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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4
+       "Cincinnatus" to "Cleruchy"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 14, 2010 [EBook #31641]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6, SL 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript.
+
+(2) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(3) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article CISTERCIANS: "and tried to reproduce the life exactly as it
+      had been in St Benedict's time." 'life' amended from 'lire'.
+
+    Article CITHARA: "This characteristic box sound-chest (fig. 1)
+      consisted of two resonating tables, either flat or delicately
+      arched." 'characteristic' amended from 'characteristc'.
+
+    Article CIUDAD REAL: "and the trade of the town consists chiefly in
+      the weekly sales of agricultrural produce and live-stock."
+      'agricultrural' amended from 'agricultrual'.
+
+    Article CIVIL SERVICE: "The chief, if not the only, test of fitness
+      for office in many cases has been party loyalty, honesty and
+      capacity being seldom more than secondary considerations." 'party'
+      amended from 'partly'.
+
+    Article CLAIRON: "Hainaut, on the 25th of January 1723, the natural
+      daughter of an army sergeant." 'an' amended from 'any'.
+
+    Article CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE: "Cape Corso and other Dutch
+      possessions on the coast of Africa, and New Amsterdam in America."
+      'coast' amended from 'cost'.
+
+    Article CLARETIE, JULES ARSÈNE ARNAUD: "He was elected a member of
+      the Academy in 1888, and took his seat in February 1889, being
+      received by Ernest Renan." 'February' amended from 'Feburary'.
+
+    Article CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS: "verse translation of Il Ratto di
+      Proserpina , by L. Garces de Diez (1889)." 'Proserpina' amended
+      from 'Prosperpina'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME VI, SLICE IV
+
+           Cincinnatus to Cleruchy
+
+
+
+
+Articles in This Slice:
+
+
+  CINCINNATUS LUCIUS QUINCTIUS        CLARINA
+  CINDERELLA                          CLARINET
+  CINEAS                              CLARK, SIR ANDREW
+  CINEMATOGRAPH                       CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD
+  CINERARIA                           CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS
+  CINGOLI                             CLARK, SIR JAMES
+  CINNA (Roman family)                CLARK, JOHN BATES
+  CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS                CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER
+  CINNABAR                            CLARK, THOMAS
+  CINNAMIC ACID                       CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE
+  CINNAMON                            CLARKE, ADAM
+  CINNAMON-STONE                      CLARKE, SIR ANDREW
+  CINNAMUS                            CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN
+  CINNOLIN                            CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL
+  CINO DA PISTOIA                     CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE
+  CINQ-MARS, D'EFFIAT                 CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN
+  CINQUE CENTO                        CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER
+  CINQUE PORTS                        CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP
+  CINTRA                              CLARKE, MARY ANNE
+  CIPHER                              CLARKE, SAMUEL
+  CIPPUS                              CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS
+  CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA         CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE
+  CIRCAR                              CLARKSON, THOMAS
+  CIRCASSIA                           CLARKSVILLE
+  CIRCE                               CLASSICS
+  CIRCEIUS MONS                       CLASSIFICATION
+  CIRCLE                              CLASTIDIUM
+  CIRCLEVILLE                         CLAUBERG, JOHANN
+  CIRCUIT                             CLAUDE, JEAN
+  CIRCULAR NOTE                       CLAUDE OF LORRAINE
+  CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO                CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS JEAN
+  CIRCUMCISION                        CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS
+  CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF           CLAUDIUS (Nero Germanicus)
+  CIRCUS                              CLAUDIUS (famous Roman gens.)
+  CIRENCESTER                         CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
+  CIRILLO, DOMENICO                   CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS
+  CIRQUE                              CLAUSEL
+  CIRTA                               CLAUSEN, GEORGE
+  CISSEY, ERNEST COURTOT DE           CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON
+  CISSOID                             CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF EMMANUEL
+  CIS-SUTLEJ STATES                   CLAUSTHAL
+  CIST                                CLAVECIN
+  CISTERCIANS                         CLAVICEMBALO
+  CITATION                            CLAVICHORD
+  CÎTEAUX                             CLAVICYTHERIUM
+  CITHAERON                           CLAVIE, BURNING THE
+  CITHARA                             CLAVIÈRE, ÉTIENNE
+  CITIUM                              CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE
+  CITIZEN                             CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSÉ
+  CITOLE                              CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS
+  CITRIC ACID                         CLAY, CHARLES
+  CITRON                              CLAY, FREDERIC
+  CITTADELLA                          CLAY, HENRY
+  CITTÀ DELLA PIEVE                   CLAY (substance)
+  CITTÀ DI CASTELLO                   CLAY CROSS
+  CITTÀ VECCHIA                       CLAYMORE
+  CITTERN                             CLAYS, PAUL JEAN
+  CITY                                CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON
+  CIUDAD BOLÍVAR                      CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY
+  CIUDAD DE CURA                      CLAY-WITH-FLINTS
+  CIUDAD JUAREZ                       CLAZOMENAE
+  CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ                CLEANTHES
+  CIUDAD REAL (province of Spain)     CLEARCHUS
+  CIUDAD REAL (city in Spain)         CLEARFIELD
+  CIUDAD RODRIGO                      CLEARING-HOUSE
+  CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO                 CLEAT
+  CIVET                               CLEATOR MOOR
+  CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI                 CLEAVERS
+  CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS                   CLEBURNE
+  CIVILIZATION                        CLECKHEATON
+  CIVIL LAW                           CLEETHORPES
+  CIVIL LIST                          CLEFT PALATE
+  CIVIL SERVICE                       CLEISTHENES
+  CIVITA CASTELLANA                   CLEITARCHUS
+  CIVITA VECCHIA                      CLEITHRAL
+  CLACKMANNAN                         CLEITOR
+  CLACKMANNANSHIRE                    CLELAND, WILLIAM
+  CLACTON-ON-SEA                      CLEMATIS
+  CLADEL, LÉON                        CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES
+  CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM             CLEMENCÍN, DIEGO
+  CLAIRAULT                           CLEMENT (popes)
+  CLAIRON, LA                         CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA
+  CLAIRVAUX                           CLÉMENT, FRANÇOIS
+  CLAIRVOYANCE                        CLÉMENT, JACQUES
+  CLAMECY                             CLEMENTI, MUZIO
+  CLAN                                CLEMENTINE LITERATURE
+  CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH (Earl)        CLEOBULUS
+  CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH (Marquess)    CLEOMENES
+  CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS                CLEON
+  CLAPARÈDE, JEAN LOUIS               CLEOPATRA
+  CLAPPERTON, HUGH                    CLEPSYDRA
+  CLAQUE                              CLERESTORY
+  CLARA, SAINT                        CLERFAYT
+  CLARE (English family)              CLERGY
+  CLARE, JOHN (English poet)          CLERGY, BENEFIT OF
+  CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON              CLERGY RESERVES
+  CLARE (county in Ireland)           CLERK
+  CLAREMONT                           CLERKE, AGNES MARY
+  CLARENCE, DUKES OF                  CLERKENWELL
+  CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE              CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS
+  CLARENDON, GEORGE VILLIERS          CLERMONT-FERRAND
+  CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE               CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON
+  CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF         CLERMONT-L'HERAULT
+  CLARES, POOR                        CLERMONT-TONNERRE (French family)
+  CLARET                              CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS
+  CLARETIE, JULES ARNAUD              CLERUCHY
+  CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA
+
+
+
+
+CINCINNATUS,[1] LUCIUS QUINCTIUS (b. c. 519 B.C.), one of the heroes of
+early Rome, a model of old Roman virtue and simplicity. A persistent
+opponent of the plebeians, he resisted the proposal of Terentilius Arsa
+(or Harsa) to draw up a code of written laws applicable equally to
+patricians and plebeians. He was in humble circumstances, and lived and
+worked on his own small farm. The story that he became impoverished by
+paying a fine incurred by his son Caeso is an attempt to explain the
+needy position of so distinguished a man. Twice he was called from the
+plough to the dictatorship of Rome in 458 and 439. In 458 he defeated
+the Aequians in a single day, and after entering Rome in triumph with
+large spoils returned to his farm. The story of his success, related
+five times under five different years, possibly rests on an historical
+basis, but the account given in Livy of the achievements of the Roman
+army is obviously incredible.
+
+  See Livy iii. 26-29; Dion. Halic. x. 23-25; Florus i. 11. For a
+  critical examination of the story see Schwegler, _Römische
+  Geschichte_, bk. xxviii. 12; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, _Credibility of
+  early Roman History_, ch. xii. 40; W. Ihne, _History of Rome_, i.; E.
+  Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 4 (1898).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] I.e. the "curly-haired."
+
+
+
+
+CINDERELLA (i.e. little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost universal
+fairy-tale. Its essential features are (1) the persecuted maiden whose
+youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy of her step-mother and
+sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or other supernatural
+instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who falls in love with and
+marries her. In the English version, a translation of Perrault's
+_Cendrillon_, the _glass_ slipper which she drops on the palace stairs
+is due to a mistranslation of _pantoufle en vair_ (a _fur_ slipper),
+mistaken for _en verre_. It has been suggested that the story originated
+in a nature-myth, Cinderella being the dawn, oppressed by the
+night-clouds (cruel relatives) and finally rescued by the sun (prince).
+
+  See Marian Rolfe Cox, _Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five
+  Variants_ (1893); A Lang, _Perrault's Popular Tales_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+CINEAS, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He
+studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the most eloquent man of
+his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus from invading Italy, and after the
+defeat of the Romans at Heraclea (280 B.C.) was sent to Rome to discuss
+terms of peace. These terms, which are said by Appian (_De Rebus
+Samniticis_, 10, 11) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy
+and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of all that
+had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through the vehement and
+patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius Caecus the censor. The
+withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was demanded, and Cineas returned to
+his master with the report that Rome was a temple and its senate an
+assembly of kings. Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations
+with Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities,
+and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for Pyrrhus's
+campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is said to have made an
+epitome of the _Tactica_ of Aeneas, probably referred to by Cicero, who
+speaks of a Cineas as the author of a treatise _De Re Militari_.
+
+  See Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12;
+  Cicero, _Ad Fam._ ix. 25.
+
+
+
+
+CINEMATOGRAPH, or KINEMATOGRAPH (from [Greek: khinêma], motion, and
+[Greek: graphein], to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views
+representing closely successive phases of a moving object are exhibited
+in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to persistence of
+vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous motion. It is a
+development of the zoetrope or "wheel of life," described by W.G. Horner
+about 1833, which consists of a hollow cylinder turning on a vertical
+axis and having its surface pierced with a number of slots. Round the
+interior is arranged a series of pictures representing successive stages
+of such a subject as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated
+an observer looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently
+in motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photography was
+afterwards applied to their production. E. Muybridge about 1877 obtained
+successive pictures of a running horse by employing a row of cameras,
+the shutters of which were opened and closed electrically by the passage
+of the horse in front of them, and in 1883 E.J. Marey of Paris
+established a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar
+photographic methods.
+
+The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the invention of the
+celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1890), on which the serial
+pictures are impressed by instantaneous photography, a long sensitized
+film being moved across the focal plane of a camera and exposed
+intermittently. In one apparatus for making the exposures a cam jerks
+the film across the field once for each picture, the slack being
+gathered in on a drum at a constant rate. In another four lenses are
+rotated so as to give four images for each rotation, the film travelling
+so as to present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place.
+Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films are
+developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric light may be
+fixed to enable the process to be watched. A positive is made from the
+negative thus obtained, and is passed through an optical lantern, the
+images being thus successively projected through an objective lens upon
+a distant screen. For an hour's exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures
+are needed. To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the
+film for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in
+position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the picture
+dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another method of exhibiting
+cinematographic effects is to bind the pictures together in book form by
+one edge, and then release them from the other in rapid succession by
+means of the thumb or some mechanical device as the book is bent
+backwards. In this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but
+directly, either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.
+
+Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic processes, being
+in black and white only, fail to reproduce the colouring of the subjects
+they represent. To some extent this defect has been remedied by painting
+them by hand, but this method is too expensive for general adoption, and
+moreover does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt
+three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films, each with
+a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining the three images
+on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties in regard to
+maintenance of register, because very minute errors of adjustment
+between the pictures on the films are magnified to an intolerable extent
+by projection. In a process devised by G.A. Smith, the results of which
+were exhibited at the Society of Arts, London, in December 1908, the
+number of colour records was reduced to two. The films were specially
+treated to increase their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were
+taken through two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the
+film; both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition
+specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and the
+other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and violet. The
+camera was arranged to take not less than 16 pictures a second through
+each filter, or 32 a second in all. The positive transparency made from
+the negative thus obtained was used in a lantern so arranged that beams
+of red (composed of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow
+and blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting the
+pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those made with
+the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary shutter was provided
+to introduce violet and blue, to compensate for the deficiency in those
+colours caused by the necessity of cutting them out in the camera owing
+to the over-sensitiveness of the film to them, and the result was that
+the successive pictures, blending on the screen by persistence of
+vision, gave a reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which
+were sensibly the same as those of the original.
+
+The cinematograph enables "living" or "animated pictures" of such
+subjects as an army on the march, or an express train at full speed, to
+be presented with marvellous distinctness and completeness of detail.
+Machines of this kind have been devised in enormous numbers and used for
+purposes of amusement under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope,
+mutograph, &c.) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin
+words for life, movement, change, &c., with suffixes taken from such
+words as [Greek: skopein], to see, [Greek: graphein], to depict; they
+have also been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for
+example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer are
+simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they are used in
+public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme inflammability of
+the celluloid film and its employment in close proximity to a powerful
+source of light and heat, such as is required if the pictures are to
+show brightly on the screen, precautions must be taken to prevent, as
+far as possible, the heat rays from reaching it, and effective means
+must be provided to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of
+films composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the
+attention of inventors.
+
+  See H.V. Hopwood, _Living Pictures_ (London, 1899), containing a
+  bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is
+  supplemented in the _Optician_, vol. xviii. p. 85; Eugène Trutat, _La
+  Photographie animée_ (1899), which contains a list of the French
+  patents. For the camera see also PHOTOGRAPHY: _Apparatus_.
+
+
+
+
+CINERARIA. The garden plants of this name have originated from a species
+of _Senecio_, _S. cruentus_ (nat. ord. Compositae), a native of the
+Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at Kew in 1777. It was
+known originally as _Cineraria cruenta_, but the genus _Cineraria_ is
+now restricted to a group of South African species, and the Canary
+Island species has been transferred to the large and widespread genus
+_Senecio_. Cinerarias can be raised freely from seeds. For spring
+flowering in England the seeds are sown in April or May in well-drained
+pots or pans, in soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with
+one-sixth sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the
+surface firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them
+out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot them
+singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They should be
+grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so situated that the
+sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the day, they must be
+slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never allow them to get dry.
+When well established with roots, shift them into 6-in. pots, which
+should be liberally supplied with manure water as they get filled with
+roots. In winter remove to a pit or house, where a little heat can be
+supplied whenever there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should
+stand on a moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts.
+When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every alternate
+watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown on in this way, will be in
+bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of from 40° to 45° at night,
+with a little more warmth in the day; and those sown in April and May
+will succeed them during the early spring months, the latter set of
+plants being subjected to a temperature of 38° or 40° during the night.
+If grown much warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make its
+appearance in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and lower
+surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such affected
+leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a great pest on
+young plants, and can only be kept down by fumigating or vaporizing the
+houses, and syringing with a solution of quassia chips, soft soap and
+tobacco.
+
+
+
+
+CINGOLI (anc. _Cingulum_), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the province
+of Macerata, about 14 m. N.W. direct, and 17 m. by road, from the town
+of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The Gothic church of S. Esuperanzio
+contains interesting works of art. The town occupies the site of the
+ancient Cingulum, a town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by
+Caesar's lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier
+village) in 63 B.C. at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft.)
+made it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is
+heard of it. Under the empire it was a _municipium_.
+
+
+
+
+CINNA, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The most prominent
+member was Lucius CORNELIUS CINNA, a supporter of Marius in his contest
+with Sulla. After serving in the war with the Marsi as praetorian
+legate, he was elected consul in 87 B.C. Breaking the oath he had sworn
+to Sulla that he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna
+allied himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took
+possession of the city. Soon after his triumphant entry and the massacre
+of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his vengeance, Marius
+died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna's colleague, and on the murder of
+Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo. In 84, however, Cinna, who was still
+consul, was forced to advance against Sulla; but while embarking his
+troops to meet him in Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter
+Cornelia was the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, L.
+CORNELIUS CINNA, praetor in 44 B.C., nevertheless sided with the
+murderers of Caesar and publicly extolled their action.
+
+The hero of Corneille's tragedy _Cinna_ (1640) was Cn. Cornelius Cinna,
+surnamed _Magnus_ (after his maternal grandfather Pompey), who was
+magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for conspiring against him.
+
+
+
+
+CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian age.
+Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was the friend
+of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the suite of the praetor
+Memmius. The circumstances of his death have given rise to some
+discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus, Appian and Dio Cassius all
+state that, at Caesar's funeral, a certain Helvius Cinna was killed by
+mistake for Cornelius Cinna, the conspirator. The last three writers
+mentioned above add that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch,
+referring to the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna
+who was killed by the mob was a poet. This points to the identity of
+Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet. The chief
+objection to this view is based upon two lines in the 9th eclogue of
+Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 B.C. Here reference is
+made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such importance that Virgil
+deprecates comparison with him; it is argued that the manner in which
+this Cinna, who could hardly have been any one but Helvius Cinna, is
+spoken of implies that he was then alive; if so, he could not have been
+killed in 44. But such an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by
+no means absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a
+reference to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that
+it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at Caesar's
+funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities. Cinna's chief
+work was a mythological epic poem called _Smyrna_, the subject of which
+was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or Myrrha) for her father Cinyras,
+treated after the manner of the Alexandrian poets. It is said to have
+taken nine years to finish. A _Propempticon Pollionis_, a send-off to
+[Asinius] Pollio, is also attributed to him. In both these poems, the
+language of which was so obscure that they required special
+commentaries, his model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea.
+
+  See A. Weichert, _Poëtarum Latinorum Vitae_ (1830); L. Müller's
+  edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna's poems are
+  printed; A. Kiessling, "De C. Helvio Cinna Poëta" in _Commentationes
+  Philologicae in honorem T. Mommsen_ (1878); O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte
+  der römischen Dichtung_, i. (1887); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman
+  Lit._ (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5); Plessis, _Poésie latine_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+CINNABAR (Ger. _Zinnober_), sometimes written cinnabarite, a name
+applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native vermilion, the common
+ore of mercury. The name comes from the Greek [Greek: kinnabari], used
+by Theophrastus, and probably applied to several distinct substances.
+Cinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of
+bright red colour, but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a
+metallic adamantine lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system,
+and are generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar
+presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and optical
+characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization, and A. Des
+Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the rotatory power of
+quartz (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT). Cinnabar has higher refractive power
+than any other known mineral, its mean index for sodium light being
+3.02, whilst the index for diamond--a substance of remarkable
+refraction--is only 2.42 (see REFRACTION). The hardness of cinnabar is
+3, and its specific gravity 8.998.
+
+Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver, notably
+Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria (Austria), Landsberg,
+near Ober-Moschel in the Palatinate, Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps
+(Tuscany), the mountain Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the
+province of Kweichow in China, whence very fine crystals have been
+obtained. Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from
+the hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat Springs,
+Nevada.
+
+Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola, in which
+the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy matter.
+
+Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this compound
+being dimorphous.
+
+  For a general description of cinnabar, see G.F. Becker's _Geology of
+  the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope_, U.S. Geol. Surv.
+  Monographs, No. xiii. (1888).    (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+CINNAMIC ACID, or PHENYLACRYLIC ACID, C9H8O2 or C6H6.CH:CH.COOH, an acid
+found in the form of its benzyl ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in
+storax and in some gum-benzoins. It can be prepared by the reduction of
+phenyl propiolic acid with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal
+malonic acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde in
+the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called "Perkin reaction";
+the latter being the method commonly employed. In making the acid by
+this process benzaldehyde, acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate
+are heated for some hours to about 1800 C, the resulting product is made
+alkaline with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed
+by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and acidified
+with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipitated,
+C6H5CHO+CH3COONa = C6H5CH:CH.COONa+H2O. It may be purified by
+recrystallization from hot water. Considerable controversy has taken
+place as to the course pursued by this reaction, but the matter has been
+definitely settled by the work of R. Fittig and his pupils (_Annalen_,
+1883, 216, pp. 100, 115; 1885, 227, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown
+that the aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt of the
+fatty acid, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of a
+dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or prisms,
+melting at 133° C; on reduction it gives _phenyl propionic acid_,
+C6H5.CH2.CH2.COOH. Nitric acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid and acetic
+acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic and acetic acids. Being
+an unsaturated acid it combines directly with hydrochloric acid,
+hydrobromic acid, bromine, &c. On nitration it gives a mixture of ortho
+and para nitrocinnamic acids, the former of which is of historical
+importance, as by converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A.
+Baeyer was enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo
+(_q.v._). Reduction of orthonitrocinnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic
+acid, C6H4(NH2)CH:CH.COOH, which is of theoretical importance, as it
+readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of cinnamic acid known
+as _allo-cinnamic acid_ is also known.
+
+  For the oxy-cinnamic adds see COUMARIN.
+
+
+
+
+CINNAMON, the inner bark of _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_, a small evergreen
+tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae, native to Ceylon. The
+leaves are large, ovate-oblong in shape, and the flowers, which are
+arranged in panicles, have a greenish colour and a rather disagreeable
+odour. Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity, and it was so
+highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a present
+fit for monarchs and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod.
+xxx. 23, where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon
+(_Kinnamon_) and cassia, and it is alluded to by Herodotus under the
+name [Greek: Kinnamômon], and by other classical writers. The tree is
+grown at Tellicherry, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil and Egypt, but
+the produce of none of these places approaches in quality that grown in
+Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon of fine quality is a very thin smooth bark, with
+a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly fragrant odour, and a
+peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing aromatic taste. Its flavour is due
+to an aromatic oil which it contains to the extent of from 0.5 to 1%.
+This essential oil, as an article of commerce, is prepared by roughly
+pounding the bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly
+distilling the whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the peculiar
+odour of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. It consists essentially
+of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the absorption of oxygen as it becomes old
+it darkens in colour and develops resinous compounds. Cinnamon is
+principally employed in cookery as a condiment and flavouring material,
+being largely used in the preparation of some kinds of chocolate and
+liqueurs. In medicine it acts like other volatile oils and has a
+reputation as a cure for colds. Being a much more costly spice than
+cassia, that comparatively harsh-flavoured substance is frequently
+substituted for or added to it. The two barks when whole are easily
+enough distinguished, and their microscopical characters are also quite
+distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine, little
+effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality, but when
+cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the intensity of the
+coloration depending on the proportion of the cassia.
+
+
+
+
+CINNAMON-STONE, a variety of garnet, belonging to the lime-alumina type,
+known also as essonite or hessonite, from the Gr. [Greek: êssôn],
+"inferior," in allusion to its being less hard and less dense than most
+other garnet. It has a characteristic red colour, inclining to orange,
+much like that of hyacinth or jacinth. Indeed it was shown many years
+ago, by Sir A.H. Church, that many gems, especially engraved stones,
+commonly regarded as hyacinth, were really cinnamon-stone. The
+difference is readily detected by the specific gravity, that of
+hessonite being 3.64 to 3.69, whilst that of hyacinth (zircon) is about
+4.6. Hessonite is rather a soft stone, its hardness being about that of
+quartz or 7, whilst the hardness of most garnet reaches 7.5.
+Cinnamon-stone comes chiefly from Ceylon, where it is found generally as
+pebbles, though its occurrence in its native matrix is not unknown.
+
+
+
+
+CINNAMUS [KINNAMOS], JOHN, Byzantine historian, flourished in the second
+half of the 12th century. He was imperial secretary (probably in this
+case a post connected with the military administration) to Manuel I.
+Comnenus (1143-1180), whom he accompanied on his campaigns in Europe and
+Asia Minor. He appears to have outlived Andronicus I., who died in 1185.
+Cinnamus was the author of a history of the period 1118-1176, which thus
+continues the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena, and embraces the reigns of John
+II. and Manuel I., down to the unsuccessful campaign of the latter
+against the Turks, which ended with the disastrous battle of
+Myriokephalon and the rout of the Byzantine army. Cinnamus was probably
+an eye-witness of the events of the last ten years which he describes.
+The work breaks off abruptly; originally it no doubt went down to the
+death of Manuel, and there are indications that, even in its present
+form, it is an abridgment. The text is in a very corrupt state. The
+author's hero is Manuel; he is strongly impressed with the superiority
+of the East to the West, and is a determined opponent of the pretensions
+of the papacy. But he cannot be reproached with undue bias; he writes
+with the straightforwardness of a soldier, and is not ashamed on
+occasion to confess his ignorance. The matter is well arranged, the
+style (modelled on that of Xenophon) simple, and on the whole free from
+the usual florid bombast of the Byzantine writers.
+
+  _Editio princeps_, C. Tollius (1652); in Bonn, _Corpus Scriptorum
+  Hist. Byz._, by A. Meineke (1836), with Du Cange's valuable notes;
+  Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, cxxxiii.; see also C. Neumann,
+  _Griechische Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert_ (1888); H. von
+  Kap-Herr, _Die abendländische Politik Kaiser Manuels_ (1881); C.
+  Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+CINNOLIN, C8H6N2, a compound isomeric with phthalazine, prepared by
+boiling dihydrocinnolin dissolved in benzene with freshly precipitated
+mercuric oxide. The solution is filtered and the hydrochloride of the
+base precipitated by alcoholic hydrochloric acid; the free base is
+obtained as an oil by adding caustic soda. It may be obtained in white
+silky needles, melting at 24-25° C. and containing a molecule of ether
+of crystallization by cooling the oil dissolved in ether. The free base
+melts at 39° C. It is a strong base, forming stable salts with mineral
+acids, and is easily soluble in water and in the ordinary organic
+solvents. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate, and leaves
+a sharp irritation for some time on the tongue; it is also very
+poisonous (M. Busch and A. Rast, _Berichte_, 1897, 30, p. 521). Cinnolin
+derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin carboxylic acid, which is
+formed by digesting orthophenyl propiolic acid diazo chloride with
+water. Oxycinnolin carboxylic acid on heating gives oxycinnolin, melting
+at 225°, which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin. This
+substance is reduced by iron filings and sulphuric acid to
+dihydrocinnolin.
+
+The relations of these compounds are here shown:--
+
+                              C-OH                C-OH                CH
+     ^                 ^     ^             ^     ^             ^     ^
+   /   \_C:C·COOH    /   \ /  \\         /   \ /  \\         /   \ /  \\
+  |     |           |     |     C·COOH  |     |     CH      |     |     CH
+  |     |    --->   |     |     |  ---> |     |     |  ---> |     |     |
+  |     |_          |     |     N       |     |     N       |     |     N
+   \   /  N:N·OH     \   / \  //         \   / \  //         \   / \  //
+     v                 v     N             v     N             v     N
+
+  O-phenyl propiolic     Oxycinnolin       Oxycinnolin         Cinnolin
+  acid diazo hydroxide  carboxylic acid
+
+
+
+
+CINO DA PISTOIA (1270-1336), Italian poet and jurist, whose full name
+was GUITTONCINO DE' SINIBALDI, was born in Pistoia, of a noble family.
+He studied law at Bologna under Dinus Muggelanus (Dino de Rossonis: d.
+1303) and Franciscus Accursius, and in 1307 is understood to have been
+assessor of civil causes in his native city. In that year, however,
+Pistoia was disturbed by the Guelph and Ghibelline feud. The
+Ghibellines, who had for some time been the stronger party, being
+worsted by the Guelphs, Cino, a prominent member of the former faction,
+had to quit his office and the city of his birth. Pitecchio, a
+stronghold on the frontiers of Lombardy, was yet in the hands of Filippo
+Vergiolesi, chief of the Pistoian Ghibellines; Selvaggia, his daughter,
+was beloved by Cino (who was probably already the husband of Margherita
+degli Unghi); and to Pitecchio did the lawyer-poet betake himself. It is
+uncertain how long he remained at the fortress; it is certain, however,
+that he was not with the Vergiolesi at the time of Selvaggia's death,
+which happened three years afterwards (1310), at the Monte della
+Sambuca, in the Apennines, whither the Ghibellines had been compelled to
+shift their camp. He visited his mistress's grave on his way to Rome,
+after some time spent in travel in France and elsewhere, and to this
+visit is owing his finest sonnet. At Rome Cino held office under Louis
+of Savoy, sent thither by the Ghibelline leader Henry of Luxemburg, who
+was crowned emperor of the Romans in 1312. In 1313, however, the emperor
+died, and the Ghibellines lost their last hope. Cino appears to have
+thrown up his party, and to have returned to Pistoia. Thereafter he
+devoted himself to law and letters. After filling several high judicial
+offices, a doctor of civil law of Bologna in his forty-fourth year, he
+lectured and taught from the professor's chair at the universities of
+Treviso, Siena, Florence and Perugia in succession; his reputation and
+success were great, his judicial experience enabling him to travel out
+of the routine of the schools. In literature he continued in some sort
+the tradition of Dante during the interval dividing that great poet from
+his successor Petrarch. The latter, besides celebrating Cino in an
+obituary sonnet, has coupled him and his Selvaggia with Dante and
+Beatrice in the fourth _capitolo_ of his _Trionfi d' Amore_.
+
+Cino, the master of Bartolus, and of Joannes Andreae the celebrated
+canonist, was long famed as a jurist. His commentary on the statutes of
+Pistoia, written within two years, is said to have great merit; while
+that on the code (_Lectura Cino Pistoia super codice_, Pavia, 1483;
+Lyons, 1526) is considered by Savigny to exhibit more practical
+intelligence and more originality of thought than are found in any
+commentary on Roman law since the time of Accursius. As a poet he also
+distinguished himself greatly. He was the friend and correspondent of
+Dante's later years, and possibly of his earlier also, and was
+certainly, with Guido Cavalcanti and Durante da Maiano, one of those who
+replied to the famous sonnet _A ciascun' alma presa e gentil core_ of
+the _Vita Nuova_. In the treatise _De Vulgari Eloquio_ Dante refers to
+him as one of "those who have most sweetly and subtly written poems in
+modern Italian," but his works, printed at Rome in 1559, do not
+altogether justify the praise. Strained and rhetorical as many of his
+outcries are, however, Cino is not without moments of true passion and
+fine natural eloquence. Of these qualities the sonnet in memory of
+Selvaggia, _Io fui in sull' alto e in sul beato monte_, and the canzone
+to Dante, _Avegnachè di omaggio più per tempo_, are interesting
+examples.
+
+  The text-book for English readers is D.G. Rossetti's _Early Italian
+  Poets_, wherein will be found not only a memoir of Cino da Pistoia,
+  but also some admirably translated specimens of his verse--the whole
+  wrought into significant connexion with that friendship of Cino's
+  which is perhaps the most interesting fact about him. See also Ciampi,
+  _Vita e poesie di messer Cino da Pistoia_ (Pisa, 1813).
+
+
+
+
+CINQ-MARS, HENRI COIFFIER RUZÉ D'EFFIAT, MARQUIS DE (1620-1642), French
+courtier, was the second son of Antoine Coiffier Ruzé, marquis d'Effiat,
+marshal of France (1581-1632), and was introduced to the court of Louis
+XIII. by Richelieu, who had been a friend of his father and who hoped he
+would counteract the influence of the queen's favourite Mlle. de
+Hautefort. Owing to his handsome appearance and agreeable manners he
+soon became a favourite of the king, and was made successively master of
+the wardrobe and master of the horse. After distinguishing himself at
+the siege of Arras in 1640, Cinq-Mars wished for a high military
+command, but Richelieu opposed his pretensions and the favourite talked
+rashly about overthrowing the minister. He was probably connected with
+the abortive rising of the count of Soissons in 1641; however that may
+be, in the following year he formed a conspiracy with the duke of
+Bouillon and others to overthrow Richelieu. This plot was under the
+nominal leadership of the king's brother Gaston of Orleans. The plans of
+the conspirators were aided by the illness of Richelieu and his absence
+from the king, and at the siege of Narbonne Cinq-Mars almost induced
+Louis to agree to banish his minister. Richelieu, however, recovered,
+became acquainted with the attempt of Cinq-Mars to obtain assistance
+from Spain, and laid the proofs of his treason before the king, who
+ordered his arrest. Cinq-Mars was brought to trial, admitted his guilt,
+and was condemned to death. He was executed at Lyons on the 12th of
+September 1642. It is possible that Cinq-Mars was urged to engage in
+this conspiracy by his affection for Louise Marie de Gonzaga
+(1612-1667), afterwards queen of Poland, who was a prominent figure at
+the court of Louis XIII.; and this tradition forms part of the plot of
+Alfred de Vigny's novel _Cinq-Mars_.
+
+  See Le P. Griffet, _Histoire de Louis XIII_; A. Bazin, _Histoire de
+  Louis XIII_ (1846); L. D'Astarac de Frontrailles, _Relations des
+  choses particulières de la cour pendant la faveur de M. de Cinq-Mars_.
+
+
+
+
+CINQUE CENTO (Italian for five hundred; short for 1500), in
+architecture, the style which became prevalent in Italy in the century
+following 1500, now usually called "16th-century work." It was the
+result of the revival of classic architecture known as Renaissance, but
+the change had commenced already a century earlier, in the works of
+Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture, and of Brunelleschi and Alberti in
+architecture.
+
+
+
+
+CINQUE PORTS, the name of an ancient jurisdiction in the south of
+England, which is still maintained with considerable modifications and
+diminished authority. As the name implies, the ports originally
+constituting the body were only five in number--Hastings, Romney, Hythe,
+Dover and Sandwich; but to these were afterwards added the "ancient
+towns" of Winchelsea and Rye with the same privileges, and a good many
+other places, both corporate and non-corporate, which, with the title of
+limb or member, held a subordinate position. To Hastings were attached
+the corporate members of Pevensey and Seaford, and the non-corporate
+members of Bulvarhythe, Petit Iham (Yham or Higham), Hydney, Bekesbourn,
+Northeye and Grenche or Grange; to Romney, Lydd, and Old Romney,
+Dengemarsh, Orwaldstone, and Bromehill or Promehill; to Dover,
+Folkestone and Faversham, and Margate, St John's, Goresend (now
+Birchington), Birchington Wood (now Woodchurch), St Peter's, Kingsdown
+and Ringwould; to Sandwich, Fordwich and Deal, and Walmer, Ramsgate,
+Reculver, Stonor (Estanor), Sarre (or Serre) and Brightlingsea (in
+Essex). To Rye was attached the corporate member of Tenterden, and to a
+Hythe the non-corporate member of West Hythe. The jurisdiction thus
+extends along the coast from Seaford in Sussex to Birchington near
+Margate in Kent; and it also includes a number of inland districts, at a
+considerable distance from the ports with which they are connected. The
+non-incorporated members are within the municipal jurisdiction of the
+ports to which they are attached; but the corporate members are as free
+within their own liberties as the individual ports themselves.
+
+The incorporation of the Cinque Ports had its origin in the necessity
+for some means of defence along the southern seaboard of England, and in
+the lack of any regular navy. Up to the reign of Henry VII. they had to
+furnish the crown with nearly all the ships and men that were needful
+for the state; and for a long time after they were required to give
+large assistance to the permanent fleet. The oldest charter now on
+record is one belonging to the 6th year of Edward I.; and it refers to
+previous documents of the time of Edward the Confessor and William the
+Conqueror. In return for their services the ports enjoyed extensive
+privileges. From the Conquest or even earlier they had, besides various
+lesser rights--(1) exemption from tax and tallage; (2) soc and sac, or
+full cognizance of all criminal and civil cases within their liberties;
+(3) tol and team, or the right of receiving toll and the right of
+compelling the person in whose hands stolen property was found to name
+the person from whom he received it; (4) blodwit and fledwit, or the
+right to punish shedders of blood and those who were seized in an
+attempt to escape from justice; (5) pillory and tumbrel; (6)
+infangentheof and outfangentheof, or power to imprison and execute
+felons; (7) mundbryce (the breaking into or violation of a man's _mund_
+or property in order to erect banks or dikes as a defence against the
+sea); (8) waives and strays, or the right to appropriate lost property
+or cattle not claimed within a year and a day; (9) the right to seize
+all flotsam, jetsam, or ligan, or, in other words, whatever of value was
+cast ashore by the sea; (10) the privilege of being a gild with power to
+impose taxes for the common weal; and (11) the right of assembling in
+portmote or parliament at Shepway or Shepway Cross, a few miles west of
+Hythe (but afterwards at Dover), the parliament being empowered to make
+by-laws for the Cinque Ports, to regulate the Yarmouth fishery, to hear
+appeals from the local courts, and to give decision in all cases of
+treason, sedition, illegal coining or concealment of treasure trove. The
+ordinary business of the ports was conducted in two courts known
+respectively as the court of brotherhood and the court of brotherhood
+and guestling,--the former being composed of the mayors of the seven
+principal towns and a number of jurats and freemen from each, and the
+latter including in addition the mayors, bailiffs and other
+representatives of the corporate members. The court of brotherhood was
+formerly called the brotheryeeld, brodall or brodhull; and the name
+guestling seems to owe its origin to the fact that the officials of the
+"members" were at first in the position of invited guests.
+
+The highest office in connexion with the Cinque Ports is that of the
+lord warden, who also acts as governor of Dover Castle, and has a
+maritime jurisdiction (_vide infra_) as admiral of the ports. His power
+was formerly of great extent, but he has now practically no important
+duty to exercise except that of chairman of the Dover harbour board. The
+emoluments of the office are confined to certain insignificant admiralty
+droits. The patronage attached to the office consists of the right to
+appoint the judge of the Cinque Ports admiralty court, the registrar of
+the Cinque Ports and the marshal of the court; the right of appointing
+salvage commissioners at each Cinque Port and the appointment of a
+deputy to act as chairman of the Dover harbour board in the absence of
+the lord warden. Walmer Castle was for long the official residence of
+the lord warden, but has, since the resignation of Lord Curzon in 1903,
+ceased to be so used, and those portions of it which are of historic
+interest are now open to the public. George, prince of Wales (lord
+warden, 1903-1907), was the first lord warden of royal blood since the
+office was held by George, prince of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne.
+
+_Admiralty Jurisdiction._--The court of admiralty for the Cinque Ports
+exercises a co-ordinate but not exclusive admiralty jurisdiction over
+persons and things found within the territory of the Cinque Ports. The
+limits of its jurisdiction were declared at an inquisition taken at the
+court of admiralty, held by the seaside at Dover in 1682, to extend from
+Shore Beacon in Essex to Redcliff, near Seaford, in Sussex; and with
+regard to salvage, they comprise all the sea between Seaford in Sussex
+to a point five miles off Cape Grisnez on the coast of France, and the
+coast of Essex. An older inquisition of 1526 is given by R.G. Marsden in
+his _Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty_, II. xxx. The court is an
+ancient one. The judge sits as the official and commissary of the lord
+warden, just as the judge of the high court of admiralty sat as the
+official and commissary of the lord high admiral. And, as the office of
+lord warden is more ancient than the office of lord high admiral (_The
+Lord Warden_ v. _King in his office of Admiralty_, 1831, 2 Hagg. Admy.
+Rep. 438), it is probable that the Cinque Ports court is the more
+ancient of the two.
+
+The jurisdiction of the court has been, except in one matter of mere
+antiquarian curiosity, unaffected by statute. It exercises only,
+therefore, such jurisdiction as the high court of admiralty exercised,
+apart from restraining statutes of 1389 and 1391 and enabling statutes
+of 1840 and 1861. Cases of collision have been tried in it (the "Vivid,"
+1 _Asp. Maritime Law Cases_, 601). But salvage cases (the "Clarisse,"
+_Swabey_, 129; the "Marie," _Law. Rep. 7 P.D._ 203) are the principal
+cases now tried. It has no prize jurisdiction. The one case in which
+jurisdiction has been given to it by statute is to enforce forfeitures
+under the statute of 1538.
+
+Dr (afterwards the Right Hon. Robert Joseph) Phillimore succeeded his
+father as judge of the court from 1855 to 1875, being succeeded by Mr
+Arthur Cohen, K.C. As Sir R. Phillimore was also the last judge of the
+high court of admiralty, from 1867 (the date of his appointment to the
+high court) to 1875, the two offices were, probably for the first time
+in history, held by the same person. Dr Phillimore's patent had a grant
+of the "place or office of judge official and commissary of the court of
+admiralty of the Cinque Ports, and their members and appurtenances, and
+to be assistant to my lieutenant of Dover castle in all such affairs and
+business concerning the said court of admiralty wherein yourself and
+assistance shall be requisite and necessary." Of old the court sat
+sometimes at Sandwich, sometimes at other ports. But the regular place
+for the sitting of the court has for a long time been, and still is, the
+aisle of St James's church, Dover. For convenience the judge often sits
+at the royal courts of justice. The office of marshal in the high court
+is represented in this court by a serjeant, who also bears a silver oar.
+There is a registrar, as in the high court. The appeal is to the king in
+council, and is heard by the judicial committee of the privy council.
+The court can hear appeals from the Cinque Ports salvage commissioners,
+such appeals being final (Cinque Ports Act 1821). Actions may be
+transferred to it, and appeals made to it, from the county courts in all
+cases, arising within the jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports as defined by
+that act. At the solemn installation of the lord warden the judge as the
+next principal officer installs him.
+
+The Cinque Ports from the earliest times claimed to be exempt from the
+jurisdiction of the admiral of England. Their early charters do not,
+like those of Bristol and other seaports, express this exemption in
+terms. It seems to have been derived from the general words of the
+charters which preserve their liberties and privileges.
+
+The lord warden's claim to prize was raised in, but not finally decided
+by, the high court of admiralty in the "Ooster Ems," 1 _C. Rob._ 284,
+1783.
+
+  See S. Jeake, _Charters of the Cinque Ports_ (1728); Boys, _Sandwich
+  and Cinque Ports_; Knocker, _Grand Court of Shepway_ (1862); M,
+  Burrows, _Cinque Ports_ (1895); F.M. Hueffer, _Cinque Ports_ (1900);
+  _Indices of the Great White and Black Books of the Cinque Ports_
+  (1905).
+
+
+
+
+CINTRA, a town of central Portugal, in the district of Lisbon, formerly
+included in the province of Estramadura; 17 m. W.N.W. of Lisbon by the
+Lisbon-Caçem-Cintra railway, and 6 m. N. by E. of Cape da Roca, the
+westernmost promontory of the European mainland. Pop. (1900) 5914.
+Cintra is magnificently situated on the northern slope of the Serra da
+Cintra, a rugged mountain mass, largely overgrown with pines,
+eucalyptus, cork and other forest trees, above which the principal
+summits rise in a succession of bare and jagged grey peaks; the highest
+being Cruz Alta (1772 ft.), marked by an ancient stone cross, and
+commanding a wonderful view southward over Lisbon and the Tagus estuary,
+and north-westward over the Atlantic and the plateau of Mafra. Few
+European towns possess equal advantages of position and climate; and
+every educated Portuguese is familiar with the verses in which the
+beauty of Cintra is celebrated by Byron in _Childe Harold_ (1812), and
+by Camoens in the national epic _Os Lusiadas_ (1572). One of the highest
+points of the Serra is surmounted by the Palacio da Pena, a fantastic
+imitation of a medieval fortress, built on the site of a Hieronymite
+convent by the prince consort Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (d. 1885); while
+an adjacent part of the range is occupied by the Castello des Mouros, an
+extensive Moorish fortification, containing a small ruined mosque and a
+very curious set of ancient cisterns. The lower slopes of the Serra are
+covered with the gardens and villas of the wealthier inhabitants of
+Lisbon, who migrate hither in spring and stay until late autumn.
+
+In the town itself the most conspicuous building is a 14th-15th-century
+royal palace, partly Moorish, partly debased Gothic in style, and
+remarkable for the two immense conical chimneys which rise like towers
+in the midst. The 18th-century Palacio de Seteaes, built in the French
+style then popular in Portugal, is said to derive its name ("Seven
+_Ahs_") from a sevenfold echo; here, on the 22nd of August 1808, was
+signed the convention of Cintra, by which the British and Portuguese
+allowed the French army to evacuate the kingdom without molestation.
+Beside the road which leads for 3½ m. W. to the village of Collares,
+celebrated for its wine, is the Penha Verde, an interesting country
+house and chapel, founded by João de Castro (1500-1548), fourth viceroy
+of the Indies. De Castro also founded the convent of Santa Cruz, better
+known as the Convento de Cortiça or Cork convent, which stands at the
+western extremity of the Serra, and owes its name to the cork panels
+which formerly lined its walls. Beyond the Penha Verde, on the Collares
+road, are the palace and park of Montserrate. The palace was originally
+built by William Beckford, the novelist and traveller (1761-1844), and
+was purchased in 1856 by Sir Francis Cook, an Englishman who afterwards
+obtained the Portuguese title viscount of Montserrate. The palace, which
+contains a valuable library, is built of pure white stone, in Moorish
+style; its walls are elaborately sculptured. The park, with its tropical
+luxuriance of vegetation and its variety of lake, forest and mountain
+scenery, is by far the finest example of landscape gardening in the
+Iberian Peninsula, and probably among the finest in the world. Its
+high-lying lawns, which overlook the Atlantic, are as perfect as any in
+England, and there is one ravine containing a whole wood of giant
+tree-ferns from New Zealand. Other rare plants have been systematically
+collected and brought to Montserrate from all parts of the world by Sir
+Francis Cook, and afterwards by his successor, Sir Frederick Cook, the
+second viscount. The Praia das Maçãs, or "beach of apples," in the
+centre of a rich fruit-bearing valley, is a favourite sea-bathing
+station, connected with Cintra by an extension of the electric tramway
+which runs through the town.
+
+
+
+
+CIPHER, or CYPHER (from Arab, _[.s]ifr_, void), the symbol 0, nought, or
+zero; and so a name for symbolic or secret writing (see CRYPTOGRAPHY),
+or even for shorthand (q.v.), and also in elementary education for doing
+simple sums ("ciphering").
+
+
+
+
+CIPPUS (Lat. for a "post" or "stake"), in architecture, a low pedestal,
+either round or rectangular, set up by the Romans for various purposes
+such as military or mile stones, boundary posts, &c. The inscriptions on
+some in the British Museum show that they were occasionally funeral
+memorials.
+
+
+
+
+CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1727-1785), Italian painter and engraver,
+Pistoiese by descent, was born in Florence in 1727. His first lessons
+were given him by an Englishman, Ignatius Heckford or Hugford, and under
+his second master, Antonio Domenico Gabbiani, he became a very clever
+draughtsman. He was in Rome from 1750 to 1753, where he became
+acquainted with Sir William Chambers, the architect, and Joseph Wilton,
+the sculptor, whom he accompanied to England in August 1755. He had
+already painted two pictures for the abbey of San Michele in Pelago,
+Pistoia, which had brought him reputation, and on his arrival in England
+he was patronized by Lord Tilney, the duke of Richmond and other
+noblemen. His acquaintance with Sir William Chambers no doubt helped him
+on, for when Chambers designed the Albany in London for Lord Holland,
+Cipriani painted a ceiling for him. He also painted part of a ceiling in
+Buckingham Palace, and a room with poetical subjects at Standlynch in
+Wiltshire. Some of his best and most permanent work was, however, done
+at Somerset House, built by his friend Chambers, upon which he lavished
+infinite pains. He not only prepared the decorations for the interior of
+the north block, but, says Joseph Baretti in his _Guide through the
+Royal Academy_ (1780), "the whole of the carvings in the various fronts
+of Somerset Place--excepting Bacon's bronze figures--were carved from
+finished drawings made by Cipriani." These designs include the five
+masks forming the keystones to the arches on the courtyard side of the
+vestibule, and the two above the doors leading into the wings of the
+north block, all of which are believed to have been carved by Nollekens.
+The grotesque groups flanking the main doorways on three sides of the
+quadrangle and the central doorway on the terrace appear also to have
+been designed by Cipriani. The apartments in Sir William Chambers's
+stately palace that were assigned to the Royal Academy, into which it
+moved in 1780, owed much to Cipriani's graceful, if mannered, pencil.
+The central panel of the library ceiling was painted by Sir Joshua
+Reynolds, but the four compartments in the coves, representing Allegory,
+Fable, Nature and History, were Cipriani's. These paintings still remain
+at Somerset House, together with the emblematic painted ceiling, also
+his work, of what was once the library of the Royal Society. It was
+natural that Cipriani should thus devote himself to adorning the
+apartments of the academy, since he was an original member (1768) of
+that body, for which he designed the diploma so well engraved by
+Bartolozzi. In recognition of his services in this respect the members
+presented him in 1769 with a silver cup with a commemorative
+inscription. He was much employed by the publishers, for whom he made
+drawings in pen and ink, sometimes coloured. His friend Bartolozzi
+engraved most of them. Drawings by him are in both the British Museum
+and Victoria and Albert Museum. His best autograph engravings are "The
+Death of Cleopatra," after Benvenuto Cellini; "The Descent of the Holy
+Ghost," after Gabbiani; and portraits for Hollis's memoirs, 1780. He
+painted allegorical designs for George III.'s state coach--which is
+still in use--in 1782, and repaired Verrio's paintings at Windsor and
+Rubens's ceiling in the Banqueting House at Whitehall. If his pictures
+were often weak, his decorative treatment of children was usually
+exceedingly happy. Some of his most pleasing work was that which,
+directly or indirectly, he executed for the decoration of furniture. He
+designed many groups of nymphs and _amorini_ and medallion subjects to
+form the centre of Pergolesi's bands of ornament, and they were
+continually reproduced upon the elegant satin-wood furniture which was
+growing popular in his later days and by the end of the 18th century
+became a rage. Sometimes these designs were inlaid in marqueterie, but
+most frequently they were painted upon the satin-wood by other hands
+with delightful effect, since in the whole range of English furniture
+there is nothing more enchanting than really good finished satin-wood
+pieces. There can be little doubt that some of the beautiful furniture
+designed by the Adams was actually painted by Cipriani himself. He also
+occasionally designed handles for drawers and doors. Cipriani died at
+Hammersmith in 1785 and was buried at Chelsea, where Bartolozzi erected
+a monument to his memory. He had married an English lady, by whom he had
+two sons.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCAR, an Indian term applied to the component parts of a _subah_ or
+province, each of which is administered by a deputy-governor. In English
+it is principally employed in the name of the NORTHERN CIRCARS, used to
+designate a now obsolete division of the Madras presidency, which
+consisted of a narrow slip of territory lying along the western side of
+the Bay of Bengal from 15° 40' to 20° 17' N. lat. These Northern Circars
+were five in number, Chicacole, Rajahmundry, Ellore, Kondapalli and
+Guntur, and their total area was about 30,000 sq. m.
+
+The district corresponds in the main to the modern districts of Kistna,
+Godavari, Vizagapatam, Ganjam and a part of Nellore. It was first
+invaded by the Mahommedans in 1471; in 1541 they conquered Kondapalli,
+and nine years later they extended their conquests over all Guntur and
+the districts of Masulipatam. But the invaders appear to have acquired
+only an imperfect possession of the country, as it was again wrested
+from the Hindu princes of Orissa about the year 1571, during the reign
+of Ibrahim, of the Kutb Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad or Golconda. In 1687
+the Circars were added, along with the empire of Hyderabad, to the
+extensive empire of Aurangzeb. Salabat Jang, the son of the nizam ul
+mulk Asaf Jah, who was indebted for his elevation to the throne to the
+French East India Company, granted them in return for their services the
+district of Kondavid or Guntur, and soon afterwards the other Circars.
+In 1759, by the conquest of the fortress of Masulipatam, the dominion of
+the maritime provinces on both sides, from the river Gundlakamma to the
+Chilka lake, was necessarily transferred from the French to the British.
+But the latter left them under the administration of the nizam, with the
+exception of the town and fortress of Masulipatam, which were retained
+by the English East India Company. In 1765 Lord Clive obtained from the
+Mogul emperor Shah Alam a grant of the five Circars. Hereupon the fort
+of Kondapalli was seized by the British, and on the 12th of November
+1766 a treaty of alliance was signed with Nizam Ali by which the
+Company, in return for the grant of the Circars, undertook to maintain
+troops for the nizam's assistance. By a second treaty, signed on the 1st
+of March 1768, the nizam acknowledged the validity of Shah Alam's grant
+and resigned the Circars to the Company, receiving as a mark of
+friendship an annuity of £50,000. Guntur, as the personal estate of the
+nizam's brother Basalat Jang, was excepted during his lifetime under
+both treaties. He died in 1782, but it was not till 1788 that Guntur
+came under British administration. Finally, in 1823, the claims of the
+nizam over the Northern Circars were bought outright by the Company, and
+they became a British possession.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCASSIA, a name formerly given to the north-western portion of the
+Caucasus, including the district between the mountain range and the
+Black Sea, and extending to the north of the central range as far as the
+river Kuban. Its physical features are described in the article on the
+Russian province of KUBAN, with which it approximately coincides. The
+present article is confined to a consideration of the ethnographical
+relations and characteristics of the people, their history being treated
+under CAUCASIA.
+
+The Cherkesses or Circassians, who gave their name to this region, of
+which they were until lately the sole inhabitants, are a peculiar race,
+differing from the other tribes of the Caucasus in origin and language.
+They designate themselves by the name of Adigheb, that of Cherkesses
+being a term of Russian origin. By their long-continued struggles with
+the power of Russia, during a period of nearly forty years, they
+attracted the attention of the other nations of Europe in a high degree,
+and were at the same time an object of interest to the student of the
+history of civilization, from the strange mixture which their customs
+exhibited of chivalrous sentiment with savage customs. For this reason
+it may be still worth while to give a brief summary of their national
+characteristics and manners, though these must now be regarded as in
+great measure things of the past.
+
+In the patriarchal simplicity of their manners, the mental qualities
+with which they were endowed, the beauty of form and regularity of
+feature by which they were distinguished, they surpassed most of the
+other tribes of the Caucasus. At the same time they were remarkable for
+their warlike and intrepid character, their independence, their
+hospitality to strangers, and that love of country which they manifested
+in their determined resistance to an almost overwhelming power during
+the period of a long and desolating war. The government under which they
+lived was a peculiar form of the feudal system. The free Circassians
+were divided into three distinct ranks, the princes or _pshi_, the
+nobles or _uork_ (Tatar _usden_), and the peasants or _hokotl_. Like the
+inhabitants of the other regions of the Caucasus, they were also divided
+into numerous families, tribes or clans, some of which were very
+powerful, and carried on war against each other with great animosity.
+The slaves, of whom a large proportion were prisoners of war, were
+generally employed in the cultivation of the soil, or in the domestic
+service of some of the principal chiefs.
+
+The will of the people was acknowledged as the supreme source of
+authority; and every free Circassian had a right to express his opinion
+in those assemblies of his tribe in which the questions of peace and
+war, almost the only subjects which engaged their attention, were
+brought under deliberation. The princes and nobles, the leaders of the
+people in war and their rulers in peace, were only the administrators of
+a power which was delegated to them. As they had no written laws, the
+administration of justice was regulated solely by custom and tradition,
+and in those tribes professing Mahommedanism by the precepts of the
+Koran. The most aged and respected inhabitants of the various _auls_ or
+villages frequently sat in judgment, and their decisions were received
+without a murmur by the contending parties. The Circassian princes and
+nobles were professedly Mahommedans; but in their religious services
+many of the ceremonies of their former heathen and Christian worship
+were still preserved. A great part of the people had remained faithful
+to the worship of their ancient gods--Shible, the god of thunder, of war
+and of justice; Tleps, the god of fire; and Seosseres, the god of water
+and of winds. Although the Circassians are said to have possessed minds
+capable of the highest cultivation, the arts and sciences, with the
+exception of poetry and music, were completely neglected. They possessed
+no written language. The wisdom of their sages, the knowledge they had
+acquired, and the memory of their warlike deeds were preserved in
+verses, which were repeated from mouth to mouth and descended from
+father to son.
+
+The education of the young Circassian was confined to riding, fencing,
+shooting, hunting, and such exercises as were calculated to strengthen
+his frame and prepare him for a life of active warfare. The only
+intellectual duty of the _atalik_ or instructor, with whom the young men
+lived until they had completed their education, was that of teaching
+them to express their thoughts shortly, quickly and appropriately. One
+of their marriage ceremonies was very strange. The young man who had
+been approved by the parents, and had paid the stipulated price in
+money, horses, oxen, or sheep for his bride, was expected to come with
+his friends fully armed, and to carry her off by force from her father's
+house. Every free Circassian had unlimited right over the lives of his
+wife and children. Although polygamy was allowed by the laws of the
+Koran, the custom of the country forbade it, and the Circassians were
+generally faithful to the marriage bond. The respect for superior age
+was carried to such an extent that the young brother used to rise from
+his seat when the elder entered an apartment, and was silent when he
+spoke. Like all the other inhabitants of the Caucasus, the Circassians
+were distinguished for two very opposite qualities--the most generous
+hospitality and implacable vindictiveness. Hospitality to the stranger
+was considered one of the most sacred duties. Whatever were his rank in
+life, all the members of the family rose to receive him on his entrance,
+and conduct him to the principal seat in the apartment. The host was
+considered responsible with his own life for the security of his guest,
+upon whom, even although his deadliest enemy, he would inflict no injury
+while under the protection of his roof. The chief who had received a
+stranger was also bound to grant him an escort of horse to conduct him
+in safety on his journey, and confide him to the protection of those
+nobles with whom he might be on friendly terms. The law of vengeance was
+no less binding on the Circassian. The individual who had slain any
+member of a family was pursued with implacable vengeance by the
+relatives, until his crime was expiated by death. The murderer might,
+indeed, secure his safety by the payment of a certain sum of money, or
+by carrying off from the house of his enemy a newly-born child, bringing
+it up as his own, and restoring it when its education was finished. In
+either case, the family of the slain individual might discontinue the
+pursuit of vengeance without any stain upon its honour. The man closely
+followed by his enemy, who, on reaching the dwelling of a woman, had
+merely touched her hand, was safe from all other pursuit so long as he
+remained under the protection of her roof. The opinions of the
+Circassians regarding theft resembled those of the ancient Spartans. The
+commission of the crime was not considered so disgraceful as its
+discovery; and the punishment of being compelled publicly to restore the
+stolen property to its original possessor, amid the derision of his
+tribe, was much dreaded by the Circassian who would glory in a
+successful theft. The greatest stain upon the Circassian character was
+the custom of selling their children, the Circassian father being always
+willing to part with his daughters, many of whom were bought by Turkish
+merchants for the harems of Eastern monarchs. But no degradation was
+implied in this transaction, and the young women themselves were
+generally willing partners in it. Herds of cattle and sheep constituted
+the chief riches of the inhabitants. The princes and nobles, from whom
+the members of the various tribes held the land which they cultivated,
+were the proprietors of the soil. The Circassians carried on little or
+no commerce, and the state of perpetual warfare in which they lived
+prevented them from cultivating any of the arts of peace.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCE (Gr. [Greek: Kirkê]), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, the
+daughter of Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. Having murdered her
+husband, the prince of Colchis, she was expelled by her subjects and
+placed by her father on the solitary island of Aeaea on the coast of
+Italy. She was able by means of drugs and incantations to change human
+beings into the forms of wolves or lions, and with these beings her
+palace was surrounded. Here she was found by Odysseus and his
+companions; the latter she changed into swine, but the hero, protected
+by the herb _moly_ (q.v.), which he had received from Hermes, not only
+forced her to restore them to their original shape, but also gained her
+love. For a year he relinquished himself to her endearments, and when he
+determined to leave, she instructed him how to sail to the land of
+shades which lay on the verge of the ocean stream, in order to learn his
+fate from the prophet Teiresias. Upon his return she also gave him
+directions for avoiding the dangers of the journey home (Homer,
+_Odyssey_, x.-xii.; Hyginus, _Fab._ 125). The Roman poets associated her
+with the most ancient traditions of Latium, and assigned her a home on
+the promontory of Circei (Virgil, _Aeneid_, vii. 10). The metamorphoses
+of Scylla and of Picus, king of the Ausonians, by Circe, are narrated in
+Ovid (_Metamorphoses_, xiv.).
+
+  _The Myth of Kirke_, by R. Brown (1883), in which Circe is explained
+  as a moon-goddess of Babylonian origin, contains an exhaustive summary
+  of facts, although many of the author's speculations may be proved
+  untenable (review by H. Bradley in _Academy_, January 19, 1884); see
+  also J.E. Harrison, _Myths of the Odyssey_ (1882); C. Seeliger in W.H.
+  Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCEIUS MONS (mod. _Monte Circeo_), an isolated promontory on the S.W.
+coast of Italy, about 80 m. S.E. of Rome. It is a ridge of limestone
+about 3½ m. long by 1 m. wide at the base, running from E. to W. and
+surrounded by the sea on all sides except the N. The land to the N. of
+it is 53 ft. above sea-level, while the summit of the promontory is 1775
+ft. The origin of the name is uncertain: it has naturally been connected
+with the legend of Circe, and Victor Bérard (in _Les Phéniciens et
+l'Odyssée_, ii. 261 seq.) maintains in support of the identification
+that [Greek: Ahiaiê], the Greek name for the island of Circe, is a
+faithful transliteration of a Semitic name, meaning "island of the
+hawk," of which [Greek: nêsos Kirkês] is the translation. The difficulty
+has been raised, especially by geologists, that the promontory ceased to
+be an island at a period considerably before the time of Homer; but
+Procopius very truly remarked that the promontory has all the appearance
+of an island until one is actually upon it. Upon the E. end of the ridge
+of the promontory are the remains of an enceinte, forming roughly a
+rectangle of about 200 by 100 yds. of very fine polygonal work, on the
+outside, the blocks being very carefully cut and jointed and right
+angles being intentionally avoided. The wall stands almost entirely
+free, as at Arpinum--polygonal walls in Italy are as a rule embanking
+walls--and increases considerably in thickness as it descends. The
+blocks of the inner face are much less carefully worked both here and at
+Arpinum. It seems to have been an acropolis, and contains no traces of
+buildings, except for a subterranean cistern, circular, with a beehive
+roof of converging blocks. The modern village of S. Felice Circeo seems
+to occupy the site of the ancient town, the citadel of which stood on
+the mountain top, for its medieval walls rest upon ancient walls of
+Cyclopean work of less careful construction than those of the citadel,
+and enclosing an area of 200 by 150 yds.
+
+Circei was founded as a Roman colony at an early date--according to some
+authorities in the time of Tarquinius Superbus, but more probably about
+390 B.C. The existence of a previous population, however, is very likely
+indicated by the revolt of Circei in the middle of the 4th century B.C.,
+so that it is doubtful whether the walls described are to be attributed
+to the Romans or the earlier Volscian inhabitants. At the end of the
+republic, however, or at latest at the beginning of the imperial period,
+the city of Circei was no longer at the E. end of the promontory, but on
+the E. shores of the Lago di Paola (a lagoon--now a considerable
+fishery--separated from the sea by a line of sandhills and connected
+with it by a channel of Roman date: Strabo speaks of it as a small
+harbour) one mile N. of the W. end of the promontory. Here are the
+remains of a Roman town, belonging to the 1st and 2nd centuries,
+extending over an area of some 600 by 500 yards, and consisting of fine
+buildings along the lagoons, including a large open _piscina_ or basin,
+surrounded by a double portico, while farther inland are several very
+large and well-preserved water-reservoirs, supplied by an aqueduct of
+which traces may still be seen. An inscription speaks of an
+amphitheatre, of which no remains are visible. The transference of the
+city did not, however, mean the abandonment of the E. end of the
+promontory, on which stand the remains of several very large villas. An
+inscription, indeed, cut in the rock near S. Felice, speaks of this part
+of the _promunturium Veneris_ (the only case of the use of this name) as
+belonging to the city of Circei. On the S. and N. sides of the
+promontory there are comparatively few buildings, while, at the W. end
+there is a sheer precipice to the sea. The town only acquired municipal
+rights after the Social War, and was a place of little importance,
+except as a seaside resort. For its villas Cicero compares it with
+Antium, and probably both Tiberius and Domitian possessed residences
+there. The beetroot and oysters of Circei had a certain reputation. The
+view from the highest summit of the promontory (which is occupied by
+ruins of a platform attributed with great probability to a temple of
+Venus or Circe) is of remarkable beauty; the whole mountain is covered
+with fragrant shrubs. From any point in the Pomptine Marshes or on the
+coast-line of Latium the Circeian promontory dominates the landscape in
+the most remarkable way.
+
+  See T. Ashby, "Monte Circeo," in _Mélanges de l'école française de
+  Rome_, XXV. (1905) 157 seq.    (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CIRCLE (from the Lat. _circulus_, the diminutive of _circus_, a ring;
+the cognate Gr. word is [Greek: kirkos], generally used in the form
+[Greek: krikos]), a plane curve definable as the locus of a point which
+moves so that its distance from a fixed point is constant.
+
+The form of a circle is familiar to all; and we proceed to define
+certain lines, points, &c., which constantly occur in studying its
+geometry. The fixed point in the preceding definition is termed the
+"centre" (C in fig. 1); the constant distance, e.g. CG, the "radius."
+The curve itself is sometimes termed the "circumference." Any line
+through the centre and terminated at both extremities by the curve, e.g.
+AB, is a "diameter"; any other line similarly terminated, e.g. EF, a
+"chord." Any line drawn from an external point to cut the circle in two
+points, e.g. DEF, is termed a "secant"; if it touches the circle, e.g.
+DG, it is a "tangent." Any portion of the circumference terminated by
+two points, e.g. AD (fig. 2), is termed an "arc"; and the plane figure
+enclosed by a chord and arc, e.g. ABD, is termed a "segment"; if the
+chord be a diameter, the segment is termed a "semicircle." The figure
+included by two radii and an arc is a "sector," e.g. ECF (fig. 2).
+"Concentric circles" are, as the name obviously shows, circles having
+the same centre; the figure enclosed by the circumferences of two
+concentric circles is an "annulus" (fig. 3), and of two non-concentric
+circles a "lune," the shaded portions in fig. 4; the clear figure is
+sometimes termed a "lens."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+The circle was undoubtedly known to the early civilizations, its
+simplicity specially recommending it as an object for study. Euclid
+defines it (Book I. def. 15) as a "plane figure enclosed by one line,
+all the straight lines drawn to which from one point within the figure
+are equal to one another." In the succeeding three definitions the
+centre, diameter and the semicircle are defined, while the third
+postulate of the same book demands the possibility of describing a
+circle for every "centre" and "distance." Having employed the circle for
+the construction and demonstration of several propositions in Books I.
+and II. Euclid devotes his third book entirely to theorems and problems
+relating to the circle, and certain lines and angles, which he defines
+in introducing the propositions. The fourth book deals with the circle
+in its relations to inscribed and circumscribed triangles,
+quadrilaterals and regular polygons. Reference should be made to the
+article GEOMETRY: _Euclidean_, for a detailed summary of the Euclidean
+treatment, and the elementary properties of the circle.
+
+
+_Analytical Geometry of the Circle._
+
+  Cartesian co-ordinates.
+
+In the article GEOMETRY: _Analytical_, it is shown that the general
+equation to a circle in rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates is
+x^2+y^2+2gx+2fy+c=0, i.e. in the general equation of the second degree
+the co-efficients of x^2 and y^2 are equal, and of xy zero. The
+co-ordinates of its centre are -g/c, -f/c; and its radius is
+(g^2+f^2-c)^½. The equations to the chord, tangent and normal are
+readily derived by the ordinary methods.
+
+Consider the two circles:--
+
+  x^2+y^2+2gx+2fy+c=0,   x^2+y^2+2g'x+2f'y+c'=0.
+
+  Obviously these equations show that the curves intersect in four
+  points, two of which lie on the intersection of the line, 2(g - g')x +
+  2(f - f')y + c - c' = 0, the radical axis, with the circles, and the
+  other two where the lines x² + y² = (x + iy) (x - iy) = 0 (where i =
+  sqrt -1) intersect the circles. The first pair of intersections may be
+  either real or imaginary; we proceed to discuss the second pair.
+
+  The equation x² + y² = 0 denotes a pair of perpendicular imaginary
+  lines; it follows, therefore, that circles always intersect in two
+  imaginary points at infinity along these lines, and since the terms
+  x² + y² occur in the equation of every circle, it is seen that all
+  circles pass through two fixed points at infinity. The introduction of
+  these lines and points constitutes a striking achievement in geometry,
+  and from their association with circles they have been named the
+  "circular lines" and "circular points." Other names for the circular
+  lines are "circulars" or "isotropic lines." Since the equation to a
+  circle of zero radius is x² + y² = 0, i.e. identical with the circular
+  lines, it follows that this circle consists of a real point and the
+  two imaginary lines; conversely, the circular lines are both a pair of
+  lines and a circle. A further deduction from the principle of
+  continuity follows by considering the intersections of concentric
+  circles. The equations to such circles may be expressed in the form
+  x² + y² = [alpha]², x² + y² = [beta]². These equations show that the
+  circles touch where they intersect the lines x² + y² = 0, i.e.
+  concentric circles have double contact at the circular points, the
+  chord of contact being the line at infinity.
+
+In various systems of triangular co-ordinates the equations to circles
+specially related to the triangle of reference assume comparatively
+simple forms; consequently they provide elegant algebraical
+demonstrations of properties concerning a triangle and the circles
+intimately associated with its geometry. In this article the equations
+to the more important circles--the circumscribed, inscribed, escribed,
+self-conjugate--will be given; reference should be made to the article
+TRIANGLE for the consideration of other circles (nine-point, Brocard,
+Lemoine, &c.); while in the article GEOMETRY: _Analytical_, the
+principles of the different systems are discussed.
+
+
+    Trilinear co-ordinates.
+
+  The equation to the circumcircle assumes the simple form
+  a[beta][gamma] + b[gamma][alpha] + c[alpha][beta] = 0, the centre
+  being cos A, cos B, cos C. The inscribed circle is cos ½A sqrt([alpha])
+  cos ½B sqrt([beta]) + cos ½C sqrt([gamma]) = 0, with centre [alpha] =
+  [beta] = [gamma]; while the escribed circle opposite the angle A is
+  cos ½A sqrt(-[alpha]) + sin ½B sqrt([beta]) + sin ½C sqrt([gamma]) =
+  0, with centre -[alpha] = [beta] = [gamma]. The self-conjugate circle
+  is [alpha]² sin 2A + [beta]² sin 2B + [gamma]² sin 2C = 0, or the
+  equivalent form a cos A [alpha]² + b cos B [beta]² + c cos C [gamma]² =
+  0, the centre being sec A, sec B, sec C.
+
+  The general equation to the circle in trilinear co-ordinates is
+  readily deduced from the fact that the circle is the only curve which
+  intersects the line infinity in the circular points. Consider the
+  equation
+
+    a[beta][gamma] + b[gamma][alpha] + C[alpha][beta] + (l[alpha] +
+    m[beta] + n[gamma]) (a[alpha] + b[beta] + c[gamma]) = 0        (1).
+
+  This obviously represents a conic intersecting the circle
+  a[beta][gamma] + b[gamma][alpha] + c[alpha][beta] = 0 in points on the
+  common chords l[alpha] + m[beta] + n[gamma] = 0, a[alpha] + b[beta] +
+  c[gamma] = 0. The line l[alpha] + m[beta] + n[gamma] is the radical
+  axis, and since a[alpha] + b[beta] + c[gamma] = 0 is the line
+  infinity, it is obvious that equation (1) represents a conic passing
+  through the circular points, i.e. a circle. If we compare (1) with the
+  general equation of the second degree u[alpha]² + v[beta]² + w[gamma]²
+  + 2u'[beta][gamma] + 2v'[gamma][alpha] + 2w'[alpha][beta] = 0, it is
+  readily seen that for this equation to represent a circle we must have
+
+    -kabc = vc² + wb² - 2u'bc = wa² + uc² - 2v'ca = ub² + va² - 2w'ab.
+
+
+    Areal co-ordinates.
+
+  The corresponding equations in areal co-ordinates are readily derived
+  by substituting x/a, y/b, z/c for [alpha], [beta], [gamma]
+  respectively in the trilinear equations. The circumcircle is thus seen
+  to be a²yz + b²zx + c²xy = 0, with centre sin 2A, sin 2B, sin 2C; the
+  inscribed circle is sqrt(x cot ½A) + sqrt(y cot ½B) + sqrt(z cot ½C) =
+  0, with centre sin A, sin B, sin C; the escribed circle opposite the
+  angle A is sqrt(-x cot ½A) + sqrt(y tan ½B) + sqrt(z tan ½C)=0, with
+  centre - sin A, sin B, sin C; and the self-conjugate circle is x² cot
+  A + y² cot B + z² cot C = 0, with centre tan A, tan B, tan C. Since in
+  areal co-ordinates the line infinity is represented by the equation x
+  + y + z = 0 it is seen that every circle is of the form a²yz + b²zx +
+  c²xy + (lx + my + nz)(x + y + z) = 0. Comparing this equation with ux²
+  + vy² + wz² + 2u'yz + 2v'zx + 2w'xy = 0, we obtain as the condition
+  for the general equation of the second degree to represent a
+  circle:--
+
+    (v + w - 2u')/a² = (w + u - 2v')/b² = (u + v - 2w')/c².
+
+
+    Tangential co-ordinates.
+
+  In tangential (p, q, r) co-ordinates the inscribed circle has for its
+  equation (s - a)qr + (s - b)rp + (s - c)pq = 0, s being equal to ½(a +
+  b + c); an alternative form is qr cot ½A + rp cot ½B + pq cot ½C = 0;
+  the centre is ap + bq + cr = 0, or p sin A + q sin B + r sin C = 0.
+  The escribed circle opposite the angle A is -sqr + (s - c)rp + (s -
+  b)pq = 0 or -qr cot ½A + rp tan ½B + pq tan ½C = 0, with centre -ap +
+  bq + cr = 0. The circumcircle is a sqrt(p) + b sqrt(q) + c sqrt(r) =
+  0, the centre being p sin 2A + q sin 2B + r sin 2C = 0. The general
+  equation to a circle in this system of co-ordinates is deduced as
+  follows: If [rho] be the radius and lp + mq + nr = 0 the centre, we
+  have [rho] = (lp1 + mq1 + nr1)/(l + m + n), in which p1, q1, r1 is a
+  line distant [rho] from the point lp + mq + nr = 0. Making this
+  equation homogeneous by the relation [Sigma]a²(p - q) (p - r) =
+  4[Delta]² (see GEOMETRY: _Analytical_), which is generally written
+  {ap, bq, cr}² = 4[Delta]², we obtain {ap, bq, cr}²[rho]² =
+  4[Delta]²{(lp + mq + nr)/(l + m + n)}², the accents being dropped, and
+  p, q, r regarded as current co-ordinates. This equation, which may be
+  more conveniently written {ap, bq, cr}² = ([lambda]p + [mu]q +
+  [nu]r)², obviously represents a circle, the centre being [lambda]p +
+  [mu]q + [nu]r = 0, and radius 2[Delta]/([lambda] + [mu] + [nu]). If we
+  make [lambda] = [mu] = [nu] = 0, [rho] is infinite, and we obtain {ap,
+  bq, cr}² = 0 as the equation to the circular points.
+
+
+_Systems of Circles._
+
+_Centres and Circle of Similitude._--The "centres of similitude" of two
+circles may be defined as the intersections of the common tangents to
+the two circles, the direct common tangents giving rise to the "external
+centre," the transverse tangents to the "internal centre." It may be
+readily shown that the external and internal centres are the points
+where the line joining the centres of the two circles is divided
+externally and internally in the ratio of their radii.
+
+The circle on the line joining the internal and external centres of
+similitude as diameter is named the "circle of similitude." It may be
+shown to be the locus of the vertex of the triangle which has for its
+base the distance between the centres of the circles and the ratio of
+the remaining sides equal to the ratio of the radii of the two circles.
+
+With a system of three circles it is readily seen that there are six
+centres of similitude, viz. two for each pair of circles, and it may be
+shown that these lie three by three on four lines, named the "axes of
+similitude." The collinear centres are the three sets of one external
+and two internal centres, and the three external centres.
+
+_Coaxal Circles._--A system of circles is coaxal when the locus of
+points from which tangents to the circles are equal is a straight line.
+Consider the case of two circles, and in the first place suppose them to
+intersect in two real points A and B. Then by Euclid iii. 36 it is seen
+that the line joining the points A and B is the locus of the
+intersection of equal tangents, for if P be any point on AB and PC and
+PD the tangents to the circles, then PA·PB = PC² = PD², and therefore PC
+= PD. Furthermore it is seen that AB is perpendicular to the line
+joining the centres, and divides it in the ratio of the squares of the
+radii. The line AB is termed the "radical axis." A system coaxal with
+the two given circles is readily constructed by describing circles
+through the common points on the radical axis and any third point; the
+minimum circle of the system is obviously that which has the common
+chord of intersection for diameter, the maximum is the radical
+axis--considered as a circle of infinite radius. In the case of two
+non-intersecting circles it may be shown that the radical axis has the
+same metrical relations to the line of centres.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+  There are several methods of constructing the radical axis in this
+  case. One of the simplest is: Let P and P' (fig. 5) be the points of
+  contact of a common tangent; drop perpendiculars PL, P'L', from P and
+  P' to OO', the line joining the centres, then the radical axis bisects
+  LL' (at X) and is perpendicular to OO'. To prove this let AB, AB¹ be
+  the tangents from any point on the line AX. Then by Euc. i. 47, AB² =
+  AO² - OB² = AX² + OX² + OP²; and OX² = OD² - DX² = OP² + PD² - DX².
+  Therefore AB² = AX² - DX² + PD². Similarly AB'² = AX² - DX² + DP'².
+  Since PD = PD', it follows that AB = AB'.
+
+  To construct circles coaxal with the two given circles, draw the
+  tangent, say XR, from X, the point where the radical axis intersects
+  the line of centres, to one of the given circles, and with centre X
+  and radius XR describe a circle. Then circles having the intersections
+  of tangents to this circle and the line of centres for centres, and
+  the lengths of the tangents as radii, are members of the coaxal
+  system.
+
+In the case of non-intersecting circles, it is seen that the minimum
+circles of the coaxal system are a pair of points I and I', where the
+orthogonal circle to the system intersects the line of centres; these
+points are named the "limiting points." In the case of a coaxal system
+having real points of intersection the limiting points are imaginary.
+Analytically, the Cartesian equation to a coaxal system can be written
+in the form x² + y² + 2ax ± k² = 0, where a varies from member to
+member, while k is a constant. The radical axis is x = 0, and it may be
+shown that the length of the tangent from a point (0, h) is h² ± k²,
+i.e. it is independent of a, and therefore of any particular member of
+the system. The circles intersect in real or imaginary points according
+to the lower or upper sign of k², and the limiting points are real for
+the upper sign and imaginary for the lower sign. The fundamental
+properties of coaxal systems may be summarized:--
+
+  1. The centres of circles forming a coaxal system are collinear;
+
+  2. A coaxal system having real points of intersection has imaginary
+    limiting points;
+
+  3. A coaxal system having imaginary points of intersection has real
+    limiting points;
+
+  4. Every circle through the limiting points cuts all circles of the
+    system orthogonally;
+
+  5. The limiting points are inverse points for every circle of the
+    system.
+
+The theory of centres of similitude and coaxal circles affords elegant
+demonstrations of the famous problem: To describe a circle to touch
+three given circles. This problem, also termed the "Apollonian problem,"
+was demonstrated with the aid of conic sections by Apollonius in his
+book on _Contacts_ or _Tangencies_; geometrical solutions involving the
+conic sections were also given by Adrianus Romanus, Vieta, Newton and
+others. The earliest analytical solution appears to have been given by
+the princess Elizabeth, a pupil of Descartes and daughter of Frederick
+V. John Casey, professor of mathematics at the Catholic university of
+Dublin, has given elementary demonstrations founded on the theory of
+similitude and coaxal circles which are reproduced in his _Sequel to
+Euclid_; an analytical solution by Gergonne is given in Salmon's _Conic
+Sections_. Here we may notice that there are eight circles which solve
+the problem.
+
+
+_Mensuration of the Circle._
+
+All exact relations pertaining to the mensuration of the circle involve
+the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. This ratio, invariably
+denoted by [pi], is constant for all circles, but it does not admit of
+exact arithmetical expression, being of the nature of an incommensurable
+number. Very early in the history of geometry it was known that the
+circumference and area of a circle of radius r could be expressed in the
+forms 2[pi]r and [pi]r². The exact geometrical evaluation of the second
+quantity, viz. [pi]r², which, in reality, is equivalent to determining a
+square equal in area to a circle, engaged the attention of
+mathematicians for many centuries. The history of these attempts,
+together with modern contributions to our knowledge of the value and
+nature of the number [pi], is given below (_Squaring of the Circle_).
+
+  The following table gives the values of this constant and several
+  expiessions involving it:--
+
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+
+    |              |  Number.  | Logarithm.|
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+
+    |        [pi]  | 3.1415927 | 0.4971499 |
+    |      2 [pi]  | 6.2831858 | 0.7981799 |
+    |      4 [pi]  |12.5663706 | 1.0992099 |
+    |  (1/2) [pi]  | 1.5707963 | 0.1961199 |
+    |  (1/3) [pi]  | 1.0471976 | 0.0200286 |
+    |  (1/4) [pi]  | 0.7853982 | 1.8950899 |
+    |  (1/6) [pi]  | 0.5235988 | 1.7189986 |
+    |  (1/8) [pi]  | 0.3926991 | 1.5940599 |
+    | (1/12) [pi]  | 0.2617994 | 1.4179686 |
+    |  (4/3) [pi]  | 4.1887902 | 0.6220886 |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      [pi]    |           |           |
+    |     ------   | 0.0174533 | 2.2418774 |
+    |      180     |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |       1      |           |           |
+    |     ------   | 0.3183099 | 1.5028501 |
+    |      [pi]    |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |       4      |           |           |
+    |     ------   | 1.2732395 | 0.1049101 |
+    |      [pi]    |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |       1      |           |           |
+    |     ------   | 0.0795775 | 2.9097901 |
+    |     4 [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      180     |           |           |
+    |     ------   |57.2957795 | 1.7581226 |
+    |      [pi]    |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      [pi]²   | 9.8696044 | 0.9942997 |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |        1     |           |           |
+    |    --------  | 0.0168869 | 2.2275490 |
+    |     6 [pi]²  |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      _____   |           |           |
+    |    \/ [pi]   | 1.7724539 | 0.2485750 |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      _____   |           |           |
+    |   \³/ [pi]   | 1.4645919 | 0.1657166 |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      1       |           |           |
+    |   --------   |           |           |
+    |      _____   | 0.5641896 | 1.7514251 |
+    |    \/ [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      2       |           |           |
+    |   --------   |           |           |
+    |      _____   | 1.1283792 | 0.0524551 |
+    |    \/ [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      1       |           |           |
+    | ----------   |           |           |
+    |      _____   | 0.2820948 | 1.4503951 |
+    |  2 \/ [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |     _____    |           |           |
+    |    /  6      |           |           |
+    | \³/ ----     | 1.2407010 | 0.0936671 |
+    |  V  [pi]     |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |     ______   |           |           |
+    |    /   3     |           |           |
+    | \³/ -------  | 0.6203505 | 1.7926371 |
+    |  V  4 [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    | log e [pi]   | 1.1447299 | 0.0587030 |
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  Useful fractional approximations are 22/7 and 355/113.
+
+  A synopsis of the leading formula connected with the circle will now
+  be given.
+
+  1. _Circle._--Data: radius = a. Circumference = 2[pi]a. Area = [pi]a².
+
+  2. _Arc_ and _Sector_.--Data: radius = a; [theta] = circular measure
+  of angle subtended at centre by arc; c = chord of arc; c2 = chord of
+  semi-arc; c4 = chord of quarter-arc.
+
+  Exact formulae are:--Arc = a[theta], where [theta] may be given
+  directly, or indirectly by the relation c = 2a sin ½[theta]. Area of
+  sector = ½a²[theta] = ½ radius × arc.
+
+  Approximate formulae are:--Arc = (1/3)(8c2 - c) (Huygen's formula);
+  arc = (1/45)(c - 40c2 + 256c4).
+
+  3. _Segment._--Data: a, [theta], c, c2, as in (2); h = height of
+  segment, i.e. distance of mid-point of arc from chord.
+
+  Exact formulae are:--Area = ½a²([theta] - sin [theta]) = ½a²[theta]
+  -¼c² cot ½[theta] = ½a² - ½c sqrt(a² - ¼c²). If h be given, we can use
+  c² + 4h² = 8ah, 2h = c tan ¼[theta] to determine [theta].
+
+  Approximate formulae are:--Area = (1/15)(6c + 8c2)h; = (2/3) sqrt(c² +
+  (8/5)h²)·h; = (1/15)(7c + 3[alpha])h, [alpha] being the true length of
+  the arc.
+
+  From these results the mensuration of any figure bounded by circular
+  arcs and straight lines can be determined, e.g. the area of a _lune_
+  or _meniscus_ is expressible as the difference or sum of two segments,
+  and the circumference as the sum of two arcs.    (C. E.*)
+
+
+_Squaring of the Circle._
+
+The problem of finding a square equal in area to a given circle, like
+all problems, may be increased in difficulty by the imposition of
+restrictions; consequently under the designation there may be embraced
+quite a variety of geometrical problems. It has to be noted, however,
+that, when the "squaring" of the circle is especially spoken of, it is
+almost always tacitly assumed that the restrictions are those of the
+Euclidean geometry.
+
+Since the area of a circle equals that of the rectilineal triangle whose
+base has the same length as the circumference and whose altitude equals
+the radius (Archimedes, [Greek: Kyklou metrêsis], prop. 1), it follows
+that, if a straight line could be drawn equal in length to the
+circumference, the required square could be found by an ordinary
+Euclidean construction; also, it is evident that, conversely, if a
+square equal in area to the circle could be obtained it would be
+possible to draw a straight line equal to the circumference.
+Rectification and quadrature of the circle have thus been, since the
+time of Archimedes at least, practically identical problems. Again,
+since the circumferences of circles are proportional to their
+diameters--a proposition assumed to be true from the dawn almost of
+practical geometry--the rectification of the circle is seen to be
+transformable into finding the ratio of the circumference to the
+diameter. This correlative numerical problem and the two purely
+geometrical problems are inseparably connected historically.
+
+Probably the earliest value for the ratio was 3. It was so among the
+Jews (1 Kings vii. 23, 26), the Babylonians (Oppert, _Journ. asiatique_,
+August 1872, October 1874), the Chinese (Biot, _Journ. asiatique_, June
+1841), and probably also the Greeks. Among the ancient Egyptians, as
+would appear from a calculation in the Rhind papyrus, the number
+(4/3)^4, i.e. 3.1605, was at one time in use.[1] The first attempts to
+solve the purely geometrical problem appear to have been made by the
+Greeks (Anaxagoras, &c.)[2], one of whom, Hippocrates, doubtless raised
+hopes of a solution by his quadrature of the so-called _meniscoi_ or
+_lune_.[3]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+[The Greeks were in possession of several relations pertaining to the
+quadrature of the lune. The following are among the more interesting. In
+fig. 6, ABC is an isosceles triangle right angled at C, ADB is the
+semicircle described on AB as diameter, AEB the circular arc described
+with centre C and radius CA = CB. It is easily shown that the areas of
+the lune ADBEA and the triangle ABC are equal. In fig. 7, ABC is any
+triangle right angled at C, semicircles are described on the three
+sides, thus forming two lunes AFCDA and CGBEC. The sum of the areas of
+these lunes equals the area of the triangle ABC.]
+
+As for Euclid, it is sufficient to recall the facts that the original
+author of prop. 8 of book iv. had strict proof of the ratio being <4,
+and the author of prop. 15 of the ratio being >3, and to direct
+attention to the importance of book x. on incommensurables and props. 2
+and 16 of book xii., viz. that "circles are to one another as the
+squares on their diameters" and that "in the greater of two concentric
+circles a regular 2n-gon can be inscribed which shall not meet the
+circumference of the less," however nearly equal the circles may be.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+With Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) a notable advance was made. Taking the
+circumference as intermediate between the perimeters of the inscribed
+and the circumscribed regular n-gons, he showed that, the radius of the
+circle being given and the perimeter of some particular circumscribed
+regular polygon obtainable, the perimeter of the circumscribed regular
+polygon of double the number of sides could be calculated; that the like
+was true of the inscribed polygons; and that consequently a means was
+thus afforded of approximating to the circumference of the circle. As a
+matter of fact, he started with a semi-side AB of a circumscribed
+regular hexagon meeting the circle in B (see fig. 8), joined A and B
+with O the centre, bisected the angle AOB by OD, so that BD became the
+semi-side of a circumscribed regular 12-gon; then as AB:BO:OA::1:
+sqrt(3):2 he sought an approximation to sqrt(3) and found that AB:BO >
+153:265. Next he applied his theorem[4] BO + OA:AB::OB:BD to calculate
+BD; from this in turn he calculated the semi-sides of the circumscribed
+regular 24-gon, 48-gon and 96-gon, and so finally established for the
+circumscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter:diameter < (3-1/7):1. In a
+quite analogous manner he proved for the inscribed regular 96-gon that
+perimeter:diameter > 3-(10/71):1. The conclusion from these therefore
+was that the ratio of circumference to diameter is < 3-1/7 and >
+3-(10/71). This is a most notable piece of work; the immature condition
+of arithmetic at the time was the only real obstacle preventing the
+evaluation of the ratio to any degree of accuracy whatever.[5]
+
+No advance of any importance was made upon the achievement of Archimedes
+until after the revival of learning. His immediate successors may have
+used his method to attain a greater degree of accuracy, but there is
+very little evidence pointing in this direction. Ptolemy (fl. 127-151),
+in the _Great Syntaxis_, gives 3.141552 as the ratio[6]; and the Hindus
+(c. A.D. 500), who were very probably indebted to the Greeks, used
+62832/20000, that is, the now familiar 3.1416.[7]
+
+It was not until the 15th century that attention in Europe began to be
+once more directed to the subject, and after the resuscitation a
+considerable length of time elapsed before any progress was made. The
+first advance in accuracy was due to a certain Adrian, son of Anthony, a
+native of Metz (1527), and father of the better-known Adrian Metius of
+Alkmaar. In refutation of Duchesne(Van der Eycke), he showed that the
+ratio was < 3-(17/120) and > 3-(15/106), and thence made the exceedingly
+lucky step of taking a mean between the two by the quite unjustifiable
+process of halving the sum of the two numerators for a new numerator and
+halving the sum of the two denominators for a new denominator, thus
+arriving at the now well-known approximation 3-(16/113) or 355/113,
+which, being equal to 3.1415929..., is correct to the sixth fractional
+place.[8]
+
+The next to advance the calculation was Francisco Vieta. By finding the
+perimeter of the inscribed and that of the circumscribed regular polygon
+of 393216 (i.e. 6 X 2^16) sides, he proved that the ratio was >
+3.1415926535 and < 3.1415926537, so that its value became known (in
+1579) correctly to 10 fractional places. The theorem for angle-bisection
+which Vieta used was not that of Archimedes, but that which would now
+appear in the form 1 - cos [theta] = 2 sin² ½[theta]. With Vieta, by
+reason of the advance in arithmetic, the style of treatment becomes more
+strictly trigonometrical; indeed, the _Universales Inspectiones_, in
+which the calculation occurs, would now be called plane and spherical
+trigonometry, and the accompanying _Canon mathematicus_ a table of
+sines, tangents and secants.[9] Further, in comparing the labours of
+Archimedes and Vieta, the effect of increased power of symbolical
+expression is very noticeable. Archimedes's process of unending cycles
+of arithmetical operations could at best have been expressed in his time
+by a "rule" in words; in the 16th century it could be condensed into a
+"formula." Accordingly, we find in Vieta a formula for the ratio of
+diameter to circumference, viz. the interminate product[10]--
+
+                                ___________________
+               __________      /        ___________
+      ___     /       ___     /        /        ___
+  ½ \/ ½  · \/ ½ + ½\/ ½  · \/ ½ + ½ \/ ½ + ½ \/ ½  ...
+
+From this point onwards, therefore, no knowledge whatever of geometry
+was necessary in any one who aspired to determine the ratio to any
+required degree of accuracy; the problem being reduced to an
+arithmetical computation. Thus in connexion with the subject a genus of
+workers became possible who may be styled "[pi]-computers or
+circle-squarers"--a name which, if it connotes anything uncomplimentary,
+does so because of the almost entirely fruitless character of their
+labours. Passing over Adriaan van Roomen (Adrianus Romanus) of Louvain,
+who published the value of the ratio correct to 15 places in his _Idea
+mathematica_ (1593),[11] we come to the notable computer Ludolph van
+Ceulen (d. 1610), a native of Germany, long resident in Holland. His
+book, _Van den Circkel_ (Delft, 1596), gave the ratio correct to 20
+places, but he continued his calculations as long as he lived, and his
+best result was published on his tombstone in St Peter's church, Leiden.
+The inscription, which is not known to be now in existence,[12] is in
+part as follows:--
+
+  ... Qui in vita sua multo labore circumferentiae circuli proximam
+  rationem ad diametrum invenit sequentem--
+
+              quando diameter est 1
+      tum circuli circumferentia plus est
+
+  quam   314159265358979323846264338327950288
+         1OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
+
+                      et minus
+  quam   314159265358979323846264338327950289
+         1OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ...
+
+This gives the ratio correct to 35 places. Van Ceulen's process was
+essentially identical with that of Vieta. Its numerous root extractions
+amply justify a stronger expression than "multo labore," especially in
+an epitaph. In Germany the "Ludolphische Zahl" (Ludolph's number) is
+still a common name for the ratio.[13]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+Up to this point the credit of most that had been done may be set down
+to Archimedes. A new departure, however, was made by Willebrord Snell of
+Leiden in his _Cyclometria_, published in 1621. His achievement was a
+closely approximate geometrical solution of the problem of rectification
+(see fig. 9): ACB being a semicircle whose centre is O, and AC the arc
+to be rectified, he produced AB to D, making BD equal to the radius,
+joined DC, and produced it to meet the tangent at A in E; and then his
+assertion (not established by him) was that AE was nearly equal to the
+arc AC, the error being in defect. For the purposes of the calculator a
+solution erring in excess was also required, and this Snell gave by
+slightly varying the former construction. Instead of producing AB (see
+fig. 10) so that BD was equal to r, he produced it only so far that,
+when the extremity D' was joined with C, the part D'F outside the circle
+was equal to r; in other words, by a non-Euclidean construction he
+trisected the angle AOC, for it is readily seen that, since FD' = FO =
+OC, the angle FOB = (1/3)AOC.[14] This couplet of constructions is as
+important from the calculator's point of view as it is interesting
+geometrically. To compare it on this score with the fundamental
+proposition of Archimedes, the latter must be put into a form similar to
+Snell's. AMC being an arc of a circle (see fig. 11) whose centre is O,
+AC its chord, and HK the tangent drawn at the middle point of the arc
+and bounded by OA, OC produced, then, according to Archimedes, AMC < HK,
+but > AC. In modern trigonometrical notation the propositions to be
+compared stand as follows:--
+
+  2 tan ½[theta] > [theta]  > 2sin ½ [theta]        (Archimedes);
+
+                                                    3 sin [theta]
+  tan (1/3)[theta] + 2sin (1/3)[theta] > [theta] > ---------------  (Snell).
+                                                   2 + cos [theta]
+
+It is readily shown that the latter gives the best approximation to
+[theta]; but, while the former requires for its application a knowledge
+of the trigonometrical ratios of only one angle (in other words, the
+ratios of the sides of only one right-angled triangle), the latter
+requires the same for two angles, [theta] and (1/3)[theta]. Grienberger,
+using Snell's method, calculated the ratio correct to 39 fractional
+places.[15] C. Huygens, in his _De Circuli Magnitudine Inventa_, 1654,
+proved the propositions of Snell, giving at the same time a number of
+other interesting theorems, for example, two inequalities which may be
+written as follows[16]--
+
+                 4chd [theta] + sin [theta]    1
+  chd [theta] + --------------------------- · --- (chd [theta] - sin [theta]) >
+                2chd [theta] + 3sin [theta]    3
+
+                             1
+    [theta] > chd [theta] + --- (chd [theta] - sin [theta]).
+                             3
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+As might be expected, a fresh view of the matter was taken by René
+Descartes. The problem he set himself was the exact converse of that of
+Archimedes. A given straight line being viewed as equal in length to the
+circumference of a circle, he sought to find the diameter of the circle.
+His construction is as follows (see fig. 12). Take AB equal to one-fourth
+of the given line; on AB describe a square ABCD; join AC; in AC produced
+find, by a known process, a point C1 such that, when C1B1 is drawn
+perpendicular to AB produced and C1D1 perpendicular to BC produced, the
+rectangle BC1 will be equal to ¼ABCD; by the same process find a point C2
+such that the rectangle B1C2 will be equal to ¼BC1; and so on _ad
+infinitum_. The diameter sought is the straight line from A to the
+limiting position of the series of B's, say the straight line AB[oo]. As
+in the case of the process of Archimedes, we may direct our attention
+either to the infinite series of geometrical operations or to the
+corresponding infinite series of arithmetical operations. Denoting the
+number of units in AB by ¼c, we can express BB1, B1B2, ... in terms of
+¼c, and the identity AB[oo] = AB + BB1 + B1B2 + ... gives us at once an
+expression for the diameter in terms of the circumference by means of an
+infinite series.[17] The proof of the correctness of the construction is
+seen to be involved in the following theorem, which serves likewise to
+throw new light on the subject:--AB being any straight line whatever, and
+the above construction being made, then AB is the diameter of the circle
+circumscribed by the square ABCD (self-evident), AB1 is the diameter of
+the circle circumscribed by the regular 8-gon having the same perimeter
+as the square, AB2 is the diameter of the circle circumscribed by the
+regular 16-gon having the same perimeter as the square, and so on.
+Essentially, therefore, Descartes's process is that known later as the
+process of _isoperimeters_, and often attributed wholly to Schwab.[18]
+
+In 1655 appeared the _Arithmetica Infinitorum_ of John Wallis, where
+numerous problems of quadrature are dealt with, the curves being now
+represented in Cartesian co-ordinates, and algebra playing an important
+part. In a very curious manner, by viewing the circle y = (1 - x²)^½
+as a member of the series of curves y = (1 - x²)¹, y = (1 - x²)², &c.,
+he was led to the proposition that four times the reciprocal of the
+ratio of the circumference to the diameter, i.e. 4/[pi], is equal to the
+infinite product
+
+  3 · 3 · 5 · 5 · 7 · 7 · 9 ...
+  -----------------------------;
+  2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 · 8 · 8 ...
+
+and, the result having been communicated to Lord Brounker, the latter
+discovered the equally curious equivalent continued fraction
+
+       1²    3²     5²     7²
+  1 + ---   ---    ---    --- ...
+       2  +  2   +  2   +  2
+
+The work of Wallis had evidently an important influence on the next
+notable personality in the history of the subject, James Gregory, who
+lived during the period when the higher algebraic analysis was coming
+into power, and whose genius helped materially to develop it. He had,
+however, in a certain sense one eye fixed on the past and the other
+towards the future. His first contribution[19] was a variation of the
+method of Archimedes. The latter, as we know, calculated the perimeters
+of successive polygons, passing from one polygon to another of double
+the number of sides; in a similar manner Gregory calculated the areas.
