W. Clark, by whom he was adopted after his father’s death in +1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873 and at +Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, was ordained in the +Congregational ministry, and was pastor of the Williston Congregational +church at Portland, Maine, from 1876 to 1883, and of +the Phillips Congregational church, South Boston, Mass., from +1883 to 1887. On the 2nd of February 1881 he founded at +Portland the Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor, +which, beginning as a small society in a single New England +church, developed into a great interdenominational organization, +which in 1908 had 70,761 societies and more than 3,500,000 +members scattered throughout the United States, Canada, Great +Britain, Australia, South Africa, India, Japan and China. +After 1887 he devoted his time entirely to the extension of this +work, and was president of the United Societies of Christian +Endeavor and of the World’s Christian Endeavor Union, and +editor of the <i>Christian Endeavor World</i> (originally <i>The Golden +Rule</i>). Among his numerous publications are <i>The Children and the +Church</i> (1882); <i>Looking Out on Life</i> (1883); <i>Young People’s Prayer +Meetings</i> (1884); <i>Some Christian Endeavor Saints</i> (1889); <i>World-Wide +Endeavor</i> (1895); <i>A New Way Round an Old World</i> (1900).</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his <i>The Young People’s Christian Endeavor, where it began, +&c.</i> (Boston, 1895); <i>Christian Endeavor Manual</i> (Boston, 1903); +and <i>Christian Endeavor in All Lands: Record of Twenty-five Years +of Progress</i> (Philadelphia, 1907).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1752-1818), American frontier +military leader, was born near Charlottesville, in Albemarle +county, Virginia, on the 19th of November 1752. Early in life +he became a land-surveyor; he took part in Lord Dunmore’s +War (1774), and in 1775 went as a surveyor for the Ohio Company +to Kentucky (then a district of Virginia), whither he removed +early in 1776. His iron will, strong passions, audacious courage +and magnificent physique soon made him a leader among his +frontier neighbours, by whom in 1776 he was sent as a delegate +to the Virginia legislature. In this capacity he was instrumental +in bringing about the organization of Kentucky as a county of +Virginia, and also obtained from Governor Patrick Henry a +supply of powder for the Kentucky settlers. Convinced that +the Indians were instigated and supported in their raids against +the American settlers by British officers stationed in the forts +north of the Ohio river, and that the conquest of those forts +would put an end to the evil, he went on foot to Virginia late +in 1777 and submitted to Governor Henry and his council a +plan for offensive operations. On the 2nd of January 1778 he +was commissioned lieutenant-colonel, received £1200 in depreciated +currency, and was authorized to enlist troops; and +by the end of May he was at the falls of the Ohio (the site of +Louisville) with about 175 men. The expedition proceeded +to Fort Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, in what is now Illinois. +This place and Cahokia, also on the Mississippi, near St Louis, +were defended by small British garrisons, which depended upon +the support of the French <i>habitants</i>. The French being willing +to accept the authority of Virginia, both forts were easily taken. +Clark gained the friendship of Father Pierre Gibault, the priest +at Kaskaskia, and through his influence the French at Vincennes +on the Wabash were induced (late in July) to change their +allegiance. On the 17th of December Lieut.-Governor Henry +Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, recovered Vincennes +and went into winter quarters. Late in February 1779 he was +surprised by Clark and compelled to give up Vincennes and its +fort, Fort Sackville, and to surrender himself and his garrison +of about 80 men, as prisoners of war. With the exception of +Detroit and several other posts on the Canadian frontier the +whole of the North-West was thus brought under American +influence; many of the Indians, previously hostile, became +friendly, and the United States was put in a position to demand +the cession of the North-West in the treaty of 1783. For this +valuable service, in which Clark had freely used his own private +funds, he received practically no recompense either from Virginia +or from the United States, and for many years before his death +he lived in poverty. To him and his men, however, the Virginia +legislature granted 150,000 acres of land in 1781, which was +subsequently located in what are now Clark, Floyd and Scott +counties, Indiana; Clark’s individual share was 8049 acres, but +from this he realized little. Clark built Fort Jefferson on the +Mississippi, 4 or 5 m. below the mouth of the Ohio, in 1780, +destroyed the Indian towns Chillicothe and Piqua in the same +year, and in November 1782 destroyed the Indian towns on the +Miami river. With this last expedition his active military +service virtually ended, and in July 1783 he was relieved of his +command by Virginia. Thereafter he lived on part of the land +granted to him by Virginia or in Louisville for the rest of his +life. In 1793 he accepted from Citizen Genet a commission as +“major-general in the armies of France, and commander-in-chief +of the French Revolutionary Legion in the Mississippi Valley,” +and tried to raise a force for an attack upon the Spanish +possessions in the valley of the Mississippi. The scheme, +however, was abandoned after Genet’s recall. Disappointed +at what he regarded as his country’s ingratitude, and broken +down by excessive drinking and paralysis, he lost his once +powerful influence and lived in comparative isolation until his +death, near Louisville, Kentucky, on the 13th of February 1818.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.H. English, <i>Conquest of the Country north-west of the +River Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of George Rogers Clark</i> (2 vols., +Indianapolis and Kansas City, 1896), an accurate and detailed work, +which represents an immense amount of research among both +printed and manuscript sources. Clark’s own accounts of his +expeditions, and other interesting documents, are given in the +appendix to this work.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc pt2">Clark, William</span> (1770-1838), the well-known explorer, was +the youngest brother of the foregoing. He was born in Caroline +county, Virginia, on the 1st of August 1770. At the age of +fourteen he removed with his parents to Kentucky, settling +at the falls of the Ohio (Louisville). He entered the United +States army as a lieutenant of infantry in March 1792, and +served under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians in +1794. In July 1796 he resigned his commission on account of +ill-health. In 1803-1806, with Meriwether Lewis (<i>q.v.</i>), he +commanded the famous exploring expedition across the continent +to the mouth of the Columbia river, and was commissioned +second lieutenant in March 1804 and first lieutenant in January +1806. In February he again resigned from the army. He then +served for a few years as brigadier-general of the Louisiana +territorial militia, as Indian agent for “Upper Louisiana,” as +territorial governor of Missouri in 1813-1820, and as superintendent +of Indian affairs at St Louis from 1822 until his death +there on the 1st of September 1838.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARK, SIR JAMES<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1788-1870), English physician, was born +at Cullen, Banffshire, and was educated at the grammar school +of Fordyce and at the universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. +He served for six years as a surgeon in the army; then spent +some time in travelling on the continent, in order to investigate +the mineral waters and the climate of various health resorts; +and for seven years he lived in Rome. In 1826 he began to +practise in London. In 1835 he was appointed physician to the +duchess of Kent, becoming physician in ordinary to Queen +Victoria in 1837. In 1838 he was created a baronet. He published +<i>The Influence of Climate in Chronic Diseases</i>, containing +valuable meteorological tables (1829), and a <i>Treatise on Pulmonary +Consumption</i> (1835).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARK, JOHN BATES<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1847-  ), American economist, +was born at Providence, Rhode Island, on the 26th of January +1847. Educated at Brown University, Amherst College, Heidelberg +and Zurich, he was appointed professor of political economy +at Carleton College, Minnesota, in 1877. In 1881 he became +professor of history and political science in Smith College, +Massachusetts; in 1892 professor of political economy in +Amherst College. He was appointed professor of political +economy at Columbia University in 1895. Among his works are: +<i>The Philosophy of Wealth</i> (1885); <i>Wages</i> (1889); <i>Capital and its +Earnings</i> (1898); <i>The Control of Trusts</i> (1901); <i>The Problem +of Monopoly</i> (1904); and <i>Essentials of Economic Theory</i> (1907).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1822-1898), English engineer and +electrician, was born on the 10th of March 1822 at Great Marlow, +Bucks. His first interest was in chemical manufacturing, but in +1848 he became assistant engineer at the Menai Straits bridge +under his elder brother Edwin (1814-1894), the inventor of the +Clark hydraulic lift graving dock. Two years later, when his +brother was appointed engineer to the Electric Telegraph +Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently +succeeded him as chief engineer. In 1854 he took out a patent +“for conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure +of air and vacuum,” and later was concerned in the construction +of a large pneumatic despatch tube between the general post +office and Euston station, London. About the same period he +was engaged in experimental researches on the propagation of +the electric current in submarine cables, on which he published a +pamphlet in 1855, and in 1859 he was a member of the committee +which was appointed by the government to consider the +numerous failures of submarine cable enterprises. Latimer +Clark paid much attention to the subject of electrical measurement, +and besides designing various improvements in method and +apparatus and inventing the Clark standard cell, he took a +leading part in the movement for the systematization of electrical +standards, which was inaugurated by the paper which he and Sir +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span> +C.T. Bright read on the question before the British Association in +1861. With Bright also he devised improvements in the insulation +of submarine cables. In the later part of his life he was a +member of several firms engaged in laying submarine cables, in +manufacturing electrical appliances, and in hydraulic engineering. +He died in London on the 30th of October 1898. Besides professional +papers, he published an <i>Elementary Treatise on Electrical +Measurement</i> (1868), together with two books on astronomical +subjects, and a memoir of Sir W.F. Cooke.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARK, THOMAS<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1801-1867), Scottish chemist, was born at +Ayr on the 31st of March 1801. In 1826 he was appointed +lecturer on chemistry at the Glasgow mechanics’ institute, and in +1831 he took the degree of M.D. at the university of that city. +Two years later he became professor of chemistry in Marischal +College, Aberdeen, but was obliged to give up the duties of that +position in 1844 through ill-health, though nominally he remained +professor till 1860. His name is chiefly known in connexion with +his process for softening hard waters, and his water tests, +patented in 1841. The last twenty years before his death at +Glasgow on the 27th of November 1867 were occupied with the +study of the historical origin of the Gospels.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1821-1878), English classical +and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Barford Hall, Darlington, +in March 1821. He was educated at Sedbergh and Shrewsbury +schools and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected +fellow after a brilliant university career. In 1857 he was +appointed public orator. He travelled much during the long +vacations, visiting Spain, Greece, Italy and Poland. His +<i>Peloponnesus</i> (1858) was an important contribution to the +knowledge of the country at that time. In 1853 Clark had taken +orders, but left the Church in 1870 after the passing of the +Clerical Disabilities Act, of which he was one of the promoters. +He also resigned the public oratorship in the same year, and in +consequence of illness left Cambridge in 1873. He died at York +on the 6th of November 1878. He bequeathed a sum of money to +his old college for the foundation of a lectureship in English +literature. Although Clark was before all a classical scholar, he +published little in that branch of learning. A contemplated +edition of the works of Aristophanes, a task for which he was +singularly fitted, was never published. He visited Italy in 1868 +for the express purpose of examining the Ravenna and other MSS., +and on his return began the notes to the <i>Acharnians</i>, but they +were left in too incomplete a state to admit of publication in book +form even after his death (see <i>Journal of Philology</i>, viii., 1879). +He established the Cambridge <i>Journal of Philology</i>, and cooperated +with B.H. Kennedy and James Riddell in the production +of the well-known <i>Sabrinae Corolla</i>. The work by which +he is best known is the Cambridge Shakespeare (1863-1866), +containing a collation of early editions and selected emendations, +edited by him at first with John Glover and afterwards with +W. Aldis Wright. <i>Gazpacho</i> (1853)gives an account of his tour in +Spain; his visits to Italy at the time of Garibaldi’s insurrection, +and to Poland during the insurrection of 1863, are described in +<i>Vacation Tourists</i>, ed. F. Galton, i. and iii.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>H.A.J. Munro in <i>Journal of Philology</i> (viii. 1879) describes Clark +as “the most accomplished and versatile man he ever met”; see +also notices by W. Aldis Wright in <i>Academy</i> (Nov. 23, 1878); +R. Burn in <i>Athenaeum</i> (Nov. 16, 1878); <i>The Times</i> (Nov. 8, 1878); +<i>Notes and Queries</i>, 5th series, x. (1878), p. 400.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, ADAM<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1762?-1832), British Nonconformist +divine, was born at Moybeg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in 1760 +or 1762. After receiving a very limited education he was +apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but, finding the employment +uncongenial, he resumed school-life at the institution +founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he +entered on the duties of the ministry, being appointed by Wesley +to the Bradford (Wiltshire) circuit. His popularity as a preacher +was very great, and his influence in the denomination is indicated +by the fact that he was three times (1806, 1814, 1822) chosen to +be president of the conference. He served twice on the London +circuit, the second period being extended considerably longer +than the rule allowed, at the special request of the British and +Foreign Bible Society, who had employed him in the preparation +of their Arabic Bible. Though ardent in his pastoral work, he +found time for diligent study of Hebrew and other Oriental +languages, undertaken chiefly with the view of qualifying himself +for the great work of his life, his <i>Commentary on the Holy +Scriptures</i> (8 vols., 1810-1820). In 1802 he published a <i>Bibliographical +Dictionary</i> in six volumes, to which he afterwards +added a supplement. He was selected by the Records Commission +to re-edit Rymer’s <i>Foedera</i>, a task which after ten years’ +labour (1808-1818) he had to resign. He also wrote <i>Memoirs of +the Wesley Family</i> (1823), and edited a large number of religious +works. Honours were showered upon him (he was M.A., LL.D. +of Aberdeen), and many distinguished men in church and state +were his personal friends. He died in London on the 16th of +August 1832.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Miscellaneous Works</i> were published in 13 vols. (1836), and a +<i>Life</i> (3 vols.) by his son, J.B.B. Clarke, appeared in 1833.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, SIR ANDREW<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1824-1902), British soldier and +administrator, son of Colonel Andrew Clarke, of Co. Donegal, +Ireland, governor of West Australia, was born at Southsea, +England, on the 27th of July 1824, and educated at King’s +school, Canterbury. He entered the Royal Military Academy, +Woolwich, and obtained his commission in the army in 1844 +as second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was appointed +to his father’s staff in West Australia, but was transferred to be +A.D.C. and military secretary to the governor of Tasmania; +and in 1847 he went to New Zealand to take part in the Maori +War, and for some years served on Sir George Grey’s staff. +He was then made surveyor-general in Victoria, took a prominent +part in framing its new constitution, and held the office of +minister of public lands during the first administration (1855-1857). +He returned to England in 1857, and in 1863 was sent +on a special mission to the West Coast of Africa. In 1864 he +was appointed director of works for the navy, and held this +post for nine years, being responsible for great improvements +in the naval arsenals at Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth, +and for fortifications at Malta, Cork, Bermuda and elsewhere. +In 1873 he was made K.C.M.G., and became governor of the +Straits Settlements, where he did most valuable work in consolidating +British rule and ameliorating the condition of the +people. From 1875 to 1880 he was minister of public works in +India; and on his return to England in 1881, holding then the +rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army, he was first appointed +commandant at Chatham and then inspector-general of fortifications +(1882-1886). Having attained the rank of lieutenant-general +and been created G.C.M.G., he retired from official life, +and in 1886 and 1893 unsuccessfully stood for parliament as a +supporter of Mr Gladstone. During his last years he was agent-general +for Victoria. He died on the 29th of March 1902. Both +as a technical and strategical engineer and as an Imperial +administrator Sir Andrew Clarke was one of the ablest and most +useful public servants of his time; and his contributions to +periodical literature, as well as his official memoranda, contained +valuable suggestions on the subjects of imperial defence and +imperial consolidation which received too little consideration +at a period when the home governments were not properly alive +to their importance. He is entitled to remembrance as one of +those who first inculcated, from a wide practical experience, +the views of imperial administration and its responsibilities, +which in his last years he saw accepted by the bulk of his countrymen.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1787-1877), English author +and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Enfield, Middlesex, +on the 15th of December 1787. His father, John Clarke, was a +schoolmaster, among whose pupils was John Keats. Charles +Clarke taught Keats his letters, and encouraged his love of +poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards +became acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge and +Hazlitt. Clarke became a music publisher in partnership with +Alfred Novello, and married in 1828 his partner’s sister, Mary +Victoria (1809-1898), the eldest daughter of Vincent Novello. +In the year after her marriage Mrs Cowden Clarke began her +valuable Shakespeare concordance, which was eventually +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span> +issued in eighteen monthly parts (1844-1845), and in volume +form in 1845 as <i>The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare, being +a Verbal Index to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works of the +Poet</i>. This work superseded the <i>Copious Index to ... Shakespeare</i> +(1790) of Samuel Ayscough, and the <i>Complete Verbal +Index ...</i> (1805-1807) of Francis Twiss. Charles Cowden +Clarke published many useful books, and edited the text for +John Nichol’s edition of the British poets; but his most important +work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856 +on Shakespeare and other literary subjects. Some of the more +notable series were published, among them being <i>Shakespeare’s +Characters, chiefly those subordinate</i> (1863), and <i>Molière’s Characters</i> +(1865). In 1859 he published a volume of original poems, +<i>Carmina Minima</i>. For some years after their marriage the +Cowden Clarkes lived with the Novellos in London. In 1849 +Vincent Novello with his wife removed to Nice, where he was +joined by the Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at +Genoa at the “Villa Novello.” They collaborated in <i>The +Shakespeare Key, unlocking the Treasures of his Style ...</i> (1879), +and in an edition of Shakespeare for Messrs Cassell, which was +issued in weekly parts, and completed in 1868. It was reissued +in 1886 as <i>Cassell’s Illustrated Shakespeare</i>. Charles Clarke died +on the 13th of March 1877 at Genoa, and his wife survived him +until the 12th of January 1898. Among Mrs Cowden Clarke’s +other works may be mentioned <i>The Girlhood of Shakespeare’s +Heroines</i> (3 vols., 1850-1852), and a translation of Berlioz’s +<i>Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration</i> (1856).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Recollections of Writers</i> (1898), a joint work by the Clarkes +containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends; +and Mary Cowden Clarke’s autobiography, <i>My Long Life</i> (1896). +A charming series of letters (1850-1861), addressed by her to an +American admirer of her work, Robert Balmanno, was edited by +Anne Upton Nettleton as <i>Letters to an Enthusiast</i> (Chicago, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1769-1822), English mineralogist +and traveller, was born at Willingdon, Sussex, on the 5th +of June 1769, and educated first at Tonbridge. In 1786 he obtained +the office of chapel clerk at Jesus College, Cambridge, +but the loss of his father at this time involved him in difficulties. +In 1790 he took his degree, and soon after became private tutor +to Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset. In 1792 he +obtained an engagement to travel with Lord Berwick through +Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After crossing the Alps, and +visiting a few of the principal cities of Italy, including Rome, +he went to Naples, where he remained nearly two years. Having +returned to England in the summer of 1794, he became tutor +in several distinguished families. In 1799 he set out with a +Mr Cripps on a tour through the continent of Europe, beginning +with Norway and Sweden, whence they proceeded through +Russia and the Crimea to Constantinople, Rhodes, and afterwards +to Egypt and Palestine. After the capitulation of Alexandria, +Clarke was of considerable use in securing for England the +statues, sarcophagi, maps, manuscripts, &c., which had been +collected by the French savants. Greece was the country next +visited. From Athens the travellers proceeded by land to +Constantinople, and after a short stay in that city directed +their course homewards through Rumelia, Austria, Germany +and France. Clarke, who had now obtained considerable reputation, +took up his residence at Cambridge. He received the +degree of LL.D. shortly after his return in 1803, on account +of the valuable donations, including a colossal statue of the +Eleusinian Ceres, which he had made to the university. He +was also presented to the college living of Harlton, near Cambridge, +in 1805, to which, four years later, his +father-in-law +added that of Yeldham. Towards the end of 1808 Dr Clarke +was appointed to the professorship of mineralogy in Cambridge, +then first instituted. Nor was his perseverance as a traveller +otherwise unrewarded. The MSS. which he had collected in the +course of his travels were sold to the Bodleian library for £1000; +and by the publication of his travels he realized altogether +a clear profit of £6595. Besides lecturing on mineralogy and +discharging his clerical duties, Dr Clarke eagerly prosecuted +the study of chemistry, and made several discoveries, principally +by means of the gas blow-pipe, which he had brought to a high +degree of perfection. He was also appointed university librarian +in 1817, and was one of the founders of the Cambridge Philosophical +Society in 1819. He died in London on the 9th of +March 1822. The following is a list of his principal works:—<i>Testimony +of Authors respecting the Colossal Statue of Ceres in +the Public Library, Cambridge</i> (8vo, 1801-1803); <i>The Tomb of +Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alexandria, +and now in the British Museum</i> (4to, 1805); <i>A Methodical +Distribution of the Mineral Kingdom</i> (fol., Lewes, 1807); <i>A +Description of the Greek Marbles brought from the Shores of the +Euxine, Archipelago and Mediterranean, and deposited in the +University Library, Cambridge</i> (8vo, 1809); <i>Travels in various +Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa</i> (4to, 1810-1819; 2nd ed., +1811-1823).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life and Remains</i>, by Rev. W. Otter (1824).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1841-  ), English +lawyer and politician, son of J.G. Clarke of Moorgate Street, +London, was born on the 15th of February 1841. In 1859 he +became a writer in the India office, but resigned in the next year, +and became a law reporter. He obtained a Tancred law scholarship +in 1861, and was called to the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1864. +He joined the home circuit, became Q.C. in 1880, and a bencher of +Lincoln’s Inn in 1882. In November 1877 he was successful in +securing the acquittal of Chief-Inspector Clarke from the charge +brought against certain Scotland Yard officials of conspiracy to +defeat justice, and his reputation was assured by his defence of +Patrick Staunton in the Penge murder case (1877), and of Mrs +Bartlett against the charge of poisoning her husband (1886). +Among other notable cases he was counsel for the plaintiff in the +libel action brought by Sir William Gordon-Cumming (1890) +against Mr and Mrs Lycett Green and others for slander, charging +him with cheating in the game of baccarat (in this case the prince +of Wales, afterwards Edward VII., gave evidence), and he +appeared for Dr Jameson, Sir John Willoughby and others when +they were tried (1896) under the Foreign Enlistment Act. He was +knighted in 1886. He was returned as Conservative member for +Southwark at a by-election early in 1880, but failed to retain his +seat at the general election which followed a month or two later; +he found a seat at Plymouth, however, which he retained until +1900. He was solicitor-general in the Conservative administration +of 1886-1892, but declined office under the Unionist government +of 1895 when the law officers of the crown were debarred +from private practice. The most remarkable, perhaps, of his +speeches in the House of Commons was his reply to Mr Gladstone +on the second reading of the Home Rule Bill in 1893. In 1899 +differences which arose between Sir Edward Clarke and his party +on the subject of the government’s South African policy led to +his resigning his seat. At the general election of 1906 he was +returned at the head of the poll for the city of London, but he +offended a large section of his constituents by a speech against +tariff reform in the House of Commons on the 12th of March, and +shortly afterwards he resigned his seat on grounds of health. +He published a <i>Treatise on the Law of Extradition</i> (4th ed., 1903), +and also three volumes of his political and forensic speeches.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1810-1888), American preacher +and author, was born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 4th of +April 1810. He was prepared for college at the public Latin +school of Boston, and graduated at Harvard College in 1829, and +at the Harvard Divinity School in 1833. He was then ordained +as minister of a Unitarian congregation at Louisville, Kentucky, +which was then a slave state. Clarke soon threw himself heart +and soul into the national movement for the abolition of slavery, +though he was never what was then called in America a “radical +abolitionist.” In 1839 he returned to Boston, where he and his +friends established (1841) the “Church of the Disciples.” It +brought together a body of men and women active and eager in +applying the Christian religion to the social problems of the day, +and he would have said that the feature which distinguished it +from any other church was that they also were ministers of the +highest religious life. Ordination could make no distinction +between him and them. Of this church he was the minister from +1841 until 1850 and from 1854 until his death. He was also +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span> +secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-1871 +professor of natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard. +From the beginning of his active life he wrote freely for the press. +From 1836 until 1839 he was editor of the <i>Western Messenger</i>, a +magazine intended to carry to readers in the Mississippi Valley +simple statements of “liberal religion,” involving what were then +the most radical appeals as to national duty, especially the +abolition of slavery. The magazine is now of value to collectors +because it contains the earliest printed poems of Ralph Waldo +Emerson, who was Clarke’s personal friend. Most of Clarke’s +earlier published writings were addressed to the immediate need +of establishing a larger theory of religion than that espoused +by people who were still trying to be Calvinists, people who +maintained what a good American phrase calls “hard-shelled +churches.” But it would be wrong to call his work controversial. +He was always declaring that the business of the Church is +Eirenic and not Polemic. Such books as <i>Orthodoxy: Its Truths +and Errors</i> (1866) have been read more largely by members of +orthodox churches than by Unitarians. In the great moral +questions of his time Clarke was a fearless and practical advocate +of the broadest statement of human rights. Without caring +much what company he served in, he could always be seen and +heard, a leader of unflinching courage, in the front rank of the +battle. He published but few verses, but at the bottom he was a +poet. He was a diligent and accurate scholar, and among the +books by which he is best known is one called <i>Ten Great Religions</i> +(2 vols., 1871-1883). Few Americans have done more than +Clarke to give breadth to the published discussion of the subjects +of literature, ethics and religious philosophy. Among his later +books are <i>Every-Day Religion</i> (1886) and <i>Sermons on the Lord’s +Prayer</i> (1888). He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., on the 8th of +June 1888.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His <i>Autobiography, Diary and Correspondence</i>, edited by Edward +Everett Hale, was published in Boston in 1891.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. E. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1833-1899), American actor, was +born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 3rd of September 1833, and +was educated for the law. He made his first appearance in +Boston as Frank Hardy in <i>Paul Pry</i> in 1851. In 1859 he married +Asia Booth, daughter of Junius Brutus Booth, and he was +associated with his brother-in-law Edwin Booth in the management +of the Winter Garden theatre in New York, the Walnut +Street theatre in Philadelphia and the Boston theatre. In 1867 +he went to London, where he made his first appearance at the St +James’s as Major Wellington de Boots in Stirling Coynes’s +<i>Everybody’s Friend</i>, rewritten for him and called <i>The Widow’s +Hunt</i>. His success was so great that he remained in England for +the rest of his life, except for four visits to America. Among his +favourite parts were Toodles, which ran for 200 nights at the +Strand, Dr Pangloss in <i>The Heir-at-law</i>, and Dr Ollapod in <i>The +Poor Gentleman</i>. He managed several London theatres, including +the Haymarket, where he preceded the Bancrofts. He +retired in 1889, and died on the 24th of September 1899. His two +sons also were actors.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1846-1881), +Australian author, was born in London on the 24th of April 1846. +He was the only son of William Hislop Clarke, a barrister of the +Middle Temple who died in 1863. He emigrated forthwith to +Australia, where his uncle, James Langton Clarke, was a county +court judge. He was at first a clerk in the bank of Australasia, +but showed no business ability, and soon proceeded to learn +farming at a station on the Wimmera river, Victoria. He was +already writing stories for the <i>Australian Magazine</i>, when in 1867 +he joined the staff of the Melbourne <i>Argus</i> through the introduction +of Dr Robert Lewins. He also became secretary (1872) to +the trustees of the Melbourne public library and later (1876) +assistant librarian. He founded in 1868 the Yorick Club, which +soon numbered among its members the chief Australian men of +letters. The most famous of his books is <i>For the Term of his +Natural Life</i> (Melbourne, 1874), a powerful tale of an Australian +penal settlement, which originally appeared in serial form in a +Melbourne paper. He also wrote <i>The Peripatetic Philosopher</i> +(1869), a series of amusing papers reprinted from <i>The Austral-asian; +Long Odds</i> (London, 1870), a novel; and numerous +comedies and pantomimes, the best of which was <i>Twinkle, +Twinkle, Little Star</i> (Theatre Royal, Melbourne; Christmas, +1873). He married an actress, Marian Dunn. In spite of his +popular success Clarke was constantly involved in pecuniary +difficulties, which are said to have hastened his death at +Melbourne on the 2nd of August 1881.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>The Marcus Clarke Memorial Volume</i> (Melbourne, 1884), +containing selections from his writings with a biography and list +of works, edited by Hamilton Mackinnon.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, MARY ANNE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (c. 1776-1852), mistress of Frederick +duke of York, second son of George III., was born either in +London or at Oxford. Her father, whose name was Thompson, +seems to have been a tradesman in rather humble circumstances. +She married before she was eighteen, but Mr Clarke, the proprietor +of a stonemasonry business, became bankrupt, and she +left him. After other <i>liaisons</i>, she became in 1803 the mistress of +the duke of York, then commander-in-chief, maintaining a large +and expensive establishment in a fashionable district. The +duke’s promised allowance was not regularly paid, and to escape +her financial difficulties Mrs Clarke trafficked in her protector’s +position, receiving money from various promotion-seekers, +military, civil and even clerical, in return for her promise to secure +them the good services of the duke. Her procedure became a +public scandal, and in 1809 Colonel Wardle, M.P., brought eight +charges of abuse of military patronage against the duke in the +House of Commons, and a committee of inquiry was appointed, +before which Mrs Clarke herself gave evidence. The result of the +inquiry clearly established the charges as far as she was concerned, +and the duke of York was shown to have been aware of +what was being done, but to have derived no pecuniary benefit +himself. He resigned his appointment as commander-in-chief, +and terminated his connexion with Mrs Clarke, who subsequently +obtained from him a considerable sum in cash and a pension, as +the price for withholding the publication of his numerous letters +to her. Mrs Clarke died at Boulogne on the 21st of June 1852.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Taylor, <i>Authentic Memoirs of Mrs Clarke</i>; Clarke (? pseud.), +<i>Life of Mrs M.A. Clarkek</i>; <i>Annual Register</i>, vol. li.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, SAMUEL<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1675-1729), English philosopher and +divine, son of Edward Clarke, an alderman, who for several years +was parliamentary representative of the city of Norwich, was +born on the 11th of October 1675, and educated at the free school +of Norwich and at Caius College, Cambridge. The philosophy of +Descartes was the reigning system at the university; Clarke, +however, mastered the new system of Newton, and contributed +greatly to its extension by publishing an excellent Latin version +of the <i>Traité de physique</i> of Jacques Rohault (1620-1675) with +valuable notes, which he finished before he was twenty-two years +of age. The system of Rohault was founded entirely upon +Cartesian principles, and was previously known only through the +medium of a rude Latin version. Clarke’s translation (1697) +continued to be used as a text-book in the university till supplanted +by the treatises of Newton, which it had been designed to +introduce. Four editions were issued, the last and best being +that of 1718. It was translated into English in 1723 by his +brother Dr John Clarke (1682-1757), dean of Sarum.</p> + +<p>Clarke afterwards devoted himself to the study of Scripture in +the original, and of the primitive Christian writers. Having taken +holy orders, he became chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714), +bishop of Norwich, who was ever afterwards his friend and patron. +In 1699 he published two treatises,—one entitled <i>Three Practical +Essays on Baptism, Confirmation and Repentance</i>, and the other, +<i>Some Reflections on that part of a book called Amyntor, or a +Defence of Milton’s Life, which relates to the Writings of the +Primitive Fathers, and, the Canon of the New Testament</i>. In 1701 +he published <i>A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St Matthew</i>, which +was followed, in 1702, by the <i>Paraphrases upon the Gospels of St +Mark and St Luke</i>, and soon afterwards by a third volume upon +St John. They were subsequently printed together in two +volumes and have since passed through several editions. He +intended to treat in the same manner the remaining books of the +New Testament, but his design was unfulfilled.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span> +Meanwhile he had been presented by Bishop Moore to the +rectory of Drayton, near Norwich. As Boyle lecturer, he dealt in +1704 with the <i>Being and Attributes of God</i>, and in 1705 with the +<i>Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion</i>. These lectures, first +printed separately, were afterwards published together under the +title of <i>A Discourse concerning the Being and Attributes of God, the +Obligations of Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the +Christian Revelation, in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the author +of the Oracles of Reason, and other Deniers of Natural and Revealed +Religion</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1706 he wrote a refutation of Dr Henry Dodwell’s views on +the immortality of the soul, and this drew him into controversy +with Anthony Collins. He also wrote at this time a translation of +Newton’s <i>Optics</i>, for which the author presented him with £500. +In the same year through the influence of Bishop Moore, he +obtained the rectory of St Benet’s, Paul’s Wharf, London. +Soon afterwards Queen Anne appointed him one of her chaplains +in ordinary, and in 1709 presented him to the rectory of St +James’s, Westminster. He then took the degree of doctor in +divinity, defending as his thesis the two propositions: <i>Nullum +fidei Christianae dogma, in Sacris Scripturis traditum, est rectae +rationi dissentaneum</i>, and <i>Sine actionum humanarum libertate +nulla potest esse religio</i>. During the same year, at the request of +the author, he revised Whiston’s English translation of the +<i>Apostolical Constitutions</i>.</p> + +<p>In 1712 he published a carefully punctuated and annotated +edition (folio 1712, octavo 1720) of Caesar’s <i>Commentaries</i>, with +elegant engravings, dedicated to the duke of Marlborough. +During the same year he published his celebrated treatise on <i>The +Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity</i>. It is divided into three parts. +The first contains a collection and exegesis of all the texts in the +New Testament relating to the doctrine of the Trinity; in the +second the doctrine is set forth at large, and explained in +particular and distinct propositions; and in the third the +principal passages in the liturgy of the Church of England +relating to the doctrine of the Trinity are considered. Whiston +informs us that, some time before the publication of this book, +a message was sent to him from Lord Godolphin “that the +affairs of the public were with difficulty then kept in the hands of +those that were for liberty; that it was therefore an unseasonable +time for the publication of a book that would make a great noise +and disturbance; and that therefore they desired him to forbear +till a fitter opportunity should offer itself,”—a message that +Clarke of course entirely disregarded. The ministers were right +in their conjectures; and the work not only provoked a great +number of replies, but occasioned a formal complaint from the +Lower House of Convocation. Clarke, in reply, drew up an +apologetic preface, and afterwards gave several explanations, +which satisfied the Upper House; and, on his pledging himself that +his future conduct would occasion no trouble, the matter dropped.</p> + +<p>In 1715 and 1716 he had a discussion with Leibnitz relative +to the principles of natural philosophy and religion, which was +at length cut short by the death of his antagonist. A collection +of the papers which passed between them was published in 1717 +(cf. G. v. Leroy, <i>Die philos. Probleme in dem Briefwechsel Leibniz +und Clarke</i>, Giessen, 1893). In 1719 he was presented by Nicholas +1st Baron Lechmere, to the mastership of Wigston’s hospital +in Leicester. In 1724 he published seventeen sermons, eleven +of which had not before been printed. In 1727, on the death +of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court the place of +master of the mint, worth on an average from £1200 to £1500 +a year. This secular preferment, however, he absolutely refused. +In 1728 was published “A Letter from Dr Clarke to Benjamin +Hoadly, F.R.S., occasioned by the controversy relating to +the Proportion of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion,” +printed in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. In 1729 he published +the first twelve books of Homer’s <i>Iliad</i>. This edition, dedicated +to William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was highly praised +by Bishop Hoadly. On Sunday, the 11th of May 1729, when +going out to preach before the judges at Serjeants’ Inn, he was +seized with a sudden illness, which caused his death on the +Saturday following (May 17, 1729).</p> + +<p>Soon after his death his brother Dr John Clarke, dean of +Sarum, published, from his original manuscripts, <i>An Exposition +of the Church Catechism</i>, and ten volumes of sermons. The +<i>Exposition</i> is composed of the lectures which he read every +Thursday morning, for some months in the year, at St James’s +church. In the latter part of his life he revised them with great +care, and left them completely prepared for the press. Three +years after his death appeared also the last twelve books of the +<i>Iliad</i>, published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of these +books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised +and annotated by his father.</p> + +<p>In disposition Clarke was cheerful and even playful. An +intimate friend relates that he once found him swimming +upon a table. At another time Clarke on looking out at the +window saw a grave blockhead approaching the house; upon +which he cried out, “Boys, boys, be wise; here comes a fool.” +Dr Warton, in his observations upon Pope’s line,</p> + +<p class="center1">“Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,”</p> + +<p class="noind">says, “Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances; +that Newton once studied astrology; that Dr Clarke valued +himself on his agility, and frequently amused himself in a +private room of his house in leaping over the tables and chairs?”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Philosophy.</i>—Clarke, though in no way an original thinker, was +eminent in theology, mathematics, metaphysics and philology, but +his chief strength lay in his logical power. The materialism of +Hobbes, the pantheism of Spinoza, the empiricism of Locke, the +determinism of Leibnitz, Collins’ necessitarianism, Dodwell’s denial +of the natural immortality of the soul, rationalistic attacks on +Christianity, and the morality of the sensationalists—all these he +opposed with a thorough conviction of the truth of the principles +which he advocated. His fame as theologian and philosopher rests +to a large extent on his demonstration of the existence of God and +his theory of the foundation of rectitude. The former is not a purely +a priori argument, nor is it presented as such by its author. It +starts from a fact and it often explicitly appeals to facts. The +intelligence, for example, of the self-existence and original cause of +all things is, he says, “not easily proved a priori,” but “demonstrably +proved a posteriori from the variety and degrees of perfection +in things, and the order of causes and effects, from the intelligence +that created beings are confessedly endowed with, and from the +beauty, order, and final purpose of things.” The propositions +maintained in the argument are—“(1) That something has existed +from eternity; (2) that there has existed from eternity some one +immutable and independent being; (3) that that immutable and +independent being, which has existed from eternity, without any +external cause of its existence, must be self-existent, that is, necessarily +existing; (4) what the substance or essence of that being is, +which is self-existent or necessarily existing, we have no idea, +neither is it at all possible for us to comprehend it; (5) that though +the substance or essence of the self-existent being is itself absolutely +incomprehensible to us, yet many of the essential attributes of his +nature are strictly demonstrable as well as his existence, and, in +the first place, that he must be of necessity eternal; (6) that the +self-existent being must of necessity be infinite and omnipresent; +(7) must be but one; (8) must be an intelligent being; (9) must be +not a necessary agent, but a being endued with liberty and choice; +(10) must of necessity have infinite power; (11) must be infinitely +wise, and (12) must of necessity be a being of infinite goodness, +justice, and truth, and all other moral perfections, such as become the +supreme governor and judge of the world.”</p> + +<p>In order to establish his sixth proposition, Clarke contends that +time and space, eternity and immensity, are not substances, but +attributes—the attributes of a self-existent being. Edmund Law, +Dugald Stewart, Lord Brougham, and many other writers, have, +in consequence, represented Clarke as arguing from the existence +of time and space to the existence of Deity. This is a serious mistake. +The existence of an immutable, independent, and necessary being +is supposed to be proved before any reference is made to the nature +of time and space. Clarke has been generally supposed to have +derived the opinion that time and space are attributes of an infinite +immaterial and spiritual being from the <i>Scholium Generale</i>, first +published in the second edition of Newton’s <i>Principia</i> (1714). The +truth is that his work on the Being and Attributes of God appeared +nine years before that <i>Scholium</i>. The view propounded by Clarke +may have been derived from the Midrash, the Kabbalah, Philo, +Henry More, or Cudworth, but not from Newton. It is a view +difficult to prove, and probably few will acknowledge that Clarke +has conclusively proved it.</p> + +<p>His ethical theory of “fitness” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>) is formulated on the +analogy of mathematics. He held that in relation to the will things +possess an objective fitness similar to the mutual consistency of +things in the physical universe. This fitness God has given to +actions, as he has given laws to Nature; and the fitness is as immutable +as the laws. The theory has been unfairly criticized by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span> +Jouffroy, Amédée Jacques, Sir James Mackintosh, Thomas Brown +and others. It is said, for example, that Clarke made virtue consist +in conformity to the relations of things universally, although the +whole tenor of his argument shows him to have had in view conformity +to such relations only as belong to the sphere of moral +agency. It is true that he might have emphasized the relation of +moral fitness to the will, and in this respect J.F. Herbart (<i>q.v.</i>) +improved on Clarke’s statement of the case. To say, however, that +Clarke simply confused mathematics and morals by justifying the +moral criterion on a mathematical basis is a mistake. He compared +the two subjects for the sake of the analogy.</p> + +<p>Though Clarke can thus be defended against this and similar +criticism, his work as a whole can be regarded only as an attempt +to present the doctrines of the Cartesian school in a form which +would not shock the conscience of his time. His work contained +a measure of rationalism sufficient to arouse the suspicion of orthodox +theologians, without making any valuable addition to, or modification +of, the underlying doctrine.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See W. Whiston’s <i>Historical Memoirs</i>, and the +preface by Benjamin Hoadly to Clarke’s <i>Works</i> (4 vols., London, 1738-1742). +See further on his general philosophical position +J. Hunt’s <i>Religious Thought in England</i>, <i>passim</i>, but particularly in +vol. ii. 447-457, and vol. iii. 20-29 and 109-115, &c.; +Rob. Zimmermann in the <i>Denkschriften d. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist. +Classe</i>, Bd. xix. (Vienna, 1870); +H. Sidgwick’s <i>Methods of Ethics</i> (6th ed., 1901), p. 384; +A. Bain’s <i>Moral Science</i> (1872), p. 562 foll., +and <i>Mental Science</i> (1872), p. 416; +Sir L. Stephen’s <i>English Thought in the Eighteenth Century</i> (3rd ed., 1902), c. iii.; +J. E. le Rossignol, <i>Ethical Philosophy of S. Clarke</i> (Leipzig, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1860-  ), American artist, +was born in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 25th of April 1860, +and graduated at Princeton in 1882. He was a pupil of the Art +Students’ League, New York, and of the École des Beaux Arts, +Paris, under J.L. Gérôme; later he entered the atelier of +Dagnan-Bouveret, and, becoming interested in sculpture, worked +for a while under Henri M. Chapu. As a sculptor, he received +a medal of honour in Madrid for his “The Cider Press,” +now in the Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California, and +he made four caryatides of “The Seasons” for the Appellate +Court House, New York. He designed an “Alma Mater” +for Princeton University, and a model is in the library. Among +his paintings are his “Night Market in Morocco” (Philadelphia +Art Club), for which he received a medal at the International +Exposition in Berlin in 1891, and his “A Fool’s Fool,” exhibited +at the Salon in 1887 and now in the collection of the Pennsylvania +Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1798-1878), British +geologist, was born at East Bergholt, in Suffolk, on the 2nd of +June 1798. He received his early education at Dedham grammar +school, and in 1817 entered Jesus College, Cambridge; he took +his B.A. in 1821, was ordained and became M.A. in 1824. In +1821 he was appointed curate of Ramsholt in Suffolk, and he +acted in his clerical capacity in other places until 1839. Having +become interested in geology through the teachings of Sedgwick, +he utilized his opportunities and gathered many interesting +facts on the geology of East Anglia which were embodied in a +paper “On the Geological Structure and Phenomena of Suffolk” +(<i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> 1837). He also communicated a series of +papers on the geology of S.E. Dorsetshire to the <i>Magazine of +Nat. Hist.</i> (1837-1838). In 1839, after a severe illness, he left +England for New South Wales, mainly with the object of benefiting +by the sea voyage. He remained, however, in that country, +and came to be regarded as the “Father of Australian Geology.” +From the date of his arrival in New South Wales until 1870 he +was in clerical charge first of the country from Paramatta to +the Hawkesbury river, then of Campbelltown, and finally of +Willoughby. He zealously devoted attention to the geology +of the country, with results that have been of paramount importance. +In 1841 he discovered gold, being the first explorer +who had obtained it <i>in situ</i> in the country, finding it both in the +detrital deposits and in the quartzites of the Blue Mountains, +and he then declared his belief in its abundance. In 1849 he +made the first actual discovery of tin in Australia and in 1859 +he made known the occurrence of the diamond. He was also +the first to indicate the presence of Silurian rocks, and to determine +the age of the coal-bearing rocks in New South Wales. +In 1869 he announced the discovery of remains of <i>Dinornis</i> in +Queensland. He was a trustee of the Australian museum at +Sydney, and an active member of the Royal Society of New +South Wales. In 1860 he published <i>Researches in the Southern +Gold-fields of New South Wales</i>. He was elected F.R.S. in 1876, +and in the following year was awarded the Murchison medal +by the Geological Society of London. His contributions to +Australian scientific journals were numerous. He died near +Sydney, on the 17th of June 1878.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKSON, THOMAS<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1760-1846), English anti-slavery +agitator, was born on the 28th of March 1760, at Wisbeach, in +Cambridgeshire, where his father was headmaster of the free +grammar school. He was educated at St Paul’s school and at +St John’s College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place +among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded +in 1785 in gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors. +The subject appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, was +one in which he was himself deeply interested—<i>Anne liceat +invitos in servitutem dare?</i> (Is it right to make men slaves +against their will?). In preparing for this essay Clarkson +consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which the +chief was Benezet’s <i>Historical Survey of New Guinea</i>; and +the atrocities of which he read affected him so deeply that he determined +to devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the +slave trade, and gave up his intention of entering the church.</p> + +<p>His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English +translation of his prize essay (June 1786). He then commenced +to search in all quarters for information concerning slavery. He +soon discovered that the cause had already been taken up to +some extent by others, most of whom belonged to the Society of +Friends, and among the chief of whom were William Dillwyn, +Joseph Wood and Granville Sharp. With the aid of these +gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 1787 to do +all that was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade. +Meanwhile Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce, +Whitbread, Sturge and several other men of influence. Travelling +from port to port, he now commenced to collect a large mass +of evidence; and much of it was embodied in his <i>Summary View +of the Slave Trade, and the Probable Consequences of its Abolition</i>, +which, with a number of other anti-slavery tracts, was published +by the committee. Pitt, Grenville, Fox and Burke looked +favourably on the movement; in May 1788 Pitt introduced a +parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben +brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves +carried in a vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A +number of Liverpool and Bristol merchants obtained permission +from the House to be heard by council against the bill, but on +the 18th of June it passed the Commons. Soon after Clarkson +published an <i>Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave Trade</i>; and for +two months he was continuously engaged in travelling that he +might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facts +of the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount +of evidence; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to +appear before the privy council. Meanwhile other witnesses had +been obtained by Wilberforce and the committee, and on the +12th of May 1789 the former led a debate on the subject in the +House of Commons, in which he was seconded by Burke and +supported by Pitt and Fox.</p> + +<p>It was now the beginning of the French Revolution, and in the +hope that he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with +other abuses, Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he remained six +months. He found Necker head of the government, and obtained +from him some sympathy but little help. Mirabeau, however, +with his assistance, prepared a speech against slavery, to be +delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis de la +Fayette entered enthusiastically into his views. During this +visit Clarkson met a deputation of negroes from Santo Domingo, +who had come to France to present a petition to the National +Assembly, desiring to be placed on an equal footing with the +whites; but the storm of the Revolution permitted no substantial +success to be achieved. Soon after his return home he +engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of which finely +displays his unshrinking laboriousness and his passionate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span> +enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself +witnessed the capture of the negroes in Africa; and a friend +having met by chance a man-of-war’s-man who had done so, +Clarkson, though ignorant of the name and address of the sailor, +set out in search of him, and actually discovered him. His last +tour was undertaken in order to form anti-slavery committees +in all the principal towns. At length, in the autumn of 1794, +his health gave way, and he was obliged to cease active work. +He now occupied his time in writing a <i>History of the Abolition +of the Slave Trade</i>, which appeared in 1808. The bill for the +abolition of the trade became law in 1807; but it was still +necessary to secure the assent of the other powers to its principle. +To obtain this was, under pressure of the public opinion created +by Clarkson and his friends, one of the main objects of British +diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna, and in February 1815 the +trade was condemned by the powers. The question of concerting +practical measures for its abolition was raised at the Congress of +Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but without result. On this occasion +Clarkson personally presented an address to the emperor +Alexander I., who communicated it to the sovereigns of Austria +and Prussia. In 1823 the Anti-Slavery Society was formed, +and Clarkson was one of its vice-presidents. He was for some +time blind from cataract; but several years before his death +on the 26th of September 1846, his sight was restored.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the works already mentioned, he published the <i>Portraiture +of Quakerism</i> (1806), <i>Memoirs of William Penn</i> (1813), <i>Researches, +Antediluvian, Patriarchal and Historical</i> (1836), intended as a history +of the interference of Providence for man’s spiritual good, and +<i>Strictures</i> on several of the remarks concerning himself made in the +<i>Life of Wilberforce</i>, in which his claim as originator of the anti-slavery +movement is denied.</p> + +<p>See the lives by Thomas Elmes (1876) and Thomas Taylor (1839).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLARKSVILLE<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery +county, Tennessee, U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, +about 50 m. N.W. of Nashville, on the Cumberland river, at the +mouth of the Red river. Pop. (1890) 7924; (1900) 9431, of whom +5094 were negroes; (1910 census) 8548. It is served by the +Louisville & Nashville, and the Illinois Central railways, and by +passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Cumberland river. +The city hall, and the public library are among the principal +public buildings, and the city is the seat of the Tennessee Odd +Fellows’ home, and of the South-Western Presbyterian University, +founded in 1875. Clarksville lies in the centre of the dark +tobacco belt—commonly known as the “Black Patch”—and is +an important tobacco market, with an annual trade in that +staple of about $4,000,000, most of the product being exported +to France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The city is situated in a +region well adapted for the growing of wheat, Indian corn, and +vegetables, and for the raising of live-stock; and Clarksville is a +shipping point for the lumber—chiefly oak, poplar and birch—and +the iron-ore of the surrounding country, a branch of the +Louisville & Nashville railway extending into the iron district. +The city’s principal manufactures are flour and grist mill products, +chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff, furniture, lumber, iron, +and pearl buttons. The value of the factory product in 1905 was +$2,210,112, being 32% greater than in 1900. The municipality +owns its water-works. Clarksville was first settled as early as +1780, was named in honour of General George Rogers Clark, and +was chartered as a city in 1850.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLASSICS<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span>. The term “classic” is derived from the Latin +epithet <i>classicus</i>, found in a passage of Aulus Gellius (xix. 8. 15), +where a “<i>scriptor ‘classicus’</i>” is contrasted with a “<i>scriptor +proletarius</i>.” The metaphor is taken from the division of the +Roman people into <i>classes</i> by Servius Tullius, those in the first +class being called <i>classici</i>, all the rest <i>infra classem</i>, and those +in the last <i>proletarii</i>.<a name="FnAnchor_1l" id="FnAnchor_1l" href="#Footnote_1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The epithet “classic” is accordingly +applied (1) generally to an author of the first rank, and (2) more +particularly to a Greek or Roman author of that character. +Similarly, “the classics” is a synonym for the choicest products +of the literature of ancient Greece and Rome. It is to this +sense of the word that the following article is devoted in two +main divisions: (A) the general history of classical (<i>i.e.</i> Greek +and Latin) scholarship, and (B) its place in higher education.</p> + +<p class="center1 sc">(A) General History of the Study of the Classics</p> + +<p>We may consider this subject in four principal periods:—(i.) the +<i>Alexandrian</i>, c. 300-1 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; (ii.) the <i>Roman</i>, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> c. 1-530; +(iii.) the <i>Middle Ages</i>, c. 530-1350; and (iv.) the <i>Modern Age</i>, +c. 1350 to the present day.</p> + +<p>(i.) <i>The Alexandrian Age.</i>—The study of the Greek classics +begins with the school of Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy +Philadelphus (285-247 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), learning found a home in the +Alexandrian Museum and in the great Alexandrian Library. +The first four librarians were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes +of Byzantium, and Aristarchus. Zenodotus produced +before 274 the first scientific edition of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>, +an edition in which spurious lines were marked, at the beginning, +with a short horizontal dash called an <i>obelus</i> (—). He also drew +up select lists of epic and lyric poets. Soon afterwards a classified +catalogue of dramatists, epic and lyric poets, legislators, philosophers, +historians, orators and rhetoricians, and miscellaneous +writers, with a brief biography of each, was produced by the +scholar and poet Callimachus (fl. 260). Among the pupils of +Callimachus was Eratosthenes who, in 234, succeeded Zenodotus +as librarian. Apart from his special interest in the history of the +Old Attic comedy, he was a man of vast and varied learning; +the founder of astronomical geography and of scientific chronology; +and the first to assume the name of <span class="grk" title="philologos">φιλόλογος</span>. The +greatest philologist of antiquity was, however, his successor, +Aristophanes of Byzantium (195), who reduced accentuation +and punctuation to a definite system, and used a variety of +critical symbols in his recension of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>. He +also edited Hesiod and Pindar, Euripides and Aristophanes, +besides composing brief introductions to the several plays, parts +of which are still extant. Lastly, he established a scientific +system of lexicography and drew up lists of the “best authors.” +Two critical editions of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> were produced by +his successor, Aristarchus, who was librarian until 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and +was the founder of scientific scholarship. His distinguished +pupil, Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), drew up a Greek +grammar which continued in use for more than thirteen centuries. +The most industrious of the successors of Aristarchus was +Didymus (c. 65 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 10), who, in his work on the Homeric +poems, aimed at restoring the lost recensions of Aristarchus. +He also composed commentaries on the lyric and comic poets +and on Thucydides and Demosthenes; part of his commentary +on this last author was first published in 1904. He was a teacher +in Alexandria (and perhaps also in Rome); and his death, +about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 10, marks the close of the Alexandrian age. He +is the industrious compiler who gathered up the remnants of +the learning of his predecessors and transmitted them to posterity. +The poets of that age, including Callimachus and Theocritus, +were subsequently expounded by Theon, who flourished under +Tiberius, and has been well described as “the Didymus of the +Alexandrian poets.”</p> + +<p>The Alexandrian canon of the Greek classics, which probably +had its origin in the lists drawn up by Callimachus, Aristophanes +of Byzantium and Aristarchus, included the following authors:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Epic poets</i> (5): Homer, Hesiod, Peisander, Panyasis, Antimachus.</p> + +<p><i>Iambic poets</i> (3): Simonides of Amorgos, Archilochus, Hipponax.</p> + +<p><i>Tragic poets</i> (5): Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Ion, Achaeus.</p> + +<p><i>Comic poets, Old</i> (7): Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes, +Pherecrates, Crates, Plato. <i>Middle</i> (2): Antiphanes, Alexis. +<i>New</i> (5): Menander, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus.</p> + +<p><i>Elegiac poets</i> (4): Callinus, Mimnermus, Philetas, Callimachus.</p> + +<p><i>Lyric poets</i> (9): Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar, +Bacchylides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides of Ceos.</p> + +<p><i>Orators</i> (10): Demosthenes, Lysias, Hypereides, Isocrates, +Aeschines, Lycurgus, Isaeus, Antiphon, Ándocides, Deinarchus.</p> + +<p><i>Historians</i> (10): Thucydides, Herodotus, Xenophon, Philistius, +Theopompus, Ephorus, Anaximenes, Callisthenes, Hellanicus, Polybius.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span></p> + +<p>The latest name in the above list is that of Polybius, who +died about 123 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus and Theocritus +were subsequently added to the “epic” poets. Philosophers, +such as Plato and Aristotle, were possibly classed in a separate +“canon.”</p> + +<p>While the scholars of Alexandria were mainly interested in +the <i>verbal criticism</i> of the Greek <i>poets</i>, a wider variety of studies +was the characteristic of the school of Pergamum, the literary +rival of Alexandria. Pergamum was a home of learning for a +large part of the 150 years of the Attalid dynasty, 283-133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> + +<p>The grammar of the Stoics, gradually elaborated by Zeno, +Cleanthes and Chrysippus, supplied a terminology which, in +words such as “genitive,” “accusative” and “aorist,” has +become a permanent part of the grammarian’s vocabulary; +and the study of this grammar found its earliest home in Pergamum.</p> + +<p>From about 168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the head of the Pergamene school was +Crates of Mallus, who (like the Stoics) was an adherent of the +principle of “anomaly” in grammar, and was thus opposed +to Aristarchus of Alexandria, the champion of “analogy.” +He also opposed Aristarchus, and supported the Stoics, by +insisting on an <i>allegorical</i> interpretation of Homer. He is +credited with having drawn up the classified lists of the best +authors for the Pergamene library. His mission as an envoy +to the Roman senate, “shortly after the death of Ennius” in +169 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, had a remarkable influence on literary studies in Rome. +Meeting with an accident while he was wandering on the Palatine, +and being detained in Rome, he passed part of his enforced +leisure in giving lectures (possibly on Homer, his favourite +author), and thus succeeded in arousing among the Romans a +taste for the scholarly study of literature. The example set by +Crates led to the production of a new edition of the epic poem +of Naevius, and to the public recitation of the <i>Annals</i> of Ennius, +and (two generations later) the <i>Satires</i> of Lucilius.