+The general theorems which enabled him to do this, after a start had
+been made, are
+
+          _____
+  A2n = \/AnA'n (Snell's _Cyclom._),
+
+          2 An A'n      2 A'n A2n
+  A'2n = ---------- or ----------- (Gregory),
+         An + A'2n      A'n + A2n
+
+where An, A'n are the areas of the inscribed and the circumscribed
+regular n-gons respectively. He also gave approximate rectifications of
+circular arcs after the manner of Huygens; and, what is very notable, he
+made an ingenious and, according to J.E. Montucla, successful attempt to
+show that quadrature of the circle by a Euclidean construction was
+impossible.[20] Besides all this, however, and far beyond it in
+importance, was his use of infinite series. This merit he shares with
+his contemporaries N. Mercator, Sir I. Newton and G.W. Leibnitz, and the
+exact dates of discovery are a little uncertain. As far as the
+circle-squaring functions are concerned, it would seem that Gregory was
+the first (in 1670) to make known the series for the arc in terms of the
+tangent, the series for the tangent in terms of the arc, and the secant
+in terms of the arc; and in 1669 Newton showed to Isaac Barrow a little
+treatise in manuscript containing the series for the arc in terms of the
+sine, for the sine in terms of the arc, and for the cosine in terms of
+the arc. These discoveries formed an epoch in the history of
+mathematics generally, and had, of course, a marked influence on after
+investigations regarding circle-quadrature. Even among the mere
+computers the series
+
+  [theta] = tan - (1/3) tan^3 [theta] + (1/5) tan^5 [theta] - ...,
+
+specially known as Gregory's series, has ever since been a necessity of
+their calling.
+
+The calculator's work having now become easier and more mechanical,
+calculation went on apace. In 1699 Abraham Sharp, on the suggestion of
+Edmund Halley, took Gregory's series, and, putting tan [theta] = (1/3)
+sqrt(3), found the ratio equal to
+
+    __  /      1       1        1         \
+  \/12 ( 1 - ----- + ------ - ------ + ... ),
+        \    3 · 3   5 · 3²   7 · 3³      /
+
+from which he calculated it correct to 71 fractional places.[21] About
+the same time John Machin calculated it correct to 100 places, and, what
+was of more importance, gave for the ratio the rapidly converging
+expression
+
+   16   /  1       1       1         \
+   --  (  ---- + ----- - ----- + ...  ) -
+   5    \ 3·5²   5·5^4   7·5^6       /
+
+      4   /      1         1         \
+     --- ( 1 - ------ + ------- - ... ),
+     239  \    3.239²   5.239^4      /
+
+which long remained without explanation.[22] Fautet de Lagny, still
+using tan 30°, advanced to the 127th place.[23]
+
+Leonhard Euler took up the subject several times during his life,
+effecting mainly improvements in the theory of the various series.[24]
+With him, apparently, began the usage of denoting by [pi] the ratio of
+the circumference to the diameter.[25]
+
+The most important publication, however, on the subject in the 18th
+century was a paper by J.H. Lambert,[26] read before the Berlin Academy
+in 1761, in which he demonstrated the irrationality of [pi]. The general
+test of irrationality which he established is that, if
+
+  a1   a2   a2
+  --   --   --   ...
+  b1 ± b2 ± b3 ±
+
+be an interminate continued fraction, a1, a2, ..., b1, b2 ... be
+integers, a1/b1, a2/b2, ... be proper fractions, and the value of every
+one of the interminate continued fractions
+
+  a1         a2
+  --       , --       , ... be < 1,
+  b1 ± ...   b2 ± ...
+
+then the given continued fraction represents an irrational quantity. If
+this be applied to the right-hand side of the identity
+
+       m      m     m²     m²
+  tan --- =  ---   ----   ---- ...
+       n      n  -  3n  -  5n
+
+it follows that the tangent of every arc commensurable with the radius
+is irrational, so that, as a particular case, an arc of 45°, having its
+tangent rational, must be incommensurable with the radius; that is to
+say, [pi]/4 is an incommensurable number.[27]
+
+This incontestable result had no effect, apparently, in repressing the
+[pi]-computers. G. von Vega in 1789, using series like Machin's, viz.
+Gregory's series and the identities
+
+  [pi]/4 = 5tan^{-1} (1/7) + 2tan^{-1} (3/79) (Euler, 1779),
+  [pi]/4 =  tan^{-1} (1/7) + 2tan^{-1} ( 1/3) (Hutton, 1776),
+
+neither of which was nearly so advantageous as several found by Charles
+Hutton, calculated [pi] correct to 136 places.[28] This achievement was
+anticipated or outdone by an unknown calculator, whose manuscript was
+seen in the Radcliffe library, Oxford, by Baron von Zach towards the end
+of the century, and contained the ratio correct to 152 places. More
+astonishing still have been the deeds of the [pi]-computers of the 19th
+century. A condensed record compiled by J.W.L. Glaisher (_Messenger of
+Math._ ii. 122) is as follows:--
+
+  +-----+------------+-----------------+--------------------------------------------+
+  |     |            |No. of fr. digits|                                            |
+  |Date.|  Computer. +--------+--------+            Place of Publication.           |
+  |     |            | calcd. |correct.|                                            |
+  +-----+------------+--------+--------+--------------------------------------------+
+  |1842 | Rutherford |   208  |   152  | _Trans. Roy. Soc._ (London, 1841), p. 283. |
+  |1844 | Dase       |   205  |   200  | _Crelle's Journ._. xxvii. 198.             |
+  |1847 | Clausen    |   250  |   248  | _Astron. Nachr._ xxv. col. 207.            |
+  |1853 | Shanks     |   318  |   318  | _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (London, 1853), 273.     |
+  |1853 | Rutherford |   440  |   440  |  Ibid.                                     |
+  |1853 | Shanks     |   530  |    ..  |  Ibid.                                     |
+  |1853 | Shanks     |   607  |    ..  |  W. Shanks, _Rectification of the Circle_  |
+  |     |            |        |        |    (London, 1853).                         |
+  |1853 | Richter    |   333  |   330  | _Grunert's Archiv_, xxi. 119.              |
+  |1854 | Richter    |   400  |   330  |  Ibid. xxii. 473.                          |
+  |1854 | Richter    |   400  |   400  |  Ibid. xxiii. 476.                         |
+  |1854 | Richter    |   500  |   500  |  Ibid. xxv. 472.                           |
+  |1873 | Shanks     |   707  |    ..  | _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (London), xxi.           |
+  +-----+------------+--------+--------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+By these computers Machin's identity, or identities analogous to it, e.g.
+
+     [pi]/4 =  tan^{-1} (1/2)  + tan^{-1} 1/5  + tan^{-1} 1/8  (Dase, 1844),
+     [pi]/4 = 4tan^{-1} (1/5) - tan^{-1} 1/70 + tan^{-1} 1/99 (Rutherford),
+
+and Gregory's series were employed.[29]
+
+A much less wise class than the [pi]-computers of modern times are the
+pseudo-circle-squarers, or circle-squarers technically so called, that
+is to say, persons who, having obtained by illegitimate means a
+Euclidean construction for the quadrature or a finitely expressible
+value for [pi], insist on using faulty reasoning and defective
+mathematics to establish their assertions. Such persons have flourished
+at all times in the history of mathematics; but the interest attaching
+to them is more psychological than mathematical.[30]
+
+It is of recent years that the most important advances in the theory of
+circle-quadrature have been made. In 1873 Charles Hermite proved that
+the base [eta] of the Napierian logarithms cannot be a root of a
+rational algebraical equation of any degree.[31] To prove the same
+proposition regarding [pi] is to prove that a Euclidean construction for
+circle-quadrature is impossible. For in such a construction every point
+of the figure is obtained by the intersection of two straight lines, a
+straight line and a circle, or two circles; and as this implies that,
+when a unit of length is introduced, numbers employed, and the problem
+transformed into one of algebraic geometry, the equations to be solved
+can only be of the first or second degree, it follows that the equation
+to which we must be finally led is a rational equation of even degree.
+Hermite[32] did not succeed in his attempt on [pi]; but in 1882 F.
+Lindemann, following exactly in Hermite's steps, accomplished the
+desired result.[33] (See also TRIGONOMETRY.)
+
+  REFERENCES.--Besides the various writings mentioned, see for the
+  history of the subject F. Rudio, _Geschichte des Problems von der
+  Quadratur des Zirkels_ (1892); M. Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_
+  (1894-1901); Montucla, _Hist. des. math._ (6 vols., Paris, 1758, 2nd
+  ed. 1799-1802); Murhard, _Bibliotheca Mathematica_, ii. 106-123
+  (Leipzig, 1798); Reuss, _Repertorium Comment._ vii. 42-44 (Göttingen,
+  1808). For a few approximate geometrical solutions, see Leybourn's
+  _Math. Repository_, vi. 151-154; _Grunert's Archiv_, xii. 98, xlix. 3;
+  _Nieuw Archief v. Wisk._ iv. 200-204. For experimental determinations
+  of [pi], dependent on the theory of probability, see _Mess. of Math._
+  ii. 113, 119; _Casopis pro pïstováni math. a fys._ x. 272-275;
+  _Analyst_, ix. 176.    (T. MU.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Eisenlohr, _Ein math. Handbuch d. alten Ägypter, übers. u.
+    erklärt_ (Leipzig, 1877); Rodet, _Bull. de la Soc. Math. de France_,
+    vi. pp. 139-149.
+
+  [2] H. Hankel, _Zur Gesch. d. Math. im Alterthum_, &c., chap, v
+    (Leipzig, 1874); M. Cantor, _Vorlesungen über Gesch. d. Math._ i.
+    (Leipzig, 1880); Tannery, _Mém. de la Soc._, &c., _à Bordeaux_;
+    Allman, in _Hermathena_.
+
+  [3] Tannery. _Bull. des sc. math._ [2], x. pp. 213-226.
+
+  [4] In modern trigonometrical notation, 1 + sec [theta]:tan
+    [theta]::1:tan ½[theta].
+
+  [5] Tannery, "Sur la mesure du cercle d'Archimède," in _Mém....
+    Bordeaux_[2], iv. pp. 313-339; Menge, _Des Archimedes
+    Kreismessung_ (Coblenz, 1874).
+
+  [6] De Morgan, in _Penny Cyclop_, xix. p. 186.
+
+  [7] Kern, _Aryabhattíyam_ (Leiden, 1874), trans. by Rodet
+    (Paris,1879).
+
+  [8] De Morgan, art. "Quadrature of the Circle," in _English
+    Cyclop._; Glaisher, _Mess. of Math._ ii. pp. 119-128, iii. pp.
+    27-46; de Haan, _Nieuw Archief v. Wisk._ i. pp. 70-86, 206-211.
+
+  [9] Vieta, _Opera math._ (Leiden, 1646); Marie, _Hist. des sciences
+    math._ iii. 27 seq. (Paris, 1884).
+
+  [10] Klügel, _Math. Wörterb._ ii. 606, 607.
+
+  [11] Kästner, _Gesch. d. Math._ i. (Göttingen, 1796-1800).
+
+  [12] But see _Les Délices de Leide_ (Leiden, 1712); or de Haan,
+    _Mess. of Math._ iii. 24-26.
+
+  [13] For minute and lengthy details regarding the quadrature of the
+    circle in the Low Countries, see de Haan, "Bouwstoffen voor de
+    geschiedenis, &c.," in _Versl. en Mededeel. der K. Akad. van
+    Wetensch._ ix., x., xi., xii. (Amsterdam); also his "Notice sur
+    quelques quadrateurs, &c.," in _Bull. di bibliogr. e di storia delle
+    sci. mat. e fis._ vii. 99-144.
+
+  [14] It is thus manifest that by his first construction Snell gave
+    an approximate solution of two great problems of antiquity.
+
+  [15] _Elementa trigonometrica_ (Rome, 1630); Glaisher, _Messenger of
+    Math._ iii. 35 seq.
+
+  [16] See Kiessling's edition of the _De Circ. Magn. Inv._
+    (Flensburg, 1869); or Pirie's tract on _Geometrical Methods of
+    Approx. to the Value of [pi]_ (London, 1877).
+
+  [17] See Euler, "Annotationes in locum quendam Cartesii," in _Nov.
+    Comm. Acad. Petrop._ viii.
+
+  [18] Gergonne, _Annales de math._ vi.
+
+  [19] See _Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura_ (Padua, 1667); and
+    the _Appendicula_ to the same in his _Exercitationes geometricae_
+    (London, 1668).
+
+  [20] _Penny Cyclop._ xix. 187.
+
+  [21] See Sherwin's _Math. Tables_ (London, 1705), p. 59.
+
+  [22] See W. Jones, _Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos_ (London, 1706);
+    Maseres, _Scriptores Logarithmici_ (London, 1791-1796), iii. 159
+    seq.; Hutton, _Tracts_, i. 266.
+
+  [23] See _Hist. de l'Acad._ (Paris, 1719); 7 appears instead of 8 in
+    the 113th place.
+
+  [24] _Comment. Acad. Petrop._ ix., xi.; _Nov. Comm. Ac. Pet._ xvi.;
+    _Nova Acta Acad. Pet._ xi.
+
+  [25] _Introd. in Analysin Infin._ (Lausanne, 1748), chap. viii.
+
+  [26] _Mém. sur quelques propriétés remarquables des quantités
+    transcendantes, circulaires, et logarithmiques._
+
+  [27] See Legendre, _Eléments de géométrie_ (Paris, 1794), note iv.;
+    Schlömilch, _Handbuch d. algeb. Analysis_ (Jena, 1851), chap. xiii.
+
+  [28] _Nova Acta Petrop._ ix. 41; _Thesaurus Logarithm. Completus_,
+    633.
+
+  [29] On the calculations made before Shanks, see Lehmann, "Beitrag
+    zur Berechnung der Zahl [pi]," in _Grunert's Archiv_, xxi. 121-174.
+
+  [30] See Montucla, _Hist. des rech. sur la quad. du cercle_ (Paris,
+    1754, 2nd ed. 1831); de Morgan, _Budget of Paradoxes_ (London,
+    1872).
+
+  [31] "Sur la fonction exponentielle," _Comples rendus_ (Paris),
+    lxxvii. 18, 74, 226, 285.
+
+  [32] See _Crelle's Journal_, lxxvi. 342.
+
+  [33] See "Über die Zahl [pi]," in _Math. Ann._ xx. 213.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Pickaway county, Ohio,
+U.S.A., about 26 m. S. by E. of Columbus, on the Scioto river and the
+Ohio Canal. Pop. (1890) 6556; (1900) 6991 (551 negroes); (1910) 6744. It
+is served by the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania lines) and
+the Norfolk & Western railways, and by the Scioto Valley electric line.
+Circleville is situated in a farming region, and its leading industries
+are the manufacture of straw boards and agricultural implements, and the
+canning of sweet corn and other produce. The city occupies the site of
+prehistoric earth-works, from one of which, built in the form of a
+circle, it derived its name. Circleville, first settled about 1806, was
+chosen as the county-seat in 1810. The court-house was built in the form
+of an octagon at the centre of the circle, and circular streets were
+laid out around it; but this arrangement proved to be inconvenient, the
+court-house was destroyed by fire in 1841, and at present no trace of
+the ancient landmarks remains. Circleville was incorporated as a village
+in 1814, and was chartered as a city in 1853.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCUIT (Lat. _circuitus_, from _circum_, round, and _ire_, to go), the
+act of moving round; so circumference, or anything encircling or
+encircled. The word is particularly known as a law term, signifying the
+periodical progress of a legal tribunal for the purpose of carrying out
+the administration of the law in the several provinces of a country. It
+has long been applied to the journey or progress which the judges have
+been in the habit of making through the several counties of England, to
+hold courts and administer justice, where recourse could not be had to
+the king's court at Westminster (see ASSIZE).
+
+In England, by sec. 23 of the Judicature Act 1875, power was conferred
+on the crown, by order in council, to make regulations respecting
+circuits, including the discontinuance of any circuit, and the formation
+of any new circuit, and the appointment of the place at which assizes
+are to be held on any circuit. Under this power an order of council,
+dated the 5th of February 1876, was made, whereby the circuit system was
+remodelled. A new circuit, called the North-Eastern circuit, was
+created, consisting of Newcastle and Durham taken out of the old
+Northern circuit, and York and Leeds taken out of the Midland circuit.
+Oakham, Leicester and Northampton, which had belonged to the Norfolk
+circuit, were added to the Midland. The Norfolk circuit and the Home
+circuit were abolished and a new South-Eastern circuit was created,
+consisting of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ipswich, Norwich, Chelmsford,
+Hertford and Lewes, taken partly out of the old Norfolk circuit and
+partly out of the Home circuit. The counties of Kent and Surrey were
+left out of the circuit system, the assizes for these counties being
+held by the judges remaining in London. Subsequently Maidstone and
+Guildford were united under the revived name of the Home circuit for the
+purpose of the summer and winter assizes, and the assizes in these towns
+were held by one of the judges of the Western circuit, who, after
+disposing of the business there, rejoined his colleague in Exeter. In
+1899 this arrangement was abolished, and Maidstone and Guildford were
+added to the South-Eastern circuit. Other minor changes in the assize
+towns were made, which it is unnecessary to particularize. Birmingham
+first became a circuit town in the year 1884, and the work there became,
+by arrangement, the joint property of the Midland and Oxford circuits.
+There are alternative assize towns in the following counties, viz.:--On
+the Western circuit, Salisbury and Devizes for Wiltshire, and Wells and
+Taunton for Somerset; on the South-Eastern, Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds
+for Suffolk; on the North Wales circuit, Welshpool and Newtown for
+Montgomery; and on the South Wales circuit, Cardiff and Swansea for
+Glamorgan.
+
+According to the arrangements in force in 1909 there are four assizes in
+each year. There are two principal assizes, viz. the winter assizes,
+beginning in January, and the summer assizes, beginning at the end of
+May. At these two assizes criminal and civil business is disposed of in
+all the circuits. There are two other assizes, viz. the autumn assizes
+and the Easter assizes. The autumn assizes are regulated by acts of 1876
+and 1877 (Winter Assizes Acts 1876 and 1877), and orders of council made
+under the former act. They are held for the whole of England and Wales,
+but for the purpose of these assizes the work is to a large extent
+"grouped," so that not every county has a separate assize. For example,
+on the South-Eastern circuit Huntingdon is grouped with Cambridge; on
+the Midland, Rutland is grouped with Lincoln; on the Northern,
+Westmorland is grouped with Cumberland; and the North Wales and South
+Wales circuits are united, and no assizes are held at some of the
+smaller towns. At these assizes criminal business only is taken, except
+at Manchester, Liverpool, Swansea, Birmingham and Leeds. The Easter
+assizes are held in April and May on two circuits only, viz. at
+Manchester and Liverpool on the Northern and at Leeds on the
+North-Eastern. Both civil and criminal business is taken at Manchester
+and Liverpool, but criminal business only at Leeds.
+
+Other changes were made, with a view to preventing the complete
+interruption of the London sittings in the common law division by the
+absence of the judges on circuit. The assizes were so arranged as to
+commence on different dates in the various circuits. For example, the
+summer assizes begin in the South-Eastern and Western circuits on the
+29th of May; in the Northern circuit on the 28th of June; in the Midland
+and Oxford circuits on the 16th of June; in the North-Eastern circuit on
+the 6th of July; in the North Wales circuit on the 7th of July; and in
+the South Wales circuit on the 11th of July. Again, there has been a
+continuous development of what may be called the single-judge system. In
+the early days of the new order the members of the court of appeal and
+the judges of the chancery division shared the circuit work with the
+judges in the common law division. This did not prove to be a
+satisfactory arrangement. The assize work was not familiar and was
+uncongenial to the chancery judges, who had but little training or
+experience to fit them for it. Arrears increased in chancery, and the
+appeal court was shorn of much of its strength for a considerable part
+of the year. The practice was discontinued in or about the year 1884.
+The appeal and chancery judges were relieved of the duty of going on
+circuit, and an arrangement was made by the treasury for making an
+allowance for expenses of circuit to the common law judges, on whom the
+whole work of the assizes was thrown. In order to cope with the assize
+work, and at the same time keep the common law sittings going in London,
+an experiment, which had been previously tried by Lord Cairns and Lord
+Cross (then home secretary) and discontinued, was revived. Instead of
+two judges going together to each assize town, it was arranged that one
+judge should go by himself to certain selected places--practically, it
+may be said, to all except the more important provincial centres. The
+only places to which two judges now go are Exeter, Winchester, Bristol,
+Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Stafford, Birmingham, Newcastle,
+Durham, York, Leeds, Chester, and Cardiff or Swansea.
+
+It could scarcely be said that, even with the amendments introduced
+under orders in council, the circuit system was altogether satisfactory
+or that the last word had been pronounced on the subject. In the first
+report of the Judicature Commission, dated March 25th, 1869, p. 17
+(_Parl. Papers_, 1868-1869), the majority report that "the necessity for
+holding assizes in every county without regard to the extent of the
+business to be transacted in such county leads, in our judgment, to a
+great waste of judicial strength and a great loss of time in going from
+one circuit town to another, and causes much unnecessary cost and
+inconvenience to those whose attendance is necessary or customary at the
+assizes." And in their second report, dated July 3rd, 1872 (_Parl.
+Papers_, 1872, vol. xx.), they dwell upon the advisability of grouping
+or a discontinuance of holding assizes "in several counties, for
+example, Rutland and Westmorland, where it is manifestly an idle waste
+of time and money to have assizes." It is thought that the grouping of
+counties which has been effected for the autumn assizes might be carried
+still further and applied to all the assizes; and that the system of
+holding the assizes alternately in one of two towns within a county
+might be extended to two towns in adjoining counties, for example,
+Gloucester and Worcester. The facility of railway communication renders
+this reform comparatively easy, and reforms in this direction have been
+approved by the judges, but ancient custom and local patriotism,
+interests, or susceptibility bar the way. The Assizes and Quarter
+Sessions Act 1908 contributed something to reform by dispensing with the
+obligation to hold assizes at a fixed date if there is no business to be
+transacted. Nor can it be said that the single-judge system has been
+altogether a success. When there is only one judge for both civil and
+criminal work, he properly takes the criminal business first. He can fix
+only approximately the time when he can hope to be free for the civil
+business. If the calendar is exceptionally heavy or one or more of the
+criminal cases prove to be unexpectedly long (as may easily happen), the
+civil business necessarily gets squeezed into the short residue of the
+allotted time. Suitors and their solicitors and witnesses are kept
+waiting for days, and after all perhaps it proves to be impossible for
+the judge to take the case, and a "remanet" is the result. It is the
+opinion of persons of experience that the result has undoubtedly been to
+drive to London much of the civil business which properly belongs to the
+provinces, and ought to be tried there, and thus at once to increase the
+burden on the judges and jurymen in London, and to increase the costs of
+the trial of the actions sent there. Some persons advocate the
+continuous sittings of the high court in certain centres, such as
+Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Birmingham and Bristol, or (in
+fact) a decentralization of the judicial system. There is already an
+excellent court for chancery cases for Lancashire in the county palatine
+court, presided over by the vice-chancellor, and with a local bar which
+has produced many men of great ability and even eminence. The Durham
+chancery court is also capable of development. Another suggestion has
+been made for continuous circuits throughout the legal year, so that a
+certain number of the judges, according to a rota, should be
+continuously in the provinces while the remaining judges did the London
+business. The value of this suggestion would depend on an estimate of
+the number of cases which might thus be tried in the country in relief
+of the London list. This estimate it would be difficult to make. The
+opinion has also been expressed that it is essential in any changes that
+may be made to retain the occasional administration by judges of the
+high court of criminal jurisdiction, both in populous centres and in
+remote places. It promotes a belief in the importance and dignity of
+justice and the care to be given to all matters affecting a citizen's
+life, liberty or character. It also does something, by the example set
+by judges in country districts, to check any tendency to undue severity
+of sentences in offences against property.
+
+Counsel are not expected to practise on a circuit other than that to
+which they have attached themselves, unless they receive a special
+retainer. They are then said to "go special," and the fee in such a case
+is one hundred guineas for a king's counsel, and fifty guineas for a
+junior. It is customary to employ one member of the circuit on the side
+on which the counsel comes special. Certain rules have been drawn up by
+the Bar Committee for regulating the practice as to retainers on
+circuit. (1) A special retainer must be given for a particular assize (a
+circuit retainer will not, however, make it compulsory upon counsel
+retained to go the circuit, but will give the right to counsel's
+services should he attend the assize and the case be entered for trial);
+(2) if the venue is changed to another place on the same circuit, a
+fresh retainer is not required; (3) if the action is not tried at the
+assize for which the retainer is given, the retainer must be renewed for
+every subsequent assize until the action is disposed of, unless a brief
+has been delivered; (4) a retainer may be given for a future assize,
+without a retainer for an intervening assize, unless notice of trial is
+given for such intervening assize. There are also various regulations
+enforced by the discipline of the circuit bar mess.
+
+In the United States the English circuit system still exists in some
+states, as in Massachusetts, where the judges sit in succession in the
+various counties of the state. The term _circuit courts_ applies
+distinctively in America to a certain class of inferior federal courts
+of the United States, exercising jurisdiction, concurrently with the
+state courts, in certain matters where the United States is a party to
+the litigation, or in cases of crime against the United States. The
+circuit courts act in nine judicial circuits, divided as follows: _1st
+circuit_, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island; _2nd
+circuit_, Connecticut, New York, Vermont; _3rd circuit_, Delaware, New
+Jersey, Pennsylvania; _4th circuit_, Maryland, North Carolina, South
+Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia; _5th circuit_, Alabama, Florida,
+Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas; _6th circuit_, Kentucky,
+Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee; _7th circuit_, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin;
+_8th circuit_, Arkansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota,
+Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,
+Wyoming; _9th circuit_, Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana,
+Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii. A circuit court of appeals is
+made up of three judges of the circuit court, the judges of the district
+courts of the circuit, and the judge of the Supreme Court allotted to
+the circuit.
+
+In Scotland the judges of the supreme criminal court, or high court of
+justiciary, form also three separate circuit courts, consisting of two
+judges each; and the country, with the exception of the Lothians, is
+divided into corresponding districts, called the Northern, Western and
+Southern circuits. On the Northern circuit, courts are held at
+Inverness, Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen; on the Western, at Glasgow,
+Stirling and Inveraray; and on the Southern, at Dumfries, Jedburgh and
+Ayr.
+
+Ireland is divided into the North-East and the North-West circuits, and
+those of Leinster, Connaught and Munster.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCULAR NOTE, a documentary request by a bank to its foreign
+correspondents to pay a specified sum of money to a named person. The
+person in whose favour a circular note is issued is furnished with a
+letter (containing the signature of an official of the bank and the
+person named) called a letter of indication, which is usually referred
+to in the circular note, and must be produced on presentation of the
+note. Circular notes are generally issued against a payment of cash to
+the amount of the notes, but the notes need not necessarily be cashed,
+but may be returned to the banker in exchange for the amount for which
+they were originally issued. A forged signature on a circular note
+conveys no right, and as it is the duty of the payer to see that payment
+is made to the proper person, he cannot recover the amount of a forged
+note from the banker who issued the note. (See also LETTER OF CREDIT.)
+
+
+
+
+CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO (Lat. for "circle in proving"), in logic, a phrase
+used to describe a form of argument in which the very fact which one
+seeks to demonstrate is used as a premise, i.e. as part of the evidence
+on which the conclusion is based. This argument is one form of the
+fallacy known as _petitio principii_, "begging the question." It is most
+common in lengthy arguments, the complicated character of which enables
+the speaker to make his hearers forget the data from which he began.
+(See FALLACY.)
+
+
+
+
+CIRCUMCISION (Lat. _circum_, round, and _caedere_, to cut), the cutting
+off of the foreskin. This surgical operation, which is commonly
+prescribed for purely medical reasons, is also an initiation or
+religious ceremony among Jews and Mahommedans, and is a widespread
+institution in many Semitic races. It remains, with Jews, a necessary
+preliminary to the admission of proselytes, except in some Reformed
+communities. The origin of the rite among the Jews is in Genesis (xvii.)
+placed in the age of Abraham, and at all events it must have been very
+ancient, for flint stones were used in the operation (Exodus iv. 25;
+Joshua v. 2). The narrative in Joshua implies that the custom was
+introduced by him, not that it had merely been in abeyance in the
+Wilderness. At Gilgal he "rolled away the reproach of the Egyptians" by
+circumcising the people. This obviously means that whereas the Egyptians
+practised circumcision the Jews in the land of the Pharaohs did not, and
+hence were regarded with contempt. It was an old theory (Herodotus ii.
+36) that circumcision originated in Egypt; at all events it was
+practised in that country in ancient times (Ebers, _Egypten und die
+Bücher Mosis_, i. 278-284), and the same is true at the present day. But
+it is not generally thought probable that the Hebrews derived the rite
+directly from the Egyptians. As Driver puts it (_Genesis_, p. 190): "It
+is possible that, as Dillmann and Nowack suppose, the peoples of N.
+Africa and Asia who practised the rite adopted it from the Egyptians,
+but it appears in so many parts of the world that it must at any rate in
+these cases have originated independently." In another biblical
+narrative (Exodus iv. 25) Moses is subject to the divine anger because
+he had not made himself "a bridegroom of blood," that is, had not been
+circumcised before his marriage.
+
+The rite of circumcision was practised by all the inhabitants of
+Palestine with the exception of the Philistines. It was an ancient
+custom among the Arabs, being presupposed in the Koran. The only
+important Semitic peoples who most probably did not follow the rite were
+the Babylonians and Assyrians (Sayce, _Babyl. and Assyrians_, p. 47).
+Modern investigations have brought to light many instances of the
+prevalence of circumcision in various parts of the world. These facts
+are collected by Andrée and Ploss, and go to prove that the rite is not
+only spread through the Mahommedan world (Turks, Persians, Arabs, &c.),
+but also is practised by the Christian Abyssinians and the Copts, as
+well as in central Australia and in America. In central Australia
+(Spencer and Gillen, pp. 212-386) circumcision with a stone knife must
+be undergone by every youth before he is reckoned a full member of the
+tribe or is permitted to enter on the married state. In other parts, too
+(e.g. Loango), no uncircumcised man may marry. Circumcision was known to
+the Aztecs (Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii.), and is still practised
+by the Caribs of the Orinoco and the Tacunas of the Amazon. The method
+and period of the operation vary in important particulars. Among the
+Jews it is performed in infancy, when the male child is eight days old.
+The child is named at the same time, and the ceremony is elaborate. The
+child is carried in to the godfather (_sandek_, a hebraized form of the
+Gr. [Greek: sunteknos], "godfather," post-class.), who places the child
+on a cushion, which he holds on his knees throughout the ceremony. The
+operator (_mohel_) uses a steel knife, and pronounces various
+benedictions before and after the rite is performed (see S. Singer,
+_Authorized Daily Prayer Book_, pp. 304-307; an excellent account of the
+domestic festivities and spiritual joys associated with the ceremony
+among medieval and modern Jews may be read in S. Schechter's _Studies in
+Judaism_, first series, pp. 351 seq.). Some tribes in South America and
+elsewhere are said to perform the rite on the eighth day, like the Jews.
+The Mazequas do it between the first and second months. Among the
+Bedouins the rite is performed on children of three years, amid dances
+and the selection of brides (Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_, i. 340); among
+the Somalis the age is seven (Reinisch, _Somalisprache_, p. 110). But
+for the most part the tribes who perform the rite carry it out at the
+age of puberty. Many facts bearing on this point are given by B. Stade
+in _Zeitschrift für die alttest. Wissenschaft_, vi. (1886) pp. 132 seq.
+
+The significance of the rite of circumcision has been much disputed.
+Some see in it a tribal badge. If this be the true origin of
+circumcision, it must go back to the time when men went about naked.
+Mutilations (tattooing, removal of teeth and so forth) were tribal
+marks, being partly sacrifices and partly means of recognition (see
+MUTILATION). Such initiatory rites were often frightful ordeals, in
+which the neophyte's courage was severely tested (Robertson Smith,
+_Religion of the Semites_, p. 310). Some regard circumcision as a
+substitute for far more serious rites, including even human sacrifice.
+Utilitarian explanations have also been suggested. Sir R. Burton
+(_Memoirs Anthrop. Soc._ i. 318) held that it was introduced to promote
+fertility, and the claims of cleanliness have been put forward
+(following Philo's example, see ed. Mangey, ii. 210). Most probably,
+however, circumcision (which in many tribes is performed on both sexes)
+was connected with marriage, and was a preparation for connubium. It was
+in Robertson Smith's words "originally a preliminary to marriage, and so
+a ceremony of introduction to the full prerogative of manhood," the
+transference to infancy among the Jews being a later change. On this
+view, the decisive Biblical reference would be the Exodus passage (iv.
+25), in which Moses is represented as being in danger of his life
+because he had neglected the proper preliminary to marriage. In Genesis,
+on the other hand, circumcision is an external sign of God's covenant
+with Israel, and later Judaism now regards it in this symbolical sense.
+Barton (_Semitic Origins_, p. 100) declares that "the circumstances
+under which it is performed in Arabia point to the origin of
+circumcision as a sacrifice to the goddess of fertility, by which the
+child was placed under her protection and its reproductive powers
+consecrated to her service." But Barton admits that initiation to the
+connubium was the primitive origin of the rite.
+
+As regards the non-ritual use of male circumcision, it may be added that
+in recent years the medical profession has been responsible for its
+considerable extension among other than Jewish children, the operation
+being recommended not merely in cases of malformation, but generally for
+reasons of health.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--On the present diffusion of circumcision see H. Ploss,
+  _Das Kind im Brauch und Sitte der Völker_, i. 342 seq., and his
+  researches in _Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin_, viii.
+  312-344; Andrée, "Die Beschneidung" in _Archiv für Anthropologie_,
+  xiii. 76; and Spencer and Gillen, _Tribes of Central Australia_. The
+  articles in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ and _Dictionary of the Bible_
+  contain useful bibliographies as well as historical accounts of the
+  rite and its ceremonies, especially as concerns the Jews. The _Jewish
+  Encyclopedia_ in particular gives an extensive list of books on the
+  Jewish customs connected with circumcision, and the various articles
+  in that work are full of valuable information (vol. iv. pp. 92-102).
+  On the rite among the Arabs, see Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen
+  Heidentums_, 154.    (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF (from Lat. _circum_, round, and _vallum_, a
+rampart), in fortification, a continuous circle of entrenchments
+surrounding a besieged place. "Lines of Contravallation" were similar
+works by which the besieger protected himself against the attack of a
+relieving army from any quarter. These continuous lines of
+circumvallation and contravallation were used only in the days of small
+armies and small fortresses, and both terms are now obsolete.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCUS (Lat. _circus_, Gr. [Greek: kirkos] or [Greek: krikos], a ring or
+circle; probably "circus" and "ring" are of the same origin), a space,
+in the strict sense circular, but sometimes oval or even oblong,
+intended for the exhibition of races and athletic contests generally.
+The circus differs from the theatre inasmuch as the performance takes
+place in a central circular space, not on a stage at one end of the
+building.
+
+1. _In Roman antiquities_ the circus was a building for the exhibition
+of horse and chariot races and other amusements. It consisted of tiers
+of seats running parallel with the sides of the course, and forming a
+crescent round one of the ends. The other end was straight and at right
+angles to the course, so that the plan of the whole had nearly the form
+of an ellipse cut in half at its vertical axis. Along the transverse
+axis ran a fence (_spina_) separating the return course from the
+starting one. The straight end had no seats, but was occupied by the
+stalls (_carceres_) where the chariots and horses were held in
+readiness. This end constituted also the front of the building with the
+main entrance. At each end of the course were three conical pillars
+(_metae_) to mark its limits.
+
+The oldest building of this kind in Rome was the _Circus Maximus_, in
+the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills, where, before the
+erection of any permanent structure, races appear to have been held
+beside the altar of the god Consus. The first building is assigned to
+Tarquin the younger, but for a long time little seems to have been done
+to complete its accommodation, since it is not till 329 B.C. that we
+hear of stalls being erected for the chariots and horses. It was not in
+fact till under the empire that the circus became a conspicuous public
+resort. Caesar enlarged it to some extent, and also made a canal 10 ft.
+broad between the lowest tier of seats (_podium_) and the course as a
+precaution for the spectators' safety when exhibitions of fighting with
+wild beasts, such as were afterwards confined to the amphitheatre, took
+place. When these exhibitions were removed, and the canal (_euripus_)
+was no longer necessary, Nero had it filled up. Augustus is said to have
+placed an obelisk on the _spina_ between the _metae_, and to have built
+a new _pulvinar_, or imperial box; but if this is taken in connexion
+with the fact that the circus had been partially destroyed by fire in 31
+B.C., it may be supposed that besides this he had restored it
+altogether. Only the lower tiers of seats were of stone, the others
+being of wood, and this, from the liability to fire, may account for the
+frequent restorations to which the circus was subject; it would also
+explain the falling of the seats by which a crowd of people were killed
+in the time of Antoninus Pius. In the reign of Claudius, apparently
+after a fire, the _carceres_ of stone (tufa) were replaced by marble,
+and the _metae_ of wood by gilt bronze. Under Domitian, again, after a
+fire, the circus was rebuilt and the carceres increased to 12 instead of
+8 as before. The work was finished by Trajan. See further for seating
+capacity, &c., ROME: _Archaeology_, § "Places of Amusement."
+
+The circus was the only public spectacle at which men and women were not
+separated. The lower seats were reserved for persons of rank; there were
+also various state boxes, e.g. for the giver of the games and his
+friends (called _cubicula_ or _suggestus_). The principal object of
+attraction apart from the racing must have been the _spina_ or low wall
+which ran down the middle of the course, with its obelisks, images and
+ornamental shrines. On it also were seven figures of dolphins and seven
+oval objects, one of which was taken down at every round made in a race,
+so that spectators might see readily how the contest proceeded. The
+chariot race consisted of seven rounds of the course. The chariots
+started abreast, but in an oblique line, so that the outer chariot might
+be compensated for the wider circle it had to make at the other end.
+Such a race was called a _missus_, and as many as 24 of these would take
+place in a day. The competitors wore different colours, originally white
+and red (_albata_ and _russata_), to which green (_prasina_) and blue
+(_veneta_) were added. Domitian introduced two more colours, gold and
+purple (_purpureus et auratus pannus_), which probably fell into disuse
+after his death. To provide the horses and large staff of attendants it
+was necessary to apply to rich capitalists and owners of studs, and from
+this there grew up in time four select companies (_factiones_) of circus
+purveyors, which were identified with the four colours, and with which
+those who organized the races had to contract for the proper supply of
+horses and men. The drivers (_aurigae, agitatores_), who were mostly
+slaves, were sometimes held in high repute for their skill, although
+their calling was regarded with contempt. The horses most valued were
+those of Sicily, Spain and Cappadocia, and great care was taken in
+training them. Chariots with two horses (_bigae_) or four (_quadrigae_)
+were most common, but sometimes also they had three (_trigae_), and
+exceptionally more than four horses. Occasionally there was combined
+with the chariots a race of riders (_desultores_), each rider having two
+horses and leaping from one to the other during the race. At certain of
+the races the proceedings were opened by a _pompa_ or procession in
+which images of the gods and of the imperial family deified were
+conveyed in cars drawn by horses, mules or elephants, attended by the
+colleges of priests, and led by the presiding magistrate (in some cases
+by the emperor himself) seated in a chariot in the dress and with the
+insignia of a triumphator. The procession passed from the capitol along
+the forum, and on to the circus, where it was received by the people
+standing and clapping their hands. The presiding magistrate gave the
+signal for the races by throwing a white flag (_mappa_) on to the
+course.
+
+Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome was the _Circus
+Flaminius_, erected 221 B.C., in the censorship of C. Flaminius, from
+whom it may have taken its name; or the name may have been derived from
+Prata Flaminia, where it was situated, and where also were held plebeian
+meetings. The only games that are positively known to have been
+celebrated in this circus were the _Ludi Taurii_ and _Plebeii_. There is
+no mention of it after the 1st century. Its ruins were identified in the
+16th century at S. Catarina dei Funari and the Palazzo Mattei.
+
+A third circus in Rome was erected by Caligula in the gardens of
+Agrippina, and was known as the _Circus Neronis_, from the notoriety
+which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of Nero. A fourth was
+constructed by Maxentius outside the Porta Appia near the tomb of
+Caecilia Metella, where its ruins are still, and now afford the only
+instance from which an idea of the ancient circi in Rome can be
+obtained. It was traced to Caracalla, till the discovery of an
+inscription in 1825 showed it to be the work of Maxentius. Old
+topographers speak of six circi, but two of these appear to be
+imaginary, the Circus Florae and the Circus Sallustii.
+
+Circus races were held in connexion with the following public festivals,
+and generally on the last day of the festival, if it extended over more
+than one day:--(1) The _Consualia_, August 21st, December 15th; (2)
+_Equirria_, February 27th, March 14th; (3) _Ludi Romani_, September
+4th-19th; (4) _Ludi Plebeii_, November 4th-17th; (5) _Cerialia_, April
+12th-19th; (6) _Ludi Apollinares_, July 6th-13th; (7) _Ludi Megalenses_,
+April 4th-10th; (8) _Floralia_, April 28th-May 3rd.
+
+  In addition to Smith's _Dictionary of Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1890),
+  see articles in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquités_,
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopädie der classischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2 (1899), and Marquardt, _Römische
+  Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (2nd ed., 1885), p. 504. For existing remains
+  see works quoted under ROME: _Archaeology_.
+
+2. _The Modern Circus._--The "circus" in modern times is a form of
+popular entertainment which has little in common with the institution of
+classical Rome. It is frequently nomadic in character, the place of the
+permanent building known to the ancients as the circus being taken by a
+tent, which is carried from place to place and set up temporarily on any
+site procurable at country fairs or in provincial towns, and in which
+spectacular performances are given by a troupe employed by the
+proprietor. The centre of the tent forms an arena arranged as a
+horse-ring, strewn with tan or other soft substance, where the
+performances take place, the seats of the spectators being arranged in
+ascending tiers around the central space as in the Roman circus. The
+traditional type of exhibition in the modern travelling circus consists
+of feats of horsemanship, such as leaping through hoops from the back of
+a galloping horse, standing with one foot on each of two horses
+galloping side by side, turning somersaults from a springboard over a
+number of horses standing close together, or accomplishing acrobatic
+tricks on horseback. These performances, by male and female riders, are
+varied by the introduction of horses trained to perform tricks, and by
+drolleries on the part of the clown, whose place in the circus is as
+firmly established by tradition as in the pantomime.
+
+The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that kept by
+Philip Astley (d. 1814) in London at the end of the 18th century. Astley
+was followed by Ducrow, whose feats of horsemanship had much to do with
+establishing the traditions of the circus, which were perpetuated by
+Hengler's and Sanger's celebrated shows in a later generation. In
+America a circus-actor named Ricketts is said to have performed before
+George Washington in 1780, and in the first half of the 19th century the
+establishments of Purdy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a wide
+popularity to the circus in the United States. All former
+circus-proprietors were, however, far surpassed in enterprise and
+resource by P.T. Barnum (q.v.), whose claim to be the possessor of "the
+greatest show on earth" was no exaggeration. The influence of Barnum,
+however, brought about a considerable change in the character of the
+modern circus. In arenas too large for speech to be easily audible, the
+traditional comic dialogue of the clown assumed a less prominent place
+than formerly, while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties
+relegated to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which
+were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and by
+exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the employment of
+immense numbers of performers and often of complicated and expensive
+machinery. These tendencies are, as is natural, most marked in shows
+given in permanent buildings in large cities, such as the London
+Hippodrome, which was built as a combination of the circus, the
+menagerie and the variety theatre, where wild animals such as lions and
+elephants from time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions
+of nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have been
+produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display. At the
+Hippodrome in Paris--unlike its London namesake, a circus of the true
+classical type in which the arena is entirely surrounded by the seats of
+the spectators--chariot races after the Roman model were held in the
+latter part of the 19th century, at which prizes of considerable value
+were given by the management.
+
+
+
+
+CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced _Ciceter_), a market town in the
+Cirencester parliamentary division of Gloucestershire, England, on the
+river Churn, a tributary of the Thames, 93 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 7536. It is served by a branch of the Great
+Western railway, and there is also a station on the Midland and
+South-Western Junction railway. This is an ancient and prosperous market
+town of picturesque old houses clustering round a fine parish church,
+with a high embattled tower, and a remarkable south porch with parvise.
+The church is mainly Perpendicular, and among its numerous chapels that
+of St Catherine has a beautiful roof of fan-tracery in stone dated 1508.
+Of the abbey founded in 1117 by Henry I. there remain a Norman gateway
+and a few capitals. There are two good museums containing mosaics,
+inscriptions, carved and sculptured stones, and many smaller remains,
+for the town was the Roman _Corinium_ or _Durocornovium Dobunorum_.
+Little trace of Corinium, however, can be seen _in situ_, except the
+amphitheatre and some indications of the walls. To the west of the town
+is Cirencester House, the seat of Earl Bathurst. The first Lord Bathurst
+(1684-1775) devoted himself to beautifying the fine demesne of Oakley
+Park, which he planted and adorned with remarkable artificial ruins.
+This nobleman, who became baron in 1711 and earl in 1772, was a patron
+of art and literature no less than a statesman; and Pope, a frequent
+visitor here, was allowed to design the building known as Pope's Seat,
+in the park, commanding a splendid prospect of woods and avenues. Swift
+was another appreciative visitor. The house contains portraits by
+Lawrence, Gainsborough, Romney, Lely, Reynolds, Hoppner, Kneller and
+many others. A mile west of the town is the Royal Agricultural College,
+incorporated by charter in 1845. Its buildings include a chapel, a
+dining hall, a library, a lecture theatre, laboratories, classrooms,
+private studies and dormitories for the students, apartments for
+resident professors, and servants' offices; also a museum containing a
+collection of anatomical and pathological preparations, and
+mineralogical, botanical and geological specimens. The college farm
+comprises 500 acres, 450 of which are arable; and on it are the
+well-appointed farm-buildings and the veterinary hospital. Besides
+agriculture, the course of instruction at the college includes
+chemistry, natural and mechanical philosophy, natural history,
+mensuration, surveying and drawing, and other subjects of practical
+importance to the farmer, proficiency in which is tested by means of
+sessional examinations. The industries of Cirencester comprise various
+branches of agriculture. It has connexion by a branch canal with the
+Thames and Severn canal.
+
+Corinium was a flourishing Romano-British town, at first perhaps a
+cavalry post, but afterwards, for the greater part of the Roman period,
+purely a civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 m. N.E., is one of the most
+noteworthy Roman villas in England. Cirencester (_Cirneceaster_,
+_Cyrenceaster_, _Cyringceaster_) is described in Domesday as ancient
+demesne of the crown. The manor was granted by William I. to William
+Fitzosbern; on reverting to the crown it was given in 1189, with the
+township, to the Augustinian abbey founded here by Henry I. The struggle
+of the townsmen to prove that Cirencester was a borough probably began
+in the same year, when they were amerced for a false presentment. Four
+inquisitions during the 13th century supported the abbot's claims, yet
+in 1343 the townsmen declared in a chancery bill of complaint that
+Cirencester was a borough distinct from the manor, belonging to the king
+but usurped by the abbot, who since 1308 had abated their court of
+provostry. Accordingly they produced a copy of a forged charter from
+Henry I. to the town; the court ignored this and the abbot obtained a
+new charter and a writ of _supersedeas_. For their success against the
+earls of Kent and Salisbury Henry IV. in 1403 gave the townsmen a gild
+merchant, although two inquisitions reiterated the abbot's rights.
+These were confirmed in 1408-1409 and 1413; in 1418 the charter was
+annulled, and in 1477 parliament declared that Cirencester was not
+corporate. After several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish the gild
+merchant, the government in 1592 was vested in the bailiff of the lord
+of the manor. Cirencester became a parliamentary borough in 1572,
+returning two members, but was deprived of representation in 1885.
+Besides the "new market" of Domesday Book the abbots obtained charters
+in 1215 and 1253 for fairs during the octaves of All Saints and St
+Thomas the Martyr. The wool trade gave these great importance; in 1341
+there were ten wool merchants in Cirencester, and Leland speaks of the
+abbots' cloth-mill, while Camden calls it the greatest market for wool
+in England.
+
+  See _Transactions_ of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
+  Society, vols. ii., ix., xviii.
+
+
+
+
+CIRILLO, DOMENICO (1739-1799), Italian physician and patriot, was born
+at Grumo in the kingdom of Naples. Appointed while yet a young man to a
+botanical professorship, Cirillo went some years afterwards to England,
+where he was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and to France. On his
+return to Naples he was appointed successively to the chairs of
+practical and theoretical medicine. He wrote voluminously and well on
+scientific subjects and secured an extensive medical practice. On the
+French occupation of Naples and the proclamation of the Parthenopean
+republic (1799), Cirillo, after at first refusing to take part in the
+new government, consented to be chosen a representative of the people
+and became a member of the legislative commission, of which he was
+eventually elected president. On the abandonment of the republic by the
+French (June 1799), Cardinal Ruffo and the army of King Ferdinand IV.
+returned to Naples, and the Republicans withdrew, ill-armed and
+inadequately provisioned, to the forts. After a short siege they
+surrendered on honourable terms, life and liberty being guaranteed them
+by the signatures of Ruffo, of Foote, and of Micheroux. But the arrival
+of Nelson changed the complexion of affairs, and he refused to ratify
+the capitulation. Secure under the British flag, Ferdinand and his wife,
+Caroline of Austria, showed themselves eager for revenge, and Cirillo
+was involved with the other republicans in the vengeance of the royal
+family. He asked Lady Hamilton (wife of the British minister to Naples)
+to intercede on his behalf, but Nelson wrote in reference to the
+petition: "Domenico Cirillo, who had been the king's physician, might
+have been saved, but that he chose to play the fool and lie, denying
+that he had ever made any speeches against the government, and saying
+that he only took care of the poor in the hospitals" (_Nelson and the
+Neapolitan Jacobins_, Navy Records Society, 1903). He was condemned and
+hanged on the 29th of October 1799. Cirillo, whose favourite study was
+botany, and who was recognized as an entomologist by Linnaeus, left many
+books, in Latin and Italian, all of them treating of medical and
+scientific subjects, and all of little value now. Exception must,
+however, be made in favour of the _Virtù morali dell' Asino_, a pleasant
+philosophical pamphlet remarkable for its double charm of sense and
+style. He introduced many medical innovations into Naples, particularly
+inoculation for smallpox.
+
+  See C. Giglioli, _Naples in 1799_ (London, 1903); L. Conforti, _Napoli
+  nel 1799_ (Naples, 1889); C. Tivaroni, _L' Italia durante il dominio
+  francese_, vol. ii. pp. 179-204. Also under NAPLES; NELSON and
+  FERDINAND IV. OF NAPLES.
+
+
+
+
+CIRQUE (Lat. _circus_, ring), a French word used in physical geography
+to denote a semicircular crater-like amphitheatre at the head of a
+valley, or in the side of a glaciated mountain. The valley cirque is
+characteristic of calcareous districts. In the Chiltern Hills
+especially, and generally along the chalk escarpments, a flat-bottomed
+valley with an intermittent stream winds into the hill and ends suddenly
+in a cirque. There is an excellent example at Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire,
+where it appears as though an enormous flat-bottomed scoop had been
+driven into the hillside and dragged outwards to the plain. In all cases
+it is found that the valley floor consists of hard or impervious rock
+above which lies a permeable or soluble stratum of considerable
+thickness. In the case of the chalk hills the upper strata are very
+porous, and the descending water with atmospheric and humous acids in
+solution has great solvent power. During the winter this upper layer
+becomes saturated and some of the water drains away along joints in the
+escarpment. An underground stream is thus developed carrying away a
+great deal of material in solution, and in consequence the ground above
+slowly collapses over the stream, while the cirque at the head, where
+the stream issues, gradually works backward and may pass completely
+through the hills, leaving a gap of which another drainage system may
+take possession. In the limestone country of the Cotteswold Hills, many
+small intermittent tributary streams are headed by cirques, and some of
+the longer dry valleys have springs issuing from beneath their lower
+ends, the dry valleys being collapsed areas above underground streams
+not yet revealed. In this case the pervious limestone is underlain by
+beds of impervious clay. There are many of these in the Jura Mountains.
+The Cirque de St Sulpice is a fine example where the impervious bed is a
+marly clay.
+
+The origin of the glacial cirque is entirely different and is said by
+W.D. Johnson (_Journal of Geology_, xii. No. 7, 1904) to be due to basal
+sapping and erosion under the _bergschrund_ of the glacier. In this he
+is supported by G.K. Gilbert in the same journal, who produces some
+remarkable examples from the Sierra Nevada in California, where the
+mountain fragments have been left behind "like a sheet of dough upon a
+board after the biscuit tin has done its work"; so that above the head
+of the glaciers "the rock detail is rugged and splintered but its
+general effect is that of a great symmetrical arc." Descending one of
+the bergschrunds of Mt. Lyell to a depth of 150 ft., Johnson found a
+rock floor cumbered with ice and blocks of rock and the rock face a
+literally vertical cliff "much riven, its fracture planes outlining
+sharp angular masses in all stages of displacement and dislodgment."
+Judging from these facts, he interprets the deep valleys with cirques at
+their head in formerly glaciated regions where at the head there is a
+"reversed grade" of slope, as due to ice-erosion at valley-heads where
+scour is impossible at the sides of the mountain but strongest under the
+glacier head where the ice is deepest. The opponents of ice-erosion
+nevertheless recognize the very frequent occurrence of glacial cirques
+often containing small lakes such as that under Cader Idris in Wales, or
+at the head of Little Timber Creek, Montana, and numerous examples in
+Alpine districts.
+
+
+
+
+CIRTA (mod. _Constantine_, q.v.), an ancient city of Numidia, in Africa,
+in the country of the Massyli. It was regarded by the Romans as the
+strongest position in Numidia, and was made by them the converging point
+of all their great military roads in that country. By the early emperors
+it was allowed to fall into decay, but was afterwards restored by
+Constantine, from whom it took its modern name.
+
+
+
+
+CISSEY, ERNEST LOUIS OCTAVE COURTOT DE (1810-1882), French general, was
+born at Paris on the 23rd of September 1810, and after passing through
+St Cyr, entered the army in 1832, becoming captain in 1839. He saw
+active service in Algeria, and became _chef d'escadron_ in 1849 and
+lieutenant-colonel in 1850. He took part as a colonel in the Crimean
+War, and after the battle of Inkerman received the rank of general of
+brigade. In 1863 he was promoted general of division. When the
+Franco-German War broke out in 1870, de Cissey was given a divisional
+command in the Army of the Rhine, and he was included in the surrender
+of Bazaine's army at Metz. He was released from captivity only at the
+end of the war, and on his return was at once appointed by the
+Versailles government to a command in the army engaged in the
+suppression of the Commune, a task in the execution of which he
+displayed great rigour. From July 1871 de Cissey sat as a deputy, and he
+had already become minister of war. He occupied this post several times
+during the critical period of the reorganization of the French army. In
+1880, whilst holding the command of the XI. corps at Nantes, he was
+accused of having relations with a certain Baroness Kaula, who was said
+to be a spy in the pay of Germany, and he was in consequence relieved
+from duty. An inquiry subsequently held resulted in de Cissey's favour
+(1881). He died on the 15th of June 1882 at Paris.
+
+
+
+
+CISSOID (from the Gr. [Greek: kissos], ivy, and [Greek: eidos], form), a
+curve invented by the Greek mathematician Diocles about 180 B.C., for
+the purpose of constructing two mean proportionals between two given
+lines, and in order to solve the problem of duplicating the cube. It was
+further investigated by John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens (who determined
+the length of any arc in 1657), and Pierre de Fermat (who evaluated the
+area between the curve and its asymptote in 1661). It is constructed in
+the following manner. Let APB be a semicircle, BT the tangent at B, and
+APT a line cutting the circle in P and BT at T; take a point Q on AT so
+that AQ always equals PT; then the locus of Q is the cissoid. Sir Isaac
+Newton devised the following mechanical construction. Take a rod LMN
+bent at right angles at M, such that MN = AB; let the leg LM always pass
+through a fixed point O on AB produced such that OA = CA, where C is the
+middle point of AB, and cause N to travel along the line perpendicular
+to AB at C; then the midpoint of MN traces the cissoid. The curve is
+symmetrical about the axis of x, and consists of two infinite branches
+asymptotic to the line BT and forming a cusp at the origin. The
+cartesian equation, when A is the origin and AB = 2a, is y²(2a - x) =
+x³; the polar equation is r = 2a sin [theta] tan [theta]. The cissoid is
+the first positive pedal of the parabola y² + 8ax = 0 for the vertex,
+and the inverse of the parabola y² = 8ax, the vertex being the centre of
+inversion, and the semi-latus rectum the constant of inversion. The area
+between the curve and its asymptote is 3[pi]a², i.e. three times the
+area of the generating circle.
+
+The term cissoid has been given in modern times to curves generated in
+similar manner from other figures than the circle, and the form
+described above is distinguished as the cissoid of Diocles.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A _cissoid angle_ is the angle included between the concave sides of two
+intersecting curves; the convex sides include the _sistroid angle_.
+
+  See John Wallis, _Collected Works_, vol. i.; T.H. Eagles, _Plane
+  Curves_ (1885).
+
+
+
+
+CIS-SUTLEJ STATES, the southern portion of the Punjab, India. The name,
+now obsolete, came into use in 1809, when the Sikh chiefs south of the
+Sutlej passed under British protection, and was generally applied to the
+country south of the Sutlej and north of the Delhi territory, bounded on
+the E. by the Himalayas, and on the W. by Sirsa district. Before 1846
+the greater part of this territory was independent, the chiefs being
+subject merely to control from a political officer stationed at Umballa,
+and styled the agent of the governor-general for the Cis-Sutlej states.
+After the first Sikh War the full administration of the territory became
+vested in this officer. In 1849 occurred the annexation of the Punjab,
+when the Cis-Sutlej states commissionership, comprising the districts of
+Umballa, Ferozepore, Ludhiana, Thanesar and Simla, was incorporated with
+the new province. The name continued to be applied to this division
+until 1862, when, owing to Ferozepore having been transferred to the
+Lahore, and a part of Thanesar to the Delhi division, it ceased to be
+appropriate. Since then, the tract remaining has been known as the
+Umballa division. Patiala, Jind and Nabha were appointed a separate
+political agency in 1901. Excluding Bahawalpur, for which there is no
+political agent, and Chamba, the other states are grouped under the
+commissioners of Jullunder and Delhi, and the superintendent of the
+Simla hill states.
+
+
+
+
+CIST (Gr. [Greek: kistê], Lat. _cista_, a box; cf. Ger. _Kiste_, Welsh
+_kistvaen_, stone-coffin, and also the other Eng. form "chest"), in
+Greek archaeology, a wicker-work receptacle used in the Eleusinian and
+other mysteries to carry the sacred vessels; also, in the archaeology
+of prehistoric man, a coffin formed of flat stones placed edgeways with
+another flat stone for a cover. The word is also used for a sepulchral
+chamber cut in the rock (see COFFIN).
+
+"Cistern," the common term for a water-tank, is a derivation of the same
+word (Lat. _cisterna_; cf. "cave" and "cavern").
+
+
+
+
+CISTERCIANS, otherwise GREY or WHITE MONKS (from the colour of the
+habit, over which is worn a black scapular or apron). In 1098 St Robert,
+born of a noble family in Champagne, at first a Benedictine monk, and
+then abbot of certain hermits settled at Molesme near Châtillon, being
+dissatisfied with the manner of life and observance there, migrated with
+twenty of the monks to a swampy place called Cîteaux in the diocese of
+Châlons, not far from Dijon. Count Odo of Burgundy here built them a
+monastery, and they began to live a life of strict observance according
+to the letter of St Benedict's rule. In the following year Robert was
+compelled by papal authority to return to Molesme, and Alberic succeeded
+him as abbot of Cîteaux and held the office till his death in 1109, when
+the Englishman St Stephen Harding became abbot, until 1134. For some
+years the new institute seemed little likely to prosper; few novices
+came, and in the first years of Stephen's abbacy it seemed doomed to
+failure. In 1112, however, St Bernard and thirty others offered
+themselves to the monastery, and a rapid and wonderful development at
+once set in. The next three years witnessed the foundation of the four
+great "daughter-houses of Cîteaux"--La Ferté, Pontigny, Clairvaux and
+Morimond. At Stephen's death there were over 30 Cistercian houses; at
+Bernard's (1154) over 280; and by the end of the century over 500; and
+the Cistercian influence in the Church more than kept pace with this
+material expansion, so that St Bernard saw one of his monks ascend the
+papal chair as Eugenius III.
+
+The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of
+St Benedict's rule--how literal may be seen from the controversy between
+St Bernard and Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny (see Maitland, _Dark
+Ages_, § xxii.). The Cistercians rejected alike all mitigations and all
+developments, and tried to reproduce the life exactly as it had been in
+St Benedict's time, indeed in various points they went beyond it in
+austerity. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to
+manual labour, and especially to field-work, which became a special
+characteristic of Cistercian life. In order to make time for this work
+they cut away the accretions to the divine office which had been
+steadily growing during three centuries, and in Cluny and the other
+Black Monk monasteries had come to exceed greatly in length the regular
+canonical office: one only of these accretions did they retain, the
+daily recitation of the Office of the Dead (Edm. Bishop, _Origin of the
+Primer_, Early English Text Society, original series, 109, p. xxx.).
+
+It was as agriculturists and horse and cattle breeders that, after the
+first blush of their success and before a century had passed, the
+Cistercians exercised their chief influence on the progress of
+civilization in the later middle ages: they were the great farmers of
+those days, and many of the improvements in the various farming
+operations were introduced and propagated by them; it is from this point
+of view that the importance of their extension in northern Europe is to
+be estimated. The Cistercians at the beginning renounced all sources of
+income arising from benefices, tithes, tolls and rents, and depended for
+their income wholly on the land. This developed an organized system for
+selling their farm produce, cattle and horses, and notably contributed
+to the commercial progress of the countries of western Europe. Thus by
+the middle of the 13th century the export of wool by the English
+Cistercians had become a feature in the commerce of the country. Farming
+operations on so extensive a scale could not be carried out by the monks
+alone, whose choir and religious duties took up a considerable portion
+of their time; and so from the beginning the system of lay brothers was
+introduced on a large scale. The lay brothers were recruited from the
+peasantry and were simple uneducated men, whose function consisted in
+carrying out the various field-works and plying all sorts of useful
+trades; they formed a body of men who lived alongside of the choir
+monks, but separate from them, not taking part in the canonical office,
+but having their own fixed round of prayer and religious exercises. A
+lay brother was never ordained, and never held any office of
+superiority. It was by this system of lay brothers that the Cistercians
+were able to play their distinctive part in the progress of European
+civilization. But it often happened that the number of lay brothers
+became excessive and out of proportion to the resources of the
+monasteries, there being sometimes as many as 200, or even 300, in a
+single abbey. On the other hand, at any rate in some countries, the
+system of lay brothers in course of time worked itself out; thus in
+England by the close of the 14th century it had shrunk to relatively
+small proportions, and in the 15th century the régime of the English
+Cistercian houses tended to approximate more and more to that of the
+Black Monks.
+
+The Cistercian polity calls for special mention. Its lines were
+adumbrated by Alberic, but it received its final form at a meeting of
+the abbots in the time of Stephen Harding, when was drawn up the _Carta
+Caritatis_ (Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ clxvi. 1377), a document which
+arranged the relations between the various houses of the Cistercian
+order, and exercised a great influence also upon the future course of
+western monachism. From one point of view, it may be regarded as a
+compromise between the primitive Benedictine system, whereby each abbey
+was autonomous and isolated, and the complete centralization of Cluny,
+whereby the abbot of Cluny was the only true superior in the body.
+Cîteaux, on the one hand, maintained the independent organic life of the
+houses--each abbey had its own abbot, elected by its own monks; its own
+community, belonging to itself and not to the order in general; its own
+property and finances administered by itself, without interference from
+outside. On the other hand, all the abbeys were subjected to the general
+chapter, which met yearly at Cîteaux, and consisted of the abbots only;
+the abbot of Cîteaux was the president of the chapter and of the order,
+and the visitor of each and every house, with a predominant influence
+and the power of enforcing everywhere exact conformity to Cîteaux in all
+details of the exterior life--observance, chant, customs. The principle
+was that Cîteaux should always be the model to which all the other
+houses had to conform. In case of any divergence of view at the chapter,
+the side taken by the abbot of Cîteaux was always to prevail (see F.A.
+Gasquet, _Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History_, pp. xxxv-xxxviii,
+prefixed to English trans, of Montalembert's _Monks of the West_, ed.
+1895).
+
+By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered 500; in
+the 13th a hundred more were added; and in the 15th, when the order
+attained its greatest extension, there were close on 750 houses: the
+larger figures sometimes given are now recognized as apocryphal. Nearly
+half of the houses had been founded, directly or indirectly, from
+Clairvaux, so great was St Bernard's influence and prestige: indeed he
+has come almost to be regarded as the founder of the Cistercians, who
+have often been called Bernardines. The order was spread all over
+western Europe,--chiefly in France, but also in Germany, England,
+Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, Italy and Sicily, Spain and
+Portugal,--where some of the houses, as Alcobaça, were of almost
+incredible magnificence. In England the first foundation was Furness
+(1127), and many of the most beautiful monastic buildings of the
+country, beautiful in themselves and beautiful in their sites, were
+Cistercian,--as Tintern, Rievaulx, Byland, Fountains. A hundred were
+established in England in the next hundred years, and then only one more
+up to the Dissolution (for list, see table and map in F.A. Gasquet's
+_English Monastic Life_, or _Catholic Dictionary_, art. "Cistercians").
+
+For a hundred years, till the first quarter of the 13th century, the
+Cistercians supplanted Cluny as the most powerful order and the chief
+religious influence in western Europe. But then in turn their influence
+began to wane, chiefly, no doubt, because of the rise of the mendicant
+orders, who ministered more directly to the needs and ideas of the new
+age. But some of the reasons of Cistercian decline were internal. In the
+first place, there was the permanent difficulty of maintaining in its
+first fervour a body embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of
+monks, spread all over Europe; and as the Cistercian very _raison
+d'être_ consisted in its being a "reform," a return to primitive
+monachism, with its field-work and severe simplicity, any failures to
+live up to the ideal proposed worked more disastrously among Cistercians
+than among mere Benedictines, who were intended to live a life of
+self-denial, but not of great austerity. Relaxations were gradually
+introduced in regard to diet and to simplicity of life, and also in
+regard to the sources of income, rents and tolls being admitted and
+benefices incorporated, as was done among the Benedictines; the farming
+operations tended to produce a commercial spirit; wealth and splendour
+invaded many of the monasteries, and the choir monks abandoned
+field-work.
+
+The later history of the Cistercians is largely one of attempted
+revivals and reforms. The general chapter for long battled bravely
+against the invasion of relaxations and abuses. In 1335 Benedict XII.,
+himself a Cistercian, promulgated a series of regulations to restore the
+primitive spirit of the order, and in the 15th century various popes
+endeavoured to promote reforms. All these efforts at a reform of the
+great body of the order proved unavailing; but local reforms, producing
+various semi-independent offshoots and congregations, were successfully
+carried out in many parts in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries.
+In the 17th another great effort at a general reform was made, promoted
+by the pope and the king of France; the general chapter elected
+Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Cîteaux, thinking he would protect
+them from the threatened reform. In this they were disappointed, for he
+threw himself wholly on the side of reform. So great, however, was the
+resistance, and so serious the disturbances that ensued, that the
+attempt to reform Cîteaux itself and the general body of the houses had
+again to be abandoned, and only local projects of reform could be
+carried out. In 1598 had arisen the reformed congregation of the
+Feuillants, which spread widely in France and Italy, in the latter
+country under the name of "Improved Bernardines." The French
+congregation of Sept-Fontaines (1654) also deserves mention. In 1663 de
+Rancé reformed La Trappe (see TRAPPISTS).
+
+The Reformation, the ecclesiastical policy of Joseph II., the French
+Revolution, and the revolutions of the 19th century, almost wholly
+destroyed the Cistercians; but some survived, and since the beginning of
+the last half of the 19th century there has been a considerable
+recovery. They are at present divided into three bodies: (1) the Common
+Observance, with about 30 monasteries and 800 choir monks, the large
+majority being in Austria-Hungary; they represent the main body of the
+order and follow a mitigated rule of life; they do not carry on
+field-work, but have large secondary schools, and are in manner of life
+little different from fairly observant Benedictine Black monks; of late
+years, however, signs are not wanting of a tendency towards a return to
+older ideas; (2) the Middle Observance, embracing some dozen monasteries
+and about 150 choir monks; (3) the Strict Observance, or Trappists
+(q.v.), with nearly 60 monasteries, about 1600 choir monks and 2000 lay
+brothers.
+
+In all there are about 100 Cistercian monasteries and about 4700 monks,
+including lay brothers. There have always been a large number of
+Cistercian nuns; the first nunnery was founded at Tart in the diocese of
+Langres, 1125; at the period of their widest extension there are said to
+have been 900 nunneries, and the communities were very large. The nuns
+were devoted to contemplation and also did field-work. In Spain and
+France certain Cistercian abbesses had extraordinary privileges.
+Numerous reforms took place among the nuns. The best known of all
+Cistercian convents was probably Port-Royal (q.v.), reformed by
+Angélique Arnaud, and associated with the story of the Jansenist
+controversy. After all the troubles of the 19th century there still
+exist 100 Cistercian nunneries with 3000 nuns, choir and lay; of these,
+15 nunneries with 900 nuns are Trappist.
+
+  Accounts of the beginnings of the Cistercians and of the primitive
+  life and spirit will be found in the lives of St Bernard, the best
+  whereof is that of Abbé E. Vacandard (1895); also in the Life of St
+  Stephen Harding, in the _English Saints_. See also Henry Collins (one
+  of the Oxford Movement, who became a Cistercian), _Spirit and Mission
+  of the Cistercian Order_ (1866). The facts are related in Helyot,
+  _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), v. cc. 33-46, vi cc. 1, 2. Useful
+  sketches, with references to the literature, are supplied in Herzog,
+  _Realencyklopädie_ (ed. 3), art. "Cistercienser"; Wetzer und Welte,
+  _Kirchenlexikon_ (ed. 2), art. "Cistercienserorden"; Max Heimbucher,
+  _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. §§ 33, 34. Prof. Brewer's
+  discriminating, yet on the whole sympathetic, Preface to vol. iv. of
+  the Works of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls Series of _Chronicles and
+  Memorials_) is very instructive. Denis Murphy's _Triumphalia
+  Monasterii S. Crucis_ (1891) contains a general sketch, with a
+  particular account of the Irish Cistercians.    (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CITATION (Lat. _citare_, to cite), in law, a summons to appear, more
+particularly applied in England to process in the probate and divorce
+division of the high court. In the ecclesiastical courts, citation was a
+method of commencing a probate suit, answering to a writ of summons at
+common law, and it is now in English probate practice an instrument
+issuing from the principal probate registry, chiefly used when a person,
+having the superior right to take a grant, delays or declines to do so,
+and another having an inferior right desires to obtain a grant; the
+party having the prior right is cited to appear and either to renounce
+the grant or show cause why it should not be decreed to the citator. In
+divorce practice, when a petitioner has filed his petition and
+affidavit, he extracts a citation, i.e. a command drawn in the name of
+the sovereign and signed by one of the registrars of the court, calling
+upon the alleged offender to appear and make answer to the petition. In
+Scots law, citation is used in the sense of a writ of summons. The word
+in its more general literary sense means the act of quoting, or the
+referring to an authority in support of an argument.
+
+
+
+
+CÎTEAUX, a village of eastern France, in the department of Côte d'Or, 16
+m. S.S.E. of Dijon by road. It is celebrated for the great abbey founded
+by Robert, abbot of Molesme, in 1098, which became the headquarters of
+the Cistercian order. The buildings which remain date chiefly from the
+18th century and are of little interest. The church, destroyed in 1792,
+used to contain the tombs of the earlier dukes of Burgundy.
+
+
+
+
+CITHAERON, now called from its pine forests Elatea, a famous mountain
+range (4626 ft.) in the south of Boeotia, separating that state from
+Megaris and Attica. It was famous in Greek mythology, and is frequently
+mentioned by the great poets, especially by Sophocles. It was on
+Cithaeron that Aetaeon was changed into a stag, that Pentheus was torn
+to pieces by the Bacchantes whose orgies he had been watching, and that
+the infant Oedipus was exposed. This mountain, too, was the scene of the
+mystic rites of Dionysus, and the festival of the Daedala in honour of
+Hera. The carriage-road from Athens to Thebes crosses the range by a
+picturesque defile (the pass of Dryoscephalae, "Oak-heads"), which was
+at one time guarded on the Attic side by a strong fortress, the ruins of
+which are known as Ghyphto-kastro ("Gipsy Castle"). Plataea is situated
+on the north slope of the mountain, and the strategy of the battle of
+479 B.C. was considerably affected by the fact that it was necessary for
+the Greeks to keep their communications open by the passes (see
+PLATAEA). The best known of these is that of Dryoscephalae, which must
+then, as now, have been the direct route from Athens to Thebes. Two
+other passes, farther to the west, were crossed by the roads from
+Plataea to Athens and to Megara respectively.    (E. GR.)
+
+
+
+
+CITHARA (Assyrian _chetarah_; Gr. [Greek: kithara]; Lat. _cithara_;
+perhaps Heb. _kinura, kinnor_), one of the most ancient stringed
+instruments, traced back to 1700 B.C. among the Semitic races, in Egypt,
+Assyria, Asia Minor, Greece and the Roman empire, whence the use of it
+spread over Europe. The main feature of the Greek _kithara_, its shallow
+sound-chest, being the most important part of it, is also that in which
+developments are most noticeable; its contour varied considerably during
+the many musical ages, but the characteristic in respect of which it
+fore-shadowed the precursors of the violin family, and by which they
+were distinguished from other contemporary stringed instruments of the
+middle ages, was preserved throughout in all European descendants
+bearing derived names. This characteristic box sound-chest (fig. 1)
+consisted of two resonating tables, either flat or delicately arched,
+connected by ribs or sides of equal width. The cithara may be regarded
+as an attempt by a more skilful craftsman or race to improve upon the
+lyre (q.v.), while retaining some of its features. The construction of
+the cithara can fortunately be accurately studied from two actual
+specimens found in Egypt and preserved in the museums of Berlin and
+Leiden. The Leiden cithara (fig. 2), which forms part of the d'Anastasy
+Collection in the Museum of Antiquities, is in a very good state of
+preservation. The sound-chest, in the form of an irregular square (17
+cm. X 17 cm.), is hollowed out of a solid block of wood from the base,
+which is open; the little bar, seen through the open base and measuring
+2½ cm. (1 in.), is also of the same piece of wood. The arms, one short
+and one long, are solid and are fixed to the body by means of wooden
+pins; they are glued as well for greater strength. W. Pleyte, through
+whose courtesy the sketch was revised and corrected, states that there
+are no indications on the instrument of any kind of bridge or attachment
+for strings except the little half-hoop of iron wire which passes
+through the base from back to front. To this the strings were probably
+attached, and the little bar performed the double duty of sound-post and
+support for strengthening the tail-piece and enabling it to resist the
+tension of the strings. The oblique transverse bar, rendered necessary
+by the increasing length of the strings, was characteristic of the
+Egyptian cithara,[1] whereas the Asiatic and Greek instruments were
+generally constructed with horizontal bars resting on arms of equal
+length, the pitch of the strings being varied by thickness and tension,
+instead of by length. (For the Berlin cithara see LYRE.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Nero Citharoedus (_Mus. Pio-Clementino_),
+showing back of a Roman Cithara.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ancient Egyptian Cithara from Thebes. Museum of
+Antiquities, Leiden.]
+
+The number of strings with which the cithara was strung varied from 4 to
+19 or 20 at different times; they were added less for the purpose of
+increasing the compass in the modern sense than to enable the performer
+to play in the different modes of the Greek musical system. Terpander is
+credited with having increased the number of strings to seven; Euclid,
+quoting him as his authority, states that "loving no more the
+tetrachordal chant, we will sing aloud new hymns to a seven-toned
+phorminx."
+
+What has been said of the scale of the lyre applies also to the cithara,
+and need therefore not be repeated here. The strings were vibrated by
+means of the fingers or plectrum ([Greek: plêktron], from [Greek:
+plêssein], to strike; Lat. _plectrum_, from _plango_, I strike).
+Twanging with the fingers for strings of gut, hemp or silk was
+undoubtedly the more artistic method, since the player was able to
+command various shades of expression which are impossible with a rigid
+plectrum.[2] Loudness of accent and great brilliancy of tone, however,
+can only be obtained by the use of the plectrum.
+
+Quotations from the classics abound to show what was the practice of the
+Greeks and Romans in this respect. The plectrum was held in the right
+hand, with elbow outstretched and palm bent inwards, and the strings
+were plucked with the straightened fingers of the left hand.[3] Both
+methods were used with intention according to the dictates of art for
+the sake of the variation in tone colour obtainable thereby.[4]
+
+The strings of the cithara were either knotted round the transverse
+tuning bar itself (_zugon_) or to rings threaded over the bar, which
+enabled the performer to increase or decrease the tension by shifting
+the knots or rings; or else they were wound round pegs,[5] knobs[6] or
+pins[7] fixed to the zugon. The other end of the strings was secured to
+a tail-piece after passing over a flat bridge, or the two were combined
+in the curious high box tail-piece which acted as a bridge. Plutarch[8]
+states that this contrivance was added to the cithara in the days of
+Cepion, pupil of Terpander. These boxes were hinged in order to allow
+the lid to be opened for the purpose of securing the strings to some
+contrivance concealed therein. It is a curious fact that no sculptured
+cithara provided with this box tail-piece is represented with strings,
+and in many cases there could never have been any, for the hand and
+arm[9] are visible across the space that would be filled by the strings,
+which are always carved in a solid block.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Apollo Citharoedus, showing Cithara with box
+tail-pieces.]
+
+Like the lyre the cithara was made in many sizes, conditioned by the
+pitch and the use to which the instrument was to be put. These
+instruments may have been distinguished by different names; the
+_pectis_, for instance, is declared by Sappho (22nd fragment) to have
+been small and shrill; the _phorminx_, on the other hand, seems to have
+been identical with the cithara.[10]
+
+The Greek _kithara_ was the instrument of the professional singer or
+citharoedus ([Greek: kitharôdos]) and of the instrumentalist or
+citharista ([Greek: kitharistês]), and thus served the double purpose of
+(1) accompanying the voice--a use placed by the Greeks far above mere
+instrumental music--in epic recitations and rhapsodies, in odes and
+lyric songs; and (2) of accompanying the dance; it was also used for
+playing solos at the national games, at receptions and banquets and at
+trials of skill. The costume of the citharoedus and citharista was rich
+and recognized as being distinctive; it varied but little throughout the
+ages, as may be deduced from a comparison of representations of the
+citharoedus on a coin and on a Greek vase of the best period (fig. 4).
+The costume consisted of a _palla_ or long tunic with sleeves
+embroidered with gold and girt high above the waist, falling in graceful
+folds to the feet. This _palla_ must not be confounded with the mantle
+of the same name worn by women. Over one shoulder, or hanging down the
+back, was the purple _chlamys_ or cloak, and on his brow a golden wreath
+of laurels. All the citharoedi bear instruments of the type here
+described as the cithara, and never one of the lyre type. The records of
+the citharoedi extend over more than thirteen centuries and fall into
+two natural divisions: (1) The mythological period, approximately from
+the 13th century B.C. to the first Olympiad, 776 B.C.; and (2) the
+historical period to the days of Ptolemy, A.D. 161. One of the very few
+authentic Greek odes extant is a Pythian ode by Pindar, in which the
+phorminx of Apollo is mentioned; the solo is followed by a chorus of
+citharoedi. The scope of the solemn games and processions, called
+_Panathenaea_, held every four years in honour of the goddess Athena,
+which originally consisted principally of athletic sports and horse and
+chariot races, was extended under Peisistratus (c. 540 B.C.), and the
+celebration made to include contests of singers and instrumentalists,
+recitations of portions of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, such as are
+represented on the frieze of the Parthenon (in the Elgin Room at the
+British Museum) and later on friezes by Pheidias. It was at the same
+period that the first contests for solo-playing on the cithara ([Greek:
+kitharistus]) and for solo _aulos_-playing were instituted at the 8th
+Pythian Games.[11] One of the principal items at these contests for
+aulos and cithara was the _Nomos Pythikos_, descriptive of the victory
+of Apollo over the python and of the defeat of the monster.[12]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cithara or Phorminx, from a vase in the British
+Museum.]
+
+The Pythian Games survived the classic Greek period and were continued
+under Roman sway until about A.D. 394. Not only were these games held at
+Delphi, but smaller contests, called Pythia, modelled on the great
+Pythian, were instituted in various provinces of the empire, and more
+especially in Asia Minor. The games lasted for several days, the first
+being devoted to music. To the games at Delphi came musicians from all
+parts of the civilized world; and the Spaniards, at the beginning of our
+era, had attained to such a marvellous proficiency in playing the
+cithara, an instrument which they had learnt to know from the Phoenician
+colonists before the conquest by the Romans, that some of their
+citharoedi easily carried off the honours at the musical contests. The
+consul Metellus was so charmed with the music of the Spanish competitors
+that he sent some to Rome for the festivals, where the impression
+created was so great that the Spanish citharoedi obtained a permanent
+footing in Rome. Aulus Gellius (_Noct. Att._) describes an incident at a
+banquet which corroborates this statement.
+
+The degeneration of music as an art among the Romans, and its gradual
+degradation by association with the sensual amusements of corrupt Rome,
+nearly brought about its extinction at the end of the 4th century, when
+the condemnation of the Church closed the theatres, and the great
+national games came to an end. Instrumental music was banished from
+civil life and from religious rites, and thenceforth the slender threads
+which connect the musical instruments of Greeks and Romans with those of
+the middle ages must be sought among the unconverted barbarians of
+northern and western Europe, who kept alive the traditions taught them
+by conquerors and colonists; but as civilization was in its infancy with
+them the instruments sent out from their workshops must have been crude
+and primitive. Asia, the cradle of the cithara, also became its
+foster-mother; it was among the Greeks of Asia Minor that the several
+steps in the transition from cithara into guitar[13] (q.v.) took place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Asiatic Cithara in transition (or rotta). From a
+fresco at Beni-Hasan (c. 1700 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Roman Cithara in transition, of the Lycian
+Apollo (Rome Mus. Capit.).]
+
+The first of these steps produced the rotta (q.v.), by the construction
+of body, arms and transverse bar in one piece. The Semitic races used
+the rotta at a very remote period (1700 B.C.), as we know from a fresco
+at Beni-Hasan, dating from the reign of Senwosri II., which depicts a
+procession of strangers bringing tribute; among them is a bearded
+musician of Semitic type bearing a rotta which he holds horizontally in
+front of him in the Assyrian manner, and quite unlike the Greeks, who
+always played the lyre and cithara in an upright position. A unique
+specimen of this rectangular rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the
+5th or 6th century at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. The instrument was
+clasped in the arms of an armed knight; it is now preserved in the
+Völker Museum in Berlin. This old German rotta is an exact counterpart
+of instruments pictured in illuminated MSS. of the 8th century, and is
+derived from the cithara with rectangular body, while from the cithara
+with a body having the curve of the lower half of the violin was
+produced a rotta with the outline of the body of the guitar. Both types
+were common in Europe until the 14th century, some played with a bow,
+others twanged by the fingers, and bearing indifferently both names,
+cithara and rotta. The addition of a finger-board, stretching like a
+short neck from body to transverse bar, leaving on each side of the
+finger-board space for the hand to pass through in order to stop the
+strings, produced the crwth or crowd (q.v.), and brought about the
+reduction in the number of the strings to three or four. The conversion
+of the rotta into the guitar (q.v.) was an easy transition effected by
+the addition of a long neck to a body derived from the oval rotta. When
+the bow was applied the result was the guitar or troubadour fiddle. At
+first the instrument called _cithara_ in the Latin versions of the
+Psalms was glossed _citran, citre_ in Anglo-Saxon, but in the 11th
+century the same instrument was rendered _hearpan_, and in French and
+English _harpe_ or _harp_, and our modern versions have retained this
+translation. The _cittern_ (q.v.), a later descendant of the cithara,
+although preserving the characteristic features of the cithara, the
+shallow sound-chest with ribs, adopted the pear-shaped outline of the
+Eastern instruments of the lute tribe. (K.S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A drawing of an Egyptian cithara, similar to the Leiden
+    specimen, may be seen in Champollion, _Monuments de l'Égypte et de
+    la Nubie_, ii. pl. 175.
+
+  [2] See Plutarch, _Apophthegm. Lacon._
+
+  [3] Philostratus the Elder, _Imagines_, No. 10, "Amphion," and
+    Philostratus the Younger, _Imagines_, No. 7, "Orpheus," p. 403.
+
+  [4] Tibullus, _Eleg._ iii. 4. 39.
+
+  [5] _Le Antichità de Ercolano_, vol. iii. p. 5.
+
+  [6] _Idem_, vol. iv. p. 201.
+
+  [7] Thomas Hope, _Costumes of the Ancients_, vol. ii. p. 193; also
+    Edward Buhle, _Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen des
+    frühen Mittelalters_ (Leipzig, 1903), frontispiece.
+
+  [8] See _De Musica_, ch. vi.
+
+  [9] See Visconti, _Museo Clementino_, pl. 22, Erato's cithara, and
+    in the same work that of Apollo Citharoedus (fig. 3 above).
+
+  [10] See _Od._ i. 153, 155; _Il._ xviii. 569-570. In Homer the form
+    is always [Greek: kitharis].
+
+  [11] See Pausanias x. 7, § 4 et seq.
+
+  [12] For a description of the _Nomos Pythikos_ in its relation to
+    Greek music see Kathleen Schlesinger, "Researches into the Origin of
+    the Organs of the Ancients," _Intern. Mus. Ges._ Sbd. ii. (1901), 2,
+    p. 177, and Strabo ix. p. 421.
+
+  [13] For a discussion of this question see Kathleen Schlesinger,
+    _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, part ii., and especially
+    chapters on the cithara in transition during the middle ages, and
+    the question of the origin of the Utrecht Psalter, in which the
+    evolution of the cithara is traced at some length.
+
+
+
+
+CITIUM (Gr. [Greek: Kition]), the principal Phoenician city in Cyprus,
+situated at the north end of modern Larnaca, on the bay of the same name
+on the S.E. coast of the island. Converging currents from E. and W. meet
+and pass seawards off Cape Kiti a few miles south, and greatly
+facilitated ancient trade. To S. and W. the site is protected by
+lagoons, the salt from which was one of the sources of its prosperity.
+The earliest remains near the site go back to the Mycenaean age (c.
+1400-1100 B.C.) and seem to mark an Aegean colony.[1] but in historic
+times Citium is the chief centre of Phoenician influence in Cyprus. That
+this was still a recent settlement in the 7th century is suggested by an
+allusion in a list of the allies of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668
+B.C. to a King Damasu of Kartihadasti (Phoenician for "New-town"), where
+Citium would be expected. A Phoenician dedication to "Baal of Lebanon"
+found here, and dated also to the 7th century, suggests that Citium may
+have belonged to Tyre. The biblical name Kittim, derived from Citium, is
+in fact used quite generally for Cyprus as a whole;[2] later also for
+Greeks and Romans in general.[3] The discovery here of an official
+monument of Sargon II. suggests that Citium was the administrative
+centre of Cyprus during the Assyrian protectorate (700-668 B.C.).[4]
+During the Greek revolts of 500, 386 foll. and 352 B.C., Citium led the
+side loyal to Persia and was besieged by an Athenian force in 449 B.C.;
+its extensive necropolis proves that it remained a considerable city
+even after the Greek cause triumphed with Alexander. But like other
+cities of Cyprus, it suffered repeatedly from earthquake, and in
+medieval times when its harbour became silted the population moved to
+Larnaca, on the open roadstead, farther south. Harbour and citadel have
+now quite disappeared, the latter having been used to fill up the former
+shortly after the British occupation; some gain to health resulted, but
+an irreparable loss to science. Traces remain of the circuit wall, and
+of a sanctuary with copious terra-cotta offerings; the large necropolis
+yields constant loot to illicit excavation.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W.H. Engel, _Kypros_ (Berlin, 1841), (classical
+  allusions); J.L. Myres, _Journ. Hellenic Studies_, xvii. 147 ff.
+  (excavations); _Cyprus Museum Catalogue_ (Oxford, 1899), p. 5-6;
+  153-155; Index (Antiquities); G.F. Hill, _Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of
+  Cyprus_ (London, 1904), (Coins). (J.L.M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. the name Kathian in a Ramessid list of cities of Cyprus,
+    Oberhummer, _Die Insel Cypern_ (Munich, 1903), p. 4.
+
+  [2] Gen. x. 4; Num. xxiv. 24; Is. xxiii. 1, 12; Jer. ii. 10; Ezek.
+    xxvii. 6.
+
+  [3] Dan. xi. 30; I Macc. i. 1; viii. 5.
+
+  [4] Schrader, "Die Sargonstele des Berliner Museums," in _Abh. d. k.
+    Preuss. Akad. Wiss._ (1881); _Zur Geogr. d. assyr. Reiches_ (Berlin,
+    1890), pp. 337-344.
+
+
+
+
+CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with "denizen,"
+from O. Fr. _citeain_, mod. Fr. _citoyen_), etymologically the
+inhabitant of a city, _cité_ or _civitas_ (see CITY), and in England the
+term still used primarily of persons possessing civic rights in a
+borough; thus used also of a townsman as opposed to a countryman. The
+more extended use of the word, however, corresponding to _civitas_,
+gives "citizen" the meaning of one who is a constituent member of a
+state in international relations and as such has full national rights
+and owes a certain allegiance (q.v.) as opposed to an "alien"; in
+republican countries the term is then commonly employed as the
+equivalent of "subject" in monarchies of feudal origin. For the rules
+governing the obtaining of citizenship in this latter sense in the
+United States and elsewhere see NATURALIZATION.
+
+
+
+
+CITOLE, also spelled SYTOLE, CYTHOLE, GYTOLLE, &c. (probably a Fr.
+diminutive form of _cithara_, and not from Lat. _cista_, a box), an
+obsolete musical instrument of which the exact form is uncertain. It is
+frequently mentioned by poetical writers of the 13th to the 15th
+centuries, and is found in Wycliffe's Bible (1360) in 2 Samuel vi. 5,
+"Harpis and sitols and tympane." The Authorized Version has
+"psaltiries," and the Vulgate "lyrae." It has been supposed to be
+another name for the psaltery (q.v.), a box-shaped instrument often seen
+in the illuminated missals of the middle ages.
+
+
+
+
+CITRIC ACID, _Acidum citricum_, or OXYTRICARBALLYLIC ACID,
+C3H4(OH) (CO·OH)3, a tetrahydroxytribasic acid, first obtained
+in the solid state by Karl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1784, from the juice of
+lemons. It is present also in oranges, citrons, currants, gooseberries
+and many other fruits, and in several bulbs and tubers. It is made on a
+large scale from lime or lemon juice, and also by the fermentation of
+glucose under the influence of _Citromycetes pfefferianus, C. glaber_
+and other ferments. Lemon juice is fermented for some time to free it
+from mucilage, then boiled and filtered, and neutralized with powdered
+chalk and a little milk of lime; the precipitate of calcium citrate so
+obtained is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, the solution
+filtered, evaporated to remove calcium sulphate and concentrated,
+preferably in vacuum pans. The acid is thus obtained in colourless
+rhombic prisms of the composition C6H8O7 + H2O. Crystals of
+a different form are deposited from a strong boiling solution of the
+acid. About 20 gallons of lemon juice should yield about 10 lb of
+crystallized citric acid. The acid may also be prepared from the juice
+of unripe gooseberries. Calcium citrate must be manufactured with care
+to avoid an excess of chalk or lime, which would precipitate
+constituents of the juice that cause the fermentation of the citrate and
+the production of calcium acetate and butyrate.
+
+The synthesis of citric acid was accomplished by L.E. Grimaux and P.
+Adam in 1881. Glycerin when treated with hydrochloric acid gives
+propenyl dichlorhydrin, which may be oxidized to s-dichloracetone. This
+compound combines with hydrocyanic acid to form a nitrile which
+hydrolyses to dichlor-hydroxy iso-butyric acid. Potassium cyanide reacts
+with this acid to form the corresponding dinitrile, which is converted
+by hydrochloric acid into citric acid. This series of operations proves
+the constitution of the acid. A. Haller and C.A. Held synthesized the
+acid from ethyl chlor-acetoacetate (from chlorine and acetoacetic ester)
+by heating with potassium cyanide and saponifying the resulting nitrile.
+The acetone dicarboxylic acid, CO(CH2CO2H)2, so obtained
+combines with hydrocyanic acid, and this product yields citric acid on
+hydrolysis.
+
+Citric acid has an agreeable sour taste. It is soluble in ¾ths of its
+weight of cold, and in half its weight of boiling water, and dissolves
+in alcohol, but not in ether. At 150°C. it melts, and on the continued
+application of heat boils, giving off its water of crystallization. At
+175° C. it is resolved into water and aconitic acid, C6H6O6, a
+substance found in _Equisetum fluviatile_, monks-hood and other plants.
+A higher temperature decomposes this body into carbon dioxide and
+itaconic acid, C5H6C4, which, again, by the expulsion of a
+molecule of water, yields citraconic anhydride, C5H4O3. Citric
+acid digested at a temperature below 40°C. with concentrated sulphuric
+acid gives off carbon monoxide and forms acetone dicarboxylic acid. With
+fused potash it forms potassium oxalate and acetate. It is a strong
+acid, and dissolved in water decomposes carbonates and attacks iron and
+zinc.
+
+The citrates are a numerous class of salts, the most soluble of which
+are those of the alkaline metals; the citrates of the alkaline earth
+metals are insoluble. Citric acid, being tribasic, forms either acid
+monometallic, acid dimetallic or neutral trimetallic salts; thus, mono-,
+di- and tri-potassium and sodium citrates are known. On warming citric
+acid with an excess of lime-water a precipitate of calcium citrate is
+obtained which is redissolved as the liquid cools.
+
+The impurities occasionally present in commercial citric acid are salts
+of potassium and sodium, traces of iron, lead and copper derived from
+the vessels used for its evaporation and crystallization, and free
+sulphuric, tartaric and even oxalic acid. Tartaric acid, which is
+sometimes present in large quantities as an adulterant in commercial
+citric acid, may be detected in the presence of the latter, by the
+production of a precipitate of acid potassium tartrate when potassium
+acetate is added to a cold solution. Another mode of separating the two
+acids is to convert them into calcium salts, which are then treated with
+a perfectly neutral solution of cupric chloride, soluble cupric citrate
+and calcium chloride being formed, while cupric tartrate remains
+undissolved. Citric acid is also distinguished from tartaric acid by the
+fact that an ammonia solution of silver tartrate produces a brilliant
+silver mirror when boiled, whereas silver citrate is reduced only after
+prolonged ebullition.
+
+Citric acid is used in calico printing, also in the preparation of
+effervescing draughts, as a refrigerant and sialogogue, and occasionally
+as an antiscorbutic, instead of fresh lemon juice. In the form of lime
+juice it has long been known as an antidote for scurvy. Several of the
+citrates are much employed as medicines, the most important being the
+scale preparations of iron. Of these iron and ammonium citrate is much
+used as a haematinic, and as it has hardly any tendency to cause gastric
+irritation or constipation it can be taken when the ordinary forms of
+iron are inadmissible. Iron and quinine citrate is used as a bitter
+stomachic and tonic. In the blood citrates are oxidized into carbonates;
+they therefore act as _remote alkalis_, increasing the alkalinity of the
+blood and thereby the general rate of chemical change within the body
+(see ACETIC ACID).
+
+
+
+
+CITRON, a species of _Citrus_ (_C. medica_), belonging to the tribe
+_Aurantieae_, of the botanical natural order Rutaceae; the same genus
+furnishes also the orange, lime and shaddock. The citron is a small
+evergreen tree or shrub growing to a height of about 10 ft.; it has
+irregular straggling spiny branches, large pale-green broadly oblong,
+slightly serrate leaves and generally unisexual flowers purplish without
+and white within. The large fruit is ovate or oblong, protuberant at the
+tip, and from 5 to 6 in. long, with a rough, furrowed, adherent rind,
+the inner portion of which is thick, white and fleshy, the outer, thin,
+greenish-yellow and very fragrant. The pulp is sub-acid and edible, and
+the seeds are bitter. There are many varieties of the fruit, some of
+them of great weight and size. The Madras citron has the form of an
+oblate sphere; and in the "fingered citron" of China the lobes are
+separated into finger-like divisions formed by separation of the
+constituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in the orange.
+
+The citron-tree thrives in the open air in China, Persia, the West
+Indies, Madeira, Sicily, Corsica, and the warmer parts of Spain and
+Italy; and in conservatories it is often to be seen in more northerly
+regions. Sir Joseph Hooker (_Flora of British India_, i. 514) regards it
+as a native of the valleys at the foot of the Himalaya, and of the
+Khasia hills and the Western Ghauts; Dr Bonavia, however, considers it
+to have originated in Cochin China or China, and to have been introduced
+into India, whence it spread to Media and Persia. It was described by
+Theophrastus as growing in Media, three centuries before Christ, and was
+early known to the ancients, and the fruit was held in great esteem by
+them; but they seem to have been acquainted with no other member of the
+_Aurantieae_, the introduction of oranges and lemons into the countries
+of the Mediterranean being due to the Arabs, between the 10th and 15th
+centuries. Josephus tells us that "the law of the Jews required that at
+the feast of tabernacles every one should have branches of palm-tree and
+citron-tree" (_Antiq._ xiii. 13. 5); and the Hebrew word _tappuach_,
+rendered "apples" and "apple-tree" in Cant. ii. 3, 5, Prov. xxv. 11,
+&c., probably signifies the citron-tree and its fruit. Oribasius in the
+4th century describes the fruit, accurately distinguishing the three
+parts of it. About the 3rd century the tree was introduced into Italy;
+and, as Gallesio informs us, it was much grown at Salerno in the 11th
+century. In China citrons are placed in apartments to make them
+fragrant. The rind of the citron yields two perfumes, _oil of cedra_ and
+_oil of citron_, isomeric with oil of turpentine; and when candied it is
+much esteemed as a dessert and in confectionery. The lemon (q.v.) is now
+generally regarded as a subspecies _Limonum_ of _Citrus medica_.
+
+  Oribasii Sardiani, _Collectorum Medicinalium Libri XVII._ i. 64 (_De
+  citrio_); Gallesio, _Traité du citrus_ (1811); Darwin, _Animals and
+  Plants under Domestication_, i. 334-336 (1868); Brandis, _Forest Flora
+  of North-West and Central India_, p. 51 (1874); E. Bonavia, _The
+  Cultivated Oranges and Lemons, &c., of India and Ceylon_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+CITTADELLA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Padua, 20 m.
+N.W. by rail from the town of Padua; 160 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
+(1901) town, 3616; commune, 9686. The town was founded in 1220 by the
+Paduans to counterbalance the fortification of Castelfranco, 8 m. to the
+E., in 1218 by the Trevisans, and retains its well-preserved medieval
+walls, surrounded by a wet ditch. It was always a fortress of
+importance, and in modern times is a centre for the agricultural produce
+of the district, being the junction of the lines from Padua to Bassano
+and from Vicenza to Treviso.
+
+
+
+
+CITTÀ DELLA PIEVE, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the
+province of Perugia, situated 1666 ft. above the sea, 3 m. N.E. of its
+station on the railway between Chiusi and Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 8381.