</p> + +<p>(ii.) <i>The Roman Age.</i>—(a) <i>Latin Studies.</i>—In the 1st century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the foremost scholar in Rome was L. Aelius Stilo (c. 154-c. 74), +who is described by Cicero as profoundly learned in Greek +and Latin literature, and as an accomplished critic of Roman +antiquities and of ancient authors. Of the plays then passing +under the name of Plautus, he recognized twenty-five as genuine. +His most famous pupil was Varro (116-27), the six surviving +books of whose great work on the Latin language are mainly +concerned with the great grammatical controversy on analogy +and anomaly—a controversy which also engaged the attention +of Cicero and Caesar, and of the elder Pliny and Quintilian. +The twenty-one plays of Plautus accepted by Varro are doubtless +the twenty now extant, together with the lost <i>Vidularia</i>. The +influence of Varro’s last work on the nine <i>disciplinae</i>, or branches +of study, long survived in the seven “liberal arts” recognized +by St Augustine and Martianus Capella, and in the <i>trivium</i> and +<i>quadrivium</i> of the middle ages.</p> + +<p>Part of Varro’s treatise on Latin was dedicated to Cicero (106-43), +who as an interpreter of Greek philosophy to his fellow-countrymen +enlarged the vocabulary of Latin by his admirable +renderings of Greek philosophical terms, and thus ultimately +gave us such indispensable words as “species,” “quality” and +“quantity.”</p> + +<p>The earliest of Latin lexicons was produced about 10 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by +Verrius Flaccus in a work, <i>De Verborum Significatu</i>, which +survived in the abridgment by Festus (2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) and in +the further abridgment dedicated by Paulus Diaconus to Charles +the Great.</p> + +<p>Greek models were diligently studied by Virgil and Horace. +Their own poems soon became the theme of criticism and of +comment; and, by the time of Quintilian and Juvenal, they +shared the fate (which Horace had feared) of becoming text-books +for use in schools.</p> + +<p>Recensions of Terence, Lucretius and Persius, as well as +Horace and Virgil, were produced by Probus (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 88), with +critical symbols resembling those invented by the Alexandrian +scholars. His contemporary Asconius is best known as the +author of an extant historical commentary on five of the speeches +of Cicero. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 88 Quintilian was placed at the head of the first +state-supported school in Rome. His comprehensive work on +the training of the future orator includes an outline of general +education, which had an important influence on the humanistic +schools of the Italian Renaissance. It also presents us with a +critical survey of the Greek and Latin classics arranged under the +heads of poets, historians, orators and philosophers (book x. +chap. i.). The lives of Roman poets and scholars were among the +many subjects that exercised the literary skill of Hadrian’s +private secretary, Suetonius. One of his lost works is the +principal source of the erudition of Isidore of Seville (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 636), +whose comprehensive encyclopaedia was a favourite text-book in +the middle ages. About the time of the death of Suetonius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> +160) a work entitled the <i>Noctes Atticae</i> was begun by Aulus +Gellius. The author is an industrious student and a typical +scholar, who frequents libraries and is interested in the MSS. +of old Latin authors. Early in the 4th century the study of +grammar was represented in northern Africa by the Numidian +tiro, Nonius Marcellus (fl. 323), the author of an encyclopaedic +work in three parts, lexicographical, grammatical and antiquarian, +the main value of which lies in its quotations from early Latin +literature. About the middle of the same century grammar had a +far abler exponent at Rome in the person of Aelius Donatus, the +preceptor of St Jerome, as well as the author of a text-book that +remained in use throughout the middle ages. The general state +of learning in this century is illustrated by Ausonius (c. 310-393), +the grammarian and rhetorician of Bordeaux, the author of the +<i>Mosella</i>, and the probable inspirer of the memorable decree of +Gratian (376), providing for the appointment and the payment of +teachers of rhetoric and of Greek and Latin literature in the +principal cities of Gaul. His distinguished friend, Q. Aurelius +Symmachus, the consul of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 391, aroused in his own immediate +circle an interest in Livy, the whole of whose history was still +extant. Early in the 5th century other aristocratic Romans +interested themselves in the textual criticism of Persius and +Martial. Among the contemporaries of Symmachus, the devoted +adherent of the old Roman religion, was St Jerome (d. 420), the +most scholarly representative of Christianity in the 4th century, +the student of Plautus and Terence, of Virgil and Cicero, the +translator of the <i>Chronology</i> of Eusebius, and the author of the +Latin version of the Bible now known as the Vulgate. St +Augustine (d. 430) confesses to his early fondness for Virgil, and +also tells us that he received his first serious impressions from the +<i>Hortensius</i> of Cicero, an eloquent exhortation to the study of +philosophy, of which only a few fragments survive. In his +survey of the “liberal arts” St Augustine imitates (as we have +seen) the <i>Disciplinae</i> of Varro, and in the greatest of his works, +the <i>De Civitate Dei</i> (426), he has preserved large portions of the +<i>Antiquitates</i> of Varro and the <i>De Republica</i> of Cicero. About the +same date, and in the same province of northern Africa, Martianus +Capella produced his allegorical work on the “liberal arts,” the +principal, and, indeed, often the only, text-book of the medieval +schools.</p> + +<p>In the second half of the 5th century the foremost representative +of Latin studies in Gaul was Apollinaris Sidonius (fl. 470), +whose <i>Letters</i> were modelled on those of the younger Pliny, while +his poems give proof of a wide though superficial acquaintance +with classical literature. He laments the increasing decline in +the classical purity of the Latin language.</p> + +<p>An interest in Latin literature lived longest in Gaul, where +schools of learning flourished as early as the 1st century +at Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nîmes, Vienne, Narbonne and +Marseilles; and, from the 3rd century onwards, at Trier, Poitiers, +Besançon and Bordeaux.</p> + +<p>About ten years after the death of Sidonius we find Asterius, +the consul of 494, critically revising the text of Virgil in Rome. +Boëthius, who early in life formed the ambitious plan of expounding +and reconciling the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, continued +in the year of his sole consulship (510) to instruct his fellow-countrymen +in the wisdom of Greece. He is a link between the +ancient world and the middle ages, having been the last of the +learned Romans who understood the language and studied the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span> +literature of Greece, and the first to interpret to the middle ages +the logical treatises of Aristotle. He thereby gave the signal for +the age-long conflict between Nominalism and Realism, which +exercised the keenest intellects among the Schoolmen, while the +crowning work of his life, the <i>Consolatio Philosophiae</i> (524), was +repeatedly expounded and imitated, and reproduced in renderings +that were among the earliest literary products of the vernacular +languages of modern Europe. His contemporary, Cassiodorus +(c. 480-c. 575), after spending thirty years in the service of the +Ostrogothic dynasty at Ravenna, passed the last thirty-three +years of his long life on the shores of the Bay of Squillace, where +he founded two monasteries and diligently trained their inmates to +become careful copyists. In his latest work he made extracts for +their benefit from the pages of Priscian (fl. 512), a transcript of +whose great work on Latin grammar was completed at Constantinople +by one of that grammarian’s pupils in 527, to be reproduced +in a thousand MSS. in the middle ages. More than ten +years before Cassiodorus founded his monasteries in the south of +Italy, Benedict of Nursia (480-543) had rendered a more +permanent service to the cause of scholarship by building, +amid the ruins of the temple of Apollo on the crest of Monte +Cassino, the earliest of those homes of learning that have +lent an undying distinction to the Benedictine order. The +learned labours of the Benedictines were no part of the original +requirements of the rule of St Benedict; but before the founder’s +death his favourite disciple had planted a monastery in France, +and the name of that disciple is permanently associated with the +learned labours of the Benedictines of the Congregation of St +Maur (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maurists</a></span>).</p> + +<p>(b) <i>Greek Studies.</i>—Meanwhile, the study of the Greek classics +was ably represented at Rome in the Augustan age by Dionysius +of Halicarnassus (fl. 30-8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the intelligent critic of the +ancient Attic orators, while the 1st century of our era is the +probable date of the masterpiece of literary criticism known as +the treatise <i>On the Sublime</i> by Longinus (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The 2nd century is the age of the two great grammarians, +Apollonius Dyscolus (the founder of scientific grammar and +the creator of the study of Greek syntax) and his son Herodian, +the larger part of whose principal work dealt with the subject +of Greek accentuation. It is also the age of the lexicographers +of Attic Greek, the most important of whom are Phrynichus, +Pollux (fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180) and Harpocration.</p> + +<p>In the 4th century Demosthenes was expounded and imitated +by the widely influential teacher, Libanius of Antioch (c. 314-c. +393), the pagan preceptor of St Chrysostom. To the same +century we may assign the grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria, +who, instead of confining himself (like Dionysius Thrax) to the +tenses of <span class="grk" title="thuptô">τύπτω</span> in actual use, was the first to set forth all the +imaginary aorists and futures of that verb, which have thence +descended through the Byzantine age to the grammars of the +Renaissance and of modern Europe.</p> + +<p>In the 5th century we may place Hesychius of Alexandria, +the compiler of the most extensive of our ancient Greek lexicons, +and Proclus, the author of a chrestomathy, to the extracts +from which (as preserved by Photius) we owe almost all our +knowledge of the contents of the lost epics of early Greece. +In the same century the study of Plato was represented by +Synesius of Cyrene (c. 370-c. 413) and by the Neoplatonists of +Alexandria and of Athens. The lower limit of the Roman age +of classical studies may be conveniently placed in the year 529. +In that year the monastery of Monte Cassino was founded in +the West, while the school of Athens was closed in the East. +The Roman age thus ends in the West with Boëthius, Cassiodorus +and St Benedict, and in the East with Priscian and +Justinian.</p> + +<p>(iii.) <i>The Middle Ages</i>.—(a) <i>In the East</i>, commonly called +the <i>Byzantine Age</i>, c. 530-1350. In this age, grammatical +learning was represented by Choeroboscus, and lexicography by +Photius (d. 891), the patriarch of Constantinople, who is also +the author of a <i>Bibliotheca</i> reviewing and criticizing the contents +of 280 MSS., and incidentally preserving important extracts +from the lost Greek historians.</p> + +<p>In the time of Photius the poets usually studied at school were +Homer, Hesiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus +(<i>Prometheus, Septem</i> and <i>Persae</i>), Sophocles (<i>Ajax, Electra</i> +and <i>Oedipus Tyrannus</i>), and Euripides (<i>Hecuba, Orestes, Phoenissae</i>, +and, next to these, <i>Alcestis, Andromache, Hippolytus, +Medea, Rhesus, Troades</i>,) also Aristophanes (beginning with the +<i>Plutus</i>), Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius Periegetes. +The principal prose authors were Thucydides, parts of Plato +and Demosthenes, with Aristotle, Plutarch’s <i>Lives</i>, and, above all, +Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age.</p> + +<p>One of the distinguished pupils of Photius, Arethas, bishop of +Caesarea in Cappadocia (c. 907-932), devoted himself with +remarkable energy to collecting and expounding the Greek +classics. Among the important MSS. still extant that were +copied at his expense are the Bodleian Euclid (888) and the +Bodleian Plato (895). To the third quarter of the 10th century +we may assign the Greek lexicon of Suïdas, a combination of a +lexicon and an encyclopaedia, the best articles being those on +the history of literature.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, during the “dark age” of secular learning at +Constantinople (641-850), the light of Greek learning had spread +eastwards to Syria and Arabia. At Bagdad, in the reign of +Mamun (813-833), the son of Harun al-Rashid, philosophical +works were translated by Syrian Christians from Greek into +Syriac and from Syriac into Arabic. It was in his reign that +Aristotle was first translated into Arabic, and, shortly afterwards, +we have Syriac and Arabic renderings of commentators on +Aristotle, and of portions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen; +while in the 10th century new translations of Aristotle and his +commentators were produced by the Nestorian Christians.</p> + +<p>The Arabic translations of Aristotle passed from the East +to the West by being transmitted through the Arab dominions +in northern Africa to Spain, which had been conquered by the +Arabs in the 8th century. In the 12th century Toledo was the +centre of the study of Aristotle in the West, and it was from +Toledo that the knowledge of Aristotle spread to Paris and to +other seats of learning in western Europe.</p> + +<p>The 12th century in Constantinople is marked by the name +of Tzetzes (c. 1110-c. 1180), the author of a mythological, +literary and historical miscellany called the <i>Chiliades</i>, in the +course of which he quotes more than four hundred authors. +The prolegomena to his scholia on Aristophanes supply us with +valuable information on the Alexandrian libraries. The most +memorable name, however, among the scholars of this century +is that of Eustathius, whose philological studies at Constantinople +preceded his tenure of the archbishopric of Thessalonica (1175-1192). +The opening pages of his commentaries on the <i>Iliad</i> and +the <i>Odyssey</i> dwell with enthusiasm on the abiding influence of +Homer on the literature of Greece.</p> + +<p>While the Byzantine MSS. of the 11th century (such as the +Laurentian MSS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and the Ravenna +MS. of Aristophanes) maintain the sound traditions of the +Alexandrian and Roman ages, those of the times of the Palaeologi +give proof of a frequent tampering with the metres of the ancient +poets in order to bring them into conformity with theories +recently invented by Moschopulus and Triclinius. The scholars +of these times are the natural precursors of the earliest representatives +of the Revival of Learning in the West. Of these +later Byzantines the first in order of date is the monk Planudes +(d. 1330), who devoted his knowledge of Latin to producing +excellent translations of Caesar’s <i>Gallic War</i> as well as Ovid’s +<i>Metamorphoses</i> and <i>Heroides</i>, and the classic work of Boëthius; +he also compiled (in 1302) the only Greek anthology known to +scholars before the recovery in 1607 of the earlier and fuller +anthology of Cephalas (fl. 917).</p> + +<p>The scholars of the Byzantine age cannot be compared with +the great Alexandrians, but they served to maintain the continuity +of tradition by which the Greek classics selected by the +critics of Alexandria were transmitted to modern Europe.</p> + +<p>(b) <i>In the West</i> (c. 530-c. 1350).—At the portal of the middle +ages stands Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), who had little (if any) +knowledge of Greek and had no sympathy with the <i>secular</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span> +side of the study of Latin. A decline in grammatical learning +is exemplified in the three Latin historians of the 6th century, +Jordanes, Gildas and Gregory of Tours (d. 594), who begins +his history of the Franks by lamenting the decay of Latin +literature in Gaul. The historian of Tours befriended the Latin +poet, Venantius Fortunatus (d. <i>c.</i> 600), who is still remembered +as the writer of the three well-known hymns beginning <i>Salve +festa dies</i>, <i>Vexilla regis prodeunt</i>, and <i>Pange lingua gloriosi +proelium certaminis</i>. The decadence of Latin early in the 7th +century is exemplified by the fantastic grammarian Virgilius +Maro, who also illustrates the transition from Latin to Provençal, +and from quantitive to accentual forms of verse.</p> + +<p>While Latin was declining in Gaul, even Greek was not +unknown in Ireland, and the Irish passion for travel led to the +spread of Greek learning in the west of Europe. The Irish monk +Columban, shortly before his death in 615, founded in the +neighbourhood of Pavia the monastery of Bobbio, to be the +repository of many Latin MSS. which were ultimately dispersed +among the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin. About the same +date his fellow-traveller, Gallus, founded above the Lake of +Constance the monastery of St Gallen, where Latin MSS. were +preserved until their recovery in the age of the Renaissance. +During the next twenty-five years Isidore of Seville (d. 636) +produced in his <i>Origines</i> an encyclopaedic work which gathered +up for the middle ages much of the learning of the ancient world.</p> + +<p>In Italy a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the 5th and 6th +centuries led to an estrangement between the Greek and Latin +Churches. The year 690 is regarded as the date of the temporary +extinction of Greek in Italy, but, in the first quarters of the 8th +and the 9th centuries, the iconoclastic decrees of the Byzantine +emperors drove many of the Greek monks and their lay adherents +to the south of Italy, and even to Rome itself.</p> + +<p>In Ireland we find Greek characters used in the Book of +Armagh (<i>c.</i> 807); and, in the same century, a Greek psalter was +copied by an Irish monk of Liége, named Sedulius (fl. 850), who +had a wide knowledge of Latin literature. In England, some +sixty years after the death of Augustine, the Greek archbishop +of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (d. 690) founded a school for +the study of Greek, and with the help of an African monk named +Hadrian made many of the English monasteries schools of Greek +and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bede (d. 735), some of +the scholars who still survived were “as familiar with Greek and +Latin as with their mother-tongue.” Among those who had +learned their Greek at Canterbury was Aldhelm (d. 709), “the +first Englishman who cultivated classical learning with any +success.” While Aldhelm is known as “the father of Anglo-Latin +verse,” Latin prose was the literary medium used by Bede +in his celebrated <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of England (731). Nine +years after the death of Bede (735), Boniface, “the apostle of +Germany,” sanctioned the founding of Fulda (744), which soon +rivalled St Gallen as a school of learning. Alcuin (d. 804), who +was probably born in the year of Bede’s death, tells us of the +wealth of Latin literature preserved in the library at York. +Through the invitation of Charles the Great, he became associated +with the revival of learning which marks the reign of that +monarch, by presiding over the School of the Palace (782-790), +and by exercising a healthy influence as abbot of St Martin’s at +Tours (796-804). Among the friends of Alcuin and the advisers +of Charles was Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans and abbot of +Fleury (d. 821), who is memorable as an accomplished Latin +poet, and as the initiator of free education. Einhard (d. 840), in +his classic life of Charles the Great, models his style on that of +Suetonius, and shows his familiarity with Caesar and Livy and +Cicero, while Rabanus Maurus (d. 856), who long presided over +Einhard’s school of Fulda, was the first to introduce Priscian into +the schools of Germany. His pupil, Walafrid Strabo, the abbot of +Reichenau (d. 849), had a genuine gift for Latin poetry, a gift +agreeably exemplified in his poem on the plants in the monastic +garden. In the same century an eager interest in the Latin +classics is displayed by Servatus Lupus, who was educated at +Fulda, and was abbot of Ferrières for the last twenty years of his +life (d. 862). In his literary spirit he is a precursor of the +humanists of the Renaissance. Under Charles the Bald (d. 877) +there was a certain revival of interest in literature, when John +the Scot (Erigena) became, for some thirty years (c. 845-875), +the head of the Palace School. He was familiar with the Greek +Fathers, and was chosen to execute a Latin rendering of the +writings of “Dionysius the Areopagite,” the patron saint of +France. In the preface the translator praises the king for +prompting him not to rest satisfied with the literature of the West, +but to have recourse to the “most pure and copious waters of the +Greeks.” In the next generation Remi of Auxerre was the first to +open a school in Paris (900). Virgil is the main authority quoted +in Remi’s Commentary on Donatus, which remained in use until +the Renaissance. During the two centuries after John the Scot, +the study of Greek declined in France. In England the 9th +century closes with Alfred, who, with the aid of the Welsh monk, +Asser, produced a series of free translations from Latin texts, +including Boëthius and Orosius and Bede, and the <i>Cura Pastoralis</i> +of Gregory the Great.</p> + +<p>In the 10th century learning flourished at Aachen under Bruno, +brother of Otto I. and archbishop of Cologne (953-965), who had +himself learned Greek from certain Eastern monks at the imperial +court, and who called an Irish bishop from Trier to teach Greek at +the imperial capital. He also encouraged the transcription of +Latin MSS., which became models of style to Widukind of +Corvey, the imitator of Sallust and Livy. In the same century +the monastery of Gandersheim, south of Hanover, was the +retreat of the learned nun Hroswitha, who celebrated the +exploits of Otho in leonine hexameters, and composed in prose +six moral and religious plays in imitation of Terence. One of the +most prominent personages of the century was Gerbert of +Aurillac, who, after teaching at Tours and Fleury, became abbot +of Bobbio, archbishop of Reims, and ultimately pope under the +name of Silvester II. (d. 1003). He frequently quotes from the +speeches of Cicero, and it has been surmised that the survival of +those speeches may have been due to the influence of Gerbert. +The most original hellenist of this age is Luitprand, bishop of +Cremona (d. 972), who acquired some knowledge of Greek during +his repeated missions to Constantinople. About the same time +in England Oswald of York, who had himself been educated at +Fleury, invited Abbo (d. 1004) to instruct the monks of the abbey +recently founded at Ramsey, near Huntingdon. At Ramsey he +wrote for his pupils a scholarly work dealing with points of +prosody and pronunciation, and exhibiting an accurate knowledge +of Virgil and Horace. During the same half-century, Ælfric, +the abbot of Eynsham (d. c. 1030), aided Bishop Æthelwold +in making Winchester famous as a place of education. It was there +that he began his <i>Latin Grammar</i>, his <i>Glossary</i> (the +earliest Latin-English dictionary in existence), and his <i>Colloquium</i>, +in which Latin is taught in a conversational manner.</p> + +<p>In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the +11th century was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In and +after the middle of that century the Norman monastery of Bec +flourished under the rule of Lanfranc and Anselm, both of whom +had begun their career in northern Italy, and closed it at Canterbury. +Meanwhile, in Germany, the styles of Sallust and Livy were +being happily imitated in the <i>Annals</i> of Lambert of Hersfeld +(d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin literature seems +never to have entirely died out, young nobles and students +preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning +Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics, +such as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as +divided in his allegiance between the saints and the muses. +Learning flourished at Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot +Desiderius (afterwards Pope Victor III.). In this century that +famous monastery had its classical chronicler in Leo Marsicanus, +and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future archbishop of Salerno.</p> + +<p>The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle, +and we may here briefly note the successive stages in their +gradually increasing knowledge of his works. Until 1128 only +the first two of the five parts of the <i>Organon</i> were known, and +those solely in Latin translations from the original. After that +date two more became known; the whole was familiar to John +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span> +of Salisbury in 1159; while the <i>Physics</i> and <i>Metaphysics</i> came +into notice about 1200. Plato was mainly represented by the +Latin translation of the <i>Timaeus</i>. Abelard (d. 1142) was +acquainted with no Greek works except in Latin translations, +but he has left his mark on the history of European education. +The wide popularity of his brilliant lectures in the “schools” +of Paris made this city the resort of the many students who +were ultimately organized as a “university” (c. 1170). John of +Salisbury attended Abelard’s lectures in 1136, and, after spending +two years in the study of logic in Paris, passed three more in the +scholarly study of Latin literature at Chartres, where a sound +and healthy tradition, originally due to Bernard of Chartres +(fl. 1120), was still perpetuated by his pupils. In that school the +study of “figures of speech” was treated as merely introductory +to that of the classical texts. Stress was laid on the sense as +well as the style of the author studied. Discussions on set +subjects were held, select passages from the classics learned +by heart, while written exercises in prose and verse were founded +on the best ancient models. In the general scheme of education +the authority followed was Quintilian. John of Salisbury +(d. 1180), the ripest product of this school, is the most learned +man of his time. His favourite author is Cicero, and in all the +Latin literature accessible to him he is the best-read scholar of +his age. Among Latin scholars of the next generation we have +Giraldus Cambrensis (d. c. 1222), the author of topographical +and historical writings on Ireland and Wales, and of other works +teeming with quotations from the Latin classics. During the +middle ages Latin prose never dies out. It is the normal language +of literature. In England it is used by many chroniclers and +historians, the best known of whom are William of Malmesbury +(d. 1142) and Matthew Paris (d. 1259). In Italy Latin verse +had been felicitously applied to historic themes by William of +Apulia (fl. 1100) and other Latin poets (1088-1247). In the +12th century England claims at least seven Latin poets, one of +these being her only Latin epic poet, Joseph of Exeter (d. 1210), +whose poem on the Trojan war is still extant. The Latin versifier, +John of Garlandia, an Englishman who lived mainly in France +(fl. 1204-1252), produced several Latin vocabularies which were +still in use in the boyhood of Erasmus. The Latin poets of French +birth include Gautier and Alain de Lille (d. c. 1203), the former +being the author of the <i>Alexandreis</i>, and the latter that of the +<i>Anti-Claudianus</i>, a poem familiar to Chaucer.</p> + +<p>During the hundred and thirty years that elapsed between +the early translations of Aristotle executed at Toledo about +1150 and the death in 1281 of William of Moerbeke, the translator +of the <i>Rhetoric</i> and the <i>Politics</i>, the knowledge of +Aristotle had been greatly extended in Europe by means of translations, +first from the Arabic, and, next, from the original Greek. +Aristotle had been studied in England by Grosseteste (d. 1253), +and expounded abroad by the great Dominican, Albertus +Magnus (d. 1280), and his famous pupil, Thomas Aquinas +(d. 1274). Among the keenest critics of the Schoolmen and of +the recent translations of Aristotle was Roger Bacon (d. 1294), +whose <i>Opus majus</i> has been recognized as the <i>Encyclopédie</i> +and the <i>Organon</i> of the 13th century. His knowledge of Greek, as +shown in his <i>Greek Grammar</i> (first published in 1902), was +clearly derived from the Greeks of his own day. The medieval +dependence on the authority of Aristotle gradually diminished. +This was partly due to the recovery of some of the lost works +of ancient literature, and the transition from the middle ages +to the revival of learning was attended by a general widening +of the range of classical studies and by a renewed interest in Plato.</p> + +<p>The classical learning of the middle ages was largely second-hand. +It was often derived from glossaries, from books of +elegant extracts, or from comprehensive encyclopaedias. Among +the compilers of these last were Isidore and Hrabanus, William +of Conches and Honorius of Autun, Bartholomaeus Anglicus +(fl. 1250), Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), and, lastly, Brunetto +Latini (d. 1290), the earlier contemporary of Dante. For +Aristotle, as interpreted by Albertus Magnus and Thomas +Aquinas, Dante has the highest regard. To the Latin translations +of Aristotle and to his interpreters he refers in more than +three hundred passages, while the number of his references to +the Latin translation of the <i>Timaeus</i> of Plato is less than +ten. His five great pagan poets are Homer, Virgil, Horace, +Ovid, Lucan; Statius he regards as a “Christian” converted +by Virgil’s <i>Fourth Eclogue</i>. His standard authors in Latin +prose are Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Frontinus and Orosius. His +knowledge of Greek was practically nil. Latin was the language +of his political treatise, <i>De Monarchia</i>, and even that of his +defence of the vulgar tongue, <i>De Vulgari Eloquio</i>. He is, in a +limited sense, a precursor of the Renaissance, but he is far more +truly to be regarded as the crowning representative of the +spirit of the middle ages.</p> + +<p>(iv.) <i>The Modern Age.</i>—(a) Our fourth period is ushered +in by the age of the Revival of Learning in Italy (c. 1350-1527). +Petrarch (1304-1374) has been well described as +“the first of modern men.” In contrast with the +<span class="sidenote">Italy.</span> +Schoolmen of the middle ages, he has no partiality for Aristotle. +He was interested in Greek, and, a full century before the fall +of Constantinople, he was in possession of MSS. of Homer and +Plato, though his knowledge of the language was limited to the +barest rudiments. For that knowledge, scanty as it was, he was +indebted to Leontius Pilatus, with whose aid Boccaccio (1313-1375) +became “the first of modern men” to study Greek to some +purpose during the three years that Leontius spent as his guest +in Florence (1360-1363). It was also at Florence that Greek +was taught in the next generation by Chrysoloras (in 1396-1400). +Another generation passed, and the scholars of the East and +West met at the council of Florence (1439). One of the envoys +of the Greeks, Gemistus Pletho, then inspired Cosimo dei +Medici with the thought of founding an academy for the study +of Plato. The academy was founded, and, in the age of Lorenzo, +Plato and Plotinus were translated into Latin by Marsilio Ficino +(d. 1499). The <i>Apology</i> and <i>Crito</i>, the <i>Phaedo, Phaedrus</i> +and <i>Gorgias</i> of Plato, as well as speeches of Demosthenes and +Aeschines, with the <i>Oeconomics, Ethics</i> and <i>Politics</i> of +Aristotle, had already been translated by Leonardo Bruni (d. 1444); the +<i>Rhetoric</i> by Filelfo (1430), and Plato’s <i>Republic</i> by +Decembrio (1439). A comprehensive scheme for translating the principal +Greek prose authors into Latin was carried out at Rome by the +founder of the manuscript collections of the Vatican, Nicholas V. +(1447-1455), who had belonged to the literary circle of Cosimo +at Florence. The translation of Aristotle was entrusted to +three of the learned Greeks who had already arrived in Italy, +Trapezuntius, Gaza and Bessarion, while other authors were +undertaken by Italian scholars such as Guarino, Valla, Decembrio +and Perotti. Among the scholars of Italian birth, probably the +only one in this age who rivalled the Greeks as a public expositor +of their own literature was Politian (1454-1494), who lectured +on Homer and Aristotle in Florence, translated Herodian, and +was specially interested in the Latin authors of the Silver Age +and in the text of the <i>Pandects</i> of Justinian. It will be observed +that the study of Greek had been resumed in Florence half a +century before the fall of Constantinople, and that the principal +writers of Greek prose had been translated into Latin before that event.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, the quest of MSS. of the Latin classics had been +actively pursued. Petrarch had discovered Cicero’s Speech <i>pro Archia</i> +at Liége (1333) and the <i>Letters to Atticus</i> and <i>Quintus</i> +at Verona (1345). Boccaccio had discovered Martial and Ausonius, +and had been the first of the humanists to be familiar with Varro +and Tacitus, while Salutati had recovered Cicero’s letters <i>Ad +Familiares</i> (1389). During the council of Constance, Poggio, the +papal secretary, spent in the quest of MSS. the interval between +May 1415 and November 1417, during which he was left at +leisure by the vacancy in the apostolic see.</p> + +<p>Thirteen of Cicero’s speeches were found by him at Cluny and +Langres, and elsewhere in France or Germany; the commentary +of Asconius, a complete Quintilian, and a large part of Valerius +Flaccus were discovered at St Gallen. A second expedition to +that monastery and to others in the neighbourhood led to the +recovery of Lucretius, Manilius, Silius Italicus and Ammianus +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span> +Marcellinus, while the <i>Silvae</i> of Statius were recovered shortly +afterwards. A complete MS. of Cicero, <i>De Oratore</i>, <i>Brutus</i> and +<i>Orator</i>, was found by Bishop Landriani at Lodi (1421). Cornelius +Nepos was discovered by Traversari in Padua (1434). The +<i>Agricola</i>, <i>Germania</i> and <i>Dialogue</i> of Tacitus reached Italy from +Germany in 1455, and the early books of the <i>Annals</i> in 1508. +Pliny’s <i>Panegyric</i> was discovered by Aurispa at Mainz (1433), +and his correspondence with Trajan by Fra Giocondo in Paris +about 1500.</p> + +<p>Greek MSS. were brought from the East by Aurispa, who in +1423 returned with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight, +including the celebrated Laurentian MS. of Aeschylus, Sophocles +and Apollonius Rhodius. A smaller number was brought from +Constantinople by Filelfo (1427), while Quintus Smyrnaeus was +discovered in south Italy by Bessarion, who presented his own +collection of MSS. to the republic of Venice and thus led to the +foundation of the library of St Mark’s (1468). As the emissary of +Lorenzo, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the East, returning +from his second visit in 1492 with two hundred MSS. from +Mount Athos.</p> + +<p>The Renaissance theory of a humanistic education is illustrated +by several treatises still extant. In 1392 Vergerio +addressed to a prince of Padua the first treatise which methodically +maintains the claims of Latin as an essential part of a +liberal education. Eight years later, he was learning Greek from +Chrysoloras. Among the most distinguished pupils of the latter +was Leonardo Bruni, who, about 1405, wrote “the earliest +humanistic tract on education expressly addressed to a lady.” +He here urges that the foundation of all true learning is a “sound +and thorough knowledge of Latin,” and draws up a course of +reading, in which history is represented by Livy, Sallust, Curtius, +and Caesar; oratory by Cicero; and poetry by Virgil. The same +year saw the birth of Maffeo Vegio, whose early reverence for the +muse of Virgil and whose later devotion to the memory of +Monica have left their mark on the educational treatise which he +wrote a few years before his death in 1458. The authors he +recommends include “Aesop” and Sallust, the tragedies of +Seneca and the epic poets, especially Virgil, whom he interprets in +an allegorical sense. He is in favour of an early simultaneous +study of a wide variety of subjects, to be followed later by the +special study of one or two. Eight years before the death of +Vegio, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had composed a +brief treatise on education in the form of a letter to Ladislaus, the +young king of Bohemia and Hungary. The Latin poets to be +studied include Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Ovid’s <i>Metamorphoses</i>, and +(with certain limitations) Horace, Juvenal and Persius, as well as +Plautus, Terence and the tragedies of Seneca; the prose authors +recommended are Cicero, Livy and Sallust. The first great +school of the Renaissance was that established by Vittorino da +Feltre at Mantua, where he resided for the last twenty-two years +of his life (1424-1446). Among the Latin authors studied were +Virgil and Lucan, with selections from Horace, Ovid and Juvenal, +besides Cicero and Quintilian, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and +Livy. The Greek authors were Homer, Hesiod, Pindar and the +dramatists, with Herodotus, Xenophon and Plato, Isocrates and +Demosthenes, Plutarch and Arrian.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, Guarino had been devoting five years to the training +of the eldest son of the marquis of Ferrara. At Ferrara he spent +the last thirty years of his long life (1370-1460), producing text-books +of Greek and Latin grammar, and translations from +Strabo and Plutarch. His method may be gathered from his +son’s treatise, <i>De Ordine Docendi et Studendi</i>. In that treatise +the essential marks of an educated person are, not only ability to +write Latin verse, but also, a point of “at least equal importance,” +“familiarity with the language and literature of Greece.” +“Without a knowledge of Greek, Latin scholarship itself is, in +any real sense, impossible” (1459).</p> + +<p>By the fall of Constantinople in 1453, “Italy (in the eloquent +phrase of Carducci) became sole heir and guardian of the ancient +civilization,” but its fall was in no way necessary for the revival +of learning, which had begun a century before. Bessarion, +Theodorus Gaza, Georgius Trepezuntius, Argyropulus, Chalcondyles, +all had reached Italy before 1453. A few more Greeks +fled to Italy after that date, and among these were Janus +Lascaris, Musurus and Callierges. All three were of signal service +in devoting their knowledge of Greek to perpetuating and +popularizing the Greek classics with the aid of the newly-invented +art of printing. That art had been introduced into +Italy by the German printers, Sweynheym and Pannartz, who +had worked under Fust at Mainz. At Subiaco and at Rome they +had produced in 1465-1471 the earliest editions of Cicero, <i>De +Oratore</i> and the <i>Letters</i>, and eight other Latin authors.</p> + +<p>The printing of Greek began at Milan with the Greek grammar +of Constantine Lascaris (1476). At Florence the earliest editions +of Homer (1488) and Isocrates (1493) had been produced by +Demetrius Chalcondyles, while Janus Lascaris was the first to +edit the Greek anthology, Apollonius Rhodius, and parts of +Euripides, Callimachus and Lucian (1494-1496). In 1494-1515 +Aldus Manutius published at Venice no less than twenty-seven +<i>editiones principes</i> of Greek authors and of Greek works of +reference, the authors including Aristotle, Theophrastus, +Theocritus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Herodotus, +Euripides, Demosthenes (and the minor Attic orators), Pindar, +Plato and Athenaeus. In producing Plato, Athenaeus and +Aristophanes, the scholar-printer was largely aided by Musurus, +who also edited the Aldine Pausanias (1516) and the <i>Etymologicum</i> +printed in Venice by another Greek immigrant, +Callierges (1499).</p> + +<p>The Revival of Learning in Italy ends with the sack of Rome +(1527). Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to decline in +Italy, but meanwhile an interest in that language had been +transmitted to the lands beyond the Alps.</p> + +<p>In the study of Latin the principal aim of the Italian humanists +was the <i>imitation</i> of the style of their classical models. In the +case of poetry, this imitative spirit is apparent in Petrarch’s +<i>Africa</i>, and in the Latin poems of Politian, Pontano, Sannazaro, +Vida and many others. Petrarch was not only the imitator +of Virgil, who had been the leading name in Latin letters throughout +the middle ages; it was the influence of Petrarch that gave +a new prominence to Cicero. The imitation of Cicero was carried +on with varying degrees of success by humanists such as Gasparino +da Barzizza (d. 1431), who introduced a new style of +epistolary Latin; by Paolo Cortesi, who discovered the importance +of a rhythmical structure in the composition of Ciceronian +prose (1490); and by the accomplished secretaries of Leo X., +Bembo and Sadoleto. Both of these papal secretaries were +mentioned in complimentary terms by Erasmus in his celebrated +dialogue, the <i>Ciceronianus</i> (1528), in which no less than one +hundred and six Ciceronian scholars of all nations are briefly +and brilliantly reviewed, the slavish imitation of Cicero denounced, +and the law laid down that “to speak with propriety +we must adapt ourselves to the age in which we live—an age +that differs entirely from that of Cicero.” One of the younger +Ciceronians criticized by Erasmus was Longolius, who had +died at Padua in 1522. The cause of the Ciceronians was defended +by the elder Scaliger in 1531 and 1536, and by Étienne +Dolet in 1535, and the controversy was continued by other +scholars down to the year 1610. Meanwhile, in Italy, a strict +type of Ciceronianism was represented by Paulus Manutius +(d. 1574), and a freer and more original form of Latinity by +Muretus (d. 1585).</p> + +<p>Before touching on the salient points in the subsequent +centuries, in connexion with the leading nations of Europe, +we may briefly note the cosmopolitan position of Erasmus +(1466-1536), who, although he was a native of the Netherlands, +was far more closely connected with France, England, Italy, +Germany and Switzerland, than with the land of his birth. +He was still a school-boy at Deventer when his high promise +was recognized by Rudolf Agricola, “the first (says Erasmus) +who brought from Italy some breath of a better culture.” Late +in 1499 Erasmus spent some two months at Oxford, where he +met Colet; it was in London that he met More and Linacre and +Grocyn, who had already ceased to lecture at Oxford. At Paris, +in 1500, he was fully conscious that “without Greek the amplest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span> +knowledge of Latin was imperfect”; and, during his three +years in Italy (1506-1509), he worked quietly at Greek in Bologna +and attended the lectures of Musurus in Padua. In October +1511 he was teaching Greek to a little band of students in Cambridge; +at Basel in 1516 he produced his edition of the Greek +Testament, the first that was actually published; and during +the next few years he was helping to organize the college lately +founded at Louvain for the study of Greek and Hebrew, as well +as Latin. Seven years at Basel were followed by five at Freiburg, +and by two more at Basel, where he died. The names of all +these places are suggestive of the wide range of his influence. +By his published works, his <i>Colloquies</i>, his <i>Adages</i> and his +<i>Apophthegms</i>, he was the educator of the nations of Europe. +An educational aim is also apparent in his editions of Terence +and of Seneca, while his Latin translations made his contemporaries +more familiar with Greek poetry and prose, and his +<i>Paraphrase</i> promoted a better understanding of the Greek +Testament. He was not so much a scientific scholar as a keen +and brilliant man of letters and a widely influential apostle of +humanism.</p> + +<p>In France the most effective of the early teachers of Greek +was Janus Lascaris (1495-1503). Among his occasional pupils +was Budaeus (d. 1540), who prompted Francis I. +<span class="sidenote">France.</span> +to found in 1530 the corporation of the Royal Readers +in Greek, as well as Latin and Hebrew, afterwards famous +under the name of the Collège de France. In the study of +Greek one of the earliest links between Italy and Germany +was Rudolf Agricola, who had learned Greek under +<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span> +Gaza at Ferrara. It was in Paris that his younger contemporary +Reuchlin acquired part of that proficiency in Greek +which attracted the notice of Argyropulus, whose admiration +of Reuchlin is twice recorded by Melanchthon, who soon afterwards +was pre-eminent as the “praeceptor” of Germany.</p> + +<p>In the age of the revival the first Englishman who studied +Greek was a Benedictine monk, William of Selling (d. 1494), +who paid two visits to Italy. At Canterbury he +inspired with his own love of learning his nephew, +<span class="sidenote">England.</span> +Linacre, who joined him on one of those visits, studied Greek +at Florence under Politian and Chalcondyles, and apparently +stayed in Italy from 1485 to 1499. His translation of a treatise +of Galen was printed at Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch, who, +in the same year and place, was the first to use Greek type in +England. Greek had been first taught to some purpose at +Oxford by Grocyn on his return from Italy in 1491. One of the +younger scholars of the day was William Lilye, who picked up +his Greek at Rhodes on his way to Palestine and became the +first high-master of the school founded by Colet at St Paul’s +(1510).</p> + +<p>(b) That part of the <i>Modern Period</i> of classical studies which +succeeds the age of the Revival in Italy may be subdivided +into three periods distinguished by the names of the nations +most prominent in each.</p> + +<p>1. The first may be designated the <i>French</i> period. It begins +with the foundation of the Royal Readers by Francis I. in 1530, +and it may perhaps be regarded as extending to 1700. +This period is marked by a many-sided <i>erudition</i> +<span class="sidenote">The French period.</span> +rather than by any special cult of the <i>form</i> of the +classical languages. It is the period of the great polyhistors of +France. It includes Budaeus and the elder Scaliger (who +settled in France in 1529), with Turnebus and Lambinus, and +the learned printers Robertus and Henricus Stephanus, while +among its foremost names are those of the younger (and greater) +Scaliger, Casaubon and Salmasius. Of these, Casaubon ended +his days in England (1614); Scaliger, by leaving France for the +Netherlands in 1593, for a time at least transferred the supremacy +in scholarship from the land of his birth to that of his adoption. +The last sixteen years of his life (1593-1609) were spent at Leiden, +which was also for more than twenty years (1631-1653) the +home of Salmasius, and for thirteen (1579-1592) that of Lipsius +(d. 1606). In the 17th century the erudition of France is best +represented by “Henricus Valesius,” Du Cange and Mabillon. +In the same period Italy was represented by Muretus, who +had left France in 1563, and by her own sons, Nizolius, Victorius, +Robortelli and Sigonius, followed in the 17th century by R. +Fabretti. The Netherlands, in the 16th, claim W. Canter as +well as Lipsius, and, in the 17th, G.J. Vossius, Johannes Meursius, +the elder and younger Heinsius, Hugo Grotius, J.F. +Gronovius, J.G. Graevius and J. Perizonius. Scotland, in the +16th, is represented by George Buchanan; England by Sir John +Cheke, Roger Ascham, and Sir Henry Savile, and, in the 17th, +by Thomas Gataker, Thomas Stanley, Henry Dodwell, and +Joshua Barnes; Germany by Janus Gruter, Ezechiel Spanheim +and Chr. Cellarius, the first two of whom were also connected +with other countries.</p> + +<p>We have already seen that a strict imitation of Cicero was +one of the characteristics of the Italian humanists. In and +after the middle of the 16th century a correct and +pure Latinity was promoted by the educational +<span class="sidenote">Literary Latin.</span> +system of the Jesuits; but with the growth of the +vernacular literatures Latin became more and more exclusively +the language of the learned. Among the most conspicuous +Latin writers of the 17th century are G.J. Vossius and the +Heinsii, with Salmasius and his great adversary, Milton. Latin +was also used in works on science and philosophy, such as Sir +Isaac Newton’s <i>Principia</i> (1687), and many of the works of +Leibnitz (1646-1705). In botany the custom followed by John +Ray (1627-1705) in his <i>Historia Plantarum</i> and in other works +was continued in 1760 by Linnaeus in his <i>Systema Naturae</i>. +The last important work in English theology written in Latin +was George Bull’s <i>Defensio Fidei Nicenae</i> (1685). The use of +Latin in diplomacy died out towards the end of the 17th century; +but, long after that date negotiations with the German empire +were conducted in Latin, and Latin was the language of the +debates in the Hungarian diet down to 1825.</p> + +<p>2. During the 18th century the classical scholarship of the +Netherlands was under the healthy and stimulating influence +of Bentley (1662-1742), who marks the beginning +of the English and Dutch period, mainly represented +<span class="sidenote">The English and Dutch period.</span> +in Holland by Bentley’s younger contemporary and +correspondent, Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685-1766), +and the latter scholar’s great pupil David Ruhnken (1723-1798). +It is the age of historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism. +Both of these were ably represented in the first half of the +century by Bentley himself, while, in the twenty years between +1782 and 1803, the verbal criticism of the tragic poets of Athens +was the peculiar province of Richard Porson (1759-1808), who +was born in the same year as F.A. Wolf. Among other representatives +of England were Jeremiah Markland and Jonathan +Toup, Thomas Tyrwhitt and Thomas Twining, Samuel Parr +and Sir William Jones; and of the Netherlands, the two Burmanns +and L. Küster, Arnold Drakenborch and Wesseling, +Lodewyk Valckenaer and Daniel Wyttenbach (1746-1829). +Germany is represented by Fabricius and J.M. Gesner, J.A. +Ernesti and J.J. Reiske, J.J. Winckelmann and Chr. G. Heyne; +France by B. de Montfaucon and J.B.G.D. Villoison; Alsace +by French subjects of German origin, R.F.P. Brunck and J. +Schweighäuser; and Italy by E. Forcellini and Ed. Corsini.</p> + +<p>3. The <i>German</i> period begins with F.A. Wolf (1759-1824), +whose <i>Prolegomena</i> to Homer appeared in 1795. He is the +founder of the systematic and encyclopaedic type +of scholarship embodied in the comprehensive term +<span class="sidenote">The German period.</span> +<i>Altertumswissenschaft</i>, or “a scientific knowledge +of the old classical world.” The tradition of Wolf +was ably continued by August Böckh (d. 1867), one of the +leaders of the historical and antiquarian school, brilliantly +represented in the previous generation by B.G. Niebuhr (d. +1831).</p> + +<p>In contrast with this school we have the critical and grammatical +school of Gottfried Hermann (d. 1848). During this +period, while Germany remains the most productive of the +nations, scholarship has been more and more international +and cosmopolitan in its character.</p> + +<p><i>19th Century.</i>—We must here be content with simply recording +the names of a few of the more prominent representatives of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span> +the 19th century in some of the most obvious departments of +classical learning. Among natives of Germany the leading +<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span> +scholars have been, in <i>Greek</i>, C.F.W. Jacobs, C.A. +Lobeck, L. Dissen, I. Bekker, A. Meineke, C. Lehrs, +W. Dindorf, T. Bergk, F.W. Schneidewin, H. Köchly, A. Nauck, +H. Usener, G. Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in <i>Latin</i>, C. +Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M. Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleckeisen, +E. Bährens, L. Müller and O. Ribbeck. <i>Grammar</i> and +kindred subjects have been represented by P. Buttmann, A. +Matthiae, F.W. Thiersch, C.G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C.W. +Krüger, R. Kühner and H.L. Ahrens; and <i>lexicography</i> by +F. Passow and C.E. Georges. Among editors of <i>Thucydides</i> +we have had E.F. Poppo and J. Classen; among editors of +<i>Demosthenes or other orators</i>, G.H. Schäfer, J.T. Vömel, G.E. +Benseler, A. Westermann, G.F. Schömann, H. Sauppe, and C. +Rehdantz (besides Blass, already mentioned). The <i>Platonists</i> +include F. Schleiermacher, G.A.F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the +many-sided C.F. Hermann; the <i>Aristotelians</i>, C.A. Brandis, +A. Trendelenburg, L. Spengel, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bernays +and F. Susemihl. The history of <i>Greek philosophy</i> was written +by F. Ueberweg, and, more fully, by E. Zeller. <i>Greek history</i> +was the domain of G. Droysen, Max Duncker, Ernst Curtius, +Arnold Schäfer and Adolf Holm; <i>Greek antiquities</i> that of +M.H. Meier and G.F. Schömann and of G. Gilbert; <i>Greek +epigraphy</i> that of J. Franz, A. Kirchhoff, W. von Hartel, U. +Köhler, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittenberger; <i>Roman history +and constitutional antiquities</i> that of Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903), +who was associated in <i>Latin epigraphy</i> with E. Hübner +and W. Henzen. <i>Classical art and archaeology</i> were represented +by F.G. Welcker, E. Gerhard, C.O. Müller, F. Wieseler, O. +Jahn, C.L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C.B. Stark, J. Overbeck, W. +Helbig, O. Benndorf and A. Furtwängler; <i>mythology</i> (with +cognate subjects) by G.F. Creuzer, P.W. Forchhammer, L. +Preller, A. Kuhn, J.W. Mannhardt and E. Rohde; and <i>comparative +philology</i> by F. Bopp, A.F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen, +Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and H. Steinthal. The history of +<i>classical philology</i> in Germany was written by Conrad Bursian +(1830-1883).</p> + +<p>In France we have J.F. Boissonade, J.A. Letronne, L.M. +Quicherat, M.P. Littré, B. Saint-Hilaire, J.V. Duruy, B.E. +Miller, É. Egger, C.V. Daremberg, C. Thurot, L.E. +<span class="sidenote">France,</span> +Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in archaeology) +A.C. Quatremère de Quincy, P. le Bas, C.F.M. Texier, the duc +de Luynes, the Lenormants (C. and F.), W.H. Waddington +and O. Rayet; and (in comparative philology) Victor +<span class="sidenote">Belgium, Holland,</span> +Henry. Greece was ably represented in France by +A. Koraes. In Belgium we have P. Willems and +the Baron De Witte (long resident in France); in Holland, +C.G. Cobet; in Denmark, J.N. Madvig. Among the scholars +of Great Britain and Ireland may be mentioned: +<span class="sidenote">England.</span> +P. Elmsley, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P.P. Dobree, +J.H. Monk, C.J. Blomfield, W. Veitch, T.H. Key, B.H. +Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T.W. Peile, R. Shilleto, W.H. Thompson, +J.W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H.G. Liddell, C. Badham, G. +Rawlinson, F.A. Paley, B. Jowett, T.S. Evans, E.M. Cope, +H.A.J. Munro, W.G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H.A. Holden, +J. Riddell, J. Conington, W.Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W.D. Geddes, +D.B. Monro, H. Nettleship, A. Palmer, R.C. Jebb, A.S. Wilkins, +W.G. Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and +archaeologists, W.M. Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grote and +C. Thirlwall, T. Arnold, G. Long and Charles Merivale, Sir +Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A.S. Murray, Robert +Burn and H.F. Pelham. Among comparative philologists +Max Müller belonged to Germany by birth and to England by +adoption, while, in the United States, his ablest counterpart +was W.D. Whitney. B.L. Gildersleeve, W.W. Goodwin, Henry +Drisler, J.B. Greenough and G.M. Lane were prominent +American classical scholars.</p> + +<p>The 19th century in Germany was marked by the organization +of the great series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by +the foundation of the Archaeological Institute in Rome (1829), +which was at first international in its character. The Athenian +Institute was founded in 1874. Schools at Athens and Rome +were founded by France in 1846 and 1873, by the United States +of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England in 1883 and 1901; +<span class="sidenote">Schools of Rome and Athens.</span> +and periodicals are published by the schools of all these +four nations. An interest in Greek studies (and especially +in art and archaeology) has been maintained in +England by the Hellenic Society, founded in 1879, with +its organ the <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>. A further interest in +Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized lands by +the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta, +Olympia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete. +The extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly +extended our knowledge of the administration of that country in +the times of the Ptolemies, and have materially added to the +existing remains of Greek literature. Scholars have been +enabled to realize in their own experience some of the enthusiasm +that attended the recovery of lost classics during the Revival of +Learning. They have found themselves living in a new age of +<i>editiones principes</i>, and have eagerly welcomed the first publication +of Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (1891), Herondas (1891) +and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the <i>Persae</i> of Timotheus of +Miletus (1903), with some of the <i>Paeans</i> of Pindar (1907) and +large portions of the plays of Menander (1898-1899 and 1907). +The first four of these were first edited by F.G. Kenyon, +Timotheus by von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, Menander partly by +J. Nicole and G. Lefebre and partly by B.P. Grenfell and A.S. +Hunt, who have also produced fragments of the <i>Paeans</i> of +Pindar and many other classic texts (including a Greek continuation +of Thucydides and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in +the successive volumes of the <i>Oxyrhynchus papyri</i> and other +kindred publications.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—For a full bibliography of the history of classical +philology, see E. Hübner, <i>Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die Geschichte +und Encyklopädie der klassischen Philologie</i> (2nd ed., 1889); and for +a brief outline, C.L. Urlichs in Iwan von Müller’s <i>Handbuch</i>, vol. i. +(2nd ed., 1891). 33-145; S. Reinach, <i>Manuel de philologie classique</i> +(2nd ed., 1883-1884; <i>nouveau tirage</i> 1907), 1-22; and A. Gudemann, +<i>Grundris</i> (Leipzig, 1907), pp. 224 seq. For the Alexandrian +period, F. Susemihl, <i>Gesch. der griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit</i> +(2 vols., 1891-1892); cf. F.A. Eckstein, <i>Nomenclator +Philologorum</i> (1871), and W. Pökel, <i>Philologisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon</i> +(1882). For the period ending <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400, see A. Gräfenhan, +<i>Gesch. der klass. Philologie</i> (4 vols., 1843-1850); for the Byzantine +period, C. Krumbacher in Iwan von Müller, vol. ix. (1) (2nd ed., +1897); for the Renaissance, G. Voigt, <i>Die Wiederbelebung des class. +Altertums</i> (3rd ed., 1894, with bibliography); L. Geiger, <i>Renaissance +und Humanismus in Italien und Deutschland</i> (1882, with +bibliography); J.A. Symonds, <i>Revival of Learning</i> (1877, &c.); +R.C. Jebb, in <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, i. (1902), 532-584; and +J.E. Sandys, <i>Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning</i> (1905); +also P. de Nolhac, <i>Pétrarque et l’humanisme</i> (2nd ed., 1907). On +the history of Greek scholarship in France, É. Egger, <i>L’Histoire +d’hellénisme en France</i> (1869); Mark Pattison, <i>Essays</i>, i., and <i>Life +of Casaubon</i>; in Germany, C. Bursian, <i>Gesch. der class. Philologie +in Deutschland</i> (1883); in Holland, L. Müller, <i>Gesch. der class. +Philologie in den Niederlanden</i> (1869); in Belgium, L.C. Roersch in +E.P. van Bemmel’s <i>Patria Belgica</i>, vol. iii. (1875), 407-432; and +in England, R.C. Jebb, “Erasmus” (1890) and “Bentley” (1882), +and “Porson” (in <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>). On the subject as a whole +see J.E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> (with chronological +tables, portraits and facsimiles), vol. i.; <i>From the Sixth Century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the end of the Middle Ages</i> (1903, 2nd ed., 1906); vols. ii. +and iii., <i>From the Revival of Learning to the Present Day</i> (1908), +including the history of scholarship in all the countries of Europe +and in the United States of America. See also the separate biographical +articles in this Encyclopaedia.</p> +</div> + +<p class="center1 sc">(B) The Study of the Classics in Secondary Education</p> + +<p>After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed +much to the influence and example of Vittorino da Feltre, +Budacus, Erasmus and Melanchthon, who were among the +leading representatives of that revival in Italy, France, England +and Germany.</p> + +<p>1. In <i>England</i>, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and +Eton (1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but +before the revival had reached Britain. The first +school<a name="FnAnchor_2l" id="FnAnchor_2l" href="#Footnote_2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> which came into being under the immediate +<span class="sidenote">England.</span> +influence of humanism was that founded at St Paul’s by Dean +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span> +Colet (1510), the friend of Erasmus, whose treatise <i>De pueris +instituendis</i> (1529) has its English counterpart in the <i>Governor</i> of +Sir Thomas Elyot (1531). The highmaster of St Paul’s was to be +“learned in good and clean Latin, and also in Greek, if such may +be gotten.” The master and the second master of Shrewsbury +(founded 1551) were to be “well able to make a Latin verse, and +learned in the Greek tongue.” The influence of the revival +extended to many other schools, such as Christ’s Hospital (1552), +Westminster (1560), and Merchant Taylors’ (1561); Repton +(1557), Rugby (1567) and Harrow (1571).</p> + +<p>At the grammar school of Stratford-on-Avon, about 1571-1577, +Shakespeare presumably studied Terence, Horace, Ovid +and the <i>Bucolics</i> of Baptista Mantuanus (1502). In +the early plays he quotes Ovid and Seneca. Similarly, +<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare and the grammar-school.</span> +in <i>Titus Andronicus</i> (iv. 2) he says, of <i>Integer vitae</i>: +“’Tis a verse in Horace; I know it well: I read it in +the grammar long ago.” In <i>Henry VI.</i> part ii. sc. 7, +when Jack Cade charges Lord Say with having “most +traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a +grammar-school,” Lord Say replies that “ignorance is the curse +of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven.” In +the <i>Taming of the Shrew</i> (I. i. 157) a line is quoted as from +Terence (<i>Andria</i>, 74): “<i>redime te captum quam queas minimo.</i>” +This is taken <i>verbatim</i> from Lilye’s contribution to the <i>Brevis +Institutio</i>, originally composed by Colet, Erasmus and Lilye for +<span class="sidenote">Early text-books.</span> +St Paul’s School (1527), and ultimately adopted as the +<i>Eton Latin Grammar</i>. The <i>Westminster Greek Grammar</i> +of Grant (1575) was succeeded by that of Camden +(1595), founded mainly on a Paduan text-book, and apparently +adopted in 1596 by Sir Henry Savile at Eton, where it long +remained in use as the <i>Eton Greek Grammar</i>, while at Westminster +itself it was superseded by that of Busby (1663). The +text-books to be used at Harrow in 1590 included Hesiod and +some of the Greek orators and historians.</p> + +<p>In one of the <i>Paston Letters</i> (i. 301), an Eton boy of 1468 quotes +two Latin verses of his own composition. Nearly a century later, +on New Year’s Day, 1560, forty-four boys of the school +presented Latin verses to Queen Elizabeth. The queen’s +<span class="sidenote">Ascham.</span> +former tutor, Roger Ascham, in his <i>Scholemaster</i> (1570), agrees +with his Strassburg friend, J. Sturm, in making the imitation of +the Latin classics the main aim of instruction. He is more +original when he insists on the value of translation and retranslation +for acquiring a mastery over Latin prose composition, and +when he protests against compelling boys to converse in Latin +too soon. Ascham’s influence is apparent in the <i>Positions</i> of +Mulcaster, who in 1581 insists on instruction in English before +admission to a grammar-school, while he is distinctly in advance +of his age in urging the foundation of a special college for the +training of teachers.</p> + +<p>Cleland’s <i>Institution of a Young Nobleman</i> (1607) owes much to +the Italian humanists. The author follows Ascham in protesting +against compulsory Latin conversation, and only +slightly modifies his predecessor’s method of teaching +<span class="sidenote">Cleland.</span> +Latin prose. When Latin grammar has been mastered, he +bids the teacher lead his pupil “into the sweet fountain and +spring of all Arts and Science,” that is, Greek learning which is +“as profitable for the understanding as the Latin tongue for +speaking.” In the study of ancient history, “deeds and not +words” are the prime interest. “In Plutarch pleasure is so +mixed and confounded with profit; that I esteem the reading of +him as a paradise for a curious spirit to walk in at all time.” +Bacon in his <i>Advancement of Learning</i> (1605) notes it as “the first +distemper of learning when men study words and not matter” +(I. iv. 3); he also observes that the Jesuits “have much +<span class="sidenote">Bacon, Milton, Petty.</span> +quickened and strengthened the state of learning” +(I. vi. 15). He is on the side of reform in education; +he waves the humanist aside with the words: <i>vetustas +cessit, ratio vicit</i>. Milton, in his <i>Tractate on Education</i> +(1644), advances further on Bacon’s lines, protesting against the +length of time spent on instruction in language, denouncing +merely verbal knowledge, and recommending the study of a +large number of classical authors for the sake of their subject-matter, +and with a view to their bearing on practical life. His +ideal place of education is an institution combining a school and +a university. Sir William Petty, the economist (1623-1687), +urged the establishment of <i>ergastula literaria</i> for instruction of a +purely practical kind. Locke, who had been educated +<span class="sidenote">Locke.</span> +at Winchester and had lectured on Greek at Oxford +(1660), nevertheless almost completely eliminated Greek from +the scheme which he unfolded in his <i>Thoughts on Education</i> +(1693). With Locke, the moral and practical qualities of virtue +and prudence are of the first consideration. Instruction, he +declares, is but the least part of education; his aim is to train, +not men of letters or men of science, but practical men armed for +the battle of life. Latin was, above all, to be learned through use, +with as little grammar as possible, but with the reading of easy +Latin texts, and with no repetition, no composition. Greek he +absolutely proscribes, reserving a knowledge of that language to +the learned and the lettered, and to professional scholars.</p> + +<p>Throughout the 18th century and the early part of the 19th, +the old routine went on in England with little variety, and with +no sign of expansion. The range of studies was +widened, however, at Rugby in 1828-1842 by Thomas +<span class="sidenote">Arnold.</span> +Arnold, whose interest in ancient history and geography, as a +necessary part of classical learning, is attested by his edition of +Thucydides; while his influence was still further extended when +those who had been trained in his traditions became head masters +of other schools.</p> + +<p>During the rest of the century the leading landmarks are the +three royal commissions known by the names of their chairmen: +(1) Lord Clarendon’s on nine public schools, Eton, Winchester, +Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, St +Paul’s and Merchant Taylors’ (1861-1864), resulting in the +Public Schools Act of 1868; (2) Lord Taunton’s on 782 endowed +schools (1864-1867), followed by the act of 1869; and (3) Mr +Bryce’s on secondary education (1894-1895).</p> + +<p>A certain discontent with the current traditions of classical +training found expression in the <i>Essays on a Liberal Education</i> +(1867). The author of the first essay, C.S. Parker, +closed his review of the reforms instituted in Germany +<span class="sidenote">Controversy on classical education.</span> +and France by adding that in England there had +been but little change. The same volume included a +critical examination of the “Theory of Classical Education” by +Henry Sidgwick, and an attack on compulsory Greek and Latin +verse composition by F.W. Farrar. The claims of verse composition +have since been judiciously defended by the Hon. +Edward Lyttelton (1897), while a temperate and effective +restatement of the case for the classics may be found in Sir +Richard Jebb’s Romanes Lecture on “Humanism in Education” +(1899).</p> + +<p>The question of the position of Greek in secondary education +has from time to time attracted attention in connexion with the +requirement of Greek in Responsions at Oxford, and in the +Previous Examination at Cambridge.</p> + +<p>In the <i>Cambridge University Reporter</i> for November 9, 1870, it +was stated that, “in order to provide adequate encouragement +for the study of Modern Languages and Natural +Science,” the commissioners for endowed schools had +<span class="sidenote">“Compulsory Greek.”</span> +determined on the establishment of modern schools of +the first grade in which Greek would be excluded. The +commissioners feared that, so long as Greek was a <i>sine qua non</i> +at the universities, these schools would be cut off from direct +connexion with the universities, while the universities would in +some degree lose their control over a portion of the higher +culture of the nation. On the 9th of March 1871 a syndicate +recommended that, in the Previous Examination, French and +German (taken together) should be allowed in place of Greek; +on the 27th of April this recommendation (which only affected +candidates for honours or for medical degrees) was rejected by +51 votes to 48.</p> + +<p>All the other proposals and votes relating to Greek in the +Previous Examination in 1870-1873, 1878-1880, and 1891-1892 +are set forth in the <i>Cambridge University Reporter</i> for November +11, 1904, pp. 202-205. In November 1903 a syndicate was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span> +appointed to consider the studies and examinations of the university, +their report of November 1904 on the Previous Examination +was fully discussed, and the speeches published in the +<i>Reporter</i> fcr December 17, 1904. In the course of the discussion +Sir Richard Jebb drew attention to the statistics collected by the +master of Emmanuel, Mr W. Chawner, showing that, out of 86 +head masters belonging to the Head Masters’ Conference whose +replies had been published, “about 56 held the opinion that the +exemption from Greek for all candidates for a degree would +endanger or altogether extinguish the study of Greek in the vast +majority of schools, while about 21 head masters held a different +opinion.” On the 3rd of March 1905 a proposal for accepting +either French or German as an alternative for either Latin or +Greek in the Previous Examination was rejected by 1559 to 1052 +votes, and on the 26th of May 1906 proposals distinguishing +between students in letters and students in science, and (<i>inter +alia</i>) <i>requiring</i> the latter to take either French or German for +either Latin or Greek in the Previous Examination, were rejected +by 746 to 241.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, at Oxford a proposal practically making Greek +optional with all undergraduates was rejected, in November 1902, +by 189 votes to 166; a preliminary proposal permitting students +of mathematics or natural science to offer one or more modern +languages in lieu of Greek was passed by 164 to 162 in February +1904, but on the 29th of November the draft of a statute to this +effect was thrown out by 200 to 164. In the course of the +controversy three presidents of the Royal Society, Lord Kelvin, +Lord Lister and Sir W. Huggins, expressed the opinion that the +proposed exemption was not beneficial to science students.</p> + +<p>Incidentally, the question of “compulsory Greek” has +stimulated a desire for greater efficiency in classical teaching. In +December 1903, a year before the most important of +the public discussions at Cambridge, the Classical +<span class="sidenote">The Classical Association.</span> +Association was founded in London. The aim of that +association is “to promote the development, and +maintain the well-being, of classical studies, and in particular (a) +to impress upon public opinion the claim of such studies to an +eminent place in the national scheme of education; (b) to +improve the practice of classical teaching by free discussion of its +scope and methods; (c) to encourage investigation and call +attention to new discoveries; (d) to create opportunities of +friendly intercourse and co-operation between all lovers of +classical learning in this country.”</p> + +<p>The question of the curriculum and the time-table in secondary +education has occupied the attention of the Classical Association, +the British Association and the Education Department +of Scotland. The general effect of the recommendations +<span class="sidenote">The curriculum.</span> +already made would be to begin the study of +foreign languages with French, and to postpone the study of +Latin to the age of twelve and that of Greek to the age of thirteen. +At the Head Masters’ Conference of December 1907 a proposal to +lower the standard of Greek in the entrance scholarship examinations +of public schools was lost by 10 votes to 16, and the “British +Association report” was adopted with reservations in 1908. +In the case of secondary schools in receipt of grants of public +money (about 700 in England and 100 in Wales in 1907-1908), +“the curriculum, and time-table must be approved by the Board +of Education.” The Board has also a certain control over the +curriculum of schools under the Endowed Schools Acts and the +Charitable Trusts Acts, and also over that of schools voluntarily +applying for inspection with a view to being recognized as +efficient.</p> + +<p>Further efficiency in classical education has been the aim of the +movement in favour of the reform of Latin pronunciation. In +1871 this movement resulted in Munro and Palmer’s +<i>Syllabus of Latin Pronunciation</i>. The reform was +<span class="sidenote">Reform in Latin pronunciation.</span> +carried forward at University College, London, by +Professor Key and by Professor Robinson Ellis in 1873, +and was accepted at Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Liverpool +College, Christ’s Hospital, Dulwich, and the City of London +school. It was taken up anew by the Cambridge Philological +Society in 1886, by the Modern Languages Association in 1901, by +the Classical Association in 1904-1905, and the Philological +Societies of Oxford and Cambridge in 1906. The reform was +accepted by the various bodies of head masters and assistant +masters in December 1906-January 1907, and the proposed +scheme was formally approved by the Board of Education in +February 1907.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See W.H. Woodward, <i>Studies in Education during the Age of +the Renaissance</i> (1906), chap. xiii.; Acland and Llewellin Smith, +<i>Studies in Secondary Education</i>, with introduction by James Bryce +(1892); <i>Essays on a Liberal Education</i>, ed. F.W. Farrar (1867); +R.C. Jebb, “Humanism in Education,” Romanes Lecture of 1899, +reprinted with other lectures on cognate subjects in <i>Essays and +Addresses</i> (1907); Foster Watson, <i>The Curriculum and Practice +of the English Grammar Schools up to 1660</i> (1908); “Greek at +Oxford,” by a Resident, in <i>The Times</i> (December 27, 1904); +<i>Cambridge University Reporter</i> (November 11 and December 17, +1904); <i>British Association Report on Curricula of Secondary Schools</i> +(with an independent paper by Professor Armstrong on “The +Teaching of Classics”), (December 1907); W.H.D. Rouse in <i>The +Year’s Work in Classical Studies</i> (1907 and 1908), chap. i.; J.P. +Postgate, <i>How to pronounce Latin</i> (Appendix B, on “Recent Progress”), +(1907). For further bibliographical details see pp. 875-890 +of Dr Karl Breul’s “Grossbritannien” in Baumeister’s <i>Handbuch</i>, +I. ii. 737-892 (Munich, 1897).</p> +</div> + +<p>2. In <i>France</i> it was mainly with a view to promoting the +study of Greek that the corporation of Royal Readers was +founded by Francis I. in 1530 at the prompting of +Budaeus. In the university of Paris, which was +<span class="sidenote">France.</span> +originally opposed to this innovation, the statutes of 1598 +prescribed the study of Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Theocritus, +Plato, Demosthenes and Isocrates (as well as the principal Latin +classics), and required the production of three exercises in Greek +or Latin in each week.</p> + +<p>From the middle of the 16th century the elements of Latin +were generally learned from unattractive abridgments of the +grammar of the Flemish scholar, van Pauteren or +Despautère (d. 1520), which, in its original folio +<span class="sidenote">Textbooks.</span> +editions of 1537-1538, was an excellent work. The +unhappy lot of those who were compelled to learn their Latin +from the current abridgments was lamented by a Port-Royalist +in a striking passage describing the gloomy forest of <i>le pays de +Despautère</i> (Guyot, quoted in Sainte-Beuve’s <i>Port-Royal</i>, iii. 429). +The first Latin grammar written in French was that of Père de +Condren of the <i>Oratoire</i> (c. 1642), which was followed by the +Port-Royal <i>Méthode latine</i> of Claude Lancelot (1644), and by +the grammar composed by Bossuet for the dauphin, and also +used by Fénelon for the instruction of the duc de Bourgogne. +In the second half of the 17th century the rules of grammar +and rhetoric were simplified, and the time withdrawn from the +practice of composition (especially verse composition) transferred +to the explanation and the study of authors.</p> + +<p>Richelieu, in 1640, formed a scheme for a college in which +Latin was to have a subordinate place, while room was to be +found for the study of history and science, Greek, and +French and modern languages. Bossuet, in educating +<span class="sidenote">Richelieu, Bossuet, Fénelon, Fleury.</span> +the dauphin, added to the ordinary classical routine +represented by the extensive series of the “Delphin +Classics” the study of history and of science. A greater originality +in the method of teaching the ancient languages was +exemplified by Fénelon, whose views were partially reflected +by the Abbé Fleury, who also desired the simplification of +grammar, the diminution of composition, and even the suppression +of Latin verse. Of the ordinary teaching of Greek in +his day, Fleury wittily observed that most boys “learned just +enough of that language to have a pretext for saying for the rest +of their lives that Greek was a subject easily forgotten.”</p> + +<p>In the 18th century Rollin, in his <i>Traité des études</i> (1726), +agreed with the Port-Royalists in demanding that Latin +grammars should be written in French, that the rules +should be simplified and explained by a sufficient +<span class="sidenote">Rollin.</span> +number of examples, and that a more important place should +be assigned to translation than to composition. The supremacy +of Latin was the subject of a long series of attacks in the same +century. Even at the close of the previous century the brilliant +achievements of French literature had prompted La Bruyère +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span> +to declare in <i>Des ouvrages de l’esprit</i> (about 1680), “We have at +last thrown off the yoke of <i>Latinism</i>”; and, in the same year, +Jacques Spon claimed in his correspondence the right to use the +French language in discussing points of archaeology.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in 1563, notwithstanding the opposition of the +university of Paris, the Jesuits had succeeded in founding the +<i>Collegium Claromontanum</i>. After the accession of +Henry IV. they were expelled from Paris and other +<span class="sidenote">The Jesuits.</span> +important towns in 1594, and not allowed to return +until 1609, when they found themselves confronted once more +by their rival, the university of Paris. They opened the doors of +their schools to the Greek and Latin classics, but they represented +the ancient masterpieces dissevered from their original historic +environment, as impersonal models of taste, as isolated standards +of style. They did much, however, for the cultivation of original +composition modelled on Cicero and Virgil. They have been +charged with paying an exaggerated attention to form, and +with neglecting the subject-matter of the classics. This neglect +is attributed to their anxiety to avoid the “pagan” element in +the ancient literature. Intensely conservative in their methods, +they kept up the system of using Latin in their grammars +(and in their oral instruction) long after it had been abandoned +by others.</p> + +<p>The use of French for these purposes was a characteristic of +the “Little Schools” of the Jansenists of Port-Royal(1643-1660). +The text-books prepared for them by Lancelot included +not only the above-mentioned Latin grammar (1644) +<span class="sidenote">Port-Royal.</span> +but also the <i>Méthode grecque</i> of 1655 and the <i>Jardin +des racines grecques</i> (1657), which remained in use for two centuries +and largely superseded the grammar of Clenardus (1636) +and the <i>Tirocinium</i> of Père Labbe (1648). Greek began to decline +in the university about 1650, at the very time when the Port-Royalists +were aiming at its revival. During the brief existence +of their schools their most celebrated pupils were Tillemont +and Racine.</p> + +<p>The Jesuits, on the other hand, claimed Corneille and Molière, +as well as Descartes and Bossuet, Fontenelle, Montesquieu and +Voltaire. Of their Latin poets the best-known were Denis Petau +(d. 1652), René Rapin (d. 1687) and N.E. Sanadon (d. 1733). +In 1762 the Jesuits were suppressed, and more than one hundred +schools were thus deprived of their teachers. The university +of Paris, which had prompted their suppression, and the parliament, +which had carried it into effect, made every endeavour +to replace them. The university took possession of the <i>Collegium +Claromontanum</i>, then known as the <i>Collège Louis-le-Grand</i>, +and transformed it into an <i>école normale</i>. Many of the Jesuit +schools were transferred to the congregations of the <i>Oratoire</i> +and the Benedictines, and to the secular clergy. On the eve of +the Revolution, out of a grand total of 562 classical schools, +384 were in the hands of the clergy and 178 in those of the +congregations.</p> + +<p>The expulsion of the Jesuits gave a new impulse to the attacks +directed against all schemes of education in which Latin held +a prominent position. At the moment when the +university of Paris was, by the absence of its rivals, +<span class="sidenote">Classical education attacked.</span> +placed in complete control of the education of France, +she found herself driven to defend the principles of +classical education against a crowd of assailants. All kinds of +devices were suggested for expediting the acquisition of Latin; +grammar was to be set aside; Latin was to be learned as a +“living language”; much attention was to be devoted to +acquiring an extensive vocabulary; and, “to save time,” +composition was to be abolished. To facilitate the reading of +Latin texts, the favourite method was the use of interlinear +translations, originally proposed by Locke, first popularized in +France by Dumarsais (1722), and in constant vogue down to the +time of the Revolution.</p> + +<p>Early in the 18th century Rollin pleaded for the “utility +of Greek,” while he described that language as the heritage of +the university of Paris. In 1753 Berthier feared that in thirty +years no one would be able to read Greek. In 1768 Rolland +declared that the university, which held Greek in high honour, +nevertheless had reason to lament that her students learnt little +of the language, and he traced this decline to the fact that attendance +at lectures had ceased to be compulsory. Greek, however, +was still recognized as part of the examination held for the +appointment of schoolmasters.</p> + +<p>During the 18th century, in Greek as well as in Latin, the +general aim was to reach the goal as rapidly as possible, even at +the risk of missing it altogether. On the eve of the +Revolution, France was enjoying the study of the +<span class="sidenote">Eve of the Revolution.</span> +institutions of Greece in the attractive pages of the +<i>Voyage du jeune Anacharsis</i> (1789), but the study of +Greek was menaced even more than that of Latin. For fifty +years before the Revolution there was a distinct dissatisfaction +with the routine of the schools. To meet that dissatisfaction, +the teachers had accepted new subjects of study, had improved +their methods, and had simplified the learning of the dead +languages. But even this was not enough. In the study of the +classics, as in other spheres, it was revolution rather than +evolution that was loudly demanded.</p> + +<p>The Revolution was soon followed by the long-continued +battle of the “Programmes.” Under the First Republic the +schemes of Condorcet (April 1792) and J. Lakanal +(February 1795) were superseded by that of P.C.F. +<span class="sidenote">First Republic.</span> +Daunou (October 1795), which divided the pupils of +the “central schools” into three groups, according to age, with +corresponding subjects of study: (1) twelve to fourteen,—drawing, +natural history, Greek and Latin, and a choice of modern +languages; (2) fourteen to sixteen,—mathematics, physics, +chemistry; (3) over sixteen,—general grammar, literature, +history and constitutional law..</p> + +<p>In July 1801, under the consulate, there were two courses, (1) +nine to twelve,—elementary knowledge, including elements of +Latin; (2) above twelve,—a higher course, with two +<span class="sidenote">Consulate.</span> +alternatives, “humanistic” studies for the “civil,” +and purely practical studies for the “military” section. The law +of the 1st of May 1802 brought the <i>lycées</i> into existence, the +subjects being, in Napoleon’s own phrase, “mainly Latin and +mathematics.”</p> + +<p>At the Restoration (1814) the military discipline of the lycées +was replaced by the ecclesiastical discipline of the “Royal +Colleges.” The reaction of 1815-1821 in favour of +classics was followed by the more liberal programme of +<span class="sidenote">Restoration.</span> +Vatimesnil (1829), including, for those who had no +taste for a classical education, certain “special courses” (1830), +which were the germ of the <i>enseignement spécial</i> and the <i>enseignement +moderne</i>.</p> + +<p>Under Louis Philippe (1830-1848), amid all varieties of +administration there was a consistent desire to hold the balance +fairly between all the conflicting subjects of study. After the +revolution of 1848 the difficulties raised by the excessive number +of subjects were solved by H.N.H. Fortoul’s expedient of +“bifurcation,” the alternatives being letters and science. In +1863, under Napoleon III., Victor Duruy encouraged the study of +history, and also did much for classical learning by founding the +École des Hautes Études. In 1872, under the Third Republic, +Jules Simon found time for hygiene, geography and modern +<span class="sidenote">Third Republic.</span> +languages by abolishing Latin verse composition and +reducing the number of exercises in Latin prose, while +he insisted on the importance of studying the inner +meaning of the ancient classics. The same principles were +carried out by Jules Ferry (1880) and Paul Bert (1881-1882). In +the scheme of 1890 the Latin course of six years began with ten +hours a week and ended with four; Greek was begun a year later +with two hours, increasing to six and ending with four.</p> + +<p>The commission of 1899, under the able chairmanship of M. +Alexandre Ribot, published an important report, which was +followed in 1902 by the scheme of M. Georges Leygues. The +preamble includes a striking tribute to the advantages that +France had derived from the study of the classics:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“L’étude de l’antiquité grecque et latine a donné au génie français +une mesure, une clarté et une élégance incomparables. C’est par +elle que notre philosophie, nos lettres et nos arts ont brillé d’un si +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span> +vif éclat; c’est par elle que notre influence morale s’est exercée en +souveraine dans le monde. Les humanités doivent être protégées +contre toute atteinte et fortifiées. Elles font partie du patrimoine +national.</p> + +<p>“L’esprit classique n’est pas ... incompatible avec l’esprit +moderne. Il est de tous les temps, parce qu’il est le culte de la raison +claire et libre, la recherche de la beauté harmonieuse et simple dans +toutes les manifestations de la pensée.”</p> +</div> + +<p>By the scheme introduced in these memorable terms the +course of seven years is divided into two cycles, the first cycle (of +four years) having two parallel courses: (1) without Greek or +Latin, and (2) with Latin, and with optional Greek at the +beginning of the third year. In the second cycle (of three years) +those who have been learning both Greek and Latin, and those +who have been learning neither, continue on the same lines as +before; while those who have been learning Latin only may +either (1) discontinue it in favour of modern languages <i>and</i> +science, or (2) continue it with <i>either</i>. As an alternative to the +second cycle, which normally ends in the examination for the +<i>baccalauréat</i>, there is a shorter course, mainly founded on +modern languages or applied science and ending in a public +examination without the <i>baccalauréat</i>. The <i>baccalauréat</i>, +however, has been condemned by the next minister, M. Briand, who +prefers to crown the course with the award of a school diploma (1907).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Lantoine, <i>Histoire de l’enseignement secondaire en France +au XVIIe siècle</i> (1874); A. Sicard, <i>Les Études classiques avant la +Révolution</i> (1887); Sainte-Beuve, <i>Port-Royal</i>, vols. i.-v. +(1840-1859), especially iii. 383-588; O. Gréard, <i>Education et instruction</i>, +4 vols., especially “Enseignement secondaire,” vol. ii. pp. 1-90, with +conspectus of programmes in the appendix (1889); A. Ribot, <i>La +Réforme de l’enseignement secondaire</i> (1900); G. Leygues, <i>Plan +d’études</i>, &c. (1902); H.H. Johnson, “Present State of Classical +Studies in France,” in <i>Classical Review</i> (December 1907). See also +the English Education Department’s <i>Special Reports on Education +in France</i> (1899). The earlier literature is best represented in +England by Matthew Arnold’s <i>Schools and Universities in France</i> +(1868; new edition, 1892) and <i>A French Eton</i> (1864).</p> +</div> + +<p>3. The history of education in Germany since 1500 falls into +three periods: (a) the age of the Revival of Learning and the +Reformation (1500-1650), (b) the age of French influence +<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span> +(1650-1800), and (c) the 19th century.</p> + +<p>(a) During the first twenty years of the 16th century the +reform of Latin instruction was carried out by setting aside the +old medieval grammars, by introducing new manuals of classical +literature, and by prescribing the study of classical authors and +the imitation of classical models. In all these points the lead was +first taken by south Germany, and by the towns along the Rhine +down to the Netherlands. The old schools and universities were +being quietly interpenetrated by the new spirit of humanism, +when the sky was suddenly darkened by the clouds of religious +conflict. In 1525-1535 there was a marked depression in the +classical studies of Germany. Erasmus, writing to W. Pirckheimer +in 1528, exclaims: “Wherever the spirit of Luther +prevails, learning goes to the ground.” Such a fate was, however, +averted by the intervention of Melanchthon (d. 1560), the +<span class="sidenote">Melanchthon.</span> +<i>praeceptor Germaniae</i>, who was the embodiment of the +spirit of the new Protestant type of education, with its +union of evangelical doctrine and humanistic culture. +Under his influence, new schools rapidly rose into being at +Magdeburg, Eisleben and Nuremberg (1521-1526). During +more than forty years of academic activity he not only provided +manuals of Latin and Greek grammar and many other text-books +that long remained in use, but he also formed for Germany a +well-trained class of learned teachers, who extended his influence +throughout the land. His principal ally as an educator and as a +writer of text-books was Camerarius (d. 1574). Precepts of style, +and models taken from the best Latin authors, were the means +whereby a remarkable skill in the imitation of Cicero was attained +at Strassburg during the forty-four years of the headmastership of +Johannes von Sturm (d. 1589), who had himself been influenced +by the <i>De disciplinis</i> of J.L. Vivès (1531), and in all his teaching +aimed at the formation of a <i>sapiens atque eloquens pietas</i>. Latin +continued to be the living language of learning and of literature, +and a correct and elegant Latin style was regarded as the mark of +an educated person. Greek was taught in all the great schools, +but became more and more confined to the study of the Greek +Testament. In 1550 it was proposed in Brunswick to +<span class="sidenote">The Greek Testament.</span> +banish all “profane” authors from the schools, and in +1589 a competent scholar was instructed to write a +sacred epic on the kings of Israel as a substitute for the +works of the “pagan” poets. In 1637, when the doubts of Scaliger +and Heinsius as to the purity of the Greek of the New Testament +prompted the rector of Hamburg to introduce the study of +classical authors, any reflection on the style of the Greek Testament +was bitterly resented.</p> + +<p>The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540, and by 1600 most +of the teachers in the Catholic schools and universities of +Germany were Jesuits. The society was “dissolved” +in 1773, but survived its dissolution. In accordance +<span class="sidenote">The Jesuits.</span> +with the <i>Ratio Studiorum</i> of Aquaviva (1599), which +long remained unaltered and was only partially revised by +J. Roothaan (1832), the main subjects of instruction were the +<i>litterae humaniores diversarum linguarum</i>. The chief place among +these was naturally assigned to Latin, the language of the society +and of the Roman Church. The Latin grammar in use was that +of the Jesuit rector of the school at Lisbon, Alvarez (1572). +As in the Protestant schools, the principal aim was the attainment +of <i>eloquentia</i>. A comparatively subordinate place was assigned +to Greek, especially as the importance attributed to the Vulgate +weakened the motive for studying the original text. It was +recognized, however, that Latin itself (as Vivès had said) was +“in no small need of Greek,” and that, “unless Greek was +learnt in boyhood, it would hardly ever be learnt at all.” The +text-book used was the <i>Institutiones linguae Graecae</i> of the +German Jesuit, Jacob Gretser, of Ingolstadt (c. 1590), and the +reading in the highest class included portions of Demosthenes, +Isocrates, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Gregory +of Nazianzus, Basil and Chrysostom. The Catholic and Protestant +schools of the 16th century succeeded, as a rule, in giving +a command over a correct Latin style and a taste for literary +form and for culture. Latin was still the language of the law-courts +and of a large part of general literature. Between +Luther and Lessing there was no great writer of German prose.</p> + +<p>(b) In the early part of the period 1650-1800, while Latin +continued to hold the foremost place, it was ceasing to be Latin +of the strictly classical type. Greek fell still further +into the background; and Homer and Demosthenes +<span class="sidenote">The age of French influence.</span> +gradually gave way to the Greek Testament. Between +1600 and 1775 there was a great gap in the production +of new editions of the principal Greek classics. The spell was +only partially broken by J.A. Ernesti’s <i>Homer</i> (1759 f.) and +Chr. G. Heyne’s <i>Pindar</i> (1773 f.).</p> + +<p>The peace of Westphalia (1648) marks a distinct epoch in +the history of education in Germany. Thenceforth, education +became more modern and more secular. The long +wars of religion in Germany, as in France and England, +<span class="sidenote">Modern and secular education.</span> +were followed by a certain indifference as to disputed +points of theology. But the modern and secular type +of education that now supervened was opposed by the pietism +of the second half of the 17th century, represented at the newly-founded +university of Halle (1694) by A.H. Francke, the professor +of Greek (d. 1727), whose influence was far greater than +that of Chr. Cellarius (d. 1707), the founder of the first philological +<i>Seminar</i> (1697). Francke’s contemporary, Chr. Thomasius +(d. 1728), was never weary of attacking scholarship of the old +humanistic type and everything that savoured of antiquarian +pedantry, and it was mainly his influence that made German the +language of university lectures and of scientific and learned +literature. A modern education is also the aim of the general +introduction to the <i>nova methodus</i> of Leibnitz, where the study +of Greek is recommended solely for the sake of the Greek +Testament (1666). Meanwhile, Ratichius (d. 1635) had in vain +pretended to teach Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the space of +six months (1612), but he had the merit of maintaining that +the study of a language should begin with the study of an author. +Comenius (d. 1671) had proposed to teach Latin by drilling his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span> +pupils in a thousand graduated phrases distributed over a +hundred instructive chapters, while the Latin authors were +banished because of their difficulty and their “paganism” +(1631). One of the catchwords of the day was to insist on a +knowledge of <i>things</i> instead of a knowledge of <i>words</i>, on “realism” +instead of “verbalism.”</p> + +<p>Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became +the ideal in the German education of the upper classes of +the 17th and 18th centuries. A large number of +aristocratic schools (<i>Ritter-Akademien</i>) were founded, +<span class="sidenote">Ritter-akademien.</span> +beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tübingen +(1589) and ending with the Hohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775). +In these schools the subjects of study included mathematics +and natural sciences, geography and history, and modern +languages (especially French), with riding, fencing and dancing; +Latin assumed a subordinate place, and classical composition +in prose or verse was not considered a sufficiently courtly accomplishment. +The youthful aristocracy were thus withdrawn +from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic +schools vanished with the dawn of the 19th century, and the +ordinary public schools were once more frequented by the +young nobility.</p> + +<p>(c) <i>The Modern Period.</i>—In the last third of the 18th century +two important movements came into play, the “naturalism” +of Rousseau and the “new humanism.” While +Rousseau sought his ideal in a form of education and +<span class="sidenote">The “new humanism.”</span> +of culture that was in close accord with nature, the +German apostles of the new humanism were convinced +that they had found that ideal completely realized in the old +Greek world. Hence the aim of education was to make young +people thoroughly “Greek,” to fill them with the “Greek” +spirit, with courage and keenness in the quest of truth, and +with a devotion to all that was beautiful. +<span class="sidenote">Herder.</span> +The link between the naturalism of Rousseau and the new humanism is +to be found in J.G. Herder, whose passion for all that +is Greek inspires him with almost a hatred of Latin. The new +humanism was a kind of revival of the Renaissance, which had +been retarded by the Reformation in Germany and by the +Counter-Reformation in Italy, or had at least been degraded +to the dull classicism of the schools. The new humanism +agreed with the Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of +the old classical world as a perfect pattern of culture. But, +while the Renaissance aimed at reproducing the Augustan age +of <i>Rome</i>, the new humanism found its golden age in <i>Athens</i>. +The Latin Renaissance in Italy aimed at recovering and verbally +imitating the ancient literature; the Greek Renaissance in +Germany sought inspiration from the creative originality of +Greek literature with a view to producing an original literature +in the German language. The movement had its effect on the +schools by discouraging the old classical routine of verbal +imitation, and giving a new prominence to Greek and to German. +The new humanism found a home in Göttingen (1783) in the days +of J.M. Gesner and C.G. Heyne. It was represented at Leipzig +by Gesner’s successor, Ernesti (d. 1781); and at Halle by F.A. +Wolf, who in 1783 was appointed professor of education by +Zedlitz, the minister of Frederick the Great. In literature, its +leading names were Winckelmann, Lessing and Voss, and Herder, +Goethe and Schiller. The tide of the new movement had +reached its height about 1800. Goethe and Schiller were convinced +that the old Greek world was the highest revelation of +humanity; and the universities and schools of Germany were +reorganized in this spirit by F.A. Wolf and his illustrious pupil, +Wilhelm von Humboldt. In 1809-1810 Humboldt was at the +<span class="sidenote">School reorganization.</span> +head of the educational section of the Prussian Home +Office, and, in the brief interval of a year and a half, +gave to the general system of education the direction +which it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout +the whole century. In 1810 the <i>examen pro facultate docendi</i> +first made the profession of a schoolmaster independent of that +of a minister of religion. The new scheme drawn up by J.W. +Süvern recognized four principal co-ordinated branches of +learning: Latin, Greek, German, mathematics. All four were +studied throughout the school, Greek being begun in the fourth +of the nine classes, that corresponding to the English “third +form.” The old Latin school had only one main subject, the +study of Latin style (combined with a modicum of Greek). The +new gymnasium aimed at a wider education, in which literature +was represented by Latin, Greek and German, by the side of +mathematics and natural science, history and religion. The +uniform employment of the term <i>Gymnasium</i> for the highest type +of a Prussian school dates from 1812. The leaving examination +(<i>Abgangsprüfung</i>), instituted in that year, required Greek translation +at sight, with Greek prose composition, and ability to speak +and to write Latin. In 1818-1840 the leading spirit on the +board of education was Johannes Schulze, and a <i>complete</i> and +comprehensive system of education continued to be the ideal +kept in view. Such an education, however, was found in practice +to involve a prolongation of the years spent at school and a +correspondingly later start in life. It was also attacked on the +ground that it led to “overwork.” This attack was partially +met by the scheme of 1837. Schulze’s period of prominence in +Berlin closely corresponded to that of Herbart at Königsberg +(1809-1833) and Göttingen (1833-1841), who insisted that for +boys of eight to twelve there was no better text-book than the +Greek <i>Odyssey</i>, and this principle was brought into practice at +Hanover by his distinguished pupil, Ahrens.</p> + +<p>The Prussian policy of the next period, beginning with the +accession of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. in 1840, was to lay a new +stress on religious teaching, and to obviate the risk of overwork +resulting from the simultaneous study of all subjects by the +encouragement of specialization in a few. Ludwig Wiese’s +scheme of 1856 insisted on the retention of Latin verse as well as +Latin prose, and showed less favour to natural science, but it +awakened little enthusiasm, while the attempt to revive the old +humanistic Gymnasium led to a demand for schools of a more +modern type, which issued in the recognition of the <i>Realgymnasium</i> +(1859).</p> + +<p>In the age of Bismarck, school policy in Prussia had for its aim +an increasing recognition of modern requirements. In 1875 +Wiese was succeeded by Bonitz, the eminent Aristotelian +scholar, who in 1849 had introduced mathematics and natural +science into the schools of Austria, and had substituted the wide +reading of classical authors for the prevalent practice of speaking +and writing Latin. By his scheme of 1882 natural science +recovered its former position in Prussia, and the hours assigned in +each week to Latin were diminished from 86 to 77. But neither +of the two great parties in the educational world was satisfied; +and great expectations were aroused when the question of reform +was taken up by the German emperor, William II., in 1890. +The result of the conference of December 1890 was a compromise +between the conservatism of a majority of its members and the +forward policy of the emperor. The scheme of 1892 reduced the +number of hours assigned to Latin from 77 to 62, and laid +special stress on the <i>German</i> essay; but the modern training +given by the <i>Realgymnasium</i> was still unrecognized as an avenue +to a university education. A conference held in June 1900, in +which the speakers included Mommsen and von Wilamowitz, +Harnack and Diels, was followed by the “Kiel Decree” of the +26th of November. In that decree the emperor urged the equal +recognition of the classical and the modern <i>Gymnasium</i>, and +emphasized the importance of giving more time to Latin and to +English in both. In the teaching of Greek, “useless details” +were to be set aside, and special care devoted to the connexion +between ancient and modern culture, while, in all subjects, +attention was to be paid to the classic precept: <i>multum, non +multa</i>.</p> + +<p>By the scheme of 1901 the pupils of the <i>Realgymnasium</i>, the +<i>Oberrealschule</i> and the <i>Gymnasium</i> were admitted to the university +on equal terms in virtue of their leaving-certificates, but +Greek and Latin were still required for students of classics or +divinity.</p> + +<p>For the <i>Gymnasium</i> the aim of the new scheme is, in <i>Latin</i>, +“to supply boys with a sound basis of grammatical training, +with a view to their understanding the more important classical +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span> +writers of Rome, and being thus introduced to the intellectual +life and culture of the ancient world”; and, in <i>Greek</i>, “to give +them a sufficient knowledge of the language with a view to their +obtaining an acquaintance with some of the Greek classical +works which are distinguished both in matter and in style, and +thus gaining an insight into the intellectual life and culture of +Ancient Greece.” In consequence of these changes Greek is now +studied by a smaller number of boys, but with better results, and +a new lease of life has been won for the classical <i>Gymnasium</i>.</p> + +<p>Lastly, by the side of the classical <i>Gymnasium</i>, we now have +the “German Reform Schools” of two different types, that of +Altona (dating from 1878) and that of Frankfort-on-the-Main +(1892). The leading principle in both is the postponement of the +time for learning Latin. Schools of the Frankfort type take +French as their only foreign language in the first three years of +the course, and aim at achieving in six years as much as has been +achieved by the <i>Gymnasia</i> in nine; and it is maintained that, +in six years, they succeed in mastering a larger amount of Latin +literature than was attempted a generation ago, even in the best +<i>Gymnasia</i> of the old style. It may be added that in all the +German <i>Gymnasia</i>, whether reformed or not, more time is given +to classics than in the corresponding schools in England.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Paulsen, <i>Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts vom Ausgang +des Mittelalters bis auf die Gegenwart mit besonderer Rücksicht auf +den klassischen Unterricht</i> (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1896); <i>Das Realgymnasium +und die humanistische Bildung</i> (1889); <i>Die höheren Schulen +und das Universitätsstudium im 20. Jahrhundert</i> (1901); “Das +moderne Bildungswesen” in <i>Die Kulture der Gegenwart</i>, vol. i. (1904); +<i>Das deutsche Bildungswesen in seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung</i> +(1906) (with the literature there quoted, pp. 190-192), translated +by Dr T. Lorenz, <i>German Education, Past and Present</i> (1908); +T. Ziegler, <i>Notwendigkeit ... des Realgymnasiums</i> (Stuttgart, +1894); F.A. Eckstein, <i>Lateinischer und griechischer Unterricht</i> +(1887); O. Kohl, “Griechischer Unterricht” (Langensalza, 1896) +in W. Rein’s <i>Handbuch</i>; A. Baumeister’s <i>Handbuch</i> (1895), especially +vol. i. 1 (History) and i. 2 (Educational Systems); P. Stötzner, +<i>Das öffentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands in der Gegenwart</i> (1901); +F. Seiler, <i>Geschichte des deutschen Unterrichtswesens</i> (2 vols., 1906); +<i>Verhandlungen</i> of June 1900 (2nd ed., 1902); <i>Lehrpläne</i>, &c. (1901); +<i>Die Reform des höheren Schulwesens</i>, ed. W. Lexis (1902); A. +Harnack’s <i>Vortrag</i> and W. Parow’s <i>Erwiderung</i> (1905); H. Müller, +<i>Das höhere Schulwesen Deutschlands am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts</i> +(Stuttgart, 1904); O. Steinbart, <i>Durchführung des preussischen +Schulreform in ganz Deutschland</i> (Duisburg, 1904); J. Schipper, +<i>Alte Bildung und moderne Cultur</i> (Vienna, 1901); Papers by M.E. +Sadler: (1) “Problems in Prussian Secondary Education” (Special +Reports of Education Dept., 1899); (2) “The Unrest in Secondary +Education in Germany and Elsewhere” (Special Reports of Board +of Education, vol. 9, 1902); J.L. Paton, <i>The Teaching of Classics +in Prussian Secondary Schools</i> (on “German Reform Schools”) +(1907, Wyman, London); J.E. Russell, <i>German Higher Schools</i> +(New York, 1899); and (among earlier English publications) +Matthew Arnold’s <i>Higher Schools and Universities in Germany</i> (1874, +reprinted from <i>Schools and Universities on the Continent</i>, 1865).</p> +</div> + +<p>(4) In the <i>United States of America</i> the highest degree of +educational development has been subsequent to the Civil War. +The study of Latin begins in the “high schools,” the +average age of admission being fifteen and the normal +<span class="sidenote">United States.</span> +course extending over four years. Among classical +teachers an increasing number would prefer a longer course +extending over six years for Latin, and at least three for Greek, +and some of these would assign to the elementary school the first +two of the proposed six years of Latin study. Others are content +with the late learning of Latin and prefer that it should be +preceded by a thorough study of modern languages (see Prof. B.I. +Wheeler, in Baumeister’s <i>Handbuch</i>, 1897, ii. 2, pp. 584-586).</p> + +<p>It was mainly owing to a pamphlet issued in 1871 by Prof. +G.M. Lane, of Harvard, that a reformed pronunciation of Latin +was adopted in all the colleges and schools of the +United States. Some misgivings on this reform found +<span class="sidenote">Latin pronunciation.</span> +expression in a work on the <i>Teaching of Latin</i>, published +by Prof. C.E. Bennett of Cornell in 1901, a year +in which it was estimated that this pronunciation was in use by +more than 96% of the Latin pupils in the secondary schools.</p> + +<p>Some important statistics as to the number studying Latin +and Greek in the secondary schools were collected in 1900 by a +committee of twelve educational experts representing all parts of +the Union, with a view to a uniform course of instruction being +pursued in all classical schools. They had the advantage of the +co-operation of Dr W.T. Harris, the U.S. commissioner of +education, and they were able to report that, in all the five +groups into which they had divided the states, the number of +pupils pursuing the study of Latin and Greek showed a remarkable +advance, especially in the most progressive states of the +middle west. The number learning Latin had increased from +100,144 in 1890 to 314,856 in 1899-1900, and those learning +Greek from 12,869 to 24,869. Thus the number learning Latin at +the later date was three times, and the number learning Greek +twice, as many as those learning Latin or Greek ten years +previously. But the total number in 1000 was 630,048; so that, +notwithstanding this proof of progress, the number learning +Greek in 1900 was only about one twenty-fifth of the total +number, while the number learning Latin was as high as half.</p> + +<p>The position of Greek as an “elective” or “optional” subject +(notably at Harvard), an arrangement regarded with approval by +some eminent educational authorities and with regret by others, +probably has some effect on the high schools in the small number +of those who learn Greek, and in their lower rate of increase, as +compared with those who learn Latin. Some evidence as to the +quality of the study of those languages in the schools is supplied +by English commissioners in the <i>Reports of the Mosely Commission</i>. +Thus Mr Papillon considered that, while the teaching of +English literature was admirable, the average standard of Latin +and Greek teaching and attainment in the upper classes was +“below that of an English public school”; he felt, however, +that the secondary schools of the United States had a “greater +variety of the curriculum to suit the practical needs of life,” and +that they existed, not “for the select few,” but “for the whole +people” (pp. 250 f.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For full information see the “Two volumes of Monographs +prepared for the United States Educational Exhibit at the Paris +Exposition of 1900,” edited by Dr N. Murray Butler; the <i>Annual +Reports</i> of the U.S. commissioner of education (Washington); +and the <i>Reports of the Mosely Commission to the United States of +America</i> (London, 1904). Cf. statistics quoted in G.G. Ramsay’s +“Address on Efficiency in Education” (Glasgow, 1902, 17-20), from +the <i>Transactions of the Amer. Philol. Association</i>, xxx. (1899), +pp. lxxvii-cxxii; also Bennett and Bristol, <i>The Teaching of Latin +and Greek in the Secondary School</i> (New York, 1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. E. S.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1l" id="Footnote_1l" href="#FnAnchor_1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The above derivation is in accordance with English usage. In +the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the earliest example of the word +“classical” is the phrase “classical and canonical,” found in the +<i>Europae Speculum</i> of Sir Edwin Sandys (1599), and, as applied to +a writer, it is explained as meaning “of the first rank or authority.” +This exactly corresponds with the meaning of <i>classicus</i> in the above +passage of Gellius. On the other hand, the French word <i>classique</i> +(in Littré’s view) primarily means “used in class.”</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2l" id="Footnote_2l" href="#FnAnchor_2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schools</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLASSIFICATION<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Lat. <i>classis</i>, a class, probably from the +root <i>cal-</i>, <i>cla-</i>, as in Gr. <span class="grk" title="kaleô">καλέω</span>, <i>clamor</i>), a logical process, common +to all the special sciences and to knowledge in general, consisting +in the collection under a common name of a number of objects +which are alike in one or more respects. The process consists +in observing the objects and abstracting from their various +qualities that characteristic which they have in common. This +characteristic constitutes the definition of the “class” to which +they are regarded as belonging. It is this process by which we +arrive first at “species” and then at “genus,” <i>i.e.</i> at all scientific +generalization. Individual things, regarded as such, constitute +a mere aggregate, unconnected with one another, and so far +unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in systematic classification. +Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies individually +we can state merely that they have been observed to have certain +motions through the sky, that they are luminous, and the like. +If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover +that, whereas all partake in the general movement of the heavens, +some have a movement of their own. Thus we arrive at a system +of classification according to motion, by which fixed stars are +differentiated from planets. A further classification according +to other criteria gives us stars of the first magnitude and stars +of the second magnitude, and so forth. We thus arrive at a +systematic understanding expressed in laws by the application +of which accurate forecasts of celestial phenomena can be made. +Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering +the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from +what is often called “artificial” classification, which is the +preparation, <i>e.g.</i> of statistics for particular purposes, administrative +and the like.</p> + +<p>Of the systems of classification adopted in physical science, +only one requires treatment here, namely, the classification of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span> +the sciences as a whole, a problem which has from the time of +Aristotle attracted considerable attention. Its object is to +delimit the spheres of influence of the positive sciences and show +how they are mutually related. Of such attempts three are +specially noteworthy, those of Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte +and Herbert Spencer.</p> + +<p>Bacon’s classification is based on the subjective criterion of +the various faculties which are specially concerned. He thus +distinguished History (natural, civil, literary, ecclesiastical) as +the province of memory, Philosophy (including Theology) as +that of reason, and Poetry, Fables and the like, as that of +imagination. This classification was made the basis of the +<i>Encyclopédie</i>. Comte adopted an entirely different system based +on an objective criterion. Having first enunciated the theory +that all science passes through three stages, theological, metaphysical +and positive, he neglects the two first, and divides the +last according to the “things to be classified,” in view of their +real affinity and natural connexions, into six, in order of decreasing +generality and increasing complexity—mathematics, astronomy, +physics, chemistry, physiology and biology (including +psychology), and sociology. This he conceives to be not only +the logical, but also the historical, order of development, from +the abstract and purely deductive to the concrete and inductive. +Sociology is thus the highest, most complex, and most positive +of the sciences. Herbert Spencer, condemning this division as +both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a three-fold +division into (1) <i>abstract</i> science (including logic and mathematics) +dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge of +phenomena is possible, (2) <i>abstract-concrete</i> science (including +mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of +phenomena themselves, <i>i.e.</i> laws of forces as deducible from +the persistence of forces, and (3) <i>concrete</i> science (<i>e.g.</i> astronomy, +biology, sociology), dealing with “phenomena themselves in +their totalities,” the universal laws of the continuous redistribution +of Matter and Motion, Evolution and Dissolution.</p> + +<p>Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief +mention. In Greece at the dawn of systematic thought the +physical sciences were few in number; none the less philosophers +were not agreed as to their true relation. The Platonic school +adopted a triple classification, physics, ethics and dialectics; +Aristotle’s system was more complicated, nor do we know +precisely how he subdivided his three main classes, theoretical, +practical and poetical (<i>i.e.</i> technical, having to do with <span class="grk" title="poiêsis">ποίησις</span>, +creative). The second class covered ethics and politics, the +latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including +ethics; the third includes the useful and the imitative sciences; +the first includes metaphysics and physics. As regards pure +logic Aristotle sometimes seems to include it with metaphysics +and physics, sometimes to regard it as ancillary to all the sciences.</p> + +<p>Thomas Hobbes (<i>Leviathan</i>) drew up an elaborate paradigm +of the sciences, the first stage of which was a dichotomy into +“Naturall Philosophy” (“consequences from the accidents +of bodies naturall”) and “Politiques and Civill Philosophy” +(“consequences from accidents of Politique bodies”). The +former by successive subdivisions is reduced to eighteen special +sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and duties of +sovereign powers, and those of the subject.</p> + +<p>Jeremy Bentham and A.M. Ampère both drew up elaborate +systems based on the principle of dichotomy, and beginning +from the distinction of mind and body. Bentham invented +an artificial terminology which is rather curious than valuable. +The science of the body was Somatology, that of the mind Pneumatology. +The former include Posology (science of quantity, +mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology +includes Morphoscopic (geometry) and Alegomorphic(arithmetic). +See further Bentham’s <i>Chrestomathia</i> and works quoted under +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bentham, Jeremy</a></span>.</p> + +<p>Carl Wundt criticized most of these systems as taking too little +account of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on +the standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-matter. +His system may, therefore, be described as conceptional. +It distinguishes philosophy, which deals with facts in their widest +universal relations, from the special sciences, which consider +facts in the light of a particular relation or set of relations.</p> + +<p>All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting +as throwing light on the views of those who invented them. It +will be seen, however, that none can lay claim to unique validity. +The <i>fundamenta divisionis</i>, though in themselves more or less +logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen, generally as being germane +to a preconceived philosophical or scientific theory.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLASTIDIUM<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (mod. <i>Casteggio</i>), a village of the Anamares, +in Gallia Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 m. E. of Iria +(mod. <i>Voghera</i>) and 31 m. W. of Placentia. Here in 222 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +M. Claudius Marcellus defeated the Gauls and won the <i>spolia +opima</i>; in 218 Hannibal took it and its stores of corn by +treachery. It never had an independent government, and not +later than 190 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was made part of the colony of Placentia +(founded 219). In the Augustan division of Italy, however, +Placentia belonged to the 8th region, Aemilia, whereas Iria +certainly, and Clastidium possibly, belonged to the 9th, Liguria +(see Th. Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> vol. v. Berlin, 1877, +p. 828). The remains visible at Clastidium are scanty; there +is a fountain (the Fontana d’Annibale), and a Roman bridge, +which seems to have been constructed of tiles, not of stone, +was discovered in 1857, but destroyed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Giulietti, <i>Casteggio, notizie storiche II. Avanzi di antichità</i> +(Voghera, 1893).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUBERG, JOHANN<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1622-1665), German philosopher, +was born at Solingen, in Westphalia, on the 24th of February +1622. After travelling in France and England, he studied the +Cartesian philosophy under John Raey at Leiden. He became +(1649) professor of philosophy and theology at Herborn, but +subsequently (1651), in consequence of the jealousy of his +colleagues, accepted an invitation to a similar post at Duisburg, +where he died on the 31st of January 1665. Clauberg was one +of the earliest teachers of the new doctrines in Germany and an +exact and methodical commentator on his master’s writings. +His theory of the connexion between the soul and the body is +in some respects analogous to that of Malebranche; but he is +not therefore to be regarded as a true forerunner of Occasionalism, +as he uses “Occasion” for the stimulus which directly produces +a mental phenomenon, without postulating the intervention +of God (H. Müller, <i>J. Clauberg und seine Stellung im Cartesianismus</i>). +His view of the relation of God to his creatures is held +to foreshadow the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist +only through the continuous creative energy of the Divine +Being, and are no more independent of his will than are our +thoughts independent of us,—or rather less, for there are thoughts +which force themselves upon us whether we will or not. For +metaphysics Clauberg suggested the names <i>ontosophy</i> or <i>ontology</i>, +the latter being afterwards adopted by Wolff. He also devoted +considerable attention to the German languages, and his researches +in this direction attracted the favourable notice of +Leibnitz. His chief works are: <i>De conjunctione animae et +corporis humani</i>; <i>Exercitationes centum de cognitione Dei et +nostri</i>; <i>Logica vetus et nova</i>; <i>Initiatio philosophi, seu Dubitatio +Cartesiana</i>; a commentary on Descartes’ <i>Meditations</i>; and +<i>Ars etymologica Teutonum</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A collected edition of his philosophical works was published at +Amsterdam (1691), with life by H.C. Hennin; see also E. Zeller, +<i>Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie seit Leibnitz</i> (1873).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUDE, JEAN<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1619-1687), French Protestant divine, was +born at La Sauvetat-du-Dropt near Agen. After studying at +Montauban, he entered the ministry in 1645. He was for eight +years professor of theology in the Protestant college of Nîmes; +but in 1661, having successfully opposed a scheme for re-uniting +Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to preach in Lower +Languedoc. In 1662 he obtained a post at Montauban similar +to that which he had lost; but after four years he was removed +from this also. He next became pastor at Charenton near Paris, +where he engaged in controversies with Pierre Nicole (<i>Réponse +aux deux traités intitulés la perpétuité de la foi</i>, 1665), Antoine +Arnauld (<i>Réponse au livre de M. Arnauld</i>, 1670), and J.B. +Bossuet (<i>Réponse au livre de M. l’évêque de Meaux</i>, 1683). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span> +On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he fled to Holland, and +received a pension from William of Orange, who commissioned +him to write an account of the persecuted Huguenots (<i>Plaintes +des protestants cruellement opprimés dans le royaume de France</i>, +1686). The book was translated into English, but by order of +James II, both the translation and the original were publicly +burnt by the common hangman on the 5th of May 1686, as +containing “expressions scandalous to His Majesty the king of +France.” Other works by him were <i>Réponse au livre de P. Nouet +sur l’eucharistie</i> (1668); <i>Œuvres posthumes</i> (Amsterdam, 1688), +containing the <i>Traité de la composition d’un sermon</i>, translated +into English in 1778.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See biographies by J.P. Nicéron and Abel Rotholf de la Devèze; +E. Haag, <i>La France protestante</i>, vol. iv. (1884, new edition).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUDE OF LORRAINE<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Claude Gelée</span> (1600-1682), +French landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the +village of Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that +he made no progress at school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly +said, to a pastry-cook, but this is extremely dubious. At the +age of twelve, being left an orphan, he went to live at Freiburg +on the Rhine with an elder brother, Jean Gelée, a wood-carver +of moderate merit, and under him he designed arabesques and +foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a livelihood; +but from his clownishness and ignorance of the language, he +failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to +Naples, to study landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a +painter of much repute. With him he remained two years; +then he returned to Rome, and was domesticated until April +1625 with another landscape-painter, Augustin Tassi, who hired +him to grind his colours and to do all the household drudgery.</p> + +<p>His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his +greatest works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the +elements of design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began +to expand, and he devoted himself to artistic study with great +eagerness. He exerted his utmost industry to explore the true +principles of painting by an incessant examination of nature; +and for this purpose he made his studies in the open fields, where +he very frequently remained from sunrise till sunset, watching +the effect of the shifting light upon the landscape. He generally +sketched whatever he thought beautiful or striking, marking +every tinge of light with a similar colour; from these sketches +he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in +Italy, France and a part of Germany, including his native +Lorraine, suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl +Dervent, painter to the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant +for a year; and he painted at Nancy the architectural subjects +on the ceiling of the Carmelite church. He did not, however, +relish this employment, and in 1627 returned to Rome. Here, +painting two landscapes for Cardinal Bentivoglio, he earned +the protection of Pope Urban VIII, and from about 1637 he +rapidly rose into celebrity. Claude was acquainted not only +with the facts, but also with the laws of nature; and the German +painter Joachim von Sandrart relates that he used to explain, +as they walked together through the fields, the causes of the +different appearances of the same landscape at different hours of +the day, from the reflections or refractions of light, or from the +morning and evening dews or vapours, with all the precision of +a natural philosopher. He elaborated his pictures with great +care; and if any performance fell short of his ideal, he altered, +erased and repainted it several times over.</p> + +<p>His skies are aerial and full of lustre, and every object harmoniously +illumined. His distances and colouring are delicate, +and his tints have a sweetness and variety till then unexampled. +He frequently gave an uncommon tenderness to his finished trees +by glazing. His figures, however, are very indifferent; but he +was so conscious of his deficiency in this respect, that he usually +engaged other artists to paint them for him, among whom were +Courtois and Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to say that he +sold his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to avoid +a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very +numerous spurious copies of his works, he made tinted outline +drawings (in six paper books prepared for this purpose) of all +those pictures which were transmitted to different countries; +and on the back of each drawing he wrote the name of the +purchaser. These books he named <i>Libri di verità</i>. This valuable +work (now belonging to the duke of Devonshire) has been engraved +and published, and has always been highly esteemed by students +of the art of landscape. Claude, who had suffered much from +gout, died in Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 21st (or +perhaps the 23rd) of November 1682, leaving his wealth, which +was considerable, between his only surviving relatives, a nephew +and an adopted daughter (? niece).</p> + +<p>Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in the +National Gallery and in the Louvre; the landscapes in the +Altieri and Colonna palaces in Rome are also of especial celebrity. +A list has been printed showing no less than 92 examples in the +various public galleries of Europe. He himself regarded a landscape +which he painted in the Villa Madama, being a cento of +various views with great abundance and variety of leafage, and +a composition of Esther and Ahasuerus, as his finest works; the +former he refused to sell, although Clement IX. offered to cover +its surface with gold pieces. He etched a series of twenty-eight +landscapes, fine impressions of which are greatly prized. Full +of amenity, and deeply sensitive to the graces of nature, Claude +was long deemed the prince of landscape painters, and he must +always be accounted a prime leader in that form of art, and +in his day a great enlarger and refiner of its province.</p> + +<p>Claude was a man of amiable and simple character, very kind +to his pupils, a patient and unwearied worker; in his own sphere +of study, his mind was stored (as we have seen) with observation +and knowledge, but he continued an unlettered man till his +death. Famous and highly patronized though he was in all his +later years, he seems to have been very little known to his brother +artists, with the single exception of Sandrart. This painter is +the chief direct authority for the facts of Claude’s life (<i>Academia +Artis Pictoriae</i>, 1683); Baldinucci, who obtained information +from some of Claude’s immediate survivors, relates various +incidents to a different effect (<i>Notizie dei professori del disegno</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Victor Cousin, <i>Sur Claude Gelée</i> (1853); M.F. Sweetser, +<i>Claude Lorrain</i> (1878); Lady Dilke, <i>Claude Lorrain</i> (1884).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS JEAN<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1797-1867), French +photographer, was born at Lyons on the 12th of August 1797. +Having acquired a share in L.J.M. Daguerre’s invention, he was +one of the first to practise daguerreotype portraiture in England, +and he improved the sensitizing process by using chlorine in +addition to iodine, thus gaining greater rapidity of action. In +1848 he produced the photographometer, an instrument designed +to measure the intensity of photogenic rays; and in 1849 he +brought out the focimeter, for securing a perfect focus in photographic +portraiture. He was elected a fellow of the Royal +Society in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonoscope, +in reply to a challenge from Sir David Brewster. He died in +London on the 27th of December 1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span>, Latin epic poet and panegyrist, +flourished during the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. He was +an Egyptian by birth, probably an Alexandrian, but it may be +conjectured from his name and his mastery of Latin that he was +of Roman extraction. His own authority has been assumed for +the assertion that his first poetical compositions were in Greek, +and that he had written nothing in Latin before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 395; but +this seems improbable, and the passage (<i>Carm. Min.</i> xli. 13) +which is taken to prove it does not necessarily bear this meaning. +In that year he appears to have come to Rome, and made his +début as a Latin poet by a panegyric on the consulship of Olybrius +and Probinus, the first brothers not belonging to the imperial +family who had ever simultaneously filled the office of consul. +This piece proved the precursor of the series of panegyrical poems +which compose the bulk of his writings. In Birt’s edition a +complete chronological list of Claudian’s poems is given, and +also in J.B. Bury’s edition of Gibbon (iii. app. i. p. 485), where +the dates given differ slightly from those in the present article.</p> + +<p>In 396 appeared the encomium on the third consulship of the +emperor Honorius, and the epic on the downfall of Rufinus, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span> +unworthy minister of Arcadius at Constantinople. This revolution +was principally effected by the contrivance of Stilicho, the +great general and minister of Honorius. Claudian’s poem appears +to have obtained his patronage, or rather perhaps that of his wife +Serena, by whose interposition the poet was within a year or two +enabled to contract a wealthy marriage in Africa (<i>Epist.</i> 2). +Previously to this event he had produced (398) his panegyric on +the fourth consulship of Honorius, his epithalamium on the +marriage of Honorius to Stilicho’s daughter, Maria, and his poem +on the Gildonic war, celebrating the repression of a revolt in +Africa. To these succeeded his piece on the consulship of +Manlius Theodorus (399), the unfinished or mutilated invective +against the Byzantine prime minister Eutropius in the same year, +the epics on Stilicho’s first consulship and on his repulse of Alaric +(400 and 403), and the panegyric on the sixth consulship of +Honorius (404). From this time all trace of Claudian is lost, and +he is generally supposed to have perished with his patron Stilicho +in 408. It may be conjectured that he must have died in 404, as +he could hardly otherwise have omitted to celebrate the greatest +of Stilicho’s achievements, the destruction of the barbarian host +led by Radagaisus in the following year. On the other hand, he +may have survived Stilicho, as in the dedication to the second +book of his epic on the <i>Rape of Proserpine</i> (which Birt, however, +assigns to 395-397), he speaks of his disuse of poetry in terms +hardly reconcilable with the fertility which he displayed during +his patron’s lifetime. From the manner in which Augustine +alludes to him in his <i>De civitate Dei</i>, it may be inferred that he +was no longer living at the date of the composition of that work, +between 415 and 428.</p> + +<p>Besides Claudian’s chief poems, his lively Fescennines on the +emperor’s marriage, his panegyric on Serena, and the <i>Gigantomachia</i>, +a fragment of an unfinished Greek epic, may also be +mentioned. Several poems expressing Christian sentiments are +undoubtedly spurious. Claudian’s paganism, however, neither +prevented his celebrating Christian rulers and magistrates nor his +enjoying the distinction of a court laureate. It is probable that he +was nominally a Christian, like his patron Stilicho and Ausonius, +although at heart attached to the old religion. The very decided +statements of Orosius and Augustine as to his heathenism may be +explained by the pagan style of Claudian’s political poems. We +have his own authority for his having been honoured by a bronze +statue in the forum, and Pomponius Laetus discovered in the +15th century an inscription (<i>C.I.L.