+Etruscan tombs have been found in the neighbourhood, but it is not
+certain that the present town stands on an ancient site. It was the
+birthplace of the painter Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), and possesses
+several of his works, but none of the first rank.
+
+
+
+
+CITTÀ DI CASTELLO, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the
+province of Perugia, 38 m. E. of Arezzo by rail (18 m. direct), situated
+on the left bank of the Tiber, 945 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of
+town, 6096; of commune, 26,885. It occupies, as inscriptions show, the
+site of the ancient _Tifernum Tiberinum_, near which Pliny had a villa
+(_Epist._ v. 6; cf. H. Winnefeld in _Jahrbuch des deutschen
+archäologischen Instituts_, vi. Berlin, 1891, 203), but no remains exist
+above ground. The town was devastated by Totila, but seems to have
+recovered. We find it under the name of _Castrum Felicitatis_ at the end
+of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from the 7th century. The town
+went through various political vicissitudes in the middle ages, being
+subject now to the emperor, now to the Church, until in 1468 it came
+under the Vitelli: but when they died out it returned to the allegiance
+of the Church. It is built in the form of a rectangle and surrounded by
+walls of 1518. It contains fine buildings of the Renaissance, especially
+the palaces of the Vitelli, and the cathedral, originally Romanesque.
+The 12th-century altar front of the latter in silver is fine. The
+Palazzo Comunale is of the 14th century. Some of Raphael's earliest
+works were painted for churches in this town, but none of them remains
+there. There is, however, a small collection of pictures.
+
+  See Magherini Graziani, _L'Arte a Città di Castello_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+CITTÀ VECCHIA, or CITTÀ NOTABILE, a fortified city of Malta, 7 m. W. of
+Valletta, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. (1901) 7515. It
+lies on high, sharply rising ground which affords a view of a large part
+of the island. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains an ornate
+cathedral, overthrown by an earthquake in 1693, but rebuilt, which is
+said by an acceptable tradition to occupy the site of the house of the
+governor Publius, who welcomed the apostle Paul. It contains some rich
+stalls of the 15th century and other objects of interest. In the rock
+beneath the city there are some remarkable catacombs in part of
+pre-Christian origin, but containing evidence of early Christian burial;
+and a grotto, reputed to have given shelter to the apostle, is pointed
+out below the church of San Paolo. Remains of Roman buildings have been
+excavated in the town. About 2 m. E. of the town is the residence of the
+English governor, known as the palace of S. Antonio; and at a like
+distance to the south is the ancient palace of the grand masters of the
+order of St John, with an extensive public garden called Il Boschetto.
+Città Vecchia was called Civitas Melita by the Romans and oldest
+writers, Medina (i.e. the city) by the Saracens, Notabile (_locale
+notabile, et insigne coronae regiae_, as it is called in a charter by
+Alphonso, 1428) under the Sicilian rule, and Città Vecchia (old city) by
+the knights. It was the capital of the island till its supersession by
+Valletta in 1570. (See also MALTA.)
+
+
+
+
+CITTERN (also CITHERN, CITHRON, CYTHREN, CITHAREN, &c.; Fr. _citre,
+cistre, cithre, guitare allemande_ or _anglaise_; Ger. _Cither_, Zither
+(_mit Hals_, with neck); Ital. _cetera, cetra_), a medieval stringed
+instrument with a neck terminating in a grotesque and twanged by fingers
+or plectrum. The popularity of the cittern was at its height in England
+and Germany during the 16th and 17th centuries. The cittern consisted of
+a pear-shaped body similar to that of the lute but with a flat back and
+sound-board joined by ribs. The neck was provided with a fretted
+finger-board; the head was curved and surmounted by a grotesque head of
+a woman or of an animal.[1] The strings were of wire in pairs of
+unisons, known as courses, usually four in number in England. A
+peculiarity of the cittern lay in the tuning of the courses, the third
+course known as bass being lower than the fourth styled tenor.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: From Thomas Robinson's _New Citharen Lessons_, 1609.
+Four-course Cittern.]
+
+According to Vincentio Galilei (the father of the great astronomer)
+England was the birthplace of the cittern.[2] Several lesson books for
+this popular instrument were published during the 17th century in
+England. A very rare book (of which the British Museum does not possess
+a copy), _The Cittharn Schoole_, written by Anthony Holborne in 1597, is
+mentioned in Sir P. Leycester's manuscript commonplace book[3] dated
+1656, "For the little Instrument called a _Psittyrne_ Anthony Holborne
+and Tho. Robinson were most famous of any before them and have both of
+them set out a booke of Lessons for this Instrument. Holborne has
+composed a Basse-parte for the Viole to play unto the Psittyrne with
+those Lessons set out in his booke. These lived about Anno Domini 1600."
+Thomas Robinson's _New Citharen Lessons with perfect tunings for the
+same from Foure course of strings to Fourteene course_, &c. (printed
+London, 1609, by William Barley), contains illustrations of both kinds
+of instruments. The fourteen-course cittern was also known in England as
+_Bijuga_; the seven courses in pairs were stretched over the
+finger-board, and the seven single strings, fastened to the grotesque
+head, were stretched as in the lyre _à vide_ alongside the neck; all the
+strings rested on the one flat bridge near the tail-piece. Robinson
+gives instructions for learning to play the cittern and for reading the
+tablature. John Playford's _Musick's Delight on the Cithren_ (London,
+1666) also contains illustrations of the instrument as well as of the
+viol da Gamba and Pochette; he claims to have revived the instrument and
+restored it to what it was in the reign of Queen Mary.
+
+The cittern probably owed its popularity at this time to the ease with
+which it might be mastered and used to accompany the voice; it was one
+of four instruments generally found in barbers' shops, the others being
+the gittern, the lute and the virginals. The customers while waiting
+took down the instrument from its peg and played a merry tune to pass
+the time.[4] We read that when Konstantijn Huygens came over to England
+and was received by James I. at Bagshot, he played to the king on the
+cittern (cithara), and that his performance was duly appreciated and
+applauded. He tells us that, although he learnt to play the barbiton in
+a few weeks with skill, he had lessons from a master for two years on
+the cittern.[5] On the occasion of a third visit he witnessed the
+performance of some fine musicians and was astonished to hear a lady,
+mother of twelve, singing in divine fashion, accompanying herself on the
+cittern; one of these artists he calls Lanivius, the British Orpheus,
+whose performance was really enchanting.
+
+Michael Praetorius[6] gives various tunings for the cittern as well as
+an illustration (sounded an octave higher than the notation).
+
+[Illustration: French]
+
+[Illustration: Italian 4 course]
+
+[Illustration: Italian 6 course]
+
+During the 18th century the cittern, citra or English guitar, had twelve
+wire strings in six pairs of unisons tuned thus:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The introduction of the Spanish guitar, which at once leapt into favour,
+gradually displaced the English variety. The Spanish guitar had gut
+strings twanged by the fingers. The last development of the cittern
+before its disappearance was the addition of keys. The keyed cithara[7]
+was first made by Claus & Co. of London in 1783. The keys, six in
+number, were placed on the left of the sound-board, and on being
+depressed they acted on hammers inside the sound-chest, which rising
+through the rose sound-hole struck the strings. Sometimes the keys were
+placed in a little box right over the strings, the hammers striking from
+above. M.J.B. Vuillaume of Paris possessed an Italian cetera (not keyed)
+by Antoine Stradivarius,[8] 1700 (now in the Museum of the
+Conservatoire, Paris), with twelve strings tuned in pairs of unisons to
+E, D, G, B, C, A, which was exhibited in London in 1871.
+
+The cittern of the 16th century was the result of certain transitions
+which took place during the evolution of the violin from the Greek
+kithara (see CITHARA).
+
+  _Genealogical Table of the Cittern._
+
+                 Assyrian Ketharah                      Persian Rebab
+            ____________|_____________                         :
+           |                          |                        :
+  Persian and Arabic           Greek Kithara               Arab Rebab
+       Kithara                        |                        :
+           |                          |                        :
+    Moorish Guitra,            Roman Cithara             European Rebec
+  Cuitra or Guitarra            or Fidicula                    :
+                                      |                        :
+                        Cithara in transition or Rotta         :
+           ___________________________|________________________:
+          |                           |                        |
+  Cithara in transition        Guitarra Latina          _Cittern_
+       or Guitar              or Vihuela de Mano
+          |                           |
+    Spanish Guitar                 Ghittern
+
+The cittern has retained the following characteristics of the archetype.
+(1) The derivation of the name, which after the introduction of the bow
+was used to characterize various instruments whose strings were twanged
+by fingers or plectrum, such as the harp and the rotta (both known as
+_cithara_), the citola and the zither. In an interlinear Latin and
+Anglo-Saxon version of the Psalms, dated A.D. 700 (Brit. Mus., Vesp. A.
+1), _cithara_ is translated _citran_, from which it is not difficult to
+trace the English _cithron, citteran, cittarn_, of the 16th century. (2)
+The construction of the sound-chest with flat back and sound-board
+connected by ribs. The pear-shaped outline was possibly borrowed from
+the Eastern instruments, both bowed as the rebab and twanged as the
+lute, so common all over Europe during the middle ages, or more probably
+derived from the _kithara_ of the Greeks of Asia Minor, which had the
+corners rounded. These early steps in the transition from the _cithara_
+may be seen in the miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter,[9] a unique and
+much-copied Carolingian MS. executed at Reims (9th century), the
+illustrations of which were undoubtedly adapted from an earlier psalter
+from the Christian East. The instruments which remained true to the
+prototype in outline as well as in construction and in the derivation
+of the name were the ghittern and the guitar, so often confused with the
+cittern. It is evident that the kinship of cittern and guitar was
+formerly recognized, for during the 18th century, as stated above, the
+cittern was known as the English guitar to distinguish it from the
+Spanish guitar. The grotesque head, popularly considered the
+characteristic feature of the cittern, was probably added in the 12th
+century at a time when this style of decoration was very noticeable in
+other musical instruments, such as the cornet or _Zinck_, the
+_Platerspiel_, the chaunter of the bagpipe, &c. The cittern of the
+middle ages was also to be found in oval shape. From the 13th century
+representations of the pear-shaped instrument abound in miniatures and
+carvings.[10]
+
+  A very clearly drawn cittern of the 14th century occurs in a MS.
+  treatise on astronomy (Sloane MS. 3983, Brit. Mus.) translated from
+  the Persian of Albumazar into Latin by Georgius Zothari Zopari
+  Fenduli, priest and philosopher, with a prologue and numerous
+  illustrations by his own hand; the cittern is here called _giga_ in an
+  inscription at the side of the drawing.
+
+  References to the cittern are plentiful in the literature of the 16th
+  and 17th centuries. Robert Fludd[11] describes it thus: "Cistrona quae
+  quatuor tantum chordas duplicatas habet easque cupreas et ferreas de
+  quibus aliquid dicemus quo loco." Others are given in the _New English
+  Dictionary_, "Cittern," and in Godefroy's _Dict. de l'anc. langue
+  franç. du IXe au XVe siècle_.    (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Shakespeare, _Love's Labour's Lost_, act v. sc. 2, where
+    Boyet compares the countenance of Holofernes to a cittern head; John
+    Forde, _Lovers' Melancholy_ (1629), act ii. sc. 1, "Barbers shall
+    wear thee on their citterns."
+
+  [2] _Dialogo della musica_ (Florence, 1581), p. 147.
+
+  [3] The musical extracts from the commonplace book were prepared by
+    Dr Rimbault for the Early English Text Society. Holborne's work is
+    mentioned in his _Bibliotheca Madrigaliana_. The descriptive list of
+    the musical instruments in use in England during Leycester's
+    lifetime (about 1656) has been extracted and published by Dr F.J.
+    Furnivall, in _Captain Cox, his Ballads and Books, or Robert
+    Laneham's Letter_ (1575), (London, 1871), pp. 65-68.
+
+  [4] See Knight's _London_, i. 142.
+
+  [5] See _De Vita propria sermonum inter liberos libri duo_ (Haarlem,
+    1817) and E. van der Straeten, _La Musique aux Pays-Bas_, ii.
+    348-35O.
+
+  [6] _Syntagma Musicum_ (1618). See also M. Mersenne, _Harmonie
+    universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xv., who gives different
+    accordances.
+
+  [7] See Carl Engel, _Catalogue_ of the Exhibition of Ancient Musical
+    Instruments (London, 1872), Nos. 289 and 290.
+
+  [8] See note above. Illustration in A.J. Hipkins, _Musical Instruments;
+    Historic, Rare and Unique_ (Edinburgh, 1888).
+
+  [9] For a résumé of the question of the origin of this famous psalter,
+    and an inquiry into its bearing on the history of musical
+    instruments with illustrations and facsimile reproductions, see
+    Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, part ii.
+    "The Precursors of the Violin Family," pp. 127-166 (London,
+    1908-1909).
+
+  [10] An oval cittern and a ghittern, side by side, occur in the
+    beautiful 13th-century Spanish MS. known as _Cantigas de Santa
+    Maria_ in the Escorial. For a fine facsimile in colours see marquis
+    de Valmar, _Real. Acad. Esq._, publ. by L. Aguado (Madrid, 1889).
+    Reproductions in black and white in Juan F. Riaño, _Critical and
+    Bibliog. Notes on Early Spanish Music_ (London, 1887). See also K.
+    Schlesinger, op. cit. fig. 167, p. 223, also boat-shaped citterns,
+    figs. 155 and 156, p. 197. Cittern with woman's head, 15th century,
+    on one of six bas-reliefs on the under parts of the seats of the
+    choir of the Priory church, Great Malvern, reproduced in J. Carter's
+    _Ancient Sculptures_, &c., vol. ii. pl. following p. 12. Another
+    without a head, ibid. pl. following p. 16, from a brass monumental
+    plate in St Margaret's, King's Lynn.
+
+  [11] _Historia utriusque Cosmi_ (Oppenheim, ed. 1617) i. 226.
+
+
+
+
+CITY (through Fr. _cité_, from Lat. _civitas_). In the United Kingdom,
+strictly speaking, "city" is an honorary title, officially applied to
+those towns which, in virtue of some preeminence (e.g. as episcopal
+sees, or great industrial centres), have by traditional usage or royal
+charter acquired the right to the designation. In the United Kingdom the
+official style of "city" does not necessarily involve the possession of
+municipal power greater than those of the ordinary boroughs, nor indeed
+the possession of a corporation at all (e.g. Ely). In the United States
+and the British colonies, on the other hand, the official application of
+the term "city" depends on the kind and extent of the municipal
+privileges possessed by the corporations, and charters are given raising
+towns to the rank of cities. Both in France and England the word is used
+to distinguish the older and central nucleus of some of the large towns,
+e.g. the _Cité_ in Paris, and the "square mile" under the jurisdiction
+of the lord mayor which is the "City of London."
+
+In common usage, however, the word implies no more than a somewhat vague
+idea of size and dignity, and is loosely applied to any large centre of
+population. Thus while, technically, the City of London is quite small,
+London is yet properly described as the largest city in the world. In
+the United States this use of the word is still more loose, and any
+town, whether technically a city or not, is usually so designated, with
+little regard to its actual size or importance.
+
+It is clear from the above that the word "city" is incapable of any very
+clear and inclusive definition, and the attempt to show that
+historically it possesses a meaning that clearly differentiates it from
+"town" or "borough" has led to some controversy. As the translation of
+the Greek [Greek: polis] or Latin _civitas_ it involves the ancient
+conception of the state or "city-state," i.e. of the state as not too
+large to prevent its government through the body of the citizens
+assembled in the _agora_, and is applied not to the place but to the
+whole body politic. From this conception both the word and its dignified
+connotation are without doubt historically derived. On the occupation of
+Gaul the Gallic states and tribes were called _civitates_ by the Romans,
+and subsequently the name was confined to the chief towns of the
+various administrative districts. These were also the seats of the
+bishops. It is thus affirmed that in France from the 5th to the 15th
+century the name _civitas_ or _cité_ was confined to such towns as were
+episcopal sees, and Du Cange (_Gloss._ s.v. _civitas_) defines that word
+as _urbs episcopalis_, and states that other towns were termed _castra_
+or _oppida_. How far any such distinction can be sharply drawn may be
+doubted. With regard to England no definite line can be drawn between
+those towns to which the name _civitas_ or _cité_ is given in medieval
+documents and those called _burgi_ or boroughs (see J.H. Round, _Feudal
+England_, p. 338; F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and After_, p. 183). It
+was, however, maintained by Coke and Blackstone that a city is a town
+incorporate which is or has been the see of a bishop. It is true,
+indeed, that the actual sees in England all have a formal right to the
+title; the boroughs erected into episcopal sees by Henry VIII. thereby
+became "cities"; but towns such as Thetford, Sherborne and Dorchester
+are never so designated, though they are regularly incorporated and were
+once episcopal sees. On the other hand, it has only been since the
+latter part of the 19th century that the official style of "city" has,
+in the United Kingdom, been conferred by royal authority on certain
+important towns which were not episcopal sees, Birmingham in 1889 being
+the first to be so distinguished. It is interesting to note that London,
+besides 27 boroughs, now contains two cities, one (the City of London)
+outside, the other (the City of Westminster) included in the
+administrative county.
+
+  For the history of the origin and development of modern city
+  government see BOROUGH and COMMUNE: _Medieval_.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD BOLÍVAR, an inland city and river port of Venezuela, capital of
+the state of Bolívar, on the right bank of the Orinoco river, 240 m.
+above its mouth. Pop. (1891) 11,686. It stands upon a small hill about
+187 ft. above sea-level, and faces the river where it narrows to a width
+of less than half a mile. The city is largely built upon the hillside.
+It is the seat of the bishopric of Guayana (founded in 1790), and is the
+commercial centre of the great Orinoco basin. Among its noteworthy
+edifices are the cathedral, federal college, theatre, masonic temple,
+market, custom-house, and hospital. The mean temperature is 83°. The
+city has a public water-supply, a tramway line, telephone service,
+subfluvial cable communication with Soledad near the mouth of the
+Orinoco, where connexion is made with the national land lines, and
+regular steamship communication with the lower and upper Orinoco.
+Previous to the revolution of 1901-3 Ciudad Bolívar ranked fourth among
+the Venezuelan custom-houses, but the restrictions placed upon transit
+trade through West Indian ports have made her a dependency of the La
+Guaira custom-house to a large extent. The principal exports from this
+region include cattle, horses, mules, tobacco, cacáo, rubber, tonka
+beans, bitters, hides, timber and many valuable forest products. The
+town was founded by Mendoza in 1764 as San Tomás de la Nueva Guayana,
+but its location at this particular point on the river gave to it the
+popular name of _Angostura_, the Spanish term for "narrows." This name
+was used until 1849, when that of the Venezuelan liberator was bestowed
+upon it. Ciudad Bolívar played an important part in the struggle for
+independence and was for a time the headquarters of the revolution. The
+town suffered severely in the struggle for its possession, and the
+political disorders which followed greatly retarded its growth.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD DE CURA, an inland town of the state of Aragua, Venezuela, 55 m.
+S.W. of Carácas, near the Lago de Valencia. Pop. (1891) 12,198. The town
+stands in a broad, fertile valley, between the sources of streams
+running southward to the Guárico river and northward to the lake, with
+an elevation above sea-level of 1598 ft. Traffic between Puerto Cabello
+and the Guárico plains has passed through this town since early colonial
+times, and has made it an important commercial centre, from which hides,
+cheese, coffee, cacao and beans are sent down to the coast for export;
+it bears a high reputation in Venezuela for commercial enterprise.
+Ciudad de Cura was founded in 1730, and suffered severely in the war of
+independence.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD JUAREZ, formerly EL PASO DEL NORTE, a northern frontier town of
+Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua, 1223 m. by rail N.N.W. of Mexico
+City. Pop. (1895) 6917. Ciudad Juarez stands 3800 ft. above sea-level on
+the right bank of the Rio Grande del Norte, opposite the city of El
+Paso, Texas, with which it is connected by two bridges. It is the
+northern terminus of the Mexican Central railway, and has a large and
+increasing transit trade with the United States, having a custom-house
+and a United States consulate. It is also a military post with a small
+garrison. The town has a straggling picturesque appearance, a
+considerable part of the habitations being small adobe or brick cabins.
+In the fertile neighbouring district cattle are raised, and wheat,
+Indian corn, fruit and grapes are grown, wine and brandy being made. The
+town was founded in 1681-1682; its present importance is due entirely to
+the railway. It was the headquarters of President Juarez in 1865, and
+was renamed in 1885 because of its devotion to his cause.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ, formerly PIEDRAS NEGRAS, a northern frontier town
+of Mexico in the state of Coahuila, 1008 m. N. by W. from Mexico City,
+on the Rio Grande del Norte, 720 ft. above sea-level, opposite the town
+of Eagle Pass, Texas. Pop. (1900, estimate) 5000. An international
+bridge connects the two towns, and the Mexican International railway has
+its northern terminus in Mexico at this point. The town has an important
+transfer trade with the United States, and is the centre of a fertile
+district devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. Coal is found in the
+vicinity. The Mexican government maintains a custom-house and military
+post here. The town was founded in 1849.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD REAL, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of districts
+taken from New Castile, and bounded on the N. by Toledo, E. by Albacete,
+S. by Jaen and Cordova and W. by Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 321,580; area,
+7620 sq. m. The surface of Ciudad Real consists chiefly of a level or
+slightly undulating plain, with low hills in the north-east and
+south-west; but along the south-western frontier the Sierra de Alcudia
+rises in two parallel ridges on either side of the river Alcudia, and is
+continued in the Sierra Madrona on the east. The river Guadiana drains
+almost the entire province, which it traverses from east to west; only
+the southernmost districts being watered by tributaries of the
+Guadalquivir. Numerous smaller streams flow into the Guadiana, which
+itself divides near Herencia into two branches,--the northern known as
+the Giguela, the southern as the Zancara. The eastern division of Ciudad
+Real forms part of the region known as La Mancha, a flat, thinly-peopled
+plain, clothed with meagre vegetation which is often ravaged by locusts.
+La Mancha (q.v.) is sometimes regarded as coextensive with the whole
+province. Severe drought is common here, although some of the rivers,
+such as the Jabalon and Azuer, issue fully formed from the chalky soil,
+and from their very sources give an abundant supply of water to the
+numerous mills. Towards the west, where the land is higher, there are
+considerable tracts of forest.
+
+The climate is oppressively hot in summer, and in winter the plains are
+exposed to violent and bitterly cold winds; while the cultivation of
+grain, the vine and the olive is further impeded by the want of proper
+irrigation, and the general barrenness of the soil. Large flocks of
+sheep and goats find pasture in the plains; and the swine which are kept
+in the oak and beech forests furnish bacon and hams of excellent
+quality. Coal is mined chiefly at Puertollano, lead in various
+districts, mercury at Almadén. There are no great manufacturing towns.
+The roads are insufficient and ill-kept, especially in the north-east
+where they form the sole means of communication; and neither the
+Guadiana nor its tributaries are navigable. The main railway from Madrid
+to Lisbon passes through the capital, Ciudad Real, and through
+Puertollano; farther east, the Madrid-Lináres line passes through
+Manzanares and Valdepeñas. Branch railways also connect the capital with
+Manzanares, and Valdepeñas with the neighbouring town of La Calzada.
+
+The principal towns, Alcázar de San Juan (11,499), Almadén (7375),
+Almodóvar del Campo (12,525), Ciudad Real (15,255), Manzanares (11,229)
+and Valdepeñas (21,015), are described in separate articles. Almagro
+(7974) and Daimiel (11,825), in the district of La Mancha known as the
+Campo de Calatrava, belonged in the later middle ages to the knightly
+Order of Calatrava, which was founded in 1158 to keep the Moors in
+check. Almagro was long almost exclusively inhabited by monks and
+knights, and contains several interesting churches and monasteries,
+besides the castle of the knights, now used as barracks. Almagro is
+further celebrated for its lace, Daimiel for its medicinal salts.
+Tomelloso (13,929) is one of the chief market towns of La Mancha.
+Education is very backward, largely owing to the extreme poverty which
+has frequently brought the inhabitants to the verge of famine. (See also
+CASTILE.)
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD REAL, the capital formerly of La Mancha, and since 1833 of the
+province described above; 107 m. S. of Madrid, on the
+Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon and Ciudad Real-Manzanares railways. Pop. (1900)
+15,255. Ciudad Real lies in the midst of a wide plain, watered on the
+north by the river Guadiana, and on the south by its tributary the
+Jabalon. Apart from the remnants of its 13th-century fortifications, and
+one Gothic church of immense size, built without aisles, the town
+contains little of interest; its public buildings--town-hall, barracks,
+churches, hospital and schools--being in no way distinguished above those
+of other provincial capitals. There are no important local manufactures,
+and the trade of the town consists chiefly in the weekly sales of
+agricultrural produce and live-stock. Ciudad Real was founded by Alphonso
+X. of Castile (1252-1284), and fortified by him as a check upon the
+Moorish power. Its original name of _Villarreal_ was changed to _Ciudad
+Real_ by John VI. in 1420. During the Peninsular War a Spanish force was
+defeated here by the French, on the 27th of March 1809.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD RODRIGO, a town of western Spain, in the province of Salamanca,
+situated 8 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier, on the right bank of the
+river Agueda, and the railway from Salamanca to Coimbra in Portugal.
+Pop. (1900) 8930. Ciudad Rodrigo is an episcopal see, and was for many
+centuries an important frontier fortress. Its cathedral dates from 1190,
+but was restored in the 15th century. The remnants of a Roman aqueduct,
+the foundations of a bridge across the Agueda, and other remains, seem
+to show that Ciudad Rodrigo occupies the site of a Roman settlement. It
+was founded in the 12th century by Count Rodrigo Gonzalez, from whom its
+name is derived. During the Peninsular War, it was captured by the
+French under Marshal Ney, in 1810; but on the 19th of January 1812 it
+was retaken by the British under Viscount Wellington, who, for this
+exploit, was created earl of Wellington, duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, and
+marquess of Torres Vedras, in Portugal.
+
+
+
+
+CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO, an early 16th-century Italian painter, born at
+Crema. There are altar-pieces by him at Brescia, and at Crema the
+altar-piece at the duomo (1509). His "Birth of Christ" is in the Brera,
+Milan; and at Lovere are other of his works dating from 1539 and 1540.
+
+
+
+
+CIVET, or properly CIVET-CAT, the designation of the more typical
+representatives of the mammalian family _Viverridae_ (see CARNIVORA).
+Civets are characterized by the possession of a deep pouch in the
+neighbourhood of the genital organs, into which the substance known as
+civet is poured from the glands by which it is secreted. This fatty
+substance is at first semifluid and yellow, but afterwards acquires the
+consistency of pomade and becomes darker. It has a strong musky odour,
+exceedingly disagreeable to those unaccustomed to it, but "when properly
+diluted and combined with other scents it produces a very pleasing
+effect, and possesses a much more floral fragrance than musk, indeed it
+would be impossible to imitate some flowers without it." The African
+civet (_Viverra civetta_) is from 2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the
+tail, which is half the length of the body, and stands from 10 to 12 in.
+high. It is covered with long hair, longest on the middle line of the
+back, where it is capable of being raised or depressed at will, of a
+dark-grey colour, with numerous transverse black bands and spots. In
+habits it is chiefly nocturnal, and by preference carnivorous, feeding
+on birds and the smaller quadrupeds, in pursuit of which it climbs
+trees, but it is said also to eat fruits, roots and other vegetable
+matters. In a state of captivity the civet is never completely tamed,
+and only kept for the sake of its perfume, which is obtained in largest
+quantity from the male, especially when in good condition and subjected
+to irritation, being scraped from the pouch with a small spoon usually
+twice a week. The zibeth (_Viverra zibetha_) is a widely distributed
+species extending from Arabia to Malabar, and throughout several of the
+larger islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is smaller than the true
+civet, and wants the dorsal crest. In the wild state it does great
+damage among poultry, and frequently makes off with the young of swine
+and sheep. When hunted it makes a determined resistance, and emits a
+scent so strong as even to sicken the dogs, who nevertheless are
+exceedingly fond of the sport, and cannot be got to pursue any other
+game while the stench of the zibeth is in their nostrils. In
+confinement, it becomes comparatively tame, and yields civet in
+considerable quantity. In preparing this for the market it is usually
+spread out on the leaves of the pepper plant in order to free it from
+the hairs that have become detached from the pouch. On the Malabar coast
+this species is replaced by _V. civettina_. The small Indian civet or
+rasse (_Viverricula malaccensis_) ranges from Madagascar through India
+to China, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of the Archipelago. It is
+almost 3 ft. long including the tail, and prettily marked with dark
+longitudinal stripes, and spots which have a distinctly linear
+arrangement. The perfume, which is extracted in the same way as in the
+two preceding species, is highly valued and much used by the Javanese.
+Although this animal is said to be an expert climber it usually inhabits
+holes in the ground. It is frequently kept in captivity in the East, and
+becomes tame. Fossil remains of extinct civets are found in the Miocene
+strata of Europe.
+
+
+
+
+CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI (anc. _Forum Iulii_), a town of Venetia, Italy, in
+the province of Udine, 10 m. E. by N. by rail from the town of Udine;
+453 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town, 4143; commune, 9061. It is
+situated on the river Natisone, which forms a picturesque ravine here.
+It contains some interesting relics of the art of the 8th century. The
+cathedral of the 15th century contains an octagonal marble canopy with
+sculptures in relief, with a font below it belonging to the 8th century,
+but altered later. The high altar has a fine silver altar front of 1185.
+The museum contains various Roman and Lombard antiquities, and valuable
+MSS. and works of art in gold, silver and ivory formerly belonging to
+the cathedral chapter. The small church of S. Maria in Valle belongs to
+the 8th century, and contains fine decorations in stucco which probably
+belong to the 11th or 12th century. The fine 15th-century Ponte del
+Diavolo leads to the church of S. Martino, which contains an altar of
+the 8th century with reliefs executed by order of the Lombard king
+Ratchis. At Cividale were born Paulus Diaconus, the historian of the
+Lombards in the time of Charlemagne, and the actress Adelaide Ristori
+(1822-1906).
+
+The Roman town (a _municipium_) of Forum Iulii was founded either by
+Julius Caesar or by Augustus, no doubt at the same time as the
+construction of the Via Iulia Augusta, which passed through Utina
+(Udine) on its way north. After the decay of Aquileia and Iulium
+Carnicum (Zuglio) it became the chief town of the district of Friuli and
+gave its name to it. The patriarchs of Aquileia resided here from 773 to
+1031, when they returned to Aquileia, and finally in 1238 removed to
+Udine. This last change of residence was the origin of the antagonism
+between Cividale and Udine, which was only terminated by their surrender
+to Venice in 1419 and 1420 respectively.
+
+
+
+
+CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS, or more correctly, JULIUS, leader of the Batavian
+revolt against Rome (A.D. 69-70). He was twice imprisoned on a charge of
+rebellion, and narrowly escaped execution. During the disturbances that
+followed the death of Nero, he took up arms under pretence of siding
+with Vespasian and induced the inhabitants of his native country to
+rebel. The Batavians, who had rendered valuable aid under the early
+emperors, had been well treated in order to attach them to the cause of
+Rome. They were exempt from tribute, but were obliged to supply a large
+number of men for the army, and the burden of conscription and the
+oppressions of provincial governors were important incentives to revolt.
+The Batavians were immediately joined by several neighbouring German
+tribes, the most important of whom were the Frisians. The Roman
+garrisons near the Rhine were driven out, and twenty-four ships
+captured. Two legions under Mummius Lupercus were defeated at Castra
+Vetera (near the modern Xanten) and surrounded. Eight cohorts of
+Batavian veterans joined their countrymen, and the troops sent by
+Vespasian to the relief of Vetera threw in their lot with them. The
+result of these accessions to the forces of Civilis was a rising in
+Gaul. Hordeonius Flaccus was murdered by his troops (70), and the whole
+of the Roman forces were induced by two commanders of the Gallic
+auxiliaries--Julius Classicus and Julius Tutor--to revolt from Rome and
+join Civilis. The whole of Gaul thus practically declared itself
+independent, and the foundation of a new kingdom of Gaul was
+contemplated. The prophetess Velleda predicted the complete success of
+Civilis and the fall of the Roman Empire. But disputes broke out amongst
+the different tribes and rendered co-operation impossible; Vespasian,
+having successfully ended the civil war, called upon Civilis to lay down
+his arms, and on his refusal resolved to take strong measures for the
+suppression of the revolt. The arrival of Petillius Cerialis with a
+strong force awed the Gauls and mutinous troops into submission; Civilis
+was defeated at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Trèves) and Vetera, and
+forced to withdraw to the island of the Batavians. He finally came to an
+agreement with Cerialis whereby his countrymen obtained certain
+advantages, and resumed amicable relations with Rome. From this time
+Civilis disappears from history.
+
+  The chief authority for the history of the insurrection is Tacitus,
+  _Historiae_, iv., v., whose account breaks off at the beginning of
+  Civilis's speech to Cerialis; see also Josephus, _Bellum Judaicum_,
+  vii. 4. There is a monograph by E. Meyer, _Der Freiheitskrieg der
+  Bataver unter Civilis_ (1856); see also Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans
+  under the Empire_, ch. 58; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der römischen
+  Kaiserzeit_, bk. ii. ch. 2, § 54 (1883).
+
+
+
+
+CIVILIZATION. The word "civilization" is an obvious derivative of the
+Lat. _civis_, a citizen, and _civilis_, pertaining to a citizen.
+Etymologically speaking, then, it would be putting no undue strain upon
+the word to interpret it as having to do with the entire period of human
+progress since mankind attained sufficient intelligence and social unity
+to develop a system of government. But in practice "civilization" is
+usually interpreted in a somewhat narrower sense, as having application
+solely to the most recent and comparatively brief period of time that
+has elapsed since the most highly developed races of men have used
+systems of writing. This restricted usage is probably explicable, in
+part at least, by the fact that the word, though distinctly modern in
+origin, is nevertheless older than the interpretation of social
+evolution that now finds universal acceptance. Only very recently has it
+come to be understood that primitive societies vastly antedating the
+historical period had attained relatively high stages of development and
+fixity, socially and politically. Now that this is understood, however,
+nothing but an arbitrary and highly inconvenient restriction of meanings
+can prevent us from speaking of the citizens of these early societies as
+having attained certain stages of civilization. It will be convenient,
+then, in outlining the successive stages of human progress here, to
+include under the comprehensive term "civilization" those long earlier
+periods of "savagery" and "barbarism" as well as the more recent period
+of higher development to which the word "civilization" is sometimes
+restricted.
+
+
+  Savagery and barbarism.
+
+Adequate proof that civilization as we now know it is the result of a
+long, slow process of evolution was put forward not long after the
+middle of the 19th century by the students of palaeontology and of
+prehistoric archaeology. A recognition of the fact that primitive man
+used implements of chipped flint, of polished stone, and of the softer
+metals for successive ages, before he attained a degree of technical
+skill and knowledge that would enable him to smelt iron, led the Danish
+archaeologists to classify the stages of human progress under these
+captions: the Rough Stone Age; the Age of Polished Stone; the Age of
+Bronze; and the Age of Iron. These terms acquired almost universal
+recognition, and they retain popularity as affording a very broad
+outline of the story of human progress. It is obviously desirable,
+however, to fill in the outlines of the story more in detail. To some
+extent it has been possible to do so, largely through the efforts of
+ethnologists who have studied the social conditions of existing races of
+savages. A recognition of the principle that, broadly speaking, progress
+has everywhere been achieved along the same lines and through the same
+sequence of changes, makes it possible to interpret the past history of
+the civilized races of to-day in the light of the present-day conditions
+of other races that are still existing under social and political
+conditions of a more primitive type. Such races as the Maoris and the
+American Indians have furnished invaluable information to the student of
+social evolution; and the knowledge thus gained has been extended and
+fortified by the ever-expanding researches of the palaeontologist and
+archaeologist.
+
+Thus it has become possible to present with some confidence a picture
+showing the successive stages of human development during the long dark
+period when our prehistoric ancestor was advancing along the toilsome
+and tortuous but on the whole always uprising path from lowest savagery
+to the stage of relative enlightenment at which we find him at the
+so-called "dawnings of history." That he was for long ages a savage
+before he attained sufficient culture to be termed, in modern
+phraseology, a barbarian, admits of no question. Equally little in doubt
+is it that other long ages of barbarism preceded the final ascent to
+civilization. The precise period of time covered by these successive
+"Ages" is of course only conjectural; but something like one hundred
+thousand years may perhaps be taken as a safe minimal estimate. At the
+beginning of this long period, the most advanced race of men must be
+thought of as a promiscuous company of pre-troglodytic mammals, at least
+partially arboreal in habit, living on uncooked fruits and vegetables,
+and possessed of no arts and crafts whatever--nor even of the knowledge
+of the rudest implement. At the end of the period, there emerges into
+the more or less clear light of history a large-brained being, living in
+houses of elaborate construction, supplying himself with divers luxuries
+through the aid of a multitude of elaborate handicrafts, associated with
+his fellows under the sway of highly organized governments, and
+satisfying aesthetic needs through the practice of pictorial and
+literary arts of a high order. How was this amazing transformation
+brought about?
+
+
+  Crucial developments.
+
+If an answer can be found to that query, we shall have a clue to all
+human progress, not only during the prehistoric but also during the
+historic periods; for we may well believe that recent progress has not
+departed from the scheme of development impressed on humanity during
+that long apprenticeship. Ethnologists believe that an answer can be
+found. They believe that the metamorphosis from beast-like savage to
+cultured civilian may be proximally explained (certain potentialities
+and attributes of the species being taken for granted) as the result of
+accumulated changes that found their initial impulses in a half-dozen or
+so of practical inventions. Stated thus, the explanation seems absurdly
+simple. Confessedly it supplies only a proximal, not a final, analysis
+of the forces impelling mankind along the pathway of progress. But it
+has the merit of tangibility; it presents certain highly important facts
+of human history vividly: and it furnishes a definite and fairly
+satisfactory basis for marking successive stages of incipient
+civilization.
+
+In outlining the story of primitive man's advancement, upon such a
+basis, we may follow the scheme of one of the most philosophical of
+ethnologists, Lewis H. Morgan, who made a provisional analysis of the
+prehistoric period that still remains among the most satisfactory
+attempts in this direction. Morgan divides the entire epoch of man's
+progress from bestiality to civilization into six successive periods,
+which he names respectively the Older, Middle and Later periods of
+Savagery, and the Older, Middle and Later periods of Barbarism.
+
+
+  Speech.
+
+The first of these periods, when mankind was in the lower status of
+savagery, comprises the epoch when articulate speech was being
+developed. Our ancestors of this epoch inhabited a necessarily
+restricted tropical territory, and subsisted upon raw nuts and fruits.
+They had no knowledge of the uses of fire. All existing races of men had
+advanced beyond this condition before the opening of the historical
+period.
+
+
+  Fire.
+
+The Middle Period of Savagery began with a knowledge of the uses of
+fire. This wonderful discovery enabled the developing race to extend its
+habitat almost indefinitely, and to include flesh, and in particular
+fish, in its regular dietary. Man could now leave the forests, and
+wander along the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less
+enervating than those to which he had previously been confined.
+Doubtless he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly equipped
+for hunting, being provided, probably, with no weapon more formidable
+than a crude hatchet and a roughly fashioned spear. The primitive races
+of Australia and Polynesia had not advanced beyond this middle status of
+savagery when they were discovered a few generations ago. It is obvious,
+then, that in dealing with the further progress of nascent civilization
+we have to do with certain favoured portions of the race, which sought
+out new territories and developed new capacities while many tribes of
+their quondam peers remained static and hence by comparison seemed to
+retrograde.
+
+
+  Bow and arrow.
+
+The next great epochal discovery, in virtue of which a portion of the
+race advanced to the Upper Status of Savagery, was that of the bow and
+arrow,--a truly wonderful implement. The possessor of this device could
+bring down the fleetest animal and could defend himself against the most
+predatory. He could provide himself not only with food but with
+materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus could migrate at
+will back from the seas and large rivers, and far into inhospitable but
+invigorating temperate and sub-Arctic regions. The meat diet, now for
+the first time freely available, probably contributed, along with the
+stimulating climate, to increase the physical vigour and courage of this
+highest savage, thus urging him along the paths of progress.
+Nevertheless many tribes came thus far and no further, as witness the
+Athapascans of the Hudson's Bay Territory and the Indians of the valley
+of the Columbia.
+
+
+  Pottery.
+
+We now come to the marvellous discovery that enabled our ancestor to
+make such advances upon the social conditions of his forbears as to
+entitle him, in the estimate of his remote descendants, to be considered
+as putting savagery behind him and as entering upon the Lower Status of
+Barbarism. The discovery in question had to do with the practice of the
+art of making pottery (see CERAMICS). Hitherto man had been possessed of
+no permanent utensils that could withstand the action of fire. He could
+not readily boil water except by some such cumbersome method as the
+dropping of heated stones into a wooden or skin receptacle. The effect
+upon his dietary of having at hand earthen vessels in which meat and
+herbs could be boiled over a fire must have been momentous. Various
+meats and many vegetables become highly palatable when boiled that are
+almost or quite inedible when merely roasted before a fire. Bones,
+sinews and even hides may be made to give up a modicum of nutriment in
+this way; and doubtless barbaric man, before whom starvation always
+loomed threateningly, found the crude pot an almost perennial refuge.
+And of course its use as a cooking utensil was only one of many ways in
+which the newly discovered mechanism exerted a civilizing influence.
+
+
+  Domestic animals.
+
+The next great progressive movement, which carried man into the Middle
+Status of Barbarism, is associated with the domestication of animals in
+the Eastern hemisphere, and with the use of irrigation in cultivating
+the soil and of adobe bricks and stone in architecture in the Western
+hemisphere. The dog was probably the first animal to be domesticated,
+but the sheep, the ox, the camel and the horse were doubtless added in
+relatively rapid succession, so soon as the idea that captive animals
+could be of service had been clearly conceived. Man now became a
+herdsman, no longer dependent for food upon the precarious chase of wild
+animals. Milk, procurable at all seasons, made a highly important
+addition to his dietary. With the aid of camel and horse he could
+traverse wide areas hitherto impassable, and come in contact with
+distant peoples. Thus commerce came to play an extended rôle in the
+dissemination of both commodities and ideas. In particular the nascent
+civilization of the Mediterranean region fell heir to numerous products
+of farther Asia,--gums, spices, oils, and most important of all, the
+cereals. The cultivation of the latter gave the finishing touch to a
+comprehensive and varied diet, while emphasizing the value of a fixed
+abode. For the first time it now became possible for large numbers of
+people to form localized communities. A natural consequence was the
+elaboration of political systems, which, however, proceeded along lines
+already suggested by the experience of earlier epochs. All this tended
+to establish and emphasize the idea of nationality, based primarily on
+blood-relationship; and at the same time to develop within the community
+itself the idea of property,--that is to say, of valuable or desirable
+commodities which have come into the possession of an individual through
+his enterprise or labour, and which should therefore be subject to his
+voluntary disposal. At an earlier stage of development, all property had
+been of communal, not of individual, ownership. It appears, then, that
+our mid-period barbarian had attained--if the verbal contradiction be
+permitted--a relatively high stage of civilization.
+
+
+  Iron.
+
+There remained, however, one master craft of which he had no conception.
+This was the art of smelting iron. When, ultimately, his descendants
+learned the wonderful secrets of that art, they rose in consequence to
+the Upper Status of Barbarism. This culminating practical invention, it
+will be observed, is the first of the great discoveries with which we
+have to do that was not primarily concerned with the question of man's
+food supply. Iron, to be sure, has abundant uses in the same connexion,
+but its most direct and obvious utilities have to do with weapons of war
+and with implements calculated to promote such arts of peace as
+house-building, road-making and the construction of vehicles. Wood and
+stone could now be fashioned as never before. Houses could be built and
+cities walled with unexampled facility; to say nothing of the making of
+a multitude of minor implements and utensils hitherto quite unknown, or
+at best rare and costly. Nor must we overlook the aesthetic influence of
+edged implements, with which wood and stone could readily be sculptured
+when placed in the hands of a race that had long been accustomed to
+scratch the semblance of living forms on bone or ivory and to fashion
+crude images of clay. In a word, man, the "tool-making animal," was now
+for the first time provided with tools worthy of his wonderful hands and
+yet more wonderful brain.
+
+Thus through the application of one revolutionary invention after
+another, the most advanced races of men had arrived, after long ages of
+effort, at a relatively high stage of development. A very wide range of
+experiences had enabled man to evolve a complex body politic, based on a
+fairly secure social basis, and his brain had correspondingly developed
+into a relatively efficient and stable organ of thought. But as yet he
+had devised no means of communicating freely with other people at a
+distance except through the medium of verbal messages; nor had he any
+method by which he could transmit his experiences to posterity more
+securely than by fugitive and fallible oral traditions. A vague
+symbolization of his achievements was preserved from generation to
+generation in myth-tale and epic, but he knew not how to make permanent
+record of his history. Until he could devise a means to make such
+record, he must remain, in the estimate of his descendants, a barbarian,
+though he might be admitted to have become a highly organized and even
+in a broad sense a cultured being.
+
+
+  Writing.
+
+At length, however, this last barrier was broken. Some race or races
+devised a method of symbolizing events and ultimately of making even
+abstruse ideas tangible by means of graphic signs. In other words, a
+system of writing was developed. Man thus achieved a virtual conquest
+over time as he had earlier conquered space. He could now transmit the
+record of his deeds and his thoughts to remote posterity. Thus he stood
+at the portals of what later generations would term secure history. He
+had graduated out of barbarism, and become in the narrower sense of the
+word a civilized being. Henceforth, his knowledge, his poetical
+dreamings, his moral aspirations might be recorded in such form as to be
+read not merely by his contemporaries but by successive generations of
+remote posterity. The inspiring character of such a message is obvious.
+The validity of making this great culminating intellectual achievement
+the test of "civilized" existence need not be denied. But we should ill
+comprehend the character of the message which the earlier generations of
+civilized beings transmit to us from the period which we term the
+"dawning of history" did we not bear constantly in mind the long series
+of progressive stages of "savagery" and "barbarism" that of necessity
+preceded the final stage of "civilization" proper. The achievements of
+those earlier stages afforded the secure foundation for the progress of
+the future. A multitude of minor arts, in addition to the important ones
+just outlined, had been developed; and for a long time civilized man was
+to make no other epochal addition to the list of accomplishments that
+came to him as a heritage from his barbaric progenitor. Indeed, even to
+this day the list of such additions is not a long one, nor, judged in
+the relative scale, so important as might at first thought be supposed.
+Whoever considers the subject carefully must admit the force of Morgan's
+suggestion that man's achievements as a barbarian, considered in their
+relation to the sum of human progress, "transcend, in relative
+importance, all his subsequent works."
+
+Without insisting on this comparison, however, let us ask what
+discoveries and inventions man has made within the historical period
+that may fairly be ranked with the half-dozen great epochal achievements
+that have been put forward as furnishing the keys to all the progress of
+the prehistoric periods. In other words, let us sketch the history of
+progress during the ten thousand years or so that have elapsed since man
+learned the art of writing, adapting our sketch to the same scale which
+we have already applied to the unnumbered millenniums of the prehistoric
+period. The view of world-history thus outlined will be a very different
+one from what might be expected by the student of national history; but
+it will present the essentials of the progress of civilization in a
+suggestive light.
+
+
+  Civilization proper.
+
+Without pretending to fix an exact date,--which the historical records
+do not at present permit,--we may assume that the most advanced race of
+men elaborated a system of writing not less than six thousand years
+before the beginning of the Christian era. Holding to the terminology
+already suggested for the earlier periods, we may speak of man's
+position during the ensuing generations as that of the First or Lowest
+Status of civilization. If we review the history of this period we shall
+find that it extends unbroken over a stretch of at least four or five
+thousand years. During the early part of this period such localized
+civilizations as those of the Egyptians, the Sumerians, the Babylonians
+and the Hittites rose, grew strong and passed beyond their meridian.
+This suggests that we must now admit the word "civilization" to yet
+another definition, within its larger meaning: we must speak of "_a_
+civilization," as that of Egypt, of Babylonia, of Assyria, and we must
+understand thereby a localized phase of society bearing the same
+relation to civilization as a whole that a wave bears to the ocean or a
+tree to the forest. Such other localized civilizations as those of
+Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, Rome, Byzantium, the Sassanids, in due
+course waxed and waned, leaving a tremendous imprint on national
+history, but creating only minor and transitory ripples in the great
+ocean of civilization. Progress in the elaboration of the details of
+earlier methods and inventions took place as a matter of course. Some
+nation, probably the Phoenicians, gave a new impetus to the art of
+writing by developing a phonetic alphabet; but this achievement,
+remarkable as it was in itself, added nothing fundamental to human
+capacity. Literatures had previously flourished through the use of
+hieroglyphic and syllabic symbols; and the Babylonian syllabics
+continued in vogue throughout western Asia for a long time after the
+Phoenician alphabet had demonstrated its intrinsic superiority.
+
+Similarly the art of Egyptian and Assyrian and Greek was but the
+elaboration and perfection of methods that barbaric man had practised
+away back in the days when he was a cave-dweller. The weapons of warfare
+of Greek and Roman were the spear and the bow and arrow that their
+ancestors had used in the period of savagery, aided by sword and helmet
+dating from the upper period of barbarism. Greek and Roman government at
+their best were founded upon the system of _gentes_ that barbaric man
+had profoundly studied,--as witness, for example, the federal system of
+the barbaric Iroquois Indians existing in America before the coming of
+Columbus. And if the Greeks had better literature, the Romans better
+roads and larger cities, than their predecessors, these are but matters
+of detailed development, the like of which had marked the progress of
+the more important arts and the introduction of less important ancillary
+ones in each antecedent period. The axe of steel is no new implement,
+but a mere perfecting of the axe of chipped flint. The _Iliad_
+represents the perfecting of an art that unnumbered generations of
+barbarians practised before their camp-fires.
+
+
+  Great inventions of the middle ages.
+
+Thus for six or seven thousand years after man achieved civilization
+there was rhythmic progress in many lines, but there came no great
+epochal invention to usher in a new ethnic period. Then, towards the
+close of what historians of to-day are accustomed to call the middle
+ages, there appeared in rapid sequence three or four inventions and a
+great scientific discovery that, taken together, were destined to change
+the entire aspect of European civilization. The inventions were
+gunpowder, the mariner's compass, paper and the printing-press, three of
+which appear to have been brought into Europe by the Moors, whether or
+not they originated in the remote East. The scientific discovery which
+must be coupled with these inventions was the Copernican demonstration
+that the sun and not the earth is the centre of our planetary system.
+The generations of men that found themselves (1) confronted with the
+revolutionary conception of the universe given by the Copernican theory;
+(2) supplied with the new means of warfare provided by gunpowder; (3)
+equipped with an undreamed-of guide across the waters of the earth; and
+(4) enabled to promulgate knowledge with unexampled speed and cheapness
+through the aid of paper and printing-press--such generations of men
+might well be said to have entered upon a new ethnic period. The
+transition in their mode of thought and in their methods of practical
+life was as great as can be supposed to have resulted, in an early
+generation, from the introduction of iron, or in a yet earlier from the
+invention of the bow and arrow. So the Europeans of about the 15th
+century of the Christian era may be said to have entered upon the Second
+or Middle Status of civilization.
+
+
+  Steam machinery.
+
+The new period was destined to be a brief one. It had compassed only
+about four hundred years when, towards the close of the 18th century,
+James Watt gave to the world the perfected steam-engine. Almost
+contemporaneously Arkwright and Hargreaves developed revolutionary
+processes of spinning and weaving by machinery. Meantime James Hutton
+and William Smith and their successors on the one hand, and Erasmus
+Darwin, François Lamarck, and (a half-century later) Charles Darwin on
+the other, turned men's ideas topsy-turvy by demonstrating that the
+world as the abiding-place of animals and man is enormously old, and
+that man himself instead of deteriorating from a single perfect pair six
+thousand years removed, has ascended from bestiality through a slow
+process of evolution extending over hundreds of centuries. The
+revolution in practical life and in the mental life of our race that
+followed these inventions and this new presentation of truth probably
+exceeded in suddenness and in its far-reaching effects the metamorphosis
+effected at any previous transition from one ethnic period to another.
+The men of the 19th century, living now in the period that may be termed
+the Upper Status of civilization, saw such changes effected in the
+practical affairs of their everyday lives as had not been wrought before
+during the entire historical period. Their fathers had travelled in
+vehicles drawn by horses, quite as their remoter ancestors had done
+since the time of higher barbarism. It may be doubted whether there
+existed in the world in the year 1800 a postal service that could
+compare in speed and efficiency with the express service of the Romans
+of the time of Caesar; far less was there a telegraph service that could
+compare with that of the ancient Persians. Nor was there a ship sailing
+the seas that a Phoenician trireme might not have overhauled. But now
+within the lifetime of a single man the world was covered with a network
+of steel rails on which locomotives drew gigantic vehicles, laden with
+passengers at an hourly speed almost equalling Caesar's best journey of
+a day; over the land and under the seas were stretched wires along which
+messages coursed from continent to continent literally with the speed of
+lightning; and the waters of the earth were made to teem with gigantic
+craft propelled without sail or oar at a speed which the Phoenician
+captain of three thousand years ago and the English captain of the 18th
+century would alike have held incredible.
+
+
+  Social and political organization.
+
+There is no need to give further details here of the industrial
+revolutions that have been achieved in this newest period of
+civilization, since in their broader outlines at least they are familiar
+to every one. Nor need we dwell upon the revolution in thought whereby
+man has for the first time been given a clear inkling as to his origin
+and destiny. It suffices to point out that such periods of fermentation
+of ideas as this suggests have probably always been concomitant with
+those outbursts of creative genius that gave the world the practical
+inventions upon which human progress has been conditioned. The same
+attitude of receptivity to new ideas is pre-requisite to one form of
+discovery as to the other. Nor, it may be added, can either form of idea
+become effective for the progress of civilization except in proportion
+as a large body of any given generation are prepared to receive it.
+Doubtless here and there a dreamer played with fire, in a literal sense,
+for generations before the utility of fire as a practical aid to human
+progress came to be recognized in practice. And--to seek an illustration
+at the other end of the scale--we know that the advanced thinkers of
+Greece and Rome believed in the antiquity of the earth and in the
+evolution of man two thousand years before the coming of Darwin. We have
+but partly solved the mysteries of the progress of civilization, then,
+when we have pointed out that each tangible stage of progress owed its
+initiative to a new invention or discovery of science. To go to the root
+of the matter we must needs explain how it came about that a given
+generation of men was in mental mood to receive the new invention or
+discovery.
+
+The pursuit of this question would carry us farther into the realm of
+communal and racial psychology--to say nothing of the realm of
+conjecture--than comports with the purpose of this article. It must
+suffice to point out that alertness of mind--that all mentality--is, in
+the last analysis, a reaction to the influences of the environment. It
+follows that man may subject himself to new influences and thus give his
+mind a new stimulus by changing his habitat. A fundamental secret of
+progress is revealed in this fact. Man probably never would have evolved
+from savagery had he remained in the Tropics where he doubtless
+originated. But successive scientific inventions enabled him, as has
+been suggested, to migrate to distant latitudes, and thus more or less
+involuntarily to become the recipient of new creative and progressive
+impulses. After migrations in many directions had resulted in the
+development of divers races, each with certain capacities and
+acquirements due to its unique environment, there was opportunity for
+the application of the principle of environmental stimulus in an
+indirect way, through the mingling and physical intermixture of one race
+with another. Each of the great localized civilizations of antiquity
+appears to have owed its prominence in part at least--perhaps very
+largely--to such intermingling of two or more races. Each of these
+civilizations began to decay so soon as the nation had remained for a
+considerable number of generations in its localized environment, and had
+practically ceased to receive accretions from distant races at
+approximately the same stage of development. There is a suggestive
+lesson for present-day civilization in that thought-compelling fact.
+Further evidence of the application of the principle of environmental
+stimulus, operating through changed habitat and racial intermixture, is
+furnished by the virility of the colonial peoples of our own day. The
+receptiveness to new ideas and the rapidity of material progress of
+Americans, South Africans and Australians are proverbial. No one doubts,
+probably, that one or another of these countries will give a new
+stimulus to the progress of civilization, through the promulgation of
+some great epochal discovery, in the not distant future. Again, the
+value of racial intermingling is shown yet nearer home in the
+long-continued vitality of the British nation, which is explicable, in
+some measure at least, by the fact that the Celtic element held aloof
+from the Anglo-Saxon element century after century sufficiently to
+maintain racial integrity, yet mingled sufficiently to give and receive
+the fresh stimulus of "new blood." It is interesting in this connexion
+to examine the map of Great Britain with reference to the birthplaces of
+the men named above as being the originators of the inventions and
+discoveries that made the close of the 18th century memorable as
+ushering in a new ethnic era. It may be added that these names suggest
+yet another element in the causation of progress: the fact, namely,
+that, however necessary racial receptivity may be to the dynamitic
+upheaval of a new ethnic era, it is after all _individual_ genius that
+applies its detonating spark.
+
+
+  Nine periods of progress.
+
+Without further elaboration of this aspect of the subject it may be
+useful to recapitulate the analysis of the evolution of civilization
+above given, prior to characterizing it from another standpoint. It
+appears that the entire period of human progress up to the present may
+be divided into nine periods which, if of necessity more or less
+arbitrary, yet are not without certain warrant of logic. They may be
+defined as follows: (1) The Lower Period of Savagery, terminating with
+the discovery and application of the uses of fire. (2) The Middle Period
+of Savagery, terminating with the invention of the bow and arrow. (3)
+The Upper Period of Savagery, terminating with the invention of pottery.
+(4) The Lower Period of Barbarism, terminating with the domestication of
+animals. (5) The Middle Period of Barbarism, terminating with the
+discovery of the process of smelting iron ore. (6) The Upper Period of
+Barbarism, terminating with the development of a system of writing
+meeting the requirements of literary composition. (7) The First Period
+of Civilization (proper) terminating with the introduction of gunpowder.
+(8) The Second Period of Civilization, terminating with the invention of
+a practical steam-engine. (9) The Upper Period of Civilization, which is
+still in progress, but which, as will be suggested in a moment, is
+probably nearing its termination.
+
+It requires but a glance at the characteristics of these successive
+epochs to show the ever-increasing complexity of the inventions that
+delimit them and of the conditions of life that they connote. Were we to
+attempt to characterize in a few phrases the entire story of achievement
+thus outlined, we might say that during the three stages of Savagery man
+was attempting to make himself master of the geographical climates. His
+unconscious ideal was, to gain a foothold and the means of subsistence
+in every zone. During the three periods of Barbarism the ideal of
+conquest was extended to the beasts of the field, the vegetable world,
+and the mineral contents of the earth's crust. During the three periods
+of Civilization proper the ideal of conquest has become still more
+intellectual and subtle, being now extended to such abstractions as an
+analysis of speech-sounds, and to such intangibles as expanding gases
+and still more elusive electric currents: in other words, to the forces
+of nature, no less than to tangible substances. Hand in hand with this
+growing complexity of man's relations with the external world has gone a
+like increase of complexity in the social and political organizations
+that characterize man's relations with his fellowmen. In savagery the
+family expanded into the tribe; in barbarism the tribe developed into
+the nation. The epoch of civilization proper is aptly named, because it
+has been a time in which citizenship, in the narrower national
+significance, has probably been developed to its apogee. Throughout this
+period, in every land, the highest virtue has been considered to be
+patriotism,--by which must be understood an instinctive willingness on
+the part of every individual to defend even with his life the interests
+of the nation into which he chances to be born, regardless of whether
+the national cause in which he struggles be in any given case good or
+bad, right or wrong. The communal judgment of this epoch pronounces any
+man a traitor who will not uphold his own nation even in a wrong
+cause--and the word "traitor" marks the utmost brand of ignominy.
+
+
+  Nationality and cosmopolitanism.
+
+But while the idea of nationality has thus been accentuated, there has
+been a never-ending struggle within the bounds of the nation itself to
+adjust the relations of one citizen to another. The ideas that might
+makes right, that the strong man must dominate the weak, that leadership
+in the community properly belongs to the man who is physically most
+competent to lead--these ideas were a perfectly natural, and indeed an
+inevitable, outgrowth of the conditions under which man fought his way
+up through savagery and barbarism. Man in the first period of
+civilization inherited these ideas, along with the conditions of society
+that were their concomitants. So throughout the periods when the
+oriental civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria and Persia
+were dominant, a despotic form of government was accepted as the natural
+order of things. It does not appear that any other form was even
+considered as a practicality. A despot might indeed be overthrown, but
+only to make way for the coronation of another despot. A little later
+the Greeks and Romans modified the conception of a heaven-sent
+individual monarch; but they went no further than to substitute a
+heaven-favoured community, with specially favoured groups (_Patricii_)
+within the community. With this, national egoism reached its climax; for
+each people regarded its own citizens as the only exemplars of
+civilization, openly branding all the rest of the world as "barbarians,"
+fit subjects for the exaction of tribute or for the imposition of the
+bonds of actual slavery. During the middle ages there was a reaction
+towards individualism as opposed to nationalism: but the entire system
+of feudalism, with its clearly recognized conditions of over-lordship
+and of vassaldom, gave expression, no less clearly than oriental
+despotism and classical "democracy" had done, to the idea of individual
+inequality; of divergence of moral and legal status based on natural
+inheritance. Thus this idea, a reminiscence of barbarism, maintained its
+dominance throughout the first period of civilization.
+
+But gunpowder, marking the transition to the second period of
+civilization, came as a great levelling influence. With its aid the
+weakest peasant might prove more than a match for the most powerful
+knight. Before its assaults the castle of the lord ceased to be an
+impregnable fortress. And while gunpowder thus levelled down the power
+of the mighty, the printing-press levelled up the intelligence, and
+hence the power and influence of the lowly. Meantime the mariner's
+compass opened up new territories beyond the seas, and in due course men
+of lowly origin were seen to attain to wealth and power through
+commercial pursuits, thus tending to break in upon the established
+social order. In the colonial territories themselves all men were
+subjected more or less to the same perils and dependent upon their own
+efforts. Success and prominence in the community came not as a
+birthright, but as the result of demonstrated fitness. The great lesson
+that the interests of all members of a community are, in the last
+analysis, mutual could be more clearly distinguished in these small
+colonies than in larger and older bodies politic. Through various
+channels, therefore, in the successive generations of this middle period
+of civilization, the idea gained ground that intelligence and moral
+worth, rather than physical prowess, should be the test of greatness;
+that it is incumbent on the strong in the interests of the body politic
+to protect the weak; and that, in the long run, the best interests of
+the community are conserved if all its members, without exception, are
+given moral equality before the law. This idea of equal rights and
+privileges for all members of the community--for each individual "the
+greatest amount of liberty consistent with a like liberty of every other
+individual"--first found expression as a philosophical doctrine towards
+the close of the 18th century; at which time also tentative efforts were
+made to put it into practice. It may be said therefore to represent the
+culminating sociological doctrine of the middle period of
+civilization,--the ideal towards which all the influences of the period
+had tended to impel the race.
+
+It will be observed, however, that this ideal of individual equality
+within the body politic in no direct wise influences the status of the
+body politic itself as the centre of a localized civilization that may
+be regarded as in a sense antagonistic to all other similarly localized
+civilizations. If there were any such influence, it would rather operate
+in the direction of accentuating the patriotism of the member of a
+democratical community, as against that of the subject of a despot,
+through the sense of personal responsibility developed in the former.
+The developments of the middle period of civilization cannot be
+considered, therefore, to have tended to decrease the spirit of
+nationality, with its concomitant penalty of what is sometimes called
+provincialism. The history of this entire period, as commonly presented,
+is largely made up of the records of international rivalries and
+jealousies, perennially culminating in bitterly contested wars. It was
+only towards the close of the epoch that the desirability of free
+commercial intercourse among nations began to find expression as a
+philosophical creed through the efforts of Quesnay and his followers;
+and the doctrine that both parties to an international commercial
+transaction are gainers thereby found its first clear expression in the
+year 1776 in the pages of Condillac and of Adam Smith.
+
+But the discoveries that ushered in the third period of civilization
+were destined to work powerfully from the outset for the breaking down
+of international barriers, though, of course, their effects would not be
+at once manifest. Thus the substitution of steam power for water power,
+besides giving a tremendous impetus to manufacturing in general, mapped
+out new industrial centres in regions that nature had supplied with coal
+but not always with other raw materials. To note a single result,
+England became the manufacturing centre of the world, drawing its raw
+materials from every corner of the globe; but in so doing it ceased to
+be self-supporting as regards the production of food-supplies. While
+growing in national wealth, as a result of the new inventions, England
+has therefore lost immeasurably in national self-sufficiency and
+independence; having become in large measure dependent upon other
+countries both for the raw materials without which her industries must
+perish and for the foods to maintain the very life of her people.
+
+What is true of England in this regard is of course true in greater or
+less measure of all other countries. Everywhere, thanks to the new
+mechanisms that increase industrial efficiency, there has been an
+increasing tendency to specialization; and since the manufacturer must
+often find his raw materials in one part of the world and his markets in
+another, this implies an ever-increasing intercommunication and
+interdependence between the nations. This spirit is obviously fostered
+by the new means of transportation by locomotive and steamship, and by
+the electric communication that enables the Londoner, for example, to
+transact business in New York or in Tokio with scarcely an hour's delay;
+and that puts every one in touch at to-day's breakfast table with the
+happenings of the entire world. Thanks to the new mechanisms, national
+isolation is no longer possible; globe-trotting has become a habit with
+thousands of individuals of many nations; and Orient and Occident,
+representing civilizations that for thousands of years were almost
+absolutely severed and mutually oblivious of each other, have been
+brought again into close touch for mutual education and betterment. The
+Western mind has learned with amazement that the aforetime _Terra
+Incognita_ of the far East has nurtured a gigantic civilization having
+ideals in many ways far different from our own. The Eastern mind has
+proved itself capable, in self-defence, of absorbing the essential
+practicalities of Western civilization within a single generation. Some
+of the most important problems of world-civilization of the immediate
+future hinge upon the mutual relations of these two long-severed
+communities, branched at some early stage of progress to opposite
+hemispheres of the globe, but now brought by the new mechanisms into
+daily and even hourly communication.
+
+
+  Modern humanism.
+
+While the new conditions of the industrial world have thus tended to
+develop a new national outlook, there has come about, as a result of the
+scientific discoveries already referred to, a no less significant
+broadening of the mental and spiritual horizons. Here also the trend is
+away from the narrowly egoistic and towards the cosmopolitan view. About
+the middle of the 19th century Dr Pritchard declared that many people
+debated whether it might not be permissible for the Australian settlers
+to shoot the natives as food for their dogs; some of the disputants
+arguing that savages were without the pale of human brotherhood. To-day
+the thesis that all mankind are one brotherhood needs no defence. The
+most primitive of existing aborigines are regarded merely as brethren
+who, through some defect or neglect of opportunity, have lagged behind
+in the race. Similarly the defective and criminal classes that make up
+so significant a part of the population of even our highest present-day
+civilizations, are no longer regarded with anger or contempt, as beings
+who are suffering just punishment for wilful transgressions, but are
+considered as pitiful victims of hereditary and environmental influences
+that they could neither choose nor control. Insanity is no longer
+thought of as demoniac possession, but as the most lamentable of
+diseases.
+
+The changed attitude towards savage races and defective classes affords
+tangible illustrations of a fundamental transformation of point of view
+which doubtless represents the most important result of the operation of
+new scientific knowledge in the course of the 19th century. It is a
+transformation that is only partially effected as yet, to be sure; but
+it is rapidly making headway, and when fully achieved it will represent,
+probably, the most radical metamorphosis of mental view that has taken
+place in the entire course of the historical period. The essence of the
+new view is this: to recognize the universality and the invariability of
+natural law; stated otherwise, to understand that the word
+"supernatural" involves a contradiction of terms and has in fact no
+meaning. Whoever has grasped the full import of this truth is privileged
+to sweep mental horizons wider by far than ever opened to the view of
+any thinker of an earlier epoch. He is privileged to forecast, as the
+sure heritage of the future, a civilization freed from the last ghost of
+superstition--an Age of Reason in which mankind shall at last find
+refuge from the hosts of occult and invisible powers, the fearsome
+galaxies of deities and demons, which have haunted him thus far at every
+stage of his long journey through savagery, barbarism and civilization.
+Doubtless here and there a thinker, even in the barbaric eras, may have
+realized that these ghosts that so influenced the everyday lives of his
+fellows were but children of the imagination. But the certainty that
+such is the case could not have come with the force of demonstration
+even to the most clear-sighted thinker until 19th-century science had
+investigated with penetrating vision the realm of molecule and atom; had
+revealed the awe-inspiring principle of the conservation of energy; and
+had offered a comprehensible explanation of the evolution of one form of
+life from another, from monad to man, that did not presuppose the
+intervention of powers more "supernatural" than those that operate about
+us everywhere to-day.
+
+The stupendous import of these new truths could not, of course, make
+itself evident to the generality of mankind in a single generation, when
+opposed to superstitions of a thousand generations' standing. But the
+new knowledge has made its way more expeditiously than could have been
+anticipated; and its effects are seen on every side, even where its
+agency is scarcely recognized. As a single illustration, we may note the
+familiar observation that the entire complexion of orthodox teaching of
+religion has been more altered in the past fifty years than in two
+thousand years before. This of course is not entirely due to the
+influence of physical and biological science; no effect has a unique
+cause, in the complex sociological scheme. Archaeology, comparative
+philology and textual criticism have also contributed their share; and
+the comparative study of religions has further tended to broaden the
+outlook and to make for universality, as opposed to insularity, of view.
+It is coming to be more and more widely recognized that all theologies
+are but the reflex of the more or less faulty knowledge of the times in
+which they originate, that the true and abiding purpose of religion
+should be the practical betterment of humanity--the advancement of
+civilization in the best sense of the word; and that this end may
+perhaps be best subserved by different systems of theology, adapted to
+the varied genius of different times and divers races. Wherefore there
+is not the same enthusiastic desire to-day that found expression a
+generation ago, to impose upon the cultured millions of the East a
+religion that seems to them alien to their manner of thought, unsuited
+to their needs and less distinctly ethical in teaching than their own
+religions.
+
+Such are but a few of the illustrations that might be cited from many
+fields to suggest that the mind of our generation is becoming receptive
+to a changed point of view that augurs the coming of a new ethnic era.
+If one may be permitted to enter very tentatively the field of prophecy,
+it seems not unlikely that the great revolutionary invention which will
+close the third period of civilization and usher in a new era is already
+being evolved. It seems not over-hazardous to predict that the air-ship,
+in one form or another, is destined to be the mechanism that will give
+the new impetus to human civilization; that the next era will have as
+one of its practical ideals the conquest of the air; and that this
+conquest will become a factor in the final emergence of humanity from
+the insularity of nationalism to the broad view of cosmopolitanism,
+towards which, as we have seen, the tendencies of the present era are
+verging. That the gap to be covered is a vastly wide one no one need be
+reminded who recalls that the civilized nations of Europe, together with
+America and Japan, are at present accustomed to spend more than three
+hundred million pounds each year merely that they may keep armaments in
+readiness to fly at one another's throats should occasion arise.
+Formidable as these armaments now seem, however, the developments of the
+not very distant future will probably make them quite obsolete; and
+sooner or later, as science develops yet more deadly implements of
+destruction, the time must come when communal intelligence will rebel at
+the suicidal folly of the international attitude that characterized, for
+example, the opening decade of the 20th century. At some time, after the
+first period of cosmopolitanism shall be ushered in as a tenth ethnic
+period, it will come to be recognized that there is a word fraught with
+fuller meanings even than the word patriotism. That word is
+humanitarianism. The enlightened generation that realizes the full
+implications of that word will doubtless marvel that their ancestors of
+the third period of civilization should have risen up as nations and
+slaughtered one another by thousands to settle a dispute about a
+geographical boundary. Such a procedure will appear to have been quite
+as barbarous as the cannibalistic practices of their yet more remote
+ancestors, and distinctly less rational, since cannibalism might
+sometimes save its practiser from starvation, whereas warfare of the
+civilized type was a purely destructive agency.
+
+Equally obvious must it appear to the cosmopolite of some generation of
+the future that quality rather than mere numbers must determine the
+efficiency of any given community. Race suicide will then cease to be a
+bugbear; and it will no longer be considered rational to keep up the
+census at the cost of propagating low orders of intelligence, to feed
+the ranks of paupers, defectives and criminals. On the contrary it will
+be thought fitting that man should become the conscious arbiter of his
+own racial destiny to the extent of applying whatever laws of heredity
+he knows or may acquire in the interests of his own species, as he has
+long applied them in the case of domesticated animals. The survival and
+procreation of the unfit will then cease to be a menace to the progress
+of civilization. It does not follow that all men will be brought to a
+dead level of equality of body and mind, nor that individual competition
+will cease; but the average physical mental status of the race will be
+raised immeasurably through the virtual elimination of that vast company
+of defectives which to-day constitutes so threatening an obstacle to
+racial progress. There are millions of men in Europe and America to-day
+whose whole mental equipment--despite the fact that they have been
+taught to read and write--is far more closely akin to the average of the
+Upper Period of Barbarism than to the highest standards of their own
+time; and these undeveloped or atavistic persons have on the average
+more offspring than are produced by the more highly cultured and
+intelligent among their contemporaries. "Race suicide" is thereby
+prevented, but the progress of civilization is no less surely
+handicapped. We may well believe that the cosmopolite of the future,
+aided by science, will find rational means to remedy this strange
+illogicality. In so doing he will exercise a more consciously purposeful
+function, and perhaps a more directly potent influence, in determining
+the line of human progress than he has hitherto attempted to assume,
+notwithstanding the almost infinitely varied character of the
+experiments through which he has worked his way from savagery to
+civilization.
+
+
+  Ethical evolution.
+
+All these considerations tend to define yet more clearly the ultimate
+goal towards which the progressive civilization of past and present
+appears to be trending. The contemplation of this goal brings into view
+the outlines of a vastly suggestive evolutionary cycle. For it appears
+that the social condition of cosmopolite man, so far as the present-day
+view can predict it, will represent a state of things, magnified to
+world-dimensions, that was curiously adumbrated by the social system of
+the earliest savage. At the very beginning of the journey through
+savagery, mankind, we may well believe, consisted of a limited tribe,
+representing no great range or variety of capacity, and an almost
+absolute identity of interests. Thanks to this community of
+interests,--which was fortified by the recognition of blood-relationship
+among all members of the tribe,--a principle which we now define as "the
+greatest ultimate good to the greatest number" found practical, even if
+unwitting, recognition; and therein lay the germs of all the moral
+development of the future. But obvious identity of interests could be
+recognized only so long as the tribe remained very small. So soon as its
+numbers became large, patent diversities of interest, based on
+individual selfishness, must appear, to obscure the larger harmony. And
+as savage man migrated hither and thither, occupying new regions and
+thus developing new tribes and ultimately a diversity of "races," all
+idea of community of interests, as between race and race, must have been
+absolutely banished. It was the obvious and patent fact that each race
+was more or less at rivalry, in disharmony, with all the others. In the
+hard struggle for subsistence, the expansion of one race meant the
+downfall of another. So far as any principle of "greatest good" remained
+in evidence, it applied solely to the members of one's own community, or
+even to one's particular phratry or gens.
+
+Barbaric man, thanks to his conquest of animal and vegetable nature, was
+able to extend the size of the unified community, and hence to develop
+through diverse and intricate channels the application of the principle
+of "greatest good" out of which the idea of right and wrong was
+elaborated. But quite as little as the savage did he think of extending
+the application of the principle beyond the bounds of his own race. The
+laws with which he gave expression to his ethical conceptions applied,
+of necessity, to his own people alone. The gods with which his
+imagination peopled the world were local in habitat, devoted to the
+interests of his race only, and at enmity with the gods of rival
+peoples. As between nation and nation, the only principle of ethics that
+ever occurred to him was that might makes right. Civilized man for a
+long time advanced but slowly upon this view of international morality.
+No Egyptian or Babylonian or Hebrew or Greek or Roman ever hesitated to
+attack a weaker nation on the ground that it would be wrong to do so.
+And few indeed are the instances in which even a modern nation has
+judged an international question on any other basis than that of
+self-interest. It was not till towards the close of the 19th century
+that an International Peace Conference gave tangible witness that the
+idea of fellowship of nations was finding recognition; and in the same
+recent period history has recorded the first instance of a powerful
+nation vanquishing a weaker one without attempting to exact at least an
+"indemnifying" tribute.
+
+But the citizen of the future, if the auguries of the present prove
+true, will be able to apply principles of right and wrong without
+reference to national boundaries. He will understand that the interests
+of the entire human family are, in the last analysis, common interests.
+The census through which he attempts to estimate "the greatest good of
+the greatest number" must include, not his own nation merely, but the
+remotest member of the human race. On this universal basis must be
+founded that absolute standard of ethics which will determine the
+relations of cosmopolite man with his fellows. When this ideal is
+attained, mankind will again represent a single family, as it did in the
+day when our primeval ancestors first entered on the pathway of
+progress; but it will be a family whose habitat has been extended from
+the narrow glade of some tropical forest to the utmost habitable
+confines of the globe. Each member of this family will be permitted to
+enjoy the greatest amount of liberty consistent with the like liberty of
+every other member; but the interests of the few will everywhere be
+recognized as subservient to the interests of the many, and such
+recognition of mutual interests will establish the practical criterion
+for the interpretation of international affairs.
+
+
+  Progress and efficiency.
+
+But such an extension of the altruistic principle by no means
+presupposes the elimination of egoistic impulses--of individualism. On
+the contrary, we must suppose that man at the highest stages of culture
+will be, even as was the savage, a seeker after the greatest attainable
+degree of comfort for the least necessary expenditure of energy. The
+pursuit of this ideal has been from first to last the ultimate impelling
+force in nature urging man forward. The only change has been a change in
+the interpretation of the ideal, an altered estimate as to what manner
+of things are most worth the purchase-price of toil and self-denial.
+That the things most worth the having cannot, generally speaking, be
+secured without such toil and self-denial, is a lesson that began to be
+inculcated while man was a savage, and that has never ceased to be
+reiterated generation after generation. It is the final test of
+progressive civilization that a given effort shall produce a larger and
+larger modicum of average individual comfort. That is why the great
+inventions that have increased man's efficiency as a worker have been
+the necessary prerequisites to racial progress. Stated otherwise, that
+is why the industrial factor is everywhere the most powerful factor in
+civilization; and why the economic interpretation is the most searching
+interpretation of history at its every stage. It is the basal fact that
+progress implies increased average working efficiency--a growing ratio
+between average effort and average achievement--that gives sure warrant
+for such a prognostication as has just been attempted concerning the
+future industrial unification of our race. The efforts of civilized man
+provide him, on the average, with a marvellous range of comforts, as
+contrasted with those that rewarded the most strenuous efforts of savage
+or barbarian, to whom present-day necessaries would have been
+undreamed-of luxuries. But the ideal ratio between effort and result has
+by no means been achieved; nor will it have been until the inventive
+brain of man has provided a civilization in which a far higher
+percentage of citizens will find the life-vocations to which they are
+best adapted by nature, and in which, therefore, the efforts of the
+average worker may be directed with such vigour, enthusiasm and interest
+as can alone make for true efficiency; a civilization adjusted to such
+an economic balance that the average man may live in reasonable comfort
+without heart-breaking strain, and yet accumulate a sufficient surplus
+to ensure ease and serenity for his declining days. Such, seemingly,
+should be the normal goal of progressive civilization. Doubtless mankind
+in advancing towards that goal will institute many changes that could by
+no possibility be foretold, but (to summarize the views just presented)
+it seems a safe augury from present-day conditions and tendencies that
+the important lines of progress will include (1) the organic betterment
+of the race through wise application of the laws of heredity; (2) the
+lessening of international jealousies and the consequent minimizing of
+the drain upon communal resources that attends a military régime; and
+(3) an ever-increasing movement towards the industrial and economic
+unification of the world.    (H. S. WI.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A list of works dealing with the savage and barbarous
+  periods of human development will be found appended to the article
+  ANTHROPOLOGY. Special reference may here be made to E.B. Tylor's
+  _Early History of Mankind_ (1865), _Primitive Culture_ (1871) and
+  _Anthropology_ (1881); Lord Avebury's _Prehistoric Times_ (new
+  edition, 1900) and _Origin of Civilization_ (new edition, 1902); A.H.
+  Keane's _Man Past and Present_ (1899); and Lewis H. Morgan's _Ancient
+  Society_ (1877). The earliest attempt at writing a history of
+  civilization which has any value for the 20th-century reader was F.
+  Guizot's in 1828-1830, a handy English translation by William Hazlitt
+  being included in Bohn's Standard Library under the title of _The
+  History of Civilization_. The earlier lectures, delivered at the Old
+  Sorbonne, deal with the general progress of European civilization,
+  whilst the greater part of the work is an account of the growth of
+  civilization in France. Guizot's attitude is somewhat antiquated, but
+  this book still has usefulness as a storehouse of facts. T.H. Buckle's
+  famous work, _The History of Civilization in England_ (1857-1861),
+  though only a gigantic unfinished introduction to the author's
+  proposed enterprise, holds an important place in historical literature
+  on account of the new method which it introduced, and has given birth
+  to a considerable number of valuable books on similar lines, such as
+  Lecky's _History of European Morals_ (1869) and _Rise and Influence of
+  Rationalism in Europe_ (1865). J.W. Draper's _History of the
+  Intellectual Development of Europe_ (1861) undertook, from the
+  American stand-point, "the labour of arranging the evidence offered by
+  the intellectual history of Europe in accordance with physiological
+  principles, so as to illustrate the orderly progress of civilization."
+  Its objective treatment and wealth of learning still give it great
+  value to the student. Since the third quarter of the 19th century it
+  may be said that all serious historical work has been more or less a
+  history of civilization as displayed in all countries and ages, and a
+  bibliography of the works bearing on the subject would be coextensive
+  with the catalogue of a complete historical library. Special mention,
+  however, may be made of such important and suggestive works as C.H.
+  Pearson's _National Life and Character_ (1893); Benjamin Kidd's
+  _Social Evolution_ (1894) and _Principles of Western Civilization_
+  (1902); Edward Eggleston's _Transit of Civilization_ (1901); C.
+  Seignobos's _Histoire de la civilisation_ (1887); C. Faulmann's
+  _Illustrirte Culturgeschichte_ (1881); G. Ducoudray's _Histoire de la
+  civilisation_ (1886); J. von Hellwald's _Kulturgeschichte_ (1896); J.
+  Lippert's _Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit_ (1886); O. Henne-am-Rhyn's
+  _Die Kultur der Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft_ (1890); G.
+  Kurth's _Origines de la civilisation moderne_ (1886), &c. The vast
+  collection of modern works on sociology, from Herbert Spencer onwards,
+  should also be consulted; see bibliography attached to the article
+  SOCIOLOGY. The historical method on which practically all the articles
+  of the present edition of the _Ency. Brit._ are planned, makes the
+  whole work itself in essentials the most comprehensive history of
+  civilization in existence.
+
+
+
+
+CIVIL LAW, a phrase which, with its Latin equivalent _jus civile_, has
+been used in a great variety of meanings. _Jus civile_ was sometimes
+used to distinguish that portion of the Roman law which was the proper
+or ancient law of the city or state of Rome from the _jus gentium_, or
+the law common to all the nations comprising the Roman world, which was
+incorporated with the former through the agency of the praetorian
+edicts. This historical distinction remained as a permanent principle of
+division in the body of the Roman law. One of the first propositions of
+the Institutes of Justinian is the following:--"Jus autem civile vel
+gentium ita dividitur. Omnes populi qui legibus et moribus reguntur
+partim suo proprio, partim communi omnium hominum jure utuntur; nam quod
+quisque populus ipsi sibi jus constituit, id ipsius civitatis proprium
+est, vocaturque jus civile quasi jus proprium ipsius civitatis. Quod
+vero naturalis ratio inter omnes homines constituit, id apud omnes
+peraeque custoditur, vocaturque jus gentium quasi quo jure omnes gentes
+utuntur." The _jus gentium_ of this passage is elsewhere identified with
+_jus naturale_, so that the distinction comes to be one between civil
+law and natural or divine law. The municipal or private law of a state
+is sometimes described as civil law in distinction to public or
+international law. Again, the municipal law of a state may be divided
+into civil law and criminal law. The phrase, however, is applied _par
+excellence_ to the system of law created by the genius of the Roman
+people, and handed down by them to the nations of the modern world (see
+ROMAN LAW). The civil law in this sense would be distinguished from the
+local or national law of modern states. The civil law in this sense is
+further to be distinguished from that adaptation of its principles to
+ecclesiastical purposes which is known as the canon law (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+CIVIL LIST,
+
+  History
+
+the English term for the account in which are contained all the expenses
+immediately applicable to the support of the British sovereign's
+household and the honour and dignity of the crown. An annual sum is
+settled by the British parliament at the beginning of the reign on the
+sovereign, and is charged on the consolidated fund. But it is only from
+the reign of William IV. that the sum thus voted has been restricted
+solely to the personal expenses of the crown. Before his accession many
+charges properly belonging to the ordinary expenses of government had
+been placed on the civil list. The history of the civil list dates from
+the reign of William and Mary. Before the Revolution no distinction had
+been made between the expenses of government in time of peace and the
+expenses relating to the personal dignity and support of the sovereign.
+The ordinary revenues derived from the hereditary revenues of the crown,
+and from certain taxes voted for life to the king at the beginning of
+each reign, were supposed to provide for the support of the sovereign's
+dignity and the civil government, as well as for the public defence in
+time of peace. Any saving made by the king in the expenditure touching
+the government of the country or its defence would go to swell his privy
+purse. But with the Revolution a step forward was made towards the
+establishment of the principle that the expenses relating to the support
+of the crown should be separated from the ordinary expenses of the
+state. The evils of the old system under which no appropriation was made
+of the ordinary revenue granted to the crown for life had been made
+manifest in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.; it was their
+control of these large revenues that made them so independent of
+parliament. Moreover, while the civil government and the defences
+suffered, the king could use these revenues as he liked. The parliament
+of William and Mary fixed the revenue of the crown in time of peace at
+£1,200,000 per annum; of this sum about £700,000 was appropriated
+towards the "civil list." But from this the sovereign was to defray the
+expenses of the civil service and the payment of pensions, as well as
+the cost of the support of the royal household and his own personal
+expenses. It was from this that the term "civil list" arose, to
+distinguish it from the statement of military and naval charges. The
+revenue voted to meet the civil list consisted of the hereditary
+revenues of the crown and a part of the excise duties. Certain changes
+and additions were made in the sources of revenue thus appropriated
+between the reign of William and Mary and the accession of George III.,
+when a different system was adopted. Generally speaking, however, the
+sources of revenue remained as settled at the Revolution.
+
+
+  Anne, George I. and George II.
+
+  George III.
+
+Anne had the same civil list, estimated to produce an annual income of
+£700,000. During her reign a debt of £1,200,000 was incurred. This debt
+was paid by parliament and charged on the civil list itself. George I.
+enjoyed the same revenue by parliamentary grant, in addition to an
+annual sum of £120,000 on the aggregate fund. A debt of £1,000,000 was
+incurred, and discharged by parliament in the same manner as Anne's debt
+had been. To George II. a civil list of £800,000 as a minimum was
+granted, parliament undertaking to make up any deficiency if the sources
+of income appropriated to its service fell short of that sum. Thus in
+1746 a debt of £456,000 was paid by parliament on the civil list. On the
+accession of George III. a change was made in the system of the civil
+list. Hitherto the sources of revenue appropriated to the service of the
+civil list had been settled on the crown. If these revenues exceeded the
+sum they were computed to produce annually, the surplus went to the
+king. George III., however, surrendered the life-interest in the
+hereditary revenues and the excise duties hitherto voted to defray the
+civil list expenditure, and any claim to a surplus for a fixed amount.
+The king still retained other large sources of revenue which were not
+included in the civil list, and were free from the control of
+parliament. The revenues from which the civil list had been defrayed
+were henceforward to be carried into, and made part of, the aggregate
+fund. In their place a fixed civil list was granted--at first of
+£723,000 per annum, to be increased to £800,000 on the falling in of
+certain annuities to members of the royal family. From this £800,000 the
+king's household and the honour and dignity of the crown were to be
+supported, as well as the civil service offices, pensions and other
+charges still laid on the list.
+
+
+  Indebtedness of civil list.
+
+During the reign of George III. the civil list played an important part
+in the history of the struggle on the part of the king to establish the
+royal ascendancy. From the revenue appropriated to its service came a
+large portion of the money employed by the king in creating places and
+pensions for his supporters in parliament, and, under the colour of the
+royal bounty, bribery was practised on a large scale. No limit was set
+to the amount applicable to the pensions charged on the civil list, so
+long as the sum granted could meet the demand; and there was no
+principle on which the grant was regulated. Secret pensions at the
+king's pleasure were paid out of it, and in every way the independence
+of parliament was menaced; and though the more legitimate expenses of
+the royal household were diminished by the king's penurious style of
+living, and though many charges not directly connected with the king's
+personal expenditure were removed, the amount was constantly exceeded,
+and applications were made from time to time to parliament to pay off
+debts incurred; and thus opportunity was given for criticism. In 1769 a
+debt of £513,511 was paid off in arrears; and in spite of the demand for
+accounts and for an inquiry into the cause of the debt, the ministry
+succeeded in securing this vote without granting such information. All
+attempts to investigate the civil list were successfully resisted,
+though Lord Chatham went so far as to declare himself convinced that the
+funds were expended in corrupting members of parliament. Again, in 1777,
+an application was made to parliament to pay off £618,340 of debts; and
+in view of the growing discontent Lord North no longer dared to withhold
+accounts. Yet, in spite of strong opposition and free criticism, not
+only was the amount voted, but also a further £100,000 per annum, thus
+raising the civil list to an annual sum of £900,000.
+
+In 1779, at a time when the expenditure of the country and the national
+debt had been enormously increased by the American War, the general
+dissatisfaction found voice in parliament, and the abuses of the civil
+list were specially singled out for attack. Many petitions were
+presented to the House of Commons praying for its reduction, and a
+motion was made in the House of Lords in the same sense, though it was
+rejected. In 1780 Burke brought forward his scheme of economic reform,
+but his name was already associated with the growing desire to remedy
+the evils of the civil list by the publication in 1769 of his pamphlet
+on "The Causes of the Present Discontent." In this scheme Burke freely
+animadverts on the profusion and abuse of the civil list, criticizing
+the useless and obsolete offices and the offices performed by deputy. In
+every department he discovers jobbery, waste and peculation. His
+proposal was that the many offices should be reduced and consolidated,
+that the pension list should be brought down to a fixed sum of £60,000
+per annum, and that pensions should be conferred only to reward merit or
+fulfil real public charity. All pensions were to be paid at the
+exchequer. He proposed also that the civil list should be divided into
+classes, an arrangement which later was carried into effect. In 1780
+Burke succeeded in bringing in his Establishment Bill; but though at
+first it met with considerable support, and was even read a second time,
+Lord North's government defeated it in committee. The next year the bill
+was again introduced into the House of Commons, and Pitt made his first
+speech in its favour. The bill was, however, lost on the second reading.
+
+
+  Civil List Act 1782.
+
+In 1782 the Rockingham ministry, pledged to economic reform, came into
+power; and the Civil List Act 1782 was introduced and carried with the
+express object of limiting the patronage and influence of ministers, or,
+in other words, the ascendancy of the crown over parliament. Not only
+did the act effect the abolition of a number of useless offices, but it
+also imposed restraints on the issue of secret service money, and made
+provision for a more effectual supervision of the royal expenditure. As
+to the pension list, the annual amount was to be limited to £95,000; no
+pension to any one person was to exceed £1200, and all pensions were to
+be paid at the exchequer, thus putting a stop to the secret pensions
+payable during pleasure. Moreover, pensions were only to be bestowed in
+the way of royal bounty for persons in distress or as a reward for
+merit. Another very important change was made by this act: the civil
+list was divided into classes, and a fixed amount was to be appropriated
+to each class. The following were the classes:--
+
+  1. Pensions and allowances of the royal family.
+  2. Payment of salaries of lord chancellor, speaker and judges.
+  3. Salaries of ministers to foreign courts resident at the same.
+  4. Approved bills of tradesmen, artificers and labourers for any
+     article supplied and work done for His Majesty's service.
+  5. Menial servants of the household.
+  6. Pension list.
+  7. Salaries of all other places payable out of the civil list revenues.
+  8. Salaries and pensions of treasurer or commissioners of the
+     treasury and of the chancellor of the exchequer.
+
+Yet debt was still the condition of the civil list down to the end of
+the reign, in spite of the reforms established by the Rockingham
+ministry, and notwithstanding the removal from the list of many charges
+unconnected with the king's personal expenses. The debts discharged by
+parliament between 1782, the date of the passing of the Civil List Act,
+and the end of George III.'s reign, amounted to £2,300,000. In all,
+during his reign £3,398,061 of debt owing by the civil list was paid
+off.
+
+With the regency the civil list was increased by £70,000 per annum, and
+a special grant of £100,000 was settled on the prince regent. In 1816
+the annual amount was settled at £1,083,727, including the establishment
+of the king, now insane; though the civil list was relieved from some
+annuities payable to the royal family. Nevertheless, the fund still
+continued charged with such civil expenses as the salaries of judges,
+ambassadors and officers of state, and with pensions granted for public
+services. Other reforms were made as regards the definition of the
+several classes of expenditure, while the expenses of the royal
+household were henceforth to be audited by a treasury official--the
+auditor of the civil list. On the accession of George IV. the civil
+list, freed from the expenses of the late king, was settled at £845,727.
+On William IV. coming to the throne a sum of £510,000 per annum was
+fixed for the service of the civil list. The king at the same time
+surrendered all the sources of revenue enjoyed by his predecessors,
+apart from the civil list, represented by the hereditary revenues of
+Scotland--the Irish civil list, the droits of the crown and admiralty,
+the 4½% duties, the West India duties, and other casual revenues
+hitherto vested in the crown, and independent of parliament. The
+revenues of the duchy of Lancaster were still retained by the crown. In
+return for this surrender and the diminished sum voted, the civil list
+was relieved from all the charges relating rather to the civil
+government than to the support of the dignity of the crown and the royal
+household. The future expenditure was divided into five classes, and a
+fixed annual sum was appropriated to each class. The pension list was
+reduced to £75,000. The king resisted an attempt on the part of the
+select committee to reduce the salaries of the officers of state on the
+grounds that this touched his prerogative, and the ministry of Earl Grey
+yielded to his remonstrance.
+
+
+  Queen Victoria's civil list.
+
+The civil list of Queen Victoria was settled on the same principles as
+that of William IV. A considerable reduction was made in the aggregate
+annual sum voted, from £510,000 to £385,000, and the pension list was
+separated from the ordinary civil list. The civil list proper was
+divided into the following five classes, with a fixed sum appropriated
+to each:--
+
+  Privy purse              £60,000
+  Salaries of household    131,260
+  Expenses of household    172,500
+  Royal bounty, &c.         13,200
+  Unappropriated             8,040
+
+In addition the queen might, on the advice of her ministers, grant
+pensions up to £1200 per annum, in accordance with a resolution of the
+House of Commons of February 18th, 1834, "to such persons as have just
+claims on the royal beneficence or who, by their personal services to
+the crown, by the performance of duties to the public, or by their
+useful discoveries in science and attainments in literature and art,
+have merited the gracious consideration of the sovereign and the
+gratitude of their country." The service of these pensions increased the
+annual sum devoted to support the dignity of the crown and the expenses
+of the household to about £409,000. The list of pensions must be laid
+before parliament within thirty days of 20th June. Thus the civil list
+was reduced in amount, and relieved from the very charges which gave it
+its name as distinct from the statement of military and naval charges.
+It now really only dealt with the support of the dignity and honour of
+the crown and the royal household. The arrangement was most successful,
+and during the last three reigns there was no application to parliament
+for the discharge of debts incurred on the civil list.
+
+
+  Civil List Act 1901.
+
+The death of Queen Victoria rendered it necessary that a renewed
+provision should be made for the civil list; and King Edward VII.,
+following former precedents, placed unreservedly at the disposal of
+parliament his hereditary revenues. A select committee of the House of
+Commons was appointed to consider the provisions of the civil list for
+the crown, and to report also on the question of grants for the
+honourable support and maintenance of Her Majesty the Queen and the
+members of the royal family. The committee in their conclusions were
+guided to a considerable extent by the actual civil list expenditure
+during the last ten years of the last reign, and made certain
+recommendations which, without undue interference with the sovereign's
+personal arrangements, tended towards increased efficiency and economy
+in the support of the sovereign's household and the honour and dignity
+of the crown. On their report was based the Civil List Act 1901, which
+established the new civil list. The system that the hereditary revenues
+should as before be paid into the exchequer and be part of the
+consolidated fund was maintained. The amount payable for the civil list
+was increased from £385,000 to £470,000. In the application of this sum
+the number of classes of expenditure to which separate amounts were to
+be appropriated was increased from five to six. The following was the
+new arrangement of classes:--1st class, Their Majesties' privy purse,
+£110,000; 2nd class, salaries of His Majesty's household and retired
+allowances, £125,800; 3rd class, expenses of His Majesty's household,
+£193,000; 4th class, works (the interior repair and decoration of
+Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle), £20,000; 5th class, royal bounty,
+alms and special services, £13,200; 6th class, unappropriated, £8000.
+The system relating to civil list pensions, established by the Civil
+List Act 1837, continued to apply, but the pensions were not regarded as
+chargeable on the sum paid for the civil list. The committee also
+advised that the mastership of the Buckhounds should not be continued;
+and the king, on the advice of his ministers, agreed to accept their
+recommendation. The maintenance of the royal hunt thus ceased to be a
+charge on the civil list. The annuities of £20,000 to the prince of
+Wales, of £10,000 to the princess of Wales, and of £18,000 to His
+Majesty's three daughters, were not included in the civil list, though
+they were conferred by the same act. Other grants made by special acts
+of parliament to members of the royal family were also excluded from it;
+these were £6000 to the princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, £6000
+to the princess Louise (duchess of Argyll), £25,000 to the duke of
+Connaught, £6000 to the duchess of Albany, £6000 to the princess
+Beatrice (Henry of Battenberg), and £3000 to the duchess of
+Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
+
+
+    Figures in other countries.
+
+  It may be interesting to compare with the British civil list the
+  corresponding figures in other countries. These are as follows, the
+  figures being those, for convenience, of 1905. Spain, £280,000,
+  exclusive of allowances to members of the royal family; Portugal,
+  £97,333, in addition to £1333 to the queen-consort--total grant to the
+  royal family, £116,700; Italy, £602,000, from which was deducted
+  £16,000 for the children of the deceased Prince Amedeo, duke of Aosta,
+  £16,000 to Prince Tommaso, duke of Genoa, and £40,000 to Queen
+  Margherita; Belgium, £140,000; Netherlands, £50,000, with, in
+  addition, £4000 for the maintenance of the royal palaces; Germany,
+  £770,500 (_Krondotations Rente_), the sovereign also possessing large
+  private property (_Kronfideikommiss und Schatullgüter_), the revenue
+  from which contributed to the expenditure of the court and the members
+  of the royal family; Denmark, £55,500, in addition to £6600 to the
+  heir-apparent; Norway, £38,888; Sweden, £72,700; Greece, £52,000,
+  which included £4000 each from Great Britain, France and Russia;
+  Austria-Hungary, £941,666, made up of £387,500 as emperor of Austria
+  out of the revenues of Austria, and £554,166 as king of Hungary out of
+  the revenues of Hungary; Japan, £300,000; Rumania, £47,000, in
+  addition to revenues from certain crown lands; Servia, £48,000;
+  Bulgaria, £40,000, besides £30,000 for maintenance of palaces, &c.;
+  Montenegro, £8300; Russia had no civil list, the sovereign having all
+  the revenue from the crown domains (actual amount unknown, but
+  supposed to amount to over £4,000,000); the president of the French
+  Republic had a salary of £24,000 a year, with a further £24,000 for
+  expenses; and the president of the United States had a salary of
+  $50,000 (from 1909, $75,000).