</i> vi. 1710) on the pedestal, +which, formerly considered spurious, is now generally regarded as +genuine.</p> + +<p>The position of Claudian—the last of the Roman poets—is +unique in literature. It is sufficiently remarkable that, after +nearly three centuries of torpor, the Latin muse should have +experienced any revival in the age of Honorius, nothing less than +amazing that this revival should have been the work of a foreigner, +most surprising of all that a just and enduring celebrity should +have been gained by official panegyrics on the generally uninteresting +transactions of an inglorious epoch. The first of these +particulars bespeaks Claudian’s taste, rising superior to the +prevailing barbarism, the second his command of language, the +third his rhetorical skill. As remarked by Gibbon, “he was +endowed with the rare and precious talent of raising the meanest, +of adorning the most barren, and of diversifying the most +similar topics.” This gift is especially displayed in his poem on +the downfall of Rufinus, where the punishment of a public malefactor +is exalted to the dignity of an epical subject by the +magnificence of diction and the ostentation of supernatural +machinery. The noble exordium, in which the fate of Rufinus is +propounded as the vindication of divine justice, places the subject +at once on a dignified level; and the council of the infernal +powers has afforded a hint to Tasso, and through him to Milton. +The inevitable monotony of the panegyrics on Honorius is +relieved by just and brilliant expatiation on the duties of a +sovereign. In his celebration of Stilicho’s victories Claudian +found a subject more worthy of his powers, and some passages, +such as the description of the flight of Alaric, and of Stilicho’s +arrival at Rome, and the felicitous parallel between his triumphs +and those of Marius, rank among the brightest ornaments of +Latin poetry. Claudian’s panegyric, however lavish and +regardless of veracity, is in general far less offensive than usual in +his age, a circumstance attributable partly to his more refined +taste and partly to the genuine merit of his patron Stilicho. +He is a valuable authority for the history of his times, and is +rarely to be convicted of serious inaccuracy in his facts, whatever +may be thought of the colouring he chooses to impart to them. +He was animated by true patriotic feeling, in the shape of a +reverence for Rome as the source and symbol of law, order and +civilization. Outside the sphere of actual life he is less successful; +his <i>Rape of Proserpine</i>, though the beauties of detail are as +great as usual, betrays his deficiency in the creative power +requisite for dealing with a purely ideal subject. This denotes +the rhetorician rather than the poet, and in general it may be said +that his especial gifts of vivid natural description, and of copious +illustration, derived from extensive but not cumbrous erudition, +are fully as appropriate to eloquence as to poetry. In the +general cast of his mind and character of his writings, and +especially, in his faculty for bestowing enduring interest upon +occasional themes, we may fitly compare him with Dryden, +remembering that while Dryden exulted in the energy of a +vigorous and fast-developing language, Claudian was cramped +by an artificial diction, confined to the literary class.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The editio princeps of Claudian was printed at Vicenza in 1482; +the editions of J.M. Gesner (1759) and P. Burmann (1760) are still +valuable for their notes. The first critical edition was that of L. +Jeep (1876-1879), now superseded by the exhaustive work of T. +Birt, with bibliography, in <i>Monumenta Germaniae Historica</i> (x., +1892; smaller ed. founded on this by J. Koch, Teubner series, 1893). +There is a separate edition with commentary and verse translation of +<i>Il Ratto di</i> <span class="correction" title="amended from Prosperpina"><i>Proserpina</i></span>, by L. Garces de Diez (1889); the satire <i>In +Eutropium</i> is discussed by T. Birt in <i>Zwei politische Satiren des alten +Rom</i> (1888). There is a complete English verse translation of little +merit by A. Hawkins (1817). See the articles by Ramsay in Smith’s +<i>Classical Dictionary</i> and Vollmer in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopädie +der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, iii. 2 (1899); also +J.H.E. Crees, <i>Claudian as an Historian</i> (1908), the “Cambridge +Historical Essay” for 1906 (No. 17); T. Hodgkin, <i>Claudian, the last +of the Roman Poets</i> (1875).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIUS<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus</span>], +Roman emperor <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 41-54, son of Drusus and Antonia, nephew +of the emperor Tiberius, and grandson of Livia, the wife of +Augustus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on the 1st of August +10 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> During his boyhood he was treated with contempt, +owing to his weak and timid character and his natural infirmities; +the fact that he was regarded as little better than an imbecile +saved him from death at the hands of Caligula. He chiefly devoted +himself to literature, especially history, and until his accession +he took no real part in public affairs, though Caligula honoured +him with the dignity of consul. He was four times married: +to Plautia Urgulanilla, whom he divorced because he suspected +her of designs against his life; to Aelia Petina, also divorced; +to the infamous Valeria Messallina (<i>q.v.</i>); and to his niece +Agrippina.</p> + +<p>In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 41, on the murder of Caligula, Claudius was seized +by the praetorians, and declared emperor. The senate, which +had entertained the idea of restoring the republic, was obliged +to acquiesce. One of Claudius’s first acts was to proclaim an +amnesty for all except Cassius Chaerea, the assassin of his predecessor, +and one or two others. After the discovery of a +conspiracy against his life in 42, he fell completely under the +influence of Messallina and his favourite freedmen Pallas and +Narcissus, who must be held responsible for acts of cruelty +which have brought undeserved odium upon the emperor. +There is no doubt that Claudius was a liberal-minded man of +kindly nature, anxious for the welfare of his people. Humane +regulations were made in regard to freedmen, slaves, widows +and orphans; the police system was admirably organized; +commerce was put on a sound footing; the provinces were +governed in a spirit of liberality; the rights of citizens and +admission to the senate were extended to communities outside +Italy. The speech of Claudius delivered (in the year 48) in the +senate in support of the petition of the Aeduans that their +senators should have the <i>jus petendorum honorum</i> (claim of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span> +admission to the senate and magistracies) at Rome has been +partly preserved on the fragment of a bronze tablet found at +Lyons in 1524; an imperial edict concerning the citizenship of +the Anaunians (15th of March 46) was found in the southern +Tirol in 1869 (<i>C.I.L.</i> v. 5050). Claudius was especially fond +of building. He completed the great aqueduct (Aqua Claudia) +begun by Caligula, drained the Lacus Fucinus, and built the +harbour of Ostia. Nor were his military operations unsuccessful. +Mauretania was made a Roman province; the conquest of +Britain was begun; his distinguished general Domitius Corbulo +(<i>q.v.</i>) gained considerable successes in Germany and the East. +The intrigues of Narcissus caused Messallina to be put to death +by order of Claudius, who took as his fourth wife his niece +Agrippina, a woman as criminal as any of her predecessors. +She prevailed upon him to set aside his own son Britannicus in +favour of Nero, her son by a former marriage; and in 54, to +make Nero’s position secure, she put the emperor to death by +poison. The apotheosis of Claudius was the subject of a lampoon +by Seneca called <i>apokolokyntosis</i>, the “pumpkinification” of +Claudius.</p> + +<p>Claudius was a prolific writer, chiefly on history, but his +works are lost. He wrote (in Greek) a history of Carthage and +a history of Etruria; (in Latin) a history of Rome from the +death of Caesar, an autobiography, and an essay in defence of +Cicero against the attacks of Asinius Gallus. He also introduced +three new letters into the Latin alphabet: Ⅎ for the consonantal +V, ⃝ for BS and PS, ˫ for the intermediate sound between I +and U.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Ancient: the <i>Annals</i> of Tacitus, Suetonius and +Dio Cassius. Modern: H. Lehmann, <i>Claudius und seine Zeit</i>, with +introductory chapter on the ancient authorities (1858); Lucien +Double, <i>L’Empereur Claude</i> (1876); A. Ziegler, <i>Die politische Seite +der Regierung des Kaisers Claudius</i> (1885); H.F. Pelham in <i>Quarterly +Review</i> (April 1905), where certain administrative and political +changes introduced by Claudius, for which he was attacked by his +contemporaries, are discussed and defended; Merivale, <i>Hist. of +the Romans under the Empire</i>, chs. 49, 50; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte +der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, i., pt. 1; H. Furneaux’s ed. of the <i>Annals</i> +of Tacitus (introduction).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIUS<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span>, the name of a famous Roman gens. The by-form +<i>Clodius</i>, in its origin a mere orthographical variant, was regularly +used for certain Claudii in late republican times, but otherwise +the two forms were used indifferently. The gens contained a +patrician and a plebeian family; the chief representatives of +the former were the Pulchri, of the latter the Marcelli (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marcellus</a></span>). The following members of the gens deserve +particular mention.</p> + +<p>1. <span class="sc">Appius Saminus Inregillensis</span>, or <span class="sc">Regillensis, Claudius</span>, +so called from Regillum (or Regilli) in Sabine territory, founder +of the Claudian gens. His original name was Attus or Attius +Clausus. About 504 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he settled in Rome, where he and his +followers formed a tribe. In 495 he was consul, and his cruel +enforcement of the laws of debtor and creditor, in opposition to +his milder colleague, P. Servilius Priscus, was one of the chief +causes of the “secession” of the plebs to the Sacred Mount. On +several occasions he displayed his hatred of the people, although +it is stated that he subsequently played the part of mediator.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Suetonius, <i>Tiberius</i>, i.; Livy ii. 16-29; Dion. Halic. v. 40, vi. +23, 24.</p> +</div> + +<p>2. <span class="sc">Claudius, Appius</span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Crassus</span>, a Roman patrician, +consul in 471 and 451 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and in the same and following year +one of the decemvirs. At first he was conspicuous for his +aristocratic pride and bitter hatred of the plebeians. Twice +they refused to fight under him, and fled before their enemies. +He retaliated by decimating the army. He was banished, but +soon returned, and again became consul. In the same year +(451) he was made one of the decemviri who had been appointed +to draw up a code of written laws. When it was decided to elect +decemvirs for another year, he who had formerly been looked +upon as the champion of the aristocracy, suddenly came forward +as the friend of the people, and was himself re-elected together +with several plebeians. But no sooner was the new body in +office, than it treated both patricians and plebeians with equal +violence, and refused to resign at the end of the year. Matters +were brought to a crisis by the affair of Virginia. Enamoured +of the beautiful daughter of the plebeian centurion Virginius, +Claudius attempted to seize her by an abuse of justice. One +of his clients, Marcus Claudius, swore that she was the child of +a slave belonging to him, and had been stolen by the childless +wife of the centurion. Virginius was summoned from the army, +and on the day of trial was present to expose the conspiracy. +Nevertheless, judgment was given according to the evidence +of Marcus, and Claudius commanded Virginia to be given up to +him. In despair, her father seized a knife from a neighbouring +stall and plunged it in her side. A general insurrection was the +result; and the people seceded to the Sacred Mount. The +decemvirs were finally compelled to resign and Appius Claudius +died in prison, either by his own hand or by that of the executioner. +For a discussion of the character of Appius Claudius, +see Mommsen’s appendix to vol. i. of his <i>History of Rome</i>. He +holds that Claudius was never the leader of the patrician party, +but a patrician demagogue who ended by becoming a tyrant +to patricians as well as plebeians. The decemvirate, one of +the triumphs of the plebs, could hardly have been abolished by +that body, but would naturally have been overthrown by the +patricians. The revolution which ruined Claudius was a return to +the rule of the patricians represented by the Horatii and Valerii.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Livy iii. 32-58; Dion. Halic. x. 59, xi. 3.</p> +</div> + +<p>3. <span class="sc">Claudius, Appius</span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Caecus</span>, Roman patrician and +author. In 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was elected censor without having passed +through the office of consul. His censorship—which he retained +for five years, in spite of the lex Aemilia which limited the +tenure of that office to eighteen months—was remarkable for the +actual or attempted achievement of several great constitutional +changes. He filled vacancies in the senate with men of low birth, +in some cases even the sons of freedmen (Diod. Sic. xx. 36; +Livy ix. 30; Suetonius, <i>Claudius</i>, 24). His most important +political innovation was the abolition of the old free birth, +freehold basis of suffrage. He enrolled the freedmen and +landless citizens both in the centuries and in the tribes, +and, instead of assigning them to the four urban tribes, +he distributed them through all the tribes and thus gave +them practical control of the elections. In 304, however, +Q. Fabius Rullianus limited the landless and poorer freedmen to +the four urban tribes, thus annulling the effect of Claudius’s +arrangement. Appius Claudius transferred the charge of the +public worship of Hercules in the Forum Boarium from the +Potitian gens to a number of public slaves. He further invaded +the exclusive rights of the patricians by directing his secretary +Gnaeus Flavius (whom, though a freedman, he made a senator) +to publish the <i>legis actiones</i> (methods of legal practice) and the +list of <i>dies fasti</i> (or days on which legal business could be transacted). +Lastly, he gained enduring fame by the construction of a +road and an aqueduct, which—a thing unheard of before—he +called by his own name (Livy ix. 29; Frontinus, <i>De Aquis</i>, +115; Diod. Sic. xx. 36). In 307 he was elected consul for the +first time. In 298 he was interrex; in 296, as consul, he led the +army in Samnium, and although, with his colleague, he gained a +victory over the Etruscans and Samnites, he does not seem to +have specially distinguished himself as a soldier (Livy x. 19). +Next year he was praetor, and he was once dictator. His +character, like his namesake the decemvir’s is not easy to define. +In spite of his political reforms, he opposed the admission of the +plebeians to the consulship and priestly offices; and, although +these reforms might appear to be democratic in character and +calculated to give preponderance to the lowest class of the people, +his probable aim was to strengthen the power of the magistrates +(and lessen that of the senate) by founding it on the popular will, +which would find its expression in the urban inhabitants and +could be most easily influenced by the magistrate. He was +already blind and too feeble to walk, when Cineas, the minister of +Pyrrhus, visited him, but so vigorously did he oppose every +concession that all the eloquence of Cineas was in vain, and the +Romans forgot past misfortunes in the inspiration of Claudius’s +patriotism (Livy x. 13; Justin xviii. 2; Plutarch, <i>Pyrrhus</i>, 19). +The story of his blindness, however, may be merely a method of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span> +accounting for his cognomen. Tradition regarded it as the +punishment of his transference of the cult of Hercules from the +Potitii.</p> + +<p>Appius Claudius Caecus is also remarkable as the first writer +mentioned in Roman literature. His speech against peace with +Pyrrhus was the first that was transmitted to writing, and thereby +laid the foundation of prose composition. He was the author of a +collection of aphorisms in verse mentioned by Cicero (of which a +few fragments remain), and of a legal work entitled <i>De Usurpationibus</i>. +It is very likely also that he was concerned in the +drawing up of the <i>Legis Actiones</i> published by Flavius. The +famous dictum “Every man is the architect of his own fortune” +is attributed to him. He also interested himself in grammatical +questions, distinguished the two sounds R and S in writing, and +did away with the letter Z.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Mommsen’s appendix to his <i>Roman History</i> (vol. i.); treatises +by W. Siebert (1863) and F.D. Gerlach (1872), dealing especially +with the censorship of Claudius.</p> +</div> + +<p>4. <span class="sc">Claudius, Publius</span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Pulcher</span>, son of (3). He +was the first of the gens who bore this surname. In 249 he was +consul and appointed to the command of the fleet in the first +Punic War. Instead of continuing the siege of Lilybaeum, he +decided to attack the Carthaginians in the harbour of Drepanum, +and was completely defeated. The disaster was commonly +attributed to Claudius’s treatment of the sacred chickens, which +refused to eat before the battle. “Let them drink then,” said +the consul, and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. Having +been recalled and ordered to appoint a dictator, he gave another +instance of his high-handedness by nominating a subordinate +official, M. Claudius Glicia, but the nomination was at once overruled. +Claudius himself was accused of high treason and heavily +fined. He must have died before 246, in which year his sister +Claudia was fined for publicly expressing a wish that her brother +Publius could rise from the grave to lose a second fleet and +thereby diminish the number of the people. It is supposed that +he committed suicide.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Livy, <i>Epit.</i>, 19; Polybius i. 49; Cicero, <i>De Divinatione</i>, i. 16, +ii. 8; Valerius Maximus i. 4, viii. I.</p> +</div> + +<p>5. <span class="sc">Claudius, Appius</span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Pulcher</span>, Roman statesman +and author. He served under his brother-in-law Lucullus in Asia +(72 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and was commissioned to deliver the ultimatum to +Tigranes, which gave him the choice of war with Rome or the +surrender of Mithradates. In 57 he was praetor, in 56 propraetor +in Sardinia, and in 54 consul with L. Domitius Ahenobarbus. +Through the intervention of Pompey, he became +reconciled to Cicero, who had been greatly offended because +Claudius had indirectly opposed his return from exile. In this +and certain other transactions Claudius seems to have acted from +avaricious motives,—a result of his early poverty. In 53 he +entered upon the governorship of Cilicia, in which capacity +he seems to have been rapacious and tyrannical. During this +period he carried on a correspondence with Cicero, whose letters +to him form the third book of the <i>Epistolae ad Familiares</i>. +Claudius resented the appointment of Cicero as his successor, +avoided meeting him, and even issued orders after his arrival +in the province. On his return to Rome Claudius was impeached +by P. Cornelius Dolabella on the ground of having violated the +sovereign rights of the people. This led him to make advances to +Cicero, since it was necessary to obtain witnesses in his favour +from his old province. He was acquitted, and a charge of +bribery against him also proved unsuccessful. In 50 he was +censor, and expelled many of the members of the senate, amongst +them the historian Sallust on the ground of immorality. His +connexion with Pompey brought upon him the enmity of Caesar, +at whose march on Rome he fled from Italy. Having been +appointed by Pompey to the command in Greece, in obedience to +an ambiguous oracle he crossed over to Euboea, where he died +about 48, before the battle of Pharsalus. Claudius was of a +distinctly religious turn of mind, as is shown by the interest he +took in sacred buildings (the temple at Eleusis, the sanctuary of +Amphiaraus at Oropus). He wrote a work on augury, the first +book of which he dedicated to Cicero. He was also extremely +superstitious, and believed in invocations of the dead. Cicero had +a high opinion of his intellectual powers, and considered him a +great orator (see Orelli, <i>Onomasticon Tullianum</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full account of all the Claudii will be found in Pauly-Wissowa’s +<i>Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, iii. 2 (1899).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Gothicus</span>, +Roman emperor <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 268-270, belonged to an obscure Illyrian +family. On account of his military ability he was placed in +command of an army by Decius; and Valerian appointed him +general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of the provinces of the +lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienus, he was called to +Italy in order to crush Aureolus; and on the death of the +emperor (268) he was chosen as his successor, in accordance, +it was said, with his express desire. Shortly after his accession +he routed the Alamanni on the Lacus Benacus (some doubt is +thrown upon this); in 269 a great victory over the Goths at +Naïssus in Moesia gained him the title of Gothicus. In the +following year he died of the plague at Sirmium, in his fifty-sixth +year. He enjoyed great popularity, and appears to have +been a man of ability and character.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His life was written by Trebellius Pollio, one of the <i>Scriptores +Historiae Augusiae</i>; see also Zosimus i. 40-43, the histories of Th. +Bernhardt and H. Schiller, and special dissertations by A. Duncker +on the life of Claudius (1868) and the defeat of the Alamanni (<i>Annalen +des Vereins für nassauische Altertumskunde</i>, 1879); Homo, <i>De +Claudio Gothico</i> (1900); Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, ii. +2458 ff. (Henze).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1740-1815), German poet, otherwise +known by the <i>nom de plume</i> of <span class="sc">Asmus</span>, was born on the 15th +of August 1740 at Reinfeld, near Lübeck, and studied at Jena. +He spent the greater part of his life in the little town of Wandsbeck, +near Hamburg, where he earned his first literary reputation +by editing from 1771 to 1775, a newspaper called the <i>Wandsbecker +Bote</i> (<i>Wandsbeck Messenger</i>), in which he published a large +number of prose essays and poems. They were written in pure +and simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; in many +there was a vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque, +while others were full of quiet meditation and solemn sentiment. +In his later days, perhaps through the influence of Klopstock, +with whom he had formed an intimate acquaintance, Claudius +became strongly pietistic, and the graver side of his nature +showed itself. In 1814 he removed to Hamburg, to the house +of his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph Perthes, +where he died on the 21st of January 1815.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Claudius’s collected works were published under the title of +<i>Asmus omnia sua secum portans, oder Sämtliche Werke des Wandsbecker +Boten</i> (8 vols., 1775-1812; 13th edition, by C. Redich, 2 vols., +1902). His biography has been written by Wilhelm Herbst (4th ed., +1878). See also M. Schneidereit, <i>M. Claudius, seine Weltanschauung +und Lebensweisheit</i> (1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUSEL<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (more correctly <span class="sc">Clauzel</span>), <span class="bold">BERTRAND</span>, <span class="sc">Count</span> +(1772-1842), marshal of France, was born at Mirepoix (Ariège) +on the 12th of December 1772, and served in the first campaign +of the French Revolutionary Wars as one of the volunteers of +1791. In June 1795, having distinguished himself repeatedly +in the war on the northern frontier (1792-1793) and the fighting +in the eastern Pyrenees (1793-1794), Clausel was made a general +of brigade. In this rank he served in Italy in 1798 and 1799, +and in the disastrous campaign of the latter year he won great +distinction at the battles of the Trebbia and of Novi. In 1802 +he served in the expedition to S. Domingo. He became a general +of division in December 1802, and after his return to France he +was in almost continuous military employment there until in +1806 he was sent to the army of Naples. Soon after this Napoleon +made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1808-1809 +he was with Marmont in Dalmatia, and at the close of 1809 he +was appointed to a command in the army of Portugal under +Masséna.</p> + +<p>Clausel took part in the Peninsular campaigns of 1810 and 1811, +including the Torres Vedras campaign, and under Marmont he +did excellent service in re-establishing the discipline, efficiency +and mobility of the army, which had suffered severely in the +retreat from Torres Vedras. In the Salamanca campaign (1812) +the result of Clausel’s work was shown in the marching powers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span> +of the French, and at the battle of Salamanca, Clausel, who had +succeeded to the command on Marmont being wounded, and had +himself received a severe wound, drew off his army with the +greatest skill, the retreat on Burgos being conducted by him in +such a way that the pursuers failed to make the slightest impression, +and had themselves in the end to retire from the siege of +Burgos (1812). Early in 1813 Clausel was made commander +of the Army of the North in Spain, but he was unable to avert +the great disaster of Vittoria. Under the supreme command of +Soult he served through the rest of the Peninsular War with +unvarying distinction. On the first restoration in 1814 he +submitted unwillingly to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon +returned to France, he hastened to join him. During the +Hundred Days he was in command of an army defending the +Pyrenean frontier. Even after Waterloo he long refused to +recognize the restored government, and he escaped to America, +being condemned to death in absence. He took the first opportunity +of returning to aid the Liberals in France (1820), sat in +the chamber of deputies from 1827 to 1830, and after the revolution +of 1830 was at once given a military command. At the head +of the army of Algiers, Clausel made a successful campaign, +but he was soon recalled by the home government, which desired +to avoid complications in Algeria. At the same time he was +made a marshal of France (February 1831). For some four +years thereafter he urged his Algerian policy upon the chamber +of deputies, and finally in 1835 was reappointed commander-in-chief. +But after several victories, including the taking of +Mascara in 1835, the marshal met with a severe repulse at +Constantine in 1836. A change of government in France was +primarily responsible for the failure, but public opinion attributed +it to Clausel, who was recalled in February 1837. He thereupon +retired from active service, and, after vigorously defending his +conduct before the deputies, he ceased to take part in public +affairs. He lived in complete retirement up to his death at +Secourrieu (Garonne) on the 21st of April 1842.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUSEN, GEORGE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1852-  ), English painter, was born +in London, the son of a decorative artist. He attended the design +classes at the South Kensington schools from 1867-1873 with +great success. He then worked in the studio of Edwin Long, +R.A., and subsequently in Paris under Bouguereau and Robert-Fleury. +He became one of the foremost modern painters of +landscape and of peasant life, influenced to a certain extent +by the impressionists with whom he shared the view that light +is the real subject of landscape art. His pictures excel in rendering +the appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight, +or in the shady shelter of a barn or stable. His “Girl at the +Gate” was acquired for the nation by the Chantrey Trustees and +is now at the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery). +He was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1895, and as +professor of painting gave a memorable series of lectures to the +students of the schools,—published as <i>Six Lectures on Painting</i> +(1904) and <i>Aims and Ideals in Art</i> (1906).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1780-1831), Prussian general and +military writer, was born at Burg, near Magdeburg, on the 1st of +June 1780. His family, originally Polish, had settled in Germany +at the end of the previous century. Entering the army in 1792, +he first saw service in the Rhine campaigns of 1793-1794, +receiving his commission at the siege of Mainz. On his return to +garrison duty he set to work so zealously to remedy the defects +in his education caused by his father’s poverty, that in 1801 he +was admitted to the Berlin Academy for young officers, then +directed by Scharnhorst. Scharnhorst, attracted by his pupil’s +industry and force of character, paid special attention to his +training, and profoundly influenced the development of his mind. +In 1803, on Scharnhorst’s recommendation, Clausewitz was made +“adjutant” (aide-de-camp) to Prince August, and he served in +this capacity in the campaign of Jena (1806), being captured +along with the prince by the French at Prenzlau. A prisoner in +France and Switzerland for the next two years, he returned +to Prussia in 1809; and for the next three years, as a departmental +chief in the ministry of war, as a teacher in the +military school, and as military instructor to the crown prince, +he assisted Scharnhorst in the famous reorganization of the +Prussian army. In 1810 he married the countess Marie von +Brühl.</p> + +<p>On the outbreak of the Russian war in 1812, Clausewitz, like +many other Prussian officers, took service with his country’s +nominal enemy. This step he justified in a memorial, published +for the first time in the <i>Leben Gneisenaus</i> by Pertz (Berlin, 1869). +At first adjutant to General Phull, who had himself been a +Prussian officer, he served later under Pahlen at Witepsk and +Smolensk, and from the final Russian position at Kaluga he +was sent to the army of Wittgenstein. It was Clausewitz who +negotiated the convention of Tauroggen, which separated the +cause of Yorck’s Prussians from that of the French, and began +the War of Liberation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yorck Von Wartenburg</a></span>; also +Blumenthal’s <i>Die Konvention von Tauroggen</i>, Berlin, 1901). As a +Russian officer he superintended the formation of the <i>Landwehr</i> of +east Prussia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stein, Baron Vom</a></span>), and in the campaign of +1813 served as chief of staff to Count Wallmoden. He conducted +the fight at Göhrde, and after the armistice, with Gneisenau’s +permission, published an account of the campaign (<i>Der Feldzug von +1813 bis zum Waffenstillstand</i>, Leipzig, 1813). This work was +long attributed to Gneisenau himself. After the peace of 1814 +Clausewitz re-entered the Prussian service, and in the Waterloo +campaign was present at Ligny and Wavre as General Thielmann’s +chief of staff. This post he retained till 1818, when he was promoted +major-general and appointed director of the <i>Allgemeine +Kriegsschule</i>. Here he remained till in 1830 he was made chief of +the 3rd Artillery Inspection at Breslau. Next year he became +chief of staff to Field-marshal Gneisenau, who commanded an +army of observation on the Polish frontier. After the dissolution +of this army Clausewitz returned to his artillery duties; but on +the 18th of November 1831 he died at Breslau of cholera, which +had proved fatal to his chief also, and a little previously, to his +old Russian commander Diebitsch on the other side of the +frontier.</p> + +<p>His collected works were edited and published by his widow, +who was aided by some officers, personal friends of the general, in +her task. Of the ten volumes of <i>Hinterlassene Werke über Krieg +und Kriegführung</i> (Berlin, 1832-1837, later edition called +<i>Clausewitz’s Gesammte Werke</i>, Berlin, 1874) the first three +contain Clausewitz’s masterpiece, <i>Vom Kriege</i>, an exposition +of the philosophy of war which is absolutely unrivalled. He +produced no “system” of strategy, and his critics styled his +work “negative” and asked “<i>Qu’a-t-il fondé?</i>” What he had +“founded” was that modern strategy which, by its hold on the +Prussian mind, carried the Prussian arms to victory in 1866 and +1870 over the “systematic” strategists Krismánic and Bazaine, +and his philosophy of war became, not only in Germany but in +many other countries, the essential basis of all serious study of +the art of war. The English and French translations (Graham, +<i>On War</i>, London, 1873; Neuens, <i>La Guerre</i>, Paris, 1849-1852; or +Vatry, <i>Théorie de la grande guerre</i>, Paris, 1899), with the German +original, place the work at the disposal of students of most +nationalities. The remaining volumes deal with military +history: vol. 4, the Italian campaign of 1796-97; vols. 5 and 6, +the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland and Italy; vol. 7, the wars +of 1812, 1813 to the armistice, and 1814; vol. 8, the Waterloo +Campaign; vols. 9 and 10, papers on the campaigns of Gustavus +Adolphus, Turenne, Luxemburg, Münnich, John Sobieski, +Frederick the Great, Ferdinand of Brunswick, &c. He also wrote +<i>Über das Leben und den Charakter von Scharnhorst</i> (printed in +Ranke’s <i>Historisch-politischer Zeitschrift</i>, 1832). A manuscript +on the catastrophe of 1806 long remained unpublished. It was +used by v. Höpfner in his history of that war, and eventually +published by the Great General Staff in 1888 (French translation, +1903). Letters from Clausewitz to his wife were published in +<i>Zeitschrift für preussische Landeskunde</i> (1876). His name is borne +by the 28th Field Artillery regiment of the German army.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Schwartz, <i>Leben des General von Clausewitz und der Frau +Marie von Clausewitz</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1877); von Meerheimb, <i>Karl +von Clausewitz</i> (Berlin, 1875), also Memoir in <i>Allgemeine deutsche +Biographie</i>; Bernhardi, <i>Leben des Generals von Clausewitz</i> (10th +Supplement, <i>Militär. Wochenblatt</i>, 1878).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span></p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMMANUEL<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1822-1888), +German physicist, was born on the 2nd of January 1822 at +Köslin, in Pomerania. After attending the Gymnasium at +Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844. In +1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed +professor of physics in the royal artillery and engineering school at +Berlin. Late in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture +as <i>Privatdocent</i> in the university. In 1855 he became an ordinary +professor at Zürich Polytechnic, accepting at the same time +a professorship in the university of Zürich In 1867 he moved +to Würzburg as professor of physics, and two years later was +appointed to the same chair at Bonn, where he died on the 24th of +August 1888. During the Franco-German War he was at the +head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and +received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville +and Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical +rather than an experimental physicist, was concerned with many +of the most abstruse problems of molecular physics. By his +restatement of Carnot’s principle he put the theory of heat on a +truer and sounder basis, and he deserves the credit of having +made thermodynamics a science; he enunciated the second law, +in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the well-known +form, “Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter +body.” His results he applied to an exhaustive development of +the theory of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the +conception of entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to +his labours, Clerk Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It +was he who raised it, on the basis of the dynamical theory of heat, +to the level of a theory, and he carried out many numerical +determinations in connextion with it, <i>e.g.</i> of the mean free path of +a molecule. To Clausius also was due an important advance in +the theory of electrolysis, and he put forward the idea that +molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms, the +electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange. +This view found little favour until 1887, when it was taken up by +S.A. Arrhenius, who made it the basis of the theory of electrolytic +dissociation. In addition to many scientific papers he wrote +<i>Die Potentialfunktion und das Potential</i>, 1864, and <i>Abhandlungen +über die mechanische Wärmetheorie</i>, 1864-1867.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAUSTHAL<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Klausthal</span>, a town of Germany, in the +Prussian Harz, lying on a bleak plateau, 1860 ft. above sea-level, +50. m. by rail W.S.W. of Halberstadt. Pop. (1905) 8565. +Clausthal is the chief mining town of the Upper Harz Mountains, +and practically forms one town with Zellerfeld, which is separated +from it by a small stream, the Zellbach. The streets are broad, +opportunity for improvement having been given by fires in 1844 +and 1854; the houses are mostly of wood. There are an +Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and a gymnasium. +Clausthal has a famous mining college with a mineralogical +museum, and a disused mint. Its chief mines are silver and lead, +but it also smelts copper and a little gold. Four or five sanatoria +are in the neighbourhood. The museum of the Upper Harz is at +Zellerfeld.</p> + +<p>Clausthal was founded about the middle of the 12th century +in consequence probably of the erection of a Benedictine monastery +(closed in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellerfeld. +At the beginning of the 16th century the dukes of Brunswick +made a new settlement here, and under their directions the +mining, which had been begun by the monks, was carried on +more energetically. The first church was built at Clausthal in +1570. In 1864 the control of the mines passed into the hands of +the state.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAVECIN<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span>, the French for clavisymbal or harpsichord +(Ger. <i>Clavicymbel</i> or <i>Dockenklavier</i>), an abbreviation of the +Flemish <i>clavisinbal</i> and Ital. <i>clavicimbalo</i>, a keyboard musical +instrument in which the strings were plucked by means of a +plectrum consisting of a quill mounted upon a jack.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pianoforte</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harpsichord</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAVICEMBALO<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gravicembalo</span> (from Lat. <i>clavis</i>, key, +and <i>cymbalum</i>, cymbal; Eng. clavicymbal, clavisymbal; Flemish, +<i>clavisinbal</i>; Span. <i>clavisinbanos</i>), a keyboard musical instrument +with strings plucked by means of small quill or leather +plectra. “Cymbal” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kumbalon">κύμβαλον</span>, from <span class="grk" title="khumbê">κύμβη</span>, a hollow +vessel) was the old European term for the dulcimer, and hence +its place in the formation of the word.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pianoforte</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spinet</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Virginal</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAVICHORD<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clarichord</span> (Fr. <i>manicorde</i>; Ger. <i>Clavichord</i>; +Ital. <i>manicordo</i>; Span. <i>manicordio</i><a name="FnAnchor_1m" id="FnAnchor_1m" href="#Footnote_1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), a medieval stringed +keyboard instrument, a forerunner of the pianoforte (<i>q.v.</i>), its +strings being set in vibration by a blow from a brass tangent +instead of a hammer as in the modern instrument. The clavichord, +derived from the dulcimer by the addition of a keyboard, +consisted of a rectangular case, with or without legs, often very +elaborately ornamented with paintings and gilding. The earliest +instruments were small and portable, being placed upon a table +or stand. The strings, of finely drawn brass, steel or iron wire, +were stretched almost parallel with the keyboard over the +narrow belly or soundboard resting on the soundboard bridges, +often three in number, and wound as in the piano round wrest +or tuning pins set in a block at the right-hand side of the soundboard +and attached at the other end to hitch pins. The bridges +served to direct the course of the strings and to conduct the +sound waves to the soundboard. The scaling, or division of +the strings determining their vibrating length, was effected by the +position of the tangents. These tangents, small wedge-shaped +blades of brass, beaten out at the top, were inserted in the end +of the arm of the keys. As the latter were depressed by the +fingers the tangents rose to strike the strings and stop them +at the proper length from the belly-bridge. Thus the string was +set in vibration between the point of impact and the belly-bridge +just as long as the key was pressed down. The key being +released, the vibrations were instantly stopped by a list of cloth +acting as damper and interwoven among the strings behind the +line of the tangents.</p> + +<p>There were two kinds of clavichords—the fretted or <i>gebunden</i> +and the fret-free or <i>bund-frei</i>. The term “fretted” was applied +to those clavichords which, instead of being provided with a +string or set of strings in unison for each note, had one set of +strings acting for three or four notes, the arms of the keys being +twisted in order to bring the contact of the tangent into the +acoustically correct position under the string. The “fret-free” +were chromatically-scaled instruments. The first <i>bund-frei</i> +clavichord is attributed to Daniel Faber of Crailsheim in Saxony +about 1720. This important change in construction increased +the size of the instrument, each pair of unison strings requiring +a key and tangent of its own, and led to the introduction of the +system of tuning by equal temperament upheld by J.S. Bach. +Clavichords were made with pedals.<a name="FnAnchor_2m" id="FnAnchor_2m" href="#Footnote_2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>The tone of the clavichord, extremely sweet and delicate, +was characterized by a tremulous hesitancy, which formed its +great charm while rendering it suitable only for the private +music room or study. Between 1883 and 1893 renewed attention +was drawn to the instrument by A.J. Hipkins’s lectures and +recitals on keyboard instruments in London, Oxford and Cambridge; +and Arnold Dolmetsch reintroduced the art of making +clavichords in 1894.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1m" id="Footnote_1m" href="#FnAnchor_1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The words <i>clavicorde</i>, <i>clavicordo</i> and <i>clavicordio</i>, respectively +French, Italian and Spanish, were applied to a different type of +instrument, the spinet (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2m" id="Footnote_2m" href="#FnAnchor_2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Sebastian Virdung, <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, +1511) (facsimile reprint Berlin, 1882, edited by R. Eitner); J. +Verschuere Reynvaan, <i>Musijkaal Kunst-Woordenboek</i> (Amsterdam, +1795) (a very scarce book, of which the British Museum does not +possess a copy); Jacob Adlung, <i>Musica Mechanica Organoedi</i> +(Berlin, 1768), vol. ii. pp. 158-9; A.J. Hipkins, <i>The History of the +Pianoforte</i> (London, 1896), pp. 61 and 62.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAVICYTHERIUM<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span>, a name usually applied to an upright +spinet (<i>q.v.</i>), the soundboard and strings of which were vertical +instead of horizontal, being thus perpendicular to the keyboard; +but it would seem that the clavicytherium proper is distinct +from the upright spinet in that its strings are placed horizontally. +In the early clavicytherium there was, as in the spinet, only one +string (of gut) to each key, set in vibration by means of a small +quill or leather plectrum mounted on a jack which acted as in +the spinet and harpsichord (<i>q.v.</i>). The clavicytherium or keyed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span> +cythera or cetra, names which in the 14th and 15th centuries +had been applied somewhat indiscriminately to instruments +having strings stretched over a soundboard and plucked by +fingers or plectrum, was probably of Italian<a name="FnAnchor_1n" id="FnAnchor_1n" href="#Footnote_1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or possibly of south +German origin. Sebastian Virdung,<a name="FnAnchor_2n" id="FnAnchor_2n" href="#Footnote_2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> writing early in the 16th +century, describes the clavicytherium as a new invention, having +gut strings, and gives an illustration of it. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pianoforte</a></span>.) A +certain amount of uncertainty exists as to its exact construction, +due to the extreme rarity of unrestored specimens extant, and to +the almost total absence of trustworthy practical information.</p> + +<p>In a unique specimen with two keyboards dating from the 16th +or 17th century, which is in the collection of Baron Alexandre +Kraus,<a name="FnAnchor_3n" id="FnAnchor_3n" href="#Footnote_3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a> what appear to be vibrating strings stretched over a +soundboard perpendicular to the keyboard are in reality the +wires forming part of the mechanism of the action. The arrangement +of this mechanism is the distinctive feature of the clavicytherium, +for the wires, unlike the strings of the upright spinet, +increase in length from <i>left to right</i>, so that the upright harp-shaped +back has its higher side over the treble of the keyboard +instead of over the bass. The vibrating strings of the clavicytherium +in the Kraus Museum are stretched horizontally over +two kinds of psalteries fixed one over the other. The first, +serving for the lower register, is of the well-known trapezoid +shape and lies over the keyboards; it has 30 wire strings in +pairs of unisons corresponding to the 15 lowest keys. The +second psaltery resembles the kanoun of the Arabs, and has +36 strings in courses of 3 unisons corresponding to the next 12 +keys, and 88 very thin strings in courses of 4, completing the +49 keys; the compass thus has a range of four octaves from +C to C. The quills of the jacks belonging to the two keyboards +are of different length and thickness. The jacks, which work +as in the spinet, are attached to the perpendicular wires, disposed +in two parallel rows, one for each keyboard.</p> + +<p>There is a very fine specimen of the so-called clavicytherium +(upright spinet) in the Donaldson museum of the Royal College +of Music, London, acquired from the Correr collection at Venice +in 1885.<a name="FnAnchor_4n" id="FnAnchor_4n" href="#Footnote_4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The instrument is undated, but A.J. Hipkins<a name="FnAnchor_5n" id="FnAnchor_5n" href="#Footnote_5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> placed +it early in the 16th or even at the end of the 15th century. There +is German writing on the inside of the back, referring to some +agreement at Ulm. The case is of pine-wood, and the natural +keys of box-wood. The jacks have the early steel springs, and in +1885 traces were found in the instrument of original brass +plectra, all of which point to a very early date.</p> + +<p>A learned Italian, Nicolo Vicentino,<a name="FnAnchor_6n" id="FnAnchor_6n" href="#Footnote_6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> living in the 16th century, +describes an <i>archicembalo</i> of his own invention, at which the performer +had to stand, having four rows of keys designed to obtain +a complete mesotonic pure third tuning. This was an attempt to +reintroduce the ancient Greek musical system. This instrument +was probably an upright harpsichord or clavicembalo.</p> + +<p>For the history of the clavicytherium considered as a forerunner +of the pianoforte see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pianoforte</a></span>.</p> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1n" id="Footnote_1n" href="#FnAnchor_1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mersenne, <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), p. 113, calls the +clavicytherium “une nouvelle forme d’épinette dont on use en +Italie,” and states that the action of the jacks and levers is parallel +from back to front.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2n" id="Footnote_2n" href="#FnAnchor_2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3n" id="Footnote_3n" href="#FnAnchor_3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See “Une Pièce unique du Musée Kraus de Florence” in +<i>Annales de l’alliance scientifique universelle</i> (Paris, 1907).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4n" id="Footnote_4n" href="#FnAnchor_4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See illustration by William Gibb in A.J. Hipkins’s <i>Musical +Instruments, Historic, Rare and Unique</i> (1888).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5n" id="Footnote_5n" href="#FnAnchor_5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>History of the Pianoforte</i>, Novello’s Music Primers, No. 52 (1896), +p. 75.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6n" id="Footnote_6n" href="#FnAnchor_6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>L’Antica Musica ridotta moderna prattica</i> (Rome, 1555).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAVIE, BURNING THE<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span>, an ancient Scottish custom still +observed at Burghead, a fishing village on the Moray Firth, +near Forres. The “clavie” is a bonfire of casks split in two, +lighted on the 12th of January, corresponding to the New Year +of the old calendar. One of these casks is joined together again +by a huge nail (Lat. <i>clavus</i>; hence the term). It is then filled +with tar, lighted and carried flaming round the village and +finally up to a headland upon which stands the ruins of a Roman +altar, locally called “the Douro.” It here forms the nucleus +of the bonfire, which is built up of split casks. When the burning +tar-barrel falls in pieces, the people scramble to get a lighted +piece with which to kindle the New Year’s fire on their cottage +hearth. The charcoal of the clavie is collected and is put in +pieces up the cottage chimneys, to keep spirits and witches from +coming down.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAVIÈRE, ÉTIENNE<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1735-1793), French financier and politician, +was a native of Geneva. As one of the democratic leaders +there he was obliged in 1782 to take refuge in England, upon +the armed interference of France, Sardinia and Berne in favour +of the aristocratic party. There he met other Swiss, among +them Marat and Étienne Dumont, but their schemes for a new +Geneva in Ireland—which the government favoured—were +given up when Necker came to power in France, and Clavière, +with most of his comrades, went to Paris. There in 1789 he and +Dumont allied themselves with Mirabeau, secretly collaborating +for him on the <i>Courrier de Provence</i> and also in preparing +the speeches which Mirabeau delivered as his own. It was +mainly by his use of Clavière that Mirabeau sustained his +reputation as a financier. But Clavière also published some +pamphlets under his own name, and through these and his +friendship with J.P. Brissot, whom he had met in London, he +became minister of finance in the Girondist ministry, from +March to the 12th of June 1792. After the 10th of August he +was again given charge of the finances in the provisional executive +council, though with but indifferent success. He shared in the +fall of the Girondists, was arrested on the 2nd of June 1793, +but somehow was left in prison until the 8th of December, when, +on receiving notice that he was to appear on the next day before +the Revolutionary Tribunal, he committed suicide.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (d. 1412), Spanish traveller +of the 15th century, whose narrative is the first important one +of its kind contributed to Spanish literature, was a native of +Madrid, and belonged to a family of some antiquity and position. +On the return of the ambassadors Pelayo de Sotomayor and +Hernan Sanchez de Palazuelos from the court of Timur, Henry +III. of Castille determined to send another embassy to the new +lord of Western Asia, and for this purpose he selected Clavijo, +Gomez de Salazar (who died on the outward journey), and a +master of theology named Fray Alonzo Paez de Santa Maria. +They sailed from St Mary Port near Cadiz on the 22nd of May +1403, touched at the Balearic Isles, Gaeta and Rhodes, spent +some time at Constantinople, sailed along the southern coast of +the Black Sea to Trebizond, and proceeded inland by Erzerum, +the Ararat region, Tabriz, Sultanieh, Teheran and Meshed, +to Samarkand, where they were well received by the conqueror. +Their return was at last accomplished, in part after Timur’s +death, and with countless difficulties and dangers, and they +landed in Spain on the 1st of March 1406. Clavijo proceeded +at once to the court, at that time in Alcala de Henares, and +served as chamberlain till the king’s death (in the spring of +1406-1407); he then returned to Madrid, and lived there in +opulence till his own death on the 2nd of April 1412. He was +buried in the chapel of the monastery of St Francis, which he +had rebuilt at great expense.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are two leading MSS. of Clavijo’s narrative—(a) London, +British Museum, Additional MSS., 16,613 fols. I, n.-125, v.; (b) +Madrid, National Library, 9218; and two old editions of the original +Spanish—(1) by Gonçalo Argote de Molina (Seville, 1582), (2) by +Antonio de Sancha (Madrid, 1782), both having the misleading titles, +apparently invented by Molina, of <i>Historia del gran Tamorlan</i>, and +<i>Vida y hazañas del gran Tamorlan</i> (the latter at the beginning of the +text itself); a better sub-title is added, viz. <i>Itinerario y enarracion +del viage y relacion de la embaxada que Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo +le hizo</i>. Both editors, and especially Sancha, supply general explanatory +dissertations. The Spanish text has also been published, +with a Russian translation, in vol. xxviii. (pp. 1-455) of the <i>Publications +of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences</i> (<i>Section of +Russian Language</i>, &c.), edited by I.I. Sreznevski (1881). An +English version, by Sir Clements Markham, was issued by the Hakluyt +Society in 1859 (<i>Narrative of the Embassy of R ... G ... de Clavijo +to the Court of Timour</i>). The identification of a great number of +the places mentioned by Clavijo is a matter of considerable difficulty, +and has given rise to some discussion (see Khanikof’s list in <i>Geographical +Magazine</i> (1874), and Sreznevski’s <i>Annotated Index</i> in +the Russian edition of 1881). A short account ot Clavijo’s life is +given by Alvarez y Baena in the <i>Hijos de Madrid</i>, vol. ix. See also +C.R. Beazley, <i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, iii. 332-56.</p> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span></p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSÉ<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1730-1806), Spanish publicist, +was born at Lanzarote (Canary Islands) in 1730. He settled +in Madrid, became editor of <i>El Pensador</i>, and by his campaign +against the public performance of <i>autos sacramentales</i> secured +their prohibition in 1765. In 1770 he was appointed director +of the royal theatres, a post which he resigned in order to take +up the editorship of the <i>Mercurio histórico y politico de Madrid</i>: +at the time of his death in 1806 he was secretary to the Cabinet +of Natural History. He had in abundance the courage, perseverance +and gift of pungent expression which form the equipment +of the aggressive journalist, but his work would long since +have been forgotten were it not that it put an end to a peculiarly +national form of dramatic exposition, and that his love affair +with one of Beaumarchais’ sisters suggested the theme of Goethe’s +first publication, <i>Clavigo</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1810-1903), American politician, +was born in Madison county, Kentucky, on the 19th of +October 1810. He was the son of Green Clay (1757-1826), a +Kentucky soldier of the war of 1812 and a relative of Henry +Clay. He was educated at Centre College, Danville, Kentucky, +and at Yale, where he graduated in 1832. Influenced to some +extent by William Lloyd Garrison, he became an advocate of the +abolition of slavery, and on his return to his native state, at the +risk of social and political ostracism, he gave utterance to his +belief. He studied law, but instead of practising devoted +himself to a political career. In 1835, 1837 and 1840 he was +elected as a Whig to the Kentucky legislature, where he advocated +a system of gradual emancipation, and secured the establishment +of a public school system, and a much-needed reform in the jury +system. In 1841 he was defeated on account of his abolition +views. In 1844 he delivered campaign speeches for Henry Clay +throughout the North. In 1845 he established, at Lexington, +Kentucky, an anti-slavery publication known as <i>The True +American</i>, but in the same year his office and press were wrecked +by a mob, and he removed the publication office to Cincinnati, +Ohio. During this and the earlier period of his career his zeal and +hot temper involved him in numerous personal encounters and +several duels, in all of which he bore himself with a reckless +bravery. In the Mexican War he served as a captain of a +Kentucky company of militia, and was taken prisoner, while +reconnoitring, during General Scott’s advance on the City of +Mexico. He left the Whig party in 1850, and as an anti-slavery +candidate for governor of Kentucky polled 5000 votes. In 1856 +he joined the Republican party, and wielded considerable +influence as a Southern representative in its councils. In 1860 +he was a leading candidate for the vice-presidential nomination. +In 1861 he was sent by President Lincoln as minister to Russia; +in 1862 he returned to America to accept a commission as major-general +of volunteers, but in March 1863 was reappointed to his +former post at St Petersburg, where he remained until 1869. +Disapproving of the Republican policy of reconstruction, he left +the party, and in 1872 was one of the organizers of the Liberal-Republican +revolt, and was largely instrumental in securing the +nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the +political campaigns of 1876 and 1880 he supported the Democratic +candidate, but rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of +1884. He died at Whitehall, Kentucky, on the 22nd of July +1903.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See his autobiography, <i>The Life, Memoirs, Writings, and Speeches +of Cassius Marcellus Clay</i> (Cincinnati, 1896); and <i>The Writings of +Cassius Marcellus Clay</i> (edited with a “Memoir” by Horace Greeley. +New York, 1848).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAY, CHARLES<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1801-1893), English surgeon, was born at +Bredbury, near Stockport, on the 27th of December 1801. He +began his medical education as a pupil of Kinder Wood in +Manchester (where he used to attend John Dalton’s lectures on +chemistry), and in 1821 went to Edinburgh to continue his +studies there. Qualifying in 1823, he began a general practice in +Ashton-under-Lyne, but in 1839 removed to Manchester to +practise as an operative and consulting surgeon. It was there +that, in 1842, he first performed the operation of ovariotomy +with which his name is associated. On this occasion it was +perfectly successful, and when in 1865 he published an analysis +of 111 cases he was able to show a mortality only slightly above +30%. Although his merits in this matter have sometimes been +denied, his claim to the title “Father of Ovariotomy” is now +generally conceded, and it is admittted that he deserves the +credit not only of having shown how that operation could be +made a success, but also of having played an important part in +the advance of abdominal surgery for which the 19th century was +conspicuous. In spite of the claims of a heavy practice, Clay +found time for the pursuit of geology and archaeology. Among +the books of which he was the author were a volume of <i>Geological +Sketches of Manchester</i> (1839) and a <i>History of the Currency of the +Isle of Man</i> (1849), and his collections included over a thousand +editions of the Old and New Testaments and a remarkably +complete series of the silver and copper coins of the United +States. He died at Poulton-le-Fylde, near Preston, on the 19th +of September 1893.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAY, FREDERIC<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1838-1889), English musical composer, +the son of James Clay, M.P., who was celebrated as a player of +whist and a writer on that subject, was born in Paris on the 3rd of +August 1838. He studied music under W.B. Molique in Paris +and Moritz Hauptmann at Leipzig. With the exception of a few +songs and two cantatas, <i>The Knights of the Cross</i> (1866) and +<i>Lalla Rookh</i> (1877),—the latter of which contained his well-known +song “I’ll sing thee songs of Araby,”—his compositions +were all written for the stage. Clay’s first public appearance was +made with an opera entitled <i>Court and Cottage</i>, the libretto of +which was written by Tom Taylor. This was produced at +Covent Garden in 1862, and was followed by <i>Constance</i> (1865), +<i>Ages Ago</i> (1869), and <i>Princess Toto</i> (1875), to name only three of +many works which have long since been forgotten. The last two, +which were written to libretti by W.S. Gilbert, are among Clay’s +most tuneful and most attractive works. He wrote part of the +music for <i>Babil and Bijou</i> (1872) and <i>The Black Crook</i> (1873), +both of which were produced at the Alhambra. He also furnished +incidental music for a revival of <i>Twelfth Night</i> and for the +production of James Albery’s <i>Oriana</i>. His last works, <i>The +Merry Duchess</i> (1883) and <i>The Golden Ring</i> (1883), the latter +written for the reopening of the Alhambra, which had been burned +to the ground the year before, showed an advance upon his +previous work, and rendered all the more regrettable the stroke of +paralysis which crippled his physical and mental energies during +the last few years of his life. He died at Great Marlow on the +24th of November 1889.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAY, HENRY<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1777-1852), American statesman and orator, +was born in Hanover county, Virginia, on the 12th of April 1777, +and died in Washington on the 29th of June 1852. Few public +characters in the United States have been the subject of more +heated controversy. His enemies denounced him as a pretender, +a selfish intriguer, and an abandoned profligate; his supporters +placed him among the sages and sometimes even among the +saints. He was an arranger of measures and leader of political +forces, not an originator of ideas and systems. His public life +covered nearly half a century, and his name and fame rest +entirely upon his own merits. He achieved his success despite +serious obstacles. He was tall, rawboned and awkward; his +early instruction was scant; but he “read books,” talked well, +and so, after his admission to the bar at Richmond, Virginia, +in 1797, and his removal next year to Lexington, Kentucky, he +quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative income from his +law practice.</p> + +<p>Thereafter, until the end of life, and in a field where he met, +as either friend or foe, John Quincy Adams, Gallatin, Madison, +Monroe, Webster, Jackson, Calhoun, Randolph and Benton, +his political activity was wellnigh ceaseless. At the age of +twenty-two (1799), he was elected to a constitutional convention +in Kentucky; at twenty-six, to the Kentucky legislature; +at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of the United +States constitution, he was appointed to an unexpired term +(1806-1807) in the United States Senate, where, contrary to +custom, he at once plunged into business, as though he had been +there all his life. He again served in the Kentucky legislature +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span> +(1808-1809), was chosen speaker of its lower house, and achieved +distinction by preventing an intense and widespread anti-British +feeling from excluding the common law from the Kentucky code. +A year later he was elected to another unexpired term in the +United States Senate, serving in 1810-1811. At thirty-four +(1811) he was elected to the United States House of Representatives +and chosen speaker on the first day of the session. One of +the chief sources of his popularity was his activity in Congress +in promoting the war with Great Britain in 1812, while as one +of the peace commissioners he reluctantly signed the treaty of +Ghent on the 24th of December 1814. During the fourteen years +following his first election, he was re-elected five times to the +House and to the speakership; retiring for one term (1821-1823) +to resume his law practice and retrieve his fortunes. He thus +served as speaker in 1811-1814, in 1815-1820 and in 1823-1825. +Once he was unanimously elected by his constituents, and once +nearly defeated for having at the previous session voted to increase +congressional salaries. He was a warm friend of the Spanish-American +revolutionists (1818) and of the Greek insurgents +(1824). From 1825 to 1829 he served as secretary of state in +President John Quincy Adams’s cabinet, and in 1831 he was +elected to the United States Senate, where he served until 1842, +and again from 1849 until his death.</p> + +<p>From the beginning of his career he was in favour of internal +improvements as a means of opening up the fertile but inaccessible +West, and was opposed to the abuse of official patronage +known as “the spoils system.” The most important of the +national questions with which Clay was associated, however, +were the various phases of slavery politics and protection to +home industries. The most prominent characteristics of his +public life were his predisposition to “compromises” and +“pacifications” which generally failed of their object, and his +passionate patriotic devotion to the Union.</p> + +<p>His earliest championship of protection was a resolution +introduced by him in the Kentucky legislature (1808) which +favoured the wearing by its members of home-made +clothes; and one in the United States Senate (April +<span class="sidenote">His career as a Protectionist.</span> +1810), on behalf of home-grown and home-made +supplies for the United States navy, but only to the +point of making the nation independent of foreign supply. In +1816 he advocated the Dallas tariff, in which the duties ranged +up to 35% on articles of home production, the supply of which +could satisfy the home demand; the avowed purpose being to +build up certain industries for safety in time of war. In 1824 +he advocated high duties to relieve the prevailing distress, which +he pictured in a brilliant and effective speech. Although the +distress was caused by the reactionary effect of a disordered +currency and the inflated prices of the war of 1812, he ascribed +it to the country’s dependence on foreign supply and foreign +markets. Great Britain, he said, was a shining example of the +wisdom of a high tariff. No nation ever flourished without one. +He closed his principal speech on the subject in the House of +Representatives with a glowing appeal in behalf of what he +called “The American System.” In spite of the opposition of +Webster and other prominent statesmen, Clay succeeded in +enacting a tariff which the people of the Southern states denounced +as a “tariff of abominations.” As it overswelled the +revenue, in 1832 he vigorously favoured reducing the tariff rates +on all articles not competing with American products. His speech +in behalf of the measure was for years a protection text-book; +but the measure itself reduced the revenue so little and provoked +such serious threats of nullification and secession in South +Carolina, that, to prevent bloodshed and to forestall a free trade +measure from the next Congress, Clay brought forward in 1833 +a compromise gradually reducing the tariff rates to an average +of 20%. To the Protectionists this was “like a crash of thunder +in winter”; but it was received with such favour by the country +generally, that its author was hailed as “The Great Pacificator,” +as he had been thirteen years before at the time of the Missouri +Compromise (see below). As, however, the discontent with +the tariff in the South was only a symptom of the real +trouble there—the sensitiveness of the slave-power,—Clay +subsequently confessed his serious doubts of the policy of his +interference.</p> + +<p>He was only twenty-two, when, as an opponent of slavery, +he vainly urged an emancipation clause for the new constitution +of Kentucky, and he never ceased regretting that its failure put +his state, in improvements and progress, behind its free neighbours. +In 1820 he congratulated the new South American +republics on having abolished slavery, but the same year the +threats of the Southern states to destroy the Union led him to +advocate the “Missouri Compromise,” which, while keeping +slavery out of all the rest of the territory acquired by the +“Louisiana Purchase” north of Missouri’s southern boundary +line, permitted it in that state. Then, greeted with the title +of “The Great Pacificator” as a reward for his success, he +retired temporarily to private life, with a larger stock of popularity +than he had ever had before. Although at various times +he had helped to strengthen the law for the recovery of fugitive +slaves, declining as secretary of state to aid Great Britain in the +further suppression of the slave trade, and demanding the +return of fugitives from Canada, yet he heartily supported +the colonizing of the slaves in Africa, because slavery was the +“deepest stain upon the character of the country,” opposition +to which could not be repressed except by “blowing out the moral +lights around,” and “eradicating from the human soul the light +of reason and the law of liberty.” When the slave power +became more aggressive, in and after the year 1831, Clay defended +the right of petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of +Columbia, and opposed Calhoun’s bill forbidding the use of the +mails to “abolition” newspapers and documents. He was luke-warm +toward recognizing the independence of Texas, lest it should +aid the increase of slave territory, and generally favoured the +freedom of speech and press as regards the question of slavery; +yet his various concessions and compromises resulted, as he himself +declared, in the abolitionists denouncing him as a slaveholder, +and the slaveholders as an abolitionist. In 1839, only +twelve months after opposing the pro-slavery demands, he prepared +an elaborate speech, in order “to set himself right with the +South,” which, before its delivery, received pro-slavery approval. +While affirming that he was “no friend of slavery” he held +abolition and the abolitionists responsible for the hatred, strife, +disruption and carnage that menaced the nation. In response, +Calhoun extended to him a most hearty welcome, and assigned +him to a place on the bench of the penitents. Being a candidate +for the presidency Clay had to take the insult without wincing. +It was in reference to this speech that he made the oft-quoted +remark that he “would rather be right than be president.” +While a candidate for president in 1844, he opposed in the +“Raleigh letter” the annexation of Texas on many grounds +except that of its increasing the slave power, thus displeasing +both the men of anti-slavery and those of pro-slavery sentiments. +In 1847, after the conquest of Mexico, he made a speech against +the annexation of that country or the acquiring of any foreign +territory for the spread of slavery. Although in 1849 he again +vainly proposed emancipation in Kentucky, he was unanimously +elected to the United States Senate, where in 1850 he temporarily +pacified both sections of the country by successfully offering, +for the sake of the “peace, concord and harmony of these +states,” a measure or series of measures that became known as +the “Compromise of 1850.” It admitted California as a free state, +organized Utah and New Mexico as Territories without reference +to slavery, and enacted a more efficient fugitive slave law. In +spite of great physical weakness he made several earnest speeches +in behalf of these measures to save the Union.</p> + +<p>Another conspicuous feature of Clay’s public career was his +absorbing and rightful, but constantly ungratified, ambition to +be president of the United States. His name in connexion +therewith was mentioned comparatively early, and in 1824, +with W.H. Crawford, Andrew Jackson, and John Quincy +Adams, he was a candidate for that office. There being no choice +by the people, and the House of Representatives having elected +Adams, Clay was accused by Jackson and his friends of making +a corrupt bargain whereby, in payment of his vote and influence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span> +for Adams, he was appointed secretary of state. This made +Jackson Clay’s lifelong enemy, and ever after kept Clay busy +explaining and denying the allegation. In 1832 Clay was unanimously +nominated for the presidency by the National Republicans; +Jackson, by the Democrats. The main issue was the policy +of continuing the United States Bank, which in 1811 Clay had +opposed, but in 1816 and always subsequently warmly favoured. +A majority of the voters approved of Jackson’s fight against +what Clay had once denounced as a dangerous and unconstitutional +monopoly. Clay made the mistake of supposing that he +could arouse popular enthusiasm for a moneyed corporation in +its contest with the great military “hero of New Orleans.” +In 1839 he was a candidate for the Whig nomination, but by a +secret ballot his enemies defeated him in the party convention, +held in December of that year, and nominated William Henry +Harrison. The result threw Clay into paroxysms of rage, and +he violently complained that his friends always used him as +their candidate when he was sure to be defeated, and betrayed +him when he or any one could have been elected. In 1844 he +was nominated by the Whigs against James K. Polk, the Democratic +candidate. By an audacious fraud that represented him +as an enemy, and Polk as a friend of protection, Clay lost the +vote of Pennsylvania; and he lost the vote of New York by +his own letter abating the force of his previous opposition to +the annexation of Texas. Even his enemies felt that his defeat +by Polk was almost a national calamity. In 1848, Zachary +Taylor, a Mexican War hero, and hardly even a convert to the +Whig party, defeated Clay for the nomination, Kentucky +herself deserting her “favourite son.”</p> + +<p>Clay’s quick intelligence and sympathy, and his irreproachable +conduct in youth, explain his precocious prominence in public +affairs. In his persuasiveness as an orator and his charming +personality lay the secret of his power. He had early trained +himself in the art of speech-making, in the forest, the field and +even the barn, with horse and ox for audience. By contemporaries +his voice was declared to be the finest musical instrument +that they ever heard. His eloquence was in turn majestic, +fierce, playful, insinuating; his gesticulation natural, vivid, +large, powerful. In public he was of magnificent bearing, +possessing the true oratorical temperament, the nervous exaltation +that makes the orator feel and appear a superior being, +transfusing his thought, passion and will into the mind and +heart of the listener; but his imagination frequently ran away +with his understanding, while his imperious temper and ardent +combativeness hurried him and his party into disadvantageous +positions. The ease, too, with which he outshone men of vastly +greater learning lured him from the task of intense and arduous +study. His speeches were characterized by skill of statement, +ingenious grouping of facts, fervent diction, and ardent patriotism; +sometimes by biting sarcasm, but also by superficial +research, half-knowledge and an unwillingness to reason a +proposition to its logical results. In private, his never-failing +courtesy, his agreeable manners and a noble and generous +heart for all who needed protection against the powerful or the +lawless, endeared him to hosts of friends. His popularity was +as great and as inexhaustible among his neighbours as among +his fellow-citizens generally. He pronounced upon himself a +just judgment when he wrote: “If any one desires to know the +leading and paramount object of my public life, the preservation +of this Union will furnish him the key.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Calvin Colton, <i>The Works of Henry Clay</i> (6 vols., New York, +1857; new ed., 7 vols., New York, 1898), the first three volumes +of which are an account of Clay’s “Life and Times”; Carl Schurz, +<i>Henry Clay</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1887), in the “American Statesmen” +series; and the life by T. Hart Clay (1910).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAY<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>claeg</i>, a word common in various forms +to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. <i>Klei</i>), commonly defined as a +fine-grained, almost impalpable substance, very soft, more or +less coherent when dry, plastic and retentive of water when wet; +it has an “earthy” odour when breathed upon or moistened, +and consists essentially of hydrous aluminium silicate with +various impurities. Of clay are formed a great number of rocks, +which collectively are known as “clay-rocks” or “pelitic rocks” +(from Gr. <span class="grk" title="pêlos">πηλός</span>, clay), <i>e.g.</i> mudstone, shale, slate: these exhibit +in greater or less perfection the properties above described +according to their freedom from impurities. In nature, clays are +rarely free from foreign ingredients, many of which can be +detected with the unaided eye, while others may be observed +by means of the microscope. The commonest impurities are:— +(1) organic matter, humus, &c. (exemplified by clay-soils with +an admixture of peat, oil shales, carbonaceous shales); (2) +fossils (such as plants in the shales of the Lias and Coal Measures, +shells in clays of all geological periods and in fresh water marls); +(3) carbonate of lime (rarely altogether absent, but abundant +in marls, cement-stones and argillaceous limestones); (4) +sulphide of iron, as pyrite or marcasite (when finely diffused, +giving the clay a dark grey-blue colour, which weathers to +brown—<i>e.g.</i> London Clay; also as nodules and concretions, +<i>e.g.</i> Gault); (5) oxides of iron (staining the clay bright red when +ferric oxide, red ochre; yellow when hydrous, <i>e.g.</i> yellow +ochre); (6) sand or detrital silica (forming loams, arenaceous +clays, argillaceous sandstones, &c.). Less frequently present +are the following:—rock salt (Triassic clays, and marls of +Cheshire, &c.); gypsum (London Clay, Triassic clays); dolomite, +phosphate of lime, vivianite (phosphate of iron), oxides of +manganese, copper ores (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Kupferschiefer</i>), wavellite and +amber. As the impurities increase in amount the clay rocks +pass gradually into argillaceous sands and sandstones, argillaceous +limestones and dolomites, shaly coals and clay +ironstones.</p> + +<p>Natural clays, even when most pure, show a considerable +range of composition, and hence cannot be regarded as consisting +of a single mineral; clay is a <i>rock</i>, and has that variability which +characterizes all rocks. Of the essential properties of clay some +are merely physical, and depend on the minute size of the +particles. If any rock be taken (even a piece of pure quartz) and +crushed to a very fine powder, it will show some of the peculiarities +of clays; for example, it will be plastic, retentive of +moisture, impermeable to water, and will shrink to some extent if +the moist mass be kneaded, and then allowed to dry. It happens, +however, that many rocks are not disintegrated to this extreme +degree by natural processes, and weathering invariably accompanies +disintegration. Quartz, for example, has little or no +cleavage, and is not attacked by the atmosphere. It breaks up +into fragments, which become rounded by attrition, but after +they reach a certain minuteness are borne along by currents of +water or air in a state of suspension, and are not further reduced +in size. Hence sands are more coarse grained than clays. A +great number of rock-forming minerals, however, possess a good +cleavage, so that when bruised they split into thin fragments; +many of these minerals decompose somewhat readily, yielding +secondary minerals, which are comparatively soft and have a +scaly character, with eminently perfect cleavages, which facilitate +splitting into exceedingly thin plates. The principal substances +of this description are kaolin, muscovite and chlorite. Kaolin +and muscovite are formed principally after felspar (and the +felspars are the commonest minerals of all crystalline rocks); +also from nepheline, leucite, scapolite and a variety of other +rock-forming minerals. Chlorite arises from biotite, augite and +hornblende. Serpentine, which may be fibrous or scaly, is a +secondary product of olivine and certain pyroxenes. Clays +consist essentially of the above ingredients (although serpentine +is not known to take part in them to any extent, it is closely +allied to chlorite). At the same time other substances are +produced as decomposition goes on. They are principally finely +divided quartz, epidote, zoisite, rutile, limonite, calcite, pyrites, +and very small particles of these are rarely absent from +natural clays. These fine-grained materials are at first mixed +with broken and more or less weathered rock fragments +and coarser mineral particles in the soil and subsoil, but by +the action of wind and rain they are swept away and deposited +in distant situations. “Loess” is a fine calcareous clay, +which has been wind-borne, and subsequently laid down on the +margins of dry steppes and deserts. Most clays are water-borne, +having been carried from the surface of the land by +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span> +rain and transported by the brooks and rivers into lakes or +the sea. In this state the fine particles are known as “mud.” +They are deposited where the currents are checked and the water +becomes very still. If temporarily laid down in other situations +they are ultimately lifted again and removed. A little clay, +stirred up with water in a glass vessel, takes hours to settle, and +even after two or three days some remains in suspension; in fact, +it has been suggested that in such cases the clay forms a sort of +“colloidal solution” in the water. Traces of dissolved salts, +such as common salt, gypsum or alum, greatly accelerate +deposition. For these reasons the principal gathering places of +fine pure clays are deep, still lakes, and the sea bottom at considerable +distances from the shore. The coarser materials settle +nearer the land, and the shallower portions of the sea floor are +strewn with gravel and sand, except in occasional depressions +and near the mouths of rivers where mud may gather. Farther +out the great mud deposits begin, extending from 50 to 200 m. +from the land, according to the amount of sediment brought in, +and the rate at which the water deepens. A girdle of mud +accumulations encircles all the continents. These sediments are +fine and tenacious; their principal components, in addition to +clay, being small grains of quartz, zircon, tourmaline, hornblende, +felspar and iron compounds. Their typical colour is blackish-blue, +owing to the abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; when +fresh they have a sulphurous odour, when weathered they are +brown, as their iron is present as hydrous oxides (limonite, &c). +These deposits are tenanted by numerous forms of marine life, +and the sulphur they contain is derived from decomposing +organic matter. Occasionally water-logged plant débris is +mingled with the mud. In a few places a red colour prevails, the +iron being mostly oxidized; elsewhere the muds are green +owing to abundant glauconite. Traced landwards the muds +become more sandy, while on their outer margins they grade into +the abysmal deposits, such as the globigerina ooze (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ocean +and Oceanography</a></span>). Near volcanoes they contain many +volcanic minerals, and around coral islands they are often in +large part calcareous.</p> + +<p>Microscopic sections of some of the more coherent clays and +shales may be prepared by saturating them with Canada balsam +by long boiling, and slicing the resultant mass in the same +manner as one of the harder rocks. They show that clay rocks +contain abundant very small grains of quartz (about 0.01 to +0.05 mm. in diameter), with often felspar, tourmaline, zircon, +epidote, rutile and more or less calcite. These may form more +than one-third of an ordinary shale; the greater part, however, +consists of still smaller scales of other minerals (0.01 mm. in +diameter and less than this). Some of these are recognizable as +pale yellowish and white mica; others seem to be chlorite, the +remainder is perhaps kaolin, but, owing to the minute size of the +flakes, they yield very indistinct reactions to polarized light. +They are also often stained with iron oxide and organic substances, +and in consequence their true nature is almost impossible to +determine. It is certain, however, that the finer-grained rocks are +richest in alumina, and in combined water; hence the inference +is clear that kaolin or some other hydrous aluminium silicate is +the dominating constituent. These results are confirmed by the +mechanical analysis of clays. This process consists in finely +pulverizing the soil or rock, and levigating it in vessels of water. +A series of powders is obtained progressively finer according to the +time required to settle to the bottom of the vessel. The clay is +held to include those particles which have less than 0.005 mm. diameter, +and contains a higher percentage of alumina than any +of the other ingredients.</p> + +<p>As might be inferred from the differences they exhibit in other +respects, clay rocks vary greatly in their chemical composition. +Some of them contain much iron (yellow, blue and red clays); +others contain abundant calcium carbonate (calcareous clays +and marls). Pure clays, however, may be found almost quite +free from these substances. Their silica ranges from about 60 to +45%, varying in accordance with the amount of quartz and +alkali-felspar present. It is almost always more than would be +the case if the rock consisted of kaolin mixed with muscovite. +Alumina is high in the finer clays (18 to 30%), and they are the +most aluminous of all sediments, except bauxite. Magnesia is +never absent, though its amount may be less than 1%; it is +usually contained in minerals of the chlorite group, but partly +also in dolomite. The alkalis are very interesting; often they +form 5 or 10% of the whole rock; they indicate abundance of +white micas or of undecomposed particles of felspar. Some clays, +however, such as fireclays, contain very little potash or soda, +while they are rich in alumina; and it is a fair inference that +hydrated aluminous silicates, such as kaolin, are well represented +in these rocks. There are, in fact, a few clays which contain +about 45% of alumina, that is to say, more than in pure kaolin. +It is probable that these are related to bauxite and certain kinds +of laterite.</p> + +<p>A few of the most important clay rocks, such as china-clay, +brick-clay, red-clay and shale, may be briefly described here.</p> + +<p><i>China-clay</i> is white, friable and earthy. It occurs in regions +of granite, porphyry and syenite, and usually occupies funnel-shaped +cavities of no great superficial area, but of considerable +depth. It consists of very fine scaly kaolin, larger, shining plates +of white mica, grains of quartz and particles of semi-decomposed +felspar, tourmaline, zircon and other minerals, which originally +formed part of the granite. These clays are produced by the +decomposition of the granite by acid vapours, which are discharged +after the igneous rock has solidified (“fumarole or +pneumatolytic action”). Fluorine and its compounds are often +supposed to have been among the agencies which produce this +change, but more probably carbonic acid played the principal +role. The felspar decomposes into kaolin and quartz; its +alkalis are for the most part set free and removed in solution, +but are partly retained in the white mica which is constantly +found in crude china-clays. Semi-decomposed varieties of the +granite are known as china-stone. The kaolin may be washed +away from its original site, and deposited in hollows or lakes to +form beds of white clay, such as pipe-clay; in this case it is +always more or less impure. Yellow and pinkish varieties of +china-clay and pipe-clay contain a small quantity of oxide of +iron. The best known localities for china-clay are Cornwall, +Limoges (France), Saxony, Bohemia and China; it is found also +in Pennsylvania, N. Carolina and elsewhere in the United States.</p> + +<p><i>Fire-clays</i> include all those varieties of clay which are very +refractory to heat. They must contain little alkalis, lime, +magnesia and iron, but some of them are comparatively rich +in silica. Many of the clays which pass under this designation +belong to the Carboniferous period, and are found underlying +seams of coal. Either by rapid growth of vegetation, or by +subsequent percolation of organic solutions, most of the alkalis +and the lime have been carried away.</p> + +<p>Any argillaceous material, which can be used for the manufacture +of bricks, may be called a <i>brick-clay</i>. In England, +Kimmeridge Clay, Lias clays, London Clay and pulverized +shale and slate are all employed for this purpose. Each variety +needs special treatment according to its properties. The true +brick-clays, however, are superficial deposits of Pleistocene or +Quaternary age, and occur in hollows, filled-up lakes and +deserted stream channels. Many of them are derived from the +glacial boulder-clays, or from the washing away of the finer +materials contained in older clay formations. They are always +very impure.</p> + +<p>The <i>red-clay</i> is an abysmal formation, occurring in the sea +bottom in the deepest part of the oceans. It is estimated to +cover over fifty millions of square miles, and is probably the most +extensive deposit which is in course of accumulation at the +present day. In addition to the reddish or brownish argillaceous +matrix it contains fresh or decomposed crystals of volcanic +minerals, such as felspar, augite, hornblende, olivine and +pumiceous or palagonitic rocks. These must either have been +ejected by submarine volcanoes or drifted by the wind from +active vents, as the fine ash discharged by Krakatoa was wafted +over the whole globe. Larger rounded lumps of pumice, found +in the clay, have probably floated to their present situations, +and sank when decomposed, all their cavities becoming filled +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span> +with sea water. Crystals of zeolites (phillipsite) form in the +red-clay as radiate, nodular groups. Lumps of manganese oxide, +with a black, shining outer surface, are also characteristic of +this deposit, and frequently encrust pieces of pumice or animal +remains. The only fossils of the clay are radiolaria, sharks’ +teeth and the ear-bones of whales, precisely those parts of the +skeleton of marine creatures which are hardest and can longest +survive exposure to sea-water. Their comparative abundance +shows how slowly the clay gathers. Small rounded spherules +of iron, believed by some to be meteoric dust, have also been +obtained in some numbers. Among the rocks of the continents +nothing exactly the same as this remarkable deposit is known +to occur, though fine dark clays, with manganese nodules, are +found in many localities, accompanied by other rocks which +indicate deep-water conditions of deposit.</p> + +<p>Another type of red-clay is found in caves, and is known as +<i>cave-earth</i> or <i>red-earth</i> (<i>terra rossa</i>). It is fine, tenacious and +bright red, and represents the insoluble and thoroughly weathered +impurities which are left behind when the calcareous matter is +removed in solution by carbonated waters. Similar residual +clays sometimes occur on the surface of areas of limestone in +hollows and fissures formed by weathering.</p> + +<p><i>Boulder-clay</i> is a coarse unstratified deposit of fine clay, with +more or less sand, and boulders of various sizes, the latter usually +marked with glacial striations.</p> + +<p>Some clay rocks which have been laid down by water are +very uniform through their whole thickness, and are called +<i>mud-stones</i>. Others split readily into fine leaflets or laminae +parallel to their bedding, and this structure is accentuated by +the presence of films of other materials, such as sand or vegetable +debris. Laminated clays of this sort are generally known as +<i>shales</i>; they occur in many formations but are very common +in the Carboniferous. Some of them contain much organic +debris, and when distilled yield paraffin oil, wax, compounds +of ammonia, &c. In these oil-shales there are clear, globular, +yellow bodies which seem to be resinous. It has been suggested +that the admixture of large quantities of decomposed fresh-water +algae among the original mud is the origin of the paraffins. +In New South Wales, Scotland and several parts of America +such oil-shales are worked on a commercial scale. Many shales +contain great numbers of ovoid or rounded septarian nodules +of clay ironstone. Others are rich in pyrites, which, on oxidation, +produces sulphuric acid; this attacks the aluminous silicates +of the clay and forms aluminium sulphate (<i>alum shales</i>). The +lias shales of Whitby contain blocks of semi-mineralized wood, +or jet, which is black with a resinous lustre, and a fibrous +structure. The laminated structure of shales, though partly +due to successive very thin sheets of deposit, is certainly dependent +also on the vertical pressure exerted by masses of super-incumbent +rock; it indicates a transition to the fissile character +of clay slates.</p> +<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAY CROSS<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span>, an urban district in the Chesterfield parliamentary +division of Derbyshire, England, near the river Amber, +on the Midland railway, 5 m. S. of Chesterfield. Pop. (1901) +8358. The Clay Cross Colliery and Ironworks Company, whose +mines were for a time leased by George Stephenson, employ a +great number of hands.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAYMORE<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (from the Gaelic <i>claidheamh mòr</i>, “great sword”), +the old two-edged broadsword with cross hilt, of which the +guards were usually turned down, used by the Highlanders of +Scotland. The name is also wrongly applied to the single-edged +basket-hilted sword adopted in the 16th century and still worn +as the full-dress sword in the Highland regiments of the British +army.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAYS, PAUL JEAN<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1819-1900), Belgian artist, was born +at Bruges in 1819, and died at Brussels in 1900. He was one of +the most esteemed marine painters of his time, and early in his +career he substituted a sincere study of nature for the extravagant +and artificial conventionality of most of his predecessors. When +he began to paint, the sea was considered by continental artists +as worth representing only under its most tempestuous aspects. +Artists cared only for the stirring drama of storm and wreck, +and they clung still to the old-world tradition of the romantic +school. Clays was the first to appreciate the beauty of calm +waters reflecting the slow procession of clouds, the glories of +sunset illuminating the sails of ships or gilding the tarred sides +of heavy fishing-boats. He painted the peaceful life of rivers, +the poetry of wide estuaries, the regulated stir of roadsteads and +ports. And while he thus broke away from old traditions he +also threw off the trammels imposed on him by his master, +the marine painter Theodore Gudin (1802-1880). Endeavouring +only to give truthful expression to the nature that delighted his +eyes, he sought to render the limpid salt atmosphere, the weight +of waters, the transparence of moist horizons, the gem-like +sparkle of the sky. A Fleming in his feeling for colour, he set his +palette with clean strong hues, and their powerful harmonies +were in striking contrast with the rusty, smoky tones then in +favour. If he was not a “luminist” in the modern use of the +word, he deserves at any rate to be classed with the founders of +the modern naturalistic school. This conscientious and healthy +interpretation, to which the artist remained faithful, without any +important change, to the end of an unusually long and laborious +career, attracted those minds which aspired to be bold, and won +over those which were moderate. Clays soon took his place +among the most famous Belgian painters of his generation, and +his pictures, sold at high prices, are to be seen in most public and +private galleries. We may mention, among others, “The Beach +at Ault,” “Boats in a Dutch Port,” and “Dutch Boats in the +Flushing Roads,” the last in the National Gallery, London. +In the Brussels gallery are “The Port of Antwerp,” “Coast near +Ostend,” and a “Calm on the Scheldt”; in the Antwerp +museum, “The Meuse at Dordrecht”; in the Pinakothek at +Munich, “The Open North Sea”; in the Metropolitan Museum +of Fine Arts, New York, “The Festival of the Freedom of the +Scheldt at Antwerp in 1863”; in the palace of the king of the +Belgians, “Arrival of Queen Victoria at Ostend in 1857”; in +the Bruges academy, “Port of Feirugudo, Portugal.” Clays +was a member of several Academies, Belgian and foreign, and +of the Order of Leopold, the Legion of Honour, &c.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Camille Lemonnier, <i>Histoire des Beaux-Arts</i> (Brussels, 1887).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(O. M.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1796-1856), American +politician, was born in Dagsborough, Sussex county, Delaware, on +the 24th of July 1796. He came of an old Quaker family long +prominent in the political history of Delaware. He graduated +at Yale in 1815, and in 1819 began to practise law at Dover, +Delaware, where for a time he was associated with his cousin, +Thomas Clayton (1778-1854), subsequently a United States +senator and chief-justice of the state. He soon gained a large +practice. He became a member of the state House of Representatives +in 1824, and from December 1826 to October 1828 was +secretary of state of Delaware. In 1829, by a combination of +anti-Jackson forces in the state legislature, he was elected to the +United States Senate. Here his great oratorical gifts gave him +a high place as one of the ablest and most eloquent opponents +of the administration. In 1831 he was a member of the Delaware +constitutional convention, and in 1835 he was returned to the +Senate as a Whig, but resigned in the following year. In 1837-1839 +he was chief justice of Delaware. In 1845 he again entered +the Senate, where he opposed the annexation of Texas and the +Mexican War, but advocated the active prosecution of the latter +once it was begun. In March 1849 he became secretary of state +in the cabinet of President Zachary Taylor, to whose nomination +and election his influence had contributed. His brief tenure +of the state portfolio, which terminated on the 22nd of July +1850, soon after Taylor’s death, was notable chiefly for the +negotiation with the British minister, Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, +of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (<i>q.v.</i>). He was once more a member +of the Senate from March 1853 until his death at Dover, Delaware, +on the 9th of November 1856. By his contemporaries Clayton +was considered one of the ablest debaters and orators in the +Senate.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the memoir by Joseph P. Comegys in the <i>Papers</i> of the Historical +Society of Delaware, No. 4 (Wilmington, 1882).</p> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span></p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span>, a famous treaty between the +United States and Great Britain, negotiated in 1850 by John M. +Clayton and Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer (Lord Dalling), in consequence +of the situation created by the project of an interoceanic +canal across Nicaragua, each signatory being jealous of +the activities of the other in Central America. Great Britain +had large and indefinite territorial claims in three regions—Belize +or British Honduras, the Mosquito Coast and the Bay +Islands.<a name="FnAnchor_1o" id="FnAnchor_1o" href="#Footnote_1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On the other hand, the United States, without territorial +claims, held in reserve, ready for ratification, treaties with +Nicaragua and Honduras, which gave her a certain diplomatic +vantage with which to balance the <i>de facto</i> dominion of Great +Britain. Agreement on these points being impossible and +agreement on the canal question possible, the latter was put in +the foreground. The resulting treaty had four essential points. +It bound both parties not to “obtain or maintain” any exclusive +control of the proposed canal, or unequal advantage in +its use. It guaranteed the neutralization of such canal. It +declared that, the intention of the signatories being not only the +accomplishment of “a particular object”—<i>i.e.</i> that the canal, +then supposedly near realization, should be neutral and equally +free to the two contracting powers—“but also to establish a +general principle,” they agreed “to extend their protection by +treaty stipulation to any other practicable communications, +whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which connects +North and South America.” Finally, it stipulated that neither +signatory would ever “occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume +or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito +Coast or any part of Central America,” nor make use of +any protectorate or alliance, present or future, to such ends.</p> + +<p>The treaty was signed on the 19th of April, and was ratified +by both governments; but before the exchange of ratifications +Lord Palmerston, on the 8th of June, directed Sir H. Bulwer +to make a “declaration” that the British government did not +understand the treaty “as applying to Her Majesty’s settlement +at Honduras, or its dependencies.” Mr Clayton made a counter-declaration, +which recited that the United States did not regard +the treaty as applying to “the British settlement in Honduras +commonly called British-Honduras ... nor the small islands +in the neighbourhood of that settlement which may be known +as its dependencies”; that the treaty’s engagements did apply +to all the Central American states, “with their just limits and +proper dependencies”; and that these declarations, not being +submitted to the United States Senate, could of course not affect +the legal import of the treaty. The interpretation of the declarations +soon became a matter of contention. The phraseology +reflects the effort made by the United States to render impossible +a physical control of the canal by Great Britain through the +territory held by her at its mouth—the United States losing +the above-mentioned treaty advantages,—just as the explicit +abnegations of the treaty rendered impossible such control +politically by either power. But great Britain claimed that the +excepted “settlement” at Honduras was the “Belize” covered +by the extreme British claim; that the Bay Islands were a +dependency of Belize; and that, as for the Mosquito Coast, the +abnegatory clauses being wholly prospective in intent, she was +not required to abandon her protectorate. The United States +contended that the Bay Islands were not the “dependencies” +of Belize, these being the small neighbouring islands mentioned +in the same treaties; that the excepted “settlement” was the +British-Honduras of definite extent and narrow purpose recognized +in British treaties with Spain; that she had not confirmed +by recognition the large, indefinite and offensive claims +whose dangers the treaty was primarily designed to lessen; and +that, as to the Mosquito Coast, the treaty was retrospective, and +mutual in the rigour of its requirements, and as the United States +had no <i>de facto</i> possessions, while Great Britain had, the clause +binding both not to “occupy” any part of Central America +or the Mosquito Coast necessitated the abandonment of such +territory as Great Britain was already actually occupying or +exercising dominion over; and the United States demanded the +complete abandonment of the British protectorate over the +Mosquito Indians. It seems to be a just conclusion that when +in 1852 the Bay Islands were erected into a British “colony” +this was a flagrant infraction of the treaty; that as regards +Belize the American arguments were decidedly stronger, and +more correct historically; and that as regards the Mosquito +question, inasmuch as a protectorate seems certainly to have +been recognized by the treaty, to demand its absolute abandonment +was unwarranted, although to satisfy the treaty Great +Britain was bound materially to weaken it.</p> + +<p>In 1859-1860, by British treaties with Central American +states, the Bay Islands and Mosquito questions were settled +nearly in accord with the American contentions.<a name="FnAnchor_2o" id="FnAnchor_2o" href="#Footnote_2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> But by the +same treaties Belize was accorded limits much greater than +those contended for by the United States. This settlement +the latter power accepted without cavil for many years.</p> + +<p>Until 1866 the policy of the United States was consistently +for inter-oceanic canals open equally to all nations, and +unequivocally neutralized; indeed, until 1880 there was practically +no official divergence from this policy. But in 1880-1884 a +variety of reasons were advanced why the United States might +justly repudiate at will the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.<a name="FnAnchor_3o" id="FnAnchor_3o" href="#Footnote_3o"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The new +policy was based on national self-interest. The arguments +advanced on its behalf were quite indefensible in law and history, +and although the position of the United States in 1850-1860 +was in general the stronger in history, law and political ethics, +that of Great Britain was even more conspicuously the stronger +in the years 1880-1884. In 1885 the former government reverted +to its traditional policy, and the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty +of 1902, which replaced the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, adopted +the rule of neutralization for the Panama Canal.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the collected diplomatic correspondence in I.D. Travis, +<i>History of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty</i> (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1899); +J.H. Latané, <i>Diplomatic Relations of the United States and Spanish +America</i> (Baltimore, 1900); T.J. Lawrence, <i>Disputed Questions +of Modern International Law</i> (2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1885); +Sir E.L. Bulwer in 99 <i>Quarterly Rev.</i> 235-286, and Sir H. Bulwer in +104 <i>Edinburgh Rev.</i> 280-298.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1o" id="Footnote_1o" href="#FnAnchor_1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The claims to a part of the first two were very old in origin, but +all were heavily clouded by interruptions of possession, contested +interpretations of Spanish-British treaties, and active controversy +with the Central American States. The claim to some of the territory +was new and still more contestable. See particularly on these +claims Travis’e book cited below.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2o" id="Footnote_2o" href="#FnAnchor_2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The islands were ceded to Honduras. The Mosquito Coast was +recognized as under Nicaraguan rule limited by an attenuated +British protectorate over the Indians, who were given a reservation +and certain peculiar rights. They were left free to accept full +Nicaraguan rule at will. This they did in 1894.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3o" id="Footnote_3o" href="#FnAnchor_3o"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It was argued, <i>e.g.</i>, that the “general principle” of that engagement +was contingent on the prior realization of its “particular +object,” which had failed, and the treaty had determined as a special +contract; moreover, none of the additional treaties to embody the +“general principle” had been negotiated, and Great Britain had not +even offered co-operation in the protection and neutrality-guarantee +of the Panama railway built in 1850-1855, so that her +rights had lapsed; certain engagements of the treaty she had +violated, and therefore the whole treaty was voidable, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAY-WITH-FLINTS<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span>, in geology, the name given by W. Whitaker +in 1861 to a peculiar deposit of stiff red, brown or +yellow clay containing unworn whole flints as well as angular +shattered fragments, also with a variable admixture of rounded +flint, quartz, quartzite and other pebbles. It occurs “in sheets or +patches of various sizes over a large area in the south of England, +from Hertfordshire on the north to Sussex on the south, and +from Kent on the east to Devon on the west. It almost always +lies on the surface of the Upper Chalk, but in Dorset it passes +on to the Middle and Lower Chalk, and in Devon it is found on +the Chert-Beds of the Selbornian group” (A.J. Jukes-Browne, +“The Clay-with-Flints, its Origin and Distribution,” <i>Q.J.G.S.</i>, +vol. lxii., 1906, p. 132). Many geologists have supposed, and +some still hold, that the Clay-with-Flints is the residue left by +the slow solution and disintegration of the Chalk by the processes +of weathering; on the other hand, it has long been known that +the deposit very frequently contains materials foreign to the +Chalk, derived either from the Tertiary rocks or from overlying +drift. In the paper quoted above, Jukes-Browne ably summarizes +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span> +the evidence against the view that the deposit is mainly a +Chalk residue, and brings forward a good deal of evidence to +show that many patches of the Clay-with-Flints lie upon the +same plane and may be directly associated with Reading Beds. +He concludes “that the material of the Clay-with-Flints has been +chiefly and almost entirely derived from Eocene clay, with +addition of some flints from the Chalk; that its presence is an +indication of the previous existence of Lower Eocene Beds on +the same site and nearly at the same relative level, and, consequently, +that comparatively little Chalk has been removed +from beneath it. Finally, I think that the tracts of Clay-with-Flints +have been much more extensive than they are now” +(loc. cit. p. 159).</p> + +<p>It is noteworthy that the Clay-with-Flints is developed over +an area which is just beyond the limits of the ice sheets of the +Glacial epoch, and the peculiar conditions of late Pliocene and +Pleistocene times; involving heavy rains, snow and frost, may +have had much to do with the mingling of the Tertiary and +Chalky material. Besides the occurrence in surface patches, +Clay-with-Flints is very commonly to be observed descending +in “pipes” often to a considerable depth into the Chalk; here, +if anywhere, the residual chalk portion of the deposit should +be found, and it is surmised that a thin layer of very dark clay +with darkly stained flints, which appears in contact with +the sides and bottom of the pipe, may represent all there is of +insoluble residue.</p> + +<p>A somewhat similar deposit, a “<i>conglomérat de silex</i>” or +“<i>argue à silex</i>,” occurs at the base of the Eocene on the southern +and western borders of the Paris basin, in the neighbourhood +of Chartres, Thimerais and Sancerrois.</p> +<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLAZOMENAE<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (mod. <i>Kelisman</i>), an ancient town of Ionia +and a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis (Confederation of +Twelve Cities), on the Gulf of Smyrna, about 20 m. W. of that +city. Though not in existence before the arrival of the Ionians +in Asia, its original founders were largely settlers from Phlius +and Cleonae. It stood originally on the isthmus connecting +the mainland with the peninsula on which Erythrae stood; +but the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the +Persians, removed to one of the small islands of the bay, and +there established their city. This island was connected with +the mainland by Alexander the Great by means of a pier, the +remains of which are still visible. During the 5th century it +was for some time subject to the Athenians, but about the +middle of the Peloponnesian war (412 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) it revolted. After +a brief resistance, however, it again acknowledged the Athenian +supremacy, and repelled a Lacedaemonian attack. Under the +Romans Clazomenae was included in the province of Asia, and +enjoyed an immunity from taxation. The site can still be made +out, in the neighbourhood of Vourla, but nearly every portion +of its ruins has been removed. It was the birthplace of the +philosopher Anaxagoras. It is famous for its painted terra-cotta +sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of Ionian painting +in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> +<div class="author">(E. GR.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEANTHES<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (c. 301-232 or 252 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Stoic philosopher, +born at Assos in the Troad, was originally a boxer. With but +four drachmae in his possession he came to Athens, where he +listened first to the lectures of Crates the Cynic, and then to +those of Zeno, the Stoic, supporting himself meanwhile by +working all night as water-carrier to a gardener (hence his +nickname <span class="grk" title="phrehantlês">Φρεάντλης</span>). His power of patient endurance, or +perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of “the Ass”; but +such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that, +on the death of Zeno in 263, he became the leader of the school. +He continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his +own hands. Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus, +and Antigonus, king of Macedon, from whom he accepted +2000 minae. The manner of his death was characteristic. A +dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time. Subsequently +he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was +already half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble +to retrace his steps.</p> + +<p>Cleanthes produced very little that was original, though he +wrote some fifty works, of which fragments have come down +to us. The principal is the large portion of the <i>Hymn to Zeus</i> +which has been preserved in Stobaeus. He regarded the sun +as the abode of God, the intelligent providence, or (in accordance +with Stoical materialism) the vivifying fire or aether of the +universe. Virtue, he taught, is life according to nature; but +pleasure is not according to nature. He originated a new theory +as to the individual existence of the human soul; he held that +the degree of its vitality after death depends upon the degree +of its vitality in this life. The principal fragments of Cleanthes’s +works are contained in Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus; some +may be found in Cicero and Seneca.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G.C. Mohinke, <i>Kleanthes der Stoiker</i> (Greifswald, 1814); C. +Wachsmuth, <i>Commentationes de Zenone Citiensi et Cleanthe Assio</i> +(Göttingen, 1874-1875); A.C. Pearson, <i>Fragments of Zeno and +Cleanthes</i> (Camb., 1891); article by E. Wellmann in Ersch and +Gruber’s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>; R. Hirzel, <i>Untersuchungen zu +Ciceros philosophischen Schriften</i>, ii. (1882), containing a vindication +of the originality of Cleanthes; A.B. Krische, <i>Forschungen auf +dem Gebiete der alten Philosophie</i> (1840); also works quoted under +STOICS.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEARCHUS<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span>, the son of Rhamphias, a Spartan general and +condottiere. Born about the middle of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +Clearchus was sent with a fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and +became governor (<span class="grk" title="harmostês">ἁρμοστής</span>) of Byzantium, of which town he was +<i>proxenus</i>. His severity, however, made him unpopular, and in +his absence the gates were opened to the Athenian besieging army +under Alcibiades (409). Subsequently appointed by the ephors +to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium and to +protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from +Thracian attacks, he made himself tyrant of Byzantium, and, +when declared an outlaw and driven thence by a Spartan force, +he fled to Cyrus. In the “expedition of the ten thousand” +undertaken by Cyrus to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes +Mnemon, Clearchus led the Peloponnesians, who formed the +right wing of Cyrus’s army at the battle of Cunaxa (401). On +Cyrus’s death Clearchus assumed the chief command and +conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his +fellow-generals by Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes +and executed (Thuc. viii. 8. 39, 80; Xen. <i>Hellenica</i>, i. 3. 15-19; +<i>Anabasis</i>, i. ii.; Diodorus xiv. 12. 19-26). In character he was a +typical product of the Spartan educational system. He was a +warrior to the finger-tips (<span class="grk" title="polemikos kai philopolemos eschatôs">πολεμικὸς +καὶ φιλοπόλεμος ἐσχάτως</span>. +Xen. <i>Anab.</i> ii. 6. 1), and his tireless energy, unfaltering courage +and strategic ability made him an officer of no mean order. But +he seems to have had no redeeming touch of refinement or +humanity.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEARFIELD<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span>, a borough and the county-seat of Clearfield +county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. branch of the Susquehanna +river, in the W. central part of the state. Pop. (1890) +2248; (1900) 5081 (310 foreign-born); (1910) 6851. It is served +by the New York Central & Hudson River, the Pennsylvania, +and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg railways. The borough is +about 1105 ft. above sea-level, in a rather limited space between +the hills, which command picturesque views of the narrow valley. +The river runs through the borough. Coal and fireclay abound in +the vicinity, and these, with leather, iron, timber and the products +of the fertile soil, are the bases of its leading industries. +Before the arrival of the whites the place had been cleared of +timber (whence its name), and in 1805 it was chosen as a site for +the county-seat of the newly erected county and laid out as a +town; in 1840 it was incorporated as a borough.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEARING-HOUSE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span>, the general term for a central institution +employed in connexion with large and interrelated businesses for +the purpose of facilitating the settlement of accounts.</p> + +<p><i>Banking.</i>—The London Clearing-House was established +between 1750 and 1770 as a place where the clerks of the bankers +of the city of London could assemble daily to exchange with one +another the cheques drawn upon and bills payable at their +respective houses. Before the clearing-house existed, each +banker had to send a clerk to the places of business of all +the other bankers in London to collect the sums payable by +them in respect of cheques and bills; and it is obvious that much +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span> +time was consumed by this process, which involved the use of an +unnecessary quantity of money and corresponding risks of safe +carriage. In 1775 a room in Change Alley was settled upon as a +common centre of exchange; this was afterwards removed to +Post Office Court, Lombard Street. This clearing centre was at +first confined to the bankers—at that time and long afterwards +exclusively private bankers—doing business within the city, and +the bankers in the west end of the metropolis used some one or +other of the city banks as their agent in clearing. When the +joint-stock banks were first established, the jealousy of the +existing banks was powerful enough to exclude them altogether +from the use of the Clearing-House; and it was not until 1854 +that this feeling was removed so as to allow them to be admitted.</p> + +<p>At first the Clearing-House was simply a place of meeting, but +it came to be perceived that the sorting and distribution of +cheques, bills, &c, could be more expeditiously conducted by the +appointment of two or three common clerks to whom each +banker’s clerk could give all the instruments of exchange he +wished to collect, and from whom he could receive all those +payable at his own house. The payment of the balance settled +the transaction, but the arrangements were afterwards so +perfected that the balance is now settled by means of transfers +made at the Bank of England between the Clearing-House +account and those of the various banks, the Clearing-House, as +well as each banker using it, having an account at the Bank of +England. The use of the Clearing-House was still further +extended in 1858, so as to include the settlement of exchanges +between the country bankers of England. Before that time each +country banker receiving cheques on other country bankers sent +them to those other bankers by post (supposing they were not +carrying on business in the same place), and requested that the +amount should be paid by the London agent of the banker on +whom the cheques were drawn to the London agent of the banker +remitting them. Cheques were thus collected by correspondence, +and each remittance involved a separate payment in London. +Since 1858, accordingly, a country banker sends cheques on other +country banks to his London correspondent, who exchanges them +at the Clearing-House with the correspondents of the bankers on +whom they are drawn.</p> + +<p>The Clearing-House consists of one long room, lighted from the +roof. Around the walls and down the centre are placed desks, +allotted to the various banks, according to the amount of their +business. The desks are arranged alphabetically, so that the +clerks may lose no time in passing round the room and delivering +their “charges” or batches of cheques to the representatives of +the various banks. There are three clearings in London each day. +The first is at 10.30 A.M., the second at noon, and the third at +2.30 P.M. It is the busiest of all, and continues until five minutes +past four, when the last delivery must be made. The three +clearings were, in 1907, divided into town, metropolitan and +country clearings, each with a definite area. All the clearing +banks have their cheques marked with the letters “T,” “M” and +“C,” according to the district in which the issuing bank is +situated. Every cheque issued by the clearing banks, even +though drawn in the head office of a bank, goes through the +Clearing-House.</p> + +<p>The amount of business transacted at the Clearing-House +varies very much with the seasons of the year, the busiest time +being when dividends are paid and stock exchange settlements +are made, but the volume of transactions averages roughly from +200 to 300 millions sterling a week, and the yearly clearances +amount to something like £12,000,000,000. There are provincial +clearing-houses at Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Newcastle-on-Tyne, +Leeds, Sheffield, Leicester and Bristol. There are +also clearing-houses in most of the large towns of Scotland and +Ireland. In New York and the other large cities of the United +States there are clearing-houses providing accommodation for +the various banking institutions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Banks and Banking</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The progress of banking on the continent of Europe has been +slow in comparison with that of the United Kingdom, and the +use of cheques is not so general, consequently the need for +clearing-houses is not so great. In France, too, the greater +proportion of the banking business is carried on through three +banks only, the Banque de France, the Société Générale and the +Crédit Lyonnais, and a great part of their transactions are settled +at their own head offices. But at the same time large sums +pass through the Paris Chambre de Compensation (the clearing-house), +established in 1872.</p> + +<p>There are clearing-houses also in Berlin, Hamburg and many +other European cities.</p> + +<p><i>Railways.</i>—The British Railway Clearing-House was established +in 1842, its purpose, as defined by the Railway Clearing-House +Act of 1850, being “to settle and adjust the receipts +arising from railway traffic within, or partly within, the United +Kingdom, and passing over more than one railway within the +United Kingdom, booked or invoiced at throughout rates or +fares.” It is an independent body, governed by a committee +which is composed of delegates (usually the chairman or one of +the directors) from each of the railways that belong to it. Any +railway company may be admitted a party to the clearing-system +with the assent of the committee, may cease to be a member at a +month’s notice, and may be expelled if such expulsion be voted +for by two-thirds of the delegates present at a specially convened +meeting. The cost of maintaining it is defrayed by contributions +from the companies proportional to the volume of business passed +through it by each. It has two main functions. (1) When +passengers or goods are booked through between stations +belonging to different railway companies at an inclusive charge +for the whole journey, it distributes the money received in due +proportions between the companies concerned in rendering the +service. To this end it receives, in the case of passenger traffic, a +monthly return of the tickets issued at each station to stations on +other lines, and, in the case of goods traffic, it is supplied by both +the sending and receiving stations (when these are on different +companies’ systems) with abstracts showing the character, weight, +&c., of the goods that have travelled between them. By the aid +of these particulars it allocates the proper share of the receipts +to each company, having due regard to the distance over which +the traffic has been carried on each line, to the terminal services +rendered by each company, to any incidental expenses to which +it may have been put, and to the existence of any special agreements +for the division of traffic. (2) To avoid the inconvenience +of a change of train at points where the lines of different companies +meet, passengers are often, and goods and minerals +generally, carried in through vehicles from their starting-point +to their destination. In consequence, vehicles belonging to one +company are constantly forming part of trains that belong to, +and run over the lines of, other companies, which thus have the +temporary use of rolling stock that does not belong to them. +By the aid of a large staff of “number takers” who are stationed +at junctions all over the country, and whose business is to +record particulars of the vehicles which pass through those +junctions, the Clearing-House follows the movements of vehicles +which have left their owners’ line, ascertains how far they have +run on the lines of other companies, and debits each of the latter +with the amount it has to pay for their use. This charge is +known as “mileage”; another charge which is also determined +by the Clearing-House is “demurrage,” that is, the amount +exacted from the detaining company if a vehicle is not returned +to its owners within a prescribed time. By the exercise of these +functions the Clearing-House accumulates a long series of credits +to, and debits against, each company; these are periodically +added up and set against each other, with the result that the +accounts between it and the companies are finally settled by the +transfer of comparatively small balances. It also distributes the +money paid by the post-office to the railways on account of the +conveyance of parcel-post traffic, and through its lost luggage +department many thousands of articles left in railway carriages +are every year returned to their owners. Its situation in London +further renders it a convenient meeting-place for several “Clearing-House +Conferences” of railway officials, as of the general +managers, the goods managers, and the superintendents of the +line, held four times a year for the consideration of questions +in which all the companies are interested. The Irish Railway +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span> +Clearing-House, established in 1848, has its headquarters in +Dublin, and was incorporated by act of parliament in 1860.</p> + +<p><i>General</i>.—The principle of clearing adopted by banks and +railways has been applied with considerable success in other +businesses.</p> + +<p>In 1874 the London Stock Exchange Clearing-House was +established for the purpose of settling transactions in stock, the +clearing being effected by balance-sheets and tickets; the balance +of stock to be received or delivered is shown on a balance-sheet +sent in by each member, and the items are then cancelled against +one another and tickets issued for the balances outstanding. +The New York Stock Exchange Clearing-House was established in +1892. The settlements on the Paris Bourse are cleared within the +Bourse itself, through the Compagnie des Agents de Change de +Paris.</p> + +<p>In 1888 a society was formed in London called the Beetroot +Sugar Association for clearing bargains in beetroot sugar. For +every 500 bags of sugar of a definite weight which a broker sells, +he issues a <i>filière</i> (a form something like a dock-warrant), giving +particulars as to the ship, the warehouse, trade-marks, &c. The +filière contains also a series of transfer forms which are filled up +and signed by each successive holder, so transferring the property +to a new purchaser. The new purchaser also fills up a coupon +attached to the transfer, quoting the date and hour of sale. This +coupon is detached by the seller and retained by him as evidence +to determine any liability through subsequent delay in the +delivery of the sugar. Any purchaser requiring delivery of the +sugar forwards the filière to the clearing-house, and the officials +then send on his name to the first seller who tenders him the +warrant direct. These filières pass from hand to hand within a +limit of six days, a stamp being affixed on each transfer as a +clearing-house fee. The difference between each of the successive +transactions is adjusted by the clearing-house to the profit or loss +of the seller.</p> + +<p>The London Produce Clearing-House was established in 1888 +for regulating and adjusting bargains in foreign and colonial +produce. The object of the association is to guarantee both to +the buyer and the seller the fulfilment of bargains for future +delivery. The transactions on either side are allowed to accumulate +during a month and an adjustment made at the end by a +settlement of the final balance owing. On the same lines are the +Caisse de Liquidation at Havre and the Waaren Liquidations +Casse at Hamburg. The Cotton Association also has a clearing-house +at Liverpool for clearing the transactions which arise from +dealings in cotton.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—W. Howarth, <i>Our Clearing System and Clearing +Houses</i> (1897), <i>The Banks in the Clearing House</i> (1905); J.G. Cannon, +<i>Clearing-houses, their History, Methods and Administration</i> (1901); +H.T. Easton, <i>Money, Exchange and Banking</i> (1905); and the various +volumes of the <i>Journal of the Institute of Bankers</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEAT<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (a word common in various forms to many Teutonic +languages, in the sense of a wedge or lump, cf. “clod” and +“clot”), a wedge-shaped piece of wood fastened to ships’ +masts and elsewhere to prevent a rope, collar or the like from +slipping, or to act as a step; more particularly a piece of wood +or metal with double or single horns used for belaying ropes. +A “cleat” is also a wedge fastened to a ship’s side to catch the +shores in a launching cradle or dry dock. “Cleat” is also used +in mining for the vertical cleavage-planes of coal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEATOR MOOR<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span>, an urban district in the Egremont parliamentary +division of Cumberland, England, 4 m. S.E. of White-haven, +served by the Furness, London & North-Western and +Cleator & Workington Junction railways. Pop. (1901) 8120. +The town lies between the valleys of the Ehen and its tributary +the Dub Beck, in a district rich in coal and iron ore. The mining +of these, together with blast furnaces and engineering works, +occupies the large industrial population.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEAVERS<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Goose-grass</span>, <i>Galium Aparine</i> (natural order +Rubiaceae), a common plant in hedges and waste places, with +a long, weak, straggling, four-sided, green stem, bearing whorls +of 6 to 8 narrow leaves, ½ to 2 in. long, and, like the angles of the +stem, rough from the presence of short, stiff, downwardly-pointing, +hooked hairs. The small, white, regular flowers are borne, a few +together, in axillary clusters, and are followed by the large, hispid, +two-celled fruit, which, like the rest of the plant, readily clings +to a rough surface, whence the common name. The plant has a +wide distribution throughout the north temperate zone, and is also +found in temperate South America.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEBURNE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span>, a town and the county-seat of Johnson county, +Texas, U.S.A., 25 m. S. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1890) 3278; +(1900) 7493, including 611 negroes; (1910) 10,364. It is served by +the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, +and the Trinity & Brazos Valley railways. It is the centre of a +prosperous farming, fruit and stock-raising region, has large +railway repair shops, flour-mills, cotton gins and foundries, a +canning factory and machine shops. It has a Carnegie library, +and St Joseph’s Academy (Roman Catholic; for girls). The +town was named in honour of Patrick Ronayne Cleburne (1828-1864), +a major-general of the Confederate army, who was of +Irish birth, practised law in Helena, Arkansas, served at Shiloh, +Perryville, Stone River, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Ring-gold +Gap, Jonesboro and Franklin, and was killed in the last-named +battle; he was called the “Stonewall of the West.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLECKHEATON<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span>, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary +division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, +5½ m. S. by E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire, +Great Northern and London & North-Western railways. Pop. +(1901) 12,524. A chamber of commerce has held meetings here +since 1878. The industries comprise the manufacture of woollens, +blankets, flannel, wire-card and machinery.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEETHORPES<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span>, a watering-place of Lincolnshire, England; +within the parliamentary borough of Great Grimsby, 3 m. S.E. +of that town by a branch of the Great Central railway. Pop. +of urban district of Cleethorpe with Thrunscoe (1901) 12,578. +Cleethorpes faces eastward to the North Sea, but its shore of +fine sand, affording good bathing, actually belongs to the estuary +of the Humber. There is a pier, and the sea-wall extends for +about a mile, forming a pleasant promenade. The suburb of +New Clee connects Cleethorpes with Grimsby. The church of +the Holy Trinity and St Mary is principally Norman of various +dates, but work of a date apparently previous to the Conquest +appears in the tower. Cleethorpes is greatly favoured by +visitors from the midland counties, Lancashire and Yorkshire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEFT PALATE<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> and <span class="bold">HARE-LIP</span>, in surgery. <i>Cleft Palate</i> +is a congenital cleavage, or incomplete development in the roof +of the mouth, and is frequently associated with hare-lip. The +infant is prevented from sucking, and an operation is necessary. +Cleft-palate is often a hereditary defect. The most favourable +time for operating is between the age of two weeks and three +months, and if the cleft is closed at this early date, not only are +the nutrition and general development of the child greatly +improved, but the voice is probably saved from much of the +unpleasant tone which is usually associated with a defective +roof to the mouth and is apt to persist even if a cleft has been +successfully operated on later in childhood. The greatest advance +which has been made in the operative treatment of cleft palate +is due to the teaching of Dr Truman W. Brophy, who adopted +the ingenious plan of thrusting together to the middle line of +the mouth the halves of the palate which nature had unfortunately +left apart. But, as noted above, this operation must, to +give the best results, be undertaken in the earliest months of +infancy. After the cleft in the palate has been effectually dealt +with, the hare-lip can be repaired with ease and success.</p> + +<p><i>Hare-lip</i>.