+
+
+
+
+CIVIL SERVICE, the generic name given to the aggregate of all the public
+servants, or paid civil administrators and clerks, of a state. It is the
+machinery by which the executive, through the various administrations,
+carries on the central government of the country.
+
+_British Empire._--The appointments to the civil service until the year
+1855 were made by nomination, with an examination not sufficient to form
+an intellectual or even a physical test. It was only after much
+consideration and almost years of discussion that the nomination system
+was abandoned. Various commissions reported on the civil service, and
+orders in council were issued. Finally in 1855 a qualifying examination
+of a stringent character was instituted, and in 1870 the principle of
+open competition was adopted as a general rule. On the report of the
+Playfair Commission (1876), an order in council was issued dividing the
+civil service into an upper and lower division. The order in council
+directed that a lower division should be constituted, and men and boy
+clerks holding permanent positions replaced the temporary assistants and
+writers. The "temporary" assistant was not found to be advantageous to
+the service. In December 1886 a new class of assistant clerks was formed
+to replace the men copyists. In 1887 the Ridley Commission reported on
+the civil service establishment. In 1890 two orders in council were
+issued based on the reports of the Ridley Commission, which sat from
+1886 to 1890. The first order constituted what is now known as the
+second division of the civil service. The second order in council
+concerned the officers of the 1st class; and provision was made for the
+possible promotion of the second division clerks to the first division
+after eight years' service.
+
+The whole system is under the administration of the civil service
+commissioners, and power is given to them, with the approval of the
+treasury, to prescribe the subjects of examination, limits of age, &c.
+The age is fixed for compulsory retirement at sixty-five. In exceptional
+cases a prolongation of five years is within the powers of the civil
+service commissioners. The examination for 1st class clerkships is held
+concurrently with that of the civil service of India and Eastern
+cadetships in the colonial service. Candidates can compete for all three
+or for two. In addition to the intellectual test the candidate must
+fulfil the conditions of age (22 to 24), must present recommendations as
+to character, and pass a medical examination. This examination
+approximates closely to the university type of education. Indeed, there
+is little chance of success except for candidates who have had a
+successful university career, and frequently, in addition, special
+preparation by a private teacher. The subjects include the language and
+literature of England, France, Germany, Italy, ancient Greece and Rome,
+Sanskrit and Arabic, mathematics (pure and applied), natural science
+(chemistry, physics, zoology, &c.), history (English, Greek, Roman and
+general modern), political economy and economic history, mental and
+moral philosophy, Roman and English law and political science. The
+candidate is obliged to reach a certain standard of knowledge in each
+subject before any marks at all are allowed him. This rule was made to
+prevent success by mere cramming, and to ensure competent knowledge on
+the basis of real study.
+
+The maximum scale of the salaries of clerks of Class I. is as
+follows:--3rd class, £200 a year, increasing by £20 a year to £500; 2nd
+class, £600, increasing by £25 a year to £800; 1st class, £850,
+increasing by £50 a year to £1000. Their pensions are fixed by the
+Superannuation Act 1859, 22 Vict. c. 26:--
+
+  "To any person who shall have served ten years and upwards, and under
+  eleven years, an annual allowance of ten-sixtieths of the annual
+  salary and emoluments of his office:
+
+  "For eleven years and under twelve years, an annual allowance of
+  eleven-sixtieths of such salary and emoluments:
+
+  "And in like manner a further addition to the annual allowance of
+  one-sixtieth in respect of each additional year of such service, until
+  the completion of a period of service of forty years, when the annual
+  allowance of forty-sixtieths may be granted; and no additions shall be
+  made in respect of any service beyond forty years."
+
+  The "ordinary annual holidays allowed to officers" (1st class) "shall
+  not exceed thirty-six week-days during each of their first ten years
+  of service and forty-eight week-days thereafter." Order in Council,
+  15th August 1890.
+
+  "Within that maximum heads of departments have now, as they have
+  hitherto had, an absolute discretion in fixing the annual leave."
+
+Sick leave can be granted on full salary for not more than six months,
+on half-salary for another six months.
+
+The scale of salary for 2nd division clerks begins at £70 a year,
+increasing by £5 to £100; then £100 a year, increasing by £7, 10s. to
+£190; and then £190 a year, increasing by £10 to £250. The highest is
+£300 to £500. Advancement in the 2nd division to the higher ranks
+depends on merit, not seniority. The ordinary annual holiday of the 2nd
+division clerks is 14 working days for the first five years, and 21
+working days afterwards. They can be allowed sick leave for six months
+on full pay and six months on half-pay. The subjects of their
+examination are: (1) handwriting and orthography, including copying MS.;
+(2) arithmetic; (3) English composition; (4) précis, including indexing
+and digest of returns; (5) book-keeping and shorthand writing; (6)
+geography and English history; (7) Latin; (8) French; (9) German; (10)
+elementary mathematics; (11) inorganic chemistry with elements of
+physics. Not more than four of the subjects (4) to (11) can be taken.
+The candidate must be between the ages of 17 and 20. A certain number of
+the places in the 2nd division were reserved for the candidates from the
+boy clerks appointed under the old system. The competition is severe,
+only about one out of every ten candidates being successful. Candidates
+are allowed a choice of departments subject to the exigencies of the
+services.
+
+  There is also a class of boy copyists who are almost entirely employed
+  in London, a few in Dublin and Edinburgh, and, very seldom, in some
+  provincial towns. The subjects of their examination are:
+  _Obligatory_--handwriting and orthography, arithmetic and English
+  composition. _Optional_--(any two of the following): (1) copying MS.;
+  (2) geography; (3) English history; (4) translation from one of the
+  following languages--Latin, French or German; (5) Euclid, bk. i. and
+  ii., and algebra, up to and including simple equations; (6) rudiments
+  of chemistry and physics. Candidates must be between the ages of 15
+  and 18. They have no claims to superannuation or compensation
+  allowance. Boy copyists are not retained after the age of 20.
+
+Candidates for the civil service of India take the same examination as
+for 1st class clerkships. Candidates successful in the examination must
+subsequently spend one year in England. They receive for that year £150
+if they elect to live at one of the universities or colleges approved by
+the secretary of state for India. They are submitted to a final
+examination in the following subjects--Indian Penal Code and the Code
+of Criminal Procedure, the principal vernacular language of the province
+to which they are assigned, the Indian Evidence Act (these three
+subjects are compulsory), either Hindu and Mahommedan Law, or Sanskrit,
+Arabic or Persian, Burmese (for Burma only). A candidate may not take
+Arabic or Sanskrit both in the first examination and in the final. They
+must also pass a thorough examination in riding. On reaching India
+their salary begins at 400 rupees a month. They may take, as leave,
+one-fourth of the time on active service in periods strictly limited by
+regulation. After 25 years' service (of which 21 must be active service)
+they can retire on a pension of £1000 a year. The unit of administration
+is the district. At the head of the district is an executive officer
+called either collector-magistrate or deputy-commissioner. In most
+provinces he is responsible to the commissioner, who corresponds
+directly with the provincial government. The Indian civilian after four
+years' probation in both branches of the service is called upon to elect
+whether he will enter the revenue or judicial department, and this
+choice as a rule is held to be final for his future work.
+
+  Candidates for the Indian Forest Service have to pass a competitive
+  examination, one of the compulsory subjects being German or French.
+  They have also to pass a severe medical examination, especially in
+  their powers of vision and hearing. They must be between the ages of
+  18 and 22. Successful candidates are required to pass a three years'
+  course, with a final examination, seven terms of the course at an
+  approved school of forestry, the rest of the time receiving practical
+  instruction in continental European forests. On reaching India they
+  start as assistant conservators at 380 rupees a month. The highest
+  salary, that of inspector-general of forests, in the Indian Forest
+  Service is 2650 rupees a month.
+
+  The Indian Police Service is entered by a competitive examination of
+  very much the same kind as for the forest service, except that special
+  subjects such as German and botany are not included. The candidates
+  are limited in age to 19 and 21. They must pass a riding examination.
+  A free passage out is given them. They are allotted as probationers,
+  their wishes being consulted as far as possible as to their province.
+  A probationer receives 300 rupees a month. A district superintendent
+  can rise to 1200 rupees a month, while there are a few posts with a
+  salary of 3000 rupees a month in the police service. The leave and
+  pension in both these departments follow the general rules for Indian
+  services.
+
+The civil service also includes student interpreterships for China,
+Japan and Siam, and for the Ottoman dominions, Persia, Greece and
+Morocco. Both these classes of student interpreters are selected by open
+competition. Their object is to supply the consular service in the
+above-named countries with persons having a thorough knowledge of the
+language of the country in which they serve.
+
+  In the first case, China, Japan, &c., they learn their language in the
+  country itself, receiving £200 as probationers. Then they become
+  assistants in a consulate. The highest post is that of consul-general.
+  In the case of student interpreters for the Ottoman dominions, Persia,
+  Greece and Morocco, the successful candidates learn their languages at
+  Oxford. Turkish is taught gratuitously, but they pay the usual fees
+  for other languages. At Oxford they receive £200 a year for two years.
+  On leaving Oxford they become assistants under the embassy at
+  Constantinople, the legations at Teheran, Athens or Morocco, or at one
+  of H.B.M. consulates. As assistants they receive £300 a year. The
+  consuls, the highest post to which they can reach, receive in the
+  Levant from £500 to £1600 a year. The civil services of Ceylon,
+  Hong-Kong, the Straits Settlements, and the Malay Peninsula are
+  supplied by the Eastern cadetships. The limits of age for the
+  examination are 18 and 24. The cadets are required to learn the native
+  language of the colony or dependency to which they are assigned. In
+  the case of the Straits Settlements and Malay cadets they may have to
+  learn Chinese or Tamil, as well as the native language. The salaries
+  are: passed cadets, 3500 rupees per annum, gradually increasing until
+  first-class officers receive from 12,000 to 18,000 rupees per annum.
+  They are allowed three months' vacation on full pay in two years, and
+  leave of absence on half-pay after six years' service, or before that
+  if urgently needed. They can retire for ill-health after ten years
+  with fifteen-sixtieths of their annual salary. Otherwise they can add
+  one-sixtieth of their annual salary to their pension for every
+  additional year's service up to thirty-five years' service.
+
+In spite of the general rule of open competition, there are still a few
+departments where the system of _nomination_ obtains, accompanied by a
+severe test of knowledge, either active or implied. Such are the foreign
+office, British Museum, and board of education.
+
+The employment of women in the civil service has been principally
+developed in the post office. Women are employed in the post office as
+female clerks, counter clerks, telegraphists, returners, sorters and
+post-mistresses all over the United Kingdom. The board of agriculture,
+the customs and the India office employ women. The department of
+agriculture, the board of education generally, the local government
+board, all to a certain extent employ women, whilst in the home office
+there are an increasing number of women inspectors of workshops and
+factories.
+
+  In 1881 the postmaster-general took a decided step in favour of female
+  employment, and with the consent of the treasury instituted female
+  clerkships. Female clerks do not come in contact with the public.
+  Their duties are purely clerical, and entirely in the
+  accountant-general's department at the savings bank. Their leave is
+  one month per annum; their pension is on the ordinary civil service
+  scale. The examination is competitive; the subjects are handwriting
+  and spelling, arithmetic, English composition, geography, English
+  history, French or German. Candidates must be between the ages of 18
+  and 20. Whether unmarried or widows they must resign on marriage. The
+  class of girl clerks take the same subjects in a competitive
+  examination. They must be between the ages of 16 and 18; they serve
+  only in the Savings Bank department. If competent they can pass on
+  later to female clerkships. The salaries of the female clerkships
+  range from £200 to £500 in the higher grade, £55 to £190 in the 2nd
+  class, whilst girl clerks are paid from £35 to £40, with the chance of
+  advancement to higher posts.
+
+
+  The "spoils system".
+
+_United States._--Civil service reform, like other great administrative
+reforms, began in America in the latter half of the 19th century.
+Personal and partisan government, with all the entailed evils of the
+patronage system, culminated in Great Britain during the reign of George
+III., and was one of the efficient causes of the American revolution.
+Trevelyan characterizes the use of patronage to influence legislation,
+and the giving of colonial positions as sinecures to the privileged
+classes and personal favourites of the administration, by saying, "It
+was a system which, as its one achievement of the first order, brought
+about the American War, and made England sick, once and for all, of the
+very name of personal government." It was natural that the founders of
+the new government in America, after breaking away from the
+mother-country, should strive to avoid the evils which had in a measure
+brought about the revolution. Their intention that the administrative
+officers of the government should hold office during good behaviour is
+manifest, and was given thorough and practical effect by every
+administration during the first forty years of the life of the
+government. The constitution fixed no term of office in the executive
+branch of the government except those of president and vice-president;
+and Madison, the expounder of the constitution, held that the wanton
+removal of a meritorious officer was an impeachable offence. Not until
+nine years after the passage of the Four Years' Tenure of Office Act in
+1820 was there any material departure from this traditional policy of
+the government. This act (suggested by an appointing officer who wished
+to use the power it gave in order to secure his own nomination for the
+presidency, and passed without debate and apparently without any
+adequate conception of its full effect) opened the doors of the service
+to all the evils of the "spoils system." The foremost statesmen of the
+time were not slow to perceive the baleful possibilities of this
+legislation, Jefferson,[1] Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton and many
+others being recorded as condemning and deploring it in the strongest
+terms. The transition to the "spoils system" was not, however,
+immediate, and for the next nine years the practice of reappointing all
+meritorious officers was practically universal; but in 1829 this
+practice ceased, and the act of 1820 lent the sanction of law to the
+system of proscriptions which followed, which was a practical
+application of the theory that "to the victor belong the spoils of the
+enemy." In 1836 the provisions of this law, which had at first been
+confined mainly to officers connected with the collection of revenue,
+were extended to include also all postmasters receiving a compensation
+of $1000 per annum or more. It rapidly became the practice to regard all
+these four years' tenure offices as agencies not so much for the
+transaction of the public business as for the advancement of political
+ends. The revenue service from being used for political purposes merely
+came to be used for corrupt purposes as well, with the result that in
+one administration frauds were practised upon the government to the
+extent of $75,000,000. The corrupting influences permeated the whole
+body politic. Political retainers were selected for appointment not on
+account of their ability to do certain work but because they were
+followers of certain politicians; these "public servants" acknowledged
+no obligation except to those politicians, and their public duties, if
+not entirely disregarded, were negligently and inefficiently performed.
+Thus grew a saturnalia of spoils and corruption which culminated in the
+assassination of a president.
+
+
+  Law of 1883.
+
+Acute conditions, not theories, give rise to reforms. In the
+congressional election of November 1882, following the assassination of
+President Garfield as an incident in the operation of the spoils system,
+the voice of the people commanding reform was unmistakable. Congress
+assembled in December 1882, and during the same month a bill looking to
+the improvement of the civil service, which had been pending in the
+Senate for nearly two years, was finally taken up and considered by that
+body. In the debate upon this bill its advocates declared that it would
+"vastly improve the whole civil service of the country," which they
+characterized as being at that time "inefficient, expensive and
+extravagant, and in many instances corrupt."[2] This bill passed the
+Senate on the 27th of December 1882, and the House on the 4th of January
+1883, and was signed by the president on the 16th of January 1883,
+coming into full operation on the 16th of July 1883. It is now the
+national civil service law. The fundamental principles of this law
+are:--(1) selection by competitive examination for all appointments to
+the "classified service," with a period of probationary service before
+absolute appointment; (2) apportionment among the states and
+territories, according to population, of all appointments in the
+departmental service at Washington; (3) freedom of all the employees of
+the government from any necessity to contribute to political campaign
+funds or to render political services. For putting these principles into
+effect the Civil Service Commission was created, and penalties were
+imposed for the solicitation or collection from government employees of
+contributions for political purposes, and for the use of official
+positions in coercing political action. The commission, in addition to
+its regular duties of aiding in the preparation of civil service rules,
+of regulating and holding examinations, and certifying the results
+thereof for use in making appointments, and of keeping records of all
+changes in the service, was given authority to investigate and report
+upon any violations of the act or rules. The "classified" service to
+which the act applies has grown, by the action of successive presidents
+in progressively including various branches of tne service within it,
+from 13,924 positions in 1883 to some 80,000 (in round numbers) in 1900,
+constituting about 40% of the entire civil service of the government and
+including practically all positions above the grade of mere labourer or
+workman to which appointment is _not_ made directly by the president
+with the consent of the Senate.[3] A very large class to which the act
+is expressly applicable, and which has been partly brought within its
+provisions by executive action, is that of fourth-class postmasters, of
+whom there are between 70,000 and 80,000 (about 15,000 classified in
+1909).
+
+In order to provide registers of eligibles for the various grades of
+positions in the classified service, the United States Civil Service
+Commission holds annually throughout the country about 300 different
+kinds of examinations. In the work of preparing these examinations and
+of marking the papers of competitors in them the commission is
+authorized by law to avail itself, in addition to its own corps of
+trained men, of the services of the scientific and other experts in the
+various executive departments. In the work of holding the examinations
+it is aided by about 1300 local boards of examiners, which are its local
+representatives throughout the country and are located at the principal
+post offices, custom houses and other government offices, being composed
+of three or more Federal employees in those offices. About 50,000
+persons annually compete in these examinations, and about 10,000 of
+those who are successful receive appointments through regular
+certification. Persons thus appointed, however, must serve six months
+"on probation" before their appointment can be made absolute. At the end
+of this probation, if his service has not been satisfactory, the
+appointee is simply dropped; and the fact that less than 1% of those
+appointed prove thus deficient on trial is high testimony to the
+practical nature of the examinations held by the commission, and to
+their aptness for securing persons qualified for all classes of
+positions.
+
+The effects of the Civil Service Act within the scope of its actual
+operation have amply justified the hopes and promises of its advocates.
+After its passage, absentee holders of lucrative appointments were
+required to report for duty or to sever their connexion with the
+service. Improved methods were adopted in the departments, and
+superfluous and useless work was no longer devised in order to provide a
+show of employment and a _locus standi_ for the parasites upon the
+public service. Individual clerks were required, and by reason of the
+new conditions were enabled, to do more and better work; and this,
+coupled with the increase in efficiency in the service on account of new
+blood coming in through the examinations, made possible an actual
+decrease in the force required in many offices, notwithstanding the
+natural growth in the amount of work to be done.[4] Experience proves
+that the desire to create new and unnecessary positions was in direct
+proportion to the power to control them, for where the act has taken
+away this power of control the desire had disappeared naturally. There
+is no longer any desire on the part of heads of departments to increase
+the number or salaries of classified positions which would fall by law
+within the civil service rules and be subject to competitive
+examinations. Thus the promises of improvement and economy in the
+service have been fulfilled.
+
+The chief drawback to the full success of the act within its intended
+scope of operation has been the withholding of certain positions in the
+service from the application of the vital principle of competition. The
+Civil Service Act contemplated no exceptions, within the limits to which
+it was made applicable, to the general principle of competition upon
+merit for entrance to the service. In framing the first civil service
+rules, however, in 1883, the president, yielding to the pressure of the
+heads of some of the departments, and against the urgent protest of the
+Civil Service Commission, excepted from the requirement of examination
+large numbers of positions in the higher grades of the service, chiefly
+fiduciary and administrative positions such as cashiers, chief clerks
+and chiefs of division. These positions being thus continued under the
+absolute control of the appointing officer, the effect of their
+exception from examination was to retain just that much of the old or
+"spoils" system within the nominal jurisdiction of the new or "merit"
+system. Even more: under the old system, while appointments from the
+outside had been made regardless of fitness, still those appointments
+had been made in the lower grades, the higher positions being filled by
+promotion within the service, usually of the most competent, but under
+the new system with its exceptions, while appointments to the lower
+grades were filled on the basis of merit, the pressure for spoils at
+each change of administration forced inexperienced, political or
+personal favourites in at the top. This blocked promotions and
+demoralized the service. Thus, while the general effect of the act was
+to limit very greatly the number of vicious appointments, at the same
+time the effect of these exceptions was to confine them to the upper
+grades, where the demoralizing effect of each upon the service would be
+a maximum. By constant efforts the Civil Service Commission succeeded in
+having position after position withdrawn from this excepted class, until
+by the action of the president, on the 6th of May 1896, it was finally
+reduced almost to a minimum. By subsequent presidential action,
+however, on the 29th of May 1899, the excepted class was again greatly
+extended.[5]
+
+A further obstacle to the complete success of the merit system, and one
+which prevents the carrying forward of the reform to the extent to which
+it has been carried in Great Britain, is inherent in the Civil Service
+Act itself. All postmasters who receive compensation of $1000 or more
+per annum, and all collectors of customs and collectors of internal
+revenue, are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, and
+are therefore, by express provision of the act, not "required to be
+classified." The universal practice of treating these offices as
+political agencies instead of as administrative business offices is
+therefore not limited by the act. Such officers are active in political
+work throughout the country, and their official position adds greatly to
+their power to affect the political prospects of the leaders in their
+districts. Accordingly the Senate, from being, as originally intended,
+merely a confirming body as to these officers, has become in a large
+measure, actually if not formally, a nominating body, and holds with
+tenacity to the power thus acquired by the individual senators. Thorough
+civil service reform requires that these positions also, and all those
+of fourth-class postmasters (partly classified by order of 1st Dec.
+1908), be made subject to the merit system, for in them is the real
+remaining stronghold of the spoils system. Even though all their
+subordinates be appointed through examination, it will be impossible to
+carry the reform to ultimate and complete success so long as the
+officers in charge are appointed mainly for political reasons and are
+changed with every change of administration.
+
+The purpose of the act to protect the individual employees in the
+service from the rapacity of the "political barons" has been measurably,
+if not completely, successful. The power given the Civil Service
+Commission, to investigate and report upon violations of the law, has
+been used to bring to light such abuses as the levying of political
+contributions, and to set the machinery of the law in motion against
+them. While comparatively few actual prosecutions have been brought
+about, and although the penalties imposed by the act for this offence
+have been but seldom inflicted, still the publicity given to all such
+cases by the commission's investigations has had a wholesome deterrent
+effect. Before the passage of the act, positions were as a general rule
+held upon a well-understood lease-tenure, the political contributions
+for them being as securely and as certainly collected as any rent. Now,
+however, it can be said that these forced contributions have almost
+entirely disappeared. The efforts which are still made to collect
+political funds from government employees in evasion of the law are
+limited in the main to persuasion to make "voluntary" contributions, and
+it has been possible so to limit and obstruct these efforts that their
+practical effect upon the character of the service is now very small.
+
+
+  State examination.
+
+The same evils that the Federal Civil Service Act was designed to remedy
+exist to a large degree in many of the state governments, and are
+especially aggravated in the administration of the local governments of
+some of the larger cities. The chief, if not the only, test of fitness
+for office in many cases has been party loyalty, honesty and capacity
+being seldom more than secondary considerations. The result has been the
+fostering of dishonesty and extravagance, which have brought weakness
+and gross corruption into the administration of the local governments.
+In consequence of this there has been a constantly growing tendency,
+among the more intelligent class of citizens, to demand that honest
+business methods be applied to local public service, and that
+appointments be made on the basis of intelligence and capacity, rather
+than of party allegiance. The movement for the reform of the civil
+service of cities is going hand in hand with the movement for general
+municipal reform, those reformers regarding the merit system of
+appointments as not merely the necessary and only safe bulwark to
+preserve the results of their labours, but also as the most efficient
+means for bringing about other reforms. Hence civil service reform is
+given a leading position in all programmes for the reform of state and
+municipal governments. This has undoubtedly been due, in the first
+instance, at least, to the success which attended the application of the
+merit system to the Federal service, municipal and state legislation
+following in the wake of the national civil service law. In New York an
+act similar to the Federal Civil Service Act was passed on the 4th of
+May 1883, and in 1894 the principles of the merit system were introduced
+by an amendment into the state constitution, and made applicable to
+cities and villages as well. In Massachusetts an act was passed on the
+3rd of June 1884 which in its general features was based upon the
+Federal act and the New York act. Similar laws were passed in Illinois
+and Wisconsin in 1895, and in New Jersey in 1908; the laws provide for
+the adoption of the merit system in state and municipal government. In
+New Orleans, La., and in Seattle, Wash., the merit system was introduced
+by an amendment to the city charter in 1896. The same result was
+accomplished by New Haven, Conn., in 1897, and by San Francisco, Cal.,
+in 1899. In still other cities the principles of the merit system have
+been enacted into law, in some cases applying to the entire service and
+in others to only a part of it.
+
+The application of the merit system to state and municipal governments
+has proved successful wherever it has been given a fair trial.[6] As
+experience has fostered public confidence in the system, and at the same
+time shown those features of the law which are most vulnerable, and the
+best means for fortifying them, numerous and important improvements upon
+the pioneer act applying to the Federal service have been introduced in
+the more recent legislation. This is particularly true of the acts now
+in force in New York (passed in 1899) and in Chicago. The power of the
+commission to enforce these acts is materially greater than the power
+possessed by the Federal commission. In making investigations they are
+not confined to taking the testimony of voluntary witnesses, but may
+administer oaths, and compel testimony and the production of books and
+papers where necessary; and in taking action they are not confined to
+the making of a report of the findings in their investigations, but may
+themselves, in many cases, take final judicial action. Further than
+this, the payment of salaries is made dependent upon the certificate of
+the commission that the appointments of the recipients were made in
+accordance with the civil service law and rules. Thus these commissions
+have absolute power to prevent irregular or illegal appointments by
+refractory appointing officers. Their powers being so much greater than
+those of the national commission, their action can be much more drastic
+in most cases, and they can go more directly to the heart of an existing
+abuse, and apply more quickly and effectually the needed remedy.
+
+Upon the termination of the Spanish-American War, the necessity for the
+extension of the principles of the merit system to the new territories,
+the responsibility for whose government the results of this war had
+thrown upon the United States, was realized. By the acts providing for
+civil government in Porto Rico (April 12th, 1900) and Hawaii (April
+30th, 1900), the provisions of the Civil Service Act and Rules were
+applied to those islands. Under this legislation the classification
+applies to all positions which are analogous to positions in the Federal
+service, those which correspond to positions in the municipal and state
+governments being considered as local in character, and not included in
+the classification.
+
+On the 19th of September 1900 the United States Philippine Commission
+passed an act "for the establishment and maintenance of an efficient and
+honest civil service in the Philippine Islands." This act, in its
+general features, is based upon the national civil service law, but
+includes also a number of the stronger points to be found in the state
+and municipal law mentioned above. Among these are the power given the
+civil service board to administer oaths, summon witnesses, and require
+the production of official records; and the power to stop payment of
+salaries to persons illegally appointed. Promotions are determined by
+competitive examinations, and are made throughout the service, as there
+are no excepted positions. A just right of preference in local
+appointments is given to natives. The president of the Philippine
+commission in introducing this bill said: "The purpose of the United
+States government ... in these islands is to secure for the Filipino
+people as honest and as efficient a government as may be possible.... It
+is the hope of the commission to make it possible for one entering the
+lowest ranks to reach the highest, under a tenure based solely upon
+merit." Judging by past experience it is believed that this law is well
+adapted to accomplish the purpose above stated.
+
+  For fuller information upon the details of the present workings of the
+  merit system in the Federal service, recourse should be had to the
+  publications of the U.S. Civil Service Commission, which are to be
+  found in the public libraries in all the principal cities in the
+  United States, or which may be had free of charge upon application to
+  the commission. The _Manual of Examinations_, published semi-annually,
+  gives full information as to the character of the examinations held by
+  the commission, together with the schedule of dates and places for the
+  holding of those examinations. The _Annual Reports_ of the commission
+  contain full statistics of the results of its work, together with
+  comprehensive statements as to the difficulties encountered in
+  enforcing the law, and the means used to overcome them. In the
+  _Fifteenth Report_, pp. 443-485, will be found a very valuable
+  historical compilation from original sources, upon the "practice of
+  the presidents in appointments and removals in the executive civil
+  service, from 1789 to 1883." In the same report, pp. 511-517, is a
+  somewhat comprehensive bibliography of "civil service" in periodical
+  literature in the 19th century, brought down to the end of 1898. See
+  also C.R. Fish, _The Civil Service and the Patronage_ (New York,
+  1905).
+
+  In most European countries the civil service is recruited on much the
+  same lines as in the United Kingdom and the United States, that is,
+  either by examination or by nomination or by both. In some cases the
+  examination is purely competitive, in other cases, as in France,
+  holders of university degrees get special privileges, such as being
+  put at the head of the list, or going up a certain number of places;
+  or, as in Germany, many departmental posts are filled by nomination,
+  combined with the results of general examinations, either at school or
+  university. In the publications of the United States Department of
+  Labour and Commerce for 1904-1905 will be found brief details of the
+  systems adopted by the various foreign countries for appointing their
+  civil service employees.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See letter to Monroe, November 29th, 1820, Jefferson's
+    _Writings_, vii. 190. A quotation from this letter is given at p. 454
+    of the _Fifteenth Report of the U.S. Civil Service Commission_.
+
+  [2] See _Senate Report No. 576_, 47th Congress, 1st session; also
+    _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Third Report_, p. 16 et seq., _Tenth
+    Report_, pp. 136, 137, and _Fifteenth Report_, pp. 483, 484.
+
+  [3] The progressive classification of the executive civil service,
+    showing the growth of the merit system, is discussed, with
+    statistics, in the _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Sixteenth
+    Report_, pp. 129-137. A revision of this discussion, with important
+    additions, appears in the _Seventeenth Report_.
+
+  [4] For details justifying these statements, see _U.S. Civil Service
+    Commission's Fourteenth Report_, pp. 12-14.
+
+  [5] For the scope of these exceptions, see Civil Service Rule VI., at
+    p. 57 of the _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth and Sixteenth
+    Reports_. A statement of the number of positions actually affected by
+    this action of the president appears in the _Seventeenth Report_.
+
+  [6] In the _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth Report_, pp.
+    489-502, the "growth of the civil service reform in states and
+    cities" is historically treated, briefly, but with some thoroughness.
+
+
+
+
+CIVITA CASTELLANA (anc. _Falerii_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of
+the province of Rome, 45 m. by rail from the city of Rome (the station
+is 5 m. N.E. of the town). Population (1901) 5265. The cathedral of S.
+Maria possesses a fine portico, erected in 1210 by Laurentius Romanus,
+his son Jacobus and his grandson Cosmas, in the cosmatesque style, with
+ancient columns and mosaic decorations: the interior was modernized in
+the 18th century, but has some fragments of cosmatesque ornamentation.
+The citadel was erected by Pope Alexander VI. from the designs of
+Antonio da Sangallo the elder, and enlarged by Julius II. and Leo X. The
+lofty bridge by which the town is approached belongs to the 18th
+century. Mount Soracte lies about 6 m. to the south-east.
+
+
+
+
+CIVITA VECCHIA, a seaport town and episcopal see of Italy, in the
+province of Rome, 50 m. N.W. by rail and 35 m. direct from the city of
+Rome. Pop. (1871) 8143; (1901) 17,589. It is the ancient _Centum
+Cellae_, founded by Trajan. Interesting descriptions of it are given by
+Pliny the Younger (_Epist._ vi. 31) and Rutilius Namat. i. 237. The
+modern harbour works rest on the ancient foundations, and near it the
+cemetery of detachments of the _Classes Misenensis_ and _Ravennas_ has
+been found (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vol. xi., Berlin, 1888, pp. 3520 seq.).
+Remains of an aqueduct and other Roman buildings are preserved; the
+imperial family had a villa here. Procopius mentions it in the 6th
+century as a strong and populous place, but it was destroyed in 813 by
+the Saracens. Leo IV. erected a new city for the inhabitants on the site
+where they had taken refuge, about 8 m. N.N.E. of Civita Vecchia towards
+the hills, near La Farnesina, where its ruins may still be seen; the
+city walls and some of the streets and buildings may be traced, and an
+inscription (which must have stood over one of the city gates)
+recording its foundation has been discovered. It continued to exist
+under the name Cencelle as a feudal castle until the 15th century. In
+the meantime, however, the inhabitants returned to the old town by the
+shore in 889 and rebuilt it, giving it the name Civitas Vetus, the
+modern Civita Vecchia (see O. Marucchi in _Nuovo Bullettino di
+archeologia cristiana_, vi., 1900, p. 195 seq.). In 1508 Pope Julius II.
+began the construction of the castle from the designs of Bramante,
+Michelangelo being responsible for the addition of the central tower. It
+is considered by Burckhardt the finest building of its kind. Pius IV.
+added a convict prison. The arsenal was built by Alexander VII. and
+designed by Bernini. Civita Vecchia was the chief port of the Papal
+State and has still a considerable trade. There are cement factories in
+the town, and calcium carbide is an important article of export. The
+principal imports are coal, cattle for the home markets, and fire-bricks
+from the United Kingdom. Three miles N.E. were the _Aquae Tauri_, warm
+springs, now known as _Bagni della Ferrata_: considerable remains of the
+Roman baths are still preserved. About 1 m. W. of these are other hot
+springs, those of the _Ficoncella_, also known in Roman times.
+
+
+
+
+CLACKMANNAN, the county town of Clackmannanshire, Scotland. Pop. 1505.
+It lies near the north bank of the Forth, 2 m. E. of Alloa, with two
+stations on the North British railway. Among the public buildings are
+the parish church, the tower of which, standing on a commanding
+eminence, is a conspicuous landmark. Clackmannan Tower is now a
+picturesque ruin, but at one time played an important part in Scottish
+history, and was the seat of a lineal descendant of the Bruce family
+after the failure of the male line. The old market cross still exists,
+and close to it stands the stone that gives the town its name (Gaelic,
+_clach_, stone; Manann, the name of the district). A large spinning-mill
+and coalpits lend a modern touch in singular contrast with the quaint,
+old-world aspect of the place. About 1 m. to the S.E. is Kennet House,
+the seat of Lord Balfour of Burleigh, another member of the Bruce
+family.
+
+
+
+
+CLACKMANNANSHIRE, the smallest county in Scotland, bounded S.W. by the
+Forth, W. by Stirlingshire, N.N.E. and N.W. by Perthshire, and E. by
+Fifeshire. It has an area of 35,160 acres, or about 55 sq. m. An
+elevated ridge starting on the west, runs through the middle of the
+county, widening gradually till it reaches the eastern boundary, and
+skirting the alluvial or carse lands in the valleys of the Forth and
+Devon. Still farther to the N. the Ochil hills form a picturesque
+feature in the landscape, having their generally verdant surface broken
+by bold projecting rocks and deeply indented ravines. The principal
+summits are within the limits of the shire, among them Ben Cleuch (2363
+ft.), King's Seat (2111 ft.), Whitewisp (2110 ft.), the Law (above
+Tillicoultry, 2094 ft.) and Blairdenon (2072 ft.), on the northern
+slope, in which the river Devon takes its rise. The rivers of importance
+are the Devon and the Black or South Devon. The former, noted in the
+upper parts for its romantic scenery and its excellent trout-fishing,
+runs through the county near the base of the Ochils, and falls into the
+Forth at the village of Cambus, after a winding course of 33 m.,
+although as the crow flies its source is only 5 1/4 m. distant. The
+Black Devon, rising in the Cleish Hills, flows westwards in a direction
+nearly parallel to that of the Devon, and falls into the Forth near
+Clackmannan. It supplies motive power to numbers of mills and
+collieries; and its whole course is over coal strata. The Forth is
+navigable as far as it forms the boundary of the county, and ships of
+500 tons burden run up as far as Alloa. The only lake is Gartmorn, 1 m.
+long by about 1/3 of a mile broad, which has been dammed in order to
+furnish water to Alloa and power to mills. The Ochils are noted for the
+number of their glens. Though these are mostly small, they are well
+wooded and picturesque, and those at Menstrie, Alva, Tillicoultry and
+Dollar are particularly beautiful.
+
+  _Geology._--This county is divided geologically into two areas, the
+  boundary line skirting the southern margin of the Ochils and running
+  westwards from a point north of Dollar by Alva in the direction of
+  Airthrev in Stirlingshire. The northern portion forms part of the
+  volcanic range of the Ochils which belongs to the Old Red Sandstone
+  period, and consists of a great succession of lavas--basalts and
+  andesites--with intercalations of tuff and agglomerate. As the rocks
+  dip gently towards the north and form the highest ground in the county
+  they must reach a great thickness. They are pierced by small intrusive
+  masses of diorite, north of Tillicoultry House. The well-marked
+  feature running E. and W. along the southern base of the Ochils
+  indicates a line of fault or dislocation which abruptly truncates the
+  Lower Old Red volcanic rocks and brings down an important development
+  of Carboniferous strata occupying the southern part of the county.
+  These belong mainly to the Coal-measures and comprise a number of
+  valuable coal-seams which have been extensively worked. The
+  Clackmannan field is the northern continuation of the great
+  Lanarkshire basin which extends northwards by Slamannan, Falkirk and
+  the Carron Ironworks to Alloa. Along the eastern margin between
+  Cairnmuir and Brucefield the underlying Millstone Grit, consisting
+  mainly of false-bedded sandstones, comes to the surface. Close to the
+  river Devon south of Dollar the Vicars Bridge Limestone, which there
+  marks the top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, rises from
+  beneath the Millstone Grit. The structure of the Clackmannan field is
+  interesting. The strata are arranged in synclinal form, the highest
+  seams being found near the Devon ironworks, and they are traversed by
+  a series of parallel east and west faults each with a downthrow to the
+  south, whereby the coals are repeated and the field extended. During
+  mining operations evidence has been obtained of the existence of a
+  buried river-channel, filled with boulder clay and stratified deposits
+  along the course of the Devon, which extends below the present
+  sea-level and points to greater elevation of the land in pre-glacial
+  time. An excellent example of a dolerite dyke trending slightly north
+  of west occurs in the north part of the county where it traverses the
+  volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sandstone age.
+
+_Industries._--The soil is generally productive and well cultivated,
+though the greater part of the elevated range which is interposed
+between the carse lands on the Forth and the vale of Devon at the base
+of the Ochils on the north consists of inferior soils, often lying upon
+an impervious clay. Oats are the chief crop, but wheat and barley are
+profitably grown. Sheep-farming is successfully pursued, the Ochils
+affording excellent pasturage, and cattle, pigs and horses are also
+raised. There is a small tract of moorland in the east, called the
+Forest, bounded on its northern margin by the Black Devon. Iron-ore
+(haematite), copper, silver, lead, cobalt and arsenic have all been
+discovered in small quantity in the Ochils, between Alva and Dollar.
+Ironstone--found either in beds, or in oblate balls embedded in slaty
+clay, and yielded from 25 to 30% of iron--is mined for the Devon
+iron-works, near Clackmannan. Coal has been mined for a long period. The
+strata which compose the field are varieties of sandstone, shale,
+fire-clay and argillaceous ironstone. There is a heavy continuous output
+of coal at the mines at Sauchie, Fishcross, Coalsnaughton, Devonside,
+Clackmannan and other pits. The spinning-mills at Alloa, Tillicoultry
+and Alva are always busy, Alloa yarns and fingering being widely famous.
+The distilleries at Glenochil and Carsebridge and the breweries in Alloa
+and Cambus do a large export business. The minor trades include
+glass-blowing, pottery, coopering, tanning, iron-founding, electrical
+apparatus making, ship-building and paper-making.
+
+The north British railway serves the whole county, while the Caledonian
+has access to Alloa.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population was 33,140 in 1891 and
+32,029 in 1901, when 170 persons spoke Gaelic and English and one person
+Gaelic only. The county unites with Kinross-shire in returning one
+member to parliament. Clackmannan (pop. 1505) is the county town, but
+Alloa (14,458), Alva (4624), and Tillicoultry (3338) take precedence in
+population and trade. Menstrie (pop. 898) near Alloa has a large
+furniture factory and the great distillery of Glenochil. To the
+north-east of Alloa is the thriving mining village of Sauchie.
+Clackmannan forms a sheriffdom with Stirling and Dumbarton shires, and a
+sheriff-substitute sits at Alloa. Most of the schools in the shire are
+under school-board control, but there are a few voluntary schools,
+besides an exceptionally well-equipped technical school in Alloa and a
+well-known academy at Dollar.
+
+  See James Wallace, _The Sheriffdom of Clackmannan: a Sketch of its
+  History_ (Edinburgh, 1890); D. Beveridge, _Between the Ochils and the
+  Forth_ (Edinburgh, 1888); John Crawford, _Memorials of Alloa_ (1885);
+  William Gibson, _Reminiscences of Dollar, Tillicoultry_,
+
+
+
+
+CLACTON-ON-SEA, a watering-place in the Harwich parliamentary division
+of Essex, England; 71 m. E.N.E. from London by a branch from Colchester
+of the Great Eastern railway; served also by steamers from London in the
+summer months. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7456. Clay cliffs of slight
+altitude rise from the sandy beach and face south-eastward. In the
+neighbourhood, however, marshes fringe the shore. The church of Great
+Clacton, at the village 1½ m. inland, is Norman and later, and of
+considerable interest. Clacton is provided with a pier, promenade and
+marine parade; and is the seat of various convalescent and other homes.
+
+
+
+
+CLADEL, LÉON (1835-1892), French novelist, was born at Montauban
+(Tarn-et-Garonne) on the 13th of March 1835. The son of an artisan, he
+studied law at Toulouse and became a solicitor's clerk in Paris. He made
+a reputation in a limited circle by his first book, _Les Martyrs
+ridicules_ (1862), a novel for which Charles Baudelaire, whose literary
+disciple Cladel was, wrote a preface. He then returned to his native
+district of Quercy, where he produced a series of pictures of peasant
+life in _Eral le dompteur_ (1865), _Le Nommé Qouael_ (1868) and other
+volumes. Returning to Paris he published the two novels which are
+generally acknowledged as his best work, _Le Bouscassié_ (1869) and _La
+Fête votive de Saint Bartholomée Porte-glaive_ (1872). _Une Maudite_
+(1876) was judged dangerous to the public morals and cost its author a
+month's imprisonment. Other works by Cladel are _Les Va-nu-pieds_
+(1873), a volume of short stories; _N'a qu'un oeil_ (1882), _Urbains
+et ruraux_ (1884), _Gueux de marque_ (1887), and the posthumous _Juive
+errante_ (1897). He died at Sèvres on the 20th of July 1892.
+
+  See _La Vie de Léon Cladel_ (Paris, 1905), by his daughter Judith
+  Cladel, containing also an article on Cladel by Edmond Picard, a
+  complete list of his works, and of the critical articles on his work.
+
+
+
+
+CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM (1811-1885), American merchant, was born in
+Milford, Massachusetts, on the 18th of December 1811. He was educated at
+Milford Academy, became a clerk in his father's store in Milford, and in
+1831, with his brother Aaron and his brother-in-law Samuel Daniels,
+succeeded to his father's business. In 1832 the firm opened a branch
+store in Worcester, Mass., and in 1833 Horace B. Claflin and Daniels
+secured the sole control of this establishment and restricted their
+dealing to dry goods. In 1843 Claflin removed to New York City and
+became a member of the firm of Bulkley & Claflin, wholesale dry goods
+merchants. In 1851 and in 1864 the firm was reorganized, being
+designated in these respective years as Claflin, Mellin & Company and
+H.B. Claflin & Company. Under Claflin's management the business
+increased so rapidly that the sales for a time after 1865 probably
+exceeded those of any other mercantile house in the world. Though the
+firm was temporarily embarrassed at the beginning of the Civil War, on
+account of its large business interests in the South, and during the
+financial panic of 1873, the promptness with which Mr Claflin met these
+crises and paid every dollar of his liabilities greatly increased his
+reputation for business ability and integrity. He died at Fordham, New
+York, on the 14th of November 1885.
+
+
+
+
+CLAIRAULT (or CLAIRAUT), ALEXIS CLAUDE (1713-1765), French
+mathematician, was born on the 13th or 7th of May 1713, at Paris, where
+his father was a teacher of mathematics. Under his father's tuition he
+made such rapid progress in mathematical studies that in his thirteenth
+year he read before the French Academy an account of the properties of
+four curves which he had then discovered. When only sixteen he finished
+a treatise, _Recherches sur les courbes à double courbure_, which, on
+its publication in 1731, procured his admission into the Academy of
+Sciences, although even then he was below the legal age. In 1736,
+together with Pierre Louis Maupertuis, he took part in the expedition to
+Lapland, which was undertaken for the purpose of estimating a degree of
+the meridian, and on his return he published his treatise _Théorie de la
+figure de la terre_ (1743). In this work he promulgated the theorem,
+known as "Clairault's theorem," which connects the gravity at points on
+the surface of a rotating ellipsoid with the compression and the
+centrifugal force at the equator (see EARTH, FIGURE OF THE). He obtained
+an ingenious approximate solution of the problem of the three bodies;
+in 1750 he gained the prize of the St Petersburg Academy for his essay
+_Théorie de la lune_; and in 1759 he calculated the perihelion of
+Halley's comet. He also detected singular solutions in differential
+equations of the first order, and of the second and higher degrees.
+Clairault died at Paris, on the 17th of May 1765.
+
+
+
+
+CLAIRON, LA (1723-1803), French actress, whose real name was CLAIRE
+JOSEPH HIPPOLYTE LERIS, was born at Condé sur l'Escaut, Hainaut, on the
+25th of January 1723, the natural daughter of any army sergeant. In 1736
+she made her first stage appearance at the Comédie Italienne, in a small
+part in Marivaux's _Île des esclaves_. After several years in the
+provinces she returned to Paris. Her life, meanwhile, had been decidedly
+irregular, even if not to the degree indicated by the libellous pamphlet
+_Histoire de la demoiselle Cronel, dite Frétillon, actrice de la Comédie
+de Rouen, écrite par elle-même_ (The Hague, 1746), or to be inferred
+from the disingenuousness of her own _Mémoires d'Hippolyte Clairon_
+(1798); and she had great difficulty in obtaining an order to make her
+_début_ at the Comédie Française. Succeeding, however, at last, she had
+the courage to select the title-rôle of _Phèdre_ (1743), and she
+obtained a veritable triumph. During her twenty-two years at this
+theatre, dividing the honours with her rival Mlle Dumesnil, she filled
+many of the classical rôles of tragedy, and created a great number of
+parts in the plays of Voltaire, Marmontel, Saurin, de Belloy and others.
+She retired in 1766, and trained pupils for the stage, among them Mlle
+Raucourt. Goldsmith called Mlle Clairon "the most perfect female figure
+I have ever seen on any stage" (_The Bee_, 2nd No.); and Garrick, while
+recognizing her unwillingness or inability to make use of the
+inspiration of the instant, admitted that "she has everything that art
+and a good understanding with great natural spirit can give her."
+
+
+
+
+CLAIRVAUX, a village of north-eastern France, in the department of Aube,
+40 m. E.S.E. of Troyes on the Eastern railway to Belfort. Clairvaux
+(_Clara Vallis_) is situated in the valley of the Aube on the eastern
+border of the Forest of Clairvaux. Its celebrity is due to the abbey
+founded in 1115 by St Bernard, which became the centre of the Cistercian
+order. The buildings (see ABBEY) belong for the most part to the 18th
+century, but there is a large storehouse which dates from the 12th
+century. The abbey, suppressed at the Revolution, now serves as a
+prison, containing on an average 800 inmates, who are employed in
+agricultural and industrial occupations. Clairvaux has iron-works of
+some importance.
+
+
+
+
+CLAIRVOYANCE (Fr. for "clear-seeing"), a technical term in psychical
+research, properly equivalent to lucidity, a supernormal power of
+obtaining knowledge in which no part is played by (_a_) the ordinary
+processes of sense-perception or (_b_) supernormal communication with
+other intelligences, incarnate, or discarnate. The word is also used,
+sometimes qualified by the word _telepathic_, to mean the power of
+gaining supernormal knowledge from the mind of another (see TELEPATHY).
+It is further commonly used by spiritualists to mean the power of seeing
+spirit forms, or, more vaguely, of discovering facts by some supernormal
+means.
+
+_Lucidity._--Few experiments have been made to test the existence of
+this faculty. If communications from discarnate minds are regarded as
+possible, there are no means of distinguishing facts obtained in this
+way from facts obtained by independent clairvoyance. In practice no
+evidence has been obtained pointing to the possession by a discarnate
+spirit of knowledge not possessed by any living person (see MEDIUM). As
+explanation of the few successful experiments in independent
+clairvoyance we have the choice of three explanations: (1) lucidity; (2)
+telepathy from living persons; (3) hyperaesthesia. The second
+possibility was overlooked in Richet's diagram experiments; it cannot be
+assumed that a picture put into an envelope and not consciously recalled
+has been in reality forgotten. Similarly the clairvoyant diagnosis of
+diseases may depend on knowledge gained telepathically from the patient,
+who may be subliminally aware of diseased states of the body. The most
+elaborate experiments are by Prof. Richet with a hypnotized subject who
+succeeded in naming twelve cards out of sixty-eight. But no precautions
+were taken against hyperaesthesia further than enclosing the card in a
+second envelope. There is a power possessed by a certain number of
+people, of naming a card drawn by them or held in the hand face
+downwards, so that there is no normal knowledge of its suit and number.
+Few thorough trials have been made; but it seems to point to some kind
+of hyperaesthesia rather than to clairvoyance; in the Richet experiments
+even if the envelopes excluded hyperaesthesia of touch on the part of
+the medium, there may have been subliminal knowledge on Prof. Richet's
+part of the card which he put in the envelope. The experience known as
+the _déjà vu_ has sometimes been explained as due to clairvoyance.
+
+_Telepathic Clairvoyance._--For a discussion of this see TELEPATHY and
+CRYSTAL-GAZING. It may be noted here that some curious relation seems to
+exist between apparently telepathic acquisition of knowledge and the
+arrival of a letter, newspaper, &c, from which the same knowledge could
+be directly gained. We are confronted with a similar problem in
+attempting an explanation of the power of mediums to state correctly
+facts relating to objects placed in their hands. Of a somewhat different
+character is retrocognition (_q.v._), where the knowledge in many cases,
+if telepathic, must be derived from a discarnate mind.
+
+Clairvoyance, as a term of spiritualism, with its correlative
+_clairaudience_, is the name given to the power of seeing and hearing
+discarnate spirits of dead relatives and others, with whom the living
+are said to be surrounded. More vaguely it includes the power of gaining
+knowledge, either through the spirit world or by means of psychometry
+(i.e. the supernormal acquisition of knowledge about owners of objects,
+writers of letters, &c). Some evidence for these latter powers has been
+accumulated by the Society for Psychical Research, but in many cases the
+piecing together of normally acquired knowledge, together with shrewd
+guessing, suffices to explain the facts, especially where the
+investigator has had no special training for his task.
+
+  See Richet, _Experimentelle Studien_ (1891); also in _Proc. S.P.R._
+  vi. 66. For a criticism see N.W. Thomas, _Thought Transference_, pp.
+  44-48. For Clairvoyance in general see F.W.H. Myers, _Human
+  Personality_, and in _Proc. S.P.R._ xi. 334 et seq. For a criticism of
+  the evidence see Mrs Sidgwick in _Proc. S.P.R._ vii. 30, 356.
+     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAMECY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Nièvre, at the confluence of the Yonne and Beuvron and on
+the Canal du Nivernais, 46 m. N.N.E. of Nevers on the Paris-Lyon
+railway. Pop. (1906) 4455. Its principal building is the church of St
+Martin, which dates chiefly from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The
+tower and façade are of the 16th century. The chevet, which is
+surrounded by an aisle, is rectangular--a feature found in few French
+churches. Of the old castle of the counts of Nevers, vaulted cellars
+alone remain. A church in the suburb of Bethlehem, dating from the 12th
+and 13th centuries, now serves as part of an hotel. The public
+institutions include the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and
+of commerce and a communal college. Among the industrial establishments
+are saw-mills, fulling-mills and flour-mills, tanneries and
+manufactories of boots and shoes and chemicals; and there is
+considerable trade in wine and cattle and in wood and charcoal, which is
+conveyed principally to Paris, by way of the Yonne.
+
+In the early middle ages Clamecy belonged to the abbey of St Julian at
+Auxerre; in the 11th century it passed to the counts of Nevers, one of
+whom, Hervé, enfranchised the inhabitants in 1213. After the capture of
+Jerusalem by Saladin in 1188, Clamecy became the seat of the bishops of
+Bethlehem, who till the Revolution resided in the hospital of Panthenor,
+bequeathed by William IV., count of Nevers. On the _coup d'état_ of 1851
+an insurrection broke out in the town, and was repressed by the new
+authorities with great severity.
+
+
+
+
+CLAN (Gaelic _clann_, O. Ir. _cland_, connected with Lat. _planta_,
+shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p), a
+group of people united by common blood, and usually settled in a common
+habitat. The clan system existed in Ireland and the Highlands of
+Scotland from early times. In its strictest sense the system was
+peculiar to those countries, but, in its wider meaning of a group of
+kinsmen forming a self-governing community, the system as represented by
+the village community has been shown by Sir H. Maine and others to have
+existed at one time or another in all lands.
+
+Before the use of surnames and elaborate written genealogies, a tribe in
+its definite sense was called in Celtic a _tuath_, a word of wide
+affinities, from a root _tu_, to grow, to multiply, existing in all
+European languages. When the tribal system began to be broken up by
+conquest and by the rise of towns and of territorial government, the use
+of a common surname furnished a new bond for keeping up a connexion
+between kindred. The head of a tribe or smaller group of kindred
+selected some ancestor and called himself his _Ua_, grandson, or as it
+has been anglicized _O', e.g. Ua Conchobair_ (O' Conor), _Ua
+Suilleabhain_ (O'Sullivan). All his kindred adopted the same name, the
+chief using no fore-name however. The usual mode of distinguishing a
+person before the introduction of surnames was to name his father and
+grandfather, e.g. Owen, son of Donal, son of Dermot. This naturally
+led some to form their surnames with _Mac_, son, instead of _Ua_,
+grandson, e.g. _MacCarthaigh_, son of _Carthach_ (MacCarthy),
+_MacRuaidhri_, son of Rory (Macrory). Both methods have been followed in
+Ireland, but in Scotland _Mac_ came to be exclusively used. The adoption
+of such genealogical surnames fostered the notion that all who bore the
+same surname were kinsmen, and hence the genealogical term _clann_,
+which properly means the descendants of some progenitor, gradually
+became synonymous with _tuath_, tribe. Like all purely genealogical
+terms, _clann_ may be used in the limited sense of a particular tribe
+governed by a chief, or in that of many tribes claiming descent from a
+common ancestor. In the latter sense it was synonymous with _síl, siol_,
+seed e.g. _Siol Alpine_, a great clan which included the smaller clans
+of the Macgregors, Grants, Mackinnons, Macnabs, Macphies, Macquarries
+and Macaulays.
+
+The clan system in the most archaic form of which we have any definite
+information can be best studied in the Irish _tuath_, or tribe.[1] This
+consisted of two classes: (1) tribesmen, and (2) a miscellaneous class
+of slaves, criminals, strangers and their descendants. The first class
+included tribesmen by blood in the male line, including all illegitimate
+children acknowledged by their fathers, and tribesmen by adoption or
+sons of tribeswomen by strangers, foster-sons, men who had done some
+signal service to the tribe, and lastly the descendants of the second
+class after a certain number of generations. Each _tuath_ had a chief
+called a _ríg_, king, a word cognate with the Gaulish _ríg-s_ or _rix_,
+the Latin _reg-s_ or _rex_, and the Old Norse _rik-ir_. The tribesmen
+formed a number of communities, each of which, like the tribe itself,
+consisted of a head, _ceann fine_, his kinsmen, slaves and other
+retainers. This was the _fine_, or sept. Each of these occupied a
+certain part of the tribe-land, the arable part being cultivated under a
+system of co-tillage, the pasture land co-grazed according to certain
+customs, and the wood, bog and mountains forming the marchland of the
+sept being the unrestricted common land of the sept. The sept was in
+fact a village community.
+
+What the sept was to the tribe, the homestead was to the sept. The head
+of a homestead was an _aire_, a representative freeman capable of acting
+as a witness, compurgator and bail. These were very important functions,
+especially when it is borne in mind that the tribal homestead was the
+home of many of the kinsfolk of the head of the family as well as of his
+own children. The descent of property being according to a gavel-kind
+custom, it constantly happened that when an _aire_ died the share of his
+property which each member of his immediate family was entitled to
+receive was not sufficient to qualify him to be an _aire_. In this case
+the family did not divide the inheritance, but remained together as "a
+joint and undivided family," one of the members being elected chief of
+the family or household, and in this capacity enjoyed the rights and
+privileges of an _aire_. Sir H.S. Maine directed attention to this kind
+of family as an important feature of the early institutions of all
+Indo-European nations. Beside the "joint and undivided family," there
+was another kind of family which we might call "the joint family." This
+was a partnership composed of three or four members of a sept whose
+individual wealth was not sufficient to qualify each of them to be an
+_aire_, but whose joint wealth qualified one of the co-partners as head
+of the joint family to be one.
+
+So long as there was abundance of land each family grazed its cattle
+upon the tribe-land without restriction; unequal increase of wealth and
+growth of population naturally led to its limitation, each head of a
+homestead being entitled to graze an amount of stock in proportion to
+his wealth, the size of his homestead, and his acquired position. The
+arable land was no doubt applotted annually at first; gradually,
+however, some of the richer families of the tribe succeeded in evading
+this exchange of allotments and converting part of the common land into
+an estate in sevralty. Septs were at first colonies of the tribe which
+settled on the march-land; afterwards the conversion of part of the
+common land into an estate in sevralty enabled the family that acquired
+it to become the parent of a new sept. The same process might, however,
+take place within a sept without dividing it; in other words, several
+members of the sept might hold part of the land of the sept as separate
+estate. The possession of land in sevralty introduced an important
+distinction into the tribal system--it created an aristocracy. An _aire_
+whose family held the same land for three generations was called a
+_flaith_, or lord, of which rank there were several grades according to
+their wealth in land and chattels. The _aires_ whose wealth consisted in
+cattle only were called _bó-aires_, or cow-_aires_, of whom there were
+also several grades, depending on their wealth in stock. When a
+_bó-aire_ had twice the wealth of the lowest class of _flaith_ he might
+enclose part of the land adjoining his house as a lawn; this was the
+first step towards his becoming a _flaith_. The relations which
+subsisted between the _flaiths_ and the _bó-aires_ formed the most
+curious part of the Celtic tribal system, and throw a flood of light on
+the origin of the feudal system. Every tribesman without exception owed
+_ceilsinne_ to the _ríg_, or chief, that is, he was bound to become his
+_ceile_, or vassal. This consisted in paying the _ríg_ a tribute in
+kind, for which the _ceile_ was entitled to receive a proportionate
+amount of stock without having to give any bond for their return, giving
+him service, e.g. in building his _dun_, or stronghold, reaping his
+harvest, keeping his roads clean and in repair, killing wolves, and
+especially service in the field, and doing him homage three times while
+seated every time he made his return of tribute. Paying the "_calpe_" to
+the Highland chiefs represented this kind of vassalage, a _colpdach_ or
+heifer being in many cases the amount of food-rent paid by a free or
+_saer ceile_. A tribesman might, however, if he pleased, pay a higher
+rent on receiving more stock together with certain other chattels for
+which no rent was chargeable. In this case he entered into a contract,
+and was therefore a bond or _daer ceile_. No one need have accepted
+stock on these terms, nor could he do so without the consent of his
+sept, and he might free himself at any time from his obligation by
+returning what he had received, and the rent due thereon.
+
+What every one was bound to do to his _ríg_, or chief, he might do
+voluntarily to the _flaith_ of his sept, to any _flaith_ of the tribe,
+or even to one of another tribe. He might also become a bond _ceile_. In
+either case he might renounce his ceileship by returning a greater or
+lesser amount of stock than what he had received according to the
+circumstances under which he terminated his vassalage. In cases of
+disputed succession to the chiefship of a tribe the rival claimants were
+always anxious to get as many as possible to become their vassals. Hence
+the anxiety of minor chieftains, in later times in the Highlands of
+Scotland, to induce the clansmen to pay the "_calpe_" where there
+happened to be a doubt as to who was entitled to be chief.
+
+The effect of the custom of gavel-kind was to equalize the wealth of
+each and leave no one wealthy enough to be chief. The "joint and
+undivided family" and the formation of "joint families," or gilds, was
+one way of obviating this result; another way was the custom of
+tanistry. The headship of the tribe was practically confined to the
+members of one family; this was also the case with the headship of a
+sept. Sometimes a son succeeded his father, but the rule was that the
+eldest and most capable member of the _geilfine_, that is, the relatives
+of the actual chief to the fifth degree,[2] was selected during his
+lifetime to be his successor--generally the eldest surviving brother or
+son of the preceding chief. The man selected as successor to a chief of
+a tribe, or chieftain of a sept, was called the tanist, and should be
+"the most experienced, the most noble, the most wealthy, the wisest, the
+most learned, the most truly popular, the most powerful to oppose, the
+most steadfast to sue for profits and (be sued) for losses." In addition
+to these qualities he should be free from personal blemishes and
+deformities and of fit age to lead his tribe or sept, as the case may
+be, to battle.[3] So far as selecting the man of the _geilfine_ who was
+supposed to possess all those qualities, the office of chief of a tribe
+or chieftain of a sept was elective, but as the _geilfine_ was
+represented by four persons, together with the chief or chieftain, the
+election was practically confined to one of the four. In order to
+support the dignity of the chief or chieftain a certain portion of the
+tribe or sept land was attached as an apanage to the office; this land,
+with the _duns_ or fortified residences upon it, went to the successor,
+but a chief's own property might be gavelled. This custom of tanistry
+applied at first probably to the selection of the successors of a _ríg_,
+but was gradually so extended that even a _bó-aire_ had a tanist.
+
+A sept might have only one _flaith_, or lord, connected with it, or
+might have several. It sometimes happened, however, that a sept might be
+so broken and reduced as not to have even one man qualified to rank as a
+_flaith_. The rank of a _flaith_ depended upon the number of his
+_ceiles_, that is, upon his wealth. The _flaith_ of a sept, and the
+highest when there was more than one, was _ceann fine_, or head of the
+sept, or as he was usually called in Scotland, the chieftain. He was
+also called the _flaith geilfine_, or head of the _geilfine_, that is,
+the kinsmen to the fifth degree from among whom should be chosen the
+tanist, and who, according to the custom of gavel-kind, were the
+immediate heirs who received the personal property and were answerable
+for the liabilities of the sept. The _flaiths_ of the different septs
+were the vassals of the _ríg_, or chief of the tribe, and performed
+certain functions which were no doubt at first individual, but in time
+became the hereditary right of the sept. One of those was the office of
+_maer_, or steward of the chief's rents, &c.;[4] and another that of
+_aire tuisi_, leading _aire_, or _taoisech_, a word cognate with the
+Latin _duc-s_ or _dux_, and Anglo-Saxon here-_tog_, leader of the
+"here," or army. The _taoisech_ was leader of the tribe in battle; in
+later times the term seems to have been extended to several offices of
+rank. The cadet of a Highland clan was always called the _taoisech_,
+which has been translated captain; after the conquest of Wales the same
+term, _tywysaug_, was used for a ruling prince. Slavery was very common
+in Ireland and Scotland; in the former slaves constituted a common
+element in the stipends or gifts which the higher kings gave their
+vassal _sub-reguli_. Female slaves, who were employed in the houses of
+chiefs and _flaiths_ in grinding meal with the hand-mill or quern, and
+in other domestic work, must have been very common, for the unit or
+standard for estimating the wealth of a _bó-aire_, blood-fines, &c., was
+called a _cumhal_, the value of which was three cows, but which
+literally meant a female slave. The descendants of those slaves,
+prisoners of war, forfeited hostages, refugees from other tribes, broken
+tribesmen, &c., gathered round the residence of the _ríg_ and _flaiths_,
+or squatted upon their march-lands, forming a motley band of retainers
+which made a considerable element in the population, and one of the
+chief sources of the wealth of chiefs and _flaiths_. The other principal
+source of their income was the food-rent paid by _ceiles_, and
+especially by the _daer_ or bond _ceiles_, who were hence called
+_biathachs_, from _biad_, food. A _flaith_, but not a _ríg_, might, if
+he liked, go to the house of his _ceile_ and consume his food-rent in
+the house of the latter.
+
+Under the influence of feudal ideas and the growth of the modern views
+as to ownership of land, the chiefs and other lords of clans claimed in
+modern times the right of best owing the tribe-land as _turcrec_,
+instead of stock, and receiving rent not for cattle and other chattels
+as in former times, but proportionate to the extent of land given to
+them. The _turcrec_-land seems to have been at first given upon the same
+terms as _turcrec_-stock, but gradually a system of short leases grew
+up; sometimes, too, it was given on mortgage. In the Highlands of
+Scotland _ceiles_ who received _turcrec_-land were called "taksmen." On
+the death of the chief or lord, his successor either bestowed the land
+upon the same person or gave it to some other relative. In this way in
+each generation new families came into possession of land, and others
+sank into the mass of mere tribesmen. Sometimes a "taksman" succeeded in
+acquiring his land in perpetuity, by gift, marriage or purchase, or even
+by the "strong hand." The universal prevalence of exchangeable
+allotments, or the rundale system, shows that down to even comparatively
+modern times some of the land was still recognized as the property of
+the tribe, and was cultivated in village communities.
+
+The chief governed the clan by the aid of a council called the _sabaid_
+(_sab_, a prop), but the chief exercised much power, especially over the
+miscellaneous body of non-tribesmen who lived on his own estate. This
+power seems to have extended to life and death. Several of the
+_flaiths_, perhaps, all heads of septs, also possessed somewhat
+extensive powers of the same kind.
+
+The Celtic dress, at least in the middle ages, consisted of a kind of
+shirt reaching to a little below the knees called a _lenn_, a jacket
+called an _inar_, and a garment called a _brat_, consisting of a single
+piece of cloth. This was apparently the garb of the _aires_, who appear
+to have been further distinguished by the number of colours in their
+dress, for we are told that while a slave had clothes of one colour, a
+_rég tuatha_, or chief of a tribe, had five, and an _ollamh_ and a
+superior king six. The breeches was also known, and cloaks with a cowl
+or hood, which buttoned up tight in front. The _lenn_ is the modern
+kilt, and the _brat_ the plaid, so that the dress of the Irish and Welsh
+in former times was the same as that of the Scottish Highlander.
+
+By the abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Highland chiefs,
+and the general disarmament of the clans by the acts passed in 1747
+after the rebellion of 1745, the clan system was practically broken up,
+though its influence still lingers in the more remote districts. An act
+was also passed in 1747 forbidding the use of the Highland garb; but the
+injustice and impolicy of such a law being generally felt it was
+afterwards repealed.    (W. K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The following account of the Irish clan-system differs in some
+    respects from that in the article on BREHON LAWS (_q.v._); but it is
+    retained here in view of the authority of the writer and the admitted
+    obscurity of the whole subject. (ED. _E.B._)
+
+  [2] The explanation here given of _geilfine_ is different from that
+    given in the introduction to the third volume of the _Ancient Laws of
+    Ireland_, which was followed by Sir H.S. Maine in his account of it
+    in his _Early History of Institutions_, and which the present writer
+    believes to be erroneous.
+
+  [3] It should also be mentioned that illegitimacy was not a bar. The
+    issue of "handfast" marriages in Scotland were eligible to be chiefs,
+    and even sometimes claimed under feudal law.
+
+  [4] This office is of considerable importance in connexion with early
+    Scottish history. In the Irish annals the _ríg_, or chief of a great
+    tribe (_mor tuath_), such as of Ross, Moray, Marr, Buchan, &c., is
+    called a _mor maer_, or great _maer_. Sometimes the same person is
+    called king also in these annals. Thus _Findlaec_, or Finlay, son of
+    _Ruadhri_, the father of Shakespeare's Macbeth, is called king of
+    Moray in the _Annals of Ulster_, and _mor maer_ in the _Annals of
+    Tighernach_. The term is never found in Scottish charters, but it
+    occurs in the Book of the Abbey of Deir in Buchan, now in the library
+    of the university of Cambridge. The Scotic kings and their successors
+    obviously regarded the chiefs of the great tribes in question merely
+    as their _maers_, while their tribesmen only knew them as kings. From
+    these "mor-maerships," which corresponded with the ancient _mor
+    tuatha_, came most, if not all, the ancient Scottish earldoms.
+
+
+
+
+CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE), 1st EARL OF (d. 1544),
+styled MacWilliam, and Ne-gan or Na-gCeann (i.e. "of the Heads," "having
+made a mount of the heads of men slain in battle which he covered up
+with earth"), was the son of Richard or Rickard de Burgh, lord of
+Clanricarde, by a daughter of Madden of Portumna, and grandson of Ulick
+de Burgh, lord of Clanricarde (1467-1487), the collateral heir male of
+the earls of Ulster. On the death of the last earl in 1333, his only
+child Elizabeth had married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and the earldom
+became merged in the crown, in consequence of which the de Burghs
+abjured English laws and sovereignty, and chose for their chiefs the
+sons of Sir William, the "Red" earl of Ulster's brother, the elder
+William taking the title of MacWilliam Eighter (Uachtar, i.e. Upper),
+and becoming the ancestor of the earls of Clanricarde, and his brother
+Sir Edmond that of MacWilliam Oughter (Ochtar, i.e. Lower), and founding
+the family of the earls of Mayo. In 1361 the duke of Clarence was sent
+over as lord-lieutenant to Ireland to enforce his claims as husband of
+the heir general, but failed, and the chiefs of the de Burghs maintained
+their independence of English sovereignty for several generations. Ulick
+de Burgh succeeded to the headship of his clan, exercised a quasi-royal
+authority and held vast estates in county Galway, in Connaught,
+including Loughry, Dunkellin, Kiltartan (Hilltaraght) and Athenry, as
+well as Clare and Leitrim. In March 1541, however, he wrote to Henry
+VIII., lamenting the degeneracy of his family, "which have been brought
+to Irish and disobedient rule by reason of marriage and nurseing with
+those Irish, sometime rebels, near adjoining to me," and placing himself
+and his estates in the king's hands. The same year he was present at
+Dublin, when the act was passed making Henry VIII. king of Ireland. In
+1543, in company with other Irish chiefs, he visited the king at
+Greenwich, made full submission, undertook to introduce English manners
+and abandon Irish names, received a regrant of the greater part of his
+estates with the addition of other lands, was confirmed in the
+captainship and rule of Clanricarde, and was created on the 1st of July
+1543 earl of Clanricarde and baron of Dunkellin in the peerage of
+Ireland, with unusual ceremony. "The making of McWilliam earl of
+Clanricarde made all the country during his time quiet and obedient,"
+states Lord Chancellor Cusake in his review of the state of Ireland in
+1553.[1] He did not live long, however, to enjoy his new English
+dignities, but died shortly after returning to Ireland about March 1544.
+He is called by the annalist of Loch Cé "a haughty and proud lord," who
+reduced many under his yoke, and by the Four Masters "the most
+illustrious of the English in Connaught."
+
+Clanricarde married (1) Grany or Grace, daughter of Mulrone O'Carroll,
+"prince of Ely," by whom he had Richard or Rickard "the Saxon," who
+succeeded him as 2nd earl of Clanricarde (grandfather of the 4th earl,
+whose son became marquess of Clanricarde), this alliance being the only
+one declared valid. After parting with his first wife he married (2)
+Honora, sister of Ulick de Burgh, from whom he also parted. He married
+(3) Mary Lynch, by whom he had John, who claimed the earldom in 1568.
+Other sons, according to Burke's _Peerage_, were Thomas "the Athlete,"
+shot in 1545, Redmond "of the Broom" (d. 1595), and Edmund (d. 1597).
+
+  See also _Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters_ (ed. by O. Connellan,
+  1846), p. 132 note, and reign of Henry VIII.; _Annals of Loch Cé
+  (Rerum Brit. Medii Aevi Scriptores_) (54) (1871); _Hist. Mem. of the
+  O'Briens_, by J.O. Donoghue (i860), pp 159, 519; _Ireland under the
+  Tudors_, by R. Bagwell, vol. i.; _State Papers, Ireland, Carew MSS._
+  and Gairdner's _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Cotton MSS._ Brit.
+  Mus., Titus B xi. f. 388. (P.C.Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Cal. of State Pap., Carew MSS._ 1515-1574, p. 246.
+
+
+
+
+CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE), MARQUESS OF (1604-1657 or
+1658), son of Richard, 4th earl of Clanricarde, created in 1628 earl of
+St Albans, and of Frances, daughter and heir of Sir Francis Walsingham,
+and widow of Sir Philip Sidney and of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex,
+was born in 1604. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Burgh in
+1628, and succeeded his father as 5th earl in 1635. He sat in the Short
+Parliament of 1640 and attended Charles I. in the Scottish expedition.
+On the outbreak of the Irish rebellion Clanricarde had powerful
+inducements for joining the Irish--the ancient greatness and
+independence of his family, his devotion to the Roman Catholic Church,
+and strongest of all, the ungrateful treatment meted out by Charles I.
+and Wentworth to his father, one of Elizabeth's most stanch adherents in
+Ireland, whose lands were appropriated by the crown and whose death, it
+was popularly asserted, was hastened by the harshness of the
+lord-lieutenant. Nevertheless at the crisis his loyalty never wavered.
+Alone of the Irish Roman Catholic nobility to declare for the king, he
+returned to Ireland, took up his residence at Portumna, kept Galway, of
+which he was governor, neutral, and took measures for the defence of the
+county and for the relief of the Protestants, making "his house and
+towns a refuge, nay, even a hospital for the distressed English."[1] In
+1643 he was one of the commissioners appointed by the king to confer
+with the Irish confederates, and urged the wisdom of a cessation of
+hostilities in a document which he publicly distributed. He was
+appointed commander of the English forces in Connaught in 1644, and in
+1646 was created a marquess and a privy councillor. He supported the
+same year the treaty between Charles I. and the confederates, and
+endeavoured after its failure to persuade Preston, the general of the
+Irish, to agree to a peace; but the latter, being advised by Rinuccini,
+the papal nuncio, refused in December. Together with Ormonde,
+Clanricarde opposed the nuncio's policy; and the royalist inhabitants of
+Galway having through the latter's influence rejected the cessation of
+hostilities, arranged with Lord Inchiquin in 1648, he besieged the town
+and compelled its acquiescence. In 1649 he reduced Sligo. On Ormonde's
+departure in December 1650 Clanricarde was appointed deputy
+lord-lieutenant, but he was not trusted by the Roman Catholics, and was
+unable to stem the tide of the parliamentary successes. In 1651 he
+opposed the offer of Charles, duke of Lorraine, to supply money and aid
+on condition of being acknowledged "Protector" of the kingdom. In May
+1652 Galway surrendered to the parliament, and in June Clanricarde
+signed articles with the parliamentary commissioners which allowed his
+departure from Ireland. In August he was excepted from pardon for life
+and estate, but by permits, renewed from time to time by the council, he
+was enabled to remain in England for the rest of his life, and in 1653
+£500 a year was settled upon him by the council of state in
+consideration of the protection which he had given to the Protestants in
+Ireland at the time of the rebellion. He died at Somerhill in Kent in
+1657 or 1658 and was buried at Tunbridge.
+
+The "great earl," as he was called, supported Ormonde in his desire to
+unite the English royalists with the more moderate Roman Catholics on
+the basis of religious toleration under the authority of the sovereign,
+against the papal scheme advocated by Rinuccini, and in opposition to
+the parliamentary and Puritan policy. By the author of the _Aphorismical
+Discovery_, who represents the opinion of the native Irish, he is
+denounced as the "masterpiece of the treasonable faction," "a foe to his
+king, nation and religion," and by the duke of Lorraine as "a traitor
+and a base fellow"; but there is no reason to doubt Clarendon's opinion
+of him as "a person of unquestionable fidelity. . . and of the most
+eminent constancy to the Roman Catholic religion of any man in the three
+kingdoms," or the verdict of Hallam, who describes him "as perhaps the
+most unsullied character in the annals of Ireland."
+
+He married Lady Anne Compton, daughter of William Compton, 1st earl of
+Northampton, but had issue only one daughter. On his death, accordingly,
+the marquessate and the English peerages became extinct, the Irish
+titles reverting to his cousin Richard, 6th earl, grandson of the 3rd
+earl of Clanricarde. Henry, the 12th earl (1742-1797), was again created
+a marquess in 1789, but the marquessate expired at his death without
+issue, the earldom going to his brother. In 1825 the 14th earl
+(1802-1874) was created a marquess; he was ambassador at St Petersburg,
+and later postmaster-general and lord privy seal, and married George
+Canning's daughter. His son (b. 1832), who achieved notoriety in the
+Irish land agitation, succeeded him as 2nd marquess.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article "Burgh, Ulick de," in the _Dict. of
+  Nat. Biography_, and authorities there given; _Hist. of the Irish
+  Confederation_, by R. Bellings, ed. by J.T. Gilbert (1882);
+  _Aphorismical Discovery_ (Irish Archaeological Society, 1879);
+  _Memoirs of the Marquis of Clanricarde_ (1722, repr. 1744); _Memoirs
+  of Ulick_, _Marquis of Clanricarde_, by John, 11th earl (1757); _Life
+  of Ormonde_, by T. Carte (1851); S.R. Gardiner's _Hist. of the Civil
+  War_ and of the _Commonwealth; Thomason Tracts_ (Brit. Mus.) E 371
+  (11), 456 (10); _Cal. of State Papers, Irish_, esp. _Introd._
+  1633-1647 and _Domestic; Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Ormonde_
+  and _Earl of Egmont_.    (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS of Earl of Egmont_, i. 223.
+
+
+
+
+CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS, the name of an English poet first mentioned in the
+history of English literature by F.S. Ellis in 1896, when, in editing
+the text of _The Book of Cupid, God of Love, or The Cuckoo and the
+Nightingale_, for the Kelmscott Press, he stated that Professor Skeat
+had discovered that at the end of the best of the MSS. the author was
+called Clanvowe. In 1897 this information was confirmed and expanded by
+Professor Skeat in the supplementary volume of his Clarendon Press
+_Chaucer_ (1894-1897). The beautiful romance of _The Cuckoo and the
+Nightingale_ was published by Thynne in 1532, and was attributed by him,
+and by successive editors down to the days of Henry Bradshaw, to
+Chaucer. It was due to this error that for three centuries Chaucer was
+supposed to be identified with the manor of Woodstock, and even painted,
+in fanciful pictures, as lying
+
+  "Under a maple that is fair and green,
+   Before the chamber-window of the Queen
+   At Wodëstock, upon the greenë lea."
+
+But this queen could only be Joan of Navarre, who arrived in 1403, three
+years after Chaucer's death, and it is to the spring of that year that
+Professor Skeat attributes the composition of the poem. Sir Thomas
+Clanvowe was of a Herefordshire family, settled near Wigmore. He was a
+prominent figure in the courts of Richard II. and Henry IV., and is said
+to have been a friend of Prince Hal. He was one of those who "had begun
+to mell of Lollardy, and drink the gall of heresy." He was one of the
+twenty-five knights who accompanied John Beaufort (son of John of Gaunt)
+to Barbary in 1390.
+
+The date of his birth is unknown, and his name is last mentioned in
+1404. The historic and literary importance of _The Cuckoo and the
+Nightingale_ is great. It is the work of a poet who had studied the
+prosody of Chaucer with more intelligent care than either Occleve or
+Lydgate, and who therefore forms an important link between the 14th and
+15th centuries in English poetry. Clanvowe writes with a surprising
+delicacy and sweetness, in a five-line measure almost peculiar to
+himself. Professor Skeat points out a unique characteristic of
+Clanvowe's versification, namely, the unprecedented freedom with which
+he employs the suffix of the final _-e_, and rather avoids than seeks
+elision. _The Cuckoo and the Nightingale_ was imitated by Milton in his
+sonnet to the Nightingale, and was rewritten in modern English by
+Wordsworth. It is a poem of so much individual beauty, that we must
+regret the apparent loss of everything else written by a poet of such
+unusual talent.
+
+  See also a critical edition of the _Boke of Cupide_ by Dr Erich
+  Vollmer (Berlin, 1898).    (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAPARÈDE, JEAN LOUIS RENÉ ANTOINE ÉDOUARD (1832-1870), Swiss
+naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of April 1832. He belonged to
+a French family, some members of which had taken refuge in that city
+after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In 1852 he began to study
+medicine and natural science at Berlin, where he was greatly influenced
+by J. Müller and C.G. Ehrenberg, the former being at that period engaged
+in his important researches on the Echinoderms. In 1855 he accompanied
+Müller to Norway, and there spent two months on a desolate reef that he
+might obtain satisfactory observations. The latter part of his stay at
+Berlin he devoted, along with J. Lachmann, to the study of the Infusoria
+and Rhizopods. In 1857 he obtained the degree of doctor, and in 1862 he
+was chosen professor of comparative anatomy at Geneva. In 1859 he
+visited England, and in company with W.B. Carpenter made a voyage to the
+Hebrides; and in 1863 he spent some months in the Bay of Biscay. On the
+appearance of Darwin's work on the _Origin of Species_, he adopted his
+theories and published a valuable series of articles on the subject in
+the _Revue Germanique_ (1861). During 1865 and 1866 ill-health rendered
+him incapable of work, and he determined to pass the winter of 1866-1867
+in Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and his
+energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the Annelidae of the
+gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage in 1868; but in 1870,
+instead of recovering as before, he grew worse, and on the 31st of May
+he died at Siena on his way home. His _Recherches sur la structure des
+annélides sédentaires_ were published posthumously in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+CLAPPERTON, HUGH (1788-1827), Scottish traveller in West-Central Africa,
+was born in 1788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where his father was a
+surgeon. He gained some knowledge of practical mathematics and
+navigation, and at thirteen was apprenticed on board a vessel which
+traded between Liverpool and North America. After having made several
+voyages across the Atlantic he was impressed for the navy, in which he
+soon rose to the rank of midshipman. During the Napoleonic wars he saw a
+good deal of active service, and at the storming of Port Louis,
+Mauritius, in November 1810, he was first in the breach and hauled down
+the French flag. In 1814 he went to Canada, was promoted to the rank of
+lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the Canadian lakes. In
+1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was dismantled, he returned home on
+half-pay.
+
+In 1820 Clapperton removed to Edinburgh, where he made the acquaintance
+of Walter Oudney, M.D., who aroused in him an interest in African
+travel. Lieut. G.F. Lyon, R.N., having returned from an unsuccessful
+attempt to reach Bornu from Tripoli, the British government determined
+on a second expedition to that country. Dr Oudney was appointed by Lord
+Bathurst, then colonial secretary, to proceed to Bornu as consul with
+the object of promoting trade, and Clapperton and Major Dixon Denham
+(q.v.) were added to the party. From Tripoli, early in 1822, they set
+out southward to Murzuk, and from this point Clapperton and Oudney
+visited the Ghat oasis. Kuka, the capital of Bornu, was reached in
+February 1823, and Lake Chad seen for the first time by Europeans. At
+Bornu the travellers were well received by the sultan; and after
+remaining in the country till the 14th of December they again set out
+for the purpose of exploring the course of the Niger. At Murmur, on the
+road to Kano, Oudney died (January 1824). Clapperton continued his
+journey alone through Kano to Sokoto, the capital of the Fula empire,
+where by order of Sultan Bello he was obliged to stop, though the Niger
+was only five days' journey to the west. Worn out with his travel he
+returned by way of Zaria and Katsena to Kuka, where he again met Denham.
+The two travellers then set out for Tripoli, reached on the 26th of
+January 1825. An account of the travels was published in 1826 under the
+title of _Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central
+Africa in the years 1822-1824_.
+
+Immediately after his return Clapperton was raised to the rank of
+commander, and sent out with another expedition to Africa, the sultan
+Bello of Sokoto having professed his eagerness to open up trade with the
+west coast. Clapperton landed at Badagry in the Bight of Benin, and
+started overland for the Niger on the 7th of December 1825, having with
+him his servant Richard Lander (q.v.), Captain Pearce, R.N., and Dr
+Morrison, navy surgeon and naturalist. Before the month was out Pearce
+and Morrison were dead of fever. Clapperton continued his journey, and,
+passing through the Yoruba country, in January 1826 he crossed the Niger
+at Bussa, the spot where Mungo Park had died twenty years before. In
+July he arrived at Kano. Thence he went to Sokoto, intending afterwards
+to go to Bornu. The sultan, however, detained him, and being seized with
+dysentery he died near Sokoto on the 13th of April 1827.
+
+Clapperton was the first European to make known from personal
+observation the semi-civilized Hausa countries, which he visited soon
+after the establishment of the Sokoto empire by the Fula. In 1829
+appeared the _Journal of a Second Expedition into the Interior of
+Africa_, &c, by the late Commander Clapperton, to which was prefaced a
+biographical sketch of the explorer by his uncle, Lieut.-colonel S.
+Clapperton. Lander, who had brought back the journal of his master, also
+published _Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition to Africa ...
+with the subsequent Adventures of the Author_ (2 vols., London, 1830).
+
+
+
+
+CLAQUE (Fr. _claquer_, to clap the hands), an organized body of
+professional applauders in the French theatres. The hiring of persons to
+applaud dramatic performances was common in classical times, and the
+emperor Nero, when he acted, had his performance greeted by an encomium
+chanted by five thousand of his soldiers, who were called Angustals. The
+recollection of this gave the 16th-century French poet, Jean Daurat, an
+idea which has developed into the modern claque. Buying up a number of
+tickets for a performance of one of his plays, he distributed them
+gratuitously to those who promised publicly to express their
+approbation. It was not, however, till 1820 that a M. Sauton seriously
+undertook the systematization of the claque, and opened an office in
+Paris for the supply of _claqueurs_. By 1830 the claque had become a
+regular institution. The manager of a theatre sends an order for any
+number of _claqueurs_. These people are usually under a _chef de
+claque_, whose duty it is to judge where their efforts are needed and to
+start the demonstration of approval. This takes several forms. Thus
+there are _commissaires_, those who learn the piece by heart, and call
+the attention of their neighbours to its good points between the acts.
+The _rieurs_ are those who laugh loudly at the jokes. The _pleureurs_,
+generally women, feign tears, by holding their handkerchiefs to their
+eyes. The _chatouilleurs_ keep the audience in a good humour, while the
+_bisseurs_ simply clap their hands and cry _bis! bis!_ to secure
+encores.
+
+
+
+
+CLARA, SAINT (1194-1253), foundress of the Franciscan nuns, was born of
+a knightly family in Assisi in 1194. At eighteen she was so impressed by
+a sermon of St Francis that she was filled with the desire to devote
+herself to the kind of life he was leading. She obtained an interview
+with him, and to test her resolution he told her to dress in penitential
+sackcloth and beg alms for the poor in the streets of Assisi. Clara
+readily did this, and Francis, satisfied as to her vocation, told her to
+come to the Portiuncula arrayed as a bride. The friars met her with
+lighted candles, and at the foot of the altar Francis shore off her
+hair, received her vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, and invested
+her with the Franciscan habit, 1212. He placed her for a couple of years
+in a Benedictine convent in Assisi, until the convent at St Damian's,
+close to the town, was ready. Her two younger sisters, and, after her
+father's death, her mother and many others joined her, and the
+Franciscan nuns spread widely and rapidly (see CLARES, POOR). The
+relations of friendship and sympathy between St Clara and St Francis
+were very close, and there can be no doubt that she was one of the
+truest heirs of Francis's inmost spirit. After his death Clara threw
+herself wholly on the side of those who opposed mitigations in the rule
+and manner of life, and she was one of the chief upholders of St
+Francis's primitive idea of poverty (see FRANCISCANS). She was the close
+friend of Brother Leo and the other "Companions of St Francis," and they
+assisted at her death. For forty years she was abbess at St Damian's,
+and the great endeavour of her life was that the rule of the nuns should
+be purged of the foreign elements that had been introduced, and should
+become wholly conformable to St Francis's spirit. She lived just long
+enough to witness the fulfilment of her great wish, a rule such as she
+desired being approved by the pope two days before her death on the 11th
+of August 1253.
+
+  The sources for her life are to be found in the Bollandist _Acta
+  Sanctorum_ on the 11th of August, and sketches in such _Lives of the
+  Saints_ as Alban Butler's. See also Wetzer und Welte,
+  _Kirchen-lexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Clara."    (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARE, the name of a famous English family. The ancestor of this
+historic house, "which played," in Freeman's words, "so great a part
+alike in England, Wales and Ireland," was Count Godfrey, eldest of the
+illegitimate sons of Richard the Fearless, duke of Normandy. His son,
+Count Gilbert of Brionne, had two sons, Richard, lord of Bienfaite and
+Orbec, and Baldwin, lord of Le Sap and Meulles, both of whom accompanied
+the Conqueror to England. Baldwin, known as "De Meulles" or "of Exeter,"
+received the hereditary shrievalty of Devon with great estates in the
+West Country, and left three sons, William, Robert and Richard, of whom
+the first and last were in turn sheriffs of Devon. Richard, known as
+"de Bienfaite," or "of Tunbridge," or "of Clare," was the founder of the
+house of Clare.
+
+Richard derived his English appellation from his strongholds at
+Tunbridge and at Clare, at both of which his castle-mounds still remain.
+The latter, on the borders of Essex and Suffolk, was the head of his
+great "honour" which lay chiefly in the eastern counties. Appointed
+joint justiciar in the king's absence abroad, he took a leading part in
+suppressing the revolt of 1075. By his wife, Rohese, daughter of Walter
+Giffard, through whom great Giffard estates afterwards came to his
+house, he left five sons and two daughters. Roger was his heir in
+Normandy, Walter founded Tintern Abbey, Richard was a monk, and Robert,
+receiving the forfeited fief of the Baynards in the eastern counties,
+founded, through his son Walter, the house of FitzWalter (extinct 1432),
+of whom the most famous was Robert FitzWalter, the leader of the barons
+against King John. Of this house, spoken of by Jordan Fantosme as
+"Clarreaus," the Daventrys of Daventry (extinct 1380) and Fawsleys of
+Fawsley (extinct 1392) were cadets. One of Richard's two daughters
+married the famous Walter Tirel.
+
+Gilbert, Richard's heir in England, held his castle of Tunbridge against
+William Rufus, but was wounded and captured. Under Henry I., who
+favoured the Clares, he obtained a grant of Cardigan, and carried his
+arms into Wales. Dying about 1115, he left four sons, of whom Gilbert,
+the second, inherited Chepstow, with Nether-Gwent, from his uncle,
+Walter, the founder of Tintern, and was created earl of Pembroke by
+Stephen about 1138; he was father of Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke
+(q.v.). The youngest son Baldwin fought for Stephen at the battle of
+Lincoln (1141) and founded the priories of Bourne and Deeping on lands
+acquired with his wife. The eldest son Richard, who was slain by the
+Welsh on his way to Cardigan in 1135 or 1136, left two sons Gilbert and
+Roger, of whom Gilbert was created earl of Hertfordshire by Stephen.
+
+It was probably because he and the Clares had no interests in
+Hertfordshire that they were loosely and usually styled the earls of
+(de) Clare. Dying in 1152, Gilbert was succeeded by his brother Roger,
+of whom Fitz-Stephen observes that "nearly all the nobles of England
+were related to the earl of Clare, whose sister, the most beautiful
+woman in England, had long been desired by the king" (Henry II.). He was
+constantly fighting the Welsh for his family possessions in Wales and
+quarrelled with Becket over Tunbridge Castle. In 1173 or 1174 he was
+succeeded by his son Richard as third earl, whose marriage with Amicia,
+daughter and co-heir of William, earl of Gloucester, was destined to
+raise the fortunes of his house to their highest point. He and his son
+Gilbert were among the "barons of the Charter," Gilbert, who became
+fourth earl in 1217, obtained also, early in 1218, the earldom of
+Gloucester, with its great territorial "Honour," and the lordship of
+Glamorgan, in right of his mother; "from this time the house of Clare
+became the acknowledged head of the baronage." Gilbert had also
+inherited through his father his grandmother's "Honour of St Hilary" and
+a moiety of the Giffard fief; but the vast possessions of his house were
+still further swollen by his marriage with a daughter of William
+(Marshal), earl of Pembroke, through whom his son Richard succeeded in
+1245 to a fifth of the Marshall lands including the Kilkenny estates in
+Ireland. Richard's successor, Gilbert, the "Red" earl, died in 1295, the
+most powerful subject in the kingdom.
+
+On his death his earldoms seem to have been somewhat mysteriously deemed
+to have passed to his widow Joan, daughter of Edward I.; for her second
+husband, Ralph de Monthermer, was summoned to parliament in right of
+them from 1299 to 1306. After her death, however, in 1307, Earl
+Gilbert's son and namesake was summoned in 1308 as earl of Gloucester
+and Hertford, though only sixteen. A nephew of Edward II. and
+brother-in-law of Gaveston, he played a somewhat wavering part in the
+struggle between the king and the barons. Guardian of the realm in 1311
+and regent in 1313, he fell gloriously at Bannockburn (June 24th, 1314),
+when only twenty-three, rushing on the enemy "like a wild boar, making
+his sword drunk with their blood."
+
+The earl was the last of his mighty line, and his vast possessions in
+England (in over twenty counties), Wales and Ireland fell to his three
+sisters, of whom Elizabeth, the youngest, wife of John de Burgh,
+obtained the "Honour of Clare" and transmitted it to her son William de
+Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster, whose daughter brought it to Lionel, son of
+King Edward III., who was thereupon created duke of Clarence, a title
+associated ever since with the royal house. The "Honour of Clare,"
+vested in the crown, still preserves a separate existence, with a court
+and steward of its own.
+
+Clare College, Cambridge, derived its name from the above Elizabeth,
+"Lady of Clare," who founded it as Clare Hall in 1347.
+
+Clare County in Ireland derives its name from the family, though whether
+from Richard Strongbow, or from Thomas de Clare, a younger son, who had
+a grant of Thomond in 1276, has been deemed doubtful.
+
+Clarenceux King of Arms, an officer of the Heralds' College, derives his
+style, through Clarence, from Clare.
+
+  See J.H. Round's _Geoffrey de Mandeville, Feudal England, Commune of
+  London_, and _Peerage Studies_; also his "Family of Clare" in _Arch.
+  Journ._ lvi., and "Origin of Armorial Bearings" in Ib. li.;
+  Parkinson's "Clarence, the origin and bearers of the title," in _The
+  Antiquary_, v.; Clark's "Lords of Glamorgan" in _Arch. Journ._ xxxv.;
+  Planche's "Earls of Gloucester" in _Journ. Arch. Assoc._ xxvi.;
+  Dugdale's _Baronage_, vol. i., and _Monasticon Anglicanum_; G.E.
+  C[okayne]'s _Complete Peerage_.    (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARE, JOHN (1793-1864), English poet, commonly known as "the
+Northamptonshire Peasant Poet," the son of a farm labourer, was born at
+Helpstone near Peterborough, on the 13th of July 1793. At the age of
+seven he was taken from school to tend sheep and geese; four years later
+he began to work on a farm, attending in the winter evenings a school
+where he is said to have learnt some algebra. He then became a pot-boy
+in a public-house and fell in love with Mary Joyce, but her father, a
+prosperous farmer, forbade her to meet him. Subsequently he was gardener
+at Burghley Park. He enlisted in the militia, tried camp life with
+gipsies, and worked as a lime burner in 1817, but in the following year
+he was obliged to accept parish relief. Clare had bought a copy of
+Thomson's _Seasons_ out of his scanty earnings and had begun to write
+poems. In 1819 a bookseller at Stamford, named Drury, lighted on one of
+Clare's poems, _The Setting Sun_, written on a scrap of paper enclosing
+a note to his predecessor in the business. He befriended the author and
+introduced his poems to the notice of John Taylor, of the publishing
+firm of Taylor & Hussey, who issued the _Poems Descriptive of Rural Life
+and Scenery_ in 1820. This book was highly praised, and in the next year
+his _Village Minstrel and other Poems_ were published. He was greatly
+patronized; fame, in the shape of curious visitors, broke the tenor of
+his life, and the convivial habits that he had formed were indulged more
+freely. He had married in 1820, and an annuity of 15 guineas from Lord
+Exeter, in whose service he had been, was supplemented by subscription,
+and he became possessed of £45 annually, a sum far beyond what he had
+ever earned, but new wants made his income insufficient, and in 1823 he
+was nearly penniless. The _Shepherd's Calendar_ (1827) met with little
+success, which was not increased by his hawking it himself. As he worked
+again on the fields his health temporarily improved; but he soon became
+seriously ill. Lord Fitzwilliam presented him with a new cottage and a
+piece of ground, but Clare could not settle in his new home. Gradually
+his mind gave way. His last and best work, the _Rural Muse_ (1835), was
+noticed by "Christopher North" alone. He had for some time shown
+symptoms of insanity; and in July 1837 he was removed to a private
+asylum, and afterwards to the Northampton general lunatic asylum, where
+he died on the 20th of May 1864. Clare's descriptions of rural scenes
+show a keen and loving appreciation of nature, and his love-songs and
+ballads charm by their genuine feeling; but his vogue was no doubt
+largely due to the interest aroused by his humble position in life.
+
+  See the _Life of John Clare_, by Frederick Martin (1865); and _Life
+  and Remains of John Clare_, by J.L. Cherry (1873), which, though not
+  so complete, contains some of the poet's asylum verses and prose
+  fragments.
+
+
+
+
+CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON, 1ST EARL OF (1749-1802), lord chancellor of
+Ireland, was the second son of John Fitzgibbon, who had abandoned the
+Roman Catholic faith in order to pursue a legal career. He was educated
+at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was highly distinguished as a
+classical scholar, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in
+1770. In 1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and quickly acquired a
+very lucrative practice; he also inherited his father's large fortune on
+the death of his elder brother. In 1778 he entered the Irish House of
+Commons as member for Dublin University, and at first gave a general
+support to the popular party led by Henry Grattan (q.v.). He was,
+however, from the first hostile to that part of Grattan's policy which
+aimed at removing the disabilities of the Roman Catholics; he
+endeavoured to impede the Relief Bill of 1778 by raising difficulties
+about its effect on the Act of Settlement. He especially distrusted the
+priests, and many years later explained that his life-long resistance to
+all concession to the Catholics was based on his "unalterable opinion"
+that "a conscientious Popish ecclesiastic never will become a
+well-attached subject to a Protestant state, and that the Popish clergy
+must always have a commanding influence on every member of that
+communion." As early as 1780 Fitzgibbon began to separate himself from
+the popular or national party, by opposing Grattan's declaration of the
+Irish parliament's right to independence. There is no reason to suppose
+that in this change of view he was influenced by corrupt or personal
+motives. His cast of mind naturally inclined to authority rather than to
+democratic liberty; his hostility to the Catholic claims, and his
+distrust of parliamentary reform as likely to endanger the connexion of
+Ireland with Great Britain, made him a sincere opponent of the aims
+which Grattan had in view. In reply, however, to a remonstrance from his
+constituents Fitzgibbon promised to support Grattan's policy in the
+future, and described the claim of Great Britain to make laws for
+Ireland as "a daring usurpation of the rights of a free people."
+
+For some time longer there was no actual breach between him and Grattan.