—In the hare the splitting of the lip is in the middle +line, but in the human subject it is on one side, or on both sides +of the middle line. This is accounted for on developmental +grounds: a cleft in the exact middle line is of extremely rare +occurrence. Hare-lip is often associated with cleft palate. +Though we are at present unable to explain why development +should so frequently miss the mark in connexion with the formation +of the lip and palate, it is unlikely that maternal impressions +have anything to do with it. As a rule, the supposed “fright” +comes long after the lips are developed. They are completely +formed by the ninth week. Heredity has a powerful influence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span> +in many cases. The best time for operating on a hare-lip depends +upon various circumstances. Thus, if it is associated with cleft +palate, the palatine cleft has first to be closed, in which case the +child will probably be several months old before the lip is operated +on. If the infant is in so poor a state of nutrition that it appears +unsuitable for surgical treatment, the operation must be postponed +until his condition is sufficiently improved. But, assuming +that the infant is in fair health, that he is taking his food well and +thriving on it, that he is not troubled by vomiting or diarrhoea, +and that the hare-lip is not associated with a defective palate, +the sooner it is operated on the better. It may be successfully +done even within a few hours of birth. When a hare-lip is +unassociated with cleft palate, the infant may possibly be enabled +to take the breast within a short time of the gap being closed. +In such a case the operation may be advisably undertaken +within the first few days of birth. The case being suitable, the +operation may be conveniently undertaken at any time after +the tenth day.</p> +<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEISTHENES<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span>, the name of two Greek statesmen, (1) of +Athens, (2) of Sicyon, of whom the first is far the more important.</p> + +<p class="pt2">1. <span class="sc">Cleisthenes</span>, the Athenian statesman, was the son of +Megacles and Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He +thus belonged, through his father, to the noble family of the +Alcmaeonidae (<i>q.v.</i>), who bore upon them the curse of the Cylonian +massacre, and had been in exile during the rule of the Peisistratids. +In the hope of washing out the stigma, which damaged +their prestige, they spent the latter part of their exile in carrying +out with great splendour the contract given out by the Amphictyons +for the rebuilding of the temple at Delphi (destroyed +by fire in 548 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). By building the pronaos of Parian marble +instead of limestone as specified in the contract, they acquired +a high reputation for piety; the curse was consigned to oblivion, +and their reinstatement was imposed by the oracle itself upon +the Spartan king, Cleomenes (<i>q.v.</i>). Cleisthenes, to whom this +far-seeing atonement must probably be attributed, had also on +his side (1) the malcontents in Athens who were disgusted with +the growing severity of Hippias, and (2) the oligarchs of Sparta, +partly on religious grounds, and partly owing to their hatred +of tyranny. Aristotle’s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, however, treats +the alliance of the Peisistratids with Argos, the rival of Sparta +in the Peloponnese, as the chief ground for the action of Sparta +(<i>c.</i> 19). In <i>c.</i> 513 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Cleisthenes invaded Attica, but was +defeated by the tyrant’s mercenaries at Leipsydrium (S. of Mt. +Parnes). Sparta then, in tardy obedience to the oracle, threw +off her alliance with the Peisistratids, and, after one failure, +expelled Hippias in 511-510 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, leaving Athens once again at +the mercy of the powerful families.</p> + +<p>Cleisthenes, on his return, was in a difficulty; he realized +that Athens would not tolerate a new tyranny, nor were the +other nobles willing to accept him as leader of a +constitutional oligarchy. It was left for him to “take +<span class="sidenote">Home and foreign policy.</span> +the people into partnership” as Peisistratus had in a +different way done before him. Solon’s reforms had +failed, primarily because they left unimpaired the power of the +great landed nobles, who, in their several districts, doubled the +rôles of landlord, priest and patriarch. This evil of local influence +Peisistratus had concealed by satisfying the nominally sovereign +people that in him they had a sufficient representative. It was +left to Cleisthenes to adopt the remaining remedy of giving +substance to the form of the Solonian constitution. His first +attempts roused the aristocrats to a last effort; Isagoras +appealed to the Spartans (who, though they disliked tyranny, +had no love for democracy) to come to his aid. Cleisthenes +retired on the arrival of a herald from Cleomenes, reviving the +old question of the curse; Isagoras thus became all-powerful<a name="FnAnchor_1p" id="FnAnchor_1p" href="#Footnote_1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +and expelled seven hundred families. The democrats, however, +rose, and after besieging Cleomenes and Isagoras in the Acropolis, +let them go under a safe-conduct, and brought back the exiles.</p> + +<p>Apart from the reforms which Cleisthenes was now able to +establish, the period of his ascendancy is a blank, nor are we +told when and how it came to an end. It is clear, however—and +it is impossible in connexion with the Pan-hellenic patriotism +to which Athens laid claim, to overrate the importance of the +fact—that Cleisthenes, hard pressed in the war with Boeotia, +Euboea and Sparta (Herod, v. 73 and foll.), sent ambassadors +to ask the help of Persia. The story, as told by Herodotus, that +the ambassadors of their own accord agreed to give “earth and +water” (<i>i.e.</i> submission) in return for Persian assistance, and +that the Ecclesia subsequently disavowed their action as unauthorized, +is scarcely credible. Cleisthenes (1) was in full +control and must have instructed the ambassadors; (2) he +knew that any help from Persia meant submission. It is practically +certain, therefore, that he (cf. the Alcmaeonids and the +story of the shield at Marathon) was the first to “medize” +(see Curtius, <i>History of Greece</i>). Probably he had hoped to +persuade the Ecclesia that the agreement was a mere form. +Aelian says that he himself was a victim to his own device of +ostracism (<i>q.v.</i>); this, though apparently inconsistent with the +<i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>c.</i> 22), may perhaps indicate that his +political career ended in disgrace, a hypothesis which is explicable +on the ground of this act of treachery in respect of the attempted +Persian alliance. Whether to Cleisthenes are due the final +success over Boeotia and Euboea, the planting of the 4000 +cleruchs on the Lelantine Plain, and the policy of the Aeginetan +War (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegina</a></span>), in which Athens borrowed ships from Corinth, +it is impossible to determine. The eclipse of Cleisthenes in all +records is one of the most curious facts in Greek history. It is +also curious that we do not know in what official capacity +Cleisthenes carried his reforms. Perhaps he was given extraordinary +<i>ad hoc</i> powers for a specified time; conceivably he +used the ordinary mechanism. It seems clear that he had fully +considered his scheme in advance, that he broached it before +the last attack of Isagoras, and that it was only after the final +expulsion of Isagoras and his Spartan allies that it became +possible for him to put it into execution.</p> + +<p>Cleisthenes aimed at being the leader of a self-governing +people; in other words he aimed at making the democracy +actual. He realized that the dead-weight which +held the democracy down was the influence on politics +<span class="sidenote">Analysis of his reforms</span> +of the local religious unit. Therefore his prime object +was to dissociate the clans and the phratries from +politics, and to give the democracy a totally new electoral basis +in which old associations and vested interests would be split +up and become ineffective. It was necessary that no man +should govern a pocket-constituency merely by virtue of his +religious, financial or ancestral prestige, and that there should +be created a new local unit with administrative powers of a +democratic character which would galvanize the lethargic voters +into a new sense of responsibility and independence. His first +step was to abolish the four Solonian tribes and create ten new +ones.<a name="FnAnchor_2p" id="FnAnchor_2p" href="#Footnote_2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Each of the new tribes was subdivided into “demes’” +<span class="sidenote">The ten tribes</span> +(roughly “townships”); this organization did not, +except politically, supersede the system of clans and +phratries whose old religious signification remained +untouched. The new tribes, however, though geographically +arranged, did not represent local interests. Further, the tribe +names were taken from legendary heroes (Cecropis, Pandionis, +Aegeis recalled the storied kings of Attica), and, therefore, +contributed to the idea of a national unity; even Ajax, the +eponym of the tribe Aeantis, though not Attic, was famous +as an ally (Herod, v. 66) and ranked as a national hero. Each +tribe had its shrine and its particular hero-cult, which, however, +was free from local association and the dominance of particular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span> +families. This national idea Cleisthenes further emphasized by +setting up in the market-place at Athens a statue of each tribal +hero.</p> + +<p>The next step was the organization of the deme. Within +each tribe he grouped ten demes (see below), each of which had +(1) its hero and its chapel, and (2) its census-list kept +by the demarch. The demarch (local governor), who +<span class="sidenote">Demes.</span> +was elected popularly and held office for one year, presided over +meetings affecting local administration and the provision of +crews for the state-navy, and was probably under a system of +scrutiny like the <i>dokimasia</i> of the state-magistrates. According +to the Aristotelian <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, Cleisthenes further +divided Attica into three districts, Urban and Suburban, Inland +(<i>Mesogaios</i>), and Maritime (<i>Paralia</i>), each of which was subdivided +into ten <i>trittyes</i>; each tribe had three trittyes in each +of these districts. The problem of establishing this decimal +system in connexion with the demes and trittyes is insoluble. +Herodotus says that there were ten<a name="FnAnchor_3p" id="FnAnchor_3p" href="#Footnote_3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a> demes to each tribe +(<span class="grk" title="deka eis tas phylas">δέκα εἰς τὰς φυλάς</span>); but each tribe was composed of three trittyes, +one in each of the three districts. Since the deme was, as will +be seen, the electoral unit, it is clear that in tribal voting the +object of ending the old threefold schism of the Plain, the Hill +and the Shore was attained, but the relation of deme and trittys +is obviously of an unsymmetrical kind. The <i>Constitution of +Athens</i> says nothing of the ten-deme-to-each-tribe arrangement, +and there is no sufficient reason for supposing that the demes +originally were exactly a hundred in number. We know the +names of 168 demes, and Polemon (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) enumerated +173. It has been suggested that the demes did originally number +exactly a hundred, and that new demes were added as the population +increased. This theory, however, presupposes that the +demes were originally equal in numbers. In the 5th and 4th +centuries this was certainly not the case; the number of demesmen +in some cases was only one hundred or two hundred, +whereas the deme Acharnae is referred to as a “great part” of +the whole state, and is known to have furnished three thousand +hoplites. The theory is fundamentally at fault, inasmuch as +it regards the deme as consisting of all those <i>resident within +its borders</i>. In point of fact membership was hereditary, not +residential; Demosthenes “of the Paeanian deme” might live +where he would without severing his deme connexion. Thus +the increase of population could be no reason for creating new +demes. This distinction in a deme between demesmen and +residents belonging to another deme (the <span class="grk" title="egkektêmenoi">ἐγκεκτημένοι</span>), who +paid a deme-tax for their privilege, is an important one. It +should further be noted that the demes belonging to a particular +tribe do not, as a fact, appear always in three separate groups; +the tribe Aeantis consisted of Phalerum and eleven demes in +the district of Marathon; other tribes had demes in five or six +groups. It must, therefore, be admitted that the problem is +insoluble for want of data. Nor are we better equipped to settle +the relation between the Cleisthenean division into Urban, +Maritime and Inland, and the old divisions of the Plain, the +Shore and the Upland or Hill. The “Maritime” of Cleisthenes +and the old “Shore” are certainly not coincident, nor is the +“Inland” identical with the “Upland.”</p> + +<p>Lastly, it has been asked whether we are to believe that +Cleisthenes invented the demes. To this the answer is in the +negative. The demes were undoubtedly primitive divisions of +Attica; Herodotus (ix. 73) speaks of the Dioscuri as ravaging +the demes of Decelea (see R.W. Macan <i>ad loc.</i>) and we hear of +opposition between the city and the demes. The most logical +conclusion perhaps is that Cleisthenes, while he <i>did</i> create the +demes which Athens itself comprised, did not create the country +demes, but merely gave them definition as political divisions. +Thus the city itself had six demes in five different tribes, and the +other five tribes were represented in the suburbs and the Peiraeus. +It is clear that in the Cleisthenean system there was one great +source of danger, namely that the residents in and about Athens +must always have had more weight in elections than those in +distant demes. There can be little doubt that the preponderating +influence of the city was responsible for the unwisdom of +the later imperial policy and the Peloponnesian war.</p> + +<p>A second problem is the franchise reform of Cleisthenes. +Aristotle in the <i>Politics</i> (iii. 2. 3 = 1275 b) says that Cleisthenes +created new citizens by enrolling in the tribes “many resident +aliens and emancipated slaves.”<a name="FnAnchor_4p" id="FnAnchor_4p" href="#Footnote_4p"><span class="sp">4</span></a> But the Aristotelian <i>Constitution +of Athens</i> asserts that he gave “citizenship to the +masses.” These two statements are not compatible. It is +<span class="sidenote">The diapsephismus.</span> +perfectly clear that Cleisthenes is to be regarded as a +democrat, and it would have been no bribe to the +people merely to confer a boon on aliens and slaves. +Moreover, a revision of the citizen-roll (<i>diapsephismus</i>) had +recently taken place (after the end of the tyranny) and a +great many citizens had been struck off the roll as being of +impure descent (<span class="grk" title="oi tô genei mê katharoi"> +οἱ τῷ γένει μὴ καθαροί</span>). This class had existed +from the time of Solon, and, through fear of political extinction +by the oligarchs, had been favourable to Peisistratus. Cleisthenes +may have enfranchised aliens and slaves, but it seems +certain that he must have dealt with these free Athenians who +had lost their rights. Now Isagoras presumably did not carry +out this revision of the roll (<i>diapsephismus</i>); as “the friend of +the tyrants” (so <i>Ath. Pol.</i> 20; by Meyer, Busolt and others +contest this) he would not have struck a blow at a class which +favoured his own views. A reasonable hypothesis is that +Cleisthenes was the originator of the measure of expulsion, and +that he now changed his policy, and strengthened his hold on +the democracy by reinstating the disfranchised in much larger +numbers. The new citizens, whoever they were, must, of course, +have been enrolled also in the (hitherto exclusive) phratry lists +and the deme-rolls.</p> + +<p>The Boulē (<i>q.v.</i>) was reorganized to suit the new tribal arrangement, +and was known henceforward as the Council of the Five +Hundred, fifty from each tribe. Its exact constitution +is unknown, but it was certainly more democratic +<span class="sidenote">The council and boards of ten.</span> +than the Solonian Four Hundred. Further, the +system of ten tribes led in course of time to the construction +of boards of ten to deal with military and civil affairs, +<i>e.g.</i> the Strategi (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>), the Apodectae, and others. +Of these the former cannot be attributed to Cleisthenes, but on +the evidence of Androtion it is certain that it was Cleisthenes +who replaced the Colacretae<a name="FnAnchor_5p" id="FnAnchor_5p" href="#Footnote_5p"><span class="sp">5</span></a> by the Apodectae (“receivers”), +who were controllers and auditors of the finance department, +and, before the council in the council-chamber, received the +revenues. The Colacretae, who had done this work before, +remained in authority over the internal expenses of the Prytaneum. +A further change which followed from the new tribal +system was the reconstitution of the army; this, however, +probably took place about 501 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and cannot be attributed +directly to Cleisthenes. It has been said that the deme became +the local political unit, replacing the naucrary (<i>q.v.</i>). But the +naucraries still supplied the fleet, and were increased in number +from forty-eight to fifty; if each naucrary still supplied a ship +and two mounted soldiers as before, it is interesting to learn +that, only seventy years before the Peloponnesian War, Athens +had but fifty ships and a hundred horse.<a name="FnAnchor_6p" id="FnAnchor_6p" href="#Footnote_6p"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p>The device of ostracism is the final stone in the Cleisthenean +structure. An admirable scheme in theory, and, at first, in +practice, it deteriorated in the 5th century into a mere party +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span> +weapon, and in the case of Hyperbolus (417) became an +absurdity.</p> + +<p>In conclusion it should be noticed that Cleisthenes was +the founder of the Athens which we know. To him was due +the spirit of nationality, the principle of liberty duly +apportioned and controlled by centralized and decentralized +<span class="sidenote">Summary.</span> +administration, which prepared the ground for the +rich developments of the Golden Age with its triumphs of art +and literature, politics and philosophy. It was Cleisthenes who +organized the structure which, for a long time, bore the heavy +burden of the Empire against impossible odds, the structure +which the very different genius of Pericles was able to beautify. +He was the first to appreciate the unique power in politics, +literature and society of an organized public opinion.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>—<i>Ancient:</i> Aristotle, <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (ed. +J.E. Sandys), cc. 20-22, 41; Herodotus v, 63-73, vi. 131; Aristotle, +<i>Politics</i>, iii. 2, 3 (= 1275 b, for franchise reforms). <i>Modern:</i> Histories +of Greece in general, especially those of Grote and Curtius (which, +of course, lack the information contained in the <i>Constitution of +Athens</i>), and J.B. Bury. See also E. Meyer, <i>Geschichte des Altertums</i> +(vol. ii.); G. Busolt, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i> (2nd ed., 1893 foll.); Milchhöfer, +“Über die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes” in appendix to <i>Abhandlung +d. Berl. Akad.</i> (1892); R. Loeper in <i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> (1892), +pp. 319-433; A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional +History</i> (1896); Gilbert, <i>Greek Constitutional Antiquities</i> (Eng. +trans., 1895); R.W. Macan, <i>Herodotus iv.-vi.</i>, vol. ii. (1895), pp. 127-148; +U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, <i>Arist. und Athen.</i> See also +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bollē</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ostracism</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naucrary</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2">2. <span class="sc">Cleisthenes of Sicyon</span> (c. 600-570), grandfather of the +above, became tyrant of Sicyon as the representative of the +conquered Ionian section of the inhabitants. He emphasized +the destruction of Dorian predominance by giving ridiculous +epithets to their tribal units, which from Hylleis, Dymanes and +Pamphyli become Hyatae (“Swine-men”), Choireatae (“Pig-men”) +and Oneatae (“Ass-men”). He also attacked Dorian +Argos, and suppressed the Homeric “rhapsodists” who sang +the exploits of Dorian heroes. He championed the cause of the +Delphic oracle against the town of Crisa (Cirrha) in the Sacred +War (c. 590). Crisa was destroyed, and Delphi became one of the +meeting-places of the old amphictyony of Anthela, henceforward +often called the Delphic amphictyony. The Pythian games, +largely on the initiative of Cleisthenes, were re-established with +new magnificence, and Cleisthenes won the first chariot race in +582. He founded Pythian games at Sicyon, and possibly built +a new Sicyonian treasury at Delphi. His power was so great +that when he offered his daughter Agariste in marriage, some +of the most prominent Greeks sought the honour, which fell upon +Megacles, the Alcmaeonid. The story of the rival wooers with +the famous retort, “Hippocleides don’t care,” is told in Herod. +vi. 125; see also Herod, v. 67 and Thuc. i. 18.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Cleisthenes</span> is also the name of an Athenian, pilloried by Aristophanes +(<i>Clouds</i>, 354; <i>Thesm.</i> 574) as a fop and a profligate.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1p" id="Footnote_1p" href="#FnAnchor_1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The archonship of Isagoras in 508 is important as showing that +Cleisthenes, three years after his return, had so far failed to secure +the support of a majority in Athens. There is no sufficient reason +for supposing that the election of Isagoras was procured by Cleomenes; +all the evidence points to its having been brought about in +the ordinary way. Probably, therefore, Cleisthenes did not take the +people thoroughly into partnership till after the spring of 508.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2p" id="Footnote_2p" href="#FnAnchor_2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The explanation given for this step by Herodotus (v. 67) is +an amusing example of his incapacity as a critical historian. To +compare Cleisthenes of Sicyon (see below), bent on humiliating the +Dorians of Sicyon by giving opprobrious names to the Dorian tribes, +with his grandson, whose endeavour was to elevate the very persons +whose tribal organization he replaced, is clearly absurd.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3p" id="Footnote_3p" href="#FnAnchor_3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (<i>Arist. und Athen</i>, pp. 149-150) suggests +<span class="grk" title="dekacha">δεκαχά</span>, “in ten batches,” instead of <span class="grk" title="deka">δέκα</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4p" id="Footnote_4p" href="#FnAnchor_4p"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It should be observed that there are other translations of the +difficult phrase <span class="grk" title="xenous kai doulous metoikous"> +ξένους καὶ δούλους μετοίκους</span>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5p" id="Footnote_5p" href="#FnAnchor_5p"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Colacretae</i> were very ancient Athenian magistrates; either +(1) those who “cut up the joints” in the Prytaneum <span class="grk" title="kôla, keirô"> +(κῶλα, κείρω</span>), +or (2) those who “collected the joints” <span class="grk" title="kôla, ageirô"> +(κῶλα, ἀγείρω</span>) which were +left over from public sacrifices, and consumed in the Prytaneum. +These officials were again important in the time of Aristophanes +(<i>Wasps</i>, 693, 724; <i>Birds</i>, 1541), and they presided over the payment +of the dicasts instituted by Pericles. They are not mentioned, +though they may have existed, after 403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At Sicyon also +magistrates of this name are found.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_6p" id="Footnote_6p" href="#FnAnchor_6p"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It is, however, more probable that the right reading of the +passage is <span class="grk" title="deka ippeis">δέκα ἱππεῖς</span> instead of <span class="grk" title="duo"> +δύο</span>, which would give a cavalry force +in early Athens of 480, a reasonable number in proportion to the +total fighting strength.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEITARCHUS<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span>, one of the historians of Alexander the Great, +son of Deinon, also an historian, was possibly a native of Egypt, +or at least spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy +Lagus. Quintilian (<i>Instit.</i> x. i. 74) credits him with more +ability than trustworthiness, and Cicero (<i>Brutus</i>, 11) accuses +him of giving a fictitious account of the death of Themistocles. +But there is no doubt that his history was very popular, and +much used by Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius, Justin and +Plutarch, and the authors of the Alexander romances. His +unnatural and exaggerated style became proverbial.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The fragments, some thirty in number, chiefly preserved in Aelian +and Strabo, will be found in C. Müller’s <i>Scriptores Rerum Alexandri +Magni</i> (in the Didot <i>Arrian</i>, 1846); monographs by C. Raun, <i>De +Clitarcho Diodori, Curtii, Justini auctore</i> (1868), and F. Reuss, +“Hellenistische Beiträge” in <i>Rhein. Mus.</i> lxiii. (1908), pp. 58-78.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEITHRAL<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kleithron">κλεῖθρον</span>, an enclosed or shut-up place), +an architectural term applied to a covered Greek temple, in +contradistinction to <i>hypaethral</i>, which designates one that is +uncovered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEITOR<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clitor</span>, a town of ancient Greece, in that part of +Arcadia which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta +in the nomos of Elis and Achaea. It stood in a fertile plain to +the south of Mt Chelmos, the highest peak of the Aroanian +Mountains, and not far from a stream of its own name, which +joined the Aroanius, or Katzana. In the neighbourhood was +a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive those who +drank them of the taste for wine. The town was a place of considerable +importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants were noted +for their love of liberty. It extended its territory over several +neighbouring towns, and in the Theban war fought against +Orchomenus. It joined the other Arcadian cities in the foundation +of Megalopolis. As a member of the Achaean league it +was besieged by the Aetolians in 220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was on several +occasions the seat of the federal assemblies. It coined money +up to the time of Septimius Severus. The ruins, which bear +the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen +about 3 m. from a village that preserves the ancient designation. +The greater part of the walls which enclose an area of about a +mile and several of the semi-circular towers with which they +were strengthened can be clearly made out; and there are also +remains of three Doric temples and a small theatre.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLELAND, WILLIAM<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1661?-1689), Scottish poet and +soldier, son of Thomas Cleland, gamekeeper to the marquis of +Douglas, was born about 1661. He was probably brought up +on the marquess of Douglas’s estate in Lanarkshire, and was +educated at St Andrews University. Immediately on leaving +college he joined the army of the Covenanters, and was present +at Drumclog, where, says Robert Wodrow, some attributed to +Cleland the manœuvre which led to the victory. He also fought +at Bothwell Bridge. He and his brother James were described +in a royal proclamation of the 16th of June 1679 among the +leaders of the insurgents. He escaped to Holland, but in 1685 +was again in Scotland in connexion with the abortive invasion +of the earl of Argyll. He escaped once more, to return in 1688 +as agent for William of Orange. He was appointed lieutenant-colonel +of the Cameronian regiment raised from the minority +of the western Covenanters who consented to serve under William +III. The Cameronians were entrusted with the defence of Dunkeld, +which they held against the fierce assault of the Highlanders +on the 26th of August. The repulse of the Highlanders before +Dunkeld ended the Jacobite rising, but Cleland fell in the struggle. +He wrote <i>A Collection of several Poems and Verses</i> composed +upon various occasions (published posthumously, 1697). Of +“Hullo, my fancie, whither wilt thou go?” only the last nine +stanzas are by Cleland. His poems have small literary merit, +and are written, not in pure Lowland Scots, but in English with +a large admixture of Scottish words. The longest and most +important of them are the “mock poems” “On the Expedition +of the Highland Host who came to destroy the western shires +in winter 1678” and “On the clergie when they met to consult +about taking the Test in the year 1681.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An Exact Narrative of the <i>Conflict of Dunkeld ... collected from +several officers of the regiment ...</i> appeared in 1689.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEMATIS<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span>, in botany, a genus of the natural order Ranunculaceae, +containing nearly two hundred species, and widely +distributed. It is represented in England by <i>Clematis Vitalba</i>, +“old man’s beard” or “traveller’s joy,” a common plant on +chalky or light soil. The plants are shrubby climbers with generally +compound opposite leaves, the stalk of which is sensitive +to contact like a tendril, becoming twisted round suitable objects +and thereby giving support to the plant. The flowers are arranged +in axillary or terminal clusters; they have no petals, but white +or coloured, often very large sepals, and an indefinite number +of stamens and carpels. They contain no honey, and are visited +by insects for the sake of the pollen, which is plentiful. The fruit +is a head of achenes, each bearing the long-bearded persistent +style, suggesting the popular name. This feathery style is an +important agent in the distribution of the seed by means of the +wind. Several of the species, especially the large-flowered ones, +are favourite garden plants, well adapted for covering trellises +or walls, or trailing over the ground. Many garden forms have +been produced by hybridization; among the best known is +<i>C. Jackmanni</i>, due to Mr George Jackman of Woking.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Further information may be obtained from <i>The Clematis as a +Garden Flower</i>, by Thos. Moore and George Jackman. See also +G. Nicholson, <i>Dictionary of Gardening</i>, i. (1885) and <i>Supplements</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span></p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1841-  ), French statesman, +was born at Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vendée, on the 28th of +September 1841. Having adopted medicine as his profession, +he settled in 1869 in Montmartre; and after the revolution of +1870 he had become sufficiently well known to be nominated +mayor of the 18th arrondissement of Paris (Montmartre)—an +unruly district over which it was a difficult task to preside. +On the 8th of February 1871 he was elected as a Radical to the +National Assembly for the department of the Seine, and voted +against the peace preliminaries. The execution, or rather +murder, of Generals Lecomte and Clément Thomas by the +communists on 18th March, which he vainly tried to prevent, +brought him into collision with the central committee sitting +at the hôtel de ville, and they ordered his arrest, but he escaped; +he was accused, however, by various witnesses, at the subsequent +trial of the murderers (November 29th), of not having intervened +when he might have done, and though he was cleared of this +charge it led to a duel, for his share in which he was prosecuted +and sentenced to a fine and a fortnight’s imprisonment.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, on the 20th of March 1871, he had introduced +in the National Assembly at Versailles, on behalf of his Radical +colleagues, the bill establishing a Paris municipal council of +eighty members; but he was not returned himself at the elections +of the 26th of March. He tried with the other Paris mayors to +mediate between Versailles and the hôtel de ville, but failed, +and accordingly resigned his mayoralty and his seat in the +Assembly, and temporarily gave up politics; but he was elected +to the Paris municipal council on the 23rd of July 1871 for the +Clignancourt <i>quartier</i>, and retained his seat till 1876, passing +through the offices of secretary and vice-president, and becoming +president in 1875. In 1876 he stood again for the Chamber of +Deputies, and was elected for the 18th arrondissement. He joined +the Extreme Left, and his energy and mordant eloquence +speedily made him the leader of the Radical section. In 1877, +after the <i>Seize Mai</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>), he was one of the +republican majority who denounced the Broglie ministry, and +he took a leading part in resisting the anti-republican policy +of which the <i>Seize Mai</i> incident was a symptom, his demand +in 1879 for the indictment of the Broglie ministry bringing him +into particular prominence. In 1880 he started his newspaper, +<i>La Justice</i>, which became the principal organ of Parisian Radicalism; +and from this time onwards throughout M. Grévy’s +presidency his reputation as a political critic, and as a destroyer +of ministries who yet would not take office himself, rapidly grew. +He led the Extreme Left in the Chamber. He was an active +opponent of M. Jules Ferry’s colonial policy and of the Opportunist +party, and in 1885 it was his use of the Tongking disaster +which principally determined the fall of the Ferry cabinet. +At the elections of 1885 he advocated a strong Radical programme, +and was returned both for his old seat in Paris and for +the Var, selecting the latter. Refusing to form a ministry to +replace the one he had overthrown, he supported the Right in +keeping M. Freycinet in power in 1886, and was responsible +for the inclusion of General Boulanger in the Freycinet cabinet +as war minister. When Boulanger (<i>q.v.</i>) showed himself as an +ambitious pretender, Clemenceau withdrew his support and +became a vigorous combatant against the Boulangist movement, +though the Radical press and a section of the party continued +to patronize the general.</p> + +<p>By his exposure of the Wilson scandal, and by his personal +plain speaking, M. Clemenceau contributed largely to M. Grévy’s +resignation of the presidency in 1887, having himself declined +Grévy’s request to form a cabinet on the downfall of that of +M. Rouvier; and he was primarily responsible, by advising +his followers to vote neither for Floquet, Ferry nor Freycinet, +for the election of an “outsider” as president in M. Carnot. +He had arrived, however, at the height of his influence, and +several factors now contributed to his decline. The split in the +Radical party over Boulangism weakened his hands, and its +collapse made his help unnecessary to the moderate republicans. +A further misfortune occurred in the Panama affair, Clemenceau’s +relations with Cornelius Herz leading to his being involved +in the general suspicion; and, though he remained the leading +spokesman of French Radicalism, his hostility to the Russian +alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the election for +1893 he was defeated for the Chamber, after having sat in it +continuously since 1876. After his defeat for the Chamber, +M. Clemenceau confined his political activities to journalism, +his career being further overclouded—so far as any immediate +possibility of regaining his old ascendancy was concerned—by +the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which he took an active +and honourable part as a supporter of M. Zola and an opponent +of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaign. In 1900 he +withdrew from <i>La Justice</i> to found a weekly review, <i>Le Bloc</i>, +which lasted until March 1902. On the 6th of April 1902 he +was elected senator for the Var, although he had previously +continually demanded the suppression of the Senate. He sat +with the Socialist Radicals, and vigorously supported the +Combes ministry. In June 1903 he undertook the direction of +the journal <i>L’Aurore</i>, which he had founded. In it he led the +campaign for the revision of the Dreyfus affair, and for the +separation of Church and State.</p> + +<p>In March 1906 the fall of the Rouvier ministry, owing to the +riots provoked by the inventories of church property, at last +brought Clemenceau to power as minister of the interior in the +Sarrien cabinet. The strike of miners in the Pas de Calais +after the disaster at Courrières, leading to the threat of disorder +on the 1st of May 1906, obliged him to employ the military; +and his attitude in the matter alienated the Socialist party, +from which he definitely broke in his notable reply in the Chamber +to Jean Jaurès in June 1906. This speech marked him out as +the strong man of the day in French politics; and when the +Sarrien ministry resigned in October, he became premier. During +1907 and 1908 his premiership was notable for the way in which +the new <i>entente</i> with England was cemented, and for the successful +part which France played in European politics, in spite of difficulties +with Germany and attacks by the Socialist party in +connexion with Morocco (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>). But on July +20th, 1909, he was defeated in a discussion in the Chamber on +the state of the navy, in which bitter words were exchanged +between him and Delcassé; and he at once resigned, being +succeeded as premier by M. Briand, with a reconstructed +cabinet.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEMENCÍN, DIEGO<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1765-1834), Spanish scholar and +politician, was born on the 27th of September 1765, at Murcia, +and was educated there at the Colegio de San Fulgencio. +Abandoning his intention of taking orders, he found employment +at Madrid in 1788 as tutor to the sons of the countess-duchess +de Benavente, and devoted himself to the study of archaeology. +In 1807 he became editor of the <i>Gaceta de Madrid</i>, and in the +following year was condemned to death by Murat for publishing +a patriotic article; he fled to Cadiz, and under the Junta Central +held various posts from which he was dismissed by the reactionary +government of 1814. During the liberal régime of +1820-1823 Clemencín took office as colonial minister, was exiled +till 1827, and in 1833 published the first volume of his edition +(1833-1839) of <i>Don Quixote</i>. Its merits were recognized by his +appointment as royal librarian, but he did not long enjoy his +triumph: he died on the 30th of July 1834. His commentary +on <i>Don Quixote</i> owes something to John Bowle, and is disfigured +by a patronizing, carping spirit; nevertheless it is the most +valuable work of its kind, and is still unsuperseded. Clemencín +is also the author of an interesting <i>Elogio de la reina Isabel la +Católica</i>, published as the sixth volume of the <i>Memorias</i> of the +Spanish Academy of History, to which body he was elected +on the 12th of September 1800.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEMENT<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Clemens</i>, <i>i.e.</i> merciful; Gr. <span class="grk" title="Klêmes">Κλήμης</span>), the +name of fourteen popes and two anti-popes.</p> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> I., generally known as Clement of Rome, or <span class="sc">Clemens +Romanus</span> (flor. c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 96), was one of the “Apostolic Fathers,” +and in the lists of bishops of Rome is given the third or fourth +place—Peter, Linus, (Anencletus), Clement. There is no ground +for identifying him with the Clement of Phil. iv. 3. He may +have been a freedman of T. Flavius Clemens, who was consul +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span> +with his cousin, the Emperor Domitian, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 95. A 9th- +century tradition says he was martyred in the Crimea in 102; +earlier authorities say he died a natural death; he is commemorated +on the 23rd of November.</p> + +<p>In <i>The Shepherd of Hermas</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) (Vis. 11. iv. 3) mention is +made of one Clement whose office it is to communicate with other +churches, and this function agrees well with what we find in +the letter to the church at Corinth by which Clement is best +known. Whilst being on our guard against reading later ideas +into the title “bishop” as applied to Clement, there is no reason +to doubt that he was one of the chief personalities in the Christian +community at Rome, where since the time of Paul the separate +house congregations (Rom. xvi.) had been united into one +church officered by presbyters and deacons (Clem. 40-42). +The letter in question was occasioned by a dispute in the church +of Corinth, which had led to the ejection of several presbyters +from their office. It does not contain Clement’s name, but is +addressed by “the Church of God which sojourneth in Rome to +the Church of God which sojourneth in Corinth.” But there is +no reason for doubting the universal tradition which ascribes +it to Clement, or the generally accepted date, c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 96. No +claim is made by the Roman Church to interfere on any ground +of superior rank; yet it is noteworthy that in the earliest +document outside the canon which we can securely date, the +church in the imperial city comes forward as a peacemaker to +compose the troubles of a church in Greece. Nothing is known +of the cause of the discontent; no moral offence is charged +against the presbyters, and their dismissal is regarded by +Clement as high-handed and unjustifiable, and as a revolt of +the younger members of the community against the elder. +After a laudatory account of the past conduct of the Corinthian +Church, he enters upon a denunciation of vices and a praise of +virtues, and illustrates his various topics by copious citations +from the Old Testament scriptures. Thus he paves the way +for his tardy rebuke of present disorders, which he reserves until +two-thirds of his epistle is completed. Clement is exceedingly +discursive, and his letter reaches twice the length of the Epistle +to the Hebrews. Many of his general exhortations are but very +indirectly connected with the practical issue to which the epistle +is directed, and it is very probable that he was drawing largely +upon the homiletical material with which he was accustomed to +edify his fellow-Christians at Rome.</p> + +<p>This view receives some support from the long liturgical +prayer at the close, which almost certainly represents the +intercession used in the Roman eucharists. But we must not +allow such a theory to blind us to the true wisdom with which +the writer defers his censure. He knows that the roots of the +quarrel lie in a wrong condition of the church’s life. His general +exhortations, courteously expressed in the first person plural, +are directed towards a wide reformation of manners. If the +wrong spirit can be exorcised, there is hope that the quarrel will +end in a general desire for reconciliation. The most permanent +interest of the epistle lies in the conception of the grounds on +which the Christian ministry rests according to the view of a +prominent teacher before the 1st century has closed. The +orderliness of nature is appealed to as expressing the mind of its +Creator. The orderliness of Old Testament worship bears a like +witness; everything is duly fixed by God; high priests, priests +and Levites, and the people in the people’s place. Similarly +in the Christian dispensation all is in order due. “The apostles +preached the gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus +Christ was sent from God. Christ then is from God, and the +apostles from Christ. . . . They appointed their first-fruits, +having tested them by the Spirit, as bishops and deacons of those +who should believe. . . . Our apostles knew through our Lord +Jesus Christ that there would be strife about the name of the +bishop’s office. For this cause therefore, having received +perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid, and afterwards +gave a further injunction (<span class="grk" title="heptnomên">ἐπινομήν</span>] has now the further +evidence of the Latin <i>legem</i>) that, if these should fall asleep, +other approved men should succeed to their ministry. . . . +It will be no small sin in us if we eject from the bishop’s +office those who have offered the gifts blamelessly and holily” +(cc. xlii. xliv.).</p> + +<p>Clement’s familiarity with the Old Testament points to his +being a Christian of long standing rather than a recent convert. +We learn from his letter (i. 7) that the church at Rome, though +suffering persecution, was firmly held together by faith and love, +and was exhibiting its unity in an orderly worship. The epistle +was publicly read from time to time at Corinth, and by the 4th +century this usage had spread to other churches. We even find +it attached to the famous Alexandrian MS. (Codex A) of the New +Testament, but this does not imply that it ever reached canonical +rank. For the mass of early Christian literature that was gradually +attached to his name see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clementine Literature</a></span>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The epistle was published in 1633 by Patrick Young from Cod. +Alexandrinus, in which a leaf near the end was missing, so that +the great prayer (cc. lv.-lxiv.) remained unknown. In 1875 (six +years after J.B. Lightfoot’s first edition) Bryennius (<i>q.v.</i>) published +a complete text from the MS. in Constantinople (dated 1055), from +which in 1883 he gave us the <i>Didaché</i>. In 1876 R.L. Bensly found a +complete Syriac text in a MS. recently obtained by the University +library at Cambridge. Lightfoot made use of these new materials +in an Appendix (1877); his second edition, on which he had been +at work at the time of his death, came out in 1890. This must +remain the standard edition, notwithstanding Dom Morin’s most +interesting discovery of a Latin version (1894), which was probably +made in the 3rd century, and is a valuable addition to the +authorities for the text. Its evidence is used in a small edition of +the epistle by R. Knopf (Leipzig, 1899). See also W. Wrede, <i>Untersuchungen zum ersten +Clemensbrief</i> (1891), and the other literature cited +in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. iv.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. G.; J. A. R.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> II. (Suidger) became pope on the 25th of December +1046. He belonged to a noble Saxon family, was bishop of Bamberg, +and chancellor to the emperor Henry III., to whom he was +indebted for his elevation to the papacy upon the abdication +of Gregory VI. He was the first pope placed on the throne by +the power of the German emperors, but his short pontificate was +only signalized by the convocation of a council in which decrees +were enacted against simony. He died on the 9th of October +1047, and was buried at Bamberg.</p> +<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> III. (Paolo Scolari), pope from 1187 to 1191, a +Roman, was made cardinal bishop of Palestrina by Alexander III. +in 1180 or 1181. On the 19th of December 1187 he was chosen +at Pisa to succeed Gregory VIII. On the 31st of May 1188 he +concluded a treaty with the Romans which removed difficulties +of long standing, and in April 1189 he made peace with the emperor +Frederick I. Barbarossa. He settled a controversy with William +of Scotland concerning the choice of the archbishop of St Andrews, +and on the 13th of March 1188 removed the Scottish church from +under the legatine jurisdiction of the archbishop of York, thus +making it independent of all save Rome. In spite of his conciliatory +policy, Clement angered Henry VI. of Germany by +bestowing Sicily on Tancred. The crisis was acute when the +pope died, probably in the latter part of March 1191.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See “Epistolae et Privilegia,” in J.P. Migne, <i>Patrologiae cursus +completes</i>, tom. 204 (Paris, 1853), 1253 ff.; additional material in +<i>Neues Archiv für die ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde</i>, 2. 219; 6. 293; +14. 178-182; P. Jaffé, <i>Regesta Pontificum Romanorum</i>, tom. 2 +(2nd edition, Leipzig, 1888), 535 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> IV. (Gui Foulques), pope from 1265 to 1268, son of +a successful lawyer and judge, was born at St Gilles-sur-Rhône. +He studied law, and became a valued adviser of Louis IX. of +France. He married, and was the father of two daughters, but +after the death of his wife took orders. In 1257 he became +bishop of Le Puy; in 1259 he was elected archbishop of Narbonne; +and on the 24th of December 1261 Urban IV. created +him cardinal bishop of Sabina. He was appointed legate in +England on the 22nd of November 1263, and before his return +was elected pope at Perugia on the 5th of February 1265. On +the 26th of February he invested Charles of Anjou with the +kingdom of Sicily; but subsequently he came into conflict with +Charles, especially after the death of Manfred in February 1266. +To the cruelty and avarice of Charles he opposed a generous +humanity. When Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, +appeared in Italy the pope excommunicated him and his supporters, +but it is improbable that he was in the remotest degree +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span> +responsible for his execution. At Viterbo, where he spent most +of his pontificate, Clement died on the 29th of November 1268, +leaving a name unsullied by nepotism. As the benefactor and +protector of Roger Bacon he has a special title to the gratitude +of posterity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Potthast, <i>Regesta Pontificum Romanorum</i>, vol. ii. (Berlin, +l875). 1542 ff.; E. Jordan, <i>Les Régistres de Clement IV</i> (Paris, 1893 +ff.); Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed., vol. iv., Leipzig, 1898), +144 f.; J. Heidemann, <i>Papst Clemens IV., I. Teil: Das Vorleben +des Papstes und sein Legationsregister = Kirchengeschichtliche Studien, +herausgegeben von Knöpfler</i>, &c., 6. Band, 4. Heft (Münster, 1903), +reprints <i>Processus legationis in Angliam</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> V. (Bertrand de Gouth), pope from 1305 to 1314, was +born of a noble Gascon family about 1264. After studying the +arts at Toulouse and law at Orleans and Bologna, he became +a canon at Bordeaux and then vicar-general to his brother the +archbishop of Lyons, who in 1294 was created cardinal bishop +of Albano. Bertrand was made a chaplain to Boniface VIII., +who in 1295 nominated him bishop of Cominges (Haute Garonne), +and in 1299 translated him to the archbishopric of Bordeaux. +Because he attended the synod at Rome in 1302 in the controversy +between France and the Pope, he was considered a +supporter of Boniface VIII., yet was by no means unfavourably +regarded at the French court. At Perugia on the 5th of June +1305 he was chosen to succeed Benedict XI; the cardinals +by a vote of ten to five electing one neither an Italian nor a +cardinal, in order to end a conclave which had lasted eleven +months. The chronicler Villani relates that Bertrand owed his +election to a secret agreement with Philip IV., made at St Jean +d’Angély in Saintonge; this may be dismissed as gossip, but +it is probable that the future pope had to accept certain conditions +laid down by the cardinals. At Bordeaux Bertrand was +formally notified of his election and urged to come to Italy; +but he caused his coronation to take place at Lyons on the 14th +of November 1305. From the beginning Clement V. was subservient +to French interests. Among his first acts was the +creation of nine French cardinals. Early in 1306 he modified +or explained away those features of the bulls <i>Clericis Laicos</i> +and <i>Unam sanctam</i> which were particularly offensive to the +king. Most of the year 1306 he spent at Bordeaux because of +ill-health; subsequently he resided at Poitiers and elsewhere, +and in March 1309 the entire papal court settled at Avignon, +an imperial fief held by the king of Sicily. Thus began the +seventy years “Babylonian captivity of the Church.” On the +13th of October 1307 came the arrest of all the Knights Templar +in France, the breaking of a storm conjured up by royal jealousy +and greed. From the very day of Clement’s coronation the +king had charged the Templars with heresy, immorality and +abuses, and the scruples of the weak pope were at length overcome +by apprehension lest the State should not wait for the +Church, but should proceed independently against the alleged +heretics, as well as by the royal threats of pressing the accusation +of heresy against the late Boniface VIII. In pursuance of the +king’s wishes Clement summoned the council of Vienne (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vienne, Council of</a></span>), which was unable to conclude that the +Templars were guilty of heresy. The pope abolished the order, +however, as it seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived its +usefulness. Its French estates were granted to the Hospitallers, +but actually Philip IV. held them until his death.</p> + +<p>In his relations to the Empire Clement was an opportunist. +He refused to use his full influence in favour of the candidacy +of Charles of Valois, brother of Philip IV., lest France became +too powerful; and recognized Henry of Luxemburg, whom +his representatives crowned emperor at the Lateran in 1312. +When Henry, however, came into conflict with Robert of Naples, +Clement supported Robert and threatened the emperor with +ban and interdict. But the crisis passed with the unexpected +death of Henry, soon followed by that of the pope on the 20th +of April 1314 at Roquemaure-sur-Rhône. Though the sale of +offices and oppressive taxation which disgraced his pontificate +may in part be explained by the desperate condition of the papal +finances and by his saving up gold for a crusade, nevertheless +he indulged in unbecoming pomp. Showing favouritism toward +his family and his nation, he brought untold disaster on the +Church.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>—See “Clementis V. . . . et aliorum epistolae,” +in S. Baluzius, <i>Vitae Paparum Avenionensium</i>, tom. ii. (Paris, 1693), +55 ff.; “Tractatus cum Henrico VII. imp. Germ. anno 1309,” in +Pertz, <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, legum ii. I. 492-496; J.F. +Rabanis, <i>Clément V et Philippe le Bel. Suivie du journal de la visite +pastorale de Bertrand de Got dans la province ecclésiastique de Bordeaux +en 1304 et 1305</i> (Paris, 1858); “Clementis Papae V. Constitutiones,” +in <i>Corpus Iuris Canonici</i>, ed. Aemilius Friedberg, vol. ii. (Leipzig, +1881), 1125-1200; P.B. Gams, <i>Series Episcoporum Ecclesiae +Catholicae</i> (Regensburg, 1873); Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, +vol. iii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1884), 462-473; <i>Regestum Clementis +Papae V. ex Vaticanis archetypis cura et studio monachorum ord. Ben.</i> +(Rome, 1885-1892), 9 vols. and appendix; J. Gmelin, <i>Schuld oder +Unschuld des Templerordens</i> (Stuttgart, 1893); Gachon, <i>Pièces relatifs +au débat du pape Clément V avec l’empéreur Henri VII</i> (Montpellier +1894); Lacoste, <i>Nouvelles Études sur Clément V</i> (1896); Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. iv. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1898), 144 f.; J. Loserth, +<i>Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters</i> (Munich, 1903); and A. Eitel, <i>Der +Kirchenstaat unter Klemens V.</i> (Berlin, 1907).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VI. (Pierre Roger), pope from the 7th of May 1342 +to the 6th of December 1352, was born at Maumont in Limousin +in 1291, the son of the wealthy lord of Rosières, entered the +Benedictine order as a boy, studied at Paris, and became successively +prior of St Baudil, abbot of Fécamp, bishop of Arras, +chancellor of France, archbishop of Sens and archbishop of +Rouen. He was made cardinal-priest of Sti Nereo ed Achilleo +and administrator of the bishopric of Avignon by Benedict XII. +in 1338, and four years later succeeded him as pope. He continued +to reside at Avignon despite the arguments of envoys +and the verses of Petrarch, but threw a sop to the Romans by +reducing the Jubilee term from one hundred years to fifty. He +appointed Cola di Rienzo to a civil position at Rome, and, +although at first approving the establishment of the tribunate, +he later sent a legate who excommunicated Rienzo and, with +the help of the aristocratic faction, drove him from the city +(December 1347). Clement continued the struggle of his predecessors +with the emperor Louis the Bavarian, excommunicating +him after protracted negotiations on the 13th of April 1346, +and directing the election of Charles of Moravia, who received +general recognition after the death of Louis in October 1347, +and put an end to the schism which had long divided Germany. +Clement proclaimed a crusade in 1343, but nothing was accomplished +beyond a naval attack on Smyrna (29th of October 1344). +He also carried on fruitless negotiations for church unity with +the Armenians and with the Greek emperor, John Cantacuzenus. +He tried to end the Hundred Years’ War between England and +France, but secured only a temporary truce. He excommunicated +Casimir of Poland for marital infidelity and forced him to +do penance. He successfully resisted encroachments on ecclesiastical +jurisdiction by the kings of England, Castile and Aragon. +He made Prague an archbishopric in 1344, and three years later +founded the university there. During the disastrous plague of +1347-1348 Clement did all he could to alleviate the distress, +and condemned the Flagellants and Jew-baiters. He tried +Queen Joanna of Naples for the murder of her husband and +acquitted her. He secured full ownership of the county of +Avignon through purchase from Queen Joanna (9th of June 1348) +and renunciation of feudal claims by Charles IV. of France, and +considerably enlarged the papal palace in that city. To supply +money for his many undertakings Clement revived the practice +of selling reservations and expectancies, which had been abolished +by his predecessor. Oppressive taxation and unblushing +nepotism were Clement’s great faults. On the other hand, he +was famed for his engaging manners, eloquence and theological +learning. He died on the 6th of December 1352, and was buried +in the Benedictine abbey at Auvergne, but his tomb was destroyed +by Calvinists in 1562. His successor was Innocent VI.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief sources for the life of Clement VI. are in Baluzius, <i>Vitae +Pap. Avenion.</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1693); E. Werunsky, <i>Excerpta ex +registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI.</i> (Innsbruck, 1885); and +F. Cerasoli, <i>Clemente VI. e Giovanni I. di Napoli—Documenti +inedite dell’ Archivio Vaticano</i> (1896, &c).</p> + +<p>See L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. i., trans, by F.I. Antrobus +(London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. vi. +trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J.B. Christophe, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span> +<i>Histoire de la papauté pendant le XIVe siècle</i>, vol. ii. (Paris, 1853); also +article by L. Küpper in the <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (2nd ed.).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. HA.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VII. (Robert of Geneva), (d. 1394), antipope, brother +of Peter, count of Genevois, was connected by blood or marriage +with most of the sovereigns of Europe. After occupying the +episcopal sees of Thérouanne and Cambrai, he attained to the +cardinalate at an early age. In 1377, as legate of Pope Gregory +XI. in the Romagna, he directed, or rather assisted in, the +savage suppression of the revolt of the inhabitants of Cesena +against the papal authority. In the following year he took part +in the election of Pope Urban VI. at Rome, and was perhaps +the first to express doubts as to the validity of that tumultuous +election. After withdrawing to Fondi to reconsider the election, +the cardinals finally resolved to regard Urban as an intruder +and the Holy See as still vacant, and an almost unanimous vote +was given in favour of Robert of Geneva (20th of September +1378), who took the name of Clement VII. Thus originated the +Great Schism of the West.</p> + +<p>To his high connexions and his adroitness, as well as to the +gross mistakes of his rival, Clement owed the immediate support +of Queen Joanna of Naples and of several of the Italian barons; +and the king of France, Charles V., who seems to have been +sounded beforehand on the choice of the Roman pontiff, soon +became his warmest protector. Clement eventually succeeded +in winning to his cause Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, a +great part of the Latin East, and Flanders. He had adherents, +besides, scattered through Germany, while Portugal on two +occasions acknowledged him, but afterwards forsook him. +From Avignon, however, where he had immediately fixed his +residence, his eyes were always turned towards Italy, his purpose +being to wrest Rome from his rival. To attain this end he +lavished his gold—or rather the gold provided by the clergy in +his obedience—without stint, and conceived a succession of the +most adventurous projects, of which one at least was to leave a +lasting mark on history.</p> + +<p>By the bait of a kingdom to be carved expressly out of the +States of the Church and to be called the kingdom of Adria, +coupled with the expectation of succeeding to Queen Joanna, +Clement incited Louis, duke of Anjou, the eldest of the brothers +of Charles V., to take arms in his favour. These tempting offers +gave rise to a series of expeditions into Italy carried out almost +exclusively at Clement’s expense, in the first of which Louis +lost his life. These enterprises on several occasions planted +Angevin domination in the south of the Italian peninsula, and +their most decisive result was the assuring of Provence to the +dukes of Anjou and afterwards to the kings of France. After +the death of Louis, Clement hoped to find equally brave and +interested champions in Louis’ son and namesake; in Louis of +Orleans, the brother of Charles VI.; in Charles VI. himself; +and in John III., count of Armagnac. The prospect of his +briliant progress to Rome was ever before his eyes; and in his +thoughts force of arms, of French arms, was to be the instrument +of his glorious triumph over his competitor.</p> + +<p>There came a time, however, when Clement and more particularly +his following had to acknowledge the vanity of these +illusive dreams; and before his death, which took place on the +16th of September 1394, he realized the impossibility of overcoming +by brute force an opposition which was founded on the +convictions of the greater part of Catholic Europe, and discerned +among his adherents the germs of disaffection. By his vast +expenditure, ascribable not only to his wars in Italy, his incessant +embassies, and the necessity of defending himself in the Comtat +Venaissin against the incursions of the adventurous Raymond +of Turenne, but also to his luxurious tastes and princely habits, +as well as by his persistent refusal to refer the question of the +schism to a council, he incurred general reproach. Unity was +the crying need; and men began to fasten upon him the responsibility +of the hateful schism, not on the score of insincerity—which +would have been very unjust,—but by reason of his +obstinate persistence in the course he had chosen.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See N. Valois, <i>La France el le grand schisme d’occident</i> (Paris, +1896).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. V.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VII. (Giulio de’ Medici), pope from 1523 to 1534, +was the son of Giuliano de’ Medici, assassinated in the conspiracy +of the Pazzi at Florence, and of a certain Fioretta, daughter of +Antonia. Being left an orphan he was taken into his own house +by Lorenzo the Magnificent and educated with his sons. In 1494 +Giulio went with them into exile; but, on Giovanni’s restoration +to power, returned to Florence, of which he was made +archbishop by his cousin Pope Leo X., a special dispensation +being granted on account of his illegitimate birth, followed by +a formal declaration of the fact that his parents had been secretly +married and that he was therefore legitimate. On the 23rd of +September 1513 the pope conferred on him the title of cardinal +and made him legate at Bologna. During the reign of the +pleasure-loving Leo, Cardinal Giulio had practically the whole +papal government in his hands and displayed all the qualities +of a good administrator; and when, on the death of Adrian VI.—whose +election he had done most to secure—he was chosen +pope (Nov. 18, 1523), his accession was hailed as the dawn of a +happier era. It soon became clear, however, that the qualities +which had made Clement an excellent second in command were +not equal to the exigencies of supreme power at a time of peculiar +peril and difficulty.</p> + +<p>Though free from the grosser vices of his predecessors, a +man of taste, and economical without being avaricious, Clement +VII. was essentially a man of narrow outlook and interests. +He failed to understand the great spiritual movement which +was convulsing the Church; and instead of bending his mind +to the problem of the Reformation, he from the first subordinated +the cause of Catholicism and of the world to his interests as an +Italian prince and a Medici. Even in these purely secular affairs, +moreover, his timidity and indecision prevented him from +pursuing a consistent policy; and his ill fortune, or his lack of +judgment, placed him, as long as he had the power of choice, +ever on the losing side.</p> + +<p>Clement’s accession at once brought about a political change +in favour of France; yet he was unable to take a strong line, +and wavered between the emperor and Francis I., concluding +a treaty of alliance with the French king, and then, when the +crushing defeat of Pavia had shown him his mistake, making +his peace with Charles (April 1, 1525), only to break it again +by countenancing Girolamo Morone’s League of Freedom, of +which the aim was to assert the independence of Italy from +foreign powers. On the betrayal of this conspiracy Clement +made a fresh submission to the emperor, only to follow this, a +year later, by the Holy League of Cognac with Francis I. (May +22, 1526). Then followed the imperial invasion of Italy and +Bourbon’s sack of Rome (May 1527) which ended the Augustan +age of the papal city in a horror of fire and blood. The pope +himself was besieged in the castle of St Angelo, compelled on the +6th of June to ransom himself with a payment of 400,000 scudi, +and kept in confinement until, on the 26th of November, he +accepted the emperor’s terms, which besides money payments +included the promise to convene a general council to deal with +Lutheranism. On the 6th of December Clement escaped, before +the day fixed for his liberation, to Orvieto, and at once set to +work to establish peace. After the signature of the treaty of +Cambrai on the 3rd of August 1529 Charles met Clement at +Bologna and received from him the imperial crown and the iron +crown of Lombardy. The pope was now restored to the greater +part of his temporal power; but for some years it was exercised +in subservience to the emperor. During this period Clement was +mainly occupied in urging Charles to arrest the progress of the +Reformation in Germany and in efforts to elude the emperor’s +demand for a general council, which Clement feared lest the +question of the mode of his election and his legitimacy should +be raised. It was due to his dependence on Charles V., rather +than to any conscientious scruples, that Clement evaded Henry +VIII.’s demand for the nullification of his marriage with Catherine +of Aragon, and so brought about the breach between England +and Rome. Some time before his death, however, the dynastic +interests of his family led him once more to a rapprochement +with France. On the 9th of June 1531 an agreement was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span> +signed for the marriage of Henry of Orleans with Catherine +de’ Medici; but it was not till October 1533 that Clement met +Francis at Marseilles, the wedding being celebrated on the 27th. +Before, however, the new political alliance, thus cemented, could +take effect, Clement died, on the 25th of September 1534.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Casanova, <i>Lettere di Carlo V. a Clemente VII.</i> (Florence, +1893); Hugo Lämmer, <i>Monumenta Vaticana</i>, &c (Freiburg, 1861); +P. Balan, <i>Monumenta saeculi XVI. hist. illustr.</i> (Innsbruck, 1885); +ib. <i>Mon. Reform. Luther</i> (Regensburg, 1884); Stefan Ehses, <i>Röm. +Dokum. z. Gesch. der Ehescheidung Heinrichs VIII.</i> (Paderborn, +1893); <i>Calendar of State Papers</i> (London, 1869, &c.); J.J.I. von +Döllinger, <i>Beiträge zur politischen, kirchlichen und Kulturgeschichte</i> +(3 vols., Vienna, 1882); F. Guicciardini, <i>Istoria d’Italia</i>; L. von +Ranke, <i>Die römischen Päpste in den letzten vier Jahrhunderten</i>, +and <i>Deutsche Gesch. im Zeitalter der Reformation</i>; W. Hellwig, <i>Die +politischen Beziehungen Clements VII. zu Karl V., 1526</i> (Leipzig, +1889); H. Baumgarten, <i>Gesch. Karls V.</i> (Stuttgart, 1888); F. +Gregorovius, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i>, vol. viii. p. 414. (2nd ed., +1874); P. Balan, <i>Clemente VII. e l’ Italia de’ suoi tempi</i> (Milan, 1887); +E. Armstrong, <i>Charles the Fifth</i> (2 vols., London, 1902); M. +Creighton, <i>Hist. of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation</i> +(London, 1882); and H.M. Vaughan, <i>The Medici Popes</i> (1908). +Further references will be found in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie, +s. Clemens VII</i>. See also <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. ii. chap. i. +and bibliography.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VIII. (Aegidius Muñoz), antipope from 1425 to the +26th of July 1429, was a canon at Barcelona until elected at +Peñiscola by three cardinals whom the stubborn antipope +Benedict XIII. had named on his death-bed. Clement was +immediately recognized by Alphonso V. of Aragon, who was +hostile to Pope Martin V. on account of the latter’s opposition to +his claims to the kingdom of Naples, but abdicated as soon as an +agreement was reached between Alphonso and Martin through +the exertions of Cardinal Pierre de Foix, an able diplomat and +relation of the king’s. Clement spent his last years as bishop of +Majorca, and died on the 28th of December 1446.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See. L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. i. trans, by F.I. Antrobus +(London, 1899); M. Creighton, <i>History of the Papacy</i>, vol. ii. (London, +1899); and consult bibliography on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Martin V</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. H. HA.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope from 1592 to +1605, was born at Fano, in 1535. He became a jurist and filled +several important offices. In 1585 he was made a cardinal, and +subsequently discharged a delicate mission to Poland with skill. +His moderation and experience commended him to his fellow +cardinals, and on the 30th of January 1592 he was elected pope, to +succeed Innocent IX. While not hostile to Philip II., Clement +desired to emancipate the papacy from undue Spanish influence, +and to that end cultivated closer relations with France. In 1595 +he granted absolution to Henry IV., and so removed the last +objection to the acknowledgment of his legitimacy. The peace of +Vervins (1598), which marked the end of Philip’s opposition to +Henry, was mainly the work of the pope. Clement also entertained +hopes of recovering England. He corresponded with +James I. and with his queen, Anne of Denmark, a convert to +Catholicism. But James was only half in earnest, and, besides, +dared not risk a breach with his subjects. Upon the failure of +the line of Este, Clement claimed the reversion of Ferrara and +reincorporated it into the States of the Church (1598). He +remonstrated against the exclusion of the Jesuits from France, +and obtained their readmission. But in their doctrinal controversy +with the Dominicans (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Molina, Luis</a></span>) he refrained from +a decision, being unwilling to offend either party. Under Clement +the publication of the revised edition of the Vulgate, begun by +Sixtus V., was finished; the Breviary, Missal and Pontifical +received certain corrections; the Index was expanded; the +Vatican library enlarged; and the Collegium Clementinum +founded. Clement was an unblushing nepotist; three of his +nephews he made cardinals, and to one of them gradually +surrendered the control of affairs. But on the other hand among +those whom he promoted to the cardinalate were such men +as Baronius, Bellarmine and Toledo. During this pontificate +occurred the burning of Giordano Bruno for heresy; and the +tragedy of the Cenci (see the respective articles). Clement died +on the 5th of March 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XI.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See the contemporary life by Ciaconius, <i>Vitae et res gestae summorum +Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, 1601-1602); Francolini, <i>Ippolito +Aldobrandini, che fu Clemente VIII.</i> (Perugia, 1867); Ranke’s +excellent sketch, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans. Austin), ii. 234 seq.; v. Reumont, +<i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom</i>, iii. 2, 599 seq.; Brosch, <i>Gesch. des Kirchenstaates</i> +(1880), i. 301 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi) was born in 1600, became +successively auditor of the Rota, archbishop of Tarsus <i>in partibus</i>, +and cardinal, and was elected pope on the 20th of June 1667. +He effected a temporary adjustment of the Jansenist controversy; +was instrumental in concluding the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle +(1668); healed a long-standing breach between the +Holy See and Portugal; aided Venice against the Turks, and +laboured unceasingly for the relief of Crete, the fall of which +hastened his death on the 9th of October 1669.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Oldoin, continuator of Ciaconius, <i>Vitae et res gestae summorum +Pontiff. Rom.</i>; Palazzi, <i>Gesta Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Venice, 1687-1688), +iv. 621 seq. (both contemporary); Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans. +Austin), iii. 59 seq.; and v. Reumont, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom</i>, iii. 2, +634 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> X. (Emilio Altieri) was born in Rome, on the 13th of +July 1590. Before becoming pope, on the 29th of April 1670 he +had been auditor in Poland, governor of Ancona, and nuncio in +Naples. His advanced age induced him to resign the control of +affairs to his adopted nephew, Cardinal Paluzzi, who embroiled +the papacy in disputes with the resident ambassadors, and +incurred the enmity of Louis XIV., thus provoking the long +controversy over the regalia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Innocent XI</a></span>.). Clement died +on the 22nd of July 1676.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Guarnacci, <i>Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, 1751), +(contin. of Ciaconius), i. 1 seq.; Palazzi, <i>Gesta Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Venice, +1687-1688), iv. 655 seq.; and Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans. Austin), +iii. 172 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> XI (Giovanni Francesco Albani), pope from 1700 to +1721, was born in Urbino, on the 22nd of July 1649, received +an extraordinary education in letters, theology and law, filled +various important offices in the Curia, and finally, on the 23rd of +November 1700, succeeded Innocent XII. as pope. His private +life and his administration were blameless, but it was his misfortune +to reign in troublous times. In the war of the Spanish +Succession he would willingly have remained neutral, but found +himself between two fires, forced first to recognize Philip V., then +driven by the emperor to recognize the Archduke Charles. In +the peace of Utrecht he was ignored; Sardinia and Sicily, Parma +and Piacenza, were disposed of without regard to papal claims. +When he quarrelled with the duke of Savoy, and revoked his +investiture rights in Sicily (1715), his interdict was treated with +contempt. The prestige of the papacy had hardly been lower +within two centuries. About 1702 the Jansenist controversy +broke out afresh. Clement reaffirmed the infallibility of the pope, +in matters of <i>fact</i> (1705), and, in 1713, issued the bull <i>Unigenitus</i>, +condemning 101 Jansenistic propositions extracted from the +<i>Moral Reflections</i> of Pasquier Quesnel. The rejection of this bull +by certain bishops led to a new party division and a further +prolonging of the controversy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jansenism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quesnel, +Pasquier</a></span>). Clement also forbade the practice of the Jesuit +missionaries in China of “accommodating” their teachings to +pagan notions or customs, in order to win converts. Clement was +a polished writer, and a generous patron of art and letters. He +died on the 19th of March 1721.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For contemporary lives see Elci, <i>The Present State of the Court of +Rome</i>, trans, from the Ital. (London, 1706); Polidoro, <i>De Vita et +Reb. Gest. Clem. XI.</i> (Urbino, 1727); Reboulet, <i>Hist. de Clem. XI. +Pape</i> (Avignon, 1752); Guarnacci, <i>Vitae et res gest. Pontiff. Rom.</i> +(Rome, 1751); Sandini, <i>Vitae Pontiff Rom.</i> (Padua, 1739); Buder, +<i>Leben u. Thaten Clementis XI.</i> (Frankfort, 1720-1721). See also +<i>Clementis XI. Opera Omnia</i> (Frankfort, 1729); the detailed +“Studii sul pontificato di Clem. XI.,” by Pometti in the <i>Archivio +della R. Soc. romana di storia patria</i>, vols. 21, 22, 23 (1898-1900), +and the extended bibliography in Hergenröther, <i>Allg. Kirchengesch.</i> +(1880), iii. 506.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> XII. (Lorenzo Corsini), pope from 1730 to 1740, +succeeded Benedict XIII. on the 12th of July 1730, at the age of +seventy-eight. The rascally Cardinal Coscia, who had deluded +Benedict, was at once brought to justice and forced to disgorge +his dishonest gains. Politically the papacy had sunk to the +level of pitiful helplessness, unable to resist the aggressions of +the Powers, who ignored or coerced it at will. Yet Clement +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span> +entertained high hopes for Catholicism; he laboured for a union +with the Greek Church, and was ready to facilitate the return of +the Protestants of Saxony. He deserves well of posterity for his +services to learning and art; the restoration of the Arch of +Constantine; the enrichment of the Capitoline museum with +antique marbles and inscriptions, and of the Vatican library With +oriental manuscripts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assemani</a></span>); and the embellishment of +the city with many buildings. He died on the 6th of February +1740, and was succeeded by Benedict XIV.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Guarnacci, <i>Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, 1751); +Sandini, <i>Vitae Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Padua, 1739); Fabroni, <i>De Vita +et Reb. Gest. Clementis XII</i>. (Rome, 1760); Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. +trans. Austin), iii. 191 seq.; v. Reumont, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom</i>, iii. +2, 653 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> XIII. (Carlo della Torre Rezzonico), pope from +1758 to 1769, was born in Venice, on the 7th of March 1693, +filled various important posts in the Curia, became cardinal in +1737, bishop of Padua in 1743, and succeeded Benedict XIV. +as pope on the 6th of July 1758. He was a man of upright, +moderate and pacific intentions, but his pontificate of eleven +years was anything but tranquil. The Jesuits had fallen upon +evil days; in 1758 Pombal expelled them from Portugal; his +example was followed by the Bourbon countries—France, Spain, +the Two Sicilies and Parma (1764-1768). The order turned +to the pope as its natural protector; but his protests (cf. the +bull <i>Apostolicum pascendi munus</i>, 7th of January 1765) were +unheeded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jesuits</a></span>). A clash with Parma occurred to aggravate +his troubles. The Bourbon kings espoused their relative’s +quarrel, seized Avignon, Benevento and Ponte Corvo, and +united in a peremptory demand for the suppression of the +Jesuits (January 1769). Driven to extremities, Clement consented +to call a Consistory to consider the step, but on the very +eve of the day set for its meeting he died (2nd of February 1769), +not without suspicion of poison, of which, however, there appears +to be no conclusive evidence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A contemporary account of Clement was written by Augustin de +Andrès y Sobiñas, ... <i>el nacimiento, estudios y empleos de ... Clem. +XIII</i>. (Madrid, 1759). Ravignan’s <i>Clement XIII. e Clement XIV.</i> +(Paris, 1854) is partisan but free from rancour; and appends many +interesting documents. See also the bibliographical note under +Clement XIV. <i>infra</i>.; and the extended bibliography in Hergenröther, +<i>Allg. Kirchengesch.</i> (1880), iii. 509.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> XIV. (Lorenzo Ganganelli), pope from 1769 to 1774, +son of a physician of St Arcangelo, near Rimini, was born on +the 31st of October 1705, entered the Franciscan order at the +age of seventeen, and became a teacher of theology and philosophy. +As regent of the college of S. Bonaventura, Rome, he +came under the notice of Benedict XIV., who conceived a +high opinion of his talents and made him consulter of the Inquisition. +Upon the recommendation of Ricci, general of the Jesuits, +Clement XIII. made him a cardinal; but, owing to his disapproval +of the pope’s policy, he found himself out of favour +and without influence. The conclave following the death of +Clement XIII. was the most momentous of at least two centuries. +The fate of the Jesuits hung in the balance; and the Bourbon +princes were determined to have a pope subservient to their +hostile designs. The struggle was prolonged three months. +At length, on the 19th of May 1769, Ganganelli was chosen, not +as a declared enemy of the Jesuits, but as being least objectionable +to each of the contending factions. The charge of simony +was inspired by Jesuit hatred; there is absolutely no evidence +that Ganganelli pledged himself to suppress the order.</p> + +<p>The outlook for the papacy was dark; Portugal was talking +of a patriarchate; France held Avignon; Naples held Ponte +Corvo and Benevento; Spain was ill-affected; Parma, defiant; +Venice, aggressive; Poland meditating a restriction of the +rights of the nuncio. Clement realized the imperative necessity +of conciliating the powers. He suspended the public reading +of the bull <i>In Coena Domini</i>, so obnoxious to civil authority; +resumed relations with Portugal; revoked the <i>monitorium</i> of +his predecessor against Parma. But the powers were bent upon +the destruction of the Jesuits, and they had the pope at their +mercy. Clement looked abroad for help, but found none. Even +Maria Theresa, his last hope, suppressed the order in Austria. +Temporizing and partial concessions were of no avail. At last, +convinced that the peace of the Church demanded the sacrifice, +Clement signed the brief <i>Dominus ac Redemptor</i>, dissolving the +order, on the 21st of July 1773. The powers at once gave +substantial proof of their satisfaction; Benevento, Ponte Corvo, +Avignon and the Venaissin were restored to the Holy See. +But it would be unfair to accept this as evidence of a bargain. +Clement had formerly indignantly rejected the suggestion of +such an exchange of favours.</p> + +<p>There is no question of the legality of the pope’s act; whether +he was morally culpable, however, continues to be a matter of +bitter controversy. On the one hand, the suppression is denounced +as a base surrender to the forces of tyranny and irreligion, +an act of treason to conscience, which reaped its just punishment +of remorse; on the other hand, it is as ardently maintained +that Clement acted in full accord with his conscience, and that +the order merited its fate by its own mischievous activities +which made it an offence to religion and authority alike. But +whatever the guilt or innocence of the Jesuits, and whether their +suppression were ill-advised or not, there appears to be no +ground for impeaching the motives of Clement, or of doubting +that he had the approval of his conscience. The stories of his +having swooned after signing the brief, and of having lost hope +and even reason, are too absurd to be entertained. The decline +in health, which set in shortly after the suppression, and his +death (on the 22nd of September 1774) proceeded from wholly +natural causes. The testimony of his physician and of his +confessor ought to be sufficient to discredit the oft-repeated +story of slow poisoning (see Duhr, <i>Jesuiten Fabeln</i>, 4th ed., +1904, pp. 69 seq.).</p> + +<p>The suppression of the Jesuits bulks so large in the pontificate +of Clement that he has scarcely been given due credit for his +praiseworthy attempt to reduce the burdens of taxation and to +reform the financial administration, nor for his liberal encouragement +of art and learning, of which the museum Pio-Clementino +is a lasting monument.</p> + +<p>No pope has been the subject of more diverse judgments than +Clement XIV. Zealous defenders credit him with all virtues, +and bless him as the instrument divinely ordained to restore the +peace of the Church; virulent detractors charge him with +ingratitude, cowardice and double-dealing. The truth is at neither +extreme. Clement’s was a deeply religious and poetical nature, +animated by a lofty and refined spirit. Gentleness, equanimity +and benevolence were native to him. He cherished high purposes +and obeyed a lively conscience. But he instinctively shrank +from conflict; he lacked the resoluteness and the sterner sort +of courage that grapples with a crisis.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Caraccioli’s <i>Vie de Clément XIV</i> (Paris, 1775) (freq. translated), +is incomplete, uncritical and too laudatory. The middle of the +19th century saw quite a spirited controversy over Clement XIV.; +St Priest, in his <i>Hist. de la chute des Jésuites</i> (Paris, 1846), +represented Clement as lamentably, almost culpably, weak; Cretineau-Joly, +in his <i>Hist. ... de la Comp. de Jésus</i> (Paris, 1844-1845), and his +<i>Clément XIV et les Jésuites</i> (Paris, 1847), was outspoken and bitter +in his condemnation; this provoked Theiner’s <i>Gesch. des Pontificats +Clemens’ XIV.</i> (Leipzig and Paris, 1852), a vigorous defence based +upon original documents to which, as custodian of the Vatican +archives, the author had freest access; Cretineau-Joly replied with +<i>Le Pape Clément XIV; Lettres au P. Theiner</i> (Paris, 1852). +Ravignan’s <i>Clem. XIII. e Clem. XIV.</i> (Paris, 1854) is a weak, +half-hearted apology for Clement XIV. See also v. Reumont, <i>Ganganelli, +Papst Clemens XIV.</i> (Berlin, 1847); and Reinerding, <i>Clemens XIV. +u. d. Aufhebung der Gesellschaft Jesu</i> (Augsburg, 1854). The letters +of Clement have frequently been printed; the genuineness of +Caraccioli’s collection (Paris, 1776; freq. translated) has been +questioned, but most of the letters are now generally accepted +as genuine; see also <i>Clementis XIV. Epp. ac Brevia</i>, ed. Theiner +(Paris, 1852). An extended bibliography is to be found in Hergenröther, +<i>Allg. Kirchengesch.</i> (1880), iii. 510 seq.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (<i>Clemens Alexandrinus</i>), Greek +Father of the Church. The little we know of him is mainly +derived from his own works. He was probably born about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> +150 of heathen parents in Athens. The earliest writer after +himself who gives us any information with regard to him is +Eusebius. The only points on which his works now extant +inform us are his date and his instructors. In the <i>Stromateis</i>, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span> +while attempting to show that the Jewish Scriptures were older +than any writings of the Greeks, he invariably brings down his +dates to the death of Commodus, a circumstance which at once +suggests that he wrote in the reign of the emperor Severus, from +193 to 211 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (see <i>Strom.</i> lib. i. cap. xxi. 140, p. 403, Potter’s +edition). The passage in regard to his teachers is corrupt, and +the sense is therefore doubtful (<i>Strom.</i> lib. i. cap. i. 11, p. 322, P.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>“This treatise,” he says, speaking of the <i>Stromateis</i>, “has not +been contrived for mere display, but memoranda are treasured up +in it for my old age to be a remedy for forgetfulness,—an image, truly, +and an outline of those clear and living discourses, and those men +truly blessed and noteworthy I was privileged to hear. One of these +was in Greece, the Ionian, the other was in Magna Graecia; the one +of them was from Coele Syria, the other from Egypt; but there were +others in the East, one of whom belonged to the Assyrians, but +the other was in Palestine, originally a Jew. The last of those +whom I met was first in power. On falling in with him I found +rest, having tracked him while he lay concealed in Egypt. He +was in truth the Sicilian bee, and, plucking the flowers of the +prophetic and apostolic meadow, he produced a wonderfully pure +knowledge in the souls of the listeners.”</p> +</div> + +<p>Some have supposed that in this passage seven teachers are +named, others that there are only five, and various conjectures +have been hazarded as to what persons were meant. The only +one about whom conjecture has any basis for speculating is the +last, for Eusebius states (<i>H.E.</i> v. 11) that Clement made mention +of Pantaenus as his teacher in the <i>Hypotyposes</i>. The reference +in this passage is plainly to one whom he might well designate as +his teacher.</p> + +<p>To the information which Clement here supplies subsequent +writers add little. By Eusebius and Photius he is called Titus +Flavius Clemens, and “the Alexandrian” is added to his name. +Epiphanius tells us that some said Clement was an Alexandrian, +others that he was an Athenian (<i>Haer.</i> xxxii. 6), and a modern +writer imagined that he reconciled this discordance by the +supposition that he was born at Athens, but lived at Alexandria. +We know nothing of his conversion except that he passed from +heathenism to Christianity. This is expressly stated by Eusebius +(<i>Praep. Evangel.</i> lib. ii. cap. 2), though it is likely that Eusebius +had no other authority than the works of Clement. These works, +however, warrant the inference. They show a singularly minute +acquaintance with the ceremonies of pagan religion, and there +are indications that Clement himself had been initiated in some +of the mysteries (<i>Protrept.</i> cap. ii. sec. 14, p. 13, P.). There is +no means of determining the date of his conversion. He attained +the position of presbyter in the church of Alexandria (Eus. +<i>H.E.</i> vi. 11, and Jerome, <i>De Vir. Ill.</i> 38), and became perhaps +the assistant, and certainly the successor of Pantaenus in the +catechetical school of that place. Among his pupils were Origen +(Eus. <i>H.E.</i> vi. 7) and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem (Eus. <i>H.E.</i> +vi. 14.). How long he continued in Alexandria, and when and +where he died, are all matters of pure conjecture. The only +further notice of Clement that we have in history is in a letter +written in 211 by Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, to the +Antiochians, and preserved by Eusebius (<i>H.E.</i> vi. 11). The +words are as follows:—“This letter I sent through Clement +the blessed presbyter, a man virtuous and tried, whom ye know +and will come to know completely, who being here by the +providence and guidance of the Ruler of all strengthened and +increased the church of the Lord.” A statement of Eusebius in +regard to the persecution of Severus in 202 (<i>H.E.</i> vi. 3) would +render it likely that Clement left Alexandria on that occasion. +It is conjectured that he went to his old pupil Alexander, who was +at that time bishop of Flaviada in Cappadocia, and that when his +pupil was raised to the see of Jerusalem Clement followed him +there. The letter implies that he was known to the Antiochians, +and that it was likely he would be still better known. Some +have conjectured that he returned to Alexandria, but there is not +the shadow of evidence for such conjecture. Alexander, writing +to Origen (c. 216), mentions Clement as dead (Eus. <i>H.E.</i> vi. 14, 9).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Eusebius and Jerome give us lists of the works which Clement +left behind him. Photius has also described some of them. They +are as follows:—(1) <span class="grk" title="Pros Hellênas logos o protreptikos"> +Πρὸς Έλληνας λόγος ὁ προτρεπτικος</span>, <i>A Hortatory +Address to the Greeks</i>. (2) <span class="grk" title="O Paidagogos"> +Ό Παιδαγωγός</span>, <i>The Tutor</i>, in three books. +(3) <span class="grk" title="Stromateis">Στρωματεῖς</span>, or <i>Patch-work</i>, in eight books. (4) <span class="grk" title="Tis o sozomenos plousios"> +Τἰς ὸ σωξὀμενος πλούσιος</span>; <i>Who is the Rich Man that is Saved?</i> (5) Eight books of +<span class="grk" title="Hypotyposeis">Ύποτυπώσεις</span>, <i>Adumbrations or Outlines.</i> (6) <i>On the Passover.</i> (7) <i>Discourses +on Fasting.</i> (8) <i>On Slander.</i> (9) <i>Exhortation to Patience, or +to the Newly Baptized.</i> (10) The <span class="grk" title="Kanon ekklêsiastikos">Κανὼν ἐκκλησιαστικός</span>, the <i>Rule of +the Church, or to those who Judaize</i>, a work dedicated to Alexander, +bishop of Jerusalem.</p> + +<p>Of these, the first four have come down to us complete, or nearly +complete. The first three form together a progressive introduction +to Christianity corresponding to the stages through which the +<span class="grk" title="mystês">μὐστης</span> passed at Eleusis—purification, initiation, revelation. The +<i>Hortatory Address to the Greeks</i> is an appeal to them to give up the +worship of their gods, and to devote themselves to the worship of the +one living and true God. Clement exhibits the absurdity and immorality +of the stories told with regard to the pagan deities, the cruelties +perpetrated in their worship, and the utter uselessness of bowing +down before images made by hands. He at the same time shows +the Greeks that their own greatest philosophers and poets recognized +the unity of the divine Being, and had caught glimpses of the true +nature of God, but that fuller light had been thrown on this subject +by the Hebrew prophets. He replies to the objection that it was +not right to abandon the customs of their forefathers, and points +them to Christ as their only safe guide to God.</p> + +<p>The <i>Paedagogue</i> is divided into three books. In the first Clement +discusses the necessity for and the true nature of the Paedagogus, +and shows how Christ as the Logos acted as Paedagogus, and still +acts. In the second and third books Clement enters into particulars, +and explains how the Christian following the Logos or Reason ought +to behave in the various circumstances of life—in eating, drinking, +furnishing a house, in dress, in the relations of social life, in the care +of the body, and similar concerns, and concludes with a general +description of the life of a Christian. Appended to the <i>Paedagogue</i> +are two hymns, which are, in all probability, the production of +Clement, though some have conjectured that they were portions +of the church service of that time. <span class="grk" title="stromateis">στρωματεῖς</span> were bags in which +bedclothes (<span class="grk" title="stromata">στρώματα</span>) were kept. The phrase was used as a book-title +by Origen and others, and is equivalent to our “miscellanies.” +It is difficult to give a brief account of the varied contents of the +book. Sometimes Clement discusses chronology, sometimes philosophy, +sometimes poetry, entering into the most minute critical +and chronological details; but one object runs through all, and +this is to show what the true Christian Gnostic is, and what is his +relation to philosophy. The work was in eight books. The first +seven are complete. The eighth now extant is really an incomplete +treatise on logic. Some critics have rejected this book as spurious, +since its matter is so different from that of the rest. Others, however, +have held to its genuineness, because in a Patch-work or Book of +Miscellanies the difference of subject is no sound objection, and +because Photius seems to have regarded our present eighth book as +genuine (Phot. cod. iii. p. 89b, Bekker).</p> + +<p>The treatise <i>Who is the Rich Man that is Saved?</i> is an admirable +exposition of the narrative contained in St Mark’s Gospel x. 17-31. +Here Clement argues that wealth, if rightly used, is not unchristian.</p> + +<p>The <i>Hypotyposes</i><a name="FnAnchor_1q" id="FnAnchor_1q" href="#Footnote_1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in eight books, have not come down to us. +Cassiodorus translated them into Latin, freely altering to suit his +own ideas of orthodoxy. Both Eusebius and Photius describe the +work. It was a short commentary on all the books of Scripture, +including some of the apocryphal works, such as the Epistle of +Barnabas and the Revelation of Peter. Photius speaks in strong +language of the impiety of some opinions in the book (<i>Bibl.</i> cod. 109, +p. 89 a Bekker), but his statements are such as to prove conclusively +that he must have had a corrupt copy, or read very carelessly, or +grossly misunderstood Clement. Notes in Latin on the first epistle +of Peter, the epistle of Jude, and the first two of John have come +down to us; but whether they are the translation of Cassiodorus, +or indeed a translation of Clement’s work at all, is a matter of +dispute.</p> + +<p>The treatise on the Passover was occasioned by a work of Melito +on the same subject. Two fragments of this treatise were given by +Petavius, and are contained in the modern editions.</p> + +<p>We know nothing of the work called <i>The Ecclesiastical Canon</i> +from any external testimony. Clement himself often mentions the +<span class="grk" title="ekklêsiastikos kanon">ἐκκλησιαστικὸς κανών</span>, and defines it as the agreement and harmony +of the law and the prophets with the covenant delivered at the +appearance of Christ (<i>Strom.</i> vi. cap. xv. 125, p. 803, P.). No doubt +this was the subject of the treatise. Jerome and Photius call the +work <i>Ecclesiastical Canons</i>, but this seems to be a mistake.</p> + +<p>Of the other treatises mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome nothing +is known. A fragment of Clement, quoted by Antonius Melissa, is +most probably taken from the treatise on slander.</p> + +<p>Besides the treatises mentioned by Eusebius, fragments of treatises +on Providence and the Soul have been preserved. Mention is also +made of a work by Clement on the Prophet Amos, and another on +Definitions.</p> + +<p>In addition to these Clement often speaks of his intention to +write on certain subjects, but it may well be doubted whether in +most cases, if not all, he intended to devote separate treatises to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span> +them. Some have found an allusion to the treatise on the Soul +already mentioned. The other subjects are Marriage (<span class="grk" title="gamikos logos">γαμικὸς λόγος</span>), +Continence, the Duties of Bishops, Presbyters, Deacons and Widows, +Prophecy, the Soul, the Transmigration of the Soul and the Devil, +Angels, the Origin of the World, First Principles and the Divinity of +the Logos, Allegorical Interpretations of Statements made with +regard to God’s anger and similar affections, the Unity of the Church, +and the Resurrection.</p> + +<p>Two works are incorporated in the editions of Clement which +are not mentioned by himself or any ancient writer. They are +<span class="grk" title="Ek tôn Theodoton kai tês anatolikês kaloumenês didaskalias kata tous Oualentinou chronous epitomai"> +Έκ τῶν Θεοδότου καί τἦς +ἀνατολικἦς καλουμένης διδασκαλίας +κατὰ τοὺς +Οὐαλεντίνου χρόνους ἐπιτομαί</span>, and <span class="grk" title="Ek tôn prophêtikôn eklogai"> +Έκ τῶν προφητικῶν ἐκλογαἰ</span>. The +first, if it is the work of Clement, must be a book merely of +excerpts, for it contains many opinions which Clement opposed. +Mention is made of Pantaenus in the second, and some have thought +it more worthy of him than the first. Others have regarded it as +a work similar to the first, and derived from Theodorus.</p> +</div> + +<p>Clement occupies a profoundly interesting position in the +history of Christianity. He is the first to bring all the culture +of the Greeks and all the speculations of the Christian heretics +to bear on the exposition of Christian truth. He does not attain +to a systematic exhibition of Christian doctrine, but he paves the +way for it, and lays the first stones of the foundation. In some +respects Justin anticipated him. He also was well acquainted +with Greek philosophy, and took a genial view of it; but he was +not nearly so widely read as Clement. The list of Greek authors +whom Clement has quoted occupies upwards of fourteen of the +quarto pages in Fabricius’s <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i>. He is at home +alike in the epic and the lyric, the tragic and the comic poets, and +his knowledge of the prose writers is very extensive. Some, +however, of the classic poets he appears to have known only +from anthologies; hence he was misled into quoting as from +Euripides and others verses which were written by Jewish +forgers. He made a special study of the philosophers. Equally +minute is his knowledge of the systems of the Christian heretics. +And in all cases it is plain that he not merely read but thought +deeply on the questions which the civilization of the Greeks and +the various writings of poets, philosophers and heretics raised. +But it was in the Scriptures that he found his greatest delight. +He believed them to contain the revelation of God’s wisdom to +men. He quotes all the books of the Old Testament except +Ruth and the Song of Solomon, and amongst the sacred writings +of the Old Testament he evidently included the book of Tobit, +the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus. He is equally full +in his quotations from the New Testament, for he quotes from all +the books except the epistle to Philemon, the second epistle +of St Peter, and the epistle of St James, and he quotes from +<i>The Shepherd of Hermas</i>, and the epistles of Clemens Romanus +and of Barnabas, as inspired. He appeals also to many of the +lost gospels, such as those of the Hebrews, of the Egyptians and +of Matthias.</p> + +<p>Notwithstanding this adequate knowledge of Scripture, the +modern theologian is disappointed to find very little of what he +deems characteristically Christian. In fact Clement regarded +Christianity as a philosophy. The ancient philosophers sought +through their philosophy to attain to a nobler and holier life, +and this also was the aim of Christianity. The difference between +the two, in Clement’s judgment, was that the Greek philosophers +had only glimpses of the truth, that they attained only to +fragments of the truth, while Christianity revealed in Christ +the absolute and perfect truth. All the stages of the world’s +history were therefore preparations leading up to this full +revelation, and God’s care was not confined to the Hebrews +alone. The worship of the heavenly bodies, for instance, was +given to man at an early stage that he might rise from a +contemplation of these sublime objects to the worship of the Creator. +Greek philosophy in particular was the preparation of the Greeks +for Christ. It was the schoolmaster or paedagogue to lead them +to Christ. Plato was Moses atticizing. Clement varies in his +statement how Plato got his wisdom or his fragments of the +Reason. Sometimes he thinks that they came direct from God, +like all good things, but he is also fond of maintaining that +many of Plato’s best thoughts were borrowed from the Hebrew +prophets; and he makes the same statement in regard to the +wisdom of the other philosophers. But however this may be, +Christ was the end to which all that was true in philosophies +pointed. Christ himself was the Logos, the Reason. God the +Father was ineffable. The Son alone can manifest Him fully. +He is the Reason that pervades the universe, that brings out all +goodness, that guides all good men. It was through possessing +somewhat of this Reason that the philosophers attained to any +truth and goodness; but in Christians he dwells more fully and +guides them through all the perplexities of life. Photius, probably +on a careless reading of Clement, argued that he could not +have believed in a real incarnation. But the words of Clement +are quite precise and their meaning indisputable. The real +difficulty attaches not to the Second Person, but to the First. +The Father in Clement’s mind becomes the Absolute of the +philosophers, that is to say, not the Father at all, but the Monad, +a mere point devoid of all attributes. He believed in a personal +Son of God who was the Reason and Wisdom of God; and he +believed that this Son of God really became incarnate though he +speaks of him almost invariably as the Word, and attaches +little value to his human nature. The object of his incarnation +and death was to free man from his sins, to lead him into the path +of wisdom, and thus in the end elevate him to the position of a +god. But man’s salvation was to be gradual. It began with +faith, passed from that to love, and ended in full and complete +knowledge. There could be no faith without knowledge. But +the knowledge is imperfect, and the Christian was to do many +things in simple obedience without knowing the reason. But +he has to move upwards continually until he at length does +nothing that is evil, and he knows fully the reason and object +of what he does. He thus becomes the true Gnostic, but he can +become the true Gnostic only by contemplation and by the +practice of what is right. He has to free himself from the power +of passion. He has to give up all thoughts of pleasure. He must +prefer goodness in the midst of torture to evil with unlimited +pleasure. He has to resist the temptations of the body, keeping +it under strict control, and with the eye of the soul undimmed by +corporeal wants and impulses, contemplate God the supreme +good, and live a life according to reason. In other words, he +must strive after likeness to God as he reveals himself in his +Reason or in Christ. Clement thus looks entirely at the enlightened +moral elevation to which Christianity raises man. He +believed that Christ instructed men before he came into the +world, and he therefore viewed heathenism with kindly eye. +He was also favourable to the pursuit of all kinds of knowledge. +All enlightenment tended to lead up to the truths of Christianity, +and hence knowledge of every kind not evil was its handmaid. +Clement had at the same time a strong belief in evolution or +development. The world went through various stages in preparation +for Christianity. The man goes through various stages +before he can reach Christian perfection. And Clement conceived +that this development took place not merely in this life, but in +the future through successive grades. The Jew and the heathen +had the gospel preached to them in the world below by Christ +and his apostles, and Christians will have to pass through processes +of purification and trial after death before they reach +knowledge and perfect bliss.</p> + +<p>The beliefs of Clement have caused considerable difference +of opinion among modern scholars. He sought the truth from +whatever quarter he could get it, believing that all that is good +comes from God, wherever it be found. He belongs therefore +to no school of philosophers. He calls himself an Eclectic. +He was in the main a Neoplatonist, drawing from that school +his doctrines of the Monad and his strong tendency towards +mysticism. For his moral doctrine he borrowed freely from +Stoicism. Aristotelian features may be found but are quite +subordinate. But Clement always regards the articles of the +Christian creed as the axioms of a new philosophy. Daehne +had tried to show that he was Neoplatonic, and Reinkens has +maintained that he was essentially Aristotelian. His mode of +viewing Christianity does not fit into any classification. It +is the result of the period in which he lived, of his wide culture +and the simplicity and noble purity of his character.</p> + +<p>It is needless to say that his books well deserve study; but +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span> +the study is not smoothed by simplicity of style. Clement +professed to despise rhetoric, but was himself a rhetorician, and +his style is turgid, involved and difficult. He is singularly +simple in his character. In discussing marriage he refuses to +use any but the plainest language. A euphemism is with him +a falsehood. But he is temperate in his opinions; and the +practical advices in the second and third books of the <i>Paedagogue</i> +are remarkably sound and moderate. He is not always very +critical, and he is passionately fond of allegorical interpretations, +but these were the faults of his age.</p> + +<p>All early writers speak of Clement in the highest terms of +laudation, and he certainly ought to have been a saint in any +Church that reveres saints. But Clement is not a saint in the +Roman Church. He was a saint up till the time of Benedict +XIV., who read Photius on Clement, believed him, and struck +the Alexandrian’s name out of the calendar. But many Roman +Catholic writers, though they yield a practical obedience to the +papal decision, have adduced good reason why it should be +reversed (Cognat, p. 451).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Editions</span>.—The standard edition of the collected works will be +that of O. Stählin (first vol. containing <i>Protrepticus</i> and <i>Paedagogus</i>, +Leipzig, 1905). Separate editions of <i>Strom</i>. vii., Hort and Major +(1902); <i>Q.D.S.</i>, Barnard in <i>Texts and Studies</i>, v. 2 (1897); W. +Dindorf’s edition in 4 vols. (Oxford, 1869) is little more than a +reprint of the text of Bishop Potter, 1715. For the <i>Fragments</i> +see Zahn, <i>Forschungen zur Gesch. des neut. Kanons</i>, part iii., or +Harnack and Preuschen, <i>Gesch. der altch. Litt.</i>, vol. i.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—A copious bibliography will be found in Harnack, +<i>Chronologie</i>, vol. ii., or in Bardenhewer, <i>Gesch. der altk. Lit.</i> Either +of these will supply the names of works upon Clement’s biblical text, +his use of Stoic writers, his quotations from heathen writers, and his +relation to heathen philosophy. A valuable book is de Faye, <i>Clém. +d’Alex</i>. (1898). For his theological position see Harnack, <i>Dogmengeschichte</i>; +Hort, <i>Six Lectures on the Ante-Nicene Fathers</i>; Westcott, +“Clem, of Alex.” in <i>Dict. Christ. Biog.</i>; Bigg, <i>Christian Platonists +of Alex.</i> (1886). A book on Clement’s relation to Mysticism is +wanted.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. Bi.; J. D.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1q" id="Footnote_1q" href="#FnAnchor_1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Zahn thinks we have part of them in the <i>Adumbrationes Clem. +Alex. in epistolas canonicas</i> (Codex Lindum, 96, sec. ix.). They were +perhaps intended as a completion of the preceding course.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLÉMENT, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1714-1793), French historian, was +born at Bèze, near Dijon, and was educated at the Jesuit College +at Dijon. At the age of seventeen he entered the society of the +Benedictines of Saint Maur, and worked with such intense +application that at the age of twenty-five he was obliged to take +a protracted rest. He now resided in Paris, where he wrote the +11th and 12th vols. of the <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, and +edited (with Dom Brial) the 12th and 13th vols. of the <i>Recueil +des historiens des Gauls et de la France</i>. The king appointed +him on the committee which was engaged in publishing charters, +diplomas and other documents connected with French history (see +Xavier Charmes, <i>Le Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques</i>, +vol. i., 1886, passim); and the Academy of Inscriptions chose +him as a member (1785). Dom Clément also revised the <i>Art de +vérifier les dates</i>, edited in 1750 by Dom Clémencet. Three +volumes with the Indexes appeared from 1783 to 1792. He +was engaged in preparing another volume including the period +before the Christian era, when he died suddenly of apoplexy, at +the age of sixty-nine. The work was afterwards brought down +from 1770 to 1827 by Julien de Courcelles and Fortia d’Urban.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLÉMENT, JACQUES<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1567-1589), murderer of the French +king Henry III., was born at Sorbon in the Ardennes, and +became a Dominican friar. Civil war was raging in France, +and Clément became an ardent partisan of the League; his +mind appears to have become unhinged by religious fanaticism, +and he talked of exterminating the heretics, and formed a plan +to kill Henry III. His project was encouraged by some of the +heads of the League; he was assured of temporal rewards if he +succeeded, and of eternal bliss if he failed. Having obtained +letters for the king, he left Paris on the 31st of July 1589, and +reached St Cloud, the headquarters of Henry, who was besieging +Paris. On the following day he was admitted to the royal +presence, and presenting his letters he told the king that he had +an important and confidential message to deliver. The attendants +then withdrew, and while Henry was reading the letters +Clément mortally wounded him with a dagger which had been +concealed beneath his cloak. The assassin was at once killed +by the attendants who rushed in, and Henry died early on the +following day. Clément’s body was afterwards quartered and +burned. This deed, however, was viewed with far different +feelings in Paris and by the partisans of the League, the murderer +being regarded as a martyr and extolled by Pope Sixtus V., +while even his canonization was discussed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, tome vi. (Paris, 1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEMENTI, MUZIO<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (c. 1751-1832), Italian pianist and composer, +was born at Rome between 1750 and 1752. His father, +a jeweller, encouraged his son’s early musical talent. Buroni +and Cordicelli were his first masters, and at the age of nine +Clementi’s theoretical and practical studies had advanced to +such a degree that he was able to win the position of organist +at a church. He continued his studies under Santarelli and +Carpani, and at the age of fourteen wrote a mass which was +performed in public. About 1766 Beckford, the author of +<i>Vathek</i>, persuaded Clementi to follow him to England, where +the young composer lived in retirement at one of the country +seats of his protector in Dorsetshire until 1770. In that year +he first appeared in London, where his success both as composer +and pianist was rapid and brilliant. In 1777 he was for some +time employed as conductor of the Italian opera, but he soon +afterwards left London for Paris. Here also his concerts were +crowded by enthusiastic audiences, and the same success accompanied +Clementi on a tour about the year 1780 to southern +Germany and Austria. At Vienna, which he visited between +1781 and 1782, he was received with high honour by the emperor +Joseph II., in whose presence he met Mozart, and fought a kind +of musical duel with him. His technical skill proved to be +equal if not superior to that of his rival, who on the other hand +infinitely surpassed him by the passionate beauty of his interpretation. +It is worth noting that one of the finest of Clementi’s +sonatas, that in B flat, shows an exactly identical opening theme +with Mozart’s overture to the <i>Flauto Magico</i>.</p> + +<p>In May 1782 Clementi returned to London, where for the next +twelve years he continued his lucrative occupations of fashionable +teacher and performer at the concerts of the aristocracy. He +took shares in the pianoforte business of a firm which went +bankrupt in 1800. He then established a pianoforte and music +business of his own, under the name of Clementi & Co. Other +members were added to the firm, including Collard and Davis, +and the firm was ultimately taken over by Messrs Collard +alone. Amongst his pupils on the pianoforte during this period +may be mentioned John Field, the composer of the celebrated +<i>Nocturnes</i>. In his company Clementi paid, in 1804, a visit to +Paris, Vienna, St Petersburg, Berlin and other cities. While +he was in Berlin, Meyerbeer became one of his pupils. He also +revisited his own country after an absence of more than thirty +years. In 1810 Clementi returned to London, but refused to +play again in public, devoting the remainder of his life to composition. +Several symphonies belong to this time, and were +played with much success at contemporary concerts, but none +of them seem to have been published. His intellectual and +musical faculties remained unimpaired until his death, on the +9th of March 1832, at Evesham, Worcester.</p> + +<p>Of Clementi’s playing in his youth, Moscheles wrote that it +was “marked by a most beautiful <i>legato</i>, a supple touch in lively +passages, and a most unfailing <i>technique</i>.” Mozart may be said +to have closed the old and Clementi to have founded the newer +school of <i>technique</i> on the piano. Amongst Clementi’s compositions +the most remarkable are sixty sonatas for pianoforte, and +the great collection of <i>Études</i> called <i>Gradus ad Parnassum</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEMENTINE LITERATURE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span>, the name generally given to the +writings which at one time or another were fathered upon Pope +Clement I. (<i>q.v.</i>), commonly called Clemens Romanus, who was +early regarded as a disciple of St Peter. Thus they are for the +most part a species of the larger pseudo-Petrine genus. Chief +among them are: (1) The so-called Second Epistle; (2) two +Epistles on Virginity; (3) the <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>; (4) +the <i>Apostolical Constitutions</i> (<i>q.v.</i>); and (5) five epistles forming +part of the Forged Decretals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Decretals</a></span>). The present +article deals mainly with the third group, to which the title +“Clementine literature” is usually confined, owing to the stress +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span> +laid upon it in the famous Tübingen reconstruction of primitive +Christianity, in which it played a leading part; but later criticism +has lowered its importance as its true date and historical +relations have been progressively ascertained. (1) and (2) +became “Clementine” only by chance, but (3) was so originally +by literary device or fiction, the cause at work also in (4) and (5). +But while in all cases the suggestion of Clement’s authorship +came ultimately from his prestige as writer of the genuine +Epistle of Clement (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clement i.</a></span>), both (3) and (4) were due to +this idea as operative on Syrian soil; (5) is a secondary formation +based on (3) as known to the West.</p> + +<p>(1) <i>The “Second Epistle of Clement.”</i>—This is really the +earliest extant Christian homily (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolic Fathers</a></span>). Its +theme is the duty of Christian repentance, with a view to +obedience to Christ’s precepts as the true confession and homage +which He requires. Its special charge is “Preserve the flesh pure +and the seal (<i>i.e.</i> baptism) unstained” (viii. 6). But the peculiar +way in which it enforces its morals in terms of the Platonic +contrast between the spiritual and sensuous worlds, as archetype +and temporal manifestation, suggests a special local type of +theology which must be taken into account in fixing its <i>provenance</i>. +This theology, the fact that the preacher seems to quote the +<i>Gospel according to the Egyptians</i> (in ch. xii. and possibly elsewhere) +as if familiar to his hearers, and indeed its literary +affinities generally, all point to Alexandria as the original home of +the homily, at a date about 120-140 (see <i>Zeit. f. N. T. Wissenschaft</i>, +vii. 123 ff). Neither Corinth (as Lightfoot) nor Rome (as Harnack, +who assigns it to Bishop Soter, c. 166-174) satisfies all the internal +conditions, while the Eastern nature of the external evidence and +the homily’s quasi-canonical status in the Codex-Alexandrinus +strongly favour an Alexandrine origin.</p> + +<p>(2) <i>The Two Epistles to Virgins</i>, <i>i.e.</i> to Christian celibates of +both sexes. These are known in their entirety only in Syriac, +and were first published by Wetstein (1752), who held them +genuine. This view is now generally discredited, even by Roman +Catholics like Funk, their best recent editor (<i>Patres Apost.</i>, vol. +ii.). External evidence begins with Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i> xxx. 15) +and Jerome (<i>Ad Jovin.</i> i. 12); and the silence of Eusebius tells +heavily against their existence before the 4th century, at any +rate as writings of Clement. The Monophysite Timothy of +Alexandria (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 457) cites one of them as Clement’s, while +Antiochus of St Saba (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 620) makes copious but unacknowledged +extracts from both in the original Greek. There is no +trace of their use in the West. Thus their Syrian origin is +manifest, the more so that in the Syriac MS. they are appended to +the New Testament, like the better-known epistles of Clement in +the Codex Alexandrinus. Indeed, judging from another Syriac +MS. of earlier date, which includes the latter writings in its +canon, it seems that the Epistles on Virginity gradually replaced +the earlier pair in certain Syrian churches—even should Lightfoot +be right in doubting if this had really occurred by Epiphanius’s +day (<i>S. Clement of Rome</i>, i. 412).</p> + +<p>Probably these epistles did not originally bear Clement’s name +at all, but formed a single epistle addressed to ascetics among an +actual circle of churches. In that case they, or rather it, may +date from the 3rd century in spite of Eusebius’s silence, and +are not pseudo-Clementine in any real sense. It matters little +whether or not the false ascription was made before the division +into two implied already by Epiphanius (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 375). Special +occasion for such a hortatory letter may be discerned in its +polemic against intimate relations between ascetics of opposite +sex, implied to exist among its readers, in contrast to usage in +the writer’s own locality. Now we know that spiritual unions, +prompted originally by highstrung Christian idealism as to a +religious fellowship transcending the law of nature in relation to +sex, did exist between persons living under vows of celibacy +during the 3rd century in particular, and not least in Syria (cf. +the case of Paul of Samosata, c. 265, and the Synod of Ancyra +in Galatia, c. 314). It is natural, then, to see in the original +epistle a protest against the dangers of such spiritual boldness +(cf. “Subintroductae” in Herzog-Hauck’s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>), +prior perhaps to the famous case at Antioch just noted. +Possibly it is the feeling of south Syria or Palestine that here +expresses itself in remonstrance against usages prevalent in north +Syria. Such a view finds support also in the New Testament +canon implied in these epistles.</p> + +<p>(3)[a] <i>The Epistle of Clement to James</i> (the Lord’s brother). +This was originally part of (3)[b], in connexion with which its +origin and date are discussed. But as known to the West through +Rufinus’s Latin version, it was quoted as genuine by the synod of +Vaison (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 442) and throughout the middle ages. It became +“the starting point of the most momentous and gigantic of +medieval forgeries, the Isidorian Decretals,” “where it stands at +the head of the pontifical letters, extended to more than twice its +original length.” This extension perhaps occurred during the 5th +century. At any rate the letter in this form, along with a +“second epistle to James” (on the Eucharist, church furniture, +&c.), dating from the early 6th century, had separate currency +long before the 9th century, when they were incorporated in the +<i>Decretals</i> by the forger who raised the Clementine epistles to five +(see Lightfoot, <i>Clement</i>, i. 414 ff.).</p> + +<p>(3)[b] <i>The “Homilies” and “Recognitions</i>”—“The two +chief extant Clementine writings, differing considerably in some +respects in doctrine, are both evidently the outcome of a peculiar +speculative type of Judaistic Christianity, for which the most +characteristic name of Christ was ‘the true Prophet.’ The framework +of both is a narrative purporting to be written by Clement +(of Rome) to St James, the Lord’s brother, describing at the +beginning his own conversion and the circumstances of his first +acquaintance with St Peter, and then a long succession of +incidents accompanying St Peter’s discourses and disputations, +leading up to a romantic recognition of Clement’s father, mother +and two brothers, from whom he had been separated since childhood. +The problems discussed under this fictitious guise are +with rare exceptions fundamental problems for every age; and, +whatever may be thought of the positions maintained, the +discussions are hardly ever feeble or trivial. Regarded simply as +mirroring the past, few, if any, remains of Christian antiquity +present us with so vivid a picture of the working of men’s minds +under the influence of the new leaven which had entered into the +world” (Hort, <i>Clem. Recog.</i>, p. xiv.).</p> + +<p>The indispensable preliminary to a really historic view of these +writings is some solution of the problem of their mutual relations. +The older criticism assumed a dependence of one upon the other, +and assigned one or both to the latter part of the 2nd century. +Recent criticism, however, builds on the principle, which emerges +alike from the external and internal evidence (see Salmon in +the <i>Dict. of Christian Biography</i>), that both used a common +basis. Our main task, then, is to define the nature, origin and +date of the parent document, and if possible its own literary +antecedents. Towards the solution of this problem two contributions +of prime importance have recently been made. The +earlier of these is by F.J.A. Hort, and was delivered in the form +of lectures as far back as 1884, though issued posthumously only +in 1901; the other is the elaborate monograph of Dr Hans +Waitz (1904).</p> + +<p><i>Criticism.</i>—(i.) <i>External Evidence as to the Clementine Romance.</i> +The evidence of ancient writers really begins, not with Origen,<a name="FnAnchor_1r" id="FnAnchor_1r" href="#Footnote_1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +but with Eusebius of Caesarea, who in his <i>Eccl. Hist.</i> iii. 38, +writes as follows: “Certain men have quite lately brought +forward as written by him (Clement) other verbose and lengthy +writings, containing dialogues of Peter, forsooth, and Apion, +whereof not the slightest mention is to be found among the +ancients, for they do not even preserve in purity the stamp of +the Apostolic orthodoxy.” Apion, the Alexandrine grammarian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span> +and foe of Judaism, whose criticism was answered by Josephus, +appears in this character both in <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>, +though mainly in the former (iv. 6-vii. 5). Thus Eusebius +implies (1) a spurious Clementine work containing matter found +also in our <i>Homilies</i> at any rate; and (2) its quite recent origin. +Next we note that an extract in the <i>Philocalia</i> is introduced +as follows: “Yea, and Clement the Roman, a disciple of Peter +the Apostle, after using words in harmony with these on the +present problem, in conversation with his father at Laodicea +in the <i>Circuits</i>, speaks a very necessary word for the end of +arguments touching this matter, viz. those things which seem +to have proceeded from <i>genesis</i> (= astrological destiny), in the +fourteenth book.” The extract answers to <i>Recognitions</i>, x. 10-13, +but it is absent from our <i>Homilies</i>. Here we observe that (1) the +extract agrees this time with <i>Recognitions</i>, not with <i>Homilies</i>; +(2) its framework is that of the Clementine romance found in +both; (3) the tenth and last book of <i>Recognitions</i> is here parallel +to book xiv. of a work called <i>Circuits</i> (<i>Periodoi</i>).</p> + +<p>This last point leads on naturally to the witness of Epiphanius +(c. 375), who, speaking of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians of +various sorts, and particularly the Essene type, says (<i>Haer.</i> +xxx. 15) that “they use certain other books likewise, to wit, +the so-called <i>Circuits</i> of Peter, which were written by the hand +of Clement, falsifying their contents, though leaving a few +genuine things.” Here Ephiphanius simply assumes that the +Ebionite <i>Circuits of Peter</i> was based on a genuine work of the +same scope, and goes on to say that the spurious elements are +proved such by contrast with the tenor of Clement’s “encyclic +epistles” (<i>i.e.</i> those to virgins, (2) above); for these enjoin +virginity (celibacy), and praise Elijah, David, Samson, and all +the prophets, whereas the Ebionite <i>Circuits</i> favour marriage +(even in Apostles) and depreciate the prophets between Moses +and Christ, “the true Prophet.” “In the <i>Circuits</i>, then, they +adapted the whole to their own views, representing Peter falsely +in many ways, as that he was daily baptized for the sake of +purification, as these also do; and they say that he likewise +abstained from animal food and meat, as they themselves also +do.” Now all the points here noted in the <i>Circuits</i> can be traced +in our <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>, though toned down in different +degrees.</p> + +<p>The witness of the Arianizing <i>Opus Imperfectum in Matthaeum</i> +(c. 400) is in general similar. Its usual form of citation is “Peter +in Clement” (<i>apud Clementem</i>). This points to “Clement” +as a brief title for the Clementine <i>Periodoi</i>, a title actually found +in a Syriac MS. of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 411 which contains large parts of <i>Recognitions</i> +and <i>Homilies</i>, and twice used by Rufinus, <i>e.g.</i> when he +proposes to inscribe his version of the <i>Recognitions</i> “Rufinus +<i>Clemens</i>.” Rufinus in his preface to this work—in which for +the first time we meet the title <i>Recognition(s)</i>—observes that +there are two editions to which the name applies, two collections +of books differing in some points but in many respects containing +the same narrative. This he remarks in explanation of the order +of his version in some places, which he feels may strike his friend +Gaudentius as unusual, the inference being that the other +edition was the better-known one, although it lacked “the +transformation of Simon” (<i>i.e.</i> of Clement’s father into Simon’s +likeness), which is common to the close both of our <i>Recognitions</i> +and <i>Homilies</i>, and so probably belonged to the <i>Circuits</i>. We +may assume, too (<i>e.g.</i> on the basis of our Syriac MS.), that the +Greek edition of the <i>Recognition(s)</i> actually used by Rufinus +was much nearer the text of the <i>Periodoi</i> of which we have found +traces than we should imagine from its Latin form.</p> + +<p>So far we have no sure trace of our <i>Homilies</i> at all, apart from +the Syriac version. Even four centuries later, Photius, in referring +to a collection of books called both <i>Acts of Peter</i> and the +<i>Recognition of Clement</i>, does not make clear whether he means +<i>Homilies</i> or <i>Recognitions</i> or either. “In all the copies which +we have seen (and they are not a few) after those different +epistles (viz. ‘Peter to James’ and ‘Clement to James,’ prefixed, +the one in some MSS. the other in others) and titles, we found +without variation the same treatise, beginning, I, Clement, &c.” +But it is not clear that he had read more than the opening of +these MSS. The fact that different epistles are prefixed to the +same work leads him to conjecture “that there were two editions +made of the <i>Acts of Peter</i> (his usual title for the collection), but +in course of time the one perished and that of Clement prevailed.” +This is interesting as anticipating a result of modern criticism, +as will appear below. The earliest probable reference to our +<i>Homilies</i> occurs in a work of doubtful date, the pseudo-Athanasian +<i>Synopsis</i>, which mentions “Clementines, whence +came by selection and rewriting the true and inspired form.” +Here too we have the first sure trace of an expurgated recension, +made with the idea of recovering the genuine form assumed, as +earlier by Epiphanius, to lie behind an unorthodox recension +of Clement’s narrative. As, moreover, the extant <i>Epitome</i> is +based on our <i>Homilies</i>, it is natural to suppose it was also the +basis of earlier orthodox recensions, one or more of which +may be used in certain Florilegia of the 7th century and later. +Nowhere do we find the title <i>Homilies</i> given to any form of +the Clementine collection in antiquity.</p> + +<p>(ii.) <i>The Genesis of the Clementine Literature.</i> It has been needful +to cite so much of the evidence proving that our <i>Homilies</i> and +<i>Recognitions</i> are both recensions of a common basis, at first known +as the <i>Circuits of Peter</i> and later by titles connecting it rather +with Clement, its ostensible author, because it affords data also +for the historical problems touching (a) the contents and origin +of the primary Clementine work, and (b) the conditions under +which our extant recensions of it arose.</p> + +<p>(a) <i>The Circuits of Peter</i>, as defined on the one hand by the +epistle of Clement to James originally prefixed to it and by +patristic evidence, and on the other by the common element in +our <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>, may be conceived as follows. +It contained accounts of Peter’s teachings and discussions at +various points on a route beginning at Caesarea, and extending +northwards along the coast-lands of Syria as far as Antioch. +During this tour he meets with persons of typically erroneous +views, which it was presumably the aim of the work to refute +in the interests of true Christianity, conceived as the final form +of divine revelation—a revelation given through true prophecy +embodied in a succession of persons, the chief of whom were +Moses and the prophet whom Moses foretold, Jesus the Christ. +The prime exponent of the spurious religion is Simon Magus. +A second protagonist of error, this time of Gentile philosophic +criticism directed against fundamental Judaism, is Apion, the +notorious anti-Jewish Alexandrine grammarian of Peter’s day; +while the rôle of upholder of astrological fatalism (<i>Genesis</i>) is +played by Faustus, father of Clement, with whom Peter and +Clement debate at Laodicea. Finally, all this is already embedded +in a setting determined by the romance of Clement and his lost +relatives, “recognition” of whom forms the <i>dénouement</i> of +the story.</p> + +<p>There is no reason to doubt that such, roughly speaking, were +the contents of the Clementine work to which Eusebius alludes +slightingly, in connexion with that section of it which had to his +eye least verisimilitude, viz. the dialogues between Peter and +Apion. Now Eusebius believed the work to have been of quite +recent and suspicious origin. This points to a date about the +last quarter of the 3rd century; and the prevailing doctrinal +tone of the contents, as known to us, leads to the same result. +The standpoint is that of the peculiar Judaizing or Ebonite +Christianity due to persistence among Christians of the tendencies +known among pre-Christian Jews as Essene. The Essenes, +while clinging to what they held to be original Mosaism, yet +conceived and practised their ancestral faith in ways which +showed distinct traces of syncretism, or the operation of influences +foreign to Judaism proper. They thus occupied an ambiguous +position on the borders of Judaism. Similarly Christian Essenism +was syncretist in spirit, as we see from its best-known +representatives, the Elchasaites, of whom we first hear about +220, when a certain Alcibiades of Apamea in Syria (some 60 m. +south of Antioch) brought to Rome the <i>Book of Helxai</i>—the +manifesto of their distinctive message (Hippol., <i>Philos.</i> ix. 13)—and +again some twenty years later, when Origen refers to one of +their leaders as having lately arrived at Caesarea (Euseb. vi. 38). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span> +The first half of the 3rd century was marked, especially in Syria, +by a strong tendency to syncretism, which may well have +stirred certain Christian Essenes to fresh propaganda. Other +writings than the <i>Book of Helxai</i>, representing also other species +of the same genus, would take shape. Such may have been some +of the pseudo-apostolic <i>Acts</i> to which Epiphanius alludes as in +use among the Ebionites of his own day: and such was probably +the nucleus of our Clementine writings, the <i>Periodoi</i> of Peter.</p> + +<p>Harnack (<i>Chronologie</i>, ii. 522 f.), indeed, while admitting +that much (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Homilies</i>, viii. 5-7) points the other way, +prefers the view that even the <i>Circuits</i> were of Catholic origin +(Chapman, as above, says Arian, soon after 325), regarding +the syncretistic Jewish-Christian features in it as due either to +its earlier basis or to an instinct to preserve continuity of manner +(<i>e.g.</i> absence of explicit reference to Paul). Hort, on the contrary, +assumes as author “an ingenious Helxaite ... perhaps +stimulated by the example of the many Encratite <i>Periodoi</i>” +(p. 131), and writing about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200.</p> + +<p>Only it must not be thought of as properly Elchasaite, since +it knew no baptism distinct from the ordinary Christian one. +It seems rather to represent a later and modified Essene Christianity, +already half-Catholic, such as would suit a date after +250, in keeping with Eusebius’s evidence. Confirmation of such +a date is afforded by the silence of the Syrian <i>Didascalia</i>, itself +perhaps dating from about 250, as to any visit of Simon Magus +to Caesarea, in contrast to the reference in its later form, the +<i>Apostolical Constitutions</i> (c. 350-400), which is plainly coloured +(vi. 9) by the Clementine story. On the other hand, the <i>Didascalia</i> +seems to have been evoked partly by Judaizing propaganda +in north Syria. If, then, it helps to date the <i>Periodoi</i> as after +250, it may also suggest as place of origin one of the large cities +lying south of Antioch, say Laodicea (itself on the coast about +30 m. from Apamea), where the Clementine story reaches its +climax. The intimacy of local knowledge touching this region +implied in the narrative common to <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i> +is notable, and tells against an origin for the <i>Periodoi</i> outside +Syria (<i>e.g.</i> in Rome, as Waitz and Harnack hold, but Lightfoot +disproves, <i>Clem.</i> i. 55 f., 64,100, cf. Hort, p. 131). Further, +though the curtain even in it fell on Peter at Antioch itself (our +one complete MS. of the <i>Homilies</i> is proved by the <i>Epitome</i>, +based on the <i>Homilies</i>, to be here abridged), the interest of the +story culminates at Laodicea.</p> + +<p>If we assume, then, that the common source of our extant +Clementines arose in Syria, perhaps c. 265,<a name="FnAnchor_2r" id="FnAnchor_2r" href="#Footnote_2r"><span class="sp">2</span></a> had it also a written +source or sources which we can trace? Though Hort doubts it, +most recent scholars (<i>e.g.</i> Waitz, Harnack) infer the existence +of at least one source, “Preachings (<i>Kerygmata</i>) of Peter,” +containing no reference at all to Clement. Such a work seems +implied by the epistle of Peter to James and its appended +adjuration, prefixed in our MSS. to the <i>Homilies</i> along with the +epistle of Clement to James. Thus the later work aimed at +superseding the earlier, much as Photius suggests (see above). +It was, then, to these “Preachings of Peter” that the most +Ebionite features, and especially the anti-Pauline allusions +under the guise of Simon still inhering in the <i>Periodoi</i> (as implied +by <i>Homilies</i> in particular), originally belonged. The fact, +however, that these were not more completely suppressed in +the later work, proves that it, too, arose in circles of kindred, +though largely modified, Judaeo-Christian sentiment (cf. +<i>Homilies</i>, vii., <i>e.g.</i> ch. 8). The differences of standpoint may be +due not only to lapse of time, and the emergence of new problems +on the horizon of Syrian Christianity generally, but also to change +in locality and in the degree of Greek culture represented by the +two works. A probable date for the “Preachings” used in the +<i>Periodoi</i> is c. 200.<a name="FnAnchor_3r" id="FnAnchor_3r" href="#Footnote_3r"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p> + +<p>If the home of the <i>Periodoi</i> was the region of the Syrian +Laodicea, we can readily explain most of its characteristics. +Photius refers to the “excellences of its language and its learning”; +while Waitz describes the aim and spirit of its contents +as those of an apology for Christianity against heresy and +paganism, in the widest sense of the word, written in order to +win over both Jews (cf. <i>Recognitions</i>, i. 53-70) and pagans, but +mainly the latter. In particular it had in view persons of +culture, as most apt to be swayed by the philosophical tendencies +in the sphere of religion prevalent in that age, the age of neo-Platonism. +It was in fact designed for propaganda among +religious seekers in a time of singular religious restlessness and +varied inquiry, and, above all, for use by catechumens (cf. <i>Ep. +Clem.</i> 2, 13) in the earlier stages of their preparation for Christian +baptism. To such its romantic setting would be specially +adapted, as falling in with the literary habits and tastes of the +period; while its doctrinal peculiarities would least give offence +in a work of the aim and character just described.</p> + +<p>As regards the sources to the narrative part of the <i>Periodoi</i>, +it is possible that the “recognition” <i>motif</i> was a literary commonplace. +The account of Peter’s journeyings was no doubt based +largely on local Syrian tradition, perhaps as already embodied +in written <i>Acts of Peter</i> (so Waitz and Harnack), but differing +from the Western type, <i>e.g.</i> in bringing Peter to Rome long +before Nero’s reign. As for the allusions, more or less indirect, +to St Paul behind the figure of Simon, as the arch-enemy of the +truth—allusions which first directed attention to the Clementines +in the last century—there can be no doubt as to their presence, +but only as to their origin and the degree to which they are so +meant in <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>. There is certainly “an +application to Simon of words used by or of St Paul, or of claims +made by or in behalf of St Paul” (Hort), especially in <i>Homilies</i> +(ii. 17 f., xi. 35, xvii. 19), where a consciousness also of the +double reference must still be present, though this does not seem +to be the case in <i>Recognitions</i> (in Rufinus’s Latin.) Such covert +reference to Paul must designedly have formed part of the +<i>Periodoi</i>, yet as adopted from its more bitterly anti-Pauline +basis, the “Preachings of Peter” (cf. <i>Homilies</i>, ii. 17 f. with <i>Ep. +Pet. ad Jac. 2</i>), which probably shared most of the features of +Ebionite Essenism as described by Epiphanius xxx. 15 f. (including +the qualified dualism of the two kingdoms—the present +one of the devil, and the future one of the angelic Christ—which +appears also in the <i>Periodoi</i>, cf. <i>Ep. Clem. ad Jac. 1 fin.</i>).</p> + +<p>(b) That the <i>Periodoi</i> was a longer work than either our +<i>Homilies</i> or <i>Recognitions</i> is practically certain; and its mere +bulk may well, as Hort suggests (p. 88), have been a chief cause +of the changes of form. Yet <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i> are +abridgments made on different principles and convey rather +different impressions to their readers. “The <i>Homilies</i> care most +for doctrine,” especially philosophical doctrine, “and seem to +transpose very freely for doctrinal purposes” (<i>e.g.</i> matter in +xvi.-xix. is placed at the end for effect, while xx. 1-10 gives +additional emphasis to the <i>Homilies</i>’ theory of evil, perhaps over +against Manichaeism). “The <i>Recognitions</i> care most for the +story,” as a means of religious edification, “and have preserved +the general framework much more nearly.” They arose in +different circles: indeed, save the compiler of the text represented +by the Syriac MS. of 411 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, “not a single ancient +writer shows a knowledge of both books in any form.” But Hort +is hardly right in suggesting that, while <i>Homilies</i> arose in Syria, +<i>Recognitions</i> took shape in Rome. Both probably arose in +Syria (so Lightfoot), but in circles varying a good deal in religious +standpoint.<a name="FnAnchor_4r" id="FnAnchor_4r" href="#Footnote_4r"><span class="sp">4</span></a> <i>Homilies</i> was a sort of second edition, made largely +in the spirit of its original and perhaps in much the same locality, +with a view to maintaining and propagating the doctrines of a +semi-Judaic Christianity (cf. bk. vii.), as it existed a generation +or two after the <i>Periodoi</i> appeared. The <i>Recognitions</i>, in both +recensions, as is shown by the fact that it was read in the original +with general admiration not only by Rufinus but also by others +in the West, was more Catholic in tone and aimed chiefly at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span> +commending the Christian religion over against all non-Christian +rivals or gnostic perversions. That is, more than one effort of +this sort had been made to adapt the story of Clement’s <i>Recognitions</i> +to general Christian use. Later the <i>Homilies</i> underwent +further adaptation to Catholic feeling even before the <i>Epitome</i>, +in its two extant forms, was made by more drastic methods of +expurgation. One kind of adaptation at least is proved to have +existed before the end of the 4th century, namely a selection of +certain discourses from the <i>Homilies</i> under special headings, +following on <i>Recognitions</i>, i.-iii., as seen in a Syriac MS. of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 411. +As this MS. contains transcriptional errors, and as its archetype +had perhaps a Greek basis, the <i>Recognitions</i> may be dated +c. 350-375<a name="FnAnchor_5r" id="FnAnchor_5r" href="#Footnote_5r"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (its Christology suggested to Rufinus an Arianism +like that of Eunomius of Cyzicus, c. 362), and the <i>Homilies</i> prior +even to 350. But the different circles represented by the two +make relative dating precarious.</p> + +<p><i>Summary.</i>—The Clementine literature throws light upon a +very obscure phase of Christian development, that of +Judaeo-Christianity, and proves that it embraced more intermediate +types, between Ebionism proper and Catholicism, than has +generally been realized. Incidentally, too, its successive forms +illustrate many matters of belief and usage among Syrian +Christians generally in the 3rd and 4th centuries, notably their +apologetic and catechetical needs and methods. Further, it +discusses, as Hort observes, certain indestructible problems which +much early Christian theology passes by or deals with rather +perfunctorily; and it does so with a freshness and reality which, +as we compare the original 3rd-century basis with the conventional +manner of the <i>Epitome</i>, we see to be not unconnected with +origin in an age as yet free from the trammels of formal orthodoxy. +Again it is a notable specimen of early Christian pseudepigraphy, +and one which had manifold and far-reaching results. +Finally the romance to which it owed much of its popular appeal, +became, through the medium of Rufinus’s Latin, the parent +of the late medieval legend of Faust, and so the ancestor of a +famous type in modern literature.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—For a full list of this down to 1904 see Hans Waitz, +“Die Pseudoklementinen” (<i>Texte u. Untersuchungen zur Gesch. +der altchr. Literatur, neue Folge</i>, Bd. x. Heft 4), and A. Harnack, +<i>Chronologie der altchr. Litteratur</i> (1904), ii. 518 f. In English, besides +Hort’s work, there are articles by G. Salmon, in <i>Dict. of Christ. Biog.</i>, +C. Bigg, <i>Studia Biblica</i>, ii., A.C. Headlam, <i>Journal of Theol. +Studies</i>, iii.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1r" id="Footnote_1r" href="#FnAnchor_1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Dr Armitage Robinson, in his edition of the <i>Philocalia</i> (extracts +made c. 358 by Basil and Gregory from Origen’s writings), proved +that the passage cited below is simply introduced as a parallel to an +extract of Origen’s; while Dom Chapman, in the <i>Journal of Theol. +Studies</i>, iii. 436 ff., made it probable that the passages in Origen’s +<i>Comm. on Matthew</i> akin to those in the <i>Opus Imperf. in Matth.</i> are +insertions in the former, which is extant only in a Latin version. +Subsequently he suggested (<i>Zeitsch. f. N.T. Wissenschaft</i>, ix. 33 f.) +that the passage in the <i>Philocalia</i> is due not to its authors but to an +early editor, since it is the only citation not referred to Origen.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_2r" id="Footnote_2r" href="#FnAnchor_2r"><span class="fn">2</span></a> While Hort and Waitz say c. 200, Harnack says c. 260. The +reign of Gallienus (260-268) would suit the tone of its references to +the Roman emperor (Waitz, p. 74), and also any polemic against +the Neoplatonic philosophy of revelation by visions and dreams +which it may contain.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_3r" id="Footnote_3r" href="#FnAnchor_3r"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Even Waitz agrees to this, though he argues back to a yet earlier +anti-Pauline (rather than anti-Marcionite) form, composed in +Caesarea, c. 135.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_4r" id="Footnote_4r" href="#FnAnchor_4r"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Dom Chapman maintains that the <i>Recognitions</i> (c. 370-390,) even +attack the doctrine of God in the <i>Homilies</i> or their archetype.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_5r" id="Footnote_5r" href="#FnAnchor_5r"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Dom Chapman (ut supra, p. 158) says during the Neoplatonist +reaction under Julian 361-363, to which period he also assigns the +<i>Homilies</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEOBULUS<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span>, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, a native and +tyrant of Lindus in Rhodes. He was distinguished for his strength +and his handsome person, for the wisdom of his sayings, the +acuteness of his riddles and the beauty of his lyric poetry. +Diogenes Laërtius quotes a letter in which Cleobulus invites +Solon to take refuge with him against Peisistratus; and this +would imply that he was alive in 560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is said to have held +advanced views as to female education, and he was the father +of the wise Cleobuline, whose riddles were not less famous than +his own (Diogenes Laërtius i. 89-93).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F.G. Mullach, <i>Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum</i>, i.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEOMENES<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Kleomenês">Κλεομένης</span>), the name of three Spartan kings +of the Agiad line.</p> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Cleomenes</span> I. was the son of Anaxandridas, whom he succeeded +about 520 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His chief exploit was his crushing victory +near Tiryns over the Argives, some 6000 of whom he burned +to death in a sacred grove to which they had fled for refuge +(Herodotus vi. 76-82). This secured for Sparta the undisputed +hegemony of the Peloponnese. Cleomenes’ interposition in +the politics of central Greece was less successful. In 510 he +marched to Athens with a Spartan force to aid in expelling the +Peisistratidae, and subsequently returned to support the oligarchical +party, led by Isagoras, against Cleisthenes (<i>q.v.</i>). He +expelled seven hundred families and transferred the government +from the council to three hundred of the oligarchs, but being +blockaded in the Acropolis he was forced to capitulate. On his +return home he collected a large force with the intention of +making Isagoras despot of Athens, but the opposition of the +Corinthian allies and of his colleague Demaratus caused the +expedition to break up after reaching Eleusis (Herod. v. 64-76; +Aristotle, <i>Ath. Pol.</i> 19, 20). In 491 he went to Aegina to punish +the island for its submission to Darius, but the intrigues of his +colleague once again rendered his mission abortive. In revenge +Cleomenes accused Demaratus of illegitimacy and secured his +deposition in favour of Leotychides (Herod. vi. 50-73). But when +it was discovered that he had bribed the Delphian priestess to +substantiate his charge he was himself obliged to flee; he went +first to Thessaly and then to Arcadia, where he attempted to +foment an anti-Spartan rising. About 488 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was recalled, +but shortly afterwards, in a fit of madness, he committed suicide +(Herod. vi. 74, 75). Cleomenes seems to have received scant +justice at the hands of Herodotus or his informants, and Pausanias +(iii. 3, 4) does little more than condense Herodotus’s narrative. +In spite of some failures, largely due to Demaratus’s jealousy, +Cleomenes strengthened Sparta in the position, won during his +father’s reign, of champion and leader of the Hellenic race; it +was to him, for example, that the Ionian cities of Asia Minor first +applied for aid in their revolt against Persia (Herod. v. 49-51).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the chronology see J. Wells, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i> (1905), +p. 193 ff., who assigns the Argive expedition to the outset of the +reign, whereas nearly all historians have dated it in or about 495 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Cleomenes</span> II. was the son of Cleombrotus I., brother and +successor of Agesipolis II. Nothing is recorded of his reign save +the fact that it lasted for nearly sixty-one years (370-309 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p> + +<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Cleomenes</span> III., the son and successor of Leonidas II., reigned +about 235-219 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He made a determined attempt to reform +the social condition of Sparta along the lines laid down by Agis +IV., whose widow Agiatis he married; at the same time he +aimed at restoring Sparta’s hegemony in the Peloponnese. +After twice defeating the forces of the Achaean League in Arcadia, +near Mount Lycaeum and at Leuctra, he strengthened his position +by assassinating four of the ephors, abolishing the ephorate, +which had usurped the supreme power, and banishing some +eighty of the leading oligarchs. The authority of the council +was also curtailed, and a new board of magistrates, the <i>patronomi</i>, +became the chief officers of state. He appointed his own brother +Eucleidas as his colleague in succession to the Eurypontid +Archidamus, who had been murdered. His social reforms +included a redistribution of land, the remission of debts, the +restoration of the old system of training (<span class="grk" title="agôgê">ἀγωγή</span>) and the admission +of picked perioeci into the citizen body. As a general Cleomenes +did much to revive Sparta’s old prestige. He defeated the +Achaeans at Dyme, made himself master of Argos, and was +eventually joined by Corinth, Phlius, Epidaurus and other +cities. But Aratus, whose jealousy could not brook to see a +Spartan at the head of the Achaean league called in Antigonus +Doson of Macedonia, and Cleomenes, after conducting successful +expeditions to Megalopolis and Argos, was finally defeated at +Sellasia, to the north of Sparta, in 222 or 221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He took +refuge at Alexandria with Ptolemy Euergetes, but was arrested +by his successor, Ptolemy Philopator, on a charge of conspiracy. +Escaping from prison he tried to raise a revolt, but the attempt +failed and to avoid capture he put an end to his life. Both as +general and as politician Cleomenes was one of Sparta’s greatest +men, and with him perished her last hope of recovering her +ancient supremacy in Greece.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Polybius ii. 45-70, v. 35-39, viii. 1; Plutarch, <i>Cleomenes; +Aratus</i>, 35-46; <i>Philopoemen</i>, 5, 6; Pausanias ii. 9; Gehlert, <i>De +Cleomene</i> (Leipzig, 1883); Holm, <i>History of Greece</i>, iv. cc. 10, 15.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEON<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (d. 422 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Athenian politician during the Peloponnesian +War, was the son of Cleaenetus, from whom he inherited a +lucrative tannery business. He was the first prominent representative +of the commercial class in Athenian politics. He came +into notice first as an opponent of Pericles, to whom his advanced +ideas were naturally unacceptable, and in his opposition +somewhat curiously found himself acting in concert with the +aristocrats, who equally hated and feared Pericles. During the +dark days of 430, after the unsuccessful expedition of Pericles to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span> +Peloponnesus, and when the city was devastated by the plague, +Cleon headed the opposition to the Periclean régime. Pericles +was accused by Cleon of maladministration of public money, with +the result that he was actually found guilty (see Grote’s <i>Hist. of +Greece</i>, abridged ed., 1907, p. 406, note 1). A revulsion of feeling, +however, soon took place. Pericles was reinstated, and Cleon now +for a time fell into the background. The death of Pericles (429) +left the field clear for him. Hitherto he had only been a vigorous +opposition speaker, a trenchant critic and accuser of state +officials. He now came forward as the professed champion and +leader of the democracy, and, owing to the moderate abilities of +his rivals and opponents, he was for some years undoubtedly the +foremost man in Athens. Although rough and unpolished, he was +gifted with natural eloquence and a powerful voice, and knew +exactly how to work upon the feelings of the people. He +strengthened his hold on the poorer classes by his measure for +trebling the pay of the jurymen, which provided the poorer +Athenians with an easy means of livelihood. The notorious +fondness of the Athenians for litigation increased his power; and +the practice of “sycophancy” (raking up material for false +charges; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sycophant</a></span>), enabled him to remove those who were +likely to endanger his ascendancy. Having no further use for his +former aristocratic associates, he broke off all connexion with +them, and thus felt at liberty to attack the secret combinations +for political purposes, the oligarchical clubs to which they mostly +belonged. Whether he also introduced a property-tax for +military purposes, and even held a high position in connexion +with the treasury, is uncertain. His ruling principles were an +inveterate hatred of the nobility, and an equal hatred of Sparta. +It was mainly through him that the opportunity of concluding an +honourable peace (in 425) was lost, and in his determination to see +Sparta humbled he misled the people as to the extent of the +resources of the state, and dazzled them by promises of future +benefits.</p> + +<p>In 427 Cleon gained an evil notoriety by his proposal to put to +death indiscriminately all the inhabitants of Mytilene, which had +put itself at the head of a revolt. His proposal, though accepted, +was, fortunately for the credit of Athens, rescinded, although, as it +was, the chief leaders and prominent men, numbering about 1000, +fell victims. In 425, he reached the summit of his fame by +capturing and transporting to Athens the Spartans who had been +blockaded in Sphacteria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pylos</a></span>). Much of the credit was +probably due to the military skill of his colleague Demosthenes; +but it must be admitted that it was due to Cleon’s determination +that the Ecclesia sent out the additional force which was needed. +It was almost certainly due to Cleon that the tribute of the +“allies” was doubled in 425 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>). In 422 he +was sent to recapture Amphipolis, but was outgeneralled by +Brasidas and killed. His death removed the chief obstacle to an +arrangement with Sparta, and in 421 the peace of Nicias was +concluded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peloponnesian War</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The character of Cleon is represented by Aristophanes and +Thucydides in an extremely unfavourable light. But neither can +be considered an unprejudiced witness. The poet had a grudge +against Cleon, who had accused him before the senate of having +ridiculed (in his <i>Babylonians</i>) the policy and institutions of his +country in the presence of foreigners and at the time of a great +national war. Thucydides, a man of strong oligarchical prejudices, +had also been prosecuted for military incapacity and +exiled by a decree proposed by Cleon. It is therefore likely that +Cleon has had less than justice done to him in the portraits +handed down by these two writers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—For the literature on Cleon see C.F. Hermann, +<i>Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten</i>, i. pt. 2 (6th ed. by V. Thumser, +1892), p. 709, and G. Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, iii. pt. 2 (1904), +p. 988, note 3. The following are the chief authorities:—(a) +<i>Favourable to Cleon</i>.—C.F. Ranke, <i>Commentatio de Vita Aristophanis</i> +(Leipzig, 1845); J.G. Droysen, <i>Aristophanes</i>, ii., introd. to +the <i>Knights</i> (Berlin, 1837); G. Grote, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, chs. 50, 54; +W. Oncken, <i>Athen und Hellas</i>, ii. p. 204 (Leipzig, 1866); H. Müller-Strübing, +<i>Aristophanes und die historische Kritik</i> (Leipzig, 1873); +J.B. Bury, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, i. (1902). (b) <i>Unfavourable</i>.—J.F. Kortüm, +<i>Geschichtliche Forschungen</i> (Leipzig, 1863), and <i>Zur Geschichte +hellenischen Staatsverfassungen</i> (Heidelberg, 1821); F. Passow, +<i>Vermischte Schriften</i> (Leipzig, 1843); C. Thirlwall, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, +ch. 21; E. Curtius, <i>Hist. of Greece</i> (Eng. tr.) iii. p. 112; J. Schvarcz, +<i>Die Demokratie</i> (Leipzig, 1882); H. Delbrück, <i>Die Strategie des +Perikles</i> (Berlin, 1890); E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen zur alten Geschichte</i>, +ii. p. 333 (Halle, 1899). The balance between the two extreme views +is fairly held by J. Beloch, <i>Die attische Politik seit Perikles</i> (Leipzig, +1884), and <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i. p. 537; and by A. Holm, <i>Hist. +of Greece</i>, ii. (Eng. tr.), ch. 23, with the notes.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEOPATRA<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span>, the regular name of the queens of Egypt in the +Ptolemaic dynasty after Cleopatra, daughter of the Seleucid +Antiochus the Great, wife of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. The best +known was the daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, born 69 (or +68) <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At the age of seventeen she became queen of Egypt +jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy Dionysus, whose wife, +in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few +years afterwards, deprived of all royal authority, she withdrew +into Syria, and made preparation to recover her rights by force of +arms. At this juncture Julius Caesar followed Pompey into +Egypt. The personal fascinations of Cleopatra induced him to +undertake a war on her behalf, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and +she was replaced on the throne in conjunction with a younger +brother, of whom, however, she soon rid herself by poison. In +Rome she lived openly with Caesar as his mistress until his +assassination, when, aware of her unpopularity, she returned at +once to Egypt. Subsequently she became the ally and mistress of +Mark Antony (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antonius</a></span>). Their connexion was highly +unpopular at Rome, and Octavian (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustus</a></span>) declared war +upon them and defeated them at Actium (31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Cleopatra +took to flight, and escaped to Alexandria, where Antony joined +her. Having no prospect of ultimate success, she accepted the +proposal of Octavian that she should assassinate Antony, and +enticed him to join her in a mausoleum which she had built in +order that “they might die together.” Antony committed +suicide, in the mistaken belief that she had already done so, but +Octavian refused to yield to the charms of Cleopatra who put an +end to her life, by applying an asp to her bosom, according to the +common tradition, in the thirty-ninth year of her age (29th of +August, 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). With her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies, +and Egypt was made a Roman province. Cleopatra had three +children by Antony, and by Julius Caesar, as some say, a son, +called Caesarion, who was put to death by Octavian. In her the +type of queen characteristic of the Macedonian dynasties stands +in the most brilliant light. Imperious will, masculine boldness, +relentless ambition like hers had been exhibited by queens of her +race since the old Macedonian days before Philip and Alexander. +But the last Cleopatra had perhaps some special intellectual +endowment. She surprised her generation by being able to +speak the many tongues of her subjects. There may have been +an individual quality in her luxurious profligacy, but then her +predecessors had not had the Roman lords of the world for +wooers.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the history of Cleopatra see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antonius, Marcus</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caesar, +Gaius Julius</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemies</a></span>. The life of Antony by Plutarch is our +main authority; it is upon this that Shakespeare’s <i>Antony and +Cleopatra</i> is based. Her life is the subject of monographs by Stahr +(1879, an <i>apologia</i>), and Houssaye, <i>Aspasie, Cléopâtre</i>, &c. (1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLEPSYDRA<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="klheptein">κλἐπτειν</span>, to steal, and <span class="grk" title="hudôr">ὕδωρ</span>, water), +the chronometer of the Greeks and Romans, which measured time +by the flow of water. In its simplest form it was a short-necked +earthenware globe of known capacity, pierced at the bottom with +several small holes, through which the water escaped or “stole +away.” The instrument was employed to set a limit to the +speeches in courts of justice, hence the phrases <i>aquam dare</i>, to give +the advocate speaking time, and <i>aquam perdere</i>, to waste time. +Smaller clepsydrae of glass were very early used in place of the +sun-dial, to mark the hours. But as the length of the hour varied +according to the season of the year, various arrangements, of +which we have no clear account, were necessary to obviate this +and other defects. For instance, the flow of water varied with the +temperature and pressure of the air, and secondly, the rate of flow +became less as the vessel emptied itself. The latter defect was +remedied by keeping the level of the water in the clepsydra +uniform, the volume of that discharged being noted. Plato is +said to have invented a complicated clepsydra to indicate the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span> +hours of the night as well as of the day. In the clepsydra or +hydraulic clock of Ctesibius of Alexandria, made about 135 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, +the movement of water-wheels caused the gradual rise of a little +figure, which pointed out the hours with a little stick on an index +attached to the machine. The clepsydra is said to have been +known to the Egyptians. There was one in the Tower of the +Winds at Athens; and the turret on the south side of the tower is +supposed to have contained the cistern which supplied the water.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Marquardt, <i>Das Privatleben der Römer</i>, i. (2nd ed., 1886), +p. 792; G. Bilfinger, <i>Die Zeitmesser der antiken Völker</i> (1886), and +<i>Die antiken Stundenangaben</i> (1888).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERESTORY<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clearstory</span> (Ital. <i>chiaro piano</i>, Fr. <i>clairevoie</i>, +<i>claire étage</i>, Ger. <i>Lichtgaden</i>), in architecture, the upper +storey of the nave of a church, the walls of which rise above the +aisles and are pierced with windows (“clere” being simply +“clear,” in the sense of “lighted”). Sometimes these windows +are very small, being mere quatrefoils or spherical triangles. +In large buildings, however, they are important objects, both +for beauty and utility. The windows of the clerestories +of Norman work, even in large churches, are of less importance +than in the later styles. In Early English they became +larger; and in the Decorated they are more important still, +being lengthened as the triforium diminishes. In Perpendicular +work the latter often disappears altogether, and in many +later churches, as at Taunton, and many churches in Norfolk +and Suffolk, the clerestories are close ranges of windows. The +term is equally applicable to the Egyptian temples, where +the lighting of the hall of columns was obtained over the stone +roofs of the adjoining aisles, through slits pierced in vertical +slabs of stone. The Romans also in their baths and palaces +employed the same method, and probably derived it from the +Greeks; in the palaces at Crete, however, light-wells would +seem to have been employed.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERFAYT<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Clairfayt</span>), <span class="bold">FRANÇOIS SEBASTIEN CHARLES +JOSEPH DE CROIX</span>, <span class="sc">Count of</span> (1733-1798), Austrian field +marshal, entered the Austrian army in 1753. In the Seven +Years’ War he greatly distinguished himself, earning rapid +promotion, and receiving the decoration of the order of Maria +Theresa. At the conclusion of the peace, though still under +thirty, he was already a colonel. During the outbreak of the +Netherlands in 1787, he was, as a Walloon by birth, subjected +to great pressure to induce him to abandon Joseph II., but he +resisted all overtures, and in the following year went to the +Turkish war in the rank of lieutenant field marshal. In an +independent command Clerfayt achieved great success, defeating +the Turks at Mehadia and Calafat. In 1792, as one of the most +distinguished of the emperor’s generals, he received the command +of the Austrian contingent in the duke of Brunswick’s army, +and at Croix-sous-Bois his corps inflicted a reverse on the troops +of the French revolution. In the Netherlands, to which quarter +he was transferred after Jemappes, he opened the campaign +of 1793 with the victory of Aldenhoven and the relief of Maestricht, +and on March 18th mainly brought about the complete +defeat of Dumouriez at Neerwinden. Later in the year, however, +his victorious career was checked by the reverse at Wattignies, +and in 1794 he was unsuccessful in West Flanders against +Pichegru. In the course of the campaign Clerfayt succeeded +the duke of Saxe-Coburg in the supreme command, but was +quite unable to make head against the French, and had to recross +the Rhine. In 1795, now field marshal, he commanded on the +middle Rhine against Jourdan, and this time the fortune of war +changed. Jourdan was beaten at Höchst and Mainz brilliantly +relieved. But the field marshal’s action in concluding an +armistice with the French not being approved by Thugut, he +resigned the command, and became a member of the Aulic +Council in Vienna. He died in 1798. A brave and skilful +soldier, Clerfayt perhaps achieved more than any other Austrian +commander (except the archduke Charles) in the hopeless +struggle of small dynastic armies against a “nation in arms.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See von Vivenot, <i>Thugut, Clerfayt, und Würmser</i> (Vienna, 1869).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERGY<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (M.E. <i>clergie</i>, O. Fr. <i>clergie</i>, from Low Lat. form +<i>clericia</i> [Skeat], by assimilation with O. Fr. <i>clergié</i>, Fr. <i>clergé</i>, +from Low Lat. <i>clericatus</i>), a collective term signifying in English +strictly the body of “clerks,” <i>i.e.</i> men in holy orders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clerk</a></span>). +The word has, however, undergone sundry modifications of +meaning. Its M.E. senses of “clerkship” and “learning” +have long since fallen obsolete. On the other hand, in modern +times there has been an increasing tendency to depart from its +strict application to technical “clerks,” and to widen it out so as +to embrace all varieties of ordained Christian ministers. While, +however, it is now not unusual to speak of “the Nonconformist +clergy,” the word “clergyman” is still, at least in the United +Kingdom, used of the clergy of the Established Church in contradistinction +to “minister.” As applied to the Roman Catholic +Church the word embraces the whole hierarchy, whether its +<i>clerici</i> be in holy orders or merely in minor orders. The term +has also been sometimes loosely used to include the members of +the regular orders; but this use is improper, since monks and +friars, as such, have at no time been <i>clerici</i>. The use of the word +“clergy” as a plural, though the <i>New English Dictionary</i> quotes +the high authority of Cardinal Newman for it, is less rare than +wrong; in the case cited “Some hundred Clergy” should have +been “Some hundred of the Clergy.”</p> + +<p>In distinction to the “clergy” we find the “laity” (Gr. <span class="grk" title="laos">λάος</span>, +people), the great body of “faithful people” which, in nearly +every various conception of the Christian Church, stands in +relation to the clergy as a flock of sheep to its pastor. This +distinction was of early growth, and developed, with the increasing +power of the hierarchy, during the middle ages into a very +lively opposition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order, Holy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Church History</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Papacy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Investitures</a></span>). The extreme claim of the great +medieval popes, that the priest, as “ruler over spiritual things,” +was as much superior to temporal rulers as the soul is to the +body (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Innocent III.</a></span>), led logically to the vast privileges +and immunities enjoyed by the clergy during the middle ages. +In those countries where the Reformation triumphed, this +triumph represented the victory of the civil over the clerical +powers in the long contest. The victory was, however, by no +means complete. The Presbyterian model was, for instance, +as sacerdotal in its essence as the Catholic; Milton complained +with justice that “new presbyter is but old priest writ large,” +and declared that “the Title of Clergy St Peter gave to all God’s +people,” its later restriction being a papal and prelatical usurpation +(<i>i.e.</i> i Peter v. 3, for <span class="grk" title="klêros">κλῆρος</span> and <span class="grk" title="klêron">κλήρων</span>).</p> + +<p>Clerical immunities, of course, differed largely at different +times and in different countries, the extent of them having been +gradually curtailed from a period a little earlier than the close +of the middle ages. They consisted mainly in exemption from +public burdens, both as regarded person and pocket, and in +immunity from lay jurisdiction. This last enormous privilege, +which became one of the main and most efficient instruments +of the subjection of Europe to clerical tyranny, extended to +matters both civil and criminal; though, as Bingham shows, +it did not (always and everywhere) prevail in cases of heinous +crime (<i>Origines Eccles.</i> bk. v.).</p> + +<p>This diversity of jurisdiction, and subjection of the clergy +only to the sentences of judges bribed by their <i>esprit de corps</i> +to judge leniently, led to the adoption of a scale of punishments +for the offences of clerks avowedly much lighter than that which +was inflicted for the same crimes on laymen; and this in turn +led to the survival in England, long after the Reformation, of +the curious legal fiction of benefit of clergy (see below), used to +mitigate the extreme harshness of the criminal law.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERGY, BENEFIT OF<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span>, an obsolete but once very important +feature in English criminal law. Benefit of clergy began with +the claim on the part of the ecclesiastical authorities in the +12th century that every <i>clericus</i> should be exempt from the +jurisdiction of the temporal courts and be subject to the spiritual +courts alone. The issue of the conflict was that the common +law courts abandoned the extreme punishment of death assigned +to some offences when the person convicted was a <i>clericus</i>, and +the church was obliged to accept the compromise and let a +secondary punishment be inflicted. The term “clerk” or +<i>clericus</i> always included a large number of persons in what +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span> +were called minor orders, and in 1350 the privilege was extended +to secular as well as to religious clerks; and, finally, the test +of being a clerk was the ability to read the opening words of +verse 1 of Psalm li., hence generally known as the “neck-verse.” +Even this requirement was abolished in 1705. In 1487 it +was enacted that every layman, when convicted of a clergyable +felony, should be branded on the thumb, and disabled from +claiming the benefit a second time. The privilege was extended +to peers, even if they could not read, in 1547, and to women, +partially in 1622 and fully in 1692. The partial exemption +claimed by the Church did not apply to the more atrocious +crimes, and hence offences came to be divided into clergyable +and unclergyable. According to the common practice in England +of working out modern improvements through antiquated +forms, this exemption was made the means of modifying the +severity of the criminal law. It became the practice to claim +and be allowed the benefit of clergy; and when it was the +intention by statute to make a crime really punishable with +death, it was awarded “without benefit of clergy.” The benefit +of clergy was abolished by a statute of 1827, but as this statute +did not repeal that of 1547, under which peers were given the +privilege, a further statute was passed in 1841 putting peers on +the same footing as commons and clergy.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For a full account of benefit of clergy see Pollock and Maitland, +<i>History of English Law</i>, vol. i. 424-440; also Stephen, <i>History of the +Criminal Law of England</i>, vol. i.; E. Friedberg, <i>Corpus juris canonici</i> +(Leipzig, 1879-1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERGY RESERVES<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span>, in Canada. By the act of 1791, +establishing the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, the +British government set apart one-eighth of all the crown lands +for the support of “a Protestant clergy.” These reservations, +after being for many years a stumbling-block to the economic +development of the province, and the cause of much bitter +political and ecclesiastical controversy, were secularized by the +Canadian parliament in 1854, and the proceeds applied to other +purposes, chiefly educational. Owing to the wording of the +imperial act, the amount set apart is often stated as one-seventh, +and was sometimes claimed as such by the clergy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERK<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span><a name="FnAnchor_1s" id="FnAnchor_1s" href="#Footnote_1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (from A.S. <i>cleric</i> or <i>clerc</i>, which, with the similar +Fr. form, comes direct from the Lat. <i>clericus</i>), in its original +sense, as used in the civil law, one who had taken religious +orders of whatever rank, whether “holy” or “minor.” The +word <i>clericus</i> is derived from the Greek <span class="grk" title="klêrikos">κληρικός</span>, “of or pertaining +to an inheritance,” from <span class="grk" title="koêros">κλῆρος</span>, “lot,” “allotment,” “estate,” +“inheritance”; but the authorities are by no means agreed +in which sense the root is connected with the sense of the derivative, +some conceiving that the original idea was that the clergy +received the service of God as their lot or portion; others that +they were the portion of the Lord; while others again, with +more reason as Bingham (<i>Orig. Eccl.</i> lib. i. cap. 5, sec. 9) seems +to think, maintain that the word has reference to the choosing +by lot, as in early ages was the case of those to whom public +offices were to be entrusted.</p> + +<p>In the primitive times of the church the term canon was +used as synonymous with clerk, from the names of all the persons +in the service of any church having been inscribed on a roll, or +<span class="grk" title="kanon">κανών</span>, whence they were termed <i>canonici</i>, a fact which shows +that the practice of the Roman Catholic Church of including +all persons of all ranks in the service of the church, ordained +or unordained, in the term clerks, or clergy, is at least in conformity +with the practice of antiquity. Thus, too, in English +ecclesiastical law, a clerk was any one who had been admitted +to the ecclesiastical state, and had taken the tonsure. The +application of the word in this sense gradually underwent a +change, and “clerk” became more especially the term applied +to those in minor orders, while those in “major” or “holy” +orders were designated in full “clerks in holy orders,” which in +English law still remains the designation of clergymen of the +Established Church. After the Reformation the word “clerk” +was still further extended to include laymen who performed +duties in cathedrals, churches, &c., <i>e.g.</i> the choirmen, who were +designated “lay clerks.” Of these lay clerks or choirmen +there was always one whose duty it was to be constantly present +at every service, to sing or say the responses as the leader or +representative of the laity. His duties were gradually enlarged +to include the care of the church and precincts, assisting at +baptisms, marriages, &c., and he thus became the precursor of +the later <i>parish clerk</i>. In a somewhat similar sense we find +<i>bible clerk, singing clerk</i>, &c. The use of the word “clerk” +to denote a person ordained to the ministry is now mainly +legal or formal.</p> + +<p>The word also developed in a different sense. In medieval +times the pursuit of letters and general learning was confined +to the clergy, and as they were practically the only persons who +could read and write all notarial and secretarial work was +discharged by them, so that in time the word was used with +special reference to secretaries, notaries, accountants or even +mere penmen. This special meaning developed into what is +now one of the ordinary senses of the word. We find, accordingly, +the term applied to those officers of courts, corporations, &c., +whose duty consists in keeping records, correspondence, and +generally managing business, as <i>clerk of the market, clerk of the +petty bag, clerk of the peace, town clerk</i>, &c. Similarly, a clerk +also means any one who in a subordinate position is engaged +in writing, making entries, ordinary correspondence, or similar +“clerkly” work. In the United States the word means also +an assistant in a commercial house, a retail salesman.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1s" id="Footnote_1s" href="#FnAnchor_1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The accepted English pronunciation, “clark,” is found in +southern English as early as the 15th century; but northern dialects +still preserve the e sound (“clurk”), which is the common pronunciation +in America.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERKE, AGNES MARY<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1842-1907), English astronomer +and scientific writer, was born on the 10th of February 1842, +and died in London on the 20th of January 1907. She wrote +extensively on various scientific subjects, but devoted herself +more especially to astronomy. Though not a practical astronomer +in the ordinary sense, she possessed remarkable skill in +collating, interpreting and summarizing the results of astronomical +research, and as a historian her work has an important +place in scientific literature. Her chief works were <i>A Popular +History of Astronomy during the 19th Century</i>, first edition 1885, +fourth 1902; <i>The System of the Stars</i>, first edition 1890, second +1905; and <i>Problems in Astrophysics</i>, 1903. In addition she +wrote <i>Familiar Studies in Homer</i> (1892), <i>The Herschels and +Modern Astronomy</i> (1895), <i>Modern Cosmogonies</i> (1906), and +many valuable articles, such as her contributions to the <i>Encyclopaedia +Britannica</i>. In 1903 she was elected an honorary +member of the Royal Astronomical Society.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERKENWELL<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span>, a district on the north side of the city of +London, England, within the metropolitan borough of Finsbury +(<i>q.v.</i>). It is so called from one of several wells or springs in this +district, near which miracle plays were performed by the parish +clerks of London. This well existed until the middle of the 19th +century. Here was situated a priory, founded in 1100, which +grew to great wealth and fame as the principal institution in +England of the Knights Hospitallers of the Order of St John of +Jerusalem. Its gateway, erected in 1504, and remaining in St +John’s Square, served various purposes after the suppression of +the monasteries, being, for example, the birthplace of the +<i>Gentleman’s Magazine</i> in 1731, and the scene of Dr Johnson’s +work in connexion with that journal. In modern times the +gatehouse again became associated with the Order, and is the +headquarters of the St John’s Ambulance Association. An Early +English crypt remains beneath the neighbouring parish church of +St John, where the notorious deception of the “Cock Lane +Ghost,” in which Johnson took great interest, was exposed. +Adjoining the priory was St Mary’s Benedictine nunnery, St +James’s church (1792) marking the site, and preserving in its +vaults some of the ancient monuments. In the 17th century +Clerkenwell became a fashionable place of residence. A prison +erected here at this period gave place later to the House of +Detention, notorious as the scene of a Fenian outrage in 1867, +when it was sought to release certain prisoners by blowing up part +of the building. Clerkenwell is a centre of the watch-making and +jeweller’s industries, long established here; and the Northampton +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span> +Polytechnic Institute, Northampton Square, a branch of the City +Polytechnic, has a department devoted to instruction in these +trades.</p> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clermont-de-l’Oise</span>, a +town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the +department of Oise, on the right bank of the Brèche, 41 m. N. of +Paris on the Northern railway to Amiens. Pop. (1906) 4014. +The hill on which the town is built is surmounted by a keep of the +14th century, the relic of a fortress the site of which is partly +occupied by a large penitentiary for women. The church dates +from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The hôtel-de-ville, built by +King Charles IV., who was born at Clermont in 1294, is the oldest +in the north of France. The most attractive feature of the town is +the Promenade du Châtellier on the site of the old ramparts. +Clermont is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first +instance, a communal college and a large lunatic asylum. It +manufactures felt and corsets, and carries on a trade in horses, +cattle and grain.</p> + +<p>The town was probably founded during the time of the Norman +invasions, and was an important military post, during the middle +ages. It was several times taken and retaken by the contending +parties during the Hundred Years’ War, and the Wars of +Religion, and in 1615 Henry II., prince of Condé, was besieged +and captured there by the marshal d’Ancre.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Counts of Clermont</span>. Clermont was at one time the seat of a +countship, the lords of which were already powerful in the 11th +century. Raoul de Clermont, constable of France, died at Acre +in 1191, leaving a daughter who brought Clermont to her husband, +Louis, count of Blois and Chartres. Theobald, count of Blois and +Clermont, died in 1218 without issue, and King Philip Augustus, +having received the countship of Clermont from the collateral +heirs of this lord, gave it to his son Philip Hurepel, whose daughter +Jeanne, and his widow, Mahaut, countess of Dammartin, next +held the countship. It was united by Saint Louis to the crown, +and afterwards given by him (1269) to his son Robert, from whom +sprang the house of Bourbon. In 1524 the countship of Clermont +was confiscated from the constable de Bourbon, and later (1540) +given to the duke of Orleans, to Catherine de’ Medici (1562), to +Eric, duke of Brunswick (1569), from whom it passed to his +brother-in-law Charles of Lorraine (1596), and finally to Henry II., +prince of Condé (1611). In 1641 it was again confiscated from +Louis de Bourbon, count of Soissons, then in 1696 sold to Louis +Thomas Amadeus of Savoy, count of Soissons, in 1702 to Françoise +de Brancas, princesse d’Harcourt, and in 1719 to Louis-Henry, +prince of Condé. From a branch of the old lords of Clermont +were descended the lords of Nesle and Chantilly.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-FERRAND<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span>, a city of central France, capital of +the department of Puy-de-Dôme, 113 m. W. of Lyons on the +Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 44,113; commune, +58,363. Clermont-Ferrand is situated on an eminence on the +western border of the fertile plain of Limagne. On the north, west +and south it is surrounded by hills, with a background of +mountains amongst which the Puy-de-Dôme stands out +prominently. A small river, the Tiretaine, borders the town on +the north. Since 1731 it has been composed of the two towns of +Clermont and Montferrand, now connected by a fine avenue of +walnut trees and willows, 2 m. in length, bordered on one side by +barracks. The watering-place of Royat lies a little more than +a mile to the west. Clermont has several handsome squares +ornamented with fountains, the chief of which is a graceful +structure erected by Bishop Jacques d’Amboise in 1515. The +streets of the older and busier quarter of Clermont in the +neighbourhood of the cathedral and the Place de Jaude, the +principal square, are for the most part narrow, sombre and +bordered by old houses built of lava; boulevards divide this part +from more modern and spacious quarters, which adjoin it. To +the south lies the fine promenade known as the Jardin Lecoq.</p> + +<p>The principal building is the cathedral, a Gothic edifice begun +in the 13th century. It was not completed, however, till the +19th century, when the west portal and towers and two bays +of the nave were added, according to the plans of Viollet-le-Duc. +The fine stained glass of the windows dates from the +13th to the 15th centuries. A monument of the Crusades with a +statue of Pope Urban II. stands in the Cathedral square. The +church of Notre-Dame du Port is a typical example of the +Romanesque style of Auvergne, dating chiefly from the 11th and +12th centuries. The exterior of the choir, with its four radiating +chapels, its jutting cornices supported by modillions and columns +with carved capitals, and its mosaic decoration of black and white +stones, is the most interesting part of the exterior. The rest of +the church comprises a narthex surmounted by a tower, three +naves and a transept, over which rises another tower. There are +several churches of minor importance in the town. Among the +old houses one, dating from the 16th century, was the birthplace +of Blaise Pascal, whose statue stands in a neighbouring square. +There is a statue of General Louis Charles Desaix de Veygoux in +the Place de Jaude. Montferrand has several interesting houses +of the 15th and 16th centuries, and a church of the 13th, 14th and +15th centuries.</p> + +<p>Clermont-Ferrand is the seat of a bishopric and a prefecture +and headquarters of the XIII. army corps; it has tribunals +of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, +a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a branch of the Bank +of France. The town is the centre of an educational division +(<i>académie</i>), and has faculties of science and of literature. It also +has lycées and training colleges for both sexes, ecclesiastical +seminaries, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, +schools of architecture, music, commerce and industry, museums +of art and antiquities and natural history and a library. A +great variety of industries is carried on, the chief being the +manufacture of semolina and other farinaceous foods, confectionery, +preserved fruit and jams, chemicals and rubber goods. +Liqueurs, chicory, chocolate, candles, hats, boots and shoes, +and woollen and linen goods are also made, and tanning is +practised. Clermont is the chief market for the grain and other +agricultural produce of Auvergne and Velay. Its waters are in +local repute. On the bank of the Tiretaine there is a remarkable +calcareous spring, the fountain of St Allyre, the copious deposits +of which have formed a curious natural bridge over the stream.</p> + +<p>Clermont is identified with the ancient <i>Augustonemetum</i>, the +chief town of the Arverni, and it still preserves some remains of +the Roman period. The present name, derived from Clarus +Mons and originally applied only to the citadel, was used of the +town as early as the 9th century. During the disintegration of +the Roman empire Clermont suffered as much perhaps from +capture and pillage as any city in the country; its history during +the middle ages chiefly records the struggles between its bishops +and the counts of Auvergne, and between the citizens and their +overlord the bishop. It was the seat of seven ecclesiastical +councils, held in the years 535, 549, 587, 1095, 1110, 1124 and +1130; and of these the council of 1095 is for ever memorable as +that in which Pope Urban II. proclaimed the first crusade. +In the wars against the English in the 14th and 15th centuries +and the religious wars of the 16th century the town had its +full participation; and in 1665 it acquired a terrible notoriety +by the trial and execution of many members of the nobility +of Auvergne who had tyrannized over the neighbouring districts. +The proceedings lasted six months, and the episode is known +as <i>les Grands Jours de Clermont</i>. Before the Revolution the +town possessed several monastic establishments, of which the +most important were the abbey of Saint Allyre, founded, it is +said, in the 3rd century by St Austremonius (St Stremoine), the +apostle of Auvergne and first bishop of Clermont, and the abbey +of St André, where the counts of Clermont were interred.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1846-  ), +French Orientalist, the son of a sculptor of some repute, was born +in Paris on the 19th of February 1846. After an education +at the École des Langues Orientales, he entered the diplomatic +service as dragoman to the consulate at Jerusalem, and +afterwards at Constantinople. He laid the foundation of his +reputation by his discovery (in 1870) of the “stele” of Mesha +(Moabite Stone), which bears the oldest Semitic inscription +known. In 1874 he was employed by the British government to +take charge of an archaeological expedition to Palestine, and was +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span> +subsequently entrusted by his own government with similar +missions to Syria and the Red Sea. He was made chevalier of +the Legion of Honour in 1875. After serving as vice-consul at +Jaffa from 1880 to 1882, he returned to Paris as “secrétaire-interprète” +for oriental languages, and in 1886 was appointed +consul of the first class. He subsequently accepted the post of +director of the École des Langues Orientales and professor at +the Collège de France. In 1889 he was elected a member of the +Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, of which he had +been a correspondent since 1880. In 1896 he was promoted +to be consul-general, and was minister plenipotentiary in 1906. +He was the first in England to expose the famous forgeries of +Hebrew texts offered to the British Museum by M.W. Shapira (<i>q.v.</i>) +in 1883, and in 1903 he took a prominent part in the investigation +of the so-called “tiara of Saïtapharnes.” This tiara had been +purchased by the Louvre for 400,000 francs, and exhibited as +a genuine antique. Much discussion arose as to the perpetrators +of the fraud, some believing that it came from southern Russia. +It was agreed, however, that the whole object, except perhaps the +band round the tiara, was of modern manufacture.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to +journals, are:—<i>Palestine inconnue</i> (1886), <i>Études d’archéologie +orientale</i> (1880, &c.), <i>Les Fraudes archéologiques</i> (1885), <i>Recueil +d’archéologie orientale</i> (1885, &c.), <i>Album d’antiquités orientales</i> +(1897, &c.).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-L’HERAULT<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clermont de Lodève</span>, a town +of southern France in the department of Hérault, 10 m. S.S.E. +by rail of Lodève. Pop. (1906) 4731. The town is built on the +slope of a hill which is crowned by an ancient castle and skirted +by the Rhonel, a tributary of the Lergue. It has an interesting +church of the 13th and 14th centuries. The chief manufacture +is that of cloth for military clothing, and woollen goods, an +industry which dates from the latter half of the 17th century. +Tanning and leather-dressing are also carried on, and there is +trade in wine, wool and grain. Among the public institutions +are a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, +a board of trade-arbitration and a communal college. The town +was several times taken and retaken in the religious wars of +the 16th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-TONNERRE<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span>, the name of a French family, +members of which played some part in the history of France, +especially in Dauphiné, from about 1100 to the Revolution. +Sibaud, lord of Clermont in Viennois, who first appears in 1080, +was the founder of the family. His descendant, another Sibaud, +commanded some troops which aided Pope Calixtus II. in his +struggle with the anti-pope Gregory VIII.; and in return for this +service it is said that the pope allowed him to add certain emblems—two +keys and a tiara—to the arms of his family. A +direct descendant, Ainard (d. 1349), called vicomte de Clermont, +was granted the dignity of captain-general and first baron of +Dauphiné by his suzerain Humbert, dauphin of Viennois, in +1340; and in 1547 Clermont was made a county for Antoine +(d. 1578), who was governor of Dauphiné and the French king’s +lieutenant in Savoy. In 1572 Antoine’s son Henri was created +a duke, but as this was only a “brevet” title it did not descend +to his son. Henri was killed before La Rochelle in 1573. In 1596 +Henri’s son, Charles Henri, count of Clermont (d. 1640), added +Tonnerre to his heritage; but in 1648 this county was sold by +his son and successor, François (d. 1679).</p> + +<p>A member of a younger branch of Charles Henri’s descendants +was Gaspard de Clermont-Tonnerre (1688-1781). This soldier +served his country during a long period, fighting in Bohemia +and Alsace, and then distinguishing himself greatly at the battles +of Fontenoy and Lawfeldt. In 1775 he was created duke of +Clermont-Tonnerre, and made a peer of France; as the senior +marshal (cr. 1747) of France he assisted as constable at the coronation +of Louis XVI. in 1774. His son and successor, Charles +Henri Jules, governor of Dauphiné, was guillotined in July 1794, +a fate which his grandson, Gaspard Charles, had suffered at Lyons +in the previous year. A later duke, Aimé Marie Gaspard (1779-1865), +served for some years as a soldier, afterwards becoming +minister of marine and then minister of war under Charles X., +and retiring into private life after the revolution of 1830. Aimé’s +grandson, Roger, duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, was born in 1842.</p> + +<p>Among other distinguished members of this family was +Catherine (c. 1545-1603), only daughter of Claude de Clermont-Tonnerre. +This lady, <i>dame d’honneur</i> to Henry II.’s queen, +Catherine de’ Medici, and afterwards wife of Albert de Gondi, +due de Retz, won a great reputation by her intellectual attainments, +being referred to as the “tenth muse” and the “fourth +grace.” One of her grandsons was the famous cardinal de Retz. +Other noteworthy members of collateral branches of the family +were: François (1629-1701), bishop of Noyon from 1661 until +his death, a member of the French Academy, notorious for his +inordinate vanity; Stanislas M. A., comte de Clermont-Tonnerre +(<i>q.v.</i>); and Anne Antoine Jules (1740-1830), cardinal and bishop +of Châlons, who was a member of the states-general in 1789, +afterwards retiring into Germany, and after the return of the +Bourbons to France became archbishop of Toulouse.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS MARIE ADELAIDE<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span>, +<span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1757-1792), French politican, was born at Pont-à-Mousson +on the 10th of October 1757. At the beginning of the +Revolution he was a colonel, with some reputation as a freemason +and a Liberal. He was elected to the states-general of +1789 by the noblesse of Paris, and was the spokesman of the +minority of Liberal nobles who joined the Third Estate on the +25th of June. He desired to model the new constitution of +France on that of England. He was elected president of the +Constituent Assembly on the 17th of August 1789; but on the +rejection by the Assembly of the scheme elaborated by the first +constitutional committee, he attached himself to the party of +moderate royalists, known as <i>monarchiens</i>, led by P.V. Malouet. +His speech in favour of reserving to the crown the right of +absolute veto under the new constitution drew down upon him +the wrath of the advanced politicians of the Palais Royal; +but in spite of threats and abuse he continued to advocate a +moderate liberal policy, especially in the matter of removing +the political disabilities of Jews and Protestants and of extending +the system of trial by jury. In January 1790 he collaborated +with Malouet in founding the Club des Impartiaux and the +<i>Journal des Impartiaux</i>, the names of which were changed in +November to the Société des Amis de la Constitution Monarchique +and <i>Journal de la Société, &c.</i>. in order to emphasize their opposition +to the Jacobins (Société des Amis de la Constitution). This +club was denounced by Barnave in the Assembly (January 21st, +1791), and on the 28th of March it was attacked by a mob, +whereupon it was closed by order of the Assembly. Clermont-Tonnerre +was murdered by the populace during the rising of the +9th and 10th of August 1792. He was an excellent orator, +having acquired practice in speaking, before the Revolution, in +the masonic lodges. He is a good representative of the type of +the <i>grands seigneurs</i> holding advanced and liberal ideas, who +helped to bring about the movement of 1789, and then tried +in vain to arrest its course.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Recueil des opinions de Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre</i> (4 vols., +Paris, 1791), the text of his speeches as published by himself; +A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Constituante</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">CLERUCHY<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> +(Gr. <span class="grk" title="klêrouchia">κληρουχία</span>, from <span class="grk" title="klêros">κλῆρος</span>, a lot, <span class="grk" title="echein">ἔχειν</span>, to have), +in ancient Greek history a kind of colony composed of Athenian<a name="FnAnchor_1t" id="FnAnchor_1t" href="#Footnote_1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +citizens planted, practically as a garrison, in a conquered country. +Strictly, the settlers (cleruchs) were not colonists, inasmuch +as they retained their status as citizens of Athens (<i>e.g.</i> <span class="grk" title="ho dêmos ho en Hphaistia"> +ὁ δῆμος ὁ ἐν Ήφαιστίᾳ</span>), and their allotments were politically part of +Attic soil. These settlements were of three kinds: (1) where +the earlier inhabitants were extirpated or expatriated, and the +settlers occupied the whole territory; (2) where the settlers +occupied allotments in the midst of a conquered people; and +(3) where the inhabitants gave up portions of land to settlers +in return for certain pecuniary concessions. The primary +object (cf. the 4000 cleruchs settled in 506 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> upon the lands of +the conquered oligarchs of Euboea, known as the Hippobotae) +was unquestionably military, and in the later days of the Delian +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span> +League the system was the simplest precaution against disaffection +on the part of the allies, the strength of whose resentment +may be gathered from an inscription (Hicks and Hill, 101 +[81]), which, in setting forth the terms of the second Delian +Confederacy, expressly forbids the holding of land by Athenians +in allied territory.</p> + +<p>A secondary object of the cleruchies was social or agrarian, +to provide a source of livelihood to the poorer Athenians. +Plutarch (<i>Pericles</i>, 11) suggests that Pericles by this means rid +the city of the idle and mischievous loafers; but it would +appear that the cleruchs were selected by lot, and in any case +a wise policy would not deliberately entrust important military +duties to recognized wastrels. When we remember that in 50 +years of the 5th century some 10,000 cleruchs went out, it is +clear that the drain on the citizen population was considerable.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to decide precisely how far the state retained +control over the cleruchs. Certainly they were liable to military +service and presumably to that taxation which fell upon Athenians +at home. That they were not liable for the tribute which +members of the Delian League paid is clear from the fact that +the assessments of places where cleruchs were settled immediately +went down considerably (cf. the Periclean cleruchies, +450-445); indeed, this follows from their status as Athenian +citizens, which is emphasized by the fact that they retained +their membership of deme and tribe. In internal government +the cleruchs adopted the Boulē and Assembly system of Athens +itself; so we read of Polemarchs, Archons Eponymi, Agoranomi, +Strategi, in various places. With a measure of local self-government +there was also combined a certain central authority (<i>e.g.</i> +in the matter of jurisdiction, some case being tried by the +Nautodicae at Athens); in fact we may assume that the more +important cases, particularly those between a cleruch and a +citizen at home, were tried before the Athenian dicasts. In a +few cases, the cleruchs, <i>e.g.</i> in the case of Lesbos (427), were +apparently allowed to remain in Athens receiving rent for their +allotments from the original Lesbian owners (Thuc. iii. 50); +but this represents the perversion of the original idea of the +cleruchy to a system of reward and punishment.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G. Gilbert, <i>Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta</i> +(Eng. trans., London, 1895), but note that Brea, wrongly quoted +as an example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41 +[29]); A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional +Antiquities</i> (London, 1896); for the Periclean cleruchs see <a>Pericles</a>; +<a>Delian League</a>.</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> +<div class="note"> + +<p><a name="Footnote_1t" id="Footnote_1t" href="#FnAnchor_1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It seems (Strabo, p. 635) that similar colonies were sent out by +the Milesians, <i>e.g.</i> to Leros.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. 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