+Grattan supported the appointment of Fitzgibbon as attorney-general in
+1783, and in 1785 the latter highly eulogized Grattan's character and
+services to the country in a speech in which he condemned Flood's
+volunteer movement. He also opposed Flood's Reform Bill of 1784; and
+from this time forward he was in fact the leading spirit in the Irish
+government, and the stiffest opponent of all concession to popular
+demands. In 1784 the permanent committee of revolutionary reformers in
+Dublin, of whom Napper Tandy was the most conspicuous, invited the
+sheriffs of counties to call meetings for the election of delegates to
+attend a convention for the discussion of reform; and when the sheriff
+of the county of Dublin summoned a meeting for this purpose Fitzgibbon
+procured his imprisonment for contempt of court, and justified this
+procedure in parliament, though Lord Erskine declared it grossly
+illegal. In the course of the debates on Pitt's commercial propositions
+in 1785, which Fitzgibbon supported in masterly speeches, he referred to
+Curran in terms which led to a duel between the two lawyers, when
+Fitzgibbon was accused of a deliberation in aiming at his opponent that
+was contrary to etiquette. His antagonism to Curran was life-long and
+bitter, and after he became chancellor his hostility to the famous
+advocate was said to have driven the latter out of practice. In January
+1787 Fitzgibbon introduced a stringent bill for repressing the Whiteboy
+outrages. It was supported by Grattan, who, however, procured the
+omission of a clause enacting that any Roman Catholic chapel near which
+an illegal oath had been tendered should be immediately demolished. His
+influence with the majority in the Irish parliament defeated Pitt's
+proposed reform of the tithe system in Ireland, Fitzgibbon refusing even
+to grant a committee to investigate the subject. On the regency question
+in 1789 Fitzgibbon, in opposition to Grattan, supported the doctrine of
+Pitt in a series of powerful speeches which proved him a great
+constitutional lawyer; he intimated that the choice for Ireland might in
+certain eventualities rest between complete separation from England and
+legislative union; and, while he exclaimed as to the latter alternative,
+"God forbid that I should ever see that day!" he admitted that
+separation would be the worse evil of the two.
+
+In the same year Lord Lifford resigned the chancellorship, and
+Fitzgibbon was appointed in his place, being raised to the peerage as
+Baron Fitzgibbon. His removal to the House of Lords greatly increased
+his power. In the Commons, though he had exercised great influence as
+attorney-general, his position had been secondary; in the House of Lords
+and in the privy council he was little less than despotic. "He was,"
+says Lecky, "by far the ablest Irishman who had adopted without
+restriction the doctrine that the Irish legislature must be maintained
+in a condition of permanent and unvarying subjection to the English
+executive." But the English ministry were now embarking on a policy of
+conciliation in Ireland. The Catholic Relief Bill of 1793 was forced on
+the Irish executive by the cabinet in London, but it passed rapidly and
+easily through the Irish parliament. Lord Fitzgibbon, while accepting
+the bill as inevitable under the circumstances that had arisen, made a
+most violent though exceedingly able speech against the principle of
+concession, which did much to destroy the conciliatory effect of the
+measure; and as a consequence of this act he began persistently to urge
+the necessity for a legislative union. From this date until the union
+was carried, the career of Fitzgibbon is practically the history of
+Ireland. True to his inveterate hostility to the popular claims, he was
+opposed to the appointment of Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.) as viceroy in
+1795, and was probably the chief influence in procuring his recall; and
+it was Fitzgibbon who first put it into the head of George III. that the
+king would violate his coronation oath if he consented to the admission
+of Catholics to parliament. When Lord Camden, Fitzwilliam's successor in
+the viceroyalty, arrived in Dublin on the 31st of March 1795,
+Fitzgibbon's carriage was violently assaulted by the mob, and he himself
+was wounded; and in the riots that ensued his house was also attacked.
+But as if to impress upon the Catholics the hopelessness of their case,
+the government who had made Fitzgibbon a viscount immediately after his
+attack on the Catholics in 1793 now bestowed on him a further mark of
+honour. In June 1795 he was created earl of Clare. On the eve of the
+rebellion he warned the government that while emancipation and reform
+might be the objects aimed at by the better classes, the mass of the
+disaffected had in view "the separation of the country from her
+connexion with Great Britain, and a fraternal alliance with the French
+Republic." Clare advocated stringent measures to prevent an outbreak;
+but he was neither cruel nor immoderate, and was inclined to mercy in
+dealing with individuals. He attempted to save Lord Edward Fitzgerald
+(q.v.) from his fate by giving a friendly warning to his friends, and
+promising to facilitate his escape from the country; and Lord Edward's
+aunt, Lady Louisa Conolly, who was conducted to his death-bed in prison
+by the chancellor in person, declared that "nothing could exceed Lord
+Clare's kindness." His moderation and humanity after the rebellion was
+extolled by Cornwallis. He threw his great influence on the side of
+clemency, and it was through his intervention that Oliver Bond, when
+sentenced to death, was reprieved; and that an arrangement was made by
+which Arthur O'Connor, Thomas Emmet and other state prisoners were
+allowed to leave the country.
+
+In October 1798 Lord Clare, who since 1793 had been convinced of the
+necessity for a legislative union if the connexion between Great Britain
+and Ireland was to be maintained, and who was equally determined that
+the union must be unaccompanied by Catholic emancipation, crossed to
+England and successfully pressed his views on Pitt. In 1799 he induced
+the Irish House of Lords to throw out a bill for providing a permanent
+endowment of Maynooth. On the 10th of February 1800 Clare in the House
+of Lords moved the resolution approving the union in a long and powerful
+speech, in which he reviewed the history of Ireland since the
+Revolution, attributing the evils of recent years to the independent
+constitution of 1782, and speaking of Grattan in language of deep
+personal hatred. He was not aware of the assurance which Cornwallis had
+been authorized to convey to the Catholics that the union was to pave
+the way for emancipation, and when he heard of it after the passing of
+the act he bitterly complained that Pitt and Castlereagh had deceived
+him. After the union Clare became more violent than ever in his
+opposition to any policy of concession in Ireland. He died on the 28th
+of January 1802; his funeral in Dublin was the occasion of a riot
+organized "by a gang of about fourteen persons under orders of a
+leader." His wife, in compliance with his death-bed request, destroyed
+all his papers. His two sons, John (1792-1851) and Richard Hobart
+(1793-1864), succeeded in turn to the earldom, which became extinct on
+the death of the latter, whose only son, John Charles Henry, Viscount
+Fitzgibbon (1829-1854), was killed in the charge of the Light Brigade at
+Balaklava.
+
+Lord Clare was in private life an estimable and even an amiable man;
+many acts of generosity are related of him; the determination of his
+character swayed other wills to his purpose, and his courage was such as
+no danger, no obloquy, no public hatred or violence could disturb.
+Though not a great orator like Flood or Grattan, he was a skilful and
+ready debater, and he was by far the ablest Irish supporter of the
+union. He was, however, arrogant, overbearing and intolerant to the last
+degree. He was the first Irishman since the Revolution to hold the
+office of lord chancellor of Ireland. "Except where his furious personal
+antipathies and his ungovernable arrogance were called into action, he
+appears to have been," says Lecky, "an able, upright and energetic
+judge"; but as a politician there can be little question that Lord
+Clare's bitter and unceasing resistance to reasonable measures of reform
+did infinite mischief in the history of Ireland, by inflaming the
+passions of his countrymen, driving them into rebellion, and
+perpetuating their political and religious divisions.
+
+  See W.E.H. Lecky, _History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5
+  vols., London, 1892); J.R. O'Flanagan, _The Lives of the Lord
+  Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal in Ireland_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1870); _Cornwallis Correspondence_, ed. by C. Ross (3 vols.,
+  London, 1859); Charles Phillips, _Recollections of Curran and some of
+  his Contemporaries_ (London, 1822); Henry Grattan, _Memoirs of the
+  Life and Times of the Right Honble. Henry Grattan_ (5 vols., London,
+  1839-1846); Lord Auckland, _Journal and Correspondence_ (4 vols.,
+  London, 1861); Charles Coote, _History of the Union of Great Britain
+  and Ireland_ (London, 1802).    (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARE, a county in the province of Munster, Ireland, bounded N. by
+Galway Bay and Co. Galway, E. by Lough Derg, the river Shannon, and
+counties Tipperary and Limerick, S. by the estuary of the Shannon, and
+W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is 852,389 acres, or nearly 1332 sq.
+m. Although the surface of the county is hilly, and in some parts even
+mountainous, it nowhere rises to a great elevation. Much of the western
+baronies of Moyarta and Ibrickan is composed of bog land. Bogs are
+frequent also in the mountainous districts elsewhere, except in the
+limestone barony of Burren, the inhabitants of some parts of which
+supply themselves with turf from the opposite shores of Connemara.
+Generally speaking, the eastern parts of the county are mountainous,
+with tracts of rich pasture-land interspersed; the west abounds with
+bog; and the north is rocky and best adapted for grazing sheep. In the
+southern part, along the banks of the Fergus and Shannon, are the bands
+of rich low grounds called corcasses, of various breadth, indenting the
+land in a great variety of shapes. They are composed of deep rich loam,
+and are distinguished as the black corcasses, adapted for tillage, and
+the blue, used more advantageously as meadow land. The coast is in
+general rocky, and occasionally bold and precipitous in the extreme, as
+may be observed at the picturesque cliffs of Moher within a few miles of
+Ennistimon and Lisdoonvarna, which rise perpendicularly at O'Brien's
+Tower to an elevation of 580 ft. The coast of Clare is indented with
+several bays, the chief of which are Ballyvaghan, Liscannor and Malbay;
+but from Black Head to Loop Head, that is, along the entire western
+boundary of the county formed by the Atlantic, there is no safe harbour
+except Liscannor Bay. Malbay takes its name from its dangers to
+navigators, and the whole coast has been the scene of many fatal
+disasters. The county possesses only one large river, the Fergus; but
+nearly 100 m. of its boundary-line are washed by the river Shannon,
+which enters the Atlantic Ocean between this county and Kerry. The
+numerous bays and creeks on both sides of this great river render its
+navigation safe in every wind; but the passage to and from Limerick is
+often tedious, and the port of Kilrush has from that cause gained in
+importance. The river Fergus is navigable from the Shannon to the town
+of Clare, which is the terminating point of its natural navigation, and
+the port of all the central districts of the county.
+
+There are a great number of lakes and tarns in the county, of which the
+largest are Loughs Muckanagh, Graney, Atedaun and Dromore; but they are
+more remarkable for beauty than for size or utility, with the exception
+of the extensive and navigable Lough Derg, formed by the river Shannon
+between this county and Tipperary. The salmon fishery of the Shannon,
+both as a sport and as an industry, is famous; the Fergus also holds
+salmon, and there is much good trout-fishing in the lakes for which
+Ennis is a centre, and in the streams of the Atlantic seaboard. Clare is
+a county which, like all the western counties of Ireland, repays
+visitors in search of the pleasures of seaside resorts, sport, scenery
+or antiquarian interest. Yet, again like other western counties, it was
+long before it was rendered accessible. Communications, however, are now
+satisfactory.
+
+  _Geology._--Upper Carboniferous strata cover the county west of Ennis,
+  the coast-sections in them being particularly fine. Shales and
+  sandstones alternate, now horizontal, as in the Cliffs of Moher, now
+  thrown into striking folds. The Carboniferous Limestone forms a barren
+  terraced country, often devoid of soil, through the Burren in the
+  north, and extends to the estuary of the Fergus and the Shannon. On
+  the east, the folding has brought up two bold masses of Old Red
+  Sandstone, with Silurian cores. Slieve Bernagh, the more southerly of
+  these, rises to 1746 ft. above Killaloe, and the hilly country here
+  traversed by the Shannon is in marked contrast with the upper course
+  of the river through the great limestone plain.
+
+_Minerals._--Although metals and minerals have been found in many places
+throughout the county, they do not often show themselves in sufficient
+abundance to induce the application of capital for their extraction. The
+principal metals are lead, iron and manganese. The Milltown lead mine in
+the barony of Tulla is probably one of the oldest mines in Ireland, and
+formerly, if the extent of the ancient excavations may be taken as a
+guide, there must have been a very rich deposit. Copper pyrites occurs
+in several parts of Burren, but in small quantity. Coal exists at
+Labasheeda on the right bank of the Shannon, but the few and thin seams
+are not productive. The nodules of clay-ironstone in the strata that
+overlie the limestone were mined and smelted down to 1750. Within half a
+mile of the Milltown lead mine are immense natural vaulted passages of
+limestone, through which the river Ardsullas winds a singular course.
+The lower limestone of the eastern portion of the county has been found
+to contain several very large deposits of argentiferous galena. Flags,
+easily quarried, are procured near Kilrush, and thinner flags near
+Ennistimon. Slates are quarried in several places, the best being those
+of Broadford and Killaloe, which are nearly equal to the finest procured
+in Wales. A species of very fine black marble is obtained near Ennis; it
+takes a high polish, and is free from the white spots with which the
+black Kilkenny marble is marked.
+
+The mineral springs, which are found in many places, are chiefly
+chalybeate. That of Lisdoonvarna, a sulphur spa, about 8 m. from
+Ennistimon, has been celebrated since the 18th century for its medicinal
+qualities, and now attracts a large number of visitors annually. It lies
+9 m. by road N. of Ennistimon. There are chalybeate springs of less note
+at Kilkishen, Burren, Broadfoot, Lehinch, Kilkee, Kilrush, Killadysart,
+and near Milltown Malbay. Springs called by the people "holy" or
+"blessed" wells, generally mineral waters, are common; but the belief in
+their power of performing cures in inveterate maladies is nearly
+extinct.
+
+_Watering-places._--The Atlantic Ocean and the estuary of the Shannon
+afford many situations admirably adapted for summer bathing-places.
+Among the most frequented of these localities are Milltown Malbay; with
+one of the best beaches on the western coast; and the neighbouring
+Spanish Point (named from the scene of the wreck of two ships of the
+Armada); Lehinch, about 2 m. from Ennistimon on Liscannor Bay, and near
+the interesting cliffs of Moher, has a magnificent beach. Kilkee is the
+most fashionable watering-place on the western coast of Ireland; and
+Kilrush on the Shannon estuary is also favoured.
+
+_Industries._--The soil and surface of the county are in general better
+adapted for grazing than for tillage, and the acreage devoted to the
+former consequently exceeds three times that of the latter. Agriculture
+is in a backward state, and not a fifth of the total area is under
+cultivation, while the acreage shows a decrease even in the principal
+crops of oats and potatoes. Cattle, sheep, poultry and pigs, however,
+all receive considerable attention. Owing to the mountainous nature of
+the county nearly one-seventh of the total area is quite barren.
+
+There are no extensive manufactures, although flannels and friezes are
+made for home use, and hosiery of various kinds, chiefly coarse and
+strong, is made around Ennistimon and other places. There are several
+fishing stations on the coast, and cod, haddock, ling, sole, turbot,
+ray, mackerel and other fish abound, but the rugged nature of the coast
+and the tempestuous sea greatly hinder the operations of the fishermen.
+Near Pooldoody is the great Burren oyster bed called the Red Bank, where
+a large establishment is maintained, from which a constant supply of the
+excellent Red Bank oysters is furnished to the Dublin and other large
+markets. Crabs and lobsters are caught on the shores of the Bay of
+Galway in every creek from Black Head to Ardfry. In addition to the
+Shannon salmon fishery mentioned above, eels abound in every rivulet,
+and form an important article of consumption.
+
+The Great Southern & Western railway line from Limerick to Sligo
+intersects the centre of the county from north to south. From Ennis on
+this line the West Clare railway runs to Ennistimon on the coast, where
+it turns south and follows the coast by Milltown Malbay to Kilkee and
+Kilrush. Killaloe in the east of the county is the terminus of a branch
+of the Great Southern & Western railway.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The population (126,244 in 1891;
+112,334 in 1901; almost wholly Roman Catholic and rural) shows a
+decrease among the most serious of the Irish counties, and the
+emigration returns are proportionately heavy. The principal towns, all
+of insignificant size, are Ennis (pop. 5093, the county town), Kilrush
+(4179), Kilkee (1661) and Killaloe (885); but several of the smaller
+settlements, as resorts, are of more than local importance. The county,
+which is divided into 11 baronies, contains 79 parishes, and includes
+the Protestant diocese of Kilfenora, the greater part of Killaloe, and a
+very small portion of the diocese of Limerick. It is within the Roman
+Catholic dioceses of Killaloe and Limerick. The assizes are held at
+Ennis, and quarter sessions here and at Ennistimon, Killaloe, Kilrush
+and Tulla. The county is divided into the East and West parliamentary
+divisions, each returning one member.
+
+_History._--This county, together with part of the neighbouring
+district, was anciently called Thomond, that is, North Munster, and
+formed part of the monarchy of the celebrated Brian Boroihme, who held
+his court at Kincora near Killaloe, where his palace was situated on the
+banks of the Shannon. The site is still distinguished by extensive
+earthen ramparts. Settlements were effected by the Danes, and in the
+13th century by the Anglo-Normans, but without permanently affecting the
+possession of the district by its native proprietors. In 1543 Murrogh
+O'Brien, after dispossessing his nephew and vainly attempting a
+rebellion against the English rule, proceeded to England and submitted
+to Henry VIII., resigning his name and possessions. He soon received
+them back by an English tenure, together with the title of earl of
+Thomond, on condition of adopting the English dress, manners and
+customs. In 1565 this part of Thomond (sometimes called O'Brien's
+country) was added to Connaught, and made one of the six new counties
+into which that province was divided by Sir Henry Sidney. It was named
+Clare, the name being traceable either to Richard de Clare (Strongbow),
+earl of Pembroke, or to his younger brother, Thomas de Clare, who
+obtained a grant of Thomond from Edward I. in 1276, and whose family
+for some time maintained a precarious position in the district. Towards
+the close of the reign of Elizabeth, Clare was detached from the
+government of Connaught and given a separate administration; but at the
+Restoration it was reunited to Munster.
+
+_Antiquities._--The county abounds with remains of antiquities, both
+military and ecclesiastical, especially in the north-western part. There
+still exist above a hundred fortified castles, several of which are
+inhabited. They are mostly of small extent, a large portion being
+fortified dwellings. The chief of them is Bunratty Castle, built in
+1277, once inhabited by the earls of Thomond, 10 m. W. of Limerick, on
+the Shannon. Those of Ballykinvarga, Ballynalackan and Lemaneagh, all in
+the north-west, should also be mentioned. Raths or encampments are to be
+found in every part. They are generally circular, composed either of
+large stones without mortar or of earth thrown up and surrounded by one
+or more ditches. The list of abbeys and other religious houses formerly
+flourishing here (some now only known by name, but many of them
+surviving in ruins) comprehends upwards of twenty. The most remarkable
+are--Quin, considered one of the finest and most perfect specimens of
+ancient monastic architecture in Ireland; Corcomroe; Ennis, in which is
+a very fine window of uncommonly elegant workmanship; and those on
+Inniscattery or Scattery Island, in the Shannon, said to have been
+founded by St Senan (see KILRUSH). Kilfenora, 5 m. N.E. of Ennistimon,
+was until 1752 a separate diocese, and its small cathedral is of
+interest, with several neighbouring crosses and a holy well. The ruined
+churches of Kilnaboy, Nouhaval and Teampul Cronan are the most
+noteworthy of many in the north-west. Five round towers are to be found
+in various stages of preservation--at Scattery Island, Drumcliffe,
+Dysert O'Dea, Kilnaboy and Inniscaltra (Lough Derg). The cathedral of
+the diocese of Killaloe is at the town of that name. Cromlechs are
+found, chiefly in the rocky limestone district of Burren in the N.W.,
+though there are some in other baronies. That at Ballygannor is formed
+of a stone 40 ft. long and 10 broad.
+
+  See papers by T.J. Westropp in _Proceedings of the Royal Irish
+  Academy_--"Distribution of Cromlechs in County Clare" (1897); and
+  "Churches of County Clare, and Origin of Ecclesiastical Divisions"
+  (1900).
+
+
+
+
+CLAREMONT, a city of Sullivan county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., situated in
+the W. part of the state, bordering on the Connecticut river. Pop.
+(1890) 5565; (1900) 6498 (1442 foreign-born); (1910) 7529. Area, 6 sq.
+m. It is served by two branches of the Boston & Maine railway. In
+Claremont is the Fiske free library (1873), housed in a Carnegie
+building (1904). The Stevens high school is richly endowed by the gift
+of Paran Stevens, a native of Claremont. The city contains several
+villages, the principal being Claremont, Claremont Junction and West
+Claremont. Sugar river, flowing through the city into the Connecticut
+and falling 223 ft. within the city limits, furnishes good water-power.
+Among the manufactures are woollen and cotton goods, paper, mining and
+quarrying machinery, rubber goods, linens, shoes, wood trim and pearl
+buttons. The first settlement here was made in 1762, and a township was
+organized in 1764; in 1908 Claremont was chartered as a city. It was
+named from Claremont, Lord Clive's country place.
+
+
+
+
+CLARENCE, DUKES OF. The early history of this English title is identical
+with that of the family of Clare (q.v.), earls of Gloucester, who are
+sometimes called earls of Clare, of which word Clarence is a later form.
+The first duke of Clarence was Lionel of Antwerp (see below), third son
+of Edward III., who was created duke in 1362, and whose wife Elizabeth
+was a direct descendant of the Clares, the "Honour of Clare" being among
+the lands which she brought to her husband. When Lionel died without
+sons in 1368 the title became extinct; but in 1412 it was revived in
+favour of Thomas (see below), the second son of Henry IV. The third
+creation of a duke of Clarence took place in 1461, and was in favour of
+George (see below), brother of the King Edward IV. When this duke,
+accused by the king, was attainted and killed in 1478, his titles and
+estates were forfeited. There appears to have been no other creation of
+a duke of Clarence until 1789, when William, third son of George III.,
+was made a peer under this title. Having merged in the crown when
+William became king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1830, the title of
+duke of Clarence was again revived in 1890 in favour of Albert Victor
+(1864-1892), the elder son of King Edward VII., then prince of Wales,
+only to become extinct for the fifth time on his death in 1892.
+
+
+LIONEL OF ANTWERP, duke of Clarence (1338-1368), third son of Edward
+III., was born at Antwerp on the 29th of November 1338. Betrothed when a
+child to Elizabeth (d. 1363), daughter and heiress of William de Burgh,
+3rd earl of Ulster (d. 1332), he was married to her in 1352; but before
+this date he had entered nominally into possession of her great Irish
+inheritance. Having been named as his father's representative in England
+in 1345 and again in 1346, Lionel was created earl of Ulster, and joined
+an expedition into France in 1355, but his chief energies were reserved
+for the affairs of Ireland. Appointed governor of that country, he
+landed at Dublin in 1361, and in November of the following year was
+created duke of Clarence, while his father made an abortive attempt to
+secure for him the crown of Scotland. His efforts to secure an effective
+authority over his Irish lands were only moderately successful; and
+after holding a parliament at Kilkenny, which passed the celebrated
+statute of Kilkenny in 1367, he threw up his task in disgust and
+returned to England. About this time a marriage was arranged between
+Clarence and Violante, daughter of Galeazzo Visconti, lord of Pavia (d.
+1378); the enormous dowry which Galeazzo promised with his daughter
+being exaggerated by the rumour of the time. Journeying to fetch his
+bride, the duke was received in great state both in France and Italy,
+and was married to Violante at Milan in June 1368. Some months were then
+spent in festivities, during which Lionel was taken ill at Alba, where
+he died on the 7th of October 1368. His only child Philippa, a daughter
+by his first wife, married in 1368 Edmund Mortimer, 3rd earl of March
+(1351-1381), and through this union Clarence became the ancestor of
+Edward IV. The poet Chaucer was at one time a page in Lionel's
+household.
+
+
+THOMAS, duke of Clarence (c. 1388-1421), who was nominally lieutenant of
+Ireland from 1401 to 1413, and was in command of the English fleet in
+1405, acted in opposition to his elder brother, afterwards King Henry
+V., and the Beauforts during the later part of the reign of Henry IV.;
+and was for a short time at the head of the government, leading an
+unsuccessful expedition into France in 1412. When Henry V., however,
+became king in 1413 no serious dissensions took place between the
+brothers, and as a member of the royal council Clarence took part in the
+preparations for the French war. He was with the English king at
+Harfleur, but not at Agincourt, and shared in the expedition of 1417
+into Normandy, during which he led the assault on Caen, and
+distinguished himself as a soldier in other similar undertakings. When
+Henry V. returned to England in 1421, the duke remained in France as his
+lieutenant, and was killed at Beaugé whilst rashly attacking the French
+and their Scottish allies on the 22nd of March 1421. He left no
+legitimate issue, and the title again became extinct.
+
+
+GEORGE, duke of Clarence (1449-1478), younger son of Richard, duke of
+York, by his wife Cicely, daughter of Ralph Neville, 1st earl of
+Westmorland, was born in Dublin on the 21st of October 1449. Soon after
+his elder brother became king as Edward IV. in March 1461, he was
+created duke of Clarence, and his youth was no bar to his appointment as
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the following year. Having been mentioned
+as a possible husband for Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, afterwards
+duke of Burgundy, Clarence came under the influence of Richard Neville,
+earl of Warwick, and in July 1469 was married at Calais to the earl's
+elder daughter Isabella. With his father-in-law he then acted in a
+disloyal manner towards the king. Both supported the rebels in the north
+of England, and when their treachery was discovered Clarence was
+deprived of his office as lord-lieutenant and fled to France. Returning
+to England with Warwick in September 1470, he witnessed the restoration
+of Henry VI., when the crown was settled upon himself in case the male
+line of Henry's family became extinct. The good understanding, however,
+between Warwick and his son-in-law was not lasting, and Clarence was
+soon secretly reconciled with Edward. The public reconciliation between
+the brothers took place when the king was besieging Warwick in Coventry,
+and Clarence then fought for the Yorkists at Barnet and Tewkesbury.
+After Warwick's death in April 1471 Clarence appears to have seized the
+whole of the vast estates of the earl, and in March 1472 was created by
+right of his wife earl of Warwick and Salisbury. He was consequently
+greatly disturbed when he heard that his younger brother Richard, duke
+of Gloucester, was seeking to marry Warwick's younger daughter Anne, and
+was claiming some part of Warwick's lands. A violent quarrel between the
+brothers ensued, but Clarence was unable to prevent Gloucester from
+marrying, and in 1474 the king interfered to settle the dispute,
+dividing the estates between his brothers. In 1477 Clarence was again a
+suitor for the hand of Mary, who had just become duchess of Burgundy.
+Edward objected to the match, and Clarence, jealous of Gloucester's
+influence, left the court. At length Edward was convinced that Clarence
+was aiming at his throne. The duke was thrown into prison, and in
+January 1478 the king unfolded the charges against his brother to the
+parliament. He had slandered the king; had received oaths of allegiance
+to himself and his heirs; had prepared for a new rebellion; and was in
+short incorrigible. Both Houses of Parliament passed the bill of
+attainder, and the sentence of death which followed was carried out on
+the 17th or 18th of February 1478. It is uncertain what share Gloucester
+had in his brother's death; but soon after the event the rumour gained
+ground that Clarence had been drowned in a butt of malmsey wine. Two of
+the duke's children survived their father: Margaret, countess of
+Salisbury (1473-1541), and Edward, earl of Warwick (1475-1499), who
+passed the greater part of his life in prison and was beheaded in
+November 1499.
+
+  On the last-named see W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. iii.
+  (Oxford, 1895); Sir J.H. Ramsay, _Lancaster and York_ (Oxford, 1892);
+  C.W.C. Oman, _Warwick the Kingmaker_ (London, 1891). On the title
+  generally see G.E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898).
+
+
+
+
+CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, 1ST EARL OF (1609-1674), English historian and
+statesman, son of Henry Hyde of Dinton, Wiltshire, a member of a family
+for some time established at Norbury, Cheshire, was born on the 18th of
+February 1609. He entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1622 (having been
+refused a demyship at Magdalen College), and graduated B.A. in 1626.
+Intended originally for holy orders, the death of two elder brothers
+made him his father's heir, and in 1625 he entered the Middle Temple. At
+the university his abilities were more conspicuous than his industry,
+and at the bar his time was devoted more to general reading and to the
+society of eminent scholars and writers than to the study of law
+treatises. This wandering from the beaten track, however, was not
+without its advantages. In later years Clarendon declared "next the
+immediate blessing and providence of God Almighty" that he "owed all the
+little he knew and the little good that was in him to the friendships
+and conversation ... of the most excellent men in their several kinds
+that lived in that age."[1] These included Ben Jonson, Selden, Waller,
+Hales, and especially Lord Falkland; and from their influence and the
+wide reading in which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning
+and literary talent which afterwards distinguished him.
+
+In 1629 he married his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir George Ayliffe,
+who died six months afterwards; and secondly, in 1634, Frances, daughter
+of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests. In 1633 he was called to
+the bar, and obtained quickly a good position and practice. His
+marriages had gained for him influential friends, and in December 1634
+he was made keeper of the writs and rolls of the common pleas; while his
+able conduct of the petition of the London merchants against Portland
+earned Laud's approval. He was returned to the Short Parliament in 1640
+as member for Wootton Bassett. Respect and veneration for the law and
+constitution of England were already fundamental principles with Hyde,
+and the flagrant violations and perversions of the law which
+characterized the twelve preceding years of absolute rule drove him into
+the ranks of the popular party. He served on numerous and important
+committees, and his parliamentary action was directed chiefly towards
+the support and restoration of the law. He assailed the jurisdiction of
+the earl marshal's court, and in the Long Parliament, in which he sat
+for Saltash, renewed his attacks and practically effected its
+suppression. In 1641 he served on the committees for inquiring into the
+status of the councils of Wales and of the North, distinguished himself
+by a speech against the latter, and took an important part in the
+proceedings against the judges. He supported Stafford's impeachment, and
+did not vote against the attainder, subsequently making an unsuccessful
+attempt through Essex to avert the capital penalty.[2] Hyde's
+allegiance, however, to the church of England was as staunch as his
+support of the law, and was soon to separate him from the popular
+faction. In February 1641 he opposed the reception of the London
+petition against episcopacy, and in May the project for unity of
+religion with the Scots, and the bill for the exclusion of the clergy
+from secular office. He showed special energy in his opposition to the
+Root and Branch Bill, and, though made chairman of the committee on the
+bill on the 11th of July in order to silence his opposition, he caused
+by his successful obstruction the failure of the measure. In consequence
+he was summoned to the king's presence, and encouraged in his attitude,
+and at the beginning of the second session was regarded as one of the
+king's ablest supporters in the Commons. He considered the claims put
+forward at this time by parliament as a violation and not as a guarantee
+of the law and constitution. He opposed the demand by the parliament to
+choose the king's ministers, and also the Grand Remonstrance, to which
+he wrote a reply published by the king.
+
+He now definitely though not openly joined the royal cause, and refused
+office in January 1642 with Colepeper and Falkland in order to serve the
+king's interests more effectually. Charles undertook to do nothing in
+the Commons without their advice. Nevertheless a few days afterwards,
+without their knowledge and by the advice of Lord Digby, he attempted
+the arrest of the five members, a resort to force which reduced Hyde to
+despair, and which indeed seemed to show that things had gone too far
+for an appeal to the law. He persevered, nevertheless, in his legal
+policy, to which Charles after the failure of his project again
+returned, joined the king openly in June, and continued to compose the
+king's answers and declarations in which he appealed to the "known Laws
+of the land" against the arbitrary and illegal acts of a seditious
+majority in the parliament, his advice to the king being "to shelter
+himself wholly under the law, ... presuming that the king and the law
+together would have been strong enough for any encounter." Hyde's appeal
+had great influence, and gained for the king's cause half the nation. It
+by no means, however, met with universal support among the royalists,
+Hobbes jeering at Hyde's love for "mixed monarchy," and the courtiers
+expressing their disapproval of the "spirit of accommodation" which
+"wounded the regality." It was destined to failure owing principally to
+the invincible distrust of Charles created in the parliament leaders,
+and to the fact that Charles was simultaneously carrying on another and
+an inconsistent policy, listening to very different advisers, such as
+the queen and Digby, and resolving on measures (such as the attempt on
+Hull) without Hyde's knowledge or approval.
+
+War, accordingly, in spite of his efforts, broke out. He was expelled
+the House of Commons on the 11th of August 1642, and was one of those
+excepted later from pardon. He showed great activity in collecting
+loans, was present at Edgehill, though not as a combatant, and followed
+the king to Oxford, residing at All Souls College from October 1642 till
+March 1645. On the 22nd of February he was made a privy councillor and
+knighted, and on the 3rd of March appointed chancellor of the exchequer.
+He was an influential member of the "Junto" which met every week to
+discuss business before it was laid before the council. His aim was to
+gain over some of the leading Parliamentarians by personal influence and
+personal considerations, and at the Uxbridge negotiations in January
+1645, where he acted as principal manager on the king's side, while
+remaining firm on the great political questions such as the church and
+the militia, he tried to win individuals by promises of places and
+honours. He promoted the assembly of the Oxford parliament in December
+1643 as a counterpoise to the influence and status of the Long
+Parliament. Hyde's policy and measures, however, all failed. They had
+been weakly and irregularly supported by the king, and were fiercely
+opposed by the military party, who were jealous of the civil influence,
+and were urging Charles to trust to force and arms alone and eschew all
+compromise and concessions. Charles fell now under the influence of
+persons devoid of all legal and constitutional scruples, sending to
+Glamorgan in Ireland "those strange powers and instructions inexcusable
+to justice, piety and prudence."[3]
+
+Hyde's influence was much diminished, and on the 4th of March 1645 he
+left the king for Bristol as one of the guardians of the prince of Wales
+and governors of the west. Here the disputes between the council and the
+army paralysed the proceedings, and lost, according to Hyde, the finest
+opportunity since the outbreak of the war of raising a strong force and
+gaining substantial victories in that part of the country. After
+Hopton's defeat on the 16th of February 1646, at Torrington, Hyde
+accompanied the prince, on the 4th of March, to Scilly, and on the 17th
+of April, for greater security, to Jersey. He strongly disapproved of
+the prince's removal to France by the queen's order and of the schemes
+of assistance from abroad, refused to accompany him, and signed a bond
+to prevent the sale of Jersey to the French supported by Jermyn. He
+opposed the projected sacrifice of the church to the Scots and the grant
+by the king of any but personal or temporary concessions, declaring that
+peace was only possible "upon the old foundations of government in
+church and state." He was especially averse to Charles's tampering with
+the Irish Romanists. "Oh, Mr Secretary," he wrote to Nicholas, "those
+stratagems have given me more sad hours than all the misfortunes in war
+which have befallen the king and look like the effects of God's anger
+towards us."[4] He refused to compound for his own estate. While in
+Jersey he resided first at St Helier and afterwards at Elizabeth Castle
+with Sir George Carteret. He composed the first portion of his _History_
+and kept in touch with events by means of an enormous correspondence. In
+1648 he published _A Full answer to an infamous and traiterous
+Pamphlet..._, a reply to the resolution of the parliament to present no
+more addresses to the king and a vindication of Charles.
+
+On the outbreak of the second Civil War Hyde left Jersey (26th of June
+1648) to join the queen and prince at Paris. He landed at Dieppe, sailed
+from that port to Dunkirk, and thence followed the prince to the Thames,
+where Charles had met the fleet, but was captured and robbed by a
+privateer, and only joined the prince in September after the latter's
+return to the Hague. He strongly disapproved of the king's concessions
+at Newport. When the army broke off the treaty and brought Charles to
+trial he endeavoured to save his life, and after the execution drew up a
+letter to the several European sovereigns invoking their assistance to
+avenge it. Hyde strongly opposed Charles II.'s ignominious surrender to
+the Covenanters, the alliance with the Scots, and the Scottish
+expedition, desiring to accomplish whatever was possible there through
+Montrose and the royalists, and inclined rather to an attempt in
+Ireland. His advice was not followed, and he gladly accepted a mission
+with Cottington to Spain to obtain money from the Roman Catholic powers,
+and to arrange an alliance between Owen O'Neill and Ormonde for the
+recovery of Ireland, arriving at Madrid on the 26th of November 1649.
+The defeat, however, of Charles at Dunbar, and the confirmation of
+Cromwell's ascendancy, influenced the Spanish government against them,
+and they were ordered to leave in December 1650. Hyde arrived at Antwerp
+in January 1651, and in December rejoined Charles at Paris after the
+latter's escape from Worcester. He now became one of his chief advisers,
+accompanying him in his change of residence to Cologne in October 1654
+and to Bruges in 1658, and was appointed lord chancellor on the 13th of
+January 1658. His influence was henceforth maintained in spite of the
+intrigues of both Romanists and Presbyterians, as well as the violent
+and openly displayed hostility of the queen, and was employed
+unremittingly in the endeavour to keep Charles faithful to the church
+and constitution, and in the prevention of unwise concessions and
+promises which might estrange the general body of the royalists. His
+advice to Charles was to wait upon the turn of events, "that all his
+activity was to consist in carefully avoiding to do anything that might
+do him hurt and to expect some blessed conjuncture."[5] In 1656, during
+the war between England and Spain, Charles received offers of help from
+the latter power provided he could gain a port in England, but Hyde
+discouraged small isolated attempts. He expected much from Cromwell's
+death. The same year he made an alliance with the Levellers, and was
+informed of their plots to assassinate the protector, without apparently
+expressing any disapproval.[6] He was well supplied with information
+from England,[7] and guided the action of the royalists with great
+ability and wisdom during the interval between Cromwell's death and the
+Restoration, urged patience, and advocated the obstruction of a
+settlement between the factions contending for power and the fomentation
+of their jealousies, rather than premature risings.
+
+The Restoration was a complete triumph for Hyde's policy. He lays no
+stress on his own great part in it, but it was owing to him that the
+Restoration was a national one, by the consent and invitation of
+parliament representing the whole people and not through the medium of
+one powerful faction enforcing its will upon a minority, and that it was
+not only a restoration of Charles but a restoration of the monarchy. By
+Hyde's advice concessions to the inconvenient demands of special
+factions had been avoided by referring the decision to a "free
+parliament," and the declaration of Breda reserved for parliament the
+settlement of the questions of amnesty, religious toleration and the
+proprietorship of forfeited lands.
+
+Hyde entered London with the king, all attempts at effecting his fall
+having failed, and immediately obtained the chief place in the
+government, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer till the 13th
+of May 1661, when he surrendered it to Lord Ashley. He took his seat as
+speaker of the House of Lords and in the court of chancery on the 1st of
+June 1660. On the 3rd of November 1660 he was made Baron Hyde of Hindon,
+and on the 20th of April 1661 Viscount Cornbury and earl of Clarendon,
+receiving a grant from the king of £20,000 and at different times of
+various small estates and Irish rents. The marriage of his daughter Anne
+to James, duke of York, celebrated in secret in September 1660, at first
+alarmed Clarendon on account of the public hostility he expected thereby
+to incur, but finding his fears unconfirmed he acquiesced in its public
+recognition in December, and thus became related in a special manner to
+the royal family and the grandfather of two English sovereigns.[8]
+
+Clarendon's position was one of great difficulties, but at the same time
+of splendid opportunities. In particular a rare occasion now offered
+itself of settling the religious question on a broad principle of
+comprehension or toleration; for the monarchy had been restored not by
+the supporters of the church alone but largely by the influence and aid
+of the nonconformists and also of the Roman Catholics, who were all
+united at that happy moment by a common loyalty to the throne.
+Clarendon appears to have approved of comprehension but not of
+toleration. He had already in April 1660 sent to discuss terms with the
+leading Presbyterians in England, and after the Restoration offered
+bishoprics to several, including Richard Baxter. He drew up the royal
+declaration of October, promising limited episcopacy and a revised
+prayer-book and ritual, which was subsequently thrown out by parliament,
+and he appears to have anticipated some kind of settlement from the
+Savoy Conference which sat in April 1661. The failure of the latter
+proved perhaps that the differences were too great for compromise, and
+widened the breach. The parliament immediately proceeded to pass the
+series of narrow and tyrannical measures against the dissenters known as
+the Clarendon Code. The Corporations Act, obliging members of
+corporations to denounce the Covenant and take the sacrament according
+to the Anglican usage, became law on the 20th of December 1661, the Act
+of Uniformity enforcing the use of the prayer-book on ministers, as well
+as a declaration that it was unlawful to bear arms against the
+sovereign, on the 19th of May 1662, and these were followed by the
+Conventicle Act in 1664 suppressing conventicles and by the Five-Mile
+Act in 1665 forbidding ministers who had refused subscription to the Act
+of Uniformity to teach or reside within 5 m. of a borough. Clarendon
+appears to have reluctantly acquiesced in these civil measures rather
+than to have originated them, and to have endeavoured to mitigate their
+injustice and severity. He supported the continuance of the tenure by
+presbyterian ministers of livings not held by Anglicans and an amendment
+in the Lords allowing a pension to those deprived, earning the gratitude
+of Baxter and the nonconformists. On the 17th of March 1662 he
+introduced into parliament a declaration enabling the king to dispense
+with the Act of Uniformity in the case of ministers of merit.[9] But
+once committed to the narrow policy of intolerance, Clarendon was
+inevitably involved in all its consequences. His characteristic respect
+for the law and constitution rendered him hostile to the general policy
+of indulgence, which, though the favourite project of the king, he
+strongly opposed in the Lords, and in the end caused its withdrawal. He
+declared that he could have wished the law otherwise, "but when it was
+passed, he thought it absolutely necessary to see obedience paid to it
+without any connivance."[10] Charles was greatly angered. It was
+believed in May 1663 that the intrigues of Bennet and Buckingham, who
+seized the opportunity of ingratiating themselves with the king by
+zealously supporting the indulgence, had secured Clarendon's dismissal,
+and in July Bristol ventured to accuse him of high treason in the
+parliament; but the attack, which did not receive the king's support,
+failed entirely and only ended in the banishment from court of its
+promoter. Clarendon's opposition to the court policy in this way
+acquired a personal character, and he was compelled to identify himself
+more completely with the intolerant measures of the House of Commons.
+Though not the originator of the Conventicle Act or of the Five-Mile
+Act, he has recorded his approval,[11] and he ended by taking alarm at
+plots and rumours and by regarding the great party of nonconformists,
+through whose co-operation the monarchy had been restored, as a danger
+to the state whose "faction was their religion."[12]
+
+Meanwhile Clarendon's influence and direction had been predominant in
+nearly all departments of state. He supported the exception of the
+actual regicides from the Indemnity, but only ten out of the twenty-six
+condemned were executed, and Clarendon, with the king's support,
+prevented the passing of a bill in 1661 for the execution of thirteen
+more. He upheld the Act of Indemnity against all the attempts of the
+royalists to upset it. The conflicting claims to estates were left to be
+decided by the law. The confiscations of the usurping government
+accordingly were cancelled, while the properly executed transactions
+between individuals were necessarily upheld. There can be little doubt
+that the principle followed was the only safe one in the prevailing
+confusion. Great injustice was indeed suffered by individuals, but the
+proper remedy of such injustice was the benevolence of the king, which
+there is too much reason to believe proved inadequate and partial. The
+settlement of the church lands which was directed by Clarendon presented
+equal difficulties and involved equal hardships. In settling Scotland
+Clarendon's aim was to make that kingdom dependent upon England and to
+uphold the Cromwellian union. He proposed to establish a council at
+Whitehall to govern Scottish affairs, and showed great zeal in
+endeavouring to restore episcopacy through the medium of Archbishop
+Sharp. His influence, however, ended with the ascendancy of Lauderdale
+in 1663. He was, to some extent at least, responsible for the settlement
+in Ireland, but, while anxious for an establishment upon a solid
+Protestant basis, urged "temper and moderation and justice" in securing
+it. He supported Ormonde's wise and enlightened Irish administration,
+and in particular opposed persistently the prohibition of the import of
+Irish cattle into England, incurring thereby great unpopularity. He
+showed great activity in the advancement of the colonies, to whom he
+allowed full freedom of religion. He was a member of the council for
+foreign plantations, and one of the eight lords proprietors of Carolina
+in 1663; and in 1664 sent a commission to settle disputes in New
+England. In the department of foreign affairs he had less influence. His
+policy was limited to the maintenance of peace "necessary for the
+reducing [the king's] own dominions into that temper of subjection and
+obedience as they ought to be in."[13] In 1664 he demanded, on behalf of
+Charles, French support, and a loan of £50,000 against disturbance at
+home, and thus initiated that ignominious system of pensions and
+dependence upon France which proved so injurious to English interests
+later. But he was the promoter neither of the sale of Dunkirk on the
+27th of October 1662, the author of which seems to have been the earl of
+Sandwich,[14] nor of the Dutch War. He attached considerable value to
+the possession of the former, but when its sale was decided he conducted
+the negotiations and effected the bargain. He had zealously laboured for
+peace with Holland, and had concluded a treaty for the settlement of
+disputes on the 4th of September 1662. Commercial and naval jealousies,
+however, soon involved the two states in hostilities. Cape Corso and
+other Dutch possessions on the coast of Africa, and New Amsterdam in
+America, were seized by squadrons from the royal navy in 1664, and
+hostilities were declared on the 22nd of February 1665. Clarendon now
+gave his support to the war, asserted the extreme claims of the English
+crown over the British seas, and contemplated fresh cessions from the
+Dutch and an alliance with Sweden and Spain. According to his own
+account he initiated the policy of the Triple Alliance,[15] but it seems
+clear that his inclination towards France continued in spite of the
+intervention of the latter state in favour of Holland; and he took part
+in the negotiations for ending the war by an undertaking with Louis XIV.
+implying a neutrality, while the latter seized Flanders. The crisis in
+this feeble foreign policy and in the general official mismanagement was
+reached in June 1667, when the Dutch burnt several ships at Chatham and
+when "the roar of foreign guns were heard for the first and last time by
+the citizens of London."[16]
+
+The whole responsibility for the national calamity and disgrace, and for
+the ignominious peace which followed it, was unjustly thrown on the
+shoulders of Clarendon, though it must be admitted that the disjointed
+state of the administration and want of control over foreign policy were
+largely the causes of the disaster, and for these Clarendon's influence
+and obstruction of official reforms were to some extent answerable.
+According to Sir William Coventry, whose opinion has weight and who
+acknowledges the chancellor's fidelity to the king, while Clarendon "was
+so great at the council board and in the administration of matters, there
+was no room for anybody to propose any remedy to what was remiss ... he
+managing all things with that greatness which will now be removed."[17] He
+disapproved of the system of boards and committees instituted during the
+Commonwealth, as giving too much power to the parliament, and regarded the
+administration by the great officers of state, to the exclusion of pure
+men of business, as the only method compatible with the dignity and
+security of the monarchy. The lowering of the prestige of the privy
+council, and its subordination first to the parliament and afterwards to
+the military faction, he considered as one of the chief causes of the fall
+of Charles I. He aroused a strong feeling of hostility in the Commons by
+his opposition to the appropriation of supplies in 1665, and to the audit
+of the war accounts in 1666, as "an introduction to a commonwealth" and as
+"a new encroachment," and by his high tone of prerogative and authority,
+while by his advice to Charles to prorogue parliament he incurred their
+resentment and gave colour to the accusation that he had advised the king
+to govern without parliaments. He was unpopular among all classes, among
+the royalists on account of the Act of Indemnity, among the Presbyterians
+because of the Act of Uniformity. It was said that he had invented the
+maxim "that the king should buy and reward his enemies and do little for
+his friends, because they are his already."[18] Every kind of
+maladministration was currently ascribed to him, of designs to govern by a
+standing army, and of corruption. He was credited with having married
+Charles purposely to a barren queen in order to raise his own
+grandchildren to the throne, with having sold Dunkirk to France, and his
+magnificent house in St James's was nicknamed "Dunkirk House," while on
+the day of the Dutch attack on Chatham the mob set up a gibbet at his gate
+and broke his windows. He had always been exceedingly unpopular at court,
+and kept severely aloof from the revels and licence which reigned there.
+Evelyn names "the buffoons and the misses to whom he was an eyesore."[19]
+He was intensely disliked by the royal mistresses, whose favour he did not
+condescend to seek, and whose presence and influence were often the
+subject of his reproaches.[20] A party of younger men of the king's own
+age, more congenial to his temperament, and eager to drive the old
+chancellor from power and to succeed him in office, had for some time been
+endeavouring to undermine his influence by ridicule and intrigue.
+Surrounded by such general and violent animosity, Clarendon's only hope
+could be in the support of the king. But the chancellor had early and
+accurately gauged the nature and extent of the king's attachment to him,
+which proceeded neither from affection nor gratitude but "from his
+aversion to be troubled with the intricacies of his affairs," and in 1661
+he had resisted the importunities of Ormonde to resign the great seal for
+the lord treasurership with the rank of "first minister," "a title newly
+translated out of French into English," on account of the obloquy this
+position would incur and the further dependence which it entailed upon the
+inconstant king.[21] Charles, long weary of the old chancellor's rebukes,
+was especially incensed at this time owing to his failure in securing
+Frances Stuart (la Belle Stuart) for his seraglio, a disappointment which
+he attributed to Clarendon, and was now alarmed by the hostility which his
+administration had excited. He did not scruple to sacrifice at once the
+old adherent of his house and fortunes. "The truth is," he wrote Ormonde,
+"his behaviour and humour was grown so insupportable to myself and all the
+world else that I could no longer endure it, and it was impossible for me
+to live with it and do these things with the Parliament that must be done,
+or the government will be lost."[22] By the direction of Charles, James
+advised Clarendon to resign before the meeting of parliament, but in an
+interview with the king on the 26th of August Clarendon refused to deliver
+up the seal unless dismissed, and urged him not to take a step ruinous to
+the interests both of the chancellor himself and of the crown.[23] He
+could not believe his dismissal was really intended, but on the 30th of
+August he was deprived of the great seal, for which the king received the
+thanks of the parliament on the 16th of October. On the 12th of November
+his impeachment, consisting of various charges of arbitrary government,
+corruption and maladministration, was brought up to the Lords, but the
+latter refused to order his committal, on the ground that the Commons had
+only accused him of treason in general without specifying any particular
+charge. Clarendon wrote humbly to the king asking for pardon, and that the
+prosecution might be prevented, but Charles had openly taken part against
+him, and, though desiring his escape, would not order or assist his
+departure for fear of the Commons. Through the bishop of Hereford,
+however, on the 29th of November he pressed Clarendon to fly, promising
+that he should not during his absence suffer in his honour or fortune.
+Clarendon embarked the same night for Calais, where he arrived on the 2nd
+of December. The Lords immediately passed an act for his banishment and
+ordered the petition forwarded by him to parliament to be burnt.
+
+The rest of Clarendon's life was passed in exile. He left Calais for
+Rouen on the 25th of December, returning on the 21st of January 1668,
+visiting the baths of Bourbon in April, thence to Avignon in June,
+residing from July 1668 till June 1671 at Montpellier, whence he
+proceeded to Moulins and to Rouen again in May 1674. His sudden
+banishment entailed great personal hardships. His health at the time of
+his flight was much impaired, and on arriving at Calais he fell
+dangerously ill; and Louis XIV., anxious at this time to gain popularity
+in England, sent him peremptory and repeated orders to quit France. He
+suffered severely from gout, and during the greater part of his exile
+could not walk without the aid of two men. At Evreux, on the 23rd of
+April 1668, he was the victim of a murderous assault by English sailors,
+who attributed to him the non-payment of their wages, and who were on
+the point of despatching him when he was rescued by the guard. For some
+time he was not allowed to see any of his children; even correspondence
+with him was rendered treasonable by the Act of Banishment; and it was
+not apparently till 1671, 1673 and 1674 that he received visits from his
+sons, the younger, Lawrence Hyde, being present with him at his death.
+
+Clarendon bore his troubles with great dignity and fortitude. He found
+consolation in religious duties, and devoted a portion of every day to
+the composition of his _Contemplations on the Psalms_, and of his moral
+essays. Removed effectually from the public scene, and from all share in
+present politics, he turned his attention once more to the past and
+finished his _History_ and his _Autobiography_. Soon after reaching
+Calais he had written, on the 17th of December 1667, to the university
+of Oxford, desiring as his last request that the university should
+believe in his innocence and remember him, though there could be no
+further mention of him in their public devotions, in their private
+prayers.[24] In 1668 he wrote to the duke and duchess of York to
+remonstrate on the report that they had turned Roman Catholic, to the
+former urging "You cannot be without zeal for the Church to which your
+blessed father made himself a sacrifice," adding that such a change
+would bring a great storm against the Romanists. He entertained to the
+last hopes of obtaining leave to return to England. He asked for
+permission in June 1671 and in August 1674. In the dedication of his
+_Brief View of Mr Hobbes's Book Leviathan_ he repeats "the hope which
+sustains my weak, decayed spirits that your Majesty will at some time
+call to your remembrance my long and incorrupted fidelity to your person
+and your service"; but his petitions were not even answered or noticed.
+He died at Rouen on the 9th of December 1674. He was buried in
+Westminster Abbey at the foot of the steps at the entrance to Henry
+VII.'s chapel. He left two sons, Henry, 2nd earl of Clarendon, and
+Lawrence, earl of Rochester, his daughter Anne, duchess of York, and a
+third son, Edward, having predeceased him. His male descendants became
+extinct on the death of the 4th earl of Clarendon and 2nd earl of
+Rochester in 1753, the title of Clarendon being revived in 1776 in the
+person of Thomas Villiers, who had married the granddaughter and heir of
+the last earl.
+
+As a statesman Clarendon had obvious limitations and failings. He
+brought to the consideration of political questions an essentially legal
+but also a narrow mind, conceiving the law, "that great and admirable
+mystery," and the constitution as fixed, unchangeable and sufficient for
+all time, in contrast to Pym, who regarded them as living organisms
+capable of continual development and evolution; and he was incapable of
+comprehending and governing the new conditions and forces created by the
+civil wars. His character, however, and therefore to some extent his
+career, bear the indelible marks of greatness. He left the popular cause
+at the moment of its triumph and showed in so doing a strict
+consistency. In a court degraded by licence and self-indulgence, he
+maintained his self-respect and personal dignity regardless of
+consequences, and in an age of almost universal corruption and
+self-seeking he preserved a noble integrity and patriotism. At the
+Restoration he showed great moderation in accepting rewards. He refused
+a grant of 10,000 acres in the Fens from the king on the ground that it
+would create an evil precedent, and amused Charles and James by his
+indignation at the offer of a present of £10,000 from the French
+minister Fouquet, the only present he accepted from Louis XIV. being a
+set of books printed at the Louvre. His income, however, as lord
+chancellor was very large, and Clarendon maintained considerable state,
+considering it due to the dignity of the monarchy that the high officers
+should carry the external marks of greatness. The house built by him in
+St James's was one of the most magnificent ever seen in England, and was
+filled with a collection of portraits, chiefly those of contemporary
+statesmen and men of letters. It cost Clarendon £50,000, involved him
+deeply in debt and was considered one of the chief causes of the "gust
+of envy" that caused his fall.[25] He is described as "a fair, ruddy,
+fat, middle-statured, handsome man," and his appearance was stately and
+dignified. He expected deference from his inferiors, and one of the
+chief charges which he brought against the party of the young
+politicians was the want of respect with which they treated himself and
+the lord treasurer. His industry and devotion to public business, of
+which proofs still remain in the enormous mass of his state papers and
+correspondence, were exemplary, and were rendered all the more
+conspicuous by the negligence, inferiority in business, and frivolity of
+his successors. As lord chancellor Clarendon made no great impression in
+the court of chancery. His early legal training had long been
+interrupted, and his political preoccupations probably rendered
+necessary the delegation of many of his judicial duties to others.
+According to Speaker Onslow his decrees were always made with the aid of
+two judges. Burnet praises him, however, as "a very good chancellor,
+only a little too rough but very impartial in the administration of
+justice," and Pepys, who saw him presiding in his court, perceived him
+to be "a most able and ready man."[26] According to Evelyn, "though no
+considerable lawyer" he was "one who kept up the fame and substance of
+things in the nation with ... solemnity." He made good appointments to
+the bench and issued some important orders for the reform of abuses in
+his court.[27] As chancellor of Oxford University, to which office he
+was elected on the 27th of October 1660, Clarendon promoted the
+restoration of order and various educational reforms. In 1753 his
+manuscripts were left to the university by his great-grandson Lord
+Cornbury, and in 1868 the money gained by publication was spent in
+erecting the Clarendon Laboratory, the profits of the _History_ having
+provided in 1713 a building for the university press adjoining the
+Sheldonian theatre, known since the removal of the press to its present
+quarters as the Clarendon Building.
+
+Clarendon had risen to high office largely through his literary and
+oratorical gifts. His eloquence was greatly admired by Evelyn and
+Pepys, though Burnet criticises it as too copious. He was a great lover
+of books and collected a large library, was well read in the Roman and
+in the contemporary histories both foreign and English, and could
+appreciate Carew, Ben Jonson and Cowley. As a writer and historian
+Clarendon occupies a high place in English literature. His great work,
+the _History of the Rebellion_, is composed in the grand style. A
+characteristic feature is the wonderful series of well-known portraits,
+drawn with great skill and liveliness and especially praised by Evelyn
+and by Macaulay. The long digressions, the lengthy sentences, and the
+numerous parentheses do not accord with modern taste and usage, but it
+may be observed that these often follow more closely the natural
+involutions of the thought, and express the argument more clearly, than
+the short disconnected sentences, now generally employed, while in
+rhythm and dignity Clarendon's style is immeasurably superior. The
+composition, however, of the work as a whole is totally wanting in
+proportion, and the book is overloaded with state papers, misplaced and
+tedious in the narrative. In considering the accuracy of the history it
+is important to remember the dates and circumstances of the composition
+of its various portions. The published _History_ is mainly a compilation
+of two separate original manuscripts, the first being the history
+proper, written between 1646 and 1648, with the advantage of a fresh
+memory and the help of various documents and authorities, and ending in
+March 1644, and the second being the _Life_, extending from 1609 to
+1660, but composed long afterwards in exile and without the aid of
+papers between 1668 and 1670. The value of any statement, therefore, in
+the published _History_ depends chiefly on whether it is taken from the
+_History_ proper or the _Life_. In 1671 these two manuscripts were
+united by Clarendon with certain alterations and modifications making
+Books i.-vii. of the published _History_, while Books viii.-xv. were
+written subsequently, and, being composed for the most part without
+materials, are generally inaccurate, with the notable exception of Book
+ix., made up from two narratives written at Jersey in 1646, and
+containing very little from the _Life_. Sincerity and honest conviction
+are present on every page, and the inaccuracies are due not to wilful
+misrepresentation, but to failure of memory and to the disadvantages
+under which the author laboured in exile. But they lessen considerably
+the value of his work, and detract from his reputation as chronicler of
+contemporary events, for which he was specially fitted by his practical
+experience in public business, a qualification declared by himself to be
+the "genius, spirit and soul of an historian." In general, Clarendon,
+like many of his contemporaries, failed signally to comprehend the real
+issues and principles at stake in the great struggle, laying far too
+much stress on personalities and never understanding the real aims and
+motives of the Presbyterian party. The work was first published in
+1702-1704 from a copy of a transcript made by Clarendon's secretary,
+with a few unimportant alterations, and was the object of a violent
+attack by John Oldmixon for supposed changes and omissions in _Clarendon
+and Whitelocke compared_ (1727) and again in a preface to his _History
+of England_ (1730), repelled and refuted by John Burton in the
+_Genuineness of Lord Clarendon's History Vindicated_ (1744). The history
+was first published from the original in 1826; the best edition being
+that of 1888 edited by W.D. Macray and issued by the Clarendon Press.
+_The Lord Clarendon's History ... Compleated_, a supplement containing
+portraits and illustrative papers, was published in 1717, and _An
+Appendix to the History_, containing a life, speeches and various
+pieces, in 1724. The _Sutherland Clarendon_ in the Bodleian library at
+Oxford contains several thousand portraits and illustrations of the
+_History_. _The Life of Edward, earl of Clarendon ... [and the]
+Continuation of the History ..._, the first consisting of that portion
+of the _Life_ not included in the _History_, and the second of the
+account of Clarendon's administration and exile in France, begun in
+1672, was published in 1759, the _History of the Reign of King Charles
+II. from the Restoration ..._, published about 1755, being a
+surreptitious edition of this work, of which the latest and best edition
+is that of the Clarendon Press of 1857.
+
+Clarendon was also the author of _The Difference and Disparity between
+the Estate and Condition of George, duke of Buckingham and Robert, earl
+of Essex_, a youthful production vindicating Buckingham, printed in
+_Reliquiae Wottonianae_ (1672), i. 184; _Animadversions on a Book
+entitled Fanaticism_ (1673); _A Brief View ... of the dangerous ...
+errors in ... Mr Hobbes's book entitled "Leviathan"_ (1676); _The
+History of the Rebellion and Civil War in Ireland_ (1719); _A Collection
+of Several Pieces of Edward, earl of Clarendon_, containing reprints of
+speeches from the journals of the House of Lords and of the History of
+the Rebellion in Ireland (1727); _A Collection of Several Tracts_
+containing his _Vindication_ in answer to his impeachment, _Reflections
+upon several Christian Duties, Two Dialogues on Education and on the
+want of Respect due to age_, and _Contemplations on the Psalms_ (1727);
+_Religion and Policy_ (1811); _Essays moral and entertaining on the
+various faculties and passions of the human mind_ (1815, and in _British
+Prose Writers_, 1819, vol. i.); _Speeches_ in _Rushworth's Collections_
+(1692), pt. iii. vol. i. 230, 333; _Declarations and Manifestos_
+(Clarendon being the author of nearly all on the king's side between
+March 1642 and March 1645, the first being the answer to the Grand
+Remonstrance in January 1642, but not of the answer to the XIX.
+Propositions or the apology for the King's attack upon Brentford) in the
+published _History_, Rushworth's _Collections_, E. Husband's
+_Collections of Ordinances and Declarations_ (1646), _Old Parliamentary
+History_ (1751-1762), _Somers Tracts, State Tracts, Harleian Miscellany,
+Thomasson Tracts_ (Brit. Mus.), E. 157 (14); and a large number of
+anonymous pamphlets aimed against the parliament, including
+_Transcendent and Multiplied Rebellion and Treason_ (1645), _A Letter
+from a True and Lawful Member of Parliament ... to one of the Lords of
+his Highness's Council_ (1656), and _Two Speeches made in the House of
+Peers on Monday 19th Dec._ [1642] ... (_Somers Tracts_, Scott, vi. 576);
+_Second Thoughts_ (n.d., in favour of a limited toleration) is ascribed
+to him in the Catalogue in the British Museum; _A Letter ... to one of
+the Chief Ministers of the Nonconforming Party_ ... (Saumur, 7th May
+1674) has been attributed to him on insufficient evidence.
+
+Clarendon's correspondence, amounting to over 100 volumes, is in the
+Bodleian library at Oxford, and other letters are to be found in
+_Additional MSS._ in the British Museum. Selections have been published
+under the title of _State Papers Collected by Edward, earl of Clarendon_
+(Clarendon State Papers) between 1767 and 1786, and the collection has
+been calendared up to 1657 in 1869, 1872, 1876. Other letters of
+Clarendon are to be found in Lister's _Life of Clarendon, iii.; Nicholas
+Papers_ (Camden Soc., 1886); _Diary_ of J. Evelyn, _appendix_; Sir R.
+Fanshaw's _Original Letters_ (1724); Warburton's _Life of Prince Rupert_
+(1849): Barwick's _Life of Barwick_ (1724); _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 10th Rep.
+pt. vi. pp. 193-216, and in the _Harleian Miscellany_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Clarendon's autobiographical works and Letters
+  enumerated above, and the MS. Collection in the Bodleian library. The
+  Lives of Clarendon by T.H. Lister (1838), and by C.H. Firth in the
+  _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ (with authorities there collected),
+  completely supersede all earlier accounts including that in _Lives of
+  All the Lord Chancellors_ (1708), in Macdiarmid's _Lives of British
+  Statesmen_ (1807), and in the different Lives by Wood in _Athenae
+  Oxonienses_ (Bliss), iii. 1018; while those in J.H. Browne's _Lives of
+  the Prime Ministers of England_ (1858), in Lodge's _Portraits_, in
+  Lord Campbell's _Lives of the Chancellors_, iii. 110 (1845), and in
+  Foss's _Judges_, supply no further information. In _Historical
+  Inquiries respecting the Character of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon_,
+  various charges against Clarendon were collected by G.A. Ellis (1827)
+  and answered by Lister, vol. ii. 529, and by Lady Th. Lewis in _Lives
+  of the Contemporaries of Lord Clarendon_ (1852), i. preface pt. i. For
+  criticisms of the _History_ see Gardiner's _Civil Wars_ (1893), iii.
+  121; Ranke's _Hist. of England_, vi. 3-29; _Die Politik Karls des
+  Ersten_ ... _und Lord Clarendon's Darstellung_, by A. Buff (1868);
+  article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ by C.H. Firth, and especially a
+  series of admirable articles by the same author in the _Eng. Hist.
+  Review_ (1904). For description of the MS., Macray's edition of the
+  _History_ (1888), Lady Th. Lewis's _Lives from the Clarendon Gallery_,
+  i. introd. pt. ii.; for list of earlier editions, _Ath. Oxon._ (Bliss)
+  iii. 1017. Lord Lansdowne defends Sir R. Granville against Clarendon's
+  strictures in the _Vindication (Genuine Works of G. Granville, Lord
+  Lansdowne, i. 503 [1732])_, and Lord Ashburnham defends John
+  Ashburnham in _A Narrative by John Ashburnham_ (1830). See also _Notes
+  at Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and the Earl of
+  Clarendon_ (Roxburghe Club. 1896); _General Orders of the High Court
+  of Chancery_, by J. Beames (1815), 147-221; S.R. Gardiner's _Hist. of
+  England, of the Civil War and of the Commonwealth; Lord Clarendon_, by
+  A. Chassant (account of the assault at Evreux) (1891); _Annals of the
+  Bodleian Library_, by W.D. Macray (1868); Masson's _Life of Milton_;
+  _Life of Sir G. Savile_, by H.C. Foxcroft (1898); _Cal. of St. Pap.
+  Dom._, esp. 1667-1668, 58, 354, 370; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, MSS. of
+  J.M. Heathcote_ and _Various Collections_, vol. ii.; _Add. MSS._ in
+  the British Museum; _Notes and Queries_, 6 ser. v. 283, 9 ser. xi.
+  182, 1 ser. ix. 7; Pepys's _Diary_; J. Evelyn's _Diary and
+  Correspondence_; Gen. Catalogue in British Museum; _Edward Hyde, earl
+  of Clarendon_ (1909), a lecture delivered at Oxford during the
+  Clarendon centenary by C.H. Firth.    (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Life_, i. 25.
+
+  [2] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, iii. 164, the account being
+    substantially accepted by Gardiner, in spite of inaccuracies in
+    details (_Hist._ ix. 341, note).
+
+  [3] _Clarendon St. Pap._ ii. 337.
+
+  [4] Ibid.
+
+  [5] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, xiii. 140.
+
+  [6] _Clarendon State Papers_, iii. 316, 325, 341, 343.
+
+  [7] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham_, 227.
+
+  [8] Anne Hyde (1637-1671), eldest daughter of the chancellor, was the
+    mother by James of Queen Mary and Queen Anne, besides six other
+    children, including four sons who all died in infancy. She became a
+    Roman Catholic in 1670 shortly before her death, and was buried in
+    the vault of Mary, queen of Scots, in Henry VII.'s chapel in
+    Westminster Abbey.
+
+  [9] See _Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various Collections_, ii. 118, and _MSS.
+    of Duke of Somerset_, 94.
+
+  [10] _Continuation_, 339.
+
+  [11] Ib. 511, 776.
+
+  [12] Lister's _Life of Clarendon_, ii. 295; _Hist. MSS. Comm.:
+    Various Collections_, ii. 379.
+
+  [13] _Continuation_, 1170.
+
+  [14] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham_, 250.
+
+  [15] _Continuation_, 1066.
+
+  [16] Macaulay's _Hist. of England_, i. 193.
+
+  [17] Pepys's _Diary_, Sept. 2, 1667.
+
+  [18] _Hist. MSS. Comm._, 7th Rep. 162.
+
+  [19] _Diary_, iii. 95, 96.
+
+  [20] _Lives from the Clarendon Gallery_, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 39;
+    Burnet's _Hist. of his own Times_, i. 209.
+
+  [21] _Continuation_, 88.
+
+  [22] Lister's _Life of Clarendon_, ii. 416.
+
+  [23] _Continuation_, 1137.
+
+  [24] _Clarendon St. Pap._ iii. Suppl. xxxvii.
+
+  [25] Evelyn witnessed its demolition in 1683--_Diary_, May 19th, Sept.
+    18th; _Lives from the Clarendon Gallery_, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 40.
+
+  [26] _Diary_, July 14th, 1664.
+
+  [27] _Lister_, ii. 528.
+
+
+
+
+CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS, 4TH EARL OF (in the
+Villiers line) (1800-1870), English diplomatist and statesman, was born
+in London on the 12th of January 1800. He was the eldest son of Hon.
+George Villiers (1750-1827), youngest son of the 1st earl of Clarendon
+(second creation), by Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord
+Boringdon, and granddaughter of the first Lord Grantham. The earldom of
+the lord chancellor Clarendon became extinct in the Hyde line by the
+death of the 4th earl, his last male descendant. Jane Hyde, countess of
+Essex, the sister of that nobleman (she died in 1724), left two
+daughters; of these the eldest, Lady Charlotte, became heiress of the
+Hyde family. She married Thomas Villiers (1709-1786), second son of the
+2nd earl of Jersey, who served with distinction as English minister in
+Germany, and in 1776 the earldom of Clarendon was revived in his favour.
+The connexion with the Hyde family was therefore in the female line and
+somewhat remote. But a portion of the pictures and plate of the great
+chancellor was preserved to this branch of the family, and remains at
+The Grove, their family seat at Hertfordshire. The 2nd and 3rd earls
+were sons of the 1st, and, neither of them having sons, the title
+passed, on the death of the 3rd earl (John Charles) in 1838, to their
+younger brother's son.
+
+Young George Villiers entered upon life in circumstances which gave
+small promise of the brilliancy of his future career. He was well born;
+he was heir presumptive to an earldom; and his mother was a woman of
+great energy, admirable good sense, and high feeling. But the means of
+his family were contracted; his education was desultory and incomplete;
+he had not the advantages of a training either at a public school or in
+the House of Commons. He went up to Cambridge at the early age of
+sixteen, and entered St John's College on the 29th of June 1816. In
+1820, as the eldest son of an earl's brother with royal descent, he was
+enabled to take his M.A. degree under the statutes of the university
+then in force. In the same year he was appointed attaché to the British
+embassy at St Petersburg, where he remained three years, and gained that
+practical knowledge of diplomacy which was of so much use to him in
+after-life. He had received from nature a singularly handsome person, a
+polished and engaging address, a ready command of languages, and a
+remarkable power of composition.
+
+Upon his return to England in 1823 he was appointed to a
+commissionership of customs, an office which he retained for about ten
+years. In 1831 he was despatched to France to negotiate a commercial
+treaty, which, however, led to no result. On the 16th of August 1833 he
+was appointed minister at the court of Spain. Ferdinand VII. died within
+a month of his arrival at Madrid, and the infant queen Isabella, then in
+the third year of her age, was placed by the old Spanish law of female
+inheritance on her contested throne. Don Carlos, the late king's
+brother, claimed the crown by virtue of the Salic law of the House of
+Bourbon which Ferdinand had renounced before the birth of his daughter.
+Isabella II. and her mother Christina, the queen regent, became the
+representatives of constitutional monarchy, Don Carlos of Catholic
+absolutism. The conflict which had divided the despotic and the
+constitutional powers of Europe since the French Revolution of 1830
+broke out into civil war in Spain, and by the Quadruple Treaty, signed
+on the 22nd of April 1834, France and England pledged themselves to the
+defence of the constitutional thrones of Spain and Portugal. For six
+years Villiers continued to give the most active and intelligent support
+to the Liberal government of Spain. He was accused, though unjustly, of
+having favoured the revolution of La Granja, which drove Christina, the
+queen mother, out of the kingdom, and raised Espartero to the regency.
+He undoubtedly supported the chiefs of the Liberal party, such as
+Espartero, against the intrigues of the French court; but the object of
+the British government was to establish the throne of Isabella on a
+truly national and liberal basis and to avert those complications,
+dictated by foreign influence, which eventually proved so fatal to that
+princess. Villiers received the grand cross of the Bath in 1838 in
+acknowledgment of his services, and succeeded, on the death of his
+uncle, to the title of earl of Clarendon; in the following year, having
+left Madrid, he married Katharine, eldest daughter of James Walter,
+first earl of Verulam.
+
+In January 1840 he entered Lord Melbourne's administration as lord privy
+seal, and from the death of Lord Holland in the autumn of that year Lord
+Clarendon also held the office of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
+until the dissolution of the ministry in 1841. Deeply convinced that the
+maintenance of a cordial understanding with France was the most
+essential condition of peace and of a liberal policy in Europe, he
+reluctantly concurred in the measures proposed by Lord Palmerston for
+the expulsion of the pasha of Egypt from Syria; he strenuously
+advocated, with Lord Holland, a more conciliatory policy towards France;
+and he was only restrained from sending in his resignation by the
+dislike he felt to break up a cabinet he had so recently joined.
+
+The interval of Sir Robert Peel's great administration (1841-1846) was
+to the leaders of the Whig party a period of repose; but Lord Clarendon
+took the warmest interest in the triumph of the principles of free trade
+and in the repeal of the corn-laws, of which his brother, Charles Pelham
+Villiers (q.v.), had been one of the earliest champions. For this
+reason, upon the formation of Lord John Russell's first administration,
+Lord Clarendon accepted the office of president of the Board of Trade.
+Twice in his career the governor-generalship of India was offered him,
+and once the governor-generalship of Canada;--these he refused from
+reluctance to withdraw from the politics of Europe. But in 1847 a sense
+of duty compelled him to take a far more laborious and uncongenial
+appointment. The desire of the cabinet was to abolish the
+lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, and Lord Clarendon was prevailed upon to
+accept that office, with a view to transform it ere long into an Irish
+secretaryship of state. But he had not been many months in Dublin before
+he acknowledged that the difficulties then existing in Ireland could
+only be met by the most vigilant and energetic authority, exercised on
+the spot. The crisis was one of extraordinary peril. Agrarian crimes of
+horrible atrocity had increased threefold. The Catholic clergy were
+openly disaffected. This was the second year of the Irish famine, and
+extraordinary measures were required to regulate the bounty of the
+government and the nation. In 1848 the revolution in France let loose
+fresh elements of discord, which culminated in an abortive insurrection,
+and for a lengthened period Ireland was a prey to more than her wonted
+symptoms of disaffection and disorder. Lord Clarendon remained viceroy
+of Ireland till 1852, and left behind him permanent marks of
+improvement. His services were expressly acknowledged in the queen's
+speech to both Houses of Parliament on the 5th of September 1848--this
+being the first time that any _civil_ services obtained that honour; and
+he was made a knight of the Garter (retaining also the grand cross of
+the Bath by special order) on the 23rd of March 1849.
+
+Upon the formation of the coalition ministry between the Whigs and the
+Peelites, in 1853, under Lord Aberdeen, Lord Clarendon became foreign
+minister. The country was already "drifting" into the Crimean War, an
+expression of his own which was never forgotten. Clarendon was not
+responsible for the policy which brought war about; but when it occurred
+he employed every means in his power to stimulate and assist the war
+departments, and above all he maintained the closest relations with the
+French. The tsar Nicholas had speculated on the impossibility of the
+sustained joint action of France and England in council and in the
+field. It was mainly by Lord Clarendon at Whitehall and by Lord Raglan
+before Sevastopol that such a combination was rendered practicable, and
+did eventually triumph over the enemy. The diplomatic conduct of such an
+alliance for three years between two great nations jealous of their
+military honour and fighting for no separate political advantage, tried
+by excessive hardships and at moments on the verge of defeat, was
+certainly one of the most arduous duties ever performed by a minister.
+The result was due in the main to the confidence with which Lord
+Clarendon had inspired the emperor of the French, and to the affection
+and regard of the empress, whom he had known in Spain from her
+childhood.
+
+In 1856 Lord Clarendon took his seat at the congress of Paris convoked
+for the restoration of peace, as first British plenipotentiary. It was
+the first time since the appearance of Lord Castlereagh at Vienna that a
+secretary of state for foreign affairs had been present in person at a
+congress on the continent. Lord Clarendon's first care was to obtain the
+admission of Italy to the council chamber as a belligerent power, and to
+raise the barrier which still excluded Prussia as a neutral one. But in
+the general anxiety of all the powers to terminate the war there was no
+small danger that the objects for which it had been undertaken would be
+abandoned or forgotten. It is due entirely to the firmness of Lord
+Clarendon that the principle of the neutralization of the Black Sea was
+preserved, that the Russian attempt to trick the allies out of the
+cession in Bessarabia was defeated, and that the results of the war were
+for a time secured. The congress was eager to turn to other subjects,
+and perhaps the most important result of its deliberations was the
+celebrated Declaration of the Maritime Powers, which abolished
+privateering, defined the right of blockade, and limited the right of
+capture to enemy's property in enemy's ships. Lord Clarendon has been
+accused of an abandonment of what are termed the belligerent rights of
+Great Britain, which were undoubtedly based on the old maritime laws of
+Europe. But he acted in strict conformity with the views of the British
+cabinet, and the British cabinet adopted those views because it was
+satisfied that it was not for the benefit of the country to adhere to
+practices which exposed the vast mercantile interests of Britain to
+depredation, even by the cruisers of a secondary maritime power, and
+which, if vigorously enforced against neutrals, could not fail to
+embroil her with every maritime state in the world.
+
+Upon the reconstitution of the Whig administration in 1859, Lord John
+Russell made it a condition of his acceptance of office under Lord
+Palmerston that the foreign department should be placed in his own
+hands, which implied that Lord Clarendon should be excluded from office,
+as it would have been inconsistent alike with his dignity and his tastes
+to fill any other post in the government. The consequence was that from
+1859 till 1864 Lord Clarendon remained out of office, and the critical
+relations arising out of the Civil War in the United States were left to
+the guidance of Earl Russell. But he re-entered the cabinet in May 1864
+as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; and upon the death of Lord
+Palmerston in 1865, Lord Russell again became prime minister, when Lord
+Clarendon returned to the foreign office, which was again confided to
+him for the third time upon the formation of Mr Gladstone's
+administration in 1868. To the last moment of his existence, Lord
+Clarendon continued to devote every faculty of his mind and every
+instant of his life to the public service; and he expired surrounded by
+the boxes and papers of his office on the 27th of June 1870. No man owed
+more to the influence of a generous, unselfish and liberal disposition.
+If he had rivals he never ceased to treat them with the consideration
+and confidence of friends, and he cared but little for the ordinary
+prizes of ambition in comparison with the advancement of the cause of
+peace and progress.
+
+He was succeeded as 5th earl by his eldest son, EDWARD HYDE VILLIERS (b.
+1846), who became lord chamberlain in 1900.
+
+  See also the article (by Henry Reeve) in _Fraser's Magazine_, August
+  1876.
+
+
+
+
+CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE, 2ND EARL OF (1638-1709), English statesman,
+eldest son of the first earl, was born on the 2nd of June 1638. He
+accompanied his parents into exile and assisted his father as
+secretary, returning with them in 1660. In 1661 he was returned to
+parliament for Wiltshire as Lord Cornbury. He became secretary in 1662
+and lord chamberlain to the queen in 1665. He took no part in the life
+of the court, and on the dismissal of his father became a vehement
+opponent of the administration, defended his father in the impeachment,
+and subsequently made effective attacks upon Buckingham and Arlington.
+In 1674 he became earl of Clarendon by his father's death, and in 1679
+was made a privy councillor. He was not included in Sir W. Temple's
+council of that year, but was reappointed in 1680. In 1682 he supported
+Halifax's proposal of declaring war on France. On the accession of James
+in 1685 he was appointed lord privy seal, but shortly afterwards, in
+September, was removed from this office to that of lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland. Clarendon was embarrassed in his estate, and James required a
+willing agent to carry out his design by upsetting the Protestant
+government and the Act of Settlement. Clarendon arrived in Dublin on the
+9th of January 1686. He found himself completely in the power of
+Tyrconnel, the commander-in-chief; and though, like his father, a
+staunch Protestant, elected this year high steward of Oxford University,
+and detesting the king's policy, he obeyed his orders to introduce Roman
+Catholics into the government and the army and upon the bench, and clung
+to office till after the dismissal of his brother, the earl of
+Rochester, in January 1687, when he was recalled and succeeded by
+Tyrconnel. He now supported the church in its struggle with James,
+opposed the Declaration of Indulgence, wrote to Mary an account of the
+resistance of the bishops,[1] and visited and advised the latter in the
+Tower. He had no share, however, in inviting William to England. He
+assured James in September that the Church would be loyal, advised the
+calling of the parliament, and on the desertion of his son, Lord
+Cornbury, to William on the 14th of November, expressed to the king and
+queen the most poignant grief. In the council held on the 27th, however,
+he made a violent and unseasonable attack upon James's conduct, and on
+the 1st of December set out to meet William, joined him on the 3rd at
+Berwick near Salisbury, and was present at the conference at Hungerford
+on the 8th, and again at Windsor on the 16th. His wish was apparently to
+effect some compromise, saving the crown for James. According to Burnet,
+he advised sending James to Breda, and according to the duchess of
+Marlborough to the Tower, but he himself denies these statements.[2] He
+opposed vehemently the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary,
+voted for the regency, and refused to take the oaths of the new
+sovereigns, remaining a non-juror for the rest of his life. He
+subsequently retired to the country, engaged in cabals against the
+government, associated himself with Richard Graham, Lord Preston, and
+organizing a plot against William, was arrested on the 24th of June 1690
+by order of his niece, Queen Mary, and placed in the Tower. Liberated on
+the 15th of August, he immediately recommenced his intrigues. On
+Preston's arrest on the 31st of December, a compromising letter from
+Clarendon was found upon him, and he was named by Preston as one of his
+accomplices. He was examined before the privy council and again
+imprisoned in the Tower on the 4th of January 1691, remaining in
+confinement till the 3rd of July. This closed his public career. In
+1702, on Queen Anne's accession, he presented himself at court, "to talk
+to his niece," but the queen refused to see him till he had taken the
+oaths. He died on the 31st of October 1709, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+His public career had been neither distinguished nor useful, but it
+seems natural to ascribe its failure to small abilities and to the
+conflict between personal ties and political convictions which drew him
+in opposite directions, rather than, following Macaulay, to motives of
+self-interest. He was a man of some literary taste, a fellow of the
+Royal Society (1684), the author of _The History and Antiquities of the
+Cathedral Church of Winchester ... continued by S. Gale_ (1715), and he
+collaborated with his brother Rochester in the publication of his
+father's _History_ (1702-1704). He married (1) in 1660, Theodosia,
+daughter of Lord Capel, and (2) in 1670, Flower, daughter of William
+Backhouse of Swallowfield in Berkshire, and widow of William Bishopp and
+of Sir William Backhouse, Bart. He was succeeded by his only son, Edward
+(1661-1724), as 3rd earl of Clarendon; and, the latter having no
+surviving son, the title passed to Henry, 2nd earl of Rochester
+(1672-1753), at whose death without male heirs it became extinct in the
+Hyde line.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of the Duke of Buccleuch_, ii. 31.
+
+  [2] _Correspondence and Diary_ (1828), ii. 286.
+
+
+
+
+CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF, a body of English laws issued at Clarendon
+in 1164, by which Henry II. endeavoured to settle the relations between
+Church and State. Though they purported to declare the usages on the
+subject which prevailed in the reign of Henry I. they were never
+accepted by the clergy, and were formally renounced by the king at
+Avranches in September 1172. Some of them, however, were in part at
+least, as they all purported to be, declaratory of ancient usage and
+remained in force after the royal renunciation. Of the sixteen
+provisions the one which provoked the greatest opposition was that which
+declared in effect that criminous clerks were to be summoned to the
+king's court, and from there, after formal accusation and defence, sent
+to the proper ecclesiastical court for trial. If found guilty they were
+to be degraded and sent back to the king's court for punishment. Another
+provision, which in spite of all opposition obtained a permanent place
+in English law, declared that all suits even between clerk and clerk
+concerning advowsons and presentations should be tried in the king's
+court. By other provisions appeals to Rome without the licence of the
+king were forbidden. None of the clergy were to leave the realm, nor
+were the king's tenants-in-chief and ministers to be excommunicated or
+their lands interdicted without the royal permission. Pleas of debt,
+whether involving a question of good faith or not, were to be in the
+jurisdiction of the king's courts. Two most interesting provisions, to
+which the clergy offered no opposition, were: (1) if a dispute arose
+between a clerk and a layman concerning a tenement which the clerk
+claimed as free-alms (frankalmoign) and the layman as a lay-fee, it
+should be determined by the recognition of twelve lawful men before the
+king's justice whether it belonged to free-alms or lay-fee, and if it
+were found to belong to free-alms then the plea was to be held in the
+ecclesiastical court, but if to lay-fee, in the court of the king or of
+one of his magnates; (2) a declaration of the procedure for election to
+bishoprics and royal abbeys, generally considered to state the terms of
+the settlement made between Henry I. and Anselm in 1107.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J.C. Robertson, _Materials for History of Thomas
+  Becket_, Rolls Series (1875-1885); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland,
+  _History of English Law before the Time of Ed. I._ (Cambridge, 1898),
+  and F.W. Maitland, _Roman Canon Law in the Church of England_ (1898);
+  the text of the Constitutions is printed by W. Stubbs in _Select
+  Charters_ (Oxford, 1895). (G.J.T.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARES, POOR, otherwise _Clarisses_, Franciscan nuns, so called from
+their foundress, St Clara (q.v.). She was professed by St Francis in the
+Portiuncula in 1212, and two years later she and her first companions
+were established in the convent of St Damian's at Assisi. The nuns
+formed the "Second Order of St Francis," the friars being the "First
+Order," and the Tertiaries (q.v.) the "Third." Before Clara's death in
+1253, the Second Order had spread all over Italy and into Spain, France
+and Germany; in England they were introduced c. 1293 and established in
+London, outside Aldgate, where their name of Minoresses survives in the
+Minories; there were only two other English houses before the
+Dissolution. St Francis gave the nuns no rule, but only a "Form of Life"
+and a "Last Will," each only five lines long, and coming to no more than
+an inculcation of his idea of evangelical poverty. Something more than
+this became necessary as soon as the institute began to spread; and
+during Francis's absence in the East, 1219, his supporter Cardinal
+Hugolino composed a rule which made the Franciscan nuns practically a
+species of unduly strict Benedictines, St Francis's special
+characteristics being eliminated. St Clara made it her life work to have
+this rule altered, and to get the Franciscan character of the Second
+Order restored; in 1247 a "Second Rule" was approved which went a long
+way towards satisfying her desires, and finally in 1253 a "Third,"
+which practically gave what she wanted. This rule has come to be known
+as the "Rule of the Clares"; it is one of great poverty, seclusion and
+austerity of life. Most of the convents adopted it, but several clung to
+that of 1247. To bring about conformity, St Bonaventura, while general
+(1264), obtained papal permission to modify the rule of 1253, somewhat
+mitigating its austerities and allowing the convents to have fixed
+incomes,--thus assimilating them to the Conventual Franciscans as
+opposed to the Spirituals. This rule was adopted in many convents, but
+many more adhered to the strict rule of 1253. Indeed a counter-tendency
+towards a greater strictness set in, and a number of reforms were
+initiated, introducing an appalling austerity of life. The most
+important of these reforms were the Coletines (St Colette, c. 1400) and
+the Capucines (c. 1540; see CAPUCHINS). The half-dozen forms of the
+Franciscan rule for women here mentioned are still in use in different
+convents, and there are also a great number of religious institutes for
+women based on the rule of the Tertiaries. By the term "Poor Clares" the
+Coletine nuns are now commonly understood; there are various convents of
+these nuns, as of other Franciscans, in England and Ireland. Franciscan
+nuns have always been very numerous; there are now about 150 convents of
+the various observances of the Second Order, in every part of the world,
+besides innumerable institutions of Tertiaries.
+
+  See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), vii. cc. 25-28 and
+  38-42; Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Clara"; Max
+  Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. §§ 47, 48, who gives
+  references to all the literature. For a scientific study of the
+  beginnings see Lempp, "Die Anfänge des Klarissenordens" in
+  _Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte_, xiii. (1892), 181 ff. (E.C.B.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARET (from the Fr. _vin claret_, mod. _clairet_, wine of a light clear
+colour, from Lat. _clarus_, clear), the English name for the red
+Bordeaux wines. The term was originally used in France for light-yellow
+or light-red wines, as distinguished from the _vins rouges_ and the
+_vins blancs_; later it was applied to red wines generally, but is
+rarely used in French, and never with the particular English meaning
+(see WINE).
+
+
+
+
+CLARETIE, JULES ARSÈNE ARNAUD (1840-   ), French man of letters and
+director of the Théâtre Français, was born at Limoges on the 3rd of
+December 1840. After studying at the lycée Bonaparte in Paris, he became
+an active journalist, achieving great success as dramatic critic to the
+_Figaro_ and to the _Opinion nationale_. He was a newspaper
+correspondent during the Franco-German War, and during the Commune acted
+as staff-officer in the National Guard. In 1885 he became director of
+the Théâtre Français, and from that time devoted his time chiefly to its
+administration. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1888, and took
+his seat in February 1889, being received by Ernest Renan. The long list
+of his works includes _Histoire de la révolution de 1870-1871_ (new ed.,
+5 vols., 1875-1876); _Cinq ans après; l'Alsace et la Lorraine depuis
+l'annexion_ (1876); some annual volumes of reprints of his articles in
+the weekly press, entitled _La Vie à Paris; La Vie moderne au théâtre_
+(1868-1869); _Molière, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1871); _Histoire de la
+littérature française, 900-1900_ (2nd ed. 1905); _Candidat!_ (1887), a
+novel of contemporary life; _Brichanteau, comédien français_ (1896);
+several plays, some of which are based on novels of his own--_Les
+Muscadins_ (1874), _Le Régiment de Champagne_ (1877), _Les Mirabeau_
+(1879), _Monsieur le ministre_ (1883), and others; and the opera, _La
+Navarraise_, based on his novel _La Cigarette_, and written with Henri
+Cain to the music of Massenet. _La Navarraise_ was first produced at
+Covent Garden (June 1894) with Mme Calvé in the part of Anita. His
+_OEuvres complètes_ were published in 1897-1904.
+
+
+
+
+CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA, Italian musical composer, chapel-master at
+Pistoia, was born at Pisa about the year 1669. The time of his death is
+unknown. He was the most celebrated pupil of Colonna, chapel-master of
+S. Petronio, at Bologna. He became _maestro di cappella_ at Pistoia
+about 1712, at Bologna in 1720, and at Pisa in 1736. He is supposed to
+have died about 1745. The works by which Clari distinguished himself
+pre-eminently are his vocal duets and trios, with a _basso continuo_,
+published between 1740 and 1747. These compositions, which combine
+graceful melody with contrapuntal learning, were much admired by
+Cherubini. They appear to have been admired by Handel also, since he did
+not hesitate to make appropriations from them. Clari composed one opera,
+_Il Savio delirante_, produced at Bologna in 1695, and a large quantity
+of church music, several specimens of which were printed in Novello's
+_Fitzwilliam Music_.
+
+
+
+
+CLARINA, a comparatively new instrument of the wood-wind class (although
+actually made of metal), a hybrid possessing characteristics of both
+oboe and clarinet. The clarina was invented by W. Heckel of
+Biebrich-am-Rhein, and has been used since 1891 at the Festspielhaus,
+Bayreuth, in _Tristan und Isolde_, as a substitute for the
+_Holztrompete_ made according to Wagner's instructions. The clarina has
+been found more practical and more effective in producing the desired
+tone-colour. The clarina is a metal instrument with the conical bore and
+fingering of the oboe and the clarinet single-reed mouthpiece. The
+compass of the instrument is as shown, and it stands in the key of
+B[flat]. Like the clarinet, the clarina is a transposing instrument, for
+which the music must be written in a key a tone higher than that of the
+composition. The timbre resulting from the combination of conical bore
+and single-reed mouthpiece has in the lowest register affinities with
+the _cor anglais_, in the middle with the saxophone, and in the highest
+with the clarinet. Other German orchestras have followed the example of
+Bayreuth. The clarina has also been found very effective as a solo
+instrument.    (K. S.)
+
+[Illustration: Notation.]
+
+[Illustration: Real Sounds.]
+
+
+
+
+CLARINET, or CLARIONET (Fr. _clarinette_; Ger. _Clarinette, Klarinett_;
+Ital. _clarinetto, chiarinetto_), a wood-wind instrument having a
+cylindrical bore and played by means of a single-reed mouthpiece. The
+word "clarinet" is said to be derived from _clarinetto_, a diminutive of
+_clarino_, the Italian for (1) the soprano trumpet, (2) the highest
+register of the instrument, (3) the trumpet played musically without the
+blare of the martial instrument. The word "clarionet" is similarly
+derived from "clarion," the English equivalent of _clarino_. It is
+suggested that the name _clarinet_ or _clarinetto_ was bestowed on
+account of the resemblance in timbre between the high registers of the
+clarino and clarinet. By adding the speaker-hole to the old chalumeau,
+J.C. Denner gave it an additional compass based on the overblowing of
+the harmonic twelfth, and consisting of an octave and a half of
+harmonics, which received the name of _clarino_, while the lower
+register retained the name of _chalumeau_. There is something to be said
+also in favour of another suggested derivation from the Italian
+_chiarina_, the name for reed instruments and the equivalent for tibia
+and aulos. At the beginning of the 18th century in Italy _clarinetto_,
+the diminutive of _clarino_, would be masculine, whereas _chiarinetta_
+or _clarinetta_ would be feminine,[1] as in Doppelmayr's account of the
+invention written in 1730. The word "clarinet" is sometimes used in a
+generic sense to denote the whole family, which consists of the
+clarinet, or discant corresponding to the violin, oboe, &c; the alto
+clarinet in E; the basset horn in F (q.v.); the bass clarinet (q.v.),
+and the pedal clarinet (q.v.).
+
+The modern clarinet consists of five (or four) separate pieces: (1) the
+mouthpiece; (2) the bulb; (3) the upper middle joint, or left-hand
+joint; (4) the lower middle joint, or right-hand joint[2]; (5) the bell;
+which (the bell excepted) when joined together, form a tube with a
+continuous cylindrical bore, 2 ft. or more in length, according to the
+pitch of the instrument. The mouthpiece, including the beating or
+single-reed common to the whole clarinet family, has the appearance of a
+beak with the point bevelled off and thinned at the edge to correspond
+with the end of the reed shaped like a spatula. The under part of the
+mouthpiece (fig. 2) is flattened in order to form a table for the
+support of the reed which is adjusted thereon with great nicety,
+allowing just the amount of play requisite to set in vibration the
+column of air within the tube.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Clarinet (Albert Model).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Clarinet Mouthpiece. _a_, the mouthpiece showing
+the position of the bore inside; _b_, the single or beating reed.]
+
+The mouthpiece, which is subject to continual fluctuations of dampness
+and dryness, and to changes of temperature, requires to be made of a
+material having great powers of resistance, such as cocus wood, ivory or
+vulcanite, which are mostly used for the purpose in England. A
+longitudinal aperture 1 in. long and ½ in. wide, communicating with the
+bore, is cut in the table and covered by the reed. The aperture is thus
+closed except towards the point, where, for the distance of 1/3 to ¼
+in., the reed is thinned and the table curves backwards towards the
+point, leaving a gap between the ends of the mouthpiece and of the reed
+of 1 mm. or about the thickness of a sixpence for the B flat clarinet.
+The curve of the table and the size of the gap are therefore of
+considerable importance. The reed is cut from a joint of the _Arundo
+donax_ or _sativa_, which grows wild in the regions bordering on the
+Mediterranean. A flat slip of the reed is cut, flattened on one side and
+thinned to a very delicate edge on the other. At first the reed was
+fastened to the table by means of many turns of a fine waxed cord. The
+metal band adjusted by means of two screws, known as the "ligature," was
+introduced about 1817 by Ivan Müller. The reed is set in vibration by
+the breath of the performer, and being flexible it beats against the
+table, opening and closing the gap at a rate depending on the rate of
+the vibrations it sets up in the air column, this rate varying according
+to the length of the column as determined by opening the lateral holes
+and keys. A cylindrical tube played by means of a reed has the acoustic
+properties of a stopped pipe, i.e. the fundamental tone produced by the
+tube is an octave lower than the corresponding tone of an open pipe of
+the same length, and overblows a twelfth; whereas tubes having a conical
+bore like the oboe, and played by means of a reed, speak as open pipes
+and overblow an octave. This forms the fundamental difference between
+the instruments of the oboe and clarinet families. Wind instruments
+depending upon lateral holes for the production of their scale must
+either have as many holes pierced in the bore as they require notes, or
+make use of the property possessed by the air-column of dividing into
+harmonics or partials of the fundamental tones. Twenty to twenty-two
+holes is the number generally accepted as the practical limit for the
+clarinet; beyond that number the fingering and mechanism become too
+complicated. The compass of the clarinet is therefore extended through
+the medium of the harmonic overtones. In stopped pipes a node is formed
+near the mouthpiece, and they are therefore only able to produce the
+uneven harmonics, such as the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, &c, corresponding to
+the fundamental, and the diatonic intervals of the 5th one octave above,
+and of the 3rd and 7th two octaves above the fundamental. By pressing
+the reed with the lip near the base where it is thicker and stiffer, and
+increasing the pressure of the breath, the air-column is forced to
+divide and to sound the harmonics, a principle well understood by the
+ancient Greeks and Romans in playing upon the aulos and tibia.[3] This
+is easier to accomplish with the double reed than with the beating reed;
+in fact with a tube of wide diameter, such as that of the modern
+clarinet, it would not be possible by this means alone to do justice to
+the tone of the instrument or to the music now written for it. The bore
+of the aulos was very much narrower than that of the clarinet.
+
+In order to facilitate the production of the harmonic notes on the
+clarinet, a small hole, closed by means of a key and called the
+"speaker," is bored near the mouthpiece. By means of this small hole the
+air-column is placed in communication with the external atmosphere, a
+ventral segment is formed, and the air-column divides into three equal
+parts, producing a triple number of vibrations resulting in the third
+note of the harmonic series, at an interval of a twelfth above the
+fundamental.[4] In a wind instrument with lateral holes the fundamental
+note corresponding to any particular hole is produced when all the holes
+below that hole are open and it itself and all above it are closed, the
+effective length of the resonating tube being shortened as each of the
+closed holes is successively uncovered. In order to obtain a complete
+chromatic scale on the clarinet at least eighteen holes are required.
+This series produces with the bell-note a succession of nineteen
+semitones, giving the range of a twelfth and known as the fundamental
+scale or _chalumeau_ register, so called, no doubt, because it was the
+compass (without chromatic semitones) of the more primitive predecessor
+of the clarinet, known as the _chalumeau_, which must not be confounded
+with the shawm or schalmey of the middle ages.
+
+  The fundamental scale of the modern clarinet in C extends from
+  [Illustration]. The next octave and a half is obtained by opening the
+  speaker key, whereby each of the fundamental notes is reproduced a
+  twelfth higher; the bell-note thus jumps from E to B#, the first key
+  gives instead of F its twelfth C#, and so on, extending the compass to
+  [Illustration], which ends the natural compass of the instrument,
+  although a skilful performer may obtain another octave by
+  cross-fingering. The names of the holes and keys on the clarinet are
+  derived not from the notes of the fundamental scale, but from the name
+  of the twelfth produced by overblowing with the speaker key open; for
+  instance, the first key near the bell is known not as the E key but as
+  the B#. The use of the speaker key forms the greatest technical
+  difficulty in learning to play the clarinet, on account of the thumb
+  having to do double duty, closing one hole and raising the lever of
+  the speaker key simultaneously. In a clarinet designed by Richard
+  Carte this difficulty was ingeniously overcome by placing the left
+  thumb-hole towards the front, and closing it by a thumb-lever or with
+  a ring action by the first or second finger of the left hand, thus
+  leaving the thumb free to work the speaker key alone.
+
+  There is good reason to think that the ancient Greeks understood the
+  advantage of a speaker-hole, which they called _Syrinx_, for
+  facilitating the production of harmonics on the aulos. The credit of
+  the discovery of this interesting fact is due to A.A. Howard,[5] of
+  Harvard University; it explains many passages in the classics which
+  before were obscure (see AULOS). Plutarch relates[6] that Telephanes
+  of Megara was so incensed with the syrinx that he never allowed his
+  instrument-makers to place one on any of his auloi; he even went so
+  far as to absent himself, principally on account of the syrinx, from
+  the Pythian games. Telephanes was a great virtuoso who scorned the use
+  of a speaker-hole, being able to obtain his harmonics on the aulos by
+  the mere control of lips and teeth.
+
+  The modern clarinet has from thirteen to nineteen keys, some being
+  normally open and others closed. In order to understand why, when once
+  the idea of adding keys to the chalumeau had been conceived, the
+  number rose so slowly, keys being added one or two at a time by makers
+  of various nationalities at long intervals, it is necessary to
+  consider the effect of boring holes in the side of a cylindrical tube.
+  If it were possible to proceed from an absolute theoretical basis,
+  there would be but little difficulty; there are, however, practical
+  reasons which make this a matter of great difficulty. According to V.
+  Mahillon,[7] the theoretical length of a B flat clarinet (French pitch
+  diapason normal A = 435 vibrations), is 39 cm. when the internal
+  diameter of the bore measures exactly 1.4 cm. Any increase in the
+  diameter of the cylindrical bore for a given length of tube raises the
+  pitch proportionally and in the same way a decrease lowers it. A bore
+  narrow in proportion to the length facilitates the production of the
+  harmonics, which is no doubt the reason why the aulos was made with a
+  very narrow diameter, and produced such deep notes in proportion to
+  its length. In determining the position of the holes along the tube,
+  the thickness of the wood to be pierced must be taken into
+  consideration, for the length of the passage from the main bore to the
+  outer air adds to the length of the resonating column; as, however,
+  the clarinet tube is reckoned as a closed one, only half the extra
+  length must be taken into account. When placed in its correct
+  theoretical position, a hole should have its diameter equal to the
+  diameter of the main bore, which is the ideal condition for obtaining
+  a full, rich tone; it is, however, feasible to give the hole a smaller
+  diameter, altering its position by placing it nearer the mouthpiece.
+  These laws, which were likewise known to the Greeks and Romans,[8] had
+  to be rediscovered by experience in the 18th and 19th centuries,
+  during which the mechanism of the key system was repeatedly improved.
+  Due consideration having been given to these points, it will also be
+  necessary to remember that the stopping of the seven open holes leaves
+  only the two little fingers (the thumb of the right hand being in the
+  ordinary clarinet engaged in supporting the instrument) free at all
+  times for key service, the other fingers doing duty when momentarily
+  disengaged. The fingering of the clarinet is the most difficult of any
+  instrument in the orchestra, for it differs in all four octaves of its
+  compass. Once mastered, however, it is the same for all clarinets, the
+  music being always written in the key of C.
+
+  [Illustration: real sounds]
+
+  The actual tonality of the clarinet is determined by the diatonic
+  scale produced when, starting with keys untouched and finger and
+  thumb-holes closed, the fingers are raised one by one from the holes.
+  In the B flat clarinet, the _real sounds_ thus produced are being part
+  of the scale of B flat major. By the closing of two _open_ keys, the
+  lower E flat and D are added.
+
+  The following are the various sizes of clarinets with the key proper
+  to each:
+
+    E flat, a minor third above the C clarinet.
+    B flat, a tone below         "      "
+    The high F, 4 tones above    "      "
+    The D, 1 tone above          "      "
+    The low G, a  fourth below   "      "
+    The A, a minor third below   "      "
+    The B# 1 semintone below     "      "
+    The alto clarinet in E flat, a fifth below the B flat clarinet.
+    The tenor or basset horn, in F, a fifth below the C clarinet.
+    The bass clarinet in B flat, an 8ve below that in B flat.
+    The pedal clarinet in B flat, an 8ve below the bass clarinet.
+    The clarinets in B flat and A are used in the orchestra; those in C
+  and E flat in military bands.
+
+_History_.--Although the single beating-reed associated with the
+instruments of the clarinet family has been traced in ancient Egypt, the
+double reed, characteristic of the oboe family, being of simpler
+construction, was probably of still greater antiquity. An ancient
+Egyptian pipe found in a mummy-case and now preserved in the museum at
+Turin was found to contain a beating-reed sunk 3 in. below the end of
+the pipe, which is the principle of the drone. It would appear that the
+double chalumeau, called arghoul (q.v.) by the modern Egyptians, was
+known in ancient Egypt, although it was not perhaps in common use. The
+Musée Guimet possesses a copy of a fresco from the tombs at Saqqarah
+(executed under the direction of Mariette Bey) assigned to the 4th or
+5th dynasty, on which is shown a concert with dancing; the instruments
+used are two harps, the long oblique flute "nay," blown from the end
+without any mouthpiece or embouchure, and an instrument identified as an
+arghoul[9] from its resemblance to the modern instrument of the same
+name. This is believed to be the only illustration of the ancient double
+chalumeau yet found in Egypt, with the single exception of a hieroglyph
+occurring also once only, i.e. the sign read _As-it_, consisting of a
+cylindrical pipe with a beak mouthpiece bound round with a cord tied in
+a bow. The bow is taken to indicate the double parallel pipes bound
+together; the same sign without the bow occurs frequently and is read
+_Ma-it_,[10] and is considered to be the generic name for reed wind
+instruments. The beating-reed was probably introduced into classic
+Greece from Egypt or Asia Minor. A few ancient Greek instruments are
+extant, five of which are in the British Museum. They are as nearly
+cylindrical as would be the natural growing reed itself. The probability
+is that both single and double reeds were at times used with the Greek
+aulos and the Roman tibia. V. Mahillon and A.A. Howard of Harvard have
+both obtained facsimiles of actual instruments, some found at Pompeii
+and now deposited in the museum at Naples, and others in the British
+Museum. Experiments made with these instruments, whose original
+mouthpieces have perished, show that with pipes of such narrow diameter
+the fundamental scale and pitch are the same whether sounded by means of
+a single or of a double reed, but the modern combination of single reed
+and cylindrical tube alone gives the full pure tone quality. The subject
+is more fully discussed in the article AULOS.[11] The Roman tibia, if
+monuments can be trusted, sometimes had a beak-shaped mouthpiece, as for
+instance that attached to a pipe discovered at Pompeii, or that shown in
+a scene on Trajan's column.[12] It is probable that when, at the decline
+of the Roman empire, instrumental music was placed by the church under a
+ban--and the tibia more especially from its association with every form
+of licence and moral depravity--this instrument, sharing the common
+fate, survived chiefly among itinerant musicians who carried it into
+western Europe, where it was preserved from complete extinction. An
+instrument of difficult technique requiring an advanced knowledge of
+acoustics was not, however, likely to flourish or even to be understood
+among nations whose culture was as yet in its infancy.
+
+The tide of culture from the Byzantine empire filtered through to the
+south and west, leaving many traces; a fresh impetus was received from
+the east through the Arabs; and later, as a result of the Crusades, the
+prototype of the clarinet, together with the practical knowledge
+necessary for making the instrument and playing upon it, may have been
+re-introduced through any one or all of these sources. However this may
+be, the instrument was during the Carolingian period identified with the
+tibia of the Romans until such time as the new western civilization
+ceased to be content to go back to classical Rome for its models, and
+began to express itself, at first naively and awkwardly, as the 11th
+century dawned. The name then changed to the derivatives of the Greek
+_kalamos_, assuming an almost bewildering variety of forms, of which the
+commonest are chalemie, chalumeau, schalmey, scalmeye, shawm, calemel,
+kalemele.[13] The derivation of the name seems to point to a Byzantine
+rather than an Arab source for the revival of the instruments which
+formed the prototype of both oboe and clarinet, but it must not be
+forgotten that the instruments with a conical bore--more especially
+those played by a reed--are primarily of Asiatic origin. At the
+beginning of the 13th century in France, where the instrument remained
+a special favourite until it was displaced by the clarinet, the
+chalumeau is mentioned in some of the early romances:--"Tabars et
+chalemiaux et estrumens sonner" (_Aye d'Avignon_, v. 4137); "Grelles et
+chelimiaus et buisines bruians" (_Gui de Bourgogne_, v. 1374), &c. By
+the end of the 13th century, the German equivalent _Schalmey_ appears in
+the literature of that country,--"Pusûnen und Schalmeyen schal moht
+niemen da gehoeren wal" (_Frauendienst_, 492, fol. 5, Ulrich von
+Lichtenstein). The schalmey or shawm is frequently represented in
+miniatures from the 13th century, but it must have been known long
+before, since it was at that period in use as the chaunter of the
+bag-pipe (q.v.), a fully-developed complex instrument which presupposes
+a separate previous existence for its component parts.
+
+We have no reason to suppose that any distinction was drawn between the
+single and double reed instruments during the early middle ages--if
+indeed the single reed was then known at all--for the derivatives of
+_kalamos_ were applied to a variety of pipes. The first clear and
+unmistakable drawing yet found of the single reed occurs in Mersenne's
+_Harmonie universelle_ (p. 282), where the primitive reed pipe is shown
+with the beating-reed detached from the tube of the instrument itself,
+by making a lateral slit and then splitting back a little tongue of reed
+towards a knot. Mersenne calls this the simplest form of chalumeau or
+wheat-stalk (_tuyau de blé_). It is evident that no significance was
+then attached to the form of the vibrating reed, whether single or
+double, for Mersenne and other writers of his time call the chaunters of
+the musette and cornemuse chalumeaux whether they are of cylindrical or
+of conical bore. The difference in timbre produced by the two kinds of
+reeds was, however, understood, for Mersenne states that a special kind
+of cornemuse was used in concert with the _hautbois de Poitou_ (an oboe
+whose double reed was enclosed in an air chamber) and was distinguished
+from the shepherd's cornemuse by having double reeds throughout, whereas
+the drones of the latter instrument were furnished with beating reeds.
+It is therefore evident that as late as 1636 (the date at which Mersenne
+wrote) in France the word "chalumeau" was not applied to the instrument
+transformed some sixty years later into the clarinet, nor was it applied
+exclusively to any one kind of pipe except when acting as the chaunter
+of the bagpipe, and that independently of any structural
+characteristics. The chaunter was still called chalumeau in 1737.[14] Of
+the instrument which has been looked upon as the chalumeau, there is but
+little trace in Germany or in France at the beginning of the 17th
+century. A chalumeau with beak mouthpiece and characteristic short
+cylindrical tube pierced with six holes figures among the musical
+instruments used for the triumphal procession of the emperor Maximilian
+I., commemorated by a fine series of plates,[15] engraved on wood by
+Hans Burgkmair, the friend and colleague of A. Dürer. On the same plate
+(No. 79) are five schalmeys with double reeds and five chalumeaux with
+single-reed beak mouthpieces; the latter instruments were in all
+probability made in the Netherlands, which excelled from the 12th
+century in the manufacture of all musical instruments. No single-reed
+instrument, with the exception of the regal (q.v.), is figured by S.
+Virdung,[16] M. Agricola[17] or M. Praetorius.[18]
+
+A good idea of the primitive chalumeau may be gained from a reproduction
+of one of the few specimens from the 16th or 17th century still extant,
+which belonged to Césare Snoeck and was exhibited at the Royal Military
+Exhibition in London in 1890.[19] The tube is stopped at the mouthpiece
+end by a natural joint of the reed, and a tongue has been detached just
+under the joint; there are six finger-holes and one for the thumb. An
+instrument almost identical with the above, but with a rudimentary bell,
+and showing plainly the detached tongue, is figured by Jost Amman in
+1589.[20] A plate in Diderot and d'Alembert's _Encyclopédie_[21] shows a
+less primitive instrument, outwardly cylindrical and having a separate
+mouthpiece joint and a clarinet reed but no keys. A chalumeau without
+keys, but consisting apparently of three joints--mouthpiece, main tube
+and bell,--is figured on the title-page of a musical work[22] dated
+1690; it is very similar to the one represented in fig. 3, except that
+only six holes are visible.
+
+[Illustrations: (From Diderot and d'Alembert's _Encyclopédie_.) FIG. 3.
+Chalumeau, 1767. (_a_) Front, (_b_) Back view.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In his biographical notice of J. Christian Denner (1655-1707), J.G.
+Doppelmayr[23] states that at the beginning of the 18th century "Denner
+invented a new kind of pipe, the so-called clarinet, which greatly
+delighted lovers of music; he also made great improvements in the stock
+or rackett-fagottos, known in the olden time and finally also in the
+chalumeaux." It is probable that the improvements in the chalumeau to
+which Doppelmayr alludes without understanding them consisted (_a_) in
+giving the mouthpiece the shape of a beak and adding a separate reed
+tongue as in that of the modern clarinet, unless this change had already
+taken place in the Netherlands, the country which the unremitting
+labours of E. van der Straeten[24] have revealed as taking the lead in
+Europe from the 14th to the 16th century in the construction of musical
+instruments of all kinds; (_b_) in the boring of two additional holes
+for A and B near the mouthpiece and covering them with two keys; (_c_)
+in replacing the long cylindrical mouthpiece joint by a bulb, thus
+restoring one of the characteristic features of the tibia,[25] known as
+the [Greek: holmos]. There are a few of these improved chalumeaux in
+existence, two being in the Bavarian national museum at Munich, the one
+in high A, in a bad state of preservation, the second in C, marked J.C.
+Denner, of which V. Mahillon has made a facsimile[26] for the museum of
+the Brussels Conservatoire. There are two keys and eight holes; the
+first consists of two small holes on the same level giving a semitone if
+only one be closed. If the thumb-key be left open, the sounds of the
+fundamental scale (shown in the black notes below) rise a twelfth to
+form the second register (the white notes). This early clarinet or
+improved chalumeau has a clarinet mouthpiece, but no bulb; it measures
+50 cm. (20 in.), whereas the one in A mentioned above is only 28 cm. in
+length, the long cylindrical tube between mouthpiece and key-joint,
+afterwards turned into the bulb, being absent. Mahillon was probably the
+first to point out that the so-called invention of the clarinet by J.C.
+Denner consisted in providing a device--the speaker-key--to facilitate
+the production of the harmonics of the fundamental. Can we be sure that
+the same result was not obtained on the old chalumeau before keys were
+added, by partially uncovering the hole for the thumb?
+
+The Berlin museum possesses an early clarinet with two keys, marked J.B.
+Oberlender, derived from the Snoeck collection. Paul de Wit's collection
+has a similar specimen by Enkelmer. The Brussels Conservatoire possesses
+clarinets with two keys by Flemish makers, G.A. Rottenburgh and J.B.
+Willems[27]; the latter, with a small bulb and bell, is in G a fifth
+above the C clarinet. The next improvements in the clarinet, made in
+1720, are due to J. Denner, probably a son of J.C. Denner. They
+consisted in the addition of a bell and in the removal of the
+speaker-hole and key nearer the mouthpiece, involving the reduction of
+the diameter of the hole. The effect of this change of position was to
+turn the B[natural] into B flat, for J. Denner introduced into the
+hole, nearly as far as the axis of the bore, a small metal drainage
+tube[28] for the moisture of the breath. In the modern clarinet, the
+same result is attained by raising this little tube slightly above the
+surface of the main tube, placing a key on the top of it, and bending
+the lever. In order to produce the missing B[natural], J. Denner
+lengthened the tube and pierced another hole, the low E, covered by an
+open key with a long lever which, when closed, gives the desired B as
+its twelfth, thus forming a connexion between the two registers. A
+clarinet with three keys, of similar construction (about 1750), marked
+J.W. Kenigsperger, is preserved in the Bavarian national museum, at
+Munich. Another in B flat marked Lindner[29] belongs to the collection
+at Brussels. About the middle of the 18th century, the number of keys
+was raised to five, some say[30] by Barthold Fritz of Brunswick
+(1697-1766), who added keys for C# and D#. [Illustration] According to
+Altenburg[31] the E flat or D# key is due to the virtuoso Joseph Beer
+(1744-1811). The sixth key was added about 1790 by the celebrated French
+virtuoso Xavier Lefébure (or Lefèvre), and produced G#. [Illustration]
+Anton Stadler and his brother, both clarinettists in the Vienna court
+orchestra and instrument-makers, are said to have lengthened the tube of
+the B flat clarinet, extending the compass down to C (real sound B
+flat). It was for the Stadler brothers that Mozart wrote his quintet for
+strings, with a fine obbligato for the clarinet in A (1789), and the
+clarinet concerto with orchestra in 1791.
+
+This, then, was the state of the clarinet in 1810 when Ivan Müller, then
+living in Paris, carried the number of keys up to thirteen, and made
+several structural improvements already mentioned, which gave us the
+modern instrument and inaugurated a new era in the construction and
+technique of the clarinet. Müller's system is still adopted in principle
+by most clarinet makers. The instrument was successively improved during
+the 19th century by the Belgian makers Bachmann, the elder Sax, Albert
+and C. Mahillon, whose invention in 1862 of the C# key with double
+action is now generally adopted. In Paris the labours of Lefébure,
+Buffet-Crampon, and Goumas are pre-eminent. In 1842 H.E. Klosé conceived
+the idea of adapting to the clarinet the ingenious mechanism of movable
+rings, invented by Boehm for the flute, and he entrusted the execution
+of this innovation to Buffet-Crampon; this is the type of clarinet
+generally adopted in French orchestras. From this adaptation has sprung
+the erroneous notion that Klosé's clarinet was constructed according to
+the Boehm system; Klosé's lateral divisions of the tube do not follow
+those applied by Boehm to the flute.
+
+In England the clarinet has also passed through several progressive
+stages since its introduction about 1770, and first of all at the hands
+of Cornelius Ward. The principal improvements were due to Richard Carte,
+who took out a patent in 1858 for an improved Boehm clarinet which
+possessed some claim to the name, since Boehm's principle of boring the
+holes at theoretically correct intervals and of venting the holes by
+means of open holes below was carried out. Carte made several
+modifications of his original patent, his chief endeavour being to so
+dispose the key-work as to reduce the difficulties in fingering. By the
+extension of the principle of the ring action, the work of the third and
+little fingers of the left hand was simplified and the fingering of
+certain difficult notes and shakes greatly facilitated. Messrs Rudall,
+Carte & Company have made further improvements in the clarinet, which
+are embodied in Klussmann's patent (fig. 4); these consist in the
+introduction of the duplicate G# key, a note which has hitherto formed a
+serious obstacle to perfect execution. The duplicate key, operated by
+the third or second finger of the right hand, releases the fourth finger
+of the left hand. The old G# is still retained and may be used in the
+usual way if desired. The body of the instrument is now made in one
+joint, and the position of the G# hole is mathematically correct,
+whereby perfect intonation for C#, G# and F[n] is secured. Other
+improvements were made in Paris by Messrs Evette & Schaeffer and by M.
+Paradis,[32] a clarinet-player in the band of the Garde Républicaine,
+and very great improvements in boring and in key mechanism were effected
+by Albert of Brussels (see fig. 1).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Clarinet (Boehm model, Klussmann's patent).]
+
+The clarinet appears to have received appreciation in the Netherlands
+earlier than in its own native land. According to W. Altenburg (op. cit.
+p. 11),[33] a MS. is preserved in the cathedral at Antwerp of a mass
+written by A.J. Faber in 1720, which is scored for a clarinet. Johann
+Mattheson,[34] _Kapellmeister_ at Hamburg, mentions clarinet music in
+1713, although Handel, whose rival he was, does not appear to have known
+the instrument. Joh. Christ. Bach scored for the clarinet in 1763 in his
+opera _Orione_ performed in London, and Rameau had already employed the
+instrument in 1751 in a theatre for his pastoral entitled _Acante et
+Céphise_.[35] The clarinet was formally introduced into the orchestra in
+Vienna in 1767,[36] Gluck having contented himself with the use of the
+chalumeau in _Orfeo_ (1762) and in _Alceste_ (1767).[37] The clarinet
+had already been adopted in military bands in France in 1755, where it
+very speedily completely replaced the oboe. One of Napoleon Bonaparte's
+bands is said to have had no less than twenty clarinets.
+
+  For further information on the clarinet at the beginning of the 19th
+  century, consult the _Methods_ by Ivan Müller and Xavier Lefébure, and
+  Joseph Froehlich's admirable work on the instruments of the orchestra;
+  and Gottfried Weber's articles in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedia_.
+  See also BASSET HORN; BASS CLARINET and PEDAL CLARINET.    (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Gottfried Weber's objection to this derivation in "Über
+    Clarinette und Basset-horn," _Caecilia_ (Mainz, 1829), vol. xi. pp.
+    36 and 37, note.
+
+  [2] Nos. 3 and 4 are sometimes made in one, as for instance in Messrs
+    Rudall, Carte & Company's modification, the Klussmann patent.
+
+  [3] Aristotle (_de Audib._ 802 b 18, and 804 a) and Porphyry (ed.
+    Wallis, pp. 249 and 252) mention that if the performer presses the
+    _zeuge_ (mouthpiece) or the _glottai_ (reeds) of the pipes, a sharper
+    tone is produced.
+
+  [4] Cf. V.C. Mahillon, _Éléments d'acoustique musicale et
+    instrumentale_ (Brussels, 1874), p. 161; and Fr. Zamminer, _Die Musik
+    und die musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen
+    der Akustik ..._ (Giessen, 1855), pp. 297 and 298.
+
+  [5] "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston, 1893).
+
+  [6] _De Musica_, 1138.
+
+  [7] _Op. cit._ pp. 160 et seq.; and Wilhelm Altenburg, _Die
+    Klarinette_ (Heilbronn, 1904), p. 9, who refers to Mahillon.
+
+  [8] See Macrobius, _Comm. in somnium Scipionis_, ii. 4. 5 "nec secus
+    probamus in tibiis de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis ori sonus
+    acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis, gravior:
+    item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta."
+
+  [9] See Victor Loret, _L'Égypte au temps des Pharaons--la vie, le
+    science, et l'art_ (Paris, 1889), illustration p. 139 and p. 143. The
+    author gives no information about this fresco except that it is in
+    the Musée Guimet. It is probably identical with the second of the
+    mural paintings described on p. 190 of _Petit guide illustré au Musée
+    Guimet_, par L. de Milloue.
+
+  [10] See Victor Loret, "Les flûtes égyptiennes antiques," _Journal
+    asiatique_ (Paris, 1889), [8], xiv. pp. 129, 130, 132.
+
+  [11] See also A.A. Howard, "Study on the Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard
+    Studies_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893); F.C. Gevaert, _Musique de
+    l'antiquité_; Carl von Jan, article "Floete" in August Baumeister's
+    _Denkmäler des klassischen Alterthums_ (Leipzig, 1884-1888), vol. i.;
+    Dr Hugo Riemann, _Handbuch der Musikgesch._ vol. i. p. 90, &c.
+    (Leipzig, 1904); all of whom have not come to the same conclusions.
+
+  [12] Wilhelm Froehner, _La Colonne trajane_ (Paris, 1872), t. ii. pl.
+    76.
+
+  [13] "Aveuc aus ert vestus Guis
+        Ki leur cante et Kalemele,
+        En la muse au grant bourdon."
+
+     J.A.U. Scheler's _Trouvères belges_.
+
+  [14] See Ernest Thoinan, _Les Hotteterre et les Chédeville, célèbres
+    facteurs de flûtes, hautbois, bassons et musettes_ (Paris, 1894), p.
+    15 et seq., and _Méthode pour la musette_, &c., par Hotteterre le
+    Romain (Paris, 1737).
+
+  [15] The whole series of 135 plates has been reproduced in _Jahrb. d.
+    Samml. des Alterh. Kaiserhauses_ (Vienna, 1883-1884).
+
+  [16] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [17] _Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch_ (Nuremberg, 1528 and 1545).
+
+  [18] _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbüttel, 1618). This work and those
+    mentioned in the two previous notes have been reprinted by the Ges.
+    f. Musikforschung in vols. xi., xx. and xiii. of _Publikationen_
+    (Berlin).
+
+  [19] See _Descriptive Catalogue_, by Capt. C.R. Day (London, 1891),
+    pl. iv. A and p. 110, No. 221.
+
+  [20] _Wappenbuch_, p. 111, "Musica."
+
+  [21] Paris, 1767, vol. v. "Planches," pl. ix. 20, 21, 22.
+
+  [22] Dr Theofilo Muffat, "Componimenti musicali per il cembalo," in
+    _Denkmäler d. Tonkunst in Österreich_, Bd. iii.
+
+  [23] _Historische Nachricht von den Nürnbergischen Mathematicis u.
+    Künstlern_, &c. (Nuremberg, 1730), p. 305.
+
+  [24] _Histoire de la musique aux Pays Bas avant le XIXe siècle._
+
+  [25] For a facsimile of one of the Pompeii tibiae, see Capt. C.R.
+    Day, _op. cit._ pl. iv. C. and p. 109.
+
+  [26] _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 211, No. 911,
+    where an illustration is given. See also Capt. C.R. Day, _op. cit._
+    pl. iv. B and _Errata_ where the description is printed.
+
+  [27] For a description with illustration see V. Mahillon's _Catalogue
+    descriptif_ (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 215, No. 916.
+
+  [28] See Wilhelm Altenburg, op. cit. p. 6.
+
+  [29] See V. Mahillon, _Catal. descript._ (1896), p. 213, No. 913.
+
+  [30] H. Welcker von Gontershausen, _Die musikalischen Tonwerk-zeuge_
+    (Frankfort-on-Main, 1855), p. 141.
+
+  [31] Op. cit. p. 6.
+
+  [32] See Capt. C.R. Day, op. cit. p. 106.
+
+  [33] V. Mahillon, _Catal. desc._ (1880), p. 182, refers his statement
+    to the Chevalier L. de Burbure.
+
+  [34] _Das neu-eröffnete Orchester_ (Hamburg, 1713).
+
+  [35] Mahillon, _Catal. desc._ (1880), vol. i. p. 182.
+
+  [36] See Chevalier Ludwig von Koechel, _Die kaiserliche
+    Hofmusik-kapelle zu Wien, 1543-1867_ (Vienna, 1869).
+
+  [37] In the Italian edition of 1769 the part is scored for clarinet.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, SIR ANDREW, Bart. (1826-1893), British physician, was born at
+Aberdeen on the 28th of October 1826. His father, who also was a medical
+man, died when he was only a few years old. After attending school in
+Aberdeen, he was sent by his guardians to Dundee and apprenticed to a
+druggist; then returning to Aberdeen he began his medical studies in the
+university of that city. Soon, however, he went to Edinburgh, where in
+the extra-academical school he had a student's career of the most
+brilliant description, ultimately becoming assistant to J. Hughes
+Bennett in the pathological department of the Royal Infirmary, and
+assistant demonstrator of anatomy to Robert Knox. But symptoms of
+pulmonary phthisis brought his academic life to a close, and in the hope
+that the sea might benefit his health he joined the medical department
+of the navy in 1848. Next year he became pathologist to the Haslar
+hospital, where T.H. Huxley was one of his colleagues, and in 1853 he
+was the successful candidate for the newly-instituted post of curator to
+the museum of the London hospital. Here he intended to devote all his
+energies to pathology, but circumstances brought him into active medical
+practice. In 1854, the year in which he took his doctor's degree at
+Aberdeen, the post of assistant-physician to the hospital became vacant
+and he was prevailed upon to apply for it. He was fond of telling how
+his phthisical tendencies gained him the appointment. "He is only a poor
+Scotch doctor," it was said, "with but a few months to live; let him
+have it." He had it, and two years before his death publicly declared
+that of those who were on the staff of the hospital at the time of his
+selection he was the only one remaining alive. In 1854 he became a
+member of the College of Physicians, and in 1858 a fellow, and then went
+in succession through all the offices of honour the college has to
+offer, ending in 1888 with the presidency, which he continued to hold
+till his death. From the time of his selection as assistant physician to
+the London hospital, his fame rapidly grew until he became a fashionable
+doctor with one of the largest practices in London, counting among his
+patients some of the most distinguished men of the day. The great number
+of persons who passed through his consulting-room every morning rendered
+it inevitable that to a large extent his advice should become
+stereotyped and his prescriptions often reduced to mere stock formulae,
+but in really serious cases he was not to be surpassed in the skill and
+carefulness of his diagnosis and in his attention to detail. In spite of
+the claims of his practice he found time to produce a good many books,
+all written in the precise and polished style on which he used to pride
+himself. Doubtless owing largely to personal reasons, lung diseases and
+especially fibroid phthisis formed his favourite theme, but he also
+discussed other subjects, such as renal inadequacy, anaemia,
+constipation, &c. He died in London on the 6th of November 1893, after a
+paralytic stroke which was probably the result of persistent overwork.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851-   ), American clergyman, was born of New
+England ancestry at Aylmer, Province of Quebec, Canada, on the 12th of
+September 1851. He was the son of Charles C. Symmes, but took the name
+of an uncle, the Rev. E.W. Clark, by whom he was adopted after his
+father's death in 1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873 and at
+Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, was ordained in the Congregational
+ministry, and was pastor of the Williston Congregational church at
+Portland, Maine, from 1876 to 1883, and of the Phillips Congregational
+church, South Boston, Mass., from 1883 to 1887. On the 2nd of February
+1881 he founded at Portland the Young People's Society of Christian
+Endeavor, which, beginning as a small society in a single New England
+church, developed into a great interdenominational organization, which
+in 1908 had 70,761 societies and more than 3,500,000 members scattered
+throughout the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia, South
+Africa, India, Japan and China. After 1887 he devoted his time entirely
+to the extension of this work, and was president of the United Societies
+of Christian Endeavor and of the World's Christian Endeavor Union, and
+editor of the _Christian Endeavor World_ (originally _The Golden Rule_).
+Among his numerous publications are _The Children and the Church_
+(1882); _Looking Out on Life_ (1883); _Young People's Prayer Meetings_
+(1884); _Some Christian Endeavor Saints_ (1889); _World-Wide Endeavor_
+(1895); _A New Way Round an Old World_ (1900).
+
+  See his _The Young People's Christian Endeavor, where it began, &c._
+  (Boston, 1895); _Christian Endeavor Manual_ (Boston, 1903); and
+  _Christian Endeavor in All Lands: Record of Twenty-five Years of
+  Progress_ (Philadelphia, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752-1818), American frontier military leader, was
+born near Charlottesville, in Albemarle county, Virginia, on the 19th of
+November 1752. Early in life he became a land-surveyor; he took part in
+Lord Dunmore's War (1774), and in 1775 went as a surveyor for the Ohio
+Company to Kentucky (then a district of Virginia), whither he removed
+early in 1776. His iron will, strong passions, audacious courage and
+magnificent physique soon made him a leader among his frontier
+neighbours, by whom in 1776 he was sent as a delegate to the Virginia
+legislature. In this capacity he was instrumental in bringing about the
+organization of Kentucky as a county of Virginia, and also obtained from
+Governor Patrick Henry a supply of powder for the Kentucky settlers.
+Convinced that the Indians were instigated and supported in their raids
+against the American settlers by British officers stationed in the forts
+north of the Ohio river, and that the conquest of those forts would put
+an end to the evil, he went on foot to Virginia late in 1777 and
+submitted to Governor Henry and his council a plan for offensive
+operations. On the 2nd of January 1778 he was commissioned
+lieutenant-colonel, received £1200 in depreciated currency, and was
+authorized to enlist troops; and by the end of May he was at the falls
+of the Ohio (the site of Louisville) with about 175 men. The expedition
+proceeded to Fort Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, in what is now
+Illinois. This place and Cahokia, also on the Mississippi, near St
+Louis, were defended by small British garrisons, which depended upon the
+support of the French _habitants_. The French being willing to accept
+the authority of Virginia, both forts were easily taken. Clark gained
+the friendship of Father Pierre Gibault, the priest at Kaskaskia, and
+through his influence the French at Vincennes on the Wabash were induced
+(late in July) to change their allegiance. On the 17th of December
+Lieut.-Governor Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit,
+recovered Vincennes and went into winter quarters. Late in February 1779
+he was surprised by Clark and compelled to give up Vincennes and its
+fort, Fort Sackville, and to surrender himself and his garrison of about
+80 men, as prisoners of war. With the exception of Detroit and several
+other posts on the Canadian frontier the whole of the North-West was
+thus brought under American influence; many of the Indians, previously
+hostile, became friendly, and the United States was put in a position to
+demand the cession of the North-West in the treaty of 1783. For this
+valuable service, in which Clark had freely used his own private funds,
+he received practically no recompense either from Virginia or from the
+United States, and for many years before his death he lived in poverty.
+To him and his men, however, the Virginia legislature granted 150,000
+acres of land in 1781, which was subsequently located in what are now
+Clark, Floyd and Scott counties, Indiana; Clark's individual share was
+8049 acres, but from this he realized little. Clark built Fort Jefferson
+on the Mississippi, 4 or 5 m. below the mouth of the Ohio, in 1780,
+destroyed the Indian towns Chillicothe and Piqua in the same year, and
+in November 1782 destroyed the Indian towns on the Miami river. With
+this last expedition his active military service virtually ended, and in
+July 1783 he was relieved of his command by Virginia. Thereafter he
+lived on part of the land granted to him by Virginia or in Louisville
+for the rest of his life. In 1793 he accepted from Citizen Genet a
+commission as "major-general in the armies of France, and
+commander-in-chief of the French Revolutionary Legion in the Mississippi
+Valley," and tried to raise a force for an attack upon the Spanish
+possessions in the valley of the Mississippi. The scheme, however, was
+abandoned after Genet's recall. Disappointed at what he regarded as his
+country's ingratitude, and broken down by excessive drinking and
+paralysis, he lost his once powerful influence and lived in comparative
+isolation until his death, near Louisville, Kentucky, on the 13th of
+February 1818.
+
+  See W.H. English, _Conquest of the Country north-west of the River
+  Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of George Rogers Clark_ (2 vols.,
+  Indianapolis and Kansas City, 1896), an accurate and detailed work,
+  which represents an immense amount of research among both printed and
+  manuscript sources. Clark's own accounts of his expeditions, and other
+  interesting documents, are given in the appendix to this work.
+
+
+CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838), the well-known explorer, was the youngest
+brother of the foregoing. He was born in Caroline county, Virginia, on
+the 1st of August 1770. At the age of fourteen he removed with his
+parents to Kentucky, settling at the falls of the Ohio (Louisville). He
+entered the United States army as a lieutenant of infantry in March
+1792, and served under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians in
+1794. In July 1796 he resigned his commission on account of ill-health.
+In 1803-1806, with Meriwether Lewis (q.v.), he commanded the famous
+exploring expedition across the continent to the mouth of the Columbia
+river, and was commissioned second lieutenant in March 1804 and first
+lieutenant in January 1806. In February he again resigned from the army.
+He then served for a few years as brigadier-general of the Louisiana
+territorial militia, as Indian agent for "Upper Louisiana," as
+territorial governor of Missouri in 1813-1820, and as superintendent of
+Indian affairs at St Louis from 1822 until his death there on the 1st of
+September 1838.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788-1870), English physician, was born at Cullen,
+Banffshire, and was educated at the grammar school of Fordyce and at the
+universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He served for six years as a
+surgeon in the army; then spent some time in travelling on the
+continent, in order to investigate the mineral waters and the climate of
+various health resorts; and for seven years he lived in Rome. In 1826 he
+began to practise in London. In 1835 he was appointed physician to the
+duchess of Kent, becoming physician in ordinary to Queen Victoria in
+1837. In 1838 he was created a baronet. He published _The Influence of
+Climate in Chronic Diseases_, containing valuable meteorological tables
+(1829), and a _Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption_ (1835).
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847-   ), American economist, was born at Providence,
+Rhode Island, on the 26th of January 1847. Educated at Brown University,
+Amherst College, Heidelberg and Zurich, he was appointed professor of
+political economy at Carleton College, Minnesota, in 1877. In 1881 he
+became professor of history and political science in Smith College,
+Massachusetts; in 1892 professor of political economy in Amherst
+College. He was appointed professor of political economy at Columbia
+University in 1895. Among his works are: _The Philosophy of Wealth_
+(1885); _Wages_ (1889); _Capital and its Earnings_ (1898); _The Control
+of Trusts_ (1901); _The Problem of Monopoly_ (1904); and _Essentials of
+Economic Theory_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822-1898), English engineer and electrician, was
+born on the 10th of March 1822 at Great Marlow, Bucks. His first
+interest was in chemical manufacturing, but in 1848 he became assistant
+engineer at the Menai Straits bridge under his elder brother Edwin
+(1814-1894), the inventor of the Clark hydraulic lift graving dock. Two
+years later, when his brother was appointed engineer to the Electric
+Telegraph Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently
+succeeded him as chief engineer. In 1854 he took out a patent "for
+conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure of air and
+vacuum," and later was concerned in the construction of a large
+pneumatic despatch tube between the general post office and Euston
+station, London. About the same period he was engaged in experimental
+researches on the propagation of the electric current in submarine
+cables, on which he published a pamphlet in 1855, and in 1859 he was a
+member of the committee which was appointed by the government to
+consider the numerous failures of submarine cable enterprises. Latimer
+Clark paid much attention to the subject of electrical measurement, and
+besides designing various improvements in method and apparatus and
+inventing the Clark standard cell, he took a leading part in the
+movement for the systematization of electrical standards, which was
+inaugurated by the paper which he and Sir C.T. Bright read on the
+question before the British Association in 1861. With Bright also he
+devised improvements in the insulation of submarine cables. In the later
+part of his life he was a member of several firms engaged in laying
+submarine cables, in manufacturing electrical appliances, and in
+hydraulic engineering. He died in London on the 30th of October 1898.
+Besides professional papers, he published an _Elementary Treatise on
+Electrical Measurement_ (1868), together with two books on astronomical
+subjects, and a memoir of Sir W.F. Cooke.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, THOMAS (1801-1867), Scottish chemist, was born at Ayr on the 31st
+of March 1801. In 1826 he was appointed lecturer on chemistry at the
+Glasgow mechanics' institute, and in 1831 he took the degree of M.D. at
+the university of that city. Two years later he became professor of
+chemistry in Marischal College, Aberdeen, but was obliged to give up the
+duties of that position in 1844 through ill-health, though nominally he
+remained professor till 1860. His name is chiefly known in connexion
+with his process for softening hard waters, and his water tests,
+patented in 1841. The last twenty years before his death at Glasgow on
+the 27th of November 1867 were occupied with the study of the historical
+origin of the Gospels.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821-1878), English classical and Shakespearian
+scholar, was born at Barford Hall, Darlington, in March 1821. He was
+educated at Sedbergh and Shrewsbury schools and Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he was elected fellow after a brilliant university
+career. In 1857 he was appointed public orator. He travelled much during
+the long vacations, visiting Spain, Greece, Italy and Poland. His
+_Peloponnesus_ (1858) was an important contribution to the knowledge of
+the country at that time. In 1853 Clark had taken orders, but left the
+Church in 1870 after the passing of the Clerical Disabilities Act, of
+which he was one of the promoters. He also resigned the public
+oratorship in the same year, and in consequence of illness left
+Cambridge in 1873. He died at York on the 6th of November 1878. He
+bequeathed a sum of money to his old college for the foundation of a
+lectureship in English literature. Although Clark was before all a
+classical scholar, he published little in that branch of learning. A
+contemplated edition of the works of Aristophanes, a task for which he
+was singularly fitted, was never published. He visited Italy in 1868 for
+the express purpose of examining the Ravenna and other MSS., and on his
+return began the notes to the _Acharnians_, but they were left in too
+incomplete a state to admit of publication in book form even after his
+death (see _Journal of Philology_, viii., 1879). He established the
+Cambridge _Journal of Philology_, and cooperated with B.H. Kennedy and
+James Riddell in the production of the well-known _Sabrinae Corolla_.
+The work by which he is best known is the Cambridge Shakespeare
+(1863-1866), containing a collation of early editions and selected
+emendations, edited by him at first with John Glover and afterwards with
+W. Aldis Wright. _Gazpacho_ (1853)gives an account of his tour in Spain;
+his visits to Italy at the time of Garibaldi's insurrection, and to
+Poland during the insurrection of 1863, are described in _Vacation
+Tourists_, ed. F. Galton, i. and iii.
+
+  H.A.J. Munro in _Journal of Philology_ (viii. 1879) describes Clark as
+  "the most accomplished and versatile man he ever met"; see also
+  notices by W. Aldis Wright in _Academy_ (Nov. 23, 1878); R. Burn in
+  _Athenaeum_ (Nov. 16, 1878); _The Times_ (Nov. 8, 1878); _Notes and
+  Queries_, 5th series, x. (1878), p. 400.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, ADAM (1762?-1832), British Nonconformist divine, was born at
+Moybeg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in 1760 or 1762. After receiving a
+very limited education he was apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but,
+finding the employment uncongenial, he resumed school-life at the
+institution founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he
+entered on the duties of the ministry, being appointed by Wesley to the
+Bradford (Wiltshire) circuit. His popularity as a preacher was very
+great, and his influence in the denomination is indicated by the fact
+that he was three times (1806, 1814, 1822) chosen to be president of the
+conference. He served twice on the London circuit, the second period
+being extended considerably longer than the rule allowed, at the special
+request of the British and Foreign Bible Society, who had employed him
+in the preparation of their Arabic Bible. Though ardent in his pastoral
+work, he found time for diligent study of Hebrew and other Oriental
+languages, undertaken chiefly with the view of qualifying himself for
+the great work of his life, his _Commentary on the Holy Scriptures_ (8
+vols., 1810-1820). In 1802 he published a _Bibliographical Dictionary_
+in six volumes, to which he afterwards added a supplement. He was
+selected by the Records Commission to re-edit Rymer's _Foedera_, a task
+which after ten years' labour (1808-1818) he had to resign. He also
+wrote _Memoirs of the Wesley Family_ (1823), and edited a large number
+of religious works. Honours were showered upon him (he was M.A., LL.D.
+of Aberdeen), and many distinguished men in church and state were his
+personal friends. He died in London on the 16th of August 1832.
+
+  His _Miscellaneous Works_ were published in 13 vols. (1836), and a
+  _Life_ (3 vols.) by his son, J.B.B. Clarke, appeared in 1833.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902), British soldier and administrator, son
+of Colonel Andrew Clarke, of Co. Donegal, Ireland, governor of West
+Australia, was born at Southsea, England, on the 27th of July 1824, and
+educated at King's school, Canterbury. He entered the Royal Military
+Academy, Woolwich, and obtained his commission in the army in 1844 as
+second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was appointed to his
+father's staff in West Australia, but was transferred to be A.D.C. and
+military secretary to the governor of Tasmania; and in 1847 he went to
+New Zealand to take part in the Maori War, and for some years served on
+Sir George Grey's staff. He was then made surveyor-general in Victoria,
+took a prominent part in framing its new constitution, and held the
+office of minister of public lands during the first administration
+(1855-1857). He returned to England in 1857, and in 1863 was sent on a
+special mission to the West Coast of Africa. In 1864 he was appointed
+director of works for the navy, and held this post for nine years, being
+responsible for great improvements in the naval arsenals at Chatham,
+Portsmouth and Plymouth, and for fortifications at Malta, Cork, Bermuda
+and elsewhere. In 1873 he was made K.C.M.G., and became governor of the
+Straits Settlements, where he did most valuable work in consolidating
+British rule and ameliorating the condition of the people. From 1875 to
+1880 he was minister of public works in India; and on his return to
+England in 1881, holding then the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the
+army, he was first appointed commandant at Chatham and then
+inspector-general of fortifications (1882-1886). Having attained the
+rank of lieutenant-general and been created G.C.M.G., he retired from
+official life, and in 1886 and 1893 unsuccessfully stood for parliament
+as a supporter of Mr Gladstone. During his last years he was
+agent-general for Victoria. He died on the 29th of March 1902. Both as a
+technical and strategical engineer and as an Imperial administrator Sir
+Andrew Clarke was one of the ablest and most useful public servants of
+his time; and his contributions to periodical literature, as well as his
+official memoranda, contained valuable suggestions on the subjects of
+imperial defence and imperial consolidation which received too little
+consideration at a period when the home governments were not properly
+alive to their importance. He is entitled to remembrance as one of those
+who first inculcated, from a wide practical experience, the views of
+imperial administration and its responsibilities, which in his last
+years he saw accepted by the bulk of his countrymen.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877), English author and Shakespearian
+scholar, was born at Enfield, Middlesex, on the 15th of December 1787.
+His father, John Clarke, was a schoolmaster, among whose pupils was John
+Keats. Charles Clarke taught Keats his letters, and encouraged his love
+of poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards became
+acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge and Hazlitt. Clarke
+became a music publisher in partnership with Alfred Novello, and married
+in 1828 his partner's sister, Mary Victoria (1809-1898), the eldest
+daughter of Vincent Novello. In the year after her marriage Mrs Cowden
+Clarke began her valuable Shakespeare concordance, which was eventually
+issued in eighteen monthly parts (1844-1845), and in volume form in
+1845 as _The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare, being a Verbal Index
+to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works of the Poet_. This work
+superseded the _Copious Index to ... Shakespeare_ (1790) of Samuel
+Ayscough, and the _Complete Verbal Index ..._ (1805-1807) of Francis
+Twiss. Charles Cowden Clarke published many useful books, and edited the
+text for John Nichol's edition of the British poets; but his most
+important work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856 on
+Shakespeare and other literary subjects. Some of the more notable series
+were published, among them being _Shakespeare's Characters, chiefly
+those subordinate_ (1863), and _Molière's Characters_ (1865). In 1859 he
+published a volume of original poems, _Carmina Minima_. For some years
+after their marriage the Cowden Clarkes lived with the Novellos in
+London. In 1849 Vincent Novello with his wife removed to Nice, where he
+was joined by the Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at Genoa
+at the "Villa Novello." They collaborated in _The Shakespeare Key,
+unlocking the Treasures of his Style ..._ (1879), and in an edition of
+Shakespeare for Messrs Cassell, which was issued in weekly parts, and
+completed in 1868. It was reissued in 1886 as _Cassell's Illustrated
+Shakespeare_. Charles Clarke died on the 13th of March 1877 at Genoa,
+and his wife survived him until the 12th of January 1898. Among Mrs
+Cowden Clarke's other works may be mentioned _The Girlhood of
+Shakespeare's Heroines_ (3 vols., 1850-1852), and a translation of
+Berlioz's _Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration_
+(1856).
+
+  See _Recollections of Writers_ (1898), a joint work by the Clarkes
+  containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends;
+  and Mary Cowden Clarke's autobiography, _My Long Life_ (1896). A
+  charming series of letters (1850-1861), addressed by her to an
+  American admirer of her work, Robert Balmanno, was edited by Anne
+  Upton Nettleton as _Letters to an Enthusiast_ (Chicago, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769-1822), English mineralogist and traveller,
+was born at Willingdon, Sussex, on the 5th of June 1769, and educated
+first at Tonbridge. In 1786 he obtained the office of chapel clerk at
+Jesus College, Cambridge, but the loss of his father at this time
+involved him in difficulties. In 1790 he took his degree, and soon after
+became private tutor to Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset. In
+1792 he obtained an engagement to travel with Lord Berwick through
+Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After crossing the Alps, and visiting a
+few of the principal cities of Italy, including Rome, he went to Naples,
+where he remained nearly two years. Having returned to England in the
+summer of 1794, he became tutor in several distinguished families. In
+1799 he set out with a Mr Cripps on a tour through the continent of
+Europe, beginning with Norway and Sweden, whence they proceeded through
+Russia and the Crimea to Constantinople, Rhodes, and afterwards to Egypt
+and Palestine. After the capitulation of Alexandria, Clarke was of
+considerable use in securing for England the statues, sarcophagi, maps,
+manuscripts, &c., which had been collected by the French savants. Greece
+was the country next visited. From Athens the travellers proceeded by
+land to Constantinople, and after a short stay in that city directed
+their course homewards through Rumelia, Austria, Germany and France.
+Clarke, who had now obtained considerable reputation, took up his
+residence at Cambridge. He received the degree of LL.D. shortly after
+his return in 1803, on account of the valuable donations, including a
+colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, which he had made to the
+university. He was also presented to the college living of Harlton, near
+Cambridge, in 1805, to which, four years later, his father-in-law added
+that of Yeldham. Towards the end of 1808 Dr Clarke was appointed to the
+professorship of mineralogy in Cambridge, then first instituted. Nor was
+his perseverance as a traveller otherwise unrewarded. The MSS. which he
+had collected in the course of his travels were sold to the Bodleian
+library for £1000; and by the publication of his travels he realized
+altogether a clear profit of £6595. Besides lecturing on mineralogy and
+discharging his clerical duties, Dr Clarke eagerly prosecuted the study
+of chemistry, and made several discoveries, principally by means of the
+gas blow-pipe, which he had brought to a high degree of perfection. He
+was also appointed university librarian in 1817, and was one of the
+founders of the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1819. He died in
+London on the 9th of March 1822. The following is a list of his
+principal works:--_Testimony of Authors respecting the Colossal Statue
+of Ceres in the Public Library, Cambridge_ (8vo, 1801-1803); _The Tomb
+of Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alexandria,
+and now in the British Museum_ (4to, 1805); _A Methodical Distribution
+of the Mineral Kingdom_ (fol., Lewes, 1807); _A Description of the Greek
+Marbles brought from the Shores of the Euxine, Archipelago and
+Mediterranean, and deposited in the University Library, Cambridge_ (8vo,
+1809); _Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa_ (4to,
+1810-1819; 2nd ed., 1811-1823).
+
+  See _Life and Remains_, by Rev. W. Otter (1824).
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841-   ), English lawyer and politician, son
+of J.G. Clarke of Moorgate Street, London, was born on the 15th of
+February 1841. In 1859 he became a writer in the India office, but
+resigned in the next year, and became a law reporter. He obtained a
+Tancred law scholarship in 1861, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's
+Inn in 1864. He joined the home circuit, became Q.C. in 1880, and a
+bencher of Lincoln's Inn in 1882. In November 1877 he was successful in
+securing the acquittal of Chief-Inspector Clarke from the charge brought
+against certain Scotland Yard officials of conspiracy to defeat justice,
+and his reputation was assured by his defence of Patrick Staunton in the
+Penge murder case (1877), and of Mrs Bartlett against the charge of
+poisoning her husband (1886). Among other notable cases he was counsel
+for the plaintiff in the libel action brought by Sir William
+Gordon-Cumming (1890) against Mr and Mrs Lycett Green and others for
+slander, charging him with cheating in the game of baccarat (in this
+case the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII., gave evidence), and he
+appeared for Dr Jameson, Sir John Willoughby and others when they were
+tried (1896) under the Foreign Enlistment Act. He was knighted in 1886.
+He was returned as Conservative member for Southwark at a by-election
+early in 1880, but failed to retain his seat at the general election
+which followed a month or two later; he found a seat at Plymouth,
+however, which he retained until 1900. He was solicitor-general in the
+Conservative administration of 1886-1892, but declined office under the
+Unionist government of 1895 when the law officers of the crown were
+debarred from private practice. The most remarkable, perhaps, of his
+speeches in the House of Commons was his reply to Mr Gladstone on the
+second reading of the Home Rule Bill in 1893. In 1899 differences which
+arose between Sir Edward Clarke and his party on the subject of the
+government's South African policy led to his resigning his seat. At the
+general election of 1906 he was returned at the head of the poll for the
+city of London, but he offended a large section of his constituents by a
+speech against tariff reform in the House of Commons on the 12th of
+March, and shortly afterwards he resigned his seat on grounds of health.
+He published a _Treatise on the Law of Extradition_ (4th ed., 1903), and
+also three volumes of his political and forensic speeches.
+
+CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810-1888), American preacher and author, was
+born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 4th of April 1810. He was
+prepared for college at the public Latin school of Boston, and graduated
+at Harvard College in 1829, and at the Harvard Divinity School in 1833.
+He was then ordained as minister of a Unitarian congregation at
+Louisville, Kentucky, which was then a slave state. Clarke soon threw
+himself heart and soul into the national movement for the abolition of
+slavery, though he was never what was then called in America a "radical
+abolitionist." In 1839 he returned to Boston, where he and his friends
+established (1841) the "Church of the Disciples." It brought together a
+body of men and women active and eager in applying the Christian
+religion to the social problems of the day, and he would have said that
+the feature which distinguished it from any other church was that they
+also were ministers of the highest religious life. Ordination could make
+no distinction between him and them. Of this church he was the minister
+from 1841 until 1850 and from 1854 until his death. He was also
+secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-1871 professor of
+natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard. From the beginning
+of his active life he wrote freely for the press. From 1836 until 1839
+he was editor of the _Western Messenger_, a magazine intended to carry
+to readers in the Mississippi Valley simple statements of "liberal
+religion," involving what were then the most radical appeals as to
+national duty, especially the abolition of slavery. The magazine is now
+of value to collectors because it contains the earliest printed poems of
+Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was Clarke's personal friend. Most of Clarke's
+earlier published writings were addressed to the immediate need of
+establishing a larger theory of religion than that espoused by people
+who were still trying to be Calvinists, people who maintained what a
+good American phrase calls "hard-shelled churches." But it would be
+wrong to call his work controversial. He was always declaring that the
+business of the Church is Eirenic and not Polemic. Such books as
+_Orthodoxy: Its Truths and Errors_ (1866) have been read more largely by
+members of orthodox churches than by Unitarians. In the great moral
+questions of his time Clarke was a fearless and practical advocate of
+the broadest statement of human rights. Without caring much what company
+he served in, he could always be seen and heard, a leader of unflinching
+courage, in the front rank of the battle. He published but few verses,
+but at the bottom he was a poet. He was a diligent and accurate scholar,
+and among the books by which he is best known is one called _Ten Great
+Religions_ (2 vols., 1871-1883). Few Americans have done more than
+Clarke to give breadth to the published discussion of the subjects of
+literature, ethics and religious philosophy. Among his later books are
+_Every-Day Religion_ (1886) and _Sermons on the Lord's Prayer_ (1888).
+He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., on the 8th of June 1888.
+
+  His _Autobiography, Diary and Correspondence_, edited by Edward
+  Everett Hale, was published in Boston in 1891. (E.E.H.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833-1899), American actor, was born in Baltimore,
+Maryland, on the 3rd of September 1833, and was educated for the law. He
+made his first appearance in Boston as Frank Hardy in _Paul Pry_ in
+1851. In 1859 he married Asia Booth, daughter of Junius Brutus Booth,
+and he was associated with his brother-in-law Edwin Booth in the
+management of the Winter Garden theatre in New York, the Walnut Street
+theatre in Philadelphia and the Boston theatre. In 1867 he went to
+London, where he made his first appearance at the St James's as Major
+Wellington de Boots in Stirling Coynes's _Everybody's Friend_, rewritten
+for him and called _The Widow's Hunt_. His success was so great that he
+remained in England for the rest of his life, except for four visits to
+America. Among his favourite parts were Toodles, which ran for 200
+nights at the Strand, Dr Pangloss in _The Heir-at-law_, and Dr Ollapod
+in _The Poor Gentleman_. He managed several London theatres, including
+the Haymarket, where he preceded the Bancrofts. He retired in 1889, and
+died on the 24th of September 1899. His two sons also were actors.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846-1881), Australian author, was born in
+London on the 24th of April 1846. He was the only son of William Hislop
+Clarke, a barrister of the Middle Temple who died in 1863. He emigrated
+forthwith to Australia, where his uncle, James Langton Clarke, was a
+county court judge. He was at first a clerk in the bank of Australasia,
+but showed no business ability, and soon proceeded to learn farming at a
+station on the Wimmera river, Victoria. He was already writing stories
+for the _Australian Magazine_, when in 1867 he joined the staff of the
+Melbourne _Argus_ through the introduction of Dr Robert Lewins. He also
+became secretary (1872) to the trustees of the Melbourne public library
+and later (1876) assistant librarian. He founded in 1868 the Yorick
+Club, which soon numbered among its members the chief Australian men of
+letters. The most famous of his books is _For the Term of his Natural
+Life_ (Melbourne, 1874), a powerful tale of an Australian penal
+settlement, which originally appeared in serial form in a Melbourne
+paper. He also wrote _The Peripatetic Philosopher_ (1869), a series of
+amusing papers reprinted from _The Austral-asian; Long Odds_ (London,
+1870), a novel; and numerous comedies and pantomimes, the best of which
+was _Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star_ (Theatre Royal, Melbourne;
+Christmas, 1873). He married an actress, Marian Dunn. In spite of his
+popular success Clarke was constantly involved in pecuniary
+difficulties, which are said to have hastened his death at Melbourne on
+the 2nd of August 1881.
+
+  See _The Marcus Clarke Memorial Volume_ (Melbourne, 1884), containing
+  selections from his writings with a biography and list of works,
+  edited by Hamilton Mackinnon.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c. 1776-1852), mistress of Frederick duke of York,
+second son of George III., was born either in London or at Oxford. Her
+father, whose name was Thompson, seems to have been a tradesman in
+rather humble circumstances. She married before she was eighteen, but Mr
+Clarke, the proprietor of a stonemasonry business, became bankrupt, and
+she left him. After other _liaisons_, she became in 1803 the mistress of
+the duke of York, then commander-in-chief, maintaining a large and
+expensive establishment in a fashionable district. The duke's promised
+allowance was not regularly paid, and to escape her financial
+difficulties Mrs Clarke trafficked in her protector's position,
+receiving money from various promotion-seekers, military, civil and even
+clerical, in return for her promise to secure them the good services of
+the duke. Her procedure became a public scandal, and in 1809 Colonel
+Wardle, M.P., brought eight charges of abuse of military patronage
+against the duke in the House of Commons, and a committee of inquiry was
+appointed, before which Mrs Clarke herself gave evidence. The result of
+the inquiry clearly established the charges as far as she was concerned,
+and the duke of York was shown to have been aware of what was being
+done, but to have derived no pecuniary benefit himself. He resigned his
+appointment as commander-in-chief, and terminated his connexion with Mrs
+Clarke, who subsequently obtained from him a considerable sum in cash
+and a pension, as the price for withholding the publication of his
+numerous letters to her. Mrs Clarke died at Boulogne on the 21st of June
+1852.
+
+  See Taylor, _Authentic Memoirs of Mrs Clarke_; Clarke (? pseud.),
+  _Life of Mrs M.A. Clarkek_; _Annual Register_, vol. li.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675-1729), English philosopher and divine, son of
+Edward Clarke, an alderman, who for several years was parliamentary
+representative of the city of Norwich, was born on the 11th of October
+1675, and educated at the free school of Norwich and at Caius College,
+Cambridge. The philosophy of Descartes was the reigning system at the
+university; Clarke, however, mastered the new system of Newton, and
+contributed greatly to its extension by publishing an excellent Latin
+version of the _Traité de physique_ of Jacques Rohault (1620-1675) with
+valuable notes, which he finished before he was twenty-two years of age.
+The system of Rohault was founded entirely upon Cartesian principles,
+and was previously known only through the medium of a rude Latin
+version. Clarke's translation (1697) continued to be used as a text-book
+in the university till supplanted by the treatises of Newton, which it
+had been designed to introduce. Four editions were issued, the last and
+best being that of 1718. It was translated into English in 1723 by his
+brother Dr John Clarke (1682-1757), dean of Sarum.
+
+Clarke afterwards devoted himself to the study of Scripture in the
+original, and of the primitive Christian writers. Having taken holy
+orders, he became chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714), bishop of Norwich,
+who was ever afterwards his friend and patron. In 1699 he published two
+treatises,--one entitled _Three Practical Essays on Baptism,
+Confirmation and Repentance_, and the other, _Some Reflections on that
+part of a book called Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton's Life, which
+relates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and, the Canon of the
+New Testament_. In 1701 he published _A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St
+Matthew_, which was followed, in 1702, by the _Paraphrases upon the
+Gospels of St Mark and St Luke_, and soon afterwards by a third volume
+upon St John. They were subsequently printed together in two volumes and
+have since passed through several editions. He intended to treat in the
+same manner the remaining books of the New Testament, but his design was
+unfulfilled.
+
+Meanwhile he had been presented by Bishop Moore to the rectory of
+Drayton, near Norwich. As Boyle lecturer, he dealt in 1704 with the
+_Being and Attributes of God_, and in 1705 with the _Evidences of
+Natural and Revealed Religion_. These lectures, first printed
+separately, were afterwards published together under the title of _A
+Discourse concerning the Being and Attributes of God, the Obligations of
+Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian
+Revelation, in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the author of the Oracles
+of Reason, and other Deniers of Natural and Revealed Religion_.
+
+In 1706 he wrote a refutation of Dr Henry Dodwell's views on the
+immortality of the soul, and this drew him into controversy with Anthony
+Collins. He also wrote at this time a translation of Newton's _Optics_,
+for which the author presented him with £500. In the same year through
+the influence of Bishop Moore, he obtained the rectory of St Benet's,
+Paul's Wharf, London. Soon afterwards Queen Anne appointed him one of
+her chaplains in ordinary, and in 1709 presented him to the rectory of
+St James's, Westminster. He then took the degree of doctor in divinity,
+defending as his thesis the two propositions: _Nullum fidei Christianae
+dogma, in Sacris Scripturis traditum, est rectae rationi dissentaneum_,
+and _Sine actionum humanarum libertate nulla potest esse religio_.
+During the same year, at the request of the author, he revised Whiston's
+English translation of the _Apostolical Constitutions_.
+
+In 1712 he published a carefully punctuated and annotated edition (folio
+1712, octavo 1720) of Caesar's _Commentaries_, with elegant engravings,
+dedicated to the duke of Marlborough. During the same year he published
+his celebrated treatise on _The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity_. It
+is divided into three parts. The first contains a collection and
+exegesis of all the texts in the New Testament relating to the doctrine
+of the Trinity; in the second the doctrine is set forth at large, and
+explained in particular and distinct propositions; and in the third the
+principal passages in the liturgy of the Church of England relating to
+the doctrine of the Trinity are considered. Whiston informs us that,
+some time before the publication of this book, a message was sent to him
+from Lord Godolphin "that the affairs of the public were with difficulty
+then kept in the hands of those that were for liberty; that it was
+therefore an unseasonable time for the publication of a book that would
+make a great noise and disturbance; and that therefore they desired him
+to forbear till a fitter opportunity should offer itself,"--a message
+that Clarke of course entirely disregarded. The ministers were right in
+their conjectures; and the work not only provoked a great number of
+replies, but occasioned a formal complaint from the Lower House of
+Convocation. Clarke, in reply, drew up an apologetic preface, and
+afterwards gave several explanations, which satisfied the Upper House;
+and, on his pledging himself that his future conduct would occasion no
+trouble, the matter dropped.
+
+In 1715 and 1716 he had a discussion with Leibnitz relative to the
+principles of natural philosophy and religion, which was at length cut
+short by the death of his antagonist. A collection of the papers which
+passed between them was published in 1717 (cf. G. v. Leroy, _Die philos.
+Probleme in dem Briefwechsel Leibniz und Clarke_, Giessen, 1893). In
+1719 he was presented by Nicholas 1st Baron Lechmere, to the mastership
+of Wigston's hospital in Leicester. In 1724 he published seventeen
+sermons, eleven of which had not before been printed. In 1727, on the
+death of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court the place of
+master of the mint, worth on an average from £1200 to £1500 a year. This
+secular preferment, however, he absolutely refused. In 1728 was
+published "A Letter from Dr Clarke to Benjamin Hoadly, F.R.S.,
+occasioned by the controversy relating to the Proportion of Velocity and
+Force in Bodies in Motion," printed in the _Philosophical Transactions_.
+In 1729 he published the first twelve books of Homer's _Iliad_. This
+edition, dedicated to William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was highly
+praised by Bishop Hoadly. On Sunday, the 11th of May 1729, when going
+out to preach before the judges at Serjeants' Inn, he was seized with a
+sudden illness, which caused his death on the Saturday following (May
+17, 1729).
+
+Soon after his death his brother Dr John Clarke, dean of Sarum,
+published, from his original manuscripts, _An Exposition of the Church
+Catechism_, and ten volumes of sermons. The _Exposition_ is composed of
+the lectures which he read every Thursday morning, for some months in
+the year, at St James's church. In the latter part of his life he
+revised them with great care, and left them completely prepared for the
+press. Three years after his death appeared also the last twelve books
+of the _Iliad_, published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of
+these books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised
+and annotated by his father.
+
+In disposition Clarke was cheerful and even playful. An intimate friend
+relates that he once found him swimming upon a table. At another time
+Clarke on looking out at the window saw a grave blockhead approaching
+the house; upon which he cried out, "Boys, boys, be wise; here comes a
+fool." Dr Warton, in his observations upon Pope's line,
+
+  "Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,"
+
+says, "Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances; that Newton
+once studied astrology; that Dr Clarke valued himself on his agility,
+and frequently amused himself in a private room of his house in leaping
+over the tables and chairs?"
+
+  _Philosophy._--Clarke, though in no way an original thinker, was
+  eminent in theology, mathematics, metaphysics and philology, but his
+  chief strength lay in his logical power. The materialism of Hobbes,
+  the pantheism of Spinoza, the empiricism of Locke, the determinism of
+  Leibnitz, Collins' necessitarianism, Dodwell's denial of the natural
+  immortality of the soul, rationalistic attacks on Christianity, and
+  the morality of the sensationalists--all these he opposed with a
+  thorough conviction of the truth of the principles which he advocated.
+  His fame as theologian and philosopher rests to a large extent on his
+  demonstration of the existence of God and his theory of the foundation
+  of rectitude. The former is not a purely a priori argument, nor is it
+  presented as such by its author. It starts from a fact and it often
+  explicitly appeals to facts. The intelligence, for example, of the
+  self-existence and original cause of all things is, he says, "not
+  easily proved a priori," but "demonstrably proved a posteriori from
+  the variety and degrees of perfection in things, and the order of
+  causes and effects, from the intelligence that created beings are
+  confessedly endowed with, and from the beauty, order, and final
+  purpose of things." The propositions maintained in the argument
+  are--"(1) That something has existed from eternity; (2) that there has
+  existed from eternity some one immutable and independent being; (3)
+  that that immutable and independent being, which has existed from
+  eternity, without any external cause of its existence, must be
+  self-existent, that is, necessarily existing; (4) what the substance
+  or essence of that being is, which is self-existent or necessarily
+  existing, we have no idea, neither is it at all possible for us to
+  comprehend it; (5) that though the substance or essence of the
+  self-existent being is itself absolutely incomprehensible to us, yet
+  many of the essential attributes of his nature are strictly
+  demonstrable as well as his existence, and, in the first place, that
+  he must be of necessity eternal; (6) that the self-existent being must
+  of necessity be infinite and omnipresent; (7) must be but one; (8)
+  must be an intelligent being; (9) must be not a necessary agent, but a
+  being endued with liberty and choice; (10) must of necessity have
+  infinite power; (11) must be infinitely wise, and (12) must of
+  necessity be a being of infinite goodness, justice, and truth, and all
+  other moral perfections, such as become the supreme governor and judge
+  of the world."
+
+  In order to establish his sixth proposition, Clarke contends that time
+  and space, eternity and immensity, are not substances, but
+  attributes--the attributes of a self-existent being. Edmund Law,
+  Dugald Stewart, Lord Brougham, and many other writers, have, in
+  consequence, represented Clarke as arguing from the existence of time
+  and space to the existence of Deity. This is a serious mistake. The
+  existence of an immutable, independent, and necessary being is
+  supposed to be proved before any reference is made to the nature of
+  time and space. Clarke has been generally supposed to have derived the
+  opinion that time and space are attributes of an infinite immaterial
+  and spiritual being from the _Scholium Generale_, first published in
+  the second edition of Newton's _Principia_ (1714). The truth is that
+  his work on the Being and Attributes of God appeared nine years before
+  that _Scholium_. The view propounded by Clarke may have been derived
+  from the Midrash, the Kabbalah, Philo, Henry More, or Cudworth, but
+  not from Newton. It is a view difficult to prove, and probably few
+  will acknowledge that Clarke has conclusively proved it.
+
+  His ethical theory of "fitness" (see ETHICS) is formulated on the
+  analogy of mathematics. He held that in relation to the will things
+  possess an objective fitness similar to the mutual consistency of
+  things in the physical universe. This fitness God has given to
+  actions, as he has given laws to Nature; and the fitness is as
+  immutable as the laws. The theory has been unfairly criticized by
+  Jouffroy, Amédée Jacques, Sir James Mackintosh, Thomas Brown and
+  others. It is said, for example, that Clarke made virtue consist in
+  conformity to the relations of things universally, although the whole
+  tenor of his argument shows him to have had in view conformity to such
+  relations only as belong to the sphere of moral agency. It is true
+  that he might have emphasized the relation of moral fitness to the
+  will, and in this respect J.F. Herbart (_q.v._) improved on Clarke's
+  statement of the case. To say, however, that Clarke simply confused
+  mathematics and morals by justifying the moral criterion on a
+  mathematical basis is a mistake. He compared the two subjects for the
+  sake of the analogy.
+
+  Though Clarke can thus be defended against this and similar criticism,
+  his work as a whole can be regarded only as an attempt to present the
+  doctrines of the Cartesian school in a form which would not shock the
+  conscience of his time. His work contained a measure of rationalism
+  sufficient to arouse the suspicion of orthodox theologians, without
+  making any valuable addition to, or modification of, the underlying
+  doctrine.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See W. Whiston's _Historical Memoirs_, and the preface
+  by Benjamin Hoadly to Clarke's _Works_ (4 vols., London, 1738-1742).
+  See further on his general philosophical position J. Hunt's _Religious
+  Thought in England_, _passim_, but particularly in vol. ii. 447-457,
+  and vol. iii. 20-29 and 109-115, &c.; Rob. Zimmermann in the
+  _Denkschriften d. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist. Classe_,
+  Bd. xix. (Vienna, 1870); H. Sidgwick's _Methods of Ethics_ (6th ed.,
+  1901), p. 384; A. Bain's _Moral Science_ (1872), p. 562 foll., and
+  _Mental Science_ (1872), p. 416; Sir L. Stephen's _English Thought in
+  the Eighteenth Century_ (3rd ed., 1902), c. iii.; J. E. le Rossignol,
+  _Ethical Philosophy of S. Clarke_ (Leipzig, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1860-   ), American artist, was born in Pittsburg,
+Pennsylvania, on the 25th of April 1860, and graduated at Princeton in
+1882. He was a pupil of the Art Students' League, New York, and of the
+École des Beaux Arts, Paris, under J.L. Gérôme; later he entered the
+atelier of Dagnan-Bouveret, and, becoming interested in sculpture,
+worked for a while under Henri M. Chapu. As a sculptor, he received a
+medal of honour in Madrid for his "The Cider Press," now in the Golden
+Gate Park, San Francisco, California, and he made four caryatides of
+"The Seasons" for the Appellate Court House, New York. He designed an
+"Alma Mater" for Princeton University, and a model is in the library.
+Among his paintings are his "Night Market in Morocco" (Philadelphia Art
+Club), for which he received a medal at the International Exposition in
+Berlin in 1891, and his "A Fool's Fool," exhibited at the Salon in 1887
+and now in the collection of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts,
+Philadelphia.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878), British geologist, was born at
+East Bergholt, in Suffolk, on the 2nd of June 1798. He received his
+early education at Dedham grammar school, and in 1817 entered Jesus
+College, Cambridge; he took his B.A. in 1821, was ordained and became
+M.A. in 1824. In 1821 he was appointed curate of Ramsholt in Suffolk,
+and he acted in his clerical capacity in other places until 1839. Having
+become interested in geology through the teachings of Sedgwick, he
+utilized his opportunities and gathered many interesting facts on the
+geology of East Anglia which were embodied in a paper "On the Geological
+Structure and Phenomena of Suffolk" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ 1837). He also
+communicated a series of papers on the geology of S.E. Dorsetshire to
+the _Magazine of Nat. Hist._ (1837-1838). In 1839, after a severe
+illness, he left England for New South Wales, mainly with the object of
+benefiting by the sea voyage. He remained, however, in that country, and
+came to be regarded as the "Father of Australian Geology." From the date
+of his arrival in New South Wales until 1870 he was in clerical charge
+first of the country from Paramatta to the Hawkesbury river, then of
+Campbelltown, and finally of Willoughby. He zealously devoted attention
+to the geology of the country, with results that have been of paramount
+importance. In 1841 he discovered gold, being the first explorer who had
+obtained it _in situ_ in the country, finding it both in the detrital
+deposits and in the quartzites of the Blue Mountains, and he then
+declared his belief in its abundance. In 1849 he made the first actual
+discovery of tin in Australia and in 1859 he made known the occurrence
+of the diamond. He was also the first to indicate the presence of
+Silurian rocks, and to determine the age of the coal-bearing rocks in
+New South Wales. In 1869 he announced the discovery of remains of
+_Dinornis_ in Queensland. He was a trustee of the Australian museum at
+Sydney, and an active member of the Royal Society of New South Wales. In
+1860 he published _Researches in the Southern Gold-fields of New South
+Wales_. He was elected F.R.S. in 1876, and in the following year was
+awarded the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London. His
+contributions to Australian scientific journals were numerous. He died
+near Sydney, on the 17th of June 1878.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKSON, THOMAS (1760-1846), English anti-slavery agitator, was born on
+the 28th of March 1760, at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire, where his father
+was headmaster of the free grammar school. He was educated at St Paul's
+school and at St John's College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place
+among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded in 1785 in
+gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors. The subject
+appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, was one in which he was
+himself deeply interested--_Anne liceat invitos in servitutem dare?_ (Is
+it right to make men slaves against their will?). In preparing for this
+essay Clarkson consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which
+the chief was Benezet's _Historical Survey of New Guinea_; and the
+atrocities of which he read affected him so deeply that he determined to
+devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the slave trade, and
+gave up his intention of entering the church.
+
+His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English translation
+of his prize essay (June 1786). He then commenced to search in all
+quarters for information concerning slavery. He soon discovered that the
+cause had already been taken up to some extent by others, most of whom
+belonged to the Society of Friends, and among the chief of whom were
+William Dillwyn, Joseph Wood and Granville Sharp. With the aid of these
+gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 1787 to do all that
+was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade. Meanwhile
+Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce, Whitbread, Sturge
+and several other men of influence. Travelling from port to port, he now
+commenced to collect a large mass of evidence; and much of it was
+embodied in his _Summary View of the Slave Trade, and the Probable
+Consequences of its Abolition_, which, with a number of other
+anti-slavery tracts, was published by the committee. Pitt, Grenville,
+Fox and Burke looked favourably on the movement; in May 1788 Pitt
+introduced a parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben
+brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves carried in a
+vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A number of Liverpool and
+Bristol merchants obtained permission from the House to be heard by
+council against the bill, but on the 18th of June it passed the Commons.
+Soon after Clarkson published an _Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave
+Trade_; and for two months he was continuously engaged in travelling
+that he might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facts of
+the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount of
+evidence; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to appear
+before the privy council. Meanwhile other witnesses had been obtained by
+Wilberforce and the committee, and on the 12th of May 1789 the former
+led a debate on the subject in the House of Commons, in which he was
+seconded by Burke and supported by Pitt and Fox.
+
+It was now the beginning of the French Revolution, and in the hope that
+he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with other abuses,
+Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he remained six months. He found Necker
+head of the government, and obtained from him some sympathy but little
+help. Mirabeau, however, with his assistance, prepared a speech against
+slavery, to be delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis
+de la Fayette entered enthusiastically into his views. During this visit
+Clarkson met a deputation of negroes from Santo Domingo, who had come to
+France to present a petition to the National Assembly, desiring to be
+placed on an equal footing with the whites; but the storm of the
+Revolution permitted no substantial success to be achieved. Soon after
+his return home he engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of
+which finely displays his unshrinking laboriousness and his passionate
+enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself witnessed the
+capture of the negroes in Africa; and a friend having met by chance a
+man-of-war's-man who had done so, Clarkson, though ignorant of the name
+and address of the sailor, set out in search of him, and actually
+discovered him. His last tour was undertaken in order to form
+anti-slavery committees in all the principal towns. At length, in the
+autumn of 1794, his health gave way, and he was obliged to cease active
+work. He now occupied his time in writing a _History of the Abolition of
+the Slave Trade_, which appeared in 1808. The bill for the abolition of
+the trade became law in 1807; but it was still necessary to secure the
+assent of the other powers to its principle. To obtain this was, under
+pressure of the public opinion created by Clarkson and his friends, one
+of the main objects of British diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna, and
+in February 1815 the trade was condemned by the powers. The question of
+concerting practical measures for its abolition was raised at the
+Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but without result. On this
+occasion Clarkson personally presented an address to the emperor
+Alexander I., who communicated it to the sovereigns of Austria and
+Prussia. In 1823 the Anti-Slavery Society was formed, and Clarkson was
+one of its vice-presidents. He was for some time blind from cataract;
+but several years before his death on the 26th of September 1846, his
+sight was restored.
+
+  Besides the works already mentioned, he published the _Portraiture of
+  Quakerism_ (1806), _Memoirs of William Penn_ (1813), _Researches,
+  Antediluvian, Patriarchal and Historical_ (1836), intended as a
+  history of the interference of Providence for man's spiritual good,
+  and _Strictures_ on several of the remarks concerning himself made in
+  the _Life of Wilberforce_, in which his claim as originator of the
+  anti-slavery movement is denied.
+
+  See the lives by Thomas Elmes (1876) and Thomas Taylor (1839).
+
+
+
+
+CLARKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county, Tennessee,
+U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, about 50 m. N.W. of
+Nashville, on the Cumberland river, at the mouth of the Red river. Pop.
+(1890) 7924; (1900) 9431, of whom 5094 were negroes; (1910 census) 8548.
+It is served by the Louisville & Nashville, and the Illinois Central
+railways, and by passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Cumberland
+river. The city hall, and the public library are among the principal
+public buildings, and the city is the seat of the Tennessee Odd Fellows'
+home, and of the South-Western Presbyterian University, founded in 1875.
+Clarksville lies in the centre of the dark tobacco belt--commonly known
+as the "Black Patch"--and is an important tobacco market, with an annual
+trade in that staple of about $4,000,000, most of the product being
+exported to France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The city is situated in a
+region well adapted for the growing of wheat, Indian corn, and
+vegetables, and for the raising of live-stock; and Clarksville is a
+shipping point for the lumber--chiefly oak, poplar and birch--and the
+iron-ore of the surrounding country, a branch of the Louisville &
+Nashville railway extending into the iron district. The city's principal
+manufactures are flour and grist mill products, chewing and smoking
+tobacco and snuff, furniture, lumber, iron, and pearl buttons. The value
+of the factory product in 1905 was $2,210,112, being 32% greater than in
+1900. The municipality owns its water-works. Clarksville was first
+settled as early as 1780, was named in honour of General George Rogers
+Clark, and was chartered as a city in 1850.
+
+
+
+
+CLASSICS. The term "classic" is derived from the Latin epithet
+_classicus_, found in a passage of Aulus Gellius (xix. 8. 15), where a
+"_scriptor 'classicus'_" is contrasted with a "_scriptor proletarius_."
+The metaphor is taken from the division of the Roman people into
+_classes_ by Servius Tullius, those in the first class being called
+_classici_, all the rest _infra classem_, and those in the last
+_proletarii_.[1] The epithet "classic" is accordingly applied (1)
+generally to an author of the first rank, and (2) more particularly to
+a Greek or Roman author of that character. Similarly, "the classics" is
+a synonym for the choicest products of the literature of ancient Greece
+and Rome. It is to this sense of the word that the following article is
+devoted in two main divisions: (A) the general history of classical
+(i.e. Greek and Latin) scholarship, and (B) its place in higher
+education.
+
+
+(A) GENERAL HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS
+
+We may consider this subject in four principal periods:--(i.) the
+_Alexandrian_, c. 300-1 B.C.; (ii.) the _Roman_, A.D. c. 1-530; (iii.)
+the _Middle Ages_, c. 530-1350; and (iv.) the _Modern Age_, c. 1350 to
+the present day.
+
+(i.) _The Alexandrian Age._--The study of the Greek classics begins with
+the school of Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy Philadelphus
+(285-247 B.C.), learning found a home in the Alexandrian Museum and in
+the great Alexandrian Library. The first four librarians were Zenodotus,
+Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, and Aristarchus. Zenodotus
+produced before 274 the first scientific edition of the _Iliad_ and
+_Odyssey_, an edition in which spurious lines were marked, at the
+beginning, with a short horizontal dash called an _obelus_ (--). He also
+drew up select lists of epic and lyric poets. Soon afterwards a
+classified catalogue of dramatists, epic and lyric poets, legislators,
+philosophers, historians, orators and rhetoricians, and miscellaneous
+writers, with a brief biography of each, was produced by the scholar and
+poet Callimachus (fl. 260). Among the pupils of Callimachus was
+Eratosthenes who, in 234, succeeded Zenodotus as librarian. Apart from
+his special interest in the history of the Old Attic comedy, he was a
+man of vast and varied learning; the founder of astronomical geography
+and of scientific chronology; and the first to assume the name of
+[Greek: philologos]. The greatest philologist of antiquity was, however,
+his successor, Aristophanes of Byzantium (195), who reduced accentuation
+and punctuation to a definite system, and used a variety of critical
+symbols in his recension of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. He also edited
+Hesiod and Pindar, Euripides and Aristophanes, besides composing brief
+introductions to the several plays, parts of which are still extant.
+Lastly, he established a scientific system of lexicography and drew up
+lists of the "best authors." Two critical editions of the _Iliad_ and
+_Odyssey_ were produced by his successor, Aristarchus, who was librarian
+until 146 B.C. and was the founder of scientific scholarship. His
+distinguished pupil, Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166 B.C.), drew up a Greek
+grammar which continued in use for more than thirteen centuries. The
+most industrious of the successors of Aristarchus was Didymus (c. 65
+B.C.-A.D. 10), who, in his work on the Homeric poems, aimed at restoring
+the lost recensions of Aristarchus. He also composed commentaries on the
+lyric and comic poets and on Thucydides and Demosthenes; part of his
+commentary on this last author was first published in 1904. He was a
+teacher in Alexandria (and perhaps also in Rome); and his death, about
+A.D. 10, marks the close of the Alexandrian age. He is the industrious
+compiler who gathered up the remnants of the learning of his
+predecessors and transmitted them to posterity. The poets of that age,
+including Callimachus and Theocritus, were subsequently expounded by
+Theon, who flourished under Tiberius, and has been well described as
+"the Didymus of the Alexandrian poets."
+
+The Alexandrian canon of the Greek classics, which probably had its
+origin in the lists drawn up by Callimachus, Aristophanes of Byzantium
+and Aristarchus, included the following authors:--
+
+  _Epic poets_ (5): Homer, Hesiod, Peisander, Panyasis, Antimachus.
+
+  _Iambic poets_ (3): Simonides of Amorgos, Archilochus, Hipponax.
+
+  _Tragic poets_ (5): Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Ion, Achaeus.
+
+  _Comic poets, Old_ (7): Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes,
+  Pherecrates, Crates, Plato. _Middle_ (2): Antiphanes, Alexis. _New_
+  (5): Menander, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus.
+
+  _Elegiac poets_ (4): Callinus, Mimnermus, Philetas, Callimachus.
+
+  _Lyric poets_ (9): Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar,
+  Bacchylides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides of Ceos.
+
+  _Orators_ (10): Demosthenes, Lysias, Hypereides, Isocrates, Aeschines,
+  Lycurgus, Isaeus, Antiphon, Ándocides, Deinarchus.
+
+  _Historians_ (10): Thucydides, Herodotus, Xenophon, Philistius,
+  Theopompus, Ephorus, Anaximenes, Callisthenes, Hellanicus, Polybius.
+
+The latest name in the above list is that of Polybius, who died about
+123 B.C. Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus and Theocritus were subsequently
+added to the "epic" poets. Philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle,
+were possibly classed in a separate "canon."
+
+While the scholars of Alexandria were mainly interested in the _verbal
+criticism_ of the Greek _poets_, a wider variety of studies was the
+characteristic of the school of Pergamum, the literary rival of
+Alexandria. Pergamum was a home of learning for a large part of the 150
+years of the Attalid dynasty, 283-133 B.C.
+
+The grammar of the Stoics, gradually elaborated by Zeno, Cleanthes and
+Chrysippus, supplied a terminology which, in words such as "genitive,"
+"accusative" and "aorist," has become a permanent part of the
+grammarian's vocabulary; and the study of this grammar found its
+earliest home in Pergamum.
+
+From about 168 B.C. the head of the Pergamene school was Crates of
+Mallus, who (like the Stoics) was an adherent of the principle of
+"anomaly" in grammar, and was thus opposed to Aristarchus of Alexandria,
+the champion of "analogy." He also opposed Aristarchus, and supported
+the Stoics, by insisting on an _allegorical_ interpretation of Homer. He
+is credited with having drawn up the classified lists of the best
+authors for the Pergamene library. His mission as an envoy to the Roman
+senate, "shortly after the death of Ennius" in 169 B.C., had a
+remarkable influence on literary studies in Rome. Meeting with an
+accident while he was wandering on the Palatine, and being detained in
+Rome, he passed part of his enforced leisure in giving lectures
+(possibly on Homer, his favourite author), and thus succeeded in
+arousing among the Romans a taste for the scholarly study of literature.
+The example set by Crates led to the production of a new edition of the
+epic poem of Naevius, and to the public recitation of the _Annals_ of
+Ennius, and (two generations later) the _Satires_ of Lucilius.
+
+(ii.) _The Roman Age._--(a) _Latin Studies._--In the 1st century B.C.
+the foremost scholar in Rome was L. Aelius Stilo (c. 154-c. 74), who is
+described by Cicero as profoundly learned in Greek and Latin literature,
+and as an accomplished critic of Roman antiquities and of ancient
+authors. Of the plays then passing under the name of Plautus, he
+recognized twenty-five as genuine. His most famous pupil was Varro
+(116-27), the six surviving books of whose great work on the Latin
+language are mainly concerned with the great grammatical controversy on
+analogy and anomaly--a controversy which also engaged the attention of
+Cicero and Caesar, and of the elder Pliny and Quintilian. The twenty-one
+plays of Plautus accepted by Varro are doubtless the twenty now extant,
+together with the lost _Vidularia_. The influence of Varro's last work
+on the nine _disciplinae_, or branches of study, long survived in the
+seven "liberal arts" recognized by St Augustine and Martianus Capella,
+and in the _trivium_ and _quadrivium_ of the middle ages.
+
+Part of Varro's treatise on Latin was dedicated to Cicero (106-43), who
+as an interpreter of Greek philosophy to his fellow-countrymen enlarged
+the vocabulary of Latin by his admirable renderings of Greek
+philosophical terms, and thus ultimately gave us such indispensable
+words as "species," "quality" and "quantity."
+
+The earliest of Latin lexicons was produced about 10 B.C. by Verrius
+Flaccus in a work, _De Verborum Significatu_, which survived in the
+abridgment by Festus (2nd century A.D.) and in the further abridgment
+dedicated by Paulus Diaconus to Charles the Great.
+
+Greek models were diligently studied by Virgil and Horace. Their own
+poems soon became the theme of criticism and of comment; and, by the
+time of Quintilian and Juvenal, they shared the fate (which Horace had
+feared) of becoming text-books for use in schools.
+
+Recensions of Terence, Lucretius and Persius, as well as Horace and
+Virgil, were produced by Probus (d. A.D. 88), with critical symbols
+resembling those invented by the Alexandrian scholars. His contemporary
+Asconius is best known as the author of an extant historical commentary
+on five of the speeches of Cicero. In A.D. 88 Quintilian was placed at
+the head of the first state-supported school in Rome. His comprehensive
+work on the training of the future orator includes an outline of general
+education, which had an important influence on the humanistic schools of
+the Italian Renaissance. It also presents us with a critical survey of
+the Greek and Latin classics arranged under the heads of poets,
+historians, orators and philosophers (book x. chap. i.). The lives of
+Roman poets and scholars were among the many subjects that exercised the
+literary skill of Hadrian's private secretary, Suetonius. One of his
+lost works is the principal source of the erudition of Isidore of
+Seville (d. A.D. 636), whose comprehensive encyclopaedia was a favourite
+text-book in the middle ages. About the time of the death of Suetonius
+(A.D. 160) a work entitled the _Noctes Atticae_ was begun by Aulus
+Gellius. The author is an industrious student and a typical scholar, who
+frequents libraries and is interested in the MSS. of old Latin authors.
+Early in the 4th century the study of grammar was represented in
+northern Africa by the Numidian tiro, Nonius Marcellus (fl. 323), the
+author of an encyclopaedic work in three parts, lexicographical,
+grammatical and antiquarian, the main value of which lies in its
+quotations from early Latin literature. About the middle of the same
+century grammar had a far abler exponent at Rome in the person of Aelius
+Donatus, the preceptor of St Jerome, as well as the author of a
+text-book that remained in use throughout the middle ages. The general
+state of learning in this century is illustrated by Ausonius (c.
+310-393), the grammarian and rhetorician of Bordeaux, the author of the
+_Mosella_, and the probable inspirer of the memorable decree of Gratian
+(376), providing for the appointment and the payment of teachers of
+rhetoric and of Greek and Latin literature in the principal cities of
+Gaul. His distinguished friend, Q. Aurelius Symmachus, the consul of
+A.D. 391, aroused in his own immediate circle an interest in Livy, the
+whole of whose history was still extant. Early in the 5th century other
+aristocratic Romans interested themselves in the textual criticism of
+Persius and Martial. Among the contemporaries of Symmachus, the devoted
+adherent of the old Roman religion, was St Jerome (d. 420), the most
+scholarly representative of Christianity in the 4th century, the student
+of Plautus and Terence, of Virgil and Cicero, the translator of the
+_Chronology_ of Eusebius, and the author of the Latin version of the
+Bible now known as the Vulgate. St Augustine (d. 430) confesses to his
+early fondness for Virgil, and also tells us that he received his first
+serious impressions from the _Hortensius_ of Cicero, an eloquent
+exhortation to the study of philosophy, of which only a few fragments
+survive. In his survey of the "liberal arts" St Augustine imitates (as
+we have seen) the _Disciplinae_ of Varro, and in the greatest of his
+works, the _De Civitate Dei_ (426), he has preserved large portions of
+the _Antiquitates_ of Varro and the _De Republica_ of Cicero. About the
+same date, and in the same province of northern Africa, Martianus
+Capella produced his allegorical work on the "liberal arts," the
+principal, and, indeed, often the only, text-book of the medieval
+schools.
+
+In the second half of the 5th century the foremost representative of
+Latin studies in Gaul was Apollinaris Sidonius (fl. 470), whose
+_Letters_ were modelled on those of the younger Pliny, while his poems
+give proof of a wide though superficial acquaintance with classical
+literature. He laments the increasing decline in the classical purity of
+the Latin language.
+
+An interest in Latin literature lived longest in Gaul, where schools of
+learning flourished as early as the 1st century at Autun, Lyons,
+Toulouse, Nîmes, Vienne, Narbonne and Marseilles; and, from the 3rd
+century onwards, at Trier, Poitiers, Besançon and Bordeaux.
+
+About ten years after the death of Sidonius we find Asterius, the consul
+of 494, critically revising the text of Virgil in Rome. Boëthius, who
+early in life formed the ambitious plan of expounding and reconciling
+the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, continued in the year of his sole
+consulship (510) to instruct his fellow-countrymen in the wisdom of
+Greece. He is a link between the ancient world and the middle ages,
+having been the last of the learned Romans who understood the language
+and studied the literature of Greece, and the first to interpret to the
+middle ages the logical treatises of Aristotle. He thereby gave the
+signal for the age-long conflict between Nominalism and Realism, which
+exercised the keenest intellects among the Schoolmen, while the crowning
+work of his life, the _Consolatio Philosophiae_ (524), was repeatedly
+expounded and imitated, and reproduced in renderings that were among the
+earliest literary products of the vernacular languages of modern Europe.
+His contemporary, Cassiodorus (c. 480-c. 575), after spending thirty
+years in the service of the Ostrogothic dynasty at Ravenna, passed the
+last thirty-three years of his long life on the shores of the Bay of
+Squillace, where he founded two monasteries and diligently trained their
+inmates to become careful copyists. In his latest work he made extracts
+for their benefit from the pages of Priscian (fl. 512), a transcript of
+whose great work on Latin grammar was completed at Constantinople by one
+of that grammarian's pupils in 527, to be reproduced in a thousand MSS.
+in the middle ages. More than ten years before Cassiodorus founded his
+monasteries in the south of Italy, Benedict of Nursia (480-543) had
+rendered a more permanent service to the cause of scholarship by
+building, amid the ruins of the temple of Apollo on the crest of Monte
+Cassino, the earliest of those homes of learning that have lent an
+undying distinction to the Benedictine order. The learned labours of the
+Benedictines were no part of the original requirements of the rule of St
+Benedict; but before the founder's death his favourite disciple had
+planted a monastery in France, and the name of that disciple is
+permanently associated with the learned labours of the Benedictines of
+the Congregation of St Maur (see MAURISTS).
+
+(b) _Greek Studies._--Meanwhile, the study of the Greek classics was
+ably represented at Rome in the Augustan age by Dionysius of
+Halicarnassus (fl. 30-8 B.C.), the intelligent critic of the ancient
+Attic orators, while the 1st century of our era is the probable date of
+the masterpiece of literary criticism known as the treatise _On the
+Sublime_ by Longinus (q.v.).
+
+The 2nd century is the age of the two great grammarians, Apollonius
+Dyscolus (the founder of scientific grammar and the creator of the study
+of Greek syntax) and his son Herodian, the larger part of whose
+principal work dealt with the subject of Greek accentuation. It is also
+the age of the lexicographers of Attic Greek, the most important of whom
+are Phrynichus, Pollux (fl. A.D. 180) and Harpocration.
+
+In the 4th century Demosthenes was expounded and imitated by the widely
+influential teacher, Libanius of Antioch (c. 314-c. 393), the pagan
+preceptor of St Chrysostom. To the same century we may assign the
+grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria, who, instead of confining himself
+(like Dionysius Thrax) to the tenses of [Greek: thuptô] in actual use,
+was the first to set forth all the imaginary aorists and futures of that
+verb, which have thence descended through the Byzantine age to the
+grammars of the Renaissance and of modern Europe.
+
+In the 5th century we may place Hesychius of Alexandria, the compiler of
+the most extensive of our ancient Greek lexicons, and Proclus, the
+author of a chrestomathy, to the extracts from which (as preserved by
+Photius) we owe almost all our knowledge of the contents of the lost
+epics of early Greece. In the same century the study of Plato was
+represented by Synesius of Cyrene (c. 370-c. 413) and by the
+Neoplatonists of Alexandria and of Athens. The lower limit of the Roman
+age of classical studies may be conveniently placed in the year 529. In
+that year the monastery of Monte Cassino was founded in the West, while
+the school of Athens was closed in the East. The Roman age thus ends in
+the West with Boëthius, Cassiodorus and St Benedict, and in the East
+with Priscian and Justinian.
+
+(iii.) _The Middle Ages_.--(a) _In the East_, commonly called the
+_Byzantine Age_, c. 530-1350. In this age, grammatical learning was
+represented by Choeroboscus, and lexicography by Photius (d. 891), the
+patriarch of Constantinople, who is also the author of a _Bibliotheca_
+reviewing and criticizing the contents of 280 MSS., and incidentally
+preserving important extracts from the lost Greek historians.
+
+In the time of Photius the poets usually studied at school were Homer,
+Hesiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus (_Prometheus, Septem_
+and _Persae_), Sophocles (_Ajax, Electra_ and _Oedipus Tyrannus_), and
+Euripides (_Hecuba, Orestes, Phoenissae_, and, next to these, _Alcestis,
+Andromache, Hippolytus, Medea, Rhesus, Troades_,) also Aristophanes
+(beginning with the _Plutus_), Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius
+Periegetes. The principal prose authors were Thucydides, parts of Plato
+and Demosthenes, with Aristotle, Plutarch's _Lives_, and, above all,
+Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age.
+
+One of the distinguished pupils of Photius, Arethas, bishop of Caesarea
+in Cappadocia (c. 907-932), devoted himself with remarkable energy to
+collecting and expounding the Greek classics. Among the important MSS.
+still extant that were copied at his expense are the Bodleian Euclid
+(888) and the Bodleian Plato (895). To the third quarter of the 10th
+century we may assign the Greek lexicon of Suïdas, a combination of a
+lexicon and an encyclopaedia, the best articles being those on the
+history of literature.
+
+Meanwhile, during the "dark age" of secular learning at Constantinople
+(641-850), the light of Greek learning had spread eastwards to Syria and
+Arabia. At Bagdad, in the reign of Mamun (813-833), the son of Harun
+al-Rashid, philosophical works were translated by Syrian Christians from
+Greek into Syriac and from Syriac into Arabic. It was in his reign that
+Aristotle was first translated into Arabic, and, shortly afterwards, we
+have Syriac and Arabic renderings of commentators on Aristotle, and of
+portions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen; while in the 10th century new
+translations of Aristotle and his commentators were produced by the
+Nestorian Christians.
+
+The Arabic translations of Aristotle passed from the East to the West by
+being transmitted through the Arab dominions in northern Africa to
+Spain, which had been conquered by the Arabs in the 8th century. In the
+12th century Toledo was the centre of the study of Aristotle in the
+West, and it was from Toledo that the knowledge of Aristotle spread to
+Paris and to other seats of learning in western Europe.
+
+The 12th century in Constantinople is marked by the name of Tzetzes (c.
+1110-c. 1180), the author of a mythological, literary and historical
+miscellany called the _Chiliades_, in the course of which he quotes more
+than four hundred authors. The prolegomena to his scholia on
+Aristophanes supply us with valuable information on the Alexandrian
+libraries. The most memorable name, however, among the scholars of this
+century is that of Eustathius, whose philological studies at
+Constantinople preceded his tenure of the archbishopric of Thessalonica
+(1175-1192). The opening pages of his commentaries on the _Iliad_ and
+the _Odyssey_ dwell with enthusiasm on the abiding influence of Homer on
+the literature of Greece.
+
+While the Byzantine MSS. of the 11th century (such as the Laurentian
+MSS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and the Ravenna MS. of Aristophanes)
+maintain the sound traditions of the Alexandrian and Roman ages, those
+of the times of the Palaeologi give proof of a frequent tampering with
+the metres of the ancient poets in order to bring them into conformity
+with theories recently invented by Moschopulus and Triclinius. The
+scholars of these times are the natural precursors of the earliest
+representatives of the Revival of Learning in the West. Of these later
+Byzantines the first in order of date is the monk Planudes (d. 1330),
+who devoted his knowledge of Latin to producing excellent translations
+of Caesar's _Gallic War_ as well as Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ and
+_Heroides_, and the classic work of Boëthius; he also compiled (in 1302)
+the only Greek anthology known to scholars before the recovery in 1607
+of the earlier and fuller anthology of Cephalas (fl. 917).
+
+The scholars of the Byzantine age cannot be compared with the great
+Alexandrians, but they served to maintain the continuity of tradition by
+which the Greek classics selected by the critics of Alexandria were
+transmitted to modern Europe.
+
+(b) _In the West_ (c. 530-c. 1350).--At the portal of the middle ages
+stands Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), who had little (if any) knowledge
+of Greek and had no sympathy with the _secular_ side of the study of
+Latin. A decline in grammatical learning is exemplified in the three
+Latin historians of the 6th century, Jordanes, Gildas and Gregory of
+Tours (d. 594), who begins his history of the Franks by lamenting the
+decay of Latin literature in Gaul. The historian of Tours befriended the
+Latin poet, Venantius Fortunatus (d. _c._ 600), who is still remembered
+as the writer of the three well-known hymns beginning _Salve festa
+dies_, _Vexilla regis prodeunt_, and _Pange lingua gloriosi proelium
+certaminis_. The decadence of Latin early in the 7th century is
+exemplified by the fantastic grammarian Virgilius Maro, who also
+illustrates the transition from Latin to Provençal, and from quantitive
+to accentual forms of verse.
+
+While Latin was declining in Gaul, even Greek was not unknown in
+Ireland, and the Irish passion for travel led to the spread of Greek
+learning in the west of Europe. The Irish monk Columban, shortly before
+his death in 615, founded in the neighbourhood of Pavia the monastery of
+Bobbio, to be the repository of many Latin MSS. which were ultimately
+dispersed among the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin. About the same
+date his fellow-traveller, Gallus, founded above the Lake of Constance
+the monastery of St Gallen, where Latin MSS. were preserved until their
+recovery in the age of the Renaissance. During the next twenty-five
+years Isidore of Seville (d. 636) produced in his _Origines_ an
+encyclopaedic work which gathered up for the middle ages much of the
+learning of the ancient world.
+
+In Italy a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the 5th and 6th
+centuries led to an estrangement between the Greek and Latin Churches.
+The year 690 is regarded as the date of the temporary extinction of
+Greek in Italy, but, in the first quarters of the 8th and the 9th
+centuries, the iconoclastic decrees of the Byzantine emperors drove many
+of the Greek monks and their lay adherents to the south of Italy, and
+even to Rome itself.
+
+In Ireland we find Greek characters used in the Book of Armagh (_c._
+807); and, in the same century, a Greek psalter was copied by an Irish
+monk of Liége, named Sedulius (fl. 850), who had a wide knowledge of
+Latin literature. In England, some sixty years after the death of
+Augustine, the Greek archbishop of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (d.
+690) founded a school for the study of Greek, and with the help of an
+African monk named Hadrian made many of the English monasteries schools
+of Greek and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bede (d. 735), some
+of the scholars who still survived were "as familiar with Greek and
+Latin as with their mother-tongue." Among those who had learned their
+Greek at Canterbury was Aldhelm (d. 709), "the first Englishman who
+cultivated classical learning with any success." While Aldhelm is known
+as "the father of Anglo-Latin verse," Latin prose was the literary
+medium used by Bede in his celebrated _Ecclesiastical History_ of
+England (731). Nine years after the death of Bede (735), Boniface, "the
+apostle of Germany," sanctioned the founding of Fulda (744), which soon
+rivalled St Gallen as a school of learning. Alcuin (d. 804), who was
+probably born in the year of Bede's death, tells us of the wealth of
+Latin literature preserved in the library at York. Through the
+invitation of Charles the Great, he became associated with the revival
+of learning which marks the reign of that monarch, by presiding over the
+School of the Palace (782-790), and by exercising a healthy influence as
+abbot of St Martin's at Tours (796-804). Among the friends of Alcuin and
+the advisers of Charles was Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans and abbot of
+Fleury (d. 821), who is memorable as an accomplished Latin poet, and as
+the initiator of free education. Einhard (d. 840), in his classic life
+of Charles the Great, models his style on that of Suetonius, and shows
+his familiarity with Caesar and Livy and Cicero, while Rabanus Maurus
+(d. 856), who long presided over Einhard's school of Fulda, was the
+first to introduce Priscian into the schools of Germany. His pupil,
+Walafrid Strabo, the abbot of Reichenau (d. 849), had a genuine gift for
+Latin poetry, a gift agreeably exemplified in his poem on the plants in
+the monastic garden. In the same century an eager interest in the Latin
+classics is displayed by Servatus Lupus, who was educated at Fulda, and
+was abbot of Ferrières for the last twenty years of his life (d. 862).
+In his literary spirit he is a precursor of the humanists of the
+Renaissance. Under Charles the Bald (d. 877) there was a certain revival
+of interest in literature, when John the Scot (Erigena) became, for some
+thirty years (c. 845-875), the head of the Palace School. He was
+familiar with the Greek Fathers, and was chosen to execute a Latin
+rendering of the writings of "Dionysius the Areopagite," the patron
+saint of France. In the preface the translator praises the king for
+prompting him not to rest satisfied with the literature of the West, but
+to have recourse to the "most pure and copious waters of the Greeks." In
+the next generation Remi of Auxerre was the first to open a school in
+Paris (900). Virgil is the main authority quoted in Remi's Commentary on
+Donatus, which remained in use until the Renaissance. During the two
+centuries after John the Scot, the study of Greek declined in France. In
+England the 9th century closes with Alfred, who, with the aid of the
+Welsh monk, Asser, produced a series of free translations from Latin
+texts, including Boëthius and Orosius and Bede, and the _Cura
+Pastoralis_ of Gregory the Great.
+
+In the 10th century learning flourished at Aachen under Bruno, brother
+of Otto I. and archbishop of Cologne (953-965), who had himself learned
+Greek from certain Eastern monks at the imperial court, and who called
+an Irish bishop from Trier to teach Greek at the imperial capital. He
+also encouraged the transcription of Latin MSS., which became models of
+style to Widukind of Corvey, the imitator of Sallust and Livy. In the
+same century the monastery of Gandersheim, south of Hanover, was the
+retreat of the learned nun Hroswitha, who celebrated the exploits of
+Otho in leonine hexameters, and composed in prose six moral and
+religious plays in imitation of Terence. One of the most prominent
+personages of the century was Gerbert of Aurillac, who, after teaching
+at Tours and Fleury, became abbot of Bobbio, archbishop of Reims, and
+ultimately pope under the name of Silvester II. (d. 1003). He frequently
+quotes from the speeches of Cicero, and it has been surmised that the
+survival of those speeches may have been due to the influence of
+Gerbert. The most original hellenist of this age is Luitprand, bishop of
+Cremona (d. 972), who acquired some knowledge of Greek during his
+repeated missions to Constantinople. About the same time in England
+Oswald of York, who had himself been educated at Fleury, invited Abbo
+(d. 1004) to instruct the monks of the abbey recently founded at Ramsey,
+near Huntingdon. At Ramsey he wrote for his pupils a scholarly work
+dealing with points of prosody and pronunciation, and exhibiting an
+accurate knowledge of Virgil and Horace. During the same half-century,
+Ælfric, the abbot of Eynsham (d. c. 1030), aided Bishop Æthelwold in
+making Winchester famous as a place of education. It was there that he
+began his _Latin Grammar_, his _Glossary_ (the earliest Latin-English
+dictionary in existence), and his _Colloquium_, in which Latin is taught
+in a conversational manner.
+
+In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the 11th
+century was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In and after the
+middle of that century the Norman monastery of Bec flourished under the
+rule of Lanfranc and Anselm, both of whom had begun their career in
+northern Italy, and closed it at Canterbury. Meanwhile, in Germany, the
+styles of Sallust and Livy were being happily imitated in the _Annals_
+of Lambert of Hersfeld (d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin
+literature seems never to have entirely died out, young nobles and
+students preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning
+Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics, such
+as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as divided in his
+allegiance between the saints and the muses. Learning flourished at
+Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot Desiderius (afterwards Pope
+Victor III.). In this century that famous monastery had its classical
+chronicler in Leo Marsicanus, and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future
+archbishop of Salerno.
+
+The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle, and we may
+here briefly note the successive stages in their gradually increasing
+knowledge of his works. Until 1128 only the first two of the five parts
+of the _Organon_ were known, and those solely in Latin translations from
+the original. After that date two more became known; the whole was
+familiar to John of Salisbury in 1159; while the _Physics_ and
+_Metaphysics_ came into notice about 1200. Plato was mainly represented
+by the Latin translation of the _Timaeus_. Abelard (d. 1142) was
+acquainted with no Greek works except in Latin translations, but he has
+left his mark on the history of European education. The wide popularity
+of his brilliant lectures in the "schools" of Paris made this city the
+resort of the many students who were ultimately organized as a
+"university" (c. 1170). John of Salisbury attended Abelard's lectures in
+1136, and, after spending two years in the study of logic in Paris,
+passed three more in the scholarly study of Latin literature at
+Chartres, where a sound and healthy tradition, originally due to Bernard
+of Chartres (fl. 1120), was still perpetuated by his pupils. In that
+school the study of "figures of speech" was treated as merely
+introductory to that of the classical texts. Stress was laid on the
+sense as well as the style of the author studied. Discussions on set
+subjects were held, select passages from the classics learned by heart,
+while written exercises in prose and verse were founded on the best
+ancient models. In the general scheme of education the authority
+followed was Quintilian. John of Salisbury (d. 1180), the ripest product
+of this school, is the most learned man of his time. His favourite
+author is Cicero, and in all the Latin literature accessible to him he
+is the best-read scholar of his age. Among Latin scholars of the next
+generation we have Giraldus Cambrensis (d. c. 1222), the author of
+topographical and historical writings on Ireland and Wales, and of other
+works teeming with quotations from the Latin classics. During the middle
+ages Latin prose never dies out. It is the normal language of
+literature. In England it is used by many chroniclers and historians,
+the best known of whom are William of Malmesbury (d. 1142) and Matthew
+Paris (d. 1259). In Italy Latin verse had been felicitously applied to
+historic themes by William of Apulia (fl. 1100) and other Latin poets
+(1088-1247). In the 12th century England claims at least seven Latin
+poets, one of these being her only Latin epic poet, Joseph of Exeter (d.
+1210), whose poem on the Trojan war is still extant. The Latin
+versifier, John of Garlandia, an Englishman who lived mainly in France
+(fl. 1204-1252), produced several Latin vocabularies which were still in
+use in the boyhood of Erasmus. The Latin poets of French birth include
+Gautier and Alain de Lille (d. c. 1203), the former being the author of
+the _Alexandreis_, and the latter that of the _Anti-Claudianus_, a poem
+familiar to Chaucer.
+
+During the hundred and thirty years that elapsed between the early
+translations of Aristotle executed at Toledo about 1150 and the death in
+1281 of William of Moerbeke, the translator of the _Rhetoric_ and the
+_Politics_, the knowledge of Aristotle had been greatly extended in
+Europe by means of translations, first from the Arabic, and, next, from
+the original Greek. Aristotle had been studied in England by Grosseteste
+(d. 1253), and expounded abroad by the great Dominican, Albertus Magnus
+(d. 1280), and his famous pupil, Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). Among the
+keenest critics of the Schoolmen and of the recent translations of
+Aristotle was Roger Bacon (d. 1294), whose _Opus majus_ has been
+recognized as the _Encyclopédie_ and the _Organon_ of the 13th century.
+His knowledge of Greek, as shown in his _Greek Grammar_ (first published
+in 1902), was clearly derived from the Greeks of his own day. The
+medieval dependence on the authority of Aristotle gradually diminished.
+This was partly due to the recovery of some of the lost works of ancient
+literature, and the transition from the middle ages to the revival of
+learning was attended by a general widening of the range of classical
+studies and by a renewed interest in Plato.
+
+The classical learning of the middle ages was largely second-hand. It
+was often derived from glossaries, from books of elegant extracts, or
+from comprehensive encyclopaedias. Among the compilers of these last
+were Isidore and Hrabanus, William of Conches and Honorius of Autun,
+Bartholomaeus Anglicus (fl. 1250), Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), and,
+lastly, Brunetto Latini (d. 1290), the earlier contemporary of Dante.
+For Aristotle, as interpreted by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas,
+Dante has the highest regard. To the Latin translations of Aristotle
+and to his interpreters he refers in more than three hundred passages,
+while the number of his references to the Latin translation of the
+_Timaeus_ of Plato is less than ten. His five great pagan poets are
+Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Lucan; Statius he regards as a "Christian"
+converted by Virgil's _Fourth Eclogue_. His standard authors in Latin
+prose are Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Frontinus and Orosius. His knowledge of
+Greek was practically nil. Latin was the language of his political
+treatise, _De Monarchia_, and even that of his defence of the vulgar
+tongue, _De Vulgari Eloquio_. He is, in a limited sense, a precursor of
+the Renaissance, but he is far more truly to be regarded as the crowning
+representative of the spirit of the middle ages.
+
+
+  Italy.
+
+(iv.) _The Modern Age._--(a) Our fourth period is ushered in by the age
+of the Revival of Learning in Italy (c. 1350-1527). Petrarch (1304-1374)
+has been well described as "the first of modern men." In contrast with
+the Schoolmen of the middle ages, he has no partiality for Aristotle. He
+was interested in Greek, and, a full century before the fall of
+Constantinople, he was in possession of MSS. of Homer and Plato, though
+his knowledge of the language was limited to the barest rudiments. For
+that knowledge, scanty as it was, he was indebted to Leontius Pilatus,
+with whose aid Boccaccio (1313-1375) became "the first of modern men" to
+study Greek to some purpose during the three years that Leontius spent
+as his guest in Florence (1360-1363). It was also at Florence that Greek
+was taught in the next generation by Chrysoloras (in 1396-1400). Another
+generation passed, and the scholars of the East and West met at the
+council of Florence (1439). One of the envoys of the Greeks, Gemistus
+Pletho, then inspired Cosimo dei Medici with the thought of founding an
+academy for the study of Plato. The academy was founded, and, in the age
+of Lorenzo, Plato and Plotinus were translated into Latin by Marsilio
+Ficino (d. 1499). The _Apology_ and _Crito_, the _Phaedo, Phaedrus_ and
+_Gorgias_ of Plato, as well as speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines,
+with the _Oeconomics, Ethics_ and _Politics_ of Aristotle, had already
+been translated by Leonardo Bruni (d. 1444); the _Rhetoric_ by Filelfo
+(1430), and Plato's _Republic_ by Decembrio (1439). A comprehensive
+scheme for translating the principal Greek prose authors into Latin was
+carried out at Rome by the founder of the manuscript collections of the
+Vatican, Nicholas V. (1447-1455), who had belonged to the literary
+circle of Cosimo at Florence. The translation of Aristotle was entrusted
+to three of the learned Greeks who had already arrived in Italy,
+Trapezuntius, Gaza and Bessarion, while other authors were undertaken by
+Italian scholars such as Guarino, Valla, Decembrio and Perotti. Among
+the scholars of Italian birth, probably the only one in this age who
+rivalled the Greeks as a public expositor of their own literature was
+Politian (1454-1494), who lectured on Homer and Aristotle in Florence,
+translated Herodian, and was specially interested in the Latin authors
+of the Silver Age and in the text of the _Pandects_ of Justinian. It
+will be observed that the study of Greek had been resumed in Florence
+half a century before the fall of Constantinople, and that the principal
+writers of Greek prose had been translated into Latin before that event.
+
+Meanwhile, the quest of MSS. of the Latin classics had been actively
+pursued. Petrarch had discovered Cicero's Speech _pro Archia_ at Liége
+(1333) and the _Letters to Atticus_ and _Quintus_ at Verona (1345).
+Boccaccio had discovered Martial and Ausonius, and had been the first of
+the humanists to be familiar with Varro and Tacitus, while Salutati had
+recovered Cicero's letters _Ad Familiares_ (1389). During the council of
+Constance, Poggio, the papal secretary, spent in the quest of MSS. the
+interval between May 1415 and November 1417, during which he was left at
+leisure by the vacancy in the apostolic see.
+
+Thirteen of Cicero's speeches were found by him at Cluny and Langres,
+and elsewhere in France or Germany; the commentary of Asconius, a
+complete Quintilian, and a large part of Valerius Flaccus were
+discovered at St Gallen. A second expedition to that monastery and to
+others in the neighbourhood led to the recovery of Lucretius, Manilius,
+Silius Italicus and Ammianus Marcellinus, while the _Silvae_ of Statius
+were recovered shortly afterwards. A complete MS. of Cicero, _De
+Oratore_, _Brutus_ and _Orator_, was found by Bishop Landriani at Lodi
+(1421). Cornelius Nepos was discovered by Traversari in Padua (1434).
+The _Agricola_, _Germania_ and _Dialogue_ of Tacitus reached Italy from
+Germany in 1455, and the early books of the _Annals_ in 1508. Pliny's
+_Panegyric_ was discovered by Aurispa at Mainz (1433), and his
+correspondence with Trajan by Fra Giocondo in Paris about 1500.
+
+Greek MSS. were brought from the East by Aurispa, who in 1423 returned
+with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight, including the celebrated
+Laurentian MS. of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Apollonius Rhodius. A smaller
+number was brought from Constantinople by Filelfo (1427), while Quintus
+Smyrnaeus was discovered in south Italy by Bessarion, who presented his
+own collection of MSS. to the republic of Venice and thus led to the
+foundation of the library of St Mark's (1468). As the emissary of
+Lorenzo, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the East, returning from his
+second visit in 1492 with two hundred MSS. from Mount Athos.
+
+The Renaissance theory of a humanistic education is illustrated by
+several treatises still extant. In 1392 Vergerio addressed to a prince
+of Padua the first treatise which methodically maintains the claims of
+Latin as an essential part of a liberal education. Eight years later, he
+was learning Greek from Chrysoloras. Among the most distinguished pupils
+of the latter was Leonardo Bruni, who, about 1405, wrote "the earliest
+humanistic tract on education expressly addressed to a lady." He here
+urges that the foundation of all true learning is a "sound and thorough
+knowledge of Latin," and draws up a course of reading, in which history
+is represented by Livy, Sallust, Curtius, and Caesar; oratory by Cicero;
+and poetry by Virgil. The same year saw the birth of Maffeo Vegio, whose
+early reverence for the muse of Virgil and whose later devotion to the
+memory of Monica have left their mark on the educational treatise which
+he wrote a few years before his death in 1458. The authors he recommends
+include "Aesop" and Sallust, the tragedies of Seneca and the epic poets,
+especially Virgil, whom he interprets in an allegorical sense. He is in
+favour of an early simultaneous study of a wide variety of subjects, to
+be followed later by the special study of one or two. Eight years before
+the death of Vegio, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had composed a
+brief treatise on education in the form of a letter to Ladislaus, the
+young king of Bohemia and Hungary. The Latin poets to be studied include
+Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, and (with certain
+limitations) Horace, Juvenal and Persius, as well as Plautus, Terence
+and the tragedies of Seneca; the prose authors recommended are Cicero,
+Livy and Sallust. The first great school of the Renaissance was that
+established by Vittorino da Feltre at Mantua, where he resided for the
+last twenty-two years of his life (1424-1446). Among the Latin authors
+studied were Virgil and Lucan, with selections from Horace, Ovid and
+Juvenal, besides Cicero and Quintilian, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and
+Livy. The Greek authors were Homer, Hesiod, Pindar and the dramatists,
+with Herodotus, Xenophon and Plato, Isocrates and Demosthenes, Plutarch
+and Arrian.
+
+Meanwhile, Guarino had been devoting five years to the training of the
+eldest son of the marquis of Ferrara. At Ferrara he spent the last
+thirty years of his long life (1370-1460), producing text-books of Greek
+and Latin grammar, and translations from Strabo and Plutarch. His method
+may be gathered from his son's treatise, _De Ordine Docendi et
+Studendi_. In that treatise the essential marks of an educated person
+are, not only ability to write Latin verse, but also, a point of "at
+least equal importance," "familiarity with the language and literature
+of Greece." "Without a knowledge of Greek, Latin scholarship itself is,
+in any real sense, impossible" (1459).
+
+By the fall of Constantinople in 1453, "Italy (in the eloquent phrase of
+Carducci) became sole heir and guardian of the ancient civilization,"
+but its fall was in no way necessary for the revival of learning, which
+had begun a century before. Bessarion, Theodorus Gaza, Georgius
+Trepezuntius, Argyropulus, Chalcondyles, all had reached Italy before
+1453. A few more Greeks fled to Italy after that date, and among these
+were Janus Lascaris, Musurus and Callierges. All three were of signal
+service in devoting their knowledge of Greek to perpetuating and
+popularizing the Greek classics with the aid of the newly-invented art
+of printing. That art had been introduced into Italy by the German
+printers, Sweynheym and Pannartz, who had worked under Fust at Mainz. At
+Subiaco and at Rome they had produced in 1465-1471 the earliest editions
+of Cicero, _De Oratore_ and the _Letters_, and eight other Latin
+authors.
+
+The printing of Greek began at Milan with the Greek grammar of
+Constantine Lascaris (1476). At Florence the earliest editions of Homer
+(1488) and Isocrates (1493) had been produced by Demetrius Chalcondyles,
+while Janus Lascaris was the first to edit the Greek anthology,
+Apollonius Rhodius, and parts of Euripides, Callimachus and Lucian
+(1494-1496). In 1494-1515 Aldus Manutius published at Venice no less
+than twenty-seven _editiones principes_ of Greek authors and of Greek
+works of reference, the authors including Aristotle, Theophrastus,
+Theocritus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Herodotus, Euripides,
+Demosthenes (and the minor Attic orators), Pindar, Plato and Athenaeus.
+In producing Plato, Athenaeus and Aristophanes, the scholar-printer was
+largely aided by Musurus, who also edited the Aldine Pausanias (1516)
+and the _Etymologicum_ printed in Venice by another Greek immigrant,
+Callierges (1499).
+
+The Revival of Learning in Italy ends with the sack of Rome (1527).
+Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to decline in Italy, but
+meanwhile an interest in that language had been transmitted to the lands
+beyond the Alps.
+
+In the study of Latin the principal aim of the Italian humanists was the
+_imitation_ of the style of their classical models. In the case of
+poetry, this imitative spirit is apparent in Petrarch's _Africa_, and in
+the Latin poems of Politian, Pontano, Sannazaro, Vida and many others.
+Petrarch was not only the imitator of Virgil, who had been the leading
+name in Latin letters throughout the middle ages; it was the influence
+of Petrarch that gave a new prominence to Cicero. The imitation of
+Cicero was carried on with varying degrees of success by humanists such
+as Gasparino da Barzizza (d. 1431), who introduced a new style of
+epistolary Latin; by Paolo Cortesi, who discovered the importance of a
+rhythmical structure in the composition of Ciceronian prose (1490); and
+by the accomplished secretaries of Leo X., Bembo and Sadoleto. Both of
+these papal secretaries were mentioned in complimentary terms by Erasmus
+in his celebrated dialogue, the _Ciceronianus_ (1528), in which no less
+than one hundred and six Ciceronian scholars of all nations are briefly
+and brilliantly reviewed, the slavish imitation of Cicero denounced, and
+the law laid down that "to speak with propriety we must adapt ourselves
+to the age in which we live--an age that differs entirely from that of
+Cicero." One of the younger Ciceronians criticized by Erasmus was
+Longolius, who had died at Padua in 1522. The cause of the Ciceronians
+was defended by the elder Scaliger in 1531 and 1536, and by Étienne
+Dolet in 1535, and the controversy was continued by other scholars down
+to the year 1610. Meanwhile, in Italy, a strict type of Ciceronianism
+was represented by Paulus Manutius (d. 1574), and a freer and more
+original form of Latinity by Muretus (d. 1585).
+
+Before touching on the salient points in the subsequent centuries, in
+connexion with the leading nations of Europe, we may briefly note the
+cosmopolitan position of Erasmus (1466-1536), who, although he was a
+native of the Netherlands, was far more closely connected with France,
+England, Italy, Germany and Switzerland, than with the land of his
+birth. He was still a school-boy at Deventer when his high promise was
+recognized by Rudolf Agricola, "the first (says Erasmus) who brought
+from Italy some breath of a better culture." Late in 1499 Erasmus spent
+some two months at Oxford, where he met Colet; it was in London that he
+met More and Linacre and Grocyn, who had already ceased to lecture at
+Oxford. At Paris, in 1500, he was fully conscious that "without Greek
+the amplest knowledge of Latin was imperfect"; and, during his three
+years in Italy (1506-1509), he worked quietly at Greek in Bologna and
+attended the lectures of Musurus in Padua. In October 1511 he was
+teaching Greek to a little band of students in Cambridge; at Basel in
+1516 he produced his edition of the Greek Testament, the first that was
+actually published; and during the next few years he was helping to
+organize the college lately founded at Louvain for the study of Greek
+and Hebrew, as well as Latin. Seven years at Basel were followed by five
+at Freiburg, and by two more at Basel, where he died. The names of all
+these places are suggestive of the wide range of his influence. By his
+published works, his _Colloquies_, his _Adages_ and his _Apophthegms_,
+he was the educator of the nations of Europe. An educational aim is also
+apparent in his editions of Terence and of Seneca, while his Latin
+translations made his contemporaries more familiar with Greek poetry and
+prose, and his _Paraphrase_ promoted a better understanding of the Greek
+Testament. He was not so much a scientific scholar as a keen and
+brilliant man of letters and a widely influential apostle of humanism.
+
+
+  France.
+
+  Germany.
+
+In France the most effective of the early teachers of Greek was Janus
+Lascaris (1495-1503). Among his occasional pupils was Budaeus (d. 1540),
+who prompted Francis I. to found in 1530 the corporation of the Royal
+Readers in Greek, as well as Latin and Hebrew, afterwards famous under
+the name of the Collège de France. In the study of Greek one of the
+earliest links between Italy and Germany was Rudolf Agricola, who had
+learned Greek under Gaza at Ferrara. It was in Paris that his younger
+contemporary Reuchlin acquired part of that proficiency in Greek which
+attracted the notice of Argyropulus, whose admiration of Reuchlin is
+twice recorded by Melanchthon, who soon afterwards was pre-eminent as
+the "praeceptor" of Germany.
+
+
+  England.
+
+In the age of the revival the first Englishman who studied Greek was a
+Benedictine monk, William of Selling (d. 1494), who paid two visits to
+Italy. At Canterbury he inspired with his own love of learning his
+nephew, Linacre, who joined him on one of those visits, studied Greek at
+Florence under Politian and Chalcondyles, and apparently stayed in Italy
+from 1485 to 1499. His translation of a treatise of Galen was printed at
+Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch, who, in the same year and place, was the
+first to use Greek type in England. Greek had been first taught to some
+purpose at Oxford by Grocyn on his return from Italy in 1491. One of the
+younger scholars of the day was William Lilye, who picked up his Greek
+at Rhodes on his way to Palestine and became the first high-master of
+the school founded by Colet at St Paul's (1510).
+
+(b) That part of the _Modern Period_ of classical studies which succeeds
+the age of the Revival in Italy may be subdivided into three periods
+distinguished by the names of the nations most prominent in each.
+
+
+  The French period.
+
+1. The first may be designated the _French_ period. It begins with the
+foundation of the Royal Readers by Francis I. in 1530, and it may
+perhaps be regarded as extending to 1700. This period is marked by a
+many-sided _erudition_ rather than by any special cult of the _form_ of
+the classical languages. It is the period of the great polyhistors of
+France. It includes Budaeus and the elder Scaliger (who settled in
+France in 1529), with Turnebus and Lambinus, and the learned printers
+Robertus and Henricus Stephanus, while among its foremost names are
+those of the younger (and greater) Scaliger, Casaubon and Salmasius. Of
+these, Casaubon ended his days in England (1614); Scaliger, by leaving
+France for the Netherlands in 1593, for a time at least transferred the
+supremacy in scholarship from the land of his birth to that of his
+adoption. The last sixteen years of his life (1593-1609) were spent at
+Leiden, which was also for more than twenty years (1631-1653) the home
+of Salmasius, and for thirteen (1579-1592) that of Lipsius (d. 1606). In
+the 17th century the erudition of France is best represented by
+"Henricus Valesius," Du Cange and Mabillon. In the same period Italy was
+represented by Muretus, who had left France in 1563, and by her own
+sons, Nizolius, Victorius, Robortelli and Sigonius, followed in the 17th
+century by R. Fabretti. The Netherlands, in the 16th, claim W. Canter as
+well as Lipsius, and, in the 17th, G.J. Vossius, Johannes Meursius, the
+elder and younger Heinsius, Hugo Grotius, J.F. Gronovius, J.G. Graevius
+and J. Perizonius. Scotland, in the 16th, is represented by George
+Buchanan; England by Sir John Cheke, Roger Ascham, and Sir Henry Savile,
+and, in the 17th, by Thomas Gataker, Thomas Stanley, Henry Dodwell, and
+Joshua Barnes; Germany by Janus Gruter, Ezechiel Spanheim and Chr.
+Cellarius, the first two of whom were also connected with other
+countries.
+
+
+  Literary Latin.
+
+We have already seen that a strict imitation of Cicero was one of the
+characteristics of the Italian humanists. In and after the middle of the
+16th century a correct and pure Latinity was promoted by the educational
+system of the Jesuits; but with the growth of the vernacular literatures
+Latin became more and more exclusively the language of the learned.
+Among the most conspicuous Latin writers of the 17th century are G.J.
+Vossius and the Heinsii, with Salmasius and his great adversary, Milton.
+Latin was also used in works on science and philosophy, such as Sir
+Isaac Newton's _Principia_ (1687), and many of the works of Leibnitz
+(1646-1705). In botany the custom followed by John Ray (1627-1705) in
+his _Historia Plantarum_ and in other works was continued in 1760 by
+Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_. The last important work in English
+theology written in Latin was George Bull's _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_
+(1685). The use of Latin in diplomacy died out towards the end of the
+17th century; but, long after that date negotiations with the German
+empire were conducted in Latin, and Latin was the language of the
+debates in the Hungarian diet down to 1825.
+
+
+  The English and Dutch period.
+
+2. During the 18th century the classical scholarship of the Netherlands
+was under the healthy and stimulating influence of Bentley (1662-1742),
+who marks the beginning of the English and Dutch period, mainly
+represented in Holland by Bentley's younger contemporary and
+correspondent, Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685-1766), and the latter
+scholar's great pupil David Ruhnken (1723-1798). It is the age of
+historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism. Both of these
+were ably represented in the first half of the century by Bentley
+himself, while, in the twenty years between 1782 and 1803, the verbal
+criticism of the tragic poets of Athens was the peculiar province of
+Richard Porson (1759-1808), who was born in the same year as F.A. Wolf.
+Among other representatives of England were Jeremiah Markland and
+Jonathan Toup, Thomas Tyrwhitt and Thomas Twining, Samuel Parr and Sir
+William Jones; and of the Netherlands, the two Burmanns and L. Küster,
+Arnold Drakenborch and Wesseling, Lodewyk Valckenaer and Daniel
+Wyttenbach (1746-1829). Germany is represented by Fabricius and J.M.
+Gesner, J.A. Ernesti and J.J. Reiske, J.J. Winckelmann and Chr. G.
+Heyne; France by B. de Montfaucon and J.B.G.D. Villoison; Alsace by
+French subjects of German origin, R.F.P. Brunck and J. Schweighäuser;
+and Italy by E. Forcellini and Ed. Corsini.
+
+
+  The German period.
+
+3. The _German_ period begins with F.A. Wolf (1759-1824), whose
+_Prolegomena_ to Homer appeared in 1795. He is the founder of the
+systematic and encyclopaedic type of scholarship embodied in the
+comprehensive term _Altertumswissenschaft_, or "a scientific knowledge
+of the old classical world." The tradition of Wolf was ably continued by
+August Böckh (d. 1867), one of the leaders of the historical and
+antiquarian school, brilliantly represented in the previous generation
+by B.G. Niebuhr (d. 1831).
+
+In contrast with this school we have the critical and grammatical school
+of Gottfried Hermann (d. 1848). During this period, while Germany
+remains the most productive of the nations, scholarship has been more
+and more international and cosmopolitan in its character.
+
+
+  Germany.
+
+_19th Century._--We must here be content with simply recording the names
+of a few of the more prominent representatives of the 19th century in
+some of the most obvious departments of classical learning. Among
+natives of Germany the leading scholars have been, in _Greek_, C.F.W.
+Jacobs, C.A. Lobeck, L. Dissen, I. Bekker, A. Meineke, C. Lehrs, W.
+Dindorf, T. Bergk, F.W. Schneidewin, H. Köchly, A. Nauck, H. Usener, G.
+Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in _Latin_, C. Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M.
+Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleckeisen, E. Bährens, L. Müller and O.
+Ribbeck. _Grammar_ and kindred subjects have been represented by P.
+Buttmann, A. Matthiae, F.W. Thiersch, C.G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C.W.
+Krüger, R. Kühner and H.L. Ahrens; and _lexicography_ by F. Passow and
+C.E. Georges. Among editors of _Thucydides_ we have had E.F. Poppo and
+J. Classen; among editors of _Demosthenes or other orators_, G.H.
+Schäfer, J.T. Vömel, G.E. Benseler, A. Westermann, G.F. Schömann, H.
+Sauppe, and C. Rehdantz (besides Blass, already mentioned). The
+_Platonists_ include F. Schleiermacher, G.A.F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the
+many-sided C.F. Hermann; the _Aristotelians_, C.A. Brandis, A.
+Trendelenburg, L. Spengel, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bernays and F.
+Susemihl. The history of _Greek philosophy_ was written by F. Ueberweg,
+and, more fully, by E. Zeller. _Greek history_ was the domain of G.
+Droysen, Max Duncker, Ernst Curtius, Arnold Schäfer and Adolf Holm;
+_Greek antiquities_ that of M.H. Meier and G.F. Schömann and of G.
+Gilbert; _Greek epigraphy_ that of J. Franz, A. Kirchhoff, W. von
+Hartel, U. Köhler, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittenberger; _Roman history and
+constitutional antiquities_ that of Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903), who was
+associated in _Latin epigraphy_ with E. Hübner and W. Henzen. _Classical
+art and archaeology_ were represented by F.G. Welcker, E. Gerhard, C.O.
+Müller, F. Wieseler, O. Jahn, C.L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C.B. Stark, J.
+Overbeck, W. Helbig, O. Benndorf and A. Furtwängler; _mythology_ (with
+cognate subjects) by G.F. Creuzer, P.W. Forchhammer, L. Preller, A.
+Kuhn, J.W. Mannhardt and E. Rohde; and _comparative philology_ by F.
+Bopp, A.F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen, Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and
+H. Steinthal. The history of _classical philology_ in Germany was
+written by Conrad Bursian (1830-1883).
+
+
+  France,
+
+  Belgium, Holland,
+
+  England.
+
+In France we have J.F. Boissonade, J.A. Letronne, L.M. Quicherat, M.P.
+Littré, B. Saint-Hilaire, J.V. Duruy, B.E. Miller, É. Egger, C.V.
+Daremberg, C. Thurot, L.E. Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in
+archaeology) A.C. Quatremère de Quincy, P. le Bas, C.F.M. Texier, the
+duc de Luynes, the Lenormants (C. and F.), W.H. Waddington and O. Rayet;
+and (in comparative philology) Victor Henry. Greece was ably represented
+in France by A. Koraes. In Belgium we have P. Willems and the Baron De
+Witte (long resident in France); in Holland, C.G. Cobet; in Denmark,
+J.N. Madvig. Among the scholars of Great Britain and Ireland may be
+mentioned: P. Elmsley, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P.P. Dobree, J.H. Monk,
+C.J. Blomfield, W. Veitch, T.H. Key, B.H. Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T.W.
+Peile, R. Shilleto, W.H. Thompson, J.W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H.G.
+Liddell, C. Badham, G. Rawlinson, F.A. Paley, B. Jowett, T.S. Evans,
+E.M. Cope, H.A.J. Munro, W.G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H.A. Holden,
+J. Riddell, J. Conington, W.Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W.D. Geddes, D.B.
+Monro, H. Nettleship, A. Palmer, R.C. Jebb, A.S. Wilkins, W.G.
+Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and archaeologists, W.M.
+Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grote and C. Thirlwall, T. Arnold, G. Long
+and Charles Merivale, Sir Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A.S.
+Murray, Robert Burn and H.F. Pelham. Among comparative philologists Max
+Müller belonged to Germany by birth and to England by adoption, while,
+in the United States, his ablest counterpart was W.D. Whitney. B.L.
+Gildersleeve, W.W. Goodwin, Henry Drisler, J.B. Greenough and G.M. Lane
+were prominent American classical scholars.
+
+
+  Schools of Rome and Athens.
+
+The 19th century in Germany was marked by the organization of the great
+series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by the foundation of the
+Archaeological Institute in Rome (1829), which was at first
+international in its character. The Athenian Institute was founded in
+1874. Schools at Athens and Rome were founded by France in 1846 and
+1873, by the United States of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England
+in 1883 and 1901; and periodicals are published by the schools of all
+these four nations. An interest in Greek studies (and especially in art
+and archaeology) has been maintained in England by the Hellenic Society,
+founded in 1879, with its organ the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_. A
+further interest in Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized
+lands by the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta,
+Olympia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete. The
+extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly extended our
+knowledge of the administration of that country in the times of the
+Ptolemies, and have materially added to the existing remains of Greek
+literature. Scholars have been enabled to realize in their own
+experience some of the enthusiasm that attended the recovery of lost
+classics during the Revival of Learning. They have found themselves
+living in a new age of _editiones principes_, and have eagerly welcomed
+the first publication of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ (1891),
+Herondas (1891) and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the _Persae_ of
+Timotheus of Miletus (1903), with some of the _Paeans_ of Pindar (1907)
+and large portions of the plays of Menander (1898-1899 and 1907). The
+first four of these were first edited by F.G. Kenyon, Timotheus by von
+Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, Menander partly by J. Nicole and G. Lefebre and
+partly by B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt, who have also produced fragments
+of the _Paeans_ of Pindar and many other classic texts (including a
+Greek continuation of Thucydides and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in
+the successive volumes of the _Oxyrhynchus papyri_ and other kindred
+publications.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For a full bibliography of the history of classical
+  philology, see E. Hübner, _Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die
+  Geschichte und Encyklopädie der klassischen Philologie_ (2nd ed.,
+  1889); and for a brief outline, C.L. Urlichs in Iwan von Müller's
+  _Handbuch_, vol. i. (2nd ed., 1891). 33-145; S. Reinach, _Manuel de
+  philologie classique_ (2nd ed., 1883-1884; _nouveau tirage_ 1907),
+  1-22; and A. Gudemann, _Grundris_ (Leipzig, 1907), pp. 224 seq. For
+  the Alexandrian period, F. Susemihl, _Gesch. der griechischen
+  Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit_ (2 vols., 1891-1892); cf. F.A.
+  Eckstein, _Nomenclator Philologorum_ (1871), and W. Pökel,
+  _Philologisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon_ (1882). For the period ending
+  A.D. 400, see A. Gräfenhan, _Gesch. der klass. Philologie_ (4 vols.,
+  1843-1850); for the Byzantine period, C. Krumbacher in Iwan von
+  Müller, vol. ix. (1) (2nd ed., 1897); for the Renaissance, G. Voigt,
+  _Die Wiederbelebung des class. Altertums_ (3rd ed., 1894, with
+  bibliography); L. Geiger, _Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und
+  Deutschland_ (1882, with bibliography); J.A. Symonds, _Revival of
+  Learning_ (1877, &c.); R.C. Jebb, in _Cambridge Modern History_, i.
+  (1902), 532-584; and J.E. Sandys, _Harvard Lectures on the Revival of
+  Learning_ (1905); also P. de Nolhac, _Pétrarque et l'humanisme_ (2nd
+  ed., 1907). On the history of Greek scholarship in France, É. Egger,
+  _L'Histoire d'hellénisme en France_ (1869); Mark Pattison, _Essays_,
+  i., and _Life of Casaubon_; in Germany, C. Bursian, _Gesch. der class.
+  Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); in Holland, L. Müller, _Gesch. der
+  class. Philologie in den Niederlanden_ (1869); in Belgium, L.C.
+  Roersch in E.P. van Bemmel's _Patria Belgica_, vol. iii. (1875),
+  407-432; and in England, R.C. Jebb, "Erasmus" (1890) and "Bentley"
+  (1882), and "Porson" (in _Dict. Nat. Biog._). On the subject as a
+  whole see J.E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (with
+  chronological tables, portraits and facsimiles), vol. i.; _From the
+  Sixth Century B.C. to the end of the Middle Ages_ (1903, 2nd ed.,
+  1906); vols. ii. and iii., _From the Revival of Learning to the
+  Present Day_ (1908), including the history of scholarship in all the
+  countries of Europe and in the United States of America. See also the
+  separate biographical articles in this Encyclopaedia.
+
+
+(B) THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION
+
+After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed much to the
+influence and example of Vittorino da Feltre, Budacus, Erasmus and
+Melanchthon, who were among the leading representatives of that revival
+in Italy, France, England and Germany.
+
+
+  England.
+
+1. In _England_, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and Eton
+(1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but before the
+revival had reached Britain. The first school[2] which came into being
+under the immediate influence of humanism was that founded at St Paul's
+by Dean Colet (1510), the friend of Erasmus, whose treatise _De pueris
+instituendis_ (1529) has its English counterpart in the _Governor_ of
+Sir Thomas Elyot (1531). The highmaster of St Paul's was to be "learned
+in good and clean Latin, and also in Greek, if such may be gotten." The
+master and the second master of Shrewsbury (founded 1551) were to be
+"well able to make a Latin verse, and learned in the Greek tongue." The
+influence of the revival extended to many other schools, such as
+Christ's Hospital (1552), Westminster (1560), and Merchant Taylors'
+(1561); Repton (1557), Rugby (1567) and Harrow (1571).
+
+
+  Shakespeare and the grammar-school.
+
+  Early text-books.
+
+At the grammar school of Stratford-on-Avon, about 1571-1577, Shakespeare
+presumably studied Terence, Horace, Ovid and the _Bucolics_ of Baptista
+Mantuanus (1502). In the early plays he quotes Ovid and Seneca.
+Similarly, in _Titus Andronicus_ (iv. 2) he says, of _Integer vitae_:
+"'Tis a verse in Horace; I know it well: I read it in the grammar long
+ago." In _Henry VI._ part ii. sc. 7, when Jack Cade charges Lord Say
+with having "most traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in
+erecting a grammar-school," Lord Say replies that "ignorance is the
+curse of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven." In the
+_Taming of the Shrew_ (I. i. 157) a line is quoted as from Terence
+(_Andria_, 74): "_redime te captum quam queas minimo._" This is taken
+_verbatim_ from Lilye's contribution to the _Brevis Institutio_,
+originally composed by Colet, Erasmus and Lilye for St Paul's School
+(1527), and ultimately adopted as the _Eton Latin Grammar_. The
+_Westminster Greek Grammar_ of Grant (1575) was succeeded by that of
+Camden (1595), founded mainly on a Paduan text-book, and apparently
+adopted in 1596 by Sir Henry Savile at Eton, where it long remained in
+use as the _Eton Greek Grammar_, while at Westminster itself it was
+superseded by that of Busby (1663). The text-books to be used at Harrow
+in 1590 included Hesiod and some of the Greek orators and historians.
+
+
+  Ascham.
+
+In one of the _Paston Letters_ (i. 301), an Eton boy of 1468 quotes two
+Latin verses of his own composition. Nearly a century later, on New
+Year's Day, 1560, forty-four boys of the school presented Latin verses
+to Queen Elizabeth. The queen's former tutor, Roger Ascham, in his
+_Scholemaster_ (1570), agrees with his Strassburg friend, J. Sturm, in
+making the imitation of the Latin classics the main aim of instruction.
+He is more original when he insists on the value of translation and
+retranslation for acquiring a mastery over Latin prose composition, and
+when he protests against compelling boys to converse in Latin too soon.
+Ascham's influence is apparent in the _Positions_ of Mulcaster, who in
+1581 insists on instruction in English before admission to a
+grammar-school, while he is distinctly in advance of his age in urging
+the foundation of a special college for the training of teachers.
+
+
+  Cleland.
+
+  Bacon, Milton, Petty.
+
+  Locke.
+
+Cleland's _Institution of a Young Nobleman_ (1607) owes much to the
+Italian humanists. The author follows Ascham in protesting against
+compulsory Latin conversation, and only slightly modifies his
+predecessor's method of teaching Latin prose. When Latin grammar has
+been mastered, he bids the teacher lead his pupil "into the sweet
+fountain and spring of all Arts and Science," that is, Greek learning
+which is "as profitable for the understanding as the Latin tongue for
+speaking." In the study of ancient history, "deeds and not words" are
+the prime interest. "In Plutarch pleasure is so mixed and confounded
+with profit; that I esteem the reading of him as a paradise for a
+curious spirit to walk in at all time." Bacon in his _Advancement of
+Learning_ (1605) notes it as "the first distemper of learning when men
+study words and not matter" (I. iv. 3); he also observes that the
+Jesuits "have much quickened and strengthened the state of learning" (I.
+vi. 15). He is on the side of reform in education; he waves the humanist
+aside with the words: _vetustas cessit, ratio vicit_. Milton, in his
+_Tractate on Education_ (1644), advances further on Bacon's lines,
+protesting against the length of time spent on instruction in language,
+denouncing merely verbal knowledge, and recommending the study of a
+large number of classical authors for the sake of their subject-matter,
+and with a view to their bearing on practical life. His ideal place of
+education is an institution combining a school and a university. Sir
+William Petty, the economist (1623-1687), urged the establishment of
+_ergastula literaria_ for instruction of a purely practical kind. Locke,
+who had been educated at Winchester and had lectured on Greek at Oxford
+(1660), nevertheless almost completely eliminated Greek from the scheme
+which he unfolded in his _Thoughts on Education_ (1693). With Locke, the
+moral and practical qualities of virtue and prudence are of the first
+consideration. Instruction, he declares, is but the least part of
+education; his aim is to train, not men of letters or men of science,
+but practical men armed for the battle of life. Latin was, above all, to
+be learned through use, with as little grammar as possible, but with the
+reading of easy Latin texts, and with no repetition, no composition.
+Greek he absolutely proscribes, reserving a knowledge of that language
+to the learned and the lettered, and to professional scholars.
+
+
+  Arnold.
+
+Throughout the 18th century and the early part of the 19th, the old
+routine went on in England with little variety, and with no sign of
+expansion. The range of studies was widened, however, at Rugby in
+1828-1842 by Thomas Arnold, whose interest in ancient history and
+geography, as a necessary part of classical learning, is attested by his
+edition of Thucydides; while his influence was still further extended
+when those who had been trained in his traditions became head masters of
+other schools.
+
+During the rest of the century the leading landmarks are the three royal
+commissions known by the names of their chairmen: (1) Lord Clarendon's
+on nine public schools, Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse,
+Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, St Paul's and Merchant Taylors' (1861-1864),
+resulting in the Public Schools Act of 1868; (2) Lord Taunton's on 782
+endowed schools (1864-1867), followed by the act of 1869; and (3) Mr
+Bryce's on secondary education (1894-1895).
+
+
+  Controversy on classical education.
+
+A certain discontent with the current traditions of classical training
+found expression in the _Essays on a Liberal Education_ (1867). The
+author of the first essay, C.S. Parker, closed his review of the reforms
+instituted in Germany and France by adding that in England there had
+been but little change. The same volume included a critical examination
+of the "Theory of Classical Education" by Henry Sidgwick, and an attack
+on compulsory Greek and Latin verse composition by F.W. Farrar. The
+claims of verse composition have since been judiciously defended by the
+Hon. Edward Lyttelton (1897), while a temperate and effective
+restatement of the case for the classics may be found in Sir Richard
+Jebb's Romanes Lecture on "Humanism in Education" (1899).
+
+The question of the position of Greek in secondary education has from
+time to time attracted attention in connexion with the requirement of
+Greek in Responsions at Oxford, and in the Previous Examination at
+Cambridge.
+
+
+  "Compulsory Greek."
+
+In the _Cambridge University Reporter_ for November 9, 1870, it was
+stated that, "in order to provide adequate encouragement for the study
+of Modern Languages and Natural Science," the commissioners for endowed
+schools had determined on the establishment of modern schools of the
+first grade in which Greek would be excluded. The commissioners feared
+that, so long as Greek was a _sine qua non_ at the universities, these
+schools would be cut off from direct connexion with the universities,
+while the universities would in some degree lose their control over a
+portion of the higher culture of the nation. On the 9th of March 1871 a
+syndicate recommended that, in the Previous Examination, French and
+German (taken together) should be allowed in place of Greek; on the 27th
+of April this recommendation (which only affected candidates for honours
+or for medical degrees) was rejected by 51 votes to 48.
+
+All the other proposals and votes relating to Greek in the Previous
+Examination in 1870-1873, 1878-1880, and 1891-1892 are set forth in the
+_Cambridge University Reporter_ for November 11, 1904, pp. 202-205. In
+November 1903 a syndicate was appointed to consider the studies and
+examinations of the university, their report of November 1904 on the
+Previous Examination was fully discussed, and the speeches published in
+the _Reporter_ fcr December 17, 1904. In the course of the discussion
+Sir Richard Jebb drew attention to the statistics collected by the
+master of Emmanuel, Mr W. Chawner, showing that, out of 86 head masters
+belonging to the Head Masters' Conference whose replies had been
+published, "about 56 held the opinion that the exemption from Greek for
+all candidates for a degree would endanger or altogether extinguish the
+study of Greek in the vast majority of schools, while about 21 head
+masters held a different opinion." On the 3rd of March 1905 a proposal
+for accepting either French or German as an alternative for either Latin
+or Greek in the Previous Examination was rejected by 1559 to 1052 votes,
+and on the 26th of May 1906 proposals distinguishing between students in
+letters and students in science, and (_inter alia_) _requiring_ the
+latter to take either French or German for either Latin or Greek in the
+Previous Examination, were rejected by 746 to 241.
+
+Meanwhile, at Oxford a proposal practically making Greek optional with
+all undergraduates was rejected, in November 1902, by 189 votes to 166;
+a preliminary proposal permitting students of mathematics or natural
+science to offer one or more modern languages in lieu of Greek was
+passed by 164 to 162 in February 1904, but on the 29th of November the
+draft of a statute to this effect was thrown out by 200 to 164. In the
+course of the controversy three presidents of the Royal Society, Lord
+Kelvin, Lord Lister and Sir W. Huggins, expressed the opinion that the
+proposed exemption was not beneficial to science students.
+
+
+  The Classical Association.
+
+Incidentally, the question of "compulsory Greek" has stimulated a desire
+for greater efficiency in classical teaching. In December 1903, a year
+before the most important of the public discussions at Cambridge, the
+Classical Association was founded in London. The aim of that association
+is "to promote the development, and maintain the well-being, of
+classical studies, and in particular (a) to impress upon public opinion
+the claim of such studies to an eminent place in the national scheme of
+education; (b) to improve the practice of classical teaching by free
+discussion of its scope and methods; (c) to encourage investigation and
+call attention to new discoveries; (d) to create opportunities of
+friendly intercourse and co-operation between all lovers of classical
+learning in this country."
+
+
+  The curriculum.
+
+The question of the curriculum and the time-table in secondary education
+has occupied the attention of the Classical Association, the British
+Association and the Education Department of Scotland. The general effect
+of the recommendations already made would be to begin the study of
+foreign languages with French, and to postpone the study of Latin to the
+age of twelve and that of Greek to the age of thirteen. At the Head
+Masters' Conference of December 1907 a proposal to lower the standard of
+Greek in the entrance scholarship examinations of public schools was
+lost by 10 votes to 16, and the "British Association report" was adopted
+with reservations in 1908. In the case of secondary schools in receipt
+of grants of public money (about 700 in England and 100 in Wales in
+1907-1908), "the curriculum, and time-table must be approved by the
+Board of Education." The Board has also a certain control over the
+curriculum of schools under the Endowed Schools Acts and the Charitable
+Trusts Acts, and also over that of schools voluntarily applying for
+inspection with a view to being recognized as efficient.
+
+
+  Reform in Latin pronunciation.
+
+Further efficiency in classical education has been the aim of the
+movement in favour of the reform of Latin pronunciation. In 1871 this
+movement resulted in Munro and Palmer's _Syllabus of Latin
+Pronunciation_. The reform was carried forward at University College,
+London, by Professor Key and by Professor Robinson Ellis in 1873, and
+was accepted at Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Liverpool College, Christ's
+Hospital, Dulwich, and the City of London school. It was taken up anew
+by the Cambridge Philological Society in 1886, by the Modern Languages
+Association in 1901, by the Classical Association in 1904-1905, and the
+Philological Societies of Oxford and Cambridge in 1906. The reform was
+accepted by the various bodies of head masters and assistant masters in
+December 1906-January 1907, and the proposed scheme was formally
+approved by the Board of Education in February 1907.
+
+  See W.H. Woodward, _Studies in Education during the Age of the
+  Renaissance_ (1906), chap. xiii.; Acland and Llewellin Smith, _Studies
+  in Secondary Education_, with introduction by James Bryce (1892);
+  _Essays on a Liberal Education_, ed. F.W. Farrar (1867); R.C. Jebb,
+  "Humanism in Education," Romanes Lecture of 1899, reprinted with other
+  lectures on cognate subjects in _Essays and Addresses_ (1907); Foster
+  Watson, _The Curriculum and Practice of the English Grammar Schools up
+  to 1660_ (1908); "Greek at Oxford," by a Resident, in _The Times_
+  (December 27, 1904); _Cambridge University Reporter_ (November 11 and
+  December 17, 1904); _British Association Report on Curricula of
+  Secondary Schools_ (with an independent paper by Professor Armstrong
+  on "The Teaching of Classics"), (December 1907); W.H.D. Rouse in _The
+  Year's Work in Classical Studies_ (1907 and 1908), chap. i.; J.P.
+  Postgate, _How to pronounce Latin_ (Appendix B, on "Recent Progress"),
+  (1907). For further bibliographical details see pp. 875-890 of Dr Karl
+  Breul's "Grossbritannien" in Baumeister's _Handbuch_, I. ii. 737-892
+  (Munich, 1897).
+
+
+  France.
+
+2. In _France_ it was mainly with a view to promoting the study of Greek
+that the corporation of Royal Readers was founded by Francis I. in 1530
+at the prompting of Budaeus. In the university of Paris, which was
+originally opposed to this innovation, the statutes of 1598 prescribed
+the study of Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Theocritus, Plato, Demosthenes and
+Isocrates (as well as the principal Latin classics), and required the
+production of three exercises in Greek or Latin in each week.
+
+
+  Textbooks.
+
+From the middle of the 16th century the elements of Latin were generally
+learned from unattractive abridgments of the grammar of the Flemish
+scholar, van Pauteren or Despautère (d. 1520), which, in its original
+folio editions of 1537-1538, was an excellent work. The unhappy lot of
+those who were compelled to learn their Latin from the current
+abridgments was lamented by a Port-Royalist in a striking passage
+describing the gloomy forest of _le pays de Despautère_ (Guyot, quoted
+in Sainte-Beuve's _Port-Royal_, iii. 429). The first Latin grammar
+written in French was that of Père de Condren of the _Oratoire_ (c.
+1642), which was followed by the Port-Royal _Méthode latine_ of Claude
+Lancelot (1644), and by the grammar composed by Bossuet for the dauphin,
+and also used by Fénelon for the instruction of the duc de Bourgogne. In
+the second half of the 17th century the rules of grammar and rhetoric
+were simplified, and the time withdrawn from the practice of composition
+(especially verse composition) transferred to the explanation and the
+study of authors.
+
+
+  Richelieu, Bossuet, Fénelon, Fleury.
+
+Richelieu, in 1640, formed a scheme for a college in which Latin was to
+have a subordinate place, while room was to be found for the study of
+history and science, Greek, and French and modern languages. Bossuet, in
+educating the dauphin, added to the ordinary classical routine
+represented by the extensive series of the "Delphin Classics" the study
+of history and of science. A greater originality in the method of
+teaching the ancient languages was exemplified by Fénelon, whose views
+were partially reflected by the Abbé Fleury, who also desired the
+simplification of grammar, the diminution of composition, and even the
+suppression of Latin verse. Of the ordinary teaching of Greek in his
+day, Fleury wittily observed that most boys "learned just enough of that
+language to have a pretext for saying for the rest of their lives that
+Greek was a subject easily forgotten."
+
+
+  Rollin.
+
+In the 18th century Rollin, in his _Traité des études_ (1726), agreed
+with the Port-Royalists in demanding that Latin grammars should be
+written in French, that the rules should be simplified and explained by
+a sufficient number of examples, and that a more important place should
+be assigned to translation than to composition. The supremacy of Latin
+was the subject of a long series of attacks in the same century. Even at
+the close of the previous century the brilliant achievements of French
+literature had prompted La Bruyère to declare in _Des ouvrages de
+l'esprit_ (about 1680), "We have at last thrown off the yoke of
+_Latinism_"; and, in the same year, Jacques Spon claimed in his
+correspondence the right to use the French language in discussing points
+of archaeology.
+
+
+  The Jesuits.
+
+Meanwhile, in 1563, notwithstanding the opposition of the university of
+Paris, the Jesuits had succeeded in founding the _Collegium
+Claromontanum_. After the accession of Henry IV. they were expelled from
+Paris and other important towns in 1594, and not allowed to return until
+1609, when they found themselves confronted once more by their rival,
+the university of Paris. They opened the doors of their schools to the
+Greek and Latin classics, but they represented the ancient masterpieces
+dissevered from their original historic environment, as impersonal
+models of taste, as isolated standards of style. They did much, however,
+for the cultivation of original composition modelled on Cicero and
+Virgil. They have been charged with paying an exaggerated attention to
+form, and with neglecting the subject-matter of the classics. This
+neglect is attributed to their anxiety to avoid the "pagan" element in
+the ancient literature. Intensely conservative in their methods, they
+kept up the system of using Latin in their grammars (and in their oral
+instruction) long after it had been abandoned by others.
+
+
+  Port-Royal.
+
+The use of French for these purposes was a characteristic of the "Little
+Schools" of the Jansenists of Port-Royal(1643-1660). The text-books
+prepared for them by Lancelot included not only the above-mentioned
+Latin grammar (1644) but also the _Méthode grecque_ of 1655 and the
+_Jardin des racines grecques_ (1657), which remained in use for two
+centuries and largely superseded the grammar of Clenardus (1636) and the
+_Tirocinium_ of Père Labbe (1648). Greek began to decline in the
+university about 1650, at the very time when the Port-Royalists were
+aiming at its revival. During the brief existence of their schools their
+most celebrated pupils were Tillemont and Racine.
+
+The Jesuits, on the other hand, claimed Corneille and Molière, as well
+as Descartes and Bossuet, Fontenelle, Montesquieu and Voltaire. Of their
+Latin poets the best-known were Denis Petau (d. 1652), René Rapin (d.
+1687) and N.E. Sanadon (d. 1733). In 1762 the Jesuits were suppressed,
+and more than one hundred schools were thus deprived of their teachers.
+The university of Paris, which had prompted their suppression, and the
+parliament, which had carried it into effect, made every endeavour to
+replace them. The university took possession of the _Collegium
+Claromontanum_, then known as the _Collège Louis-le-Grand_, and
+transformed it into an _école normale_. Many of the Jesuit schools were
+transferred to the congregations of the _Oratoire_ and the Benedictines,
+and to the secular clergy. On the eve of the Revolution, out of a grand
+total of 562 classical schools, 384 were in the hands of the clergy and
+178 in those of the congregations.
+
+
+  Classical education attacked.
+
+The expulsion of the Jesuits gave a new impulse to the attacks directed
+against all schemes of education in which Latin held a prominent
+position. At the moment when the university of Paris was, by the absence
+of its rivals, placed in complete control of the education of France,
+she found herself driven to defend the principles of classical education
+against a crowd of assailants. All kinds of devices were suggested for
+expediting the acquisition of Latin; grammar was to be set aside; Latin
+was to be learned as a "living language"; much attention was to be
+devoted to acquiring an extensive vocabulary; and, "to save time,"
+composition was to be abolished. To facilitate the reading of Latin
+texts, the favourite method was the use of interlinear translations,
+originally proposed by Locke, first popularized in France by Dumarsais
+(1722), and in constant vogue down to the time of the Revolution.
+
+Early in the 18th century Rollin pleaded for the "utility of Greek,"
+while he described that language as the heritage of the university of
+Paris. In 1753 Berthier feared that in thirty years no one would be able
+to read Greek. In 1768 Rolland declared that the university, which held
+Greek in high honour, nevertheless had reason to lament that her
+students learnt little of the language, and he traced this decline to
+the fact that attendance at lectures had ceased to be compulsory. Greek,
+however, was still recognized as part of the examination held for the
+appointment of schoolmasters.
+
+
+  Eve of the Revolution.
+
+During the 18th century, in Greek as well as in Latin, the general aim
+was to reach the goal as rapidly as possible, even at the risk of
+missing it altogether. On the eve of the Revolution, France was enjoying
+the study of the institutions of Greece in the attractive pages of the
+_Voyage du jeune Anacharsis_ (1789), but the study of Greek was menaced
+even more than that of Latin. For fifty years before the Revolution
+there was a distinct dissatisfaction with the routine of the schools. To
+meet that dissatisfaction, the teachers had accepted new subjects of
+study, had improved their methods, and had simplified the learning of
+the dead languages. But even this was not enough. In the study of the
+classics, as in other spheres, it was revolution rather than evolution
+that was loudly demanded.
+
+
+  First Republic.
+
+The Revolution was soon followed by the long-continued battle of the
+"Programmes." Under the First Republic the schemes of Condorcet (April
+1792) and J. Lakanal (February 1795) were superseded by that of P.C.F.
+Daunou (October 1795), which divided the pupils of the "central schools"
+into three groups, according to age, with corresponding subjects of
+study: (1) twelve to fourteen,--drawing, natural history, Greek and
+Latin, and a choice of modern languages; (2) fourteen to
+sixteen,--mathematics, physics, chemistry; (3) over sixteen,--general
+grammar, literature, history and constitutional law..
+
+
+  Consulate.
+
+In July 1801, under the consulate, there were two courses, (1) nine to
+twelve,--elementary knowledge, including elements of Latin; (2) above
+twelve,--a higher course, with two alternatives, "humanistic" studies
+for the "civil," and purely practical studies for the "military"
+section. The law of the 1st of May 1802 brought the _lycées_ into
+existence, the subjects being, in Napoleon's own phrase, "mainly Latin
+and mathematics."
+
+
+  Restoration.
+
+At the Restoration (1814) the military discipline of the lycées was
+replaced by the ecclesiastical discipline of the "Royal Colleges." The
+reaction of 1815-1821 in favour of classics was followed by the more
+liberal programme of Vatimesnil (1829), including, for those who had no
+taste for a classical education, certain "special courses" (1830), which
+were the germ of the _enseignement spécial_ and the _enseignement
+moderne_.
+
+
+  Third Republic.
+
+Under Louis Philippe (1830-1848), amid all varieties of administration
+there was a consistent desire to hold the balance fairly between all the
+conflicting subjects of study. After the revolution of 1848 the
+difficulties raised by the excessive number of subjects were solved by
+H.N.H. Fortoul's expedient of "bifurcation," the alternatives being
+letters and science. In 1863, under Napoleon III., Victor Duruy
+encouraged the study of history, and also did much for classical
+learning by founding the École des Hautes Études. In 1872, under the
+Third Republic, Jules Simon found time for hygiene, geography and modern
+languages by abolishing Latin verse composition and reducing the number
+of exercises in Latin prose, while he insisted on the importance of
+studying the inner meaning of the ancient classics. The same principles
+were carried out by Jules Ferry (1880) and Paul Bert (1881-1882). In the
+scheme of 1890 the Latin course of six years began with ten hours a week
+and ended with four; Greek was begun a year later with two hours,
+increasing to six and ending with four.
+
+The commission of 1899, under the able chairmanship of M. Alexandre
+Ribot, published an important report, which was followed in 1902 by the
+scheme of M. Georges Leygues. The preamble includes a striking tribute
+to the advantages that France had derived from the study of the
+classics:--
+
+  "L'étude de l'antiquité grecque et latine a donné au génie français
+  une mesure, une clarté et une élégance incomparables. C'est par elle
+  que notre philosophie, nos lettres et nos arts ont brillé d'un si vif
+  éclat; c'est par elle que notre influence morale s'est exercée en
+  souveraine dans le monde. Les humanités doivent être protégées contre
+  toute atteinte et fortifiées. Elles font partie du patrimoine
+  national.
+
+  "L'esprit classique n'est pas ... incompatible avec l'esprit moderne.
+  Il est de tous les temps, parce qu'il est le culte de la raison claire
+  et libre, la recherche de la beauté harmonieuse et simple dans toutes
+  les manifestations de la pensée."
+
+By the scheme introduced in these memorable terms the course of seven
+years is divided into two cycles, the first cycle (of four years) having
+two parallel courses: (1) without Greek or Latin, and (2) with Latin,
+and with optional Greek at the beginning of the third year. In the
+second cycle (of three years) those who have been learning both Greek
+and Latin, and those who have been learning neither, continue on the
+same lines as before; while those who have been learning Latin only may
+either (1) discontinue it in favour of modern languages _and_ science,
+or (2) continue it with _either_. As an alternative to the second cycle,
+which normally ends in the examination for the _baccalauréat_, there is
+a shorter course, mainly founded on modern languages or applied science
+and ending in a public examination without the _baccalauréat_. The
+_baccalauréat_, however, has been condemned by the next minister, M.
+Briand, who prefers to crown the course with the award of a school
+diploma (1907).
+
+  See H. Lantoine, _Histoire de l'enseignement secondaire en France au
+  XVIIe siècle_ (1874); A. Sicard, _Les Études classiques avant la
+  Révolution_ (1887); Sainte-Beuve, _Port-Royal_, vols. i.-v.
+  (1840-1859), especially iii. 383-588; O. Gréard, _Education et
+  instruction_, 4 vols., especially "Enseignement secondaire," vol. ii.
+  pp. 1-90, with conspectus of programmes in the appendix (1889); A.
+  Ribot, _La Réforme de l'enseignement secondaire_ (1900); G. Leygues,
+  _Plan d'études_, &c. (1902); H.H. Johnson, "Present State of Classical
+  Studies in France," in _Classical Review_ (December 1907). See also
+  the English Education Department's _Special Reports on Education in
+  France_ (1899). The earlier literature is best represented in England
+  by Matthew Arnold's _Schools and Universities in France_ (1868; new
+  edition, 1892) and _A French Eton_ (1864).
+
+
+  Germany.
+
+3. The history of education in Germany since 1500 falls into three
+periods: (a) the age of the Revival of Learning and the Reformation
+(1500-1650), (b) the age of French influence (1650-1800), and (c) the
+19th century.
+
+
+  Melanchthon.
+
+  The Greek Testament.
+
+(a) During the first twenty years of the 16th century the reform of
+Latin instruction was carried out by setting aside the old medieval
+grammars, by introducing new manuals of classical literature, and by
+prescribing the study of classical authors and the imitation of
+classical models. In all these points the lead was first taken by south
+Germany, and by the towns along the Rhine down to the Netherlands. The
+old schools and universities were being quietly interpenetrated by the
+new spirit of humanism, when the sky was suddenly darkened by the clouds
+of religious conflict. In 1525-1535 there was a marked depression in the
+classical studies of Germany. Erasmus, writing to W. Pirckheimer in
+1528, exclaims: "Wherever the spirit of Luther prevails, learning goes
+to the ground." Such a fate was, however, averted by the intervention of
+Melanchthon (d. 1560), the _praeceptor Germaniae_, who was the
+embodiment of the spirit of the new Protestant type of education, with
+its union of evangelical doctrine and humanistic culture. Under his
+influence, new schools rapidly rose into being at Magdeburg, Eisleben
+and Nuremberg (1521-1526). During more than forty years of academic
+activity he not only provided manuals of Latin and Greek grammar and
+many other text-books that long remained in use, but he also formed for
+Germany a well-trained class of learned teachers, who extended his
+influence throughout the land. His principal ally as an educator and as
+a writer of text-books was Camerarius (d. 1574). Precepts of style, and
+models taken from the best Latin authors, were the means whereby a
+remarkable skill in the imitation of Cicero was attained at Strassburg
+during the forty-four years of the headmastership of Johannes von Sturm
+(d. 1589), who had himself been influenced by the _De disciplinis_ of
+J.L. Vivès (1531), and in all his teaching aimed at the formation of a
+_sapiens atque eloquens pietas_. Latin continued to be the living
+language of learning and of literature, and a correct and elegant Latin
+style was regarded as the mark of an educated person. Greek was taught
+in all the great schools, but became more and more confined to the study
+of the Greek Testament. In 1550 it was proposed in Brunswick to banish
+all "profane" authors from the schools, and in 1589 a competent scholar
+was instructed to write a sacred epic on the kings of Israel as a
+substitute for the works of the "pagan" poets. In 1637, when the doubts
+of Scaliger and Heinsius as to the purity of the Greek of the New
+Testament prompted the rector of Hamburg to introduce the study of
+classical authors, any reflection on the style of the Greek Testament
+was bitterly resented.
+
+
+  The Jesuits.
+
+The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540, and by 1600 most of the
+teachers in the Catholic schools and universities of Germany were
+Jesuits. The society was "dissolved" in 1773, but survived its
+dissolution. In accordance with the _Ratio Studiorum_ of Aquaviva
+(1599), which long remained unaltered and was only partially revised by
+J. Roothaan (1832), the main subjects of instruction were the _litterae
+humaniores diversarum linguarum_. The chief place among these was
+naturally assigned to Latin, the language of the society and of the
+Roman Church. The Latin grammar in use was that of the Jesuit rector of
+the school at Lisbon, Alvarez (1572). As in the Protestant schools, the
+principal aim was the attainment of _eloquentia_. A comparatively
+subordinate place was assigned to Greek, especially as the importance
+attributed to the Vulgate weakened the motive for studying the original
+text. It was recognized, however, that Latin itself (as Vivès had said)
+was "in no small need of Greek," and that, "unless Greek was learnt in
+boyhood, it would hardly ever be learnt at all." The text-book used was
+the _Institutiones linguae Graecae_ of the German Jesuit, Jacob Gretser,
+of Ingolstadt (c. 1590), and the reading in the highest class included
+portions of Demosthenes, Isocrates, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod,
+Pindar, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil and Chrysostom. The Catholic and
+Protestant schools of the 16th century succeeded, as a rule, in giving a
+command over a correct Latin style and a taste for literary form and for
+culture. Latin was still the language of the law-courts and of a large
+part of general literature. Between Luther and Lessing there was no
+great writer of German prose.
+
+
+  The age of French influence.
+
+(b) In the early part of the period 1650-1800, while Latin continued to
+hold the foremost place, it was ceasing to be Latin of the strictly
+classical type. Greek fell still further into the background; and Homer
+and Demosthenes gradually gave way to the Greek Testament. Between 1600
+and 1775 there was a great gap in the production of new editions of the
+principal Greek classics. The spell was only partially broken by J.A.
+Ernesti's _Homer_ (1759 f.) and Chr. G. Heyne's _Pindar_ (1773 f.).
+
+
+  Modern and secular education.
+
+The peace of Westphalia (1648) marks a distinct epoch in the history of
+education in Germany. Thenceforth, education became more modern and more
+secular. The long wars of religion in Germany, as in France and England,
+were followed by a certain indifference as to disputed points of
+theology. But the modern and secular type of education that now
+supervened was opposed by the pietism of the second half of the 17th
+century, represented at the newly-founded university of Halle (1694) by
+A.H. Francke, the professor of Greek (d. 1727), whose influence was far
+greater than that of Chr. Cellarius (d. 1707), the founder of the first
+philological _Seminar_ (1697). Francke's contemporary, Chr. Thomasius
+(d. 1728), was never weary of attacking scholarship of the old
+humanistic type and everything that savoured of antiquarian pedantry,
+and it was mainly his influence that made German the language of
+university lectures and of scientific and learned literature. A modern
+education is also the aim of the general introduction to the _nova
+methodus_ of Leibnitz, where the study of Greek is recommended solely
+for the sake of the Greek Testament (1666). Meanwhile, Ratichius (d.
+1635) had in vain pretended to teach Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the
+space of six months (1612), but he had the merit of maintaining that the
+study of a language should begin with the study of an author. Comenius
+(d. 1671) had proposed to teach Latin by drilling his pupils in a
+thousand graduated phrases distributed over a hundred instructive
+chapters, while the Latin authors were banished because of their
+difficulty and their "paganism" (1631). One of the catchwords of the day
+was to insist on a knowledge of _things_ instead of a knowledge of
+_words_, on "realism" instead of "verbalism."
+
+
+  Ritter-akademien.
+
+Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became the ideal in
+the German education of the upper classes of the 17th and 18th
+centuries. A large number of aristocratic schools (_Ritter-Akademien_)
+were founded, beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tübingen (1589)
+and ending with the Hohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775). In these
+schools the subjects of study included mathematics and natural sciences,
+geography and history, and modern languages (especially French), with
+riding, fencing and dancing; Latin assumed a subordinate place, and
+classical composition in prose or verse was not considered a
+sufficiently courtly accomplishment. The youthful aristocracy were thus
+withdrawn from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic
+schools vanished with the dawn of the 19th century, and the ordinary
+public schools were once more frequented by the young nobility.
+
+
+  The "new humanism."
+
+  Herder.
+
+  School reorganization.
+
+(c) _The Modern Period._--In the last third of the 18th century two
+important movements came into play, the "naturalism" of Rousseau and the
+"new humanism." While Rousseau sought his ideal in a form of education
+and of culture that was in close accord with nature, the German apostles
+of the new humanism were convinced that they had found that ideal
+completely realized in the old Greek world. Hence the aim of education
+was to make young people thoroughly "Greek," to fill them with the
+"Greek" spirit, with courage and keenness in the quest of truth, and
+with a devotion to all that was beautiful. The link between the
+naturalism of Rousseau and the new humanism is to be found in J.G.
+Herder, whose passion for all that is Greek inspires him with almost a
+hatred of Latin. The new humanism was a kind of revival of the
+Renaissance, which had been retarded by the Reformation in Germany and
+by the Counter-Reformation in Italy, or had at least been degraded to
+the dull classicism of the schools. The new humanism agreed with the
+Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of the old classical world as
+a perfect pattern of culture. But, while the Renaissance aimed at
+reproducing the Augustan age of _Rome_, the new humanism found its
+golden age in _Athens_. The Latin Renaissance in Italy aimed at
+recovering and verbally imitating the ancient literature; the Greek
+Renaissance in Germany sought inspiration from the creative originality
+of Greek literature with a view to producing an original literature in
+the German language. The movement had its effect on the schools by
+discouraging the old classical routine of verbal imitation, and giving a
+new prominence to Greek and to German. The new humanism found a home in
+Göttingen (1783) in the days of J.M. Gesner and C.G. Heyne. It was
+represented at Leipzig by Gesner's successor, Ernesti (d. 1781); and at
+Halle by F.A. Wolf, who in 1783 was appointed professor of education by
+Zedlitz, the minister of Frederick the Great. In literature, its leading
+names were Winckelmann, Lessing and Voss, and Herder, Goethe and
+Schiller. The tide of the new movement had reached its height about
+1800. Goethe and Schiller were convinced that the old Greek world was
+the highest revelation of humanity; and the universities and schools of
+Germany were reorganized in this spirit by F.A. Wolf and his illustrious
+pupil, Wilhelm von Humboldt. In 1809-1810 Humboldt was at the head of
+the educational section of the Prussian Home Office, and, in the brief
+interval of a year and a half, gave to the general system of education
+the direction which it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout the
+whole century. In 1810 the _examen pro facultate docendi_ first made the
+profession of a schoolmaster independent of that of a minister of
+religion. The new scheme drawn up by J.W. Süvern recognized four
+principal co-ordinated branches of learning: Latin, Greek, German,
+mathematics. All four were studied throughout the school, Greek being
+begun in the fourth of the nine classes, that corresponding to the
+English "third form." The old Latin school had only one main subject,
+the study of Latin style (combined with a modicum of Greek). The new
+gymnasium aimed at a wider education, in which literature was
+represented by Latin, Greek and German, by the side of mathematics and
+natural science, history and religion. The uniform employment of the
+term _Gymnasium_ for the highest type of a Prussian school dates from
+1812. The leaving examination (_Abgangsprüfung_), instituted in that
+year, required Greek translation at sight, with Greek prose composition,
+and ability to speak and to write Latin. In 1818-1840 the leading spirit
+on the board of education was Johannes Schulze, and a _complete_ and
+comprehensive system of education continued to be the ideal kept in
+view. Such an education, however, was found in practice to involve a
+prolongation of the years spent at school and a correspondingly later
+start in life. It was also attacked on the ground that it led to
+"overwork." This attack was partially met by the scheme of 1837.
+Schulze's period of prominence in Berlin closely corresponded to that of
+Herbart at Königsberg (1809-1833) and Göttingen (1833-1841), who
+insisted that for boys of eight to twelve there was no better text-book
+than the Greek _Odyssey_, and this principle was brought into practice
+at Hanover by his distinguished pupil, Ahrens.
+
+The Prussian policy of the next period, beginning with the accession of
+Friedrich Wilhelm IV. in 1840, was to lay a new stress on religious
+teaching, and to obviate the risk of overwork resulting from the
+simultaneous study of all subjects by the encouragement of
+specialization in a few. Ludwig Wiese's scheme of 1856 insisted on the
+retention of Latin verse as well as Latin prose, and showed less favour
+to natural science, but it awakened little enthusiasm, while the attempt
+to revive the old humanistic Gymnasium led to a demand for schools of a
+more modern type, which issued in the recognition of the _Realgymnasium_
+(1859).
+
+In the age of Bismarck, school policy in Prussia had for its aim an
+increasing recognition of modern requirements. In 1875 Wiese was
+succeeded by Bonitz, the eminent Aristotelian scholar, who in 1849 had
+introduced mathematics and natural science into the schools of Austria,
+and had substituted the wide reading of classical authors for the
+prevalent practice of speaking and writing Latin. By his scheme of 1882
+natural science recovered its former position in Prussia, and the hours
+assigned in each week to Latin were diminished from 86 to 77. But
+neither of the two great parties in the educational world was satisfied;
+and great expectations were aroused when the question of reform was
+taken up by the German emperor, William II., in 1890. The result of the
+conference of December 1890 was a compromise between the conservatism of
+a majority of its members and the forward policy of the emperor. The
+scheme of 1892 reduced the number of hours assigned to Latin from 77 to
+62, and laid special stress on the _German_ essay; but the modern
+training given by the _Realgymnasium_ was still unrecognized as an
+avenue to a university education. A conference held in June 1900, in
+which the speakers included Mommsen and von Wilamowitz, Harnack and
+Diels, was followed by the "Kiel Decree" of the 26th of November. In
+that decree the emperor urged the equal recognition of the classical and
+the modern _Gymnasium_, and emphasized the importance of giving more
+time to Latin and to English in both. In the teaching of Greek, "useless
+details" were to be set aside, and special care devoted to the connexion
+between ancient and modern culture, while, in all subjects, attention
+was to be paid to the classic precept: _multum, non multa_.
+
+By the scheme of 1901 the pupils of the _Realgymnasium_, the
+_Oberrealschule_ and the _Gymnasium_ were admitted to the university on
+equal terms in virtue of their leaving-certificates, but Greek and Latin
+were still required for students of classics or divinity.
+
+For the _Gymnasium_ the aim of the new scheme is, in _Latin_, "to supply
+boys with a sound basis of grammatical training, with a view to their
+understanding the more important classical writers of Rome, and being
+thus introduced to the intellectual life and culture of the ancient
+world"; and, in _Greek_, "to give them a sufficient knowledge of the
+language with a view to their obtaining an acquaintance with some of the
+Greek classical works which are distinguished both in matter and in
+style, and thus gaining an insight into the intellectual life and
+culture of Ancient Greece." In consequence of these changes Greek is now
+studied by a smaller number of boys, but with better results, and a new
+lease of life has been won for the classical _Gymnasium_.
+
+Lastly, by the side of the classical _Gymnasium_, we now have the
+"German Reform Schools" of two different types, that of Altona (dating
+from 1878) and that of Frankfort-on-the-Main (1892). The leading
+principle in both is the postponement of the time for learning Latin.
+Schools of the Frankfort type take French as their only foreign language
+in the first three years of the course, and aim at achieving in six
+years as much as has been achieved by the _Gymnasia_ in nine; and it is
+maintained that, in six years, they succeed in mastering a larger amount
+of Latin literature than was attempted a generation ago, even in the
+best _Gymnasia_ of the old style. It may be added that in all the German
+_Gymnasia_, whether reformed or not, more time is given to classics than
+in the corresponding schools in England.
+
+  See F. Paulsen, _Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts vom Ausgang des
+  Mittelalters bis auf die Gegenwart mit besonderer Rücksicht auf den
+  klassischen Unterricht_ (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1896); _Das Realgymnasium
+  und die humanistische Bildung_ (1889); _Die höheren Schulen und das
+  Universitätsstudium im 20. Jahrhundert_ (1901); "Das moderne
+  Bildungswesen" in _Die Kulture der Gegenwart_, vol. i. (1904); _Das
+  deutsche Bildungswesen in seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung_ (1906)
+  (with the literature there quoted, pp. 190-192), translated by Dr T.
+  Lorenz, _German Education, Past and Present_ (1908); T. Ziegler,
+  _Notwendigkeit ... des Realgymnasiums_ (Stuttgart, 1894); F.A.
+  Eckstein, _Lateinischer und griechischer Unterricht_ (1887); O. Kohl,
+  "Griechischer Unterricht" (Langensalza, 1896) in W. Rein's _Handbuch_;
+  A. Baumeister's _Handbuch_ (1895), especially vol. i. 1 (History) and
+  i. 2 (Educational Systems); P. Stötzner, _Das öffentliche
+  Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands in der Gegenwart_ (1901); F. Seiler,
+  _Geschichte des deutschen Unterrichtswesens_ (2 vols., 1906);
+  _Verhandlungen_ of June 1900 (2nd ed., 1902); _Lehrpläne_, &c. (1901);
+  _Die Reform des höheren Schulwesens_, ed. W. Lexis (1902); A.
+  Harnack's _Vortrag_ and W. Parow's _Erwiderung_ (1905); H. Müller,
+  _Das höhere Schulwesen Deutschlands am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts_
+  (Stuttgart, 1904); O. Steinbart, _Durchführung des preussischen
+  Schulreform in ganz Deutschland_ (Duisburg, 1904); J. Schipper, _Alte
+  Bildung und moderne Cultur_ (Vienna, 1901); Papers by M.E. Sadler: (1)
+  "Problems in Prussian Secondary Education" (Special Reports of
+  Education Dept., 1899); (2) "The Unrest in Secondary Education in
+  Germany and Elsewhere" (Special Reports of Board of Education, vol. 9,
+  1902); J.L. Paton, _The Teaching of Classics in Prussian Secondary
+  Schools_ (on "German Reform Schools") (1907, Wyman, London); J.E.
+  Russell, _German Higher Schools_ (New York, 1899); and (among earlier
+  English publications) Matthew Arnold's _Higher Schools and
+  Universities in Germany_ (1874, reprinted from _Schools and
+  Universities on the Continent_, 1865).
+
+
+  United States.
+
+(4) In the _United States of America_ the highest degree of educational
+development has been subsequent to the Civil War. The study of Latin
+begins in the "high schools," the average age of admission being fifteen
+and the normal course extending over four years. Among classical
+teachers an increasing number would prefer a longer course extending
+over six years for Latin, and at least three for Greek, and some of
+these would assign to the elementary school the first two of the
+proposed six years of Latin study. Others are content with the late
+learning of Latin and prefer that it should be preceded by a thorough
+study of modern languages (see Prof. B.I. Wheeler, in Baumeister's
+_Handbuch_, 1897, ii. 2, pp. 584-586).
+
+
+  Latin pronunciation.
+
+It was mainly owing to a pamphlet issued in 1871 by Prof. G.M. Lane, of
+Harvard, that a reformed pronunciation of Latin was adopted in all the
+colleges and schools of the United States. Some misgivings on this
+reform found expression in a work on the _Teaching of Latin_, published
+by Prof. C.E. Bennett of Cornell in 1901, a year in which it was
+estimated that this pronunciation was in use by more than 96% of the
+Latin pupils in the secondary schools.
+
+Some important statistics as to the number studying Latin and Greek in
+the secondary schools were collected in 1900 by a committee of twelve
+educational experts representing all parts of the Union, with a view to
+a uniform course of instruction being pursued in all classical schools.
+They had the advantage of the co-operation of Dr W.T. Harris, the U.S.
+commissioner of education, and they were able to report that, in all the
+five groups into which they had divided the states, the number of pupils
+pursuing the study of Latin and Greek showed a remarkable advance,
+especially in the most progressive states of the middle west. The number
+learning Latin had increased from 100,144 in 1890 to 314,856 in
+1899-1900, and those learning Greek from 12,869 to 24,869. Thus the
+number learning Latin at the later date was three times, and the number
+learning Greek twice, as many as those learning Latin or Greek ten years
+previously. But the total number in 1000 was 630,048; so that,
+notwithstanding this proof of progress, the number learning Greek in
+1900 was only about one twenty-fifth of the total number, while the
+number learning Latin was as high as half.
+
+The position of Greek as an "elective" or "optional" subject (notably at
+Harvard), an arrangement regarded with approval by some eminent
+educational authorities and with regret by others, probably has some
+effect on the high schools in the small number of those who learn Greek,
+and in their lower rate of increase, as compared with those who learn
+Latin. Some evidence as to the quality of the study of those languages
+in the schools is supplied by English commissioners in the _Reports of
+the Mosely Commission_. Thus Mr Papillon considered that, while the
+teaching of English literature was admirable, the average standard of
+Latin and Greek teaching and attainment in the upper classes was "below
+that of an English public school"; he felt, however, that the secondary
+schools of the United States had a "greater variety of the curriculum to
+suit the practical needs of life," and that they existed, not "for the
+select few," but "for the whole people" (pp. 250 f.).
+
+  For full information see the "Two volumes of Monographs prepared for
+  the United States Educational Exhibit at the Paris Exposition of
+  1900," edited by Dr N. Murray Butler; the _Annual Reports_ of the U.S.
+  commissioner of education (Washington); and the _Reports of the Mosely
+  Commission to the United States of America_ (London, 1904). Cf.
+  statistics quoted in G.G. Ramsay's "Address on Efficiency in
+  Education" (Glasgow, 1902, 17-20), from the _Transactions of the Amer.
+  Philol. Association_, xxx. (1899), pp. lxxvii-cxxii; also Bennett and
+  Bristol, _The Teaching of Latin and Greek in the Secondary School_
+  (New York, 1901).    (J. E. S.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The above derivation is in accordance with English usage. In the
+    _New English Dictionary_ the earliest example of the word "classical"
+    is the phrase "classical and canonical," found in the _Europae
+    Speculum_ of Sir Edwin Sandys (1599), and, as applied to a writer, it
+    is explained as meaning "of the first rank or authority." This
+    exactly corresponds with the meaning of _classicus_ in the above
+    passage of Gellius. On the other hand, the French word _classique_
+    (in Littré's view) primarily means "used in class."
+
+  [2] See also the article SCHOOLS.
+
+
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION (Lat. _classis_, a class, probably from the root _cal-_,
+_cla-_, as in Gr. [Greek: kaleô], _clamor_), a logical process, common
+to all the special sciences and to knowledge in general, consisting in
+the collection under a common name of a number of objects which are
+alike in one or more respects. The process consists in observing the
+objects and abstracting from their various qualities that characteristic
+which they have in common. This characteristic constitutes the
+definition of the "class" to which they are regarded as belonging. It
+is this process by which we arrive first at "species" and then at
+"genus," i.e. at all scientific generalization. Individual things,
+regarded as such, constitute a mere aggregate, unconnected with one
+another, and so far unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in
+systematic classification. Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies
+individually we can state merely that they have been observed to have
+certain motions through the sky, that they are luminous, and the like.
+If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover that, whereas
+all partake in the general movement of the heavens, some have a movement
+of their own. Thus we arrive at a system of classification according to
+motion, by which fixed stars are differentiated from planets. A further
+classification according to other criteria gives us stars of the first
+magnitude and stars of the second magnitude, and so forth. We thus
+arrive at a systematic understanding expressed in laws by the
+application of which accurate forecasts of celestial phenomena can be
+made. Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering
+the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from what
+is often called "artificial" classification, which is the preparation,
+e.g. of statistics for particular purposes, administrative and the like.
+
+Of the systems of classification adopted in physical science, only one
+requires treatment here, namely, the classification of the sciences as
+a whole, a problem which has from the time of Aristotle attracted
+considerable attention. Its object is to delimit the spheres of
+influence of the positive sciences and show how they are mutually
+related. Of such attempts three are specially noteworthy, those of
+Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer.
+
+Bacon's classification is based on the subjective criterion of the
+various faculties which are specially concerned. He thus distinguished
+History (natural, civil, literary, ecclesiastical) as the province of
+memory, Philosophy (including Theology) as that of reason, and Poetry,
+Fables and the like, as that of imagination. This classification was
+made the basis of the _Encyclopédie_. Comte adopted an entirely
+different system based on an objective criterion. Having first
+enunciated the theory that all science passes through three stages,
+theological, metaphysical and positive, he neglects the two first, and
+divides the last according to the "things to be classified," in view of
+their real affinity and natural connexions, into six, in order of
+decreasing generality and increasing complexity--mathematics, astronomy,
+physics, chemistry, physiology and biology (including psychology), and
+sociology. This he conceives to be not only the logical, but also the
+historical, order of development, from the abstract and purely deductive
+to the concrete and inductive. Sociology is thus the highest, most
+complex, and most positive of the sciences. Herbert Spencer, condemning
+this division as both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a
+three-fold division into (1) _abstract_ science (including logic and
+mathematics) dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge
+of phenomena is possible, (2) _abstract-concrete_ science (including
+mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of phenomena
+themselves, i.e. laws of forces as deducible from the persistence of
+forces, and (3) _concrete_ science (e.g. astronomy, biology, sociology),
+dealing with "phenomena themselves in their totalities," the universal
+laws of the continuous redistribution of Matter and Motion, Evolution
+and Dissolution.
+
+Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief mention. In
+Greece at the dawn of systematic thought the physical sciences were few
+in number; none the less philosophers were not agreed as to their true
+relation. The Platonic school adopted a triple classification, physics,
+ethics and dialectics; Aristotle's system was more complicated, nor do
+we know precisely how he subdivided his three main classes, theoretical,
+practical and poetical (i.e. technical, having to do with [Greek:
+poiêsis], creative). The second class covered ethics and politics, the
+latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including ethics; the
+third includes the useful and the imitative sciences; the first includes
+metaphysics and physics. As regards pure logic Aristotle sometimes seems
+to include it with metaphysics and physics, sometimes to regard it as
+ancillary to all the sciences.
+
+Thomas Hobbes (_Leviathan_) drew up an elaborate paradigm of the
+sciences, the first stage of which was a dichotomy into "Naturall
+Philosophy" ("consequences from the accidents of bodies naturall") and
+"Politiques and Civill Philosophy" ("consequences from accidents of
+Politique bodies"). The former by successive subdivisions is reduced to
+eighteen special sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and
+duties of sovereign powers, and those of the subject.
+
+Jeremy Bentham and A.M. Ampère both drew up elaborate systems based on
+the principle of dichotomy, and beginning from the distinction of mind
+and body. Bentham invented an artificial terminology which is rather
+curious than valuable. The science of the body was Somatology, that of
+the mind Pneumatology. The former include Posology (science of quantity,
+mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology includes
+Morphoscopic (geometry) and Alegomorphic(arithmetic). See further
+Bentham's _Chrestomathia_ and works quoted under BENTHAM, JEREMY.
+
+Carl Wundt criticized most of these systems as taking too little account
+of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on the
+standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-matter. His
+system may, therefore, be described as conceptional. It distinguishes
+philosophy, which deals with facts in their widest universal relations,
+from the special sciences, which consider facts in the light of a
+particular relation or set of relations.
+
+All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting as throwing
+light on the views of those who invented them. It will be seen, however,
+that none can lay claim to unique validity. The _fundamenta divisionis_,
+though in themselves more or less logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen,
+generally as being germane to a preconceived philosophical or scientific
+theory.
+
+
+
+
+CLASTIDIUM (mod. _Casteggio_), a village of the Anamares, in Gallia
+Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 m. E. of Iria (mod. _Voghera_) and 31
+m. W. of Placentia. Here in 222 B.C. M. Claudius Marcellus defeated the
+Gauls and won the _spolia opima_; in 218 Hannibal took it and its stores
+of corn by treachery. It never had an independent government, and not
+later than 190 B.C. was made part of the colony of Placentia (founded
+219). In the Augustan division of Italy, however, Placentia belonged to
+the 8th region, Aemilia, whereas Iria certainly, and Clastidium
+possibly, belonged to the 9th, Liguria (see Th. Mommsen in _Corp.
+Inscrip. Lat._ vol. v. Berlin, 1877, p. 828). The remains visible at
+Clastidium are scanty; there is a fountain (the Fontana d'Annibale), and
+a Roman bridge, which seems to have been constructed of tiles, not of
+stone, was discovered in 1857, but destroyed.
+
+  See C. Giulietti, _Casteggio, notizie storiche II. Avanzi di
+  antichità_ (Voghera, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUBERG, JOHANN (1622-1665), German philosopher, was born at Solingen,
+in Westphalia, on the 24th of February 1622. After travelling in France
+and England, he studied the Cartesian philosophy under John Raey at
+Leiden. He became (1649) professor of philosophy and theology at
+Herborn, but subsequently (1651), in consequence of the jealousy of his
+colleagues, accepted an invitation to a similar post at Duisburg, where
+he died on the 31st of January 1665. Clauberg was one of the earliest
+teachers of the new doctrines in Germany and an exact and methodical
+commentator on his master's writings. His theory of the connexion
+between the soul and the body is in some respects analogous to that of
+Malebranche; but he is not therefore to be regarded as a true forerunner
+of Occasionalism, as he uses "Occasion" for the stimulus which directly
+produces a mental phenomenon, without postulating the intervention of
+God (H. Müller, _J. Clauberg und seine Stellung im Cartesianismus_).
+His view of the relation of God to his creatures is held to foreshadow
+the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist only through the
+continuous creative energy of the Divine Being, and are no more
+independent of his will than are our thoughts independent of us,--or
+rather less, for there are thoughts which force themselves upon us
+whether we will or not. For metaphysics Clauberg suggested the names
+_ontosophy_ or _ontology_, the latter being afterwards adopted by Wolff.
+He also devoted considerable attention to the German languages, and his
+researches in this direction attracted the favourable notice of
+Leibnitz. His chief works are: _De conjunctione animae et corporis
+humani_; _Exercitationes centum de cognitione Dei et nostri_; _Logica
+vetus et nova_; _Initiatio philosophi, seu Dubitatio Cartesiana_; a
+commentary on Descartes' _Meditations_; and _Ars etymologica Teutonum_.
+
+  A collected edition of his philosophical works was published at
+  Amsterdam (1691), with life by H.C. Hennin; see also E. Zeller,
+  _Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie seit Leibnitz_ (1873).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687), French Protestant divine, was born at La
+Sauvetat-du-Dropt near Agen. After studying at Montauban, he entered the
+ministry in 1645. He was for eight years professor of theology in the
+Protestant college of Nîmes; but in 1661, having successfully opposed a
+scheme for re-uniting Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to
+preach in Lower Languedoc. In 1662 he obtained a post at Montauban
+similar to that which he had lost; but after four years he was removed
+from this also. He next became pastor at Charenton near Paris, where he
+engaged in controversies with Pierre Nicole (_Réponse aux deux traités
+intitulés la perpétuité de la foi_, 1665), Antoine Arnauld (_Réponse au
+livre de M. Arnauld_, 1670), and J.B. Bossuet (_Réponse au livre de M.
+l'évêque de Meaux_, 1683). On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he
+fled to Holland, and received a pension from William of Orange, who
+commissioned him to write an account of the persecuted Huguenots
+(_Plaintes des protestants cruellement opprimés dans le royaume de
+France_, 1686). The book was translated into English, but by order of
+James II, both the translation and the original were publicly burnt by
+the common hangman on the 5th of May 1686, as containing "expressions
+scandalous to His Majesty the king of France." Other works by him were
+_Réponse au livre de P. Nouet sur l'eucharistie_ (1668); _Oeuvres
+posthumes_ (Amsterdam, 1688), containing the _Traité de la composition
+d'un sermon_, translated into English in 1778.
+
+  See biographies by J.P. Nicéron and Abel Rotholf de la Devèze; E.
+  Haag, _La France protestante_, vol. iv. (1884, new edition).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, or CLAUDE GELÉE (1600-1682), French
+landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the village of
+Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that he made no progress at
+school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly said, to a pastry-cook, but
+this is extremely dubious. At the age of twelve, being left an orphan,
+he went to live at Freiburg on the Rhine with an elder brother, Jean
+Gelée, a wood-carver of moderate merit, and under him he designed
+arabesques and foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a
+livelihood; but from his clownishness and ignorance of the language, he
+failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to Naples, to study
+landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a painter of much repute. With
+him he remained two years; then he returned to Rome, and was
+domesticated until April 1625 with another landscape-painter, Augustin
+Tassi, who hired him to grind his colours and to do all the household
+drudgery.
+
+His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his greatest
+works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the elements of
+design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began to expand, and he
+devoted himself to artistic study with great eagerness. He exerted his
+utmost industry to explore the true principles of painting by an
+incessant examination of nature; and for this purpose he made his
+studies in the open fields, where he very frequently remained from
+sunrise till sunset, watching the effect of the shifting light upon the
+landscape. He generally sketched whatever he thought beautiful or
+striking, marking every tinge of light with a similar colour; from these
+sketches he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in
+Italy, France and a part of Germany, including his native Lorraine,
+suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl Dervent, painter to
+the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant for a year; and he painted
+at Nancy the architectural subjects on the ceiling of the Carmelite
+church. He did not, however, relish this employment, and in 1627
+returned to Rome. Here, painting two landscapes for Cardinal
+Bentivoglio, he earned the protection of Pope Urban VIII, and from about
+1637 he rapidly rose into celebrity. Claude was acquainted not only with
+the facts, but also with the laws of nature; and the German painter
+Joachim von Sandrart relates that he used to explain, as they walked
+together through the fields, the causes of the different appearances of
+the same landscape at different hours of the day, from the reflections
+or refractions of light, or from the morning and evening dews or
+vapours, with all the precision of a natural philosopher. He elaborated
+his pictures with great care; and if any performance fell short of his
+ideal, he altered, erased and repainted it several times over.
+
+His skies are aerial and full of lustre, and every object harmoniously
+illumined. His distances and colouring are delicate, and his tints have
+a sweetness and variety till then unexampled. He frequently gave an
+uncommon tenderness to his finished trees by glazing. His figures,
+however, are very indifferent; but he was so conscious of his deficiency
+in this respect, that he usually engaged other artists to paint them for
+him, among whom were Courtois and Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to
+say that he sold his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to
+avoid a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very
+numerous spurious copies of his works, he made tinted outline drawings
+(in six paper books prepared for this purpose) of all those pictures
+which were transmitted to different countries; and on the back of each
+drawing he wrote the name of the purchaser. These books he named _Libri
+di verità_. This valuable work (now belonging to the duke of Devonshire)
+has been engraved and published, and has always been highly esteemed by
+students of the art of landscape. Claude, who had suffered much from
+gout, died in Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 21st (or perhaps the
+23rd) of November 1682, leaving his wealth, which was considerable,
+between his only surviving relatives, a nephew and an adopted daughter
+(? niece).
+
+Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in the National Gallery
+and in the Louvre; the landscapes in the Altieri and Colonna palaces in
+Rome are also of especial celebrity. A list has been printed showing no
+less than 92 examples in the various public galleries of Europe. He
+himself regarded a landscape which he painted in the Villa Madama, being
+a cento of various views with great abundance and variety of leafage,
+and a composition of Esther and Ahasuerus, as his finest works; the
+former he refused to sell, although Clement IX. offered to cover its
+surface with gold pieces. He etched a series of twenty-eight landscapes,
+fine impressions of which are greatly prized. Full of amenity, and
+deeply sensitive to the graces of nature, Claude was long deemed the
+prince of landscape painters, and he must always be accounted a prime
+leader in that form of art, and in his day a great enlarger and refiner
+of its province.
+
+Claude was a man of amiable and simple character, very kind to his
+pupils, a patient and unwearied worker; in his own sphere of study, his
+mind was stored (as we have seen) with observation and knowledge, but he
+continued an unlettered man till his death. Famous and highly patronized
+though he was in all his later years, he seems to have been very little
+known to his brother artists, with the single exception of Sandrart.
+This painter is the chief direct authority for the facts of Claude's
+life (_Academia Artis Pictoriae_, 1683); Baldinucci, who obtained
+information from some of Claude's immediate survivors, relates various
+incidents to a different effect (_Notizie dei professori del disegno_).
+
+  See also Victor Cousin, _Sur Claude Gelée_ (1853); M.F. Sweetser,
+  _Claude Lorrain_ (1878); Lady Dilke, _Claude Lorrain_ (1884).
+     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS JEAN (1797-1867), French photographer, was
+born at Lyons on the 12th of August 1797. Having acquired a share in
+L.J.M. Daguerre's invention, he was one of the first to practise
+daguerreotype portraiture in England, and he improved the sensitizing
+process by using chlorine in addition to iodine, thus gaining greater
+rapidity of action. In 1848 he produced the photographometer, an
+instrument designed to measure the intensity of photogenic rays; and in
+1849 he brought out the focimeter, for securing a perfect focus in
+photographic portraiture. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
+in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonoscope, in reply to a
+challenge from Sir David Brewster. He died in London on the 27th of
+December 1867.
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS, Latin epic poet and panegyrist, flourished during
+the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. He was an Egyptian by birth,
+probably an Alexandrian, but it may be conjectured from his name and his
+mastery of Latin that he was of Roman extraction. His own authority has
+been assumed for the assertion that his first poetical compositions were
+in Greek, and that he had written nothing in Latin before A.D. 395; but
+this seems improbable, and the passage (_Carm. Min._ xli. 13) which is
+taken to prove it does not necessarily bear this meaning. In that year
+he appears to have come to Rome, and made his début as a Latin poet by a
+panegyric on the consulship of Olybrius and Probinus, the first brothers
+not belonging to the imperial family who had ever simultaneously filled
+the office of consul. This piece proved the precursor of the series of
+panegyrical poems which compose the bulk of his writings. In Birt's
+edition a complete chronological list of Claudian's poems is given, and
+also in J.B. Bury's edition of Gibbon (iii. app. i. p. 485), where the
+dates given differ slightly from those in the present article.
+
+In 396 appeared the encomium on the third consulship of the emperor
+Honorius, and the epic on the downfall of Rufinus, the unworthy
+minister of Arcadius at Constantinople. This revolution was principally
+effected by the contrivance of Stilicho, the great general and minister
+of Honorius. Claudian's poem appears to have obtained his patronage, or
+rather perhaps that of his wife Serena, by whose interposition the poet
+was within a year or two enabled to contract a wealthy marriage in
+Africa (_Epist._ 2). Previously to this event he had produced (398) his
+panegyric on the fourth consulship of Honorius, his epithalamium on the
+marriage of Honorius to Stilicho's daughter, Maria, and his poem on the
+Gildonic war, celebrating the repression of a revolt in Africa. To these
+succeeded his piece on the consulship of Manlius Theodorus (399), the
+unfinished or mutilated invective against the Byzantine prime minister
+Eutropius in the same year, the epics on Stilicho's first consulship and
+on his repulse of Alaric (400 and 403), and the panegyric on the sixth
+consulship of Honorius (404). From this time all trace of Claudian is
+lost, and he is generally supposed to have perished with his patron
+Stilicho in 408. It may be conjectured that he must have died in 404, as
+he could hardly otherwise have omitted to celebrate the greatest of
+Stilicho's achievements, the destruction of the barbarian host led by
+Radagaisus in the following year. On the other hand, he may have
+survived Stilicho, as in the dedication to the second book of his epic
+on the _Rape of Proserpine_ (which Birt, however, assigns to 395-397),
+he speaks of his disuse of poetry in terms hardly reconcilable with the
+fertility which he displayed during his patron's lifetime. From the
+manner in which Augustine alludes to him in his _De civitate Dei_, it
+may be inferred that he was no longer living at the date of the
+composition of that work, between 415 and 428.
+
+Besides Claudian's chief poems, his lively Fescennines on the emperor's
+marriage, his panegyric on Serena, and the _Gigantomachia_, a fragment
+of an unfinished Greek epic, may also be mentioned. Several poems
+expressing Christian sentiments are undoubtedly spurious. Claudian's
+paganism, however, neither prevented his celebrating Christian rulers
+and magistrates nor his enjoying the distinction of a court laureate. It
+is probable that he was nominally a Christian, like his patron Stilicho
+and Ausonius, although at heart attached to the old religion. The very
+decided statements of Orosius and Augustine as to his heathenism may be
+explained by the pagan style of Claudian's political poems. We have his
+own authority for his having been honoured by a bronze statue in the
+forum, and Pomponius Laetus discovered in the 15th century an
+inscription (_C.I.L._ vi. 1710) on the pedestal, which, formerly
+considered spurious, is now generally regarded as genuine.
+
+The position of Claudian--the last of the Roman poets--is unique in
+literature. It is sufficiently remarkable that, after nearly three
+centuries of torpor, the Latin muse should have experienced any revival
+in the age of Honorius, nothing less than amazing that this revival
+should have been the work of a foreigner, most surprising of all that a
+just and enduring celebrity should have been gained by official
+panegyrics on the generally uninteresting transactions of an inglorious
+epoch. The first of these particulars bespeaks Claudian's taste, rising
+superior to the prevailing barbarism, the second his command of
+language, the third his rhetorical skill. As remarked by Gibbon, "he was
+endowed with the rare and precious talent of raising the meanest, of
+adorning the most barren, and of diversifying the most similar topics."
+This gift is especially displayed in his poem on the downfall of
+Rufinus, where the punishment of a public malefactor is exalted to the
+dignity of an epical subject by the magnificence of diction and the
+ostentation of supernatural machinery. The noble exordium, in which the
+fate of Rufinus is propounded as the vindication of divine justice,
+places the subject at once on a dignified level; and the council of the
+infernal powers has afforded a hint to Tasso, and through him to Milton.
+The inevitable monotony of the panegyrics on Honorius is relieved by
+just and brilliant expatiation on the duties of a sovereign. In his
+celebration of Stilicho's victories Claudian found a subject more worthy
+of his powers, and some passages, such as the description of the flight
+of Alaric, and of Stilicho's arrival at Rome, and the felicitous
+parallel between his triumphs and those of Marius, rank among the
+brightest ornaments of Latin poetry. Claudian's panegyric, however
+lavish and regardless of veracity, is in general far less offensive than
+usual in his age, a circumstance attributable partly to his more refined
+taste and partly to the genuine merit of his patron Stilicho. He is a
+valuable authority for the history of his times, and is rarely to be
+convicted of serious inaccuracy in his facts, whatever may be thought of
+the colouring he chooses to impart to them. He was animated by true
+patriotic feeling, in the shape of a reverence for Rome as the source
+and symbol of law, order and civilization. Outside the sphere of actual
+life he is less successful; his _Rape of Proserpine_, though the
+beauties of detail are as great as usual, betrays his deficiency in the
+creative power requisite for dealing with a purely ideal subject. This
+denotes the rhetorician rather than the poet, and in general it may be
+said that his especial gifts of vivid natural description, and of
+copious illustration, derived from extensive but not cumbrous erudition,
+are fully as appropriate to eloquence as to poetry. In the general cast
+of his mind and character of his writings, and especially, in his
+faculty for bestowing enduring interest upon occasional themes, we may
+fitly compare him with Dryden, remembering that while Dryden exulted in
+the energy of a vigorous and fast-developing language, Claudian was
+cramped by an artificial diction, confined to the literary class.
+
+  The editio princeps of Claudian was printed at Vicenza in 1482; the
+  editions of J.M. Gesner (1759) and P. Burmann (1760) are still
+  valuable for their notes. The first critical edition was that of L.
+  Jeep (1876-1879), now superseded by the exhaustive work of T. Birt,
+  with bibliography, in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica_ (x., 1892;
+  smaller ed. founded on this by J. Koch, Teubner series, 1893). There
+  is a separate edition with commentary and verse translation of _Il
+  Ratto di Proserpina_, by L. Garces de Diez (1889); the satire _In
+  Eutropium_ is discussed by T. Birt in _Zwei politische Satiren des
+  alten Rom_ (1888). There is a complete English verse translation of
+  little merit by A. Hawkins (1817). See the articles by Ramsay in
+  Smith's _Classical Dictionary_ and Vollmer in Pauly-Wissowa's
+  _Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2
+  (1899); also J.H.E. Crees, _Claudian as an Historian_ (1908), the
+  "Cambridge Historical Essay" for 1906 (No. 17); T. Hodgkin, _Claudian,
+  the last of the Roman Poets_ (1875).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS], Roman emperor A.D.
+41-54, son of Drusus and Antonia, nephew of the emperor Tiberius, and
+grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on
+the 1st of August 10 B.C. During his boyhood he was treated with
+contempt, owing to his weak and timid character and his natural
+infirmities; the fact that he was regarded as little better than an
+imbecile saved him from death at the hands of Caligula. He chiefly
+devoted himself to literature, especially history, and until his
+accession he took no real part in public affairs, though Caligula
+honoured him with the dignity of consul. He was four times married: to
+Plautia Urgulanilla, whom he divorced because he suspected her of
+designs against his life; to Aelia Petina, also divorced; to the
+infamous Valeria Messallina (q.v.); and to his niece Agrippina.
+
+In A.D. 41, on the murder of Caligula, Claudius was seized by the
+praetorians, and declared emperor. The senate, which had entertained the
+idea of restoring the republic, was obliged to acquiesce. One of
+Claudius's first acts was to proclaim an amnesty for all except Cassius
+Chaerea, the assassin of his predecessor, and one or two others. After
+the discovery of a conspiracy against his life in 42, he fell completely
+under the influence of Messallina and his favourite freedmen Pallas and
+Narcissus, who must be held responsible for acts of cruelty which have
+brought undeserved odium upon the emperor. There is no doubt that
+Claudius was a liberal-minded man of kindly nature, anxious for the
+welfare of his people. Humane regulations were made in regard to
+freedmen, slaves, widows and orphans; the police system was admirably
+organized; commerce was put on a sound footing; the provinces were
+governed in a spirit of liberality; the rights of citizens and admission
+to the senate were extended to communities outside Italy. The speech of
+Claudius delivered (in the year 48) in the senate in support of the
+petition of the Aeduans that their senators should have the _jus
+petendorum honorum_ (claim of admission to the senate and magistracies)
+at Rome has been partly preserved on the fragment of a bronze tablet
+found at Lyons in 1524; an imperial edict concerning the citizenship of
+the Anaunians (15th of March 46) was found in the southern Tirol in 1869
+(_C.I.L._ v. 5050). Claudius was especially fond of building. He
+completed the great aqueduct (Aqua Claudia) begun by Caligula, drained
+the Lacus Fucinus, and built the harbour of Ostia. Nor were his military
+operations unsuccessful. Mauretania was made a Roman province; the
+conquest of Britain was begun; his distinguished general Domitius
+Corbulo (_q.v._) gained considerable successes in Germany and the East.
+The intrigues of Narcissus caused Messallina to be put to death by order
+of Claudius, who took as his fourth wife his niece Agrippina, a woman as
+criminal as any of her predecessors. She prevailed upon him to set aside
+his own son Britannicus in favour of Nero, her son by a former marriage;
+and in 54, to make Nero's position secure, she put the emperor to death
+by poison. The apotheosis of Claudius was the subject of a lampoon by
+Seneca called _apokolokyntosis_, the "pumpkinification" of Claudius.
+
+Claudius was a prolific writer, chiefly on history, but his works are
+lost. He wrote (in Greek) a history of Carthage and a history of
+Etruria; (in Latin) a history of Rome from the death of Caesar, an
+autobiography, and an essay in defence of Cicero against the attacks of
+Asinius Gallus. He also introduced three new letters into the Latin
+alphabet: [Latin character] for the consonantal V, [Latin character] for
+BS and PS, [Latin character] for the intermediate sound between I and U.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Ancient: the _Annals_ of Tacitus, Suetonius and Dio
+  Cassius. Modern: H. Lehmann, _Claudius und seine Zeit_, with
+  introductory chapter on the ancient authorities (1858); Lucien Double,
+  _L'Empereur Claude_ (1876); A. Ziegler, _Die politische Seite der
+  Regierung des Kaisers Claudius_ (1885); H.F. Pelham in _Quarterly
+  Review_ (April 1905), where certain administrative and political
+  changes introduced by Claudius, for which he was attacked by his
+  contemporaries, are discussed and defended; Merivale, _Hist. of the
+  Romans under the Empire_, chs. 49, 50; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der
+  römischen Kaiserzeit_, i., pt. 1; H. Furneaux's ed. of the _Annals_ of
+  Tacitus (introduction).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIUS, the name of a famous Roman gens. The by-form _Clodius_, in its
+origin a mere orthographical variant, was regularly used for certain
+Claudii in late republican times, but otherwise the two forms were used
+indifferently. The gens contained a patrician and a plebeian family; the
+chief representatives of the former were the Pulchri, of the latter the
+Marcelli (see MARCELLUS). The following members of the gens deserve
+particular mention.
+
+
+1. APPIUS SAMINUS INREGILLENSIS, or REGILLENSIS, CLAUDIUS, so called
+from Regillum (or Regilli) in Sabine territory, founder of the Claudian
+gens. His original name was Attus or Attius Clausus. About 504 B.C. he
+settled in Rome, where he and his followers formed a tribe. In 495 he
+was consul, and his cruel enforcement of the laws of debtor and
+creditor, in opposition to his milder colleague, P. Servilius Priscus,
+was one of the chief causes of the "secession" of the plebs to the
+Sacred Mount. On several occasions he displayed his hatred of the
+people, although it is stated that he subsequently played the part of
+mediator.
+
+  Suetonius, _Tiberius_, i.; Livy ii. 16-29; Dion. Halic. v. 40, vi. 23,
+  24.
+
+
+2. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CRASSUS, a Roman patrician, consul in 471
+and 451 B.C., and in the same and following year one of the decemvirs.
+At first he was conspicuous for his aristocratic pride and bitter hatred
+of the plebeians. Twice they refused to fight under him, and fled before
+their enemies. He retaliated by decimating the army. He was banished,
+but soon returned, and again became consul. In the same year (451) he
+was made one of the decemviri who had been appointed to draw up a code
+of written laws. When it was decided to elect decemvirs for another
+year, he who had formerly been looked upon as the champion of the
+aristocracy, suddenly came forward as the friend of the people, and was
+himself re-elected together with several plebeians. But no sooner was
+the new body in office, than it treated both patricians and plebeians
+with equal violence, and refused to resign at the end of the year.
+Matters were brought to a crisis by the affair of Virginia. Enamoured
+of the beautiful daughter of the plebeian centurion Virginius, Claudius
+attempted to seize her by an abuse of justice. One of his clients,
+Marcus Claudius, swore that she was the child of a slave belonging to
+him, and had been stolen by the childless wife of the centurion.
+Virginius was summoned from the army, and on the day of trial was
+present to expose the conspiracy. Nevertheless, judgment was given
+according to the evidence of Marcus, and Claudius commanded Virginia to
+be given up to him. In despair, her father seized a knife from a
+neighbouring stall and plunged it in her side. A general insurrection
+was the result; and the people seceded to the Sacred Mount. The
+decemvirs were finally compelled to resign and Appius Claudius died in
+prison, either by his own hand or by that of the executioner. For a
+discussion of the character of Appius Claudius, see Mommsen's appendix
+to vol. i. of his _History of Rome_. He holds that Claudius was never
+the leader of the patrician party, but a patrician demagogue who ended
+by becoming a tyrant to patricians as well as plebeians. The
+decemvirate, one of the triumphs of the plebs, could hardly have been
+abolished by that body, but would naturally have been overthrown by the
+patricians. The revolution which ruined Claudius was a return to the
+rule of the patricians represented by the Horatii and Valerii.
+
+  Livy iii. 32-58; Dion. Halic. x. 59, xi. 3.
+
+
+3. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CAECUS, Roman patrician and author. In 312
+B.C. he was elected censor without having passed through the office of
+consul. His censorship--which he retained for five years, in spite of
+the lex Aemilia which limited the tenure of that office to eighteen
+months--was remarkable for the actual or attempted achievement of
+several great constitutional changes. He filled vacancies in the senate
+with men of low birth, in some cases even the sons of freedmen (Diod.
+Sic. xx. 36; Livy ix. 30; Suetonius, _Claudius_, 24). His most important
+political innovation was the abolition of the old free birth, freehold
+basis of suffrage. He enrolled the freedmen and landless citizens both
+in the centuries and in the tribes, and, instead of assigning them to
+the four urban tribes, he distributed them through all the tribes and
+thus gave them practical control of the elections. In 304, however, Q.
+Fabius Rullianus limited the landless and poorer freedmen to the four
+urban tribes, thus annulling the effect of Claudius's arrangement.
+Appius Claudius transferred the charge of the public worship of Hercules
+in the Forum Boarium from the Potitian gens to a number of public
+slaves. He further invaded the exclusive rights of the patricians by
+directing his secretary Gnaeus Flavius (whom, though a freedman, he made
+a senator) to publish the _legis actiones_ (methods of legal practice)
+and the list of _dies fasti_ (or days on which legal business could be
+transacted). Lastly, he gained enduring fame by the construction of a
+road and an aqueduct, which--a thing unheard of before--he called by his
+own name (Livy ix. 29; Frontinus, _De Aquis_, 115; Diod. Sic. xx. 36).
+In 307 he was elected consul for the first time. In 298 he was interrex;
+in 296, as consul, he led the army in Samnium, and although, with his
+colleague, he gained a victory over the Etruscans and Samnites, he does
+not seem to have specially distinguished himself as a soldier (Livy x.
+19). Next year he was praetor, and he was once dictator. His character,
+like his namesake the decemvir's is not easy to define. In spite of his
+political reforms, he opposed the admission of the plebeians to the
+consulship and priestly offices; and, although these reforms might
+appear to be democratic in character and calculated to give
+preponderance to the lowest class of the people, his probable aim was to
+strengthen the power of the magistrates (and lessen that of the senate)
+by founding it on the popular will, which would find its expression in
+the urban inhabitants and could be most easily influenced by the
+magistrate. He was already blind and too feeble to walk, when Cineas,
+the minister of Pyrrhus, visited him, but so vigorously did he oppose
+every concession that all the eloquence of Cineas was in vain, and the
+Romans forgot past misfortunes in the inspiration of Claudius's
+patriotism (Livy x. 13; Justin xviii. 2; Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 19). The
+story of his blindness, however, may be merely a method of accounting
+for his cognomen. Tradition regarded it as the punishment of his
+transference of the cult of Hercules from the Potitii.
+
+Appius Claudius Caecus is also remarkable as the first writer mentioned
+in Roman literature. His speech against peace with Pyrrhus was the first
+that was transmitted to writing, and thereby laid the foundation of
+prose composition. He was the author of a collection of aphorisms in
+verse mentioned by Cicero (of which a few fragments remain), and of a
+legal work entitled _De Usurpationibus_. It is very likely also that he
+was concerned in the drawing up of the _Legis Actiones_ published by
+Flavius. The famous dictum "Every man is the architect of his own
+fortune" is attributed to him. He also interested himself in grammatical
+questions, distinguished the two sounds R and S in writing, and did away
+with the letter Z.
+
+  See Mommsen's appendix to his _Roman History_ (vol. i.); treatises by
+  W. Siebert (1863) and F.D. Gerlach (1872), dealing especially with the
+  censorship of Claudius.
+
+
+4. CLAUDIUS, PUBLIUS, surnamed PULCHER, son of (3). He was the first of
+the gens who bore this surname. In 249 he was consul and appointed to
+the command of the fleet in the first Punic War. Instead of continuing
+the siege of Lilybaeum, he decided to attack the Carthaginians in the
+harbour of Drepanum, and was completely defeated. The disaster was
+commonly attributed to Claudius's treatment of the sacred chickens,
+which refused to eat before the battle. "Let them drink then," said the
+consul, and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. Having been recalled
+and ordered to appoint a dictator, he gave another instance of his
+high-handedness by nominating a subordinate official, M. Claudius
+Glicia, but the nomination was at once overruled. Claudius himself was
+accused of high treason and heavily fined. He must have died before 246,
+in which year his sister Claudia was fined for publicly expressing a
+wish that her brother Publius could rise from the grave to lose a second
+fleet and thereby diminish the number of the people. It is supposed that
+he committed suicide.
+
+  Livy, _Epit._, 19; Polybius i. 49; Cicero, _De Divinatione_, i. 16,
+  ii. 8; Valerius Maximus i. 4, viii. I.
+
+
+5. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed PULCHER, Roman statesman and author. He
+served under his brother-in-law Lucullus in Asia (72 B.C.) and was
+commissioned to deliver the ultimatum to Tigranes, which gave him the
+choice of war with Rome or the surrender of Mithradates. In 57 he was
+praetor, in 56 propraetor in Sardinia, and in 54 consul with L. Domitius
+Ahenobarbus. Through the intervention of Pompey, he became reconciled to
+Cicero, who had been greatly offended because Claudius had indirectly
+opposed his return from exile. In this and certain other transactions
+Claudius seems to have acted from avaricious motives,--a result of his
+early poverty. In 53 he entered upon the governorship of Cilicia, in
+which capacity he seems to have been rapacious and tyrannical. During
+this period he carried on a correspondence with Cicero, whose letters to
+him form the third book of the _Epistolae ad Familiares_. Claudius
+resented the appointment of Cicero as his successor, avoided meeting
+him, and even issued orders after his arrival in the province. On his
+return to Rome Claudius was impeached by P. Cornelius Dolabella on the
+ground of having violated the sovereign rights of the people. This led
+him to make advances to Cicero, since it was necessary to obtain
+witnesses in his favour from his old province. He was acquitted, and a
+charge of bribery against him also proved unsuccessful. In 50 he was
+censor, and expelled many of the members of the senate, amongst them the
+historian Sallust on the ground of immorality. His connexion with Pompey
+brought upon him the enmity of Caesar, at whose march on Rome he fled
+from Italy. Having been appointed by Pompey to the command in Greece, in
+obedience to an ambiguous oracle he crossed over to Euboea, where he
+died about 48, before the battle of Pharsalus. Claudius was of a
+distinctly religious turn of mind, as is shown by the interest he took
+in sacred buildings (the temple at Eleusis, the sanctuary of Amphiaraus
+at Oropus). He wrote a work on augury, the first book of which he
+dedicated to Cicero. He was also extremely superstitious, and believed
+in invocations of the dead. Cicero had a high opinion of his
+intellectual powers, and considered him a great orator (see Orelli,
+_Onomasticon Tullianum_).
+
+  A full account of all the Claudii will be found in Pauly-Wissowa's
+  _Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2
+  (1899).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, surnamed GOTHICUS, Roman emperor A.D.
+268-270, belonged to an obscure Illyrian family. On account of his
+military ability he was placed in command of an army by Decius; and
+Valerian appointed him general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of
+the provinces of the lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienus, he was
+called to Italy in order to crush Aureolus; and on the death of the
+emperor (268) he was chosen as his successor, in accordance, it was
+said, with his express desire. Shortly after his accession he routed the
+Alamanni on the Lacus Benacus (some doubt is thrown upon this); in 269 a
+great victory over the Goths at Naïssus in Moesia gained him the title
+of Gothicus. In the following year he died of the plague at Sirmium, in
+his fifty-sixth year. He enjoyed great popularity, and appears to have
+been a man of ability and character.
+
+  His life was written by Trebellius Pollio, one of the _Scriptores
+  Historiae Augusiae_; see also Zosimus i. 40-43, the histories of Th.
+  Bernhardt and H. Schiller, and special dissertations by A. Duncker on
+  the life of Claudius (1868) and the defeat of the Alamanni (_Annalen
+  des Vereins für nassauische Altertumskunde_, 1879); Homo, _De Claudio
+  Gothico_ (1900); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, ii. 2458 ff.
+  (Henze).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (1740-1815), German poet, otherwise known by the _nom
+de plume_ of ASMUS, was born on the 15th of August 1740 at Reinfeld,
+near Lübeck, and studied at Jena. He spent the greater part of his life
+in the little town of Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, where he earned his first
+literary reputation by editing from 1771 to 1775, a newspaper called the
+_Wandsbecker Bote_ (_Wandsbeck Messenger_), in which he published a
+large number of prose essays and poems. They were written in pure and
+simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; in many there was a
+vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque, while others were full of
+quiet meditation and solemn sentiment. In his later days, perhaps
+through the influence of Klopstock, with whom he had formed an intimate
+acquaintance, Claudius became strongly pietistic, and the graver side of
+his nature showed itself. In 1814 he removed to Hamburg, to the house of
+his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph Perthes, where he died
+on the 21st of January 1815.
+
+  Claudius's collected works were published under the title of _Asmus
+  omnia sua secum portans, oder Sämtliche Werke des Wandsbecker Boten_
+  (8 vols., 1775-1812; 13th edition, by C. Redich, 2 vols., 1902). His
+  biography has been written by Wilhelm Herbst (4th ed., 1878). See also
+  M. Schneidereit, _M. Claudius, seine Weltanschauung und
+  Lebensweisheit_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSEL (more correctly CLAUZEL), BERTRAND, COUNT (1772-1842), marshal
+of France, was born at Mirepoix (Ariège) on the 12th of December 1772,
+and served in the first campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars as one
+of the volunteers of 1791. In June 1795, having distinguished himself
+repeatedly in the war on the northern frontier (1792-1793) and the
+fighting in the eastern Pyrenees (1793-1794), Clausel was made a general
+of brigade. In this rank he served in Italy in 1798 and 1799, and in the
+disastrous campaign of the latter year he won great distinction at the
+battles of the Trebbia and of Novi. In 1802 he served in the expedition
+to S. Domingo. He became a general of division in December 1802, and
+after his return to France he was in almost continuous military
+employment there until in 1806 he was sent to the army of Naples. Soon
+after this Napoleon made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In
+1808-1809 he was with Marmont in Dalmatia, and at the close of 1809 he
+was appointed to a command in the army of Portugal under Masséna.
+
+Clausel took part in the Peninsular campaigns of 1810 and 1811,
+including the Torres Vedras campaign, and under Marmont he did excellent
+service in re-establishing the discipline, efficiency and mobility of
+the army, which had suffered severely in the retreat from Torres Vedras.
+In the Salamanca campaign (1812) the result of Clausel's work was shown
+in the marching powers of the French, and at the battle of Salamanca,
+Clausel, who had succeeded to the command on Marmont being wounded, and
+had himself received a severe wound, drew off his army with the greatest
+skill, the retreat on Burgos being conducted by him in such a way that
+the pursuers failed to make the slightest impression, and had themselves
+in the end to retire from the siege of Burgos (1812). Early in 1813
+Clausel was made commander of the Army of the North in Spain, but he was
+unable to avert the great disaster of Vittoria. Under the supreme
+command of Soult he served through the rest of the Peninsular War with
+unvarying distinction. On the first restoration in 1814 he submitted
+unwillingly to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon returned to France, he
+hastened to join him. During the Hundred Days he was in command of an
+army defending the Pyrenean frontier. Even after Waterloo he long
+refused to recognize the restored government, and he escaped to America,
+being condemned to death in absence. He took the first opportunity of
+returning to aid the Liberals in France (1820), sat in the chamber of
+deputies from 1827 to 1830, and after the revolution of 1830 was at once
+given a military command. At the head of the army of Algiers, Clausel
+made a successful campaign, but he was soon recalled by the home
+government, which desired to avoid complications in Algeria. At the same
+time he was made a marshal of France (February 1831). For some four
+years thereafter he urged his Algerian policy upon the chamber of
+deputies, and finally in 1835 was reappointed commander-in-chief. But
+after several victories, including the taking of Mascara in 1835, the
+marshal met with a severe repulse at Constantine in 1836. A change of
+government in France was primarily responsible for the failure, but
+public opinion attributed it to Clausel, who was recalled in February
+1837. He thereupon retired from active service, and, after vigorously
+defending his conduct before the deputies, he ceased to take part in
+public affairs. He lived in complete retirement up to his death at
+Secourrieu (Garonne) on the 21st of April 1842.
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSEN, GEORGE (1852-   ), English painter, was born in London, the son
+of a decorative artist. He attended the design classes at the South
+Kensington schools from 1867-1873 with great success. He then worked in
+the studio of Edwin Long, R.A., and subsequently in Paris under
+Bouguereau and Robert-Fleury. He became one of the foremost modern
+painters of landscape and of peasant life, influenced to a certain
+extent by the impressionists with whom he shared the view that light is
+the real subject of landscape art. His pictures excel in rendering the
+appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight, or in the shady
+shelter of a barn or stable. His "Girl at the Gate" was acquired for the
+nation by the Chantrey Trustees and is now at the National Gallery of
+British Art (Tate Gallery). He was elected associate of the Royal
+Academy in 1895, and as professor of painting gave a memorable series of
+lectures to the students of the schools,--published as _Six Lectures on
+Painting_ (1904) and _Aims and Ideals in Art_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON (1780-1831), Prussian general and military writer,
+was born at Burg, near Magdeburg, on the 1st of June 1780. His family,
+originally Polish, had settled in Germany at the end of the previous
+century. Entering the army in 1792, he first saw service in the Rhine
+campaigns of 1793-1794, receiving his commission at the siege of Mainz.
+On his return to garrison duty he set to work so zealously to remedy the
+defects in his education caused by his father's poverty, that in 1801 he
+was admitted to the Berlin Academy for young officers, then directed by
+Scharnhorst. Scharnhorst, attracted by his pupil's industry and force of
+character, paid special attention to his training, and profoundly
+influenced the development of his mind. In 1803, on Scharnhorst's
+recommendation, Clausewitz was made "adjutant" (aide-de-camp) to Prince
+August, and he served in this capacity in the campaign of Jena (1806),
+being captured along with the prince by the French at Prenzlau. A
+prisoner in France and Switzerland for the next two years, he returned
+to Prussia in 1809; and for the next three years, as a departmental
+chief in the ministry of war, as a teacher in the military school, and
+as military instructor to the crown prince, he assisted Scharnhorst in
+the famous reorganization of the Prussian army. In 1810 he married the
+countess Marie von Brühl.
+
+On the outbreak of the Russian war in 1812, Clausewitz, like many other
+Prussian officers, took service with his country's nominal enemy. This
+step he justified in a memorial, published for the first time in the
+_Leben Gneisenaus_ by Pertz (Berlin, 1869). At first adjutant to General
+Phull, who had himself been a Prussian officer, he served later under
+Pahlen at Witepsk and Smolensk, and from the final Russian position at
+Kaluga he was sent to the army of Wittgenstein. It was Clausewitz who
+negotiated the convention of Tauroggen, which separated the cause of
+Yorck's Prussians from that of the French, and began the War of
+Liberation (see YORCK VON WARTENBURG; also Blumenthal's _Die Konvention
+von Tauroggen_, Berlin, 1901). As a Russian officer he superintended the
+formation of the _Landwehr_ of east Prussia (see STEIN, BARON VOM), and
+in the campaign of 1813 served as chief of staff to Count Wallmoden. He
+conducted the fight at Göhrde, and after the armistice, with Gneisenau's
+permission, published an account of the campaign (_Der Feldzug von 1813
+bis zum Waffenstillstand_, Leipzig, 1813). This work was long attributed
+to Gneisenau himself. After the peace of 1814 Clausewitz re-entered the
+Prussian service, and in the Waterloo campaign was present at Ligny and
+Wavre as General Thielmann's chief of staff. This post he retained till
+1818, when he was promoted major-general and appointed director of the
+_Allgemeine Kriegsschule_. Here he remained till in 1830 he was made
+chief of the 3rd Artillery Inspection at Breslau. Next year he became
+chief of staff to Field-marshal Gneisenau, who commanded an army of
+observation on the Polish frontier. After the dissolution of this army
+Clausewitz returned to his artillery duties; but on the 18th of November
+1831 he died at Breslau of cholera, which had proved fatal to his chief
+also, and a little previously, to his old Russian commander Diebitsch on
+the other side of the frontier.
+
+His collected works were edited and published by his widow, who was
+aided by some officers, personal friends of the general, in her task. Of
+the ten volumes of _Hinterlassene Werke über Krieg und Kriegführung_
+(Berlin, 1832-1837, later edition called _Clausewitz's Gesammte Werke_,
+Berlin, 1874) the first three contain Clausewitz's masterpiece, _Vom
+Kriege_, an exposition of the philosophy of war which is absolutely
+unrivalled. He produced no "system" of strategy, and his critics styled
+his work "negative" and asked "_Qu'a-t-il fondé?_" What he had "founded"
+was that modern strategy which, by its hold on the Prussian mind,
+carried the Prussian arms to victory in 1866 and 1870 over the
+"systematic" strategists Krismánic and Bazaine, and his philosophy of
+war became, not only in Germany but in many other countries, the
+essential basis of all serious study of the art of war. The English and
+French translations (Graham, _On War_, London, 1873; Neuens, _La
+Guerre_, Paris, 1849-1852; or Vatry, _Théorie de la grande guerre_,
+Paris, 1899), with the German original, place the work at the disposal
+of students of most nationalities. The remaining volumes deal with
+military history: vol. 4, the Italian campaign of 1796-97; vols. 5 and
+6, the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland and Italy; vol. 7, the wars of
+1812, 1813 to the armistice, and 1814; vol. 8, the Waterloo Campaign;
+vols. 9 and 10, papers on the campaigns of Gustavus Adolphus, Turenne,
+Luxemburg, Münnich, John Sobieski, Frederick the Great, Ferdinand of
+Brunswick, &c. He also wrote _Über das Leben und den Charakter von
+Scharnhorst_ (printed in Ranke's _Historisch-politischer Zeitschrift_,
+1832). A manuscript on the catastrophe of 1806 long remained
+unpublished. It was used by v. Höpfner in his history of that war, and
+eventually published by the Great General Staff in 1888 (French
+translation, 1903). Letters from Clausewitz to his wife were published
+in _Zeitschrift für preussische Landeskunde_ (1876). His name is borne
+by the 28th Field Artillery regiment of the German army.
+
+  See Schwartz, _Leben des General von Clausewitz und der Frau Marie von
+  Clausewitz_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1877); von Meerheimb, _Karl von
+  Clausewitz_ (Berlin, 1875), also Memoir in _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_; Bernhardi, _Leben des Generals von Clausewitz_ (10th
+  Supplement, _Militär. Wochenblatt_, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMMANUEL (1822-1888), German physicist, was born
+on the 2nd of January 1822 at Köslin, in Pomerania. After attending the
+Gymnasium at Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844.
+In 1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed professor
+of physics in the royal artillery and engineering school at Berlin. Late
+in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture as _Privatdocent_ in
+the university. In 1855 he became an ordinary professor at Zürich
+Polytechnic, accepting at the same time a professorship in the
+university of Zürich In 1867 he moved to Würzburg as professor of
+physics, and two years later was appointed to the same chair at Bonn,
+where he died on the 24th of August 1888. During the Franco-German War
+he was at the head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and
+received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville and
+Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical rather than an
+experimental physicist, was concerned with many of the most abstruse
+problems of molecular physics. By his restatement of Carnot's principle
+he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis, and he deserves
+the credit of having made thermodynamics a science; he enunciated the
+second law, in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the
+well-known form, "Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter
+body." His results he applied to an exhaustive development of the theory
+of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the conception of
+entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to his labours, Clerk
+Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It was he who raised it, on
+the basis of the dynamical theory of heat, to the level of a theory, and
+he carried out many numerical determinations in connextion with it, e.g.
+of the mean free path of a molecule. To Clausius also was due an
+important advance in the theory of electrolysis, and he put forward the
+idea that molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms,
+the electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange.
+This view found little favour until 1887, when it was taken up by S.A.
+Arrhenius, who made it the basis of the theory of electrolytic
+dissociation. In addition to many scientific papers he wrote _Die
+Potentialfunktion und das Potential_, 1864, and _Abhandlungen über die
+mechanische Wärmetheorie_, 1864-1867.
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSTHAL, or KLAUSTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Harz, lying
+on a bleak plateau, 1860 ft. above sea-level, 50. m. by rail W.S.W. of
+Halberstadt. Pop. (1905) 8565. Clausthal is the chief mining town of the
+Upper Harz Mountains, and practically forms one town with Zellerfeld,
+which is separated from it by a small stream, the Zellbach. The streets
+are broad, opportunity for improvement having been given by fires in
+1844 and 1854; the houses are mostly of wood. There are an Evangelical
+and a Roman Catholic church, and a gymnasium. Clausthal has a famous
+mining college with a mineralogical museum, and a disused mint. Its
+chief mines are silver and lead, but it also smelts copper and a little
+gold. Four or five sanatoria are in the neighbourhood. The museum of the
+Upper Harz is at Zellerfeld.
+
+Clausthal was founded about the middle of the 12th century in
+consequence probably of the erection of a Benedictine monastery (closed
+in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellerfeld. At the beginning
+of the 16th century the dukes of Brunswick made a new settlement here,
+and under their directions the mining, which had been begun by the
+monks, was carried on more energetically. The first church was built at
+Clausthal in 1570. In 1864 the control of the mines passed into the
+hands of the state.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVECIN, the French for clavisymbal or harpsichord (Ger. _Clavicymbel_
+or _Dockenklavier_), an abbreviation of the Flemish _clavisinbal_ and
+Ital. _clavicimbalo_, a keyboard musical instrument in which the strings
+were plucked by means of a plectrum consisting of a quill mounted upon a
+jack.
+
+  See PIANOFORTE; HARPSICHORD.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVICEMBALO, or GRAVICEMBALO (from Lat. _clavis_, key, and _cymbalum_,
+cymbal; Eng. clavicymbal, clavisymbal; Flemish, _clavisinbal_; Span.
+_clavisinbanos_), a keyboard musical instrument with strings plucked by
+means of small quill or leather plectra. "Cymbal" (Gr. [Greek:
+kumbalon], from [Greek: khumbê], a hollow vessel) was the old European
+term for the dulcimer, and hence its place in the formation of the word.
+
+  See PIANOFORTE; SPINET; VIRGINAL.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVICHORD, or CLARICHORD (Fr. _manicorde_; Ger. _Clavichord_; Ital.
+_manicordo_; Span. _manicordio_[1]), a medieval stringed keyboard
+instrument, a forerunner of the pianoforte (q.v.), its strings being set
+in vibration by a blow from a brass tangent instead of a hammer as in
+the modern instrument. The clavichord, derived from the dulcimer by the
+addition of a keyboard, consisted of a rectangular case, with or without
+legs, often very elaborately ornamented with paintings and gilding. The
+earliest instruments were small and portable, being placed upon a table
+or stand. The strings, of finely drawn brass, steel or iron wire, were
+stretched almost parallel with the keyboard over the narrow belly or
+soundboard resting on the soundboard bridges, often three in number, and
+wound as in the piano round wrest or tuning pins set in a block at the
+right-hand side of the soundboard and attached at the other end to hitch
+pins. The bridges served to direct the course of the strings and to
+conduct the sound waves to the soundboard. The scaling, or division of
+the strings determining their vibrating length, was effected by the
+position of the tangents. These tangents, small wedge-shaped blades of
+brass, beaten out at the top, were inserted in the end of the arm of the
+keys. As the latter were depressed by the fingers the tangents rose to
+strike the strings and stop them at the proper length from the
+belly-bridge. Thus the string was set in vibration between the point of
+impact and the belly-bridge just as long as the key was pressed down.
+The key being released, the vibrations were instantly stopped by a list
+of cloth acting as damper and interwoven among the strings behind the
+line of the tangents.
+
+There were two kinds of clavichords--the fretted or _gebunden_ and the
+fret-free or _bund-frei_. The term "fretted" was applied to those
+clavichords which, instead of being provided with a string or set of
+strings in unison for each note, had one set of strings acting for three
+or four notes, the arms of the keys being twisted in order to bring the
+contact of the tangent into the acoustically correct position under the
+string. The "fret-free" were chromatically-scaled instruments. The first
+_bund-frei_ clavichord is attributed to Daniel Faber of Crailsheim in
+Saxony about 1720. This important change in construction increased the
+size of the instrument, each pair of unison strings requiring a key and
+tangent of its own, and led to the introduction of the system of tuning
+by equal temperament upheld by J.S. Bach. Clavichords were made with
+pedals.[2]
+
+The tone of the clavichord, extremely sweet and delicate, was
+characterized by a tremulous hesitancy, which formed its great charm
+while rendering it suitable only for the private music room or study.
+Between 1883 and 1893 renewed attention was drawn to the instrument by
+A.J. Hipkins's lectures and recitals on keyboard instruments in London,
+Oxford and Cambridge; and Arnold Dolmetsch reintroduced the art of
+making clavichords in 1894.    (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The words _clavicorde_, _clavicordo_ and _clavicordio_,
+    respectively French, Italian and Spanish, were applied to a different
+    type of instrument, the spinet (q.v.).
+
+  [2] See Sebastian Virdung, _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel,
+    1511) (facsimile reprint Berlin, 1882, edited by R. Eitner); J.
+    Verschuere Reynvaan, _Musijkaal Kunst-Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1795)
+    (a very scarce book, of which the British Museum does not possess a
+    copy); Jacob Adlung, _Musica Mechanica Organoedi_ (Berlin, 1768),
+    vol. ii. pp. 158-9; A.J. Hipkins, _The History of the Pianoforte_
+    (London, 1896), pp. 61 and 62.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVICYTHERIUM, a name usually applied to an upright spinet (q.v.), the
+soundboard and strings of which were vertical instead of horizontal,
+being thus perpendicular to the keyboard; but it would seem that the
+clavicytherium proper is distinct from the upright spinet in that its
+strings are placed horizontally. In the early clavicytherium there was,
+as in the spinet, only one string (of gut) to each key, set in vibration
+by means of a small quill or leather plectrum mounted on a jack which
+acted as in the spinet and harpsichord (q.v.). The clavicytherium or
+keyed cythera or cetra, names which in the 14th and 15th centuries had
+been applied somewhat indiscriminately to instruments having strings
+stretched over a soundboard and plucked by fingers or plectrum, was
+probably of Italian[1] or possibly of south German origin. Sebastian
+Virdung,[2] writing early in the 16th century, describes the
+clavicytherium as a new invention, having gut strings, and gives an
+illustration of it. (See PIANOFORTE.) A certain amount of uncertainty
+exists as to its exact construction, due to the extreme rarity of
+unrestored specimens extant, and to the almost total absence of
+trustworthy practical information.
+
+In a unique specimen with two keyboards dating from the 16th or 17th
+century, which is in the collection of Baron Alexandre Kraus,[3] what
+appear to be vibrating strings stretched over a soundboard perpendicular
+to the keyboard are in reality the wires forming part of the mechanism
+of the action. The arrangement of this mechanism is the distinctive
+feature of the clavicytherium, for the wires, unlike the strings of the
+upright spinet, increase in length from _left to right_, so that the
+upright harp-shaped back has its higher side over the treble of the
+keyboard instead of over the bass. The vibrating strings of the
+clavicytherium in the Kraus Museum are stretched horizontally over two
+kinds of psalteries fixed one over the other. The first, serving for the
+lower register, is of the well-known trapezoid shape and lies over the
+keyboards; it has 30 wire strings in pairs of unisons corresponding to
+the 15 lowest keys. The second psaltery resembles the kanoun of the
+Arabs, and has 36 strings in courses of 3 unisons corresponding to the
+next 12 keys, and 88 very thin strings in courses of 4, completing the
+49 keys; the compass thus has a range of four octaves from C to C. The
+quills of the jacks belonging to the two keyboards are of different
+length and thickness. The jacks, which work as in the spinet, are
+attached to the perpendicular wires, disposed in two parallel rows, one
+for each keyboard.
+
+There is a very fine specimen of the so-called clavicytherium (upright
+spinet) in the Donaldson museum of the Royal College of Music, London,
+acquired from the Correr collection at Venice in 1885.[4] The instrument
+is undated, but A.J. Hipkins[5] placed it early in the 16th or even at
+the end of the 15th century. There is German writing on the inside of
+the back, referring to some agreement at Ulm. The case is of pine-wood,
+and the natural keys of box-wood. The jacks have the early steel
+springs, and in 1885 traces were found in the instrument of original
+brass plectra, all of which point to a very early date.
+
+A learned Italian, Nicolo Vicentino,[6] living in the 16th century,
+describes an _archicembalo_ of his own invention, at which the performer
+had to stand, having four rows of keys designed to obtain a complete
+mesotonic pure third tuning. This was an attempt to reintroduce the
+ancient Greek musical system. This instrument was probably an upright
+harpsichord or clavicembalo.
+
+  For the history of the clavicytherium considered as a forerunner of
+  the pianoforte see PIANOFORTE.    (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Mersenne, _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), p. 113, calls the
+    clavicytherium "une nouvelle forme d'épinette dont on use en Italie,"
+    and states that the action of the jacks and levers is parallel from
+    back to front.
+
+  [2] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [3] See "Une Pièce unique du Musée Kraus de Florence" in _Annales de
+    l'alliance scientifique universelle_ (Paris, 1907).
+
+  [4] See illustration by William Gibb in A.J. Hipkins's _Musical
+    Instruments, Historic, Rare and Unique_ (1888).
+
+  [5] _History of the Pianoforte_, Novello's Music Primers, No. 52
+    (1896), p. 75.
+
+  [6] _L'Antica Musica ridotta moderna prattica_ (Rome, 1555).
+
+
+
+
+CLAVIE, BURNING THE, an ancient Scottish custom still observed at
+Burghead, a fishing village on the Moray Firth, near Forres. The
+"clavie" is a bonfire of casks split in two, lighted on the 12th of
+January, corresponding to the New Year of the old calendar. One of these
+casks is joined together again by a huge nail (Lat. _clavus_; hence the
+term). It is then filled with tar, lighted and carried flaming round the
+village and finally up to a headland upon which stands the ruins of a
+Roman altar, locally called "the Douro." It here forms the nucleus of
+the bonfire, which is built up of split casks. When the burning
+tar-barrel falls in pieces, the people scramble to get a lighted piece
+with which to kindle the New Year's fire on their cottage hearth. The
+charcoal of the clavie is collected and is put in pieces up the cottage
+chimneys, to keep spirits and witches from coming down.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVIÈRE, ÉTIENNE (1735-1793), French financier and politician, was a
+native of Geneva. As one of the democratic leaders there he was obliged
+in 1782 to take refuge in England, upon the armed interference of
+France, Sardinia and Berne in favour of the aristocratic party. There he
+met other Swiss, among them Marat and Étienne Dumont, but their schemes
+for a new Geneva in Ireland--which the government favoured--were given
+up when Necker came to power in France, and Clavière, with most of his
+comrades, went to Paris. There in 1789 he and Dumont allied themselves
+with Mirabeau, secretly collaborating for him on the _Courrier de
+Provence_ and also in preparing the speeches which Mirabeau delivered as
+his own. It was mainly by his use of Clavière that Mirabeau sustained
+his reputation as a financier. But Clavière also published some
+pamphlets under his own name, and through these and his friendship with
+J.P. Brissot, whom he had met in London, he became minister of finance
+in the Girondist ministry, from March to the 12th of June 1792. After
+the 10th of August he was again given charge of the finances in the
+provisional executive council, though with but indifferent success. He
+shared in the fall of the Girondists, was arrested on the 2nd of June
+1793, but somehow was left in prison until the 8th of December, when, on
+receiving notice that he was to appear on the next day before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal, he committed suicide.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE (d. 1412), Spanish traveller of the 15th
+century, whose narrative is the first important one of its kind
+contributed to Spanish literature, was a native of Madrid, and belonged
+to a family of some antiquity and position. On the return of the
+ambassadors Pelayo de Sotomayor and Hernan Sanchez de Palazuelos from
+the court of Timur, Henry III. of Castille determined to send another
+embassy to the new lord of Western Asia, and for this purpose he
+selected Clavijo, Gomez de Salazar (who died on the outward journey),
+and a master of theology named Fray Alonzo Paez de Santa Maria. They
+sailed from St Mary Port near Cadiz on the 22nd of May 1403, touched at
+the Balearic Isles, Gaeta and Rhodes, spent some time at Constantinople,
+sailed along the southern coast of the Black Sea to Trebizond, and
+proceeded inland by Erzerum, the Ararat region, Tabriz, Sultanieh,
+Teheran and Meshed, to Samarkand, where they were well received by the
+conqueror. Their return was at last accomplished, in part after Timur's
+death, and with countless difficulties and dangers, and they landed in
+Spain on the 1st of March 1406. Clavijo proceeded at once to the court,
+at that time in Alcala de Henares, and served as chamberlain till the
+king's death (in the spring of 1406-1407); he then returned to Madrid,
+and lived there in opulence till his own death on the 2nd of April 1412.
+He was buried in the chapel of the monastery of St Francis, which he had
+rebuilt at great expense.
+
+  There are two leading MSS. of Clavijo's narrative--(a) London, British
+  Museum, Additional MSS., 16,613 fols. I, n.-125, v.; (b) Madrid,
+  National Library, 9218; and two old editions of the original
+  Spanish--(1) by Gonçalo Argote de Molina (Seville, 1582), (2) by
+  Antonio de Sancha (Madrid, 1782), both having the misleading titles,
+  apparently invented by Molina, of _Historia del gran Tamorlan_, and
+  _Vida y hazañas del gran Tamorlan_ (the latter at the beginning of the
+  text itself); a better sub-title is added, viz. _Itinerario y
+  enarracion del viage y relacion de la embaxada que Ruy Gonzalez de
+  Clavijo le hizo_. Both editors, and especially Sancha, supply general
+  explanatory dissertations. The Spanish text has also been published,
+  with a Russian translation, in vol. xxviii. (pp. 1-455) of the
+  _Publications of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences_ (_Section
+  of Russian Language_, &c.), edited by I.I. Sreznevski (1881). An
+  English version, by Sir Clements Markham, was issued by the Hakluyt
+  Society in 1859 (_Narrative of the Embassy of R ... G ... de Clavijo
+  to the Court of Timour_). The identification of a great number of the
+  places mentioned by Clavijo is a matter of considerable difficulty,
+  and has given rise to some discussion (see Khanikof's list in
+  _Geographical Magazine_ (1874), and Sreznevski's _Annotated Index_ in
+  the Russian edition of 1881). A short account ot Clavijo's life is
+  given by Alvarez y Baena in the _Hijos de Madrid_, vol. ix. See also
+  C.R. Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, iii. 332-56.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSÉ (1730-1806), Spanish publicist, was born at
+Lanzarote (Canary Islands) in 1730. He settled in Madrid, became editor
+of _El Pensador_, and by his campaign against the public performance of
+_autos sacramentales_ secured their prohibition in 1765. In 1770 he was
+appointed director of the royal theatres, a post which he resigned in
+order to take up the editorship of the _Mercurio histórico y politico de
+Madrid_: at the time of his death in 1806 he was secretary to the
+Cabinet of Natural History. He had in abundance the courage,
+perseverance and gift of pungent expression which form the equipment of
+the aggressive journalist, but his work would long since have been
+forgotten were it not that it put an end to a peculiarly national form
+of dramatic exposition, and that his love affair with one of
+Beaumarchais' sisters suggested the theme of Goethe's first publication,
+_Clavigo_.
+
+
+
+
+CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903), American politician, was born in
+Madison county, Kentucky, on the 19th of October 1810. He was the son of
+Green Clay (1757-1826), a Kentucky soldier of the war of 1812 and a
+relative of Henry Clay. He was educated at Centre College, Danville,
+Kentucky, and at Yale, where he graduated in 1832. Influenced to some
+extent by William Lloyd Garrison, he became an advocate of the abolition
+of slavery, and on his return to his native state, at the risk of social
+and political ostracism, he gave utterance to his belief. He studied
+law, but instead of practising devoted himself to a political career. In
+1835, 1837 and 1840 he was elected as a Whig to the Kentucky
+legislature, where he advocated a system of gradual emancipation, and
+secured the establishment of a public school system, and a much-needed
+reform in the jury system. In 1841 he was defeated on account of his
+abolition views. In 1844 he delivered campaign speeches for Henry Clay
+throughout the North. In 1845 he established, at Lexington, Kentucky, an
+anti-slavery publication known as _The True American_, but in the same
+year his office and press were wrecked by a mob, and he removed the
+publication office to Cincinnati, Ohio. During this and the earlier
+period of his career his zeal and hot temper involved him in numerous
+personal encounters and several duels, in all of which he bore himself
+with a reckless bravery. In the Mexican War he served as a captain of a
+Kentucky company of militia, and was taken prisoner, while
+reconnoitring, during General Scott's advance on the City of Mexico. He
+left the Whig party in 1850, and as an anti-slavery candidate for
+governor of Kentucky polled 5000 votes. In 1856 he joined the Republican
+party, and wielded considerable influence as a Southern representative
+in its councils. In 1860 he was a leading candidate for the
+vice-presidential nomination. In 1861 he was sent by President Lincoln
+as minister to Russia; in 1862 he returned to America to accept a
+commission as major-general of volunteers, but in March 1863 was
+reappointed to his former post at St Petersburg, where he remained until
+1869. Disapproving of the Republican policy of reconstruction, he left
+the party, and in 1872 was one of the organizers of the
+Liberal-Republican revolt, and was largely instrumental in securing the
+nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the political
+campaigns of 1876 and 1880 he supported the Democratic candidate, but
+rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of 1884. He died at
+Whitehall, Kentucky, on the 22nd of July 1903.
+
+  See his autobiography, _The Life, Memoirs, Writings, and Speeches of
+  Cassius Marcellus Clay_ (Cincinnati, 1896); and _The Writings of
+  Cassius Marcellus Clay_ (edited with a "Memoir" by Horace Greeley. New
+  York, 1848).
+
+
+
+
+CLAY, CHARLES (1801-1893), English surgeon, was born at Bredbury, near
+Stockport, on the 27th of December 1801. He began his medical education
+as a pupil of Kinder Wood in Manchester (where he used to attend John
+Dalton's lectures on chemistry), and in 1821 went to Edinburgh to
+continue his studies there. Qualifying in 1823, he began a general
+practice in Ashton-under-Lyne, but in 1839 removed to Manchester to
+practise as an operative and consulting surgeon. It was there that, in
+1842, he first performed the operation of ovariotomy with which his name
+is associated. On this occasion it was perfectly successful, and when
+in 1865 he published an analysis of 111 cases he was able to show a
+mortality only slightly above 30%. Although his merits in this matter
+have sometimes been denied, his claim to the title "Father of
+Ovariotomy" is now generally conceded, and it is admittted that he
+deserves the credit not only of having shown how that operation could be
+made a success, but also of having played an important part in the
+advance of abdominal surgery for which the 19th century was conspicuous.
+In spite of the claims of a heavy practice, Clay found time for the
+pursuit of geology and archaeology. Among the books of which he was the
+author were a volume of _Geological Sketches of Manchester_ (1839) and a
+_History of the Currency of the Isle of Man_ (1849), and his collections
+included over a thousand editions of the Old and New Testaments and a
+remarkably complete series of the silver and copper coins of the United
+States. He died at Poulton-le-Fylde, near Preston, on the 19th of
+September 1893.
+
+
+
+
+CLAY, FREDERIC (1838-1889), English musical composer, the son of James
+Clay, M.P., who was celebrated as a player of whist and a writer on that
+subject, was born in Paris on the 3rd of August 1838. He studied music
+under W.B. Molique in Paris and Moritz Hauptmann at Leipzig. With the
+exception of a few songs and two cantatas, _The Knights of the Cross_
+(1866) and _Lalla Rookh_ (1877),--the latter of which contained his
+well-known song "I'll sing thee songs of Araby,"--his compositions were
+all written for the stage. Clay's first public appearance was made with
+an opera entitled _Court and Cottage_, the libretto of which was written
+by Tom Taylor. This was produced at Covent Garden in 1862, and was
+followed by _Constance_ (1865), _Ages Ago_ (1869), and _Princess Toto_
+(1875), to name only three of many works which have long since been
+forgotten. The last two, which were written to libretti by W.S. Gilbert,
+are among Clay's most tuneful and most attractive works. He wrote part
+of the music for _Babil and Bijou_ (1872) and _The Black Crook_ (1873),
+both of which were produced at the Alhambra. He also furnished
+incidental music for a revival of _Twelfth Night_ and for the production
+of James Albery's _Oriana_. His last works, _The Merry Duchess_ (1883)
+and _The Golden Ring_ (1883), the latter written for the reopening of
+the Alhambra, which had been burned to the ground the year before,
+showed an advance upon his previous work, and rendered all the more
+regrettable the stroke of paralysis which crippled his physical and
+mental energies during the last few years of his life. He died at Great
+Marlow on the 24th of November 1889.
+
+
+
+
+CLAY, HENRY (1777-1852), American statesman and orator, was born in
+Hanover county, Virginia, on the 12th of April 1777, and died in
+Washington on the 29th of June 1852. Few public characters in the United
+States have been the subject of more heated controversy. His enemies
+denounced him as a pretender, a selfish intriguer, and an abandoned
+profligate; his supporters placed him among the sages and sometimes even
+among the saints. He was an arranger of measures and leader of political
+forces, not an originator of ideas and systems. His public life covered
+nearly half a century, and his name and fame rest entirely upon his own
+merits. He achieved his success despite serious obstacles. He was tall,
+rawboned and awkward; his early instruction was scant; but he "read
+books," talked well, and so, after his admission to the bar at Richmond,
+Virginia, in 1797, and his removal next year to Lexington, Kentucky, he
+quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative income from his law
+practice.
+
+Thereafter, until the end of life, and in a field where he met, as
+either friend or foe, John Quincy Adams, Gallatin, Madison, Monroe,
+Webster, Jackson, Calhoun, Randolph and Benton, his political activity
+was wellnigh ceaseless. At the age of twenty-two (1799), he was elected
+to a constitutional convention in Kentucky; at twenty-six, to the
+Kentucky legislature; at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of
+the United States constitution, he was appointed to an unexpired term
+(1806-1807) in the United States Senate, where, contrary to custom, he
+at once plunged into business, as though he had been there all his life.
+He again served in the Kentucky legislature (1808-1809), was chosen
+speaker of its lower house, and achieved distinction by preventing an
+intense and widespread anti-British feeling from excluding the common
+law from the Kentucky code. A year later he was elected to another
+unexpired term in the United States Senate, serving in 1810-1811. At
+thirty-four (1811) he was elected to the United States House of
+Representatives and chosen speaker on the first day of the session. One
+of the chief sources of his popularity was his activity in Congress in
+promoting the war with Great Britain in 1812, while as one of the peace
+commissioners he reluctantly signed the treaty of Ghent on the 24th of
+December 1814. During the fourteen years following his first election,
+he was re-elected five times to the House and to the speakership;
+retiring for one term (1821-1823) to resume his law practice and
+retrieve his fortunes. He thus served as speaker in 1811-1814, in
+1815-1820 and in 1823-1825. Once he was unanimously elected by his
+constituents, and once nearly defeated for having at the previous
+session voted to increase congressional salaries. He was a warm friend
+of the Spanish-American revolutionists (1818) and of the Greek
+insurgents (1824). From 1825 to 1829 he served as secretary of state in
+President John Quincy Adams's cabinet, and in 1831 he was elected to the
+United States Senate, where he served until 1842, and again from 1849
+until his death.
+
+From the beginning of his career he was in favour of internal
+improvements as a means of opening up the fertile but inaccessible West,
+and was opposed to the abuse of official patronage known as "the spoils
+system." The most important of the national questions with which Clay
+was associated, however, were the various phases of slavery politics and
+protection to home industries. The most prominent characteristics of his
+public life were his predisposition to "compromises" and "pacifications"
+which generally failed of their object, and his passionate patriotic
+devotion to the Union.
+
+
+  His career as a Protectionist.
+
+His earliest championship of protection was a resolution introduced by
+him in the Kentucky legislature (1808) which favoured the wearing by its
+members of home-made clothes; and one in the United States Senate (April
+1810), on behalf of home-grown and home-made supplies for the United
+States navy, but only to the point of making the nation independent of
+foreign supply. In 1816 he advocated the Dallas tariff, in which the
+duties ranged up to 35% on articles of home production, the supply of
+which could satisfy the home demand; the avowed purpose being to build
+up certain industries for safety in time of war. In 1824 he advocated
+high duties to relieve the prevailing distress, which he pictured in a
+brilliant and effective speech. Although the distress was caused by the
+reactionary effect of a disordered currency and the inflated prices of
+the war of 1812, he ascribed it to the country's dependence on foreign
+supply and foreign markets. Great Britain, he said, was a shining
+example of the wisdom of a high tariff. No nation ever flourished
+without one. He closed his principal speech on the subject in the House
+of Representatives with a glowing appeal in behalf of what he called
+"The American System." In spite of the opposition of Webster and other
+prominent statesmen, Clay succeeded in enacting a tariff which the
+people of the Southern states denounced as a "tariff of abominations."
+As it overswelled the revenue, in 1832 he vigorously favoured reducing
+the tariff rates on all articles not competing with American products.
+His speech in behalf of the measure was for years a protection
+text-book; but the measure itself reduced the revenue so little and
+provoked such serious threats of nullification and secession in South
+Carolina, that, to prevent bloodshed and to forestall a free trade
+measure from the next Congress, Clay brought forward in 1833 a
+compromise gradually reducing the tariff rates to an average of 20%. To
+the Protectionists this was "like a crash of thunder in winter"; but it
+was received with such favour by the country generally, that its author
+was hailed as "The Great Pacificator," as he had been thirteen years
+before at the time of the Missouri Compromise (see below). As, however,
+the discontent with the tariff in the South was only a symptom of the
+real trouble there--the sensitiveness of the slave-power,--Clay
+subsequently confessed his serious doubts of the policy of his
+interference.
+
+He was only twenty-two, when, as an opponent of slavery, he vainly urged
+an emancipation clause for the new constitution of Kentucky, and he
+never ceased regretting that its failure put his state, in improvements
+and progress, behind its free neighbours. In 1820 he congratulated the
+new South American republics on having abolished slavery, but the same
+year the threats of the Southern states to destroy the Union led him to
+advocate the "Missouri Compromise," which, while keeping slavery out of
+all the rest of the territory acquired by the "Louisiana Purchase" north
+of Missouri's southern boundary line, permitted it in that state. Then,
+greeted with the title of "The Great Pacificator" as a reward for his
+success, he retired temporarily to private life, with a larger stock of
+popularity than he had ever had before. Although at various times he had
+helped to strengthen the law for the recovery of fugitive slaves,
+declining as secretary of state to aid Great Britain in the further
+suppression of the slave trade, and demanding the return of fugitives
+from Canada, yet he heartily supported the colonizing of the slaves in
+Africa, because slavery was the "deepest stain upon the character of the
+country," opposition to which could not be repressed except by "blowing
+out the moral lights around," and "eradicating from the human soul the
+light of reason and the law of liberty." When the slave power became
+more aggressive, in and after the year 1831, Clay defended the right of
+petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, and
+opposed Calhoun's bill forbidding the use of the mails to "abolition"
+newspapers and documents. He was luke-warm toward recognizing the
+independence of Texas, lest it should aid the increase of slave
+territory, and generally favoured the freedom of speech and press as
+regards the question of slavery; yet his various concessions and
+compromises resulted, as he himself declared, in the abolitionists
+denouncing him as a slaveholder, and the slaveholders as an
+abolitionist. In 1839, only twelve months after opposing the pro-slavery
+demands, he prepared an elaborate speech, in order "to set himself right
+with the South," which, before its delivery, received pro-slavery
+approval. While affirming that he was "no friend of slavery" he held
+abolition and the abolitionists responsible for the hatred, strife,
+disruption and carnage that menaced the nation. In response, Calhoun
+extended to him a most hearty welcome, and assigned him to a place on
+the bench of the penitents. Being a candidate for the presidency Clay
+had to take the insult without wincing. It was in reference to this
+speech that he made the oft-quoted remark that he "would rather be right
+than be president." While a candidate for president in 1844, he opposed
+in the "Raleigh letter" the annexation of Texas on many grounds except
+that of its increasing the slave power, thus displeasing both the men of
+anti-slavery and those of pro-slavery sentiments. In 1847, after the
+conquest of Mexico, he made a speech against the annexation of that
+country or the acquiring of any foreign territory for the spread of
+slavery. Although in 1849 he again vainly proposed emancipation in
+Kentucky, he was unanimously elected to the United States Senate, where
+in 1850 he temporarily pacified both sections of the country by
+successfully offering, for the sake of the "peace, concord and harmony
+of these states," a measure or series of measures that became known as
+the "Compromise of 1850." It admitted California as a free state,
+organized Utah and New Mexico as Territories without reference to
+slavery, and enacted a more efficient fugitive slave law. In spite of
+great physical weakness he made several earnest speeches in behalf of
+these measures to save the Union.
+
+Another conspicuous feature of Clay's public career was his absorbing
+and rightful, but constantly ungratified, ambition to be president of
+the United States. His name in connexion therewith was mentioned
+comparatively early, and in 1824, with W.H. Crawford, Andrew Jackson,
+and John Quincy Adams, he was a candidate for that office. There being
+no choice by the people, and the House of Representatives having elected
+Adams, Clay was accused by Jackson and his friends of making a corrupt
+bargain whereby, in payment of his vote and influence for Adams, he was
+appointed secretary of state. This made Jackson Clay's lifelong enemy,
+and ever after kept Clay busy explaining and denying the allegation. In
+1832 Clay was unanimously nominated for the presidency by the National
+Republicans; Jackson, by the Democrats. The main issue was the policy of
+continuing the United States Bank, which in 1811 Clay had opposed, but
+in 1816 and always subsequently warmly favoured. A majority of the
+voters approved of Jackson's fight against what Clay had once denounced
+as a dangerous and unconstitutional monopoly. Clay made the mistake of
+supposing that he could arouse popular enthusiasm for a moneyed
+corporation in its contest with the great military "hero of New
+Orleans." In 1839 he was a candidate for the Whig nomination, but by a
+secret ballot his enemies defeated him in the party convention, held in
+December of that year, and nominated William Henry Harrison. The result
+threw Clay into paroxysms of rage, and he violently complained that his
+friends always used him as their candidate when he was sure to be
+defeated, and betrayed him when he or any one could have been elected.
+In 1844 he was nominated by the Whigs against James K. Polk, the
+Democratic candidate. By an audacious fraud that represented him as an
+enemy, and Polk as a friend of protection, Clay lost the vote of
+Pennsylvania; and he lost the vote of New York by his own letter abating
+the force of his previous opposition to the annexation of Texas. Even
+his enemies felt that his defeat by Polk was almost a national calamity.
+In 1848, Zachary Taylor, a Mexican War hero, and hardly even a convert
+to the Whig party, defeated Clay for the nomination, Kentucky herself
+deserting her "favourite son."
+
+Clay's quick intelligence and sympathy, and his irreproachable conduct
+in youth, explain his precocious prominence in public affairs. In his
+persuasiveness as an orator and his charming personality lay the secret
+of his power. He had early trained himself in the art of speech-making,
+in the forest, the field and even the barn, with horse and ox for
+audience. By contemporaries his voice was declared to be the finest
+musical instrument that they ever heard. His eloquence was in turn
+majestic, fierce, playful, insinuating; his gesticulation natural,
+vivid, large, powerful. In public he was of magnificent bearing,
+possessing the true oratorical temperament, the nervous exaltation that
+makes the orator feel and appear a superior being, transfusing his
+thought, passion and will into the mind and heart of the listener; but
+his imagination frequently ran away with his understanding, while his
+imperious temper and ardent combativeness hurried him and his party into
+disadvantageous positions. The ease, too, with which he outshone men of
+vastly greater learning lured him from the task of intense and arduous
+study. His speeches were characterized by skill of statement, ingenious
+grouping of facts, fervent diction, and ardent patriotism; sometimes by
+biting sarcasm, but also by superficial research, half-knowledge and an
+unwillingness to reason a proposition to its logical results. In
+private, his never-failing courtesy, his agreeable manners and a noble
+and generous heart for all who needed protection against the powerful or
+the lawless, endeared him to hosts of friends. His popularity was as
+great and as inexhaustible among his neighbours as among his
+fellow-citizens generally. He pronounced upon himself a just judgment
+when he wrote: "If any one desires to know the leading and paramount
+object of my public life, the preservation of this Union will furnish
+him the key."
+
+  See Calvin Colton, _The Works of Henry Clay_ (6 vols., New York, 1857;
+  new ed., 7 vols., New York, 1898), the first three volumes of which
+  are an account of Clay's "Life and Times"; Carl Schurz, _Henry Clay_
+  (2 vols., Boston, 1887), in the "American Statesmen" series; and the
+  life by T. Hart Clay (1910).    (C. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAY (from O. Eng. _claeg_, a word common in various forms to Teutonic
+languages, cf. Ger. _Klei_), commonly defined as a fine-grained, almost
+impalpable substance, very soft, more or less coherent when dry, plastic
+and retentive of water when wet; it has an "earthy" odour when breathed
+upon or moistened, and consists essentially of hydrous aluminium
+silicate with various impurities. Of clay are formed a great number of
+rocks, which collectively are known as "clay-rocks" or "pelitic rocks"
+(from Gr. [Greek: pêlos], clay), e.g. mudstone, shale, slate: these
+exhibit in greater or less perfection the properties above described
+according to their freedom from impurities. In nature, clays are rarely
+free from foreign ingredients, many of which can be detected with the
+unaided eye, while others may be observed by means of the microscope.
+The commonest impurities are:--(1) organic matter, humus, &c.
+(exemplified by clay-soils with an admixture of peat, oil shales,
+carbonaceous shales); (2) fossils (such as plants in the shales of the
+Lias and Coal Measures, shells in clays of all geological periods and in
+fresh water marls); (3) carbonate of lime (rarely altogether absent, but
+abundant in marls, cement-stones and argillaceous limestones); (4)
+sulphide of iron, as pyrite or marcasite (when finely diffused, giving
+the clay a dark grey-blue colour, which weathers to brown--e.g. London
+Clay; also as nodules and concretions, e.g. Gault); (5) oxides of iron
+(staining the clay bright red when ferric oxide, red ochre; yellow when
+hydrous, e.g. yellow ochre); (6) sand or detrital silica (forming loams,
+arenaceous clays, argillaceous sandstones, &c.). Less frequently present
+are the following:--rock salt (Triassic clays, and marls of Cheshire,
+&c.); gypsum (London Clay, Triassic clays); dolomite, phosphate of lime,
+vivianite (phosphate of iron), oxides of manganese, copper ores (e.g.
+_Kupferschiefer_), wavellite and amber. As the impurities increase in
+amount the clay rocks pass gradually into argillaceous sands and
+sandstones, argillaceous limestones and dolomites, shaly coals and clay
+ironstones.
+
+Natural clays, even when most pure, show a considerable range of
+composition, and hence cannot be regarded as consisting of a single
+mineral; clay is a _rock_, and has that variability which characterizes
+all rocks. Of the essential properties of clay some are merely physical,
+and depend on the minute size of the particles. If any rock be taken
+(even a piece of pure quartz) and crushed to a very fine powder, it will
+show some of the peculiarities of clays; for example, it will be
+plastic, retentive of moisture, impermeable to water, and will shrink to
+some extent if the moist mass be kneaded, and then allowed to dry. It
+happens, however, that many rocks are not disintegrated to this extreme
+degree by natural processes, and weathering invariably accompanies
+disintegration. Quartz, for example, has little or no cleavage, and is
+not attacked by the atmosphere. It breaks up into fragments, which
+become rounded by attrition, but after they reach a certain minuteness
+are borne along by currents of water or air in a state of suspension,
+and are not further reduced in size. Hence sands are more coarse grained
+than clays. A great number of rock-forming minerals, however, possess a
+good cleavage, so that when bruised they split into thin fragments; many
+of these minerals decompose somewhat readily, yielding secondary
+minerals, which are comparatively soft and have a scaly character, with
+eminently perfect cleavages, which facilitate splitting into exceedingly
+thin plates. The principal substances of this description are kaolin,
+muscovite and chlorite. Kaolin and muscovite are formed principally
+after felspar (and the felspars are the commonest minerals of all
+crystalline rocks); also from nepheline, leucite, scapolite and a
+variety of other rock-forming minerals. Chlorite arises from biotite,
+augite and hornblende. Serpentine, which may be fibrous or scaly, is a
+secondary product of olivine and certain pyroxenes. Clays consist
+essentially of the above ingredients (although serpentine is not known
+to take part in them to any extent, it is closely allied to chlorite).
+At the same time other substances are produced as decomposition goes on.
+They are principally finely divided quartz, epidote, zoisite, rutile,
+limonite, calcite, pyrites, and very small particles of these are rarely
+absent from natural clays. These fine-grained materials are at first
+mixed with broken and more or less weathered rock fragments and coarser
+mineral particles in the soil and subsoil, but by the action of wind and
+rain they are swept away and deposited in distant situations. "Loess" is
+a fine calcareous clay, which has been wind-borne, and subsequently laid
+down on the margins of dry steppes and deserts. Most clays are
+water-borne, having been carried from the surface of the land by rain
+and transported by the brooks and rivers into lakes or the sea. In this
+state the fine particles are known as "mud." They are deposited where
+the currents are checked and the water becomes very still. If
+temporarily laid down in other situations they are ultimately lifted
+again and removed. A little clay, stirred up with water in a glass
+vessel, takes hours to settle, and even after two or three days some
+remains in suspension; in fact, it has been suggested that in such cases
+the clay forms a sort of "colloidal solution" in the water. Traces of
+dissolved salts, such as common salt, gypsum or alum, greatly accelerate
+deposition. For these reasons the principal gathering places of fine
+pure clays are deep, still lakes, and the sea bottom at considerable
+distances from the shore. The coarser materials settle nearer the land,
+and the shallower portions of the sea floor are strewn with gravel and
+sand, except in occasional depressions and near the mouths of rivers
+where mud may gather. Farther out the great mud deposits begin,
+extending from 50 to 200 m. from the land, according to the amount of
+sediment brought in, and the rate at which the water deepens. A girdle
+of mud accumulations encircles all the continents. These sediments are
+fine and tenacious; their principal components, in addition to clay,
+being small grains of quartz, zircon, tourmaline, hornblende, felspar
+and iron compounds. Their typical colour is blackish-blue, owing to the
+abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; when fresh they have a sulphurous
+odour, when weathered they are brown, as their iron is present as
+hydrous oxides (limonite, &c). These deposits are tenanted by numerous
+forms of marine life, and the sulphur they contain is derived from
+decomposing organic matter. Occasionally water-logged plant débris is
+mingled with the mud. In a few places a red colour prevails, the iron
+being mostly oxidized; elsewhere the muds are green owing to abundant
+glauconite. Traced landwards the muds become more sandy, while on their
+outer margins they grade into the abysmal deposits, such as the
+globigerina ooze (see OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY). Near volcanoes they
+contain many volcanic minerals, and around coral islands they are often
+in large part calcareous.
+
+Microscopic sections of some of the more coherent clays and shales may
+be prepared by saturating them with Canada balsam by long boiling, and
+slicing the resultant mass in the same manner as one of the harder
+rocks. They show that clay rocks contain abundant very small grains of
+quartz (about 0.01 to 0.05 mm. in diameter), with often felspar,
+tourmaline, zircon, epidote, rutile and more or less calcite. These may
+form more than one-third of an ordinary shale; the greater part,
+however, consists of still smaller scales of other minerals (0.01 mm. in
+diameter and less than this). Some of these are recognizable as pale
+yellowish and white mica; others seem to be chlorite, the remainder is
+perhaps kaolin, but, owing to the minute size of the flakes, they yield
+very indistinct reactions to polarized light. They are also often
+stained with iron oxide and organic substances, and in consequence their
+true nature is almost impossible to determine. It is certain, however,
+that the finer-grained rocks are richest in alumina, and in combined
+water; hence the inference is clear that kaolin or some other hydrous
+aluminium silicate is the dominating constituent. These results are
+confirmed by the mechanical analysis of clays. This process consists in
+finely pulverizing the soil or rock, and levigating it in vessels of
+water. A series of powders is obtained progressively finer according to
+the time required to settle to the bottom of the vessel. The clay is
+held to include those particles which have less than 0.005 mm. diameter,
+and contains a higher percentage of alumina than any of the other
+ingredients.
+
+As might be inferred from the differences they exhibit in other
+respects, clay rocks vary greatly in their chemical composition. Some of
+them contain much iron (yellow, blue and red clays); others contain
+abundant calcium carbonate (calcareous clays and marls). Pure clays,
+however, may be found almost quite free from these substances. Their
+silica ranges from about 60 to 45%, varying in accordance with the
+amount of quartz and alkali-felspar present. It is almost always more
+than would be the case if the rock consisted of kaolin mixed with
+muscovite. Alumina is high in the finer clays (18 to 30%), and they are
+the most aluminous of all sediments, except bauxite. Magnesia is never
+absent, though its amount may be less than 1%; it is usually contained
+in minerals of the chlorite group, but partly also in dolomite. The
+alkalis are very interesting; often they form 5 or 10% of the whole
+rock; they indicate abundance of white micas or of undecomposed
+particles of felspar. Some clays, however, such as fireclays, contain
+very little potash or soda, while they are rich in alumina; and it is a
+fair inference that hydrated aluminous silicates, such as kaolin, are
+well represented in these rocks. There are, in fact, a few clays which
+contain about 45% of alumina, that is to say, more than in pure kaolin.
+It is probable that these are related to bauxite and certain kinds of
+laterite.
+
+A few of the most important clay rocks, such as china-clay, brick-clay,
+red-clay and shale, may be briefly described here.
+
+_China-clay_ is white, friable and earthy. It occurs in regions of
+granite, porphyry and syenite, and usually occupies funnel-shaped
+cavities of no great superficial area, but of considerable depth. It
+consists of very fine scaly kaolin, larger, shining plates of white
+mica, grains of quartz and particles of semi-decomposed felspar,
+tourmaline, zircon and other minerals, which originally formed part of
+the granite. These clays are produced by the decomposition of the
+granite by acid vapours, which are discharged after the igneous rock has
+solidified ("fumarole or pneumatolytic action"). Fluorine and its
+compounds are often supposed to have been among the agencies which
+produce this change, but more probably carbonic acid played the
+principal role. The felspar decomposes into kaolin and quartz; its
+alkalis are for the most part set free and removed in solution, but are
+partly retained in the white mica which is constantly found in crude
+china-clays. Semi-decomposed varieties of the granite are known as
+china-stone. The kaolin may be washed away from its original site, and
+deposited in hollows or lakes to form beds of white clay, such as
+pipe-clay; in this case it is always more or less impure. Yellow and
+pinkish varieties of china-clay and pipe-clay contain a small quantity
+of oxide of iron. The best known localities for china-clay are Cornwall,
+Limoges (France), Saxony, Bohemia and China; it is found also in
+Pennsylvania, N. Carolina and elsewhere in the United States.
+
+_Fire-clays_ include all those varieties of clay which are very
+refractory to heat. They must contain little alkalis, lime, magnesia and
+iron, but some of them are comparatively rich in silica. Many of the
+clays which pass under this designation belong to the Carboniferous
+period, and are found underlying seams of coal. Either by rapid growth
+of vegetation, or by subsequent percolation of organic solutions, most
+of the alkalis and the lime have been carried away.
+
+Any argillaceous material, which can be used for the manufacture of
+bricks, may be called a _brick-clay_. In England, Kimmeridge Clay, Lias
+clays, London Clay and pulverized shale and slate are all employed for
+this purpose. Each variety needs special treatment according to its
+properties. The true brick-clays, however, are superficial deposits of
+Pleistocene or Quaternary age, and occur in hollows, filled-up lakes and
+deserted stream channels. Many of them are derived from the glacial
+boulder-clays, or from the washing away of the finer materials contained
+in older clay formations. They are always very impure.
+
+The _red-clay_ is an abysmal formation, occurring in the sea bottom in
+the deepest part of the oceans. It is estimated to cover over fifty
+millions of square miles, and is probably the most extensive deposit
+which is in course of accumulation at the present day. In addition to
+the reddish or brownish argillaceous matrix it contains fresh or
+decomposed crystals of volcanic minerals, such as felspar, augite,
+hornblende, olivine and pumiceous or palagonitic rocks. These must
+either have been ejected by submarine volcanoes or drifted by the wind
+from active vents, as the fine ash discharged by Krakatoa was wafted
+over the whole globe. Larger rounded lumps of pumice, found in the clay,
+have probably floated to their present situations, and sank when
+decomposed, all their cavities becoming filled with sea water. Crystals
+of zeolites (phillipsite) form in the red-clay as radiate, nodular
+groups. Lumps of manganese oxide, with a black, shining outer surface,
+are also characteristic of this deposit, and frequently encrust pieces
+of pumice or animal remains. The only fossils of the clay are
+radiolaria, sharks' teeth and the ear-bones of whales, precisely those
+parts of the skeleton of marine creatures which are hardest and can
+longest survive exposure to sea-water. Their comparative abundance shows
+how slowly the clay gathers. Small rounded spherules of iron, believed
+by some to be meteoric dust, have also been obtained in some numbers.
+Among the rocks of the continents nothing exactly the same as this
+remarkable deposit is known to occur, though fine dark clays, with
+manganese nodules, are found in many localities, accompanied by other
+rocks which indicate deep-water conditions of deposit.
+
+Another type of red-clay is found in caves, and is known as _cave-earth_
+or _red-earth_ (_terra rossa_). It is fine, tenacious and bright red,
+and represents the insoluble and thoroughly weathered impurities which
+are left behind when the calcareous matter is removed in solution by
+carbonated waters. Similar residual clays sometimes occur on the surface
+of areas of limestone in hollows and fissures formed by weathering.
+
+_Boulder-clay_ is a coarse unstratified deposit of fine clay, with more
+or less sand, and boulders of various sizes, the latter usually marked
+with glacial striations.
+
+Some clay rocks which have been laid down by water are very uniform
+through their whole thickness, and are called _mud-stones_. Others split
+readily into fine leaflets or laminae parallel to their bedding, and
+this structure is accentuated by the presence of films of other
+materials, such as sand or vegetable debris. Laminated clays of this
+sort are generally known as _shales_; they occur in many formations but
+are very common in the Carboniferous. Some of them contain much organic
+debris, and when distilled yield paraffin oil, wax, compounds of
+ammonia, &c. In these oil-shales there are clear, globular, yellow
+bodies which seem to be resinous. It has been suggested that the
+admixture of large quantities of decomposed fresh-water algae among the
+original mud is the origin of the paraffins. In New South Wales,
+Scotland and several parts of America such oil-shales are worked on a
+commercial scale. Many shales contain great numbers of ovoid or rounded
+septarian nodules of clay ironstone. Others are rich in pyrites, which,
+on oxidation, produces sulphuric acid; this attacks the aluminous
+silicates of the clay and forms aluminium sulphate (_alum shales_). The
+lias shales of Whitby contain blocks of semi-mineralized wood, or jet,
+which is black with a resinous lustre, and a fibrous structure. The
+laminated structure of shales, though partly due to successive very thin
+sheets of deposit, is certainly dependent also on the vertical pressure
+exerted by masses of super-incumbent rock; it indicates a transition to
+the fissile character of clay slates.    (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAY CROSS, an urban district in the Chesterfield parliamentary division
+of Derbyshire, England, near the river Amber, on the Midland railway, 5
+m. S. of Chesterfield. Pop. (1901) 8358. The Clay Cross Colliery and
+Ironworks Company, whose mines were for a time leased by George
+Stephenson, employ a great number of hands.
+
+
+
+
+CLAYMORE (from the Gaelic _claidheamh mòr_, "great sword"), the old
+two-edged broadsword with cross hilt, of which the guards were usually
+turned down, used by the Highlanders of Scotland. The name is also
+wrongly applied to the single-edged basket-hilted sword adopted in the
+16th century and still worn as the full-dress sword in the Highland
+regiments of the British army.
+
+
+
+
+CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900), Belgian artist, was born at Bruges in
+1819, and died at Brussels in 1900. He was one of the most esteemed
+marine painters of his time, and early in his career he substituted a
+sincere study of nature for the extravagant and artificial
+conventionality of most of his predecessors. When he began to paint, the
+sea was considered by continental artists as worth representing only
+under its most tempestuous aspects. Artists cared only for the stirring
+drama of storm and wreck, and they clung still to the old-world
+tradition of the romantic school. Clays was the first to appreciate the
+beauty of calm waters reflecting the slow procession of clouds, the
+glories of sunset illuminating the sails of ships or gilding the tarred
+sides of heavy fishing-boats. He painted the peaceful life of rivers,
+the poetry of wide estuaries, the regulated stir of roadsteads and
+ports. And while he thus broke away from old traditions he also threw
+off the trammels imposed on him by his master, the marine painter
+Theodore Gudin (1802-1880). Endeavouring only to give truthful
+expression to the nature that delighted his eyes, he sought to render
+the limpid salt atmosphere, the weight of waters, the transparence of
+moist horizons, the gem-like sparkle of the sky. A Fleming in his
+feeling for colour, he set his palette with clean strong hues, and their
+powerful harmonies were in striking contrast with the rusty, smoky tones
+then in favour. If he was not a "luminist" in the modern use of the
+word, he deserves at any rate to be classed with the founders of the
+modern naturalistic school. This conscientious and healthy
+interpretation, to which the artist remained faithful, without any
+important change, to the end of an unusually long and laborious career,
+attracted those minds which aspired to be bold, and won over those which
+were moderate. Clays soon took his place among the most famous Belgian
+painters of his generation, and his pictures, sold at high prices, are
+to be seen in most public and private galleries. We may mention, among
+others, "The Beach at Ault," "Boats in a Dutch Port," and "Dutch Boats
+in the Flushing Roads," the last in the National Gallery, London. In the
+Brussels gallery are "The Port of Antwerp," "Coast near Ostend," and a
+"Calm on the Scheldt"; in the Antwerp museum, "The Meuse at Dordrecht";
+in the Pinakothek at Munich, "The Open North Sea"; in the Metropolitan
+Museum of Fine Arts, New York, "The Festival of the Freedom of the
+Scheldt at Antwerp in 1863"; in the palace of the king of the Belgians,
+"Arrival of Queen Victoria at Ostend in 1857"; in the Bruges academy,
+"Port of Feirugudo, Portugal." Clays was a member of several Academies,
+Belgian and foreign, and of the Order of Leopold, the Legion of Honour,
+&c.
+
+  See Camille Lemonnier, _Histoire des Beaux-Arts_ (Brussels, 1887).
+     (O. M.*)
+
+
+
+
+CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON (1796-1856), American politician, was born in
+Dagsborough, Sussex county, Delaware, on the 24th of July 1796. He came
+of an old Quaker family long prominent in the political history of
+Delaware. He graduated at Yale in 1815, and in 1819 began to practise
+law at Dover, Delaware, where for a time he was associated with his
+cousin, Thomas Clayton (1778-1854), subsequently a United States senator
+and chief-justice of the state. He soon gained a large practice. He
+became a member of the state House of Representatives in 1824, and from
+December 1826 to October 1828 was secretary of state of Delaware. In
+1829, by a combination of anti-Jackson forces in the state legislature,
+he was elected to the United States Senate. Here his great oratorical
+gifts gave him a high place as one of the ablest and most eloquent
+opponents of the administration. In 1831 he was a member of the Delaware
+constitutional convention, and in 1835 he was returned to the Senate as
+a Whig, but resigned in the following year. In 1837-1839 he was chief
+justice of Delaware. In 1845 he again entered the Senate, where he
+opposed the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War, but advocated the
+active prosecution of the latter once it was begun. In March 1849 he
+became secretary of state in the cabinet of President Zachary Taylor, to
+whose nomination and election his influence had contributed. His brief
+tenure of the state portfolio, which terminated on the 22nd of July
+1850, soon after Taylor's death, was notable chiefly for the negotiation
+with the British minister, Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, of the
+Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (q.v.). He was once more a member of the Senate
+from March 1853 until his death at Dover, Delaware, on the 9th of
+November 1856. By his contemporaries Clayton was considered one of the
+ablest debaters and orators in the Senate.
+
+  See the memoir by Joseph P. Comegys in the _Papers_ of the Historical
+  Society of Delaware, No. 4 (Wilmington, 1882).
+
+
+
+
+CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, a famous treaty between the United States and
+Great Britain, negotiated in 1850 by John M. Clayton and Sir Henry
+Lytton Bulwer (Lord Dalling), in consequence of the situation created by
+the project of an interoceanic canal across Nicaragua, each signatory
+being jealous of the activities of the other in Central America. Great
+Britain had large and indefinite territorial claims in three
+regions--Belize or British Honduras, the Mosquito Coast and the Bay
+Islands.[1] On the other hand, the United States, without territorial
+claims, held in reserve, ready for ratification, treaties with Nicaragua
+and Honduras, which gave her a certain diplomatic vantage with which to
+balance the _de facto_ dominion of Great Britain. Agreement on these
+points being impossible and agreement on the canal question possible,
+the latter was put in the foreground. The resulting treaty had four
+essential points. It bound both parties not to "obtain or maintain" any
+exclusive control of the proposed canal, or unequal advantage in its
+use. It guaranteed the neutralization of such canal. It declared that,
+the intention of the signatories being not only the accomplishment of "a
+particular object"--i.e. that the canal, then supposedly near
+realization, should be neutral and equally free to the two contracting
+powers--"but also to establish a general principle," they agreed "to
+extend their protection by treaty stipulation to any other practicable
+communications, whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which
+connects North and South America." Finally, it stipulated that neither
+signatory would ever "occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume or
+exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast or
+any part of Central America," nor make use of any protectorate or
+alliance, present or future, to such ends.
+
+The treaty was signed on the 19th of April, and was ratified by both
+governments; but before the exchange of ratifications Lord Palmerston,
+on the 8th of June, directed Sir H. Bulwer to make a "declaration" that
+the British government did not understand the treaty "as applying to Her
+Majesty's settlement at Honduras, or its dependencies." Mr Clayton made
+a counter-declaration, which recited that the United States did not
+regard the treaty as applying to "the British settlement in Honduras
+commonly called British-Honduras ... nor the small islands in the
+neighbourhood of that settlement which may be known as its
+dependencies"; that the treaty's engagements did apply to all the
+Central American states, "with their just limits and proper
+dependencies"; and that these declarations, not being submitted to the
+United States Senate, could of course not affect the legal import of the
+treaty. The interpretation of the declarations soon became a matter of
+contention. The phraseology reflects the effort made by the United
+States to render impossible a physical control of the canal by Great
+Britain through the territory held by her at its mouth--the United
+States losing the above-mentioned treaty advantages,--just as the
+explicit abnegations of the treaty rendered impossible such control
+politically by either power. But great Britain claimed that the excepted
+"settlement" at Honduras was the "Belize" covered by the extreme British
+claim; that the Bay Islands were a dependency of Belize; and that, as
+for the Mosquito Coast, the abnegatory clauses being wholly prospective
+in intent, she was not required to abandon her protectorate. The United
+States contended that the Bay Islands were not the "dependencies" of
+Belize, these being the small neighbouring islands mentioned in the same
+treaties; that the excepted "settlement" was the British-Honduras of
+definite extent and narrow purpose recognized in British treaties with
+Spain; that she had not confirmed by recognition the large, indefinite
+and offensive claims whose dangers the treaty was primarily designed to
+lessen; and that, as to the Mosquito Coast, the treaty was
+retrospective, and mutual in the rigour of its requirements, and as the
+United States had no _de facto_ possessions, while Great Britain had,
+the clause binding both not to "occupy" any part of Central America or
+the Mosquito Coast necessitated the abandonment of such territory as
+Great Britain was already actually occupying or exercising dominion
+over; and the United States demanded the complete abandonment of the
+British protectorate over the Mosquito Indians. It seems to be a just
+conclusion that when in 1852 the Bay Islands were erected into a British
+"colony" this was a flagrant infraction of the treaty; that as regards
+Belize the American arguments were decidedly stronger, and more correct
+historically; and that as regards the Mosquito question, inasmuch as a
+protectorate seems certainly to have been recognized by the treaty, to
+demand its absolute abandonment was unwarranted, although to satisfy the
+treaty Great Britain was bound materially to weaken it.
+
+In 1859-1860, by British treaties with Central American states, the Bay
+Islands and Mosquito questions were settled nearly in accord with the
+American contentions.[2] But by the same treaties Belize was accorded
+limits much greater than those contended for by the United States. This
+settlement the latter power accepted without cavil for many years.
+
+Until 1866 the policy of the United States was consistently for
+inter-oceanic canals open equally to all nations, and unequivocally
+neutralized; indeed, until 1880 there was practically no official
+divergence from this policy. But in 1880-1884 a variety of reasons were
+advanced why the United States might justly repudiate at will the
+Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.[3] The new policy was based on national
+self-interest. The arguments advanced on its behalf were quite
+indefensible in law and history, and although the position of the United
+States in 1850-1860 was in general the stronger in history, law and
+political ethics, that of Great Britain was even more conspicuously the
+stronger in the years 1880-1884. In 1885 the former government reverted
+to its traditional policy, and the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1902, which
+replaced the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, adopted the rule of neutralization
+for the Panama Canal.
+
+  See the collected diplomatic correspondence in I.D. Travis, _History
+  of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty_ (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1899); J.H. Latané,
+  _Diplomatic Relations of the United States and Spanish America_
+  (Baltimore, 1900); T.J. Lawrence, _Disputed Questions of Modern
+  International Law_ (2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1885); Sir E.L.
+  Bulwer in 99 _Quarterly Rev._ 235-286, and Sir H. Bulwer in 104
+  _Edinburgh Rev._ 280-298.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The claims to a part of the first two were very old in origin,
+    but all were heavily clouded by interruptions of possession,
+    contested interpretations of Spanish-British treaties, and active
+    controversy with the Central American States. The claim to some of
+    the territory was new and still more contestable. See particularly on
+    these claims Travis'e book cited below.
+
+  [2] The islands were ceded to Honduras. The Mosquito Coast was
+    recognized as under Nicaraguan rule limited by an attenuated British
+    protectorate over the Indians, who were given a reservation and
+    certain peculiar rights. They were left free to accept full
+    Nicaraguan rule at will. This they did in 1894.
+
+  [3] It was argued, e.g., that the "general principle" of that
+    engagement was contingent on the prior realization of its "particular
+    object," which had failed, and the treaty had determined as a special
+    contract; moreover, none of the additional treaties to embody the
+    "general principle" had been negotiated, and Great Britain had not
+    even offered co-operation in the protection and neutrality-guarantee
+    of the Panama railway built in 1850-1855, so that her rights had
+    lapsed; certain engagements of the treaty she had violated, and
+    therefore the whole treaty was voidable, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CLAY-WITH-FLINTS, in geology, the name given by W. Whitaker in 1861 to a
+peculiar deposit of stiff red, brown or yellow clay containing unworn
+whole flints as well as angular shattered fragments, also with a
+variable admixture of rounded flint, quartz, quartzite and other
+pebbles. It occurs "in sheets or patches of various sizes over a large
+area in the south of England, from Hertfordshire on the north to Sussex
+on the south, and from Kent on the east to Devon on the west. It almost
+always lies on the surface of the Upper Chalk, but in Dorset it passes
+on to the Middle and Lower Chalk, and in Devon it is found on the
+Chert-Beds of the Selbornian group" (A.J. Jukes-Browne, "The
+Clay-with-Flints, its Origin and Distribution," _Q.J.G.S._, vol. lxii.,
+1906, p. 132). Many geologists have supposed, and some still hold, that
+the Clay-with-Flints is the residue left by the slow solution and
+disintegration of the Chalk by the processes of weathering; on the other
+hand, it has long been known that the deposit very frequently contains
+materials foreign to the Chalk, derived either from the Tertiary rocks
+or from overlying drift. In the paper quoted above, Jukes-Browne ably
+summarizes the evidence against the view that the deposit is mainly a
+Chalk residue, and brings forward a good deal of evidence to show that
+many patches of the Clay-with-Flints lie upon the same plane and may be
+directly associated with Reading Beds. He concludes "that the material
+of the Clay-with-Flints has been chiefly and almost entirely derived
+from Eocene clay, with addition of some flints from the Chalk; that its
+presence is an indication of the previous existence of Lower Eocene Beds
+on the same site and nearly at the same relative level, and,
+consequently, that comparatively little Chalk has been removed from
+beneath it. Finally, I think that the tracts of Clay-with-Flints have
+been much more extensive than they are now" (loc. cit. p. 159).
+
+It is noteworthy that the Clay-with-Flints is developed over an area
+which is just beyond the limits of the ice sheets of the Glacial epoch,
+and the peculiar conditions of late Pliocene and Pleistocene times;
+involving heavy rains, snow and frost, may have had much to do with the
+mingling of the Tertiary and Chalky material. Besides the occurrence in
+surface patches, Clay-with-Flints is very commonly to be observed
+descending in "pipes" often to a considerable depth into the Chalk;
+here, if anywhere, the residual chalk portion of the deposit should be
+found, and it is surmised that a thin layer of very dark clay with
+darkly stained flints, which appears in contact with the sides and
+bottom of the pipe, may represent all there is of insoluble residue.
+
+A somewhat similar deposit, a "_conglomérat de silex_" or "_argue à
+silex_," occurs at the base of the Eocene on the southern and western
+borders of the Paris basin, in the neighbourhood of Chartres, Thimerais
+and Sancerrois.    (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAZOMENAE (mod. _Kelisman_), an ancient town of Ionia and a member of
+the Ionian Dodecapolis (Confederation of Twelve Cities), on the Gulf of
+Smyrna, about 20 m. W. of that city. Though not in existence before the
+arrival of the Ionians in Asia, its original founders were largely
+settlers from Phlius and Cleonae. It stood originally on the isthmus
+connecting the mainland with the peninsula on which Erythrae stood; but
+the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the Persians, removed
+to one of the small islands of the bay, and there established their
+city. This island was connected with the mainland by Alexander the Great
+by means of a pier, the remains of which are still visible. During the
+5th century it was for some time subject to the Athenians, but about the
+middle of the Peloponnesian war (412 B.C.) it revolted. After a brief
+resistance, however, it again acknowledged the Athenian supremacy, and
+repelled a Lacedaemonian attack. Under the Romans Clazomenae was
+included in the province of Asia, and enjoyed an immunity from taxation.
+The site can still be made out, in the neighbourhood of Vourla, but
+nearly every portion of its ruins has been removed. It was the
+birthplace of the philosopher Anaxagoras. It is famous for its painted
+terra-cotta sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of Ionian
+painting in the 6th century B.C.    (E. GR.)
+
+
+
+
+CLEANTHES (c. 301-232 or 252 B.C.), Stoic philosopher, born at Assos in
+the Troad, was originally a boxer. With but four drachmae in his
+possession he came to Athens, where he listened first to the lectures of
+Crates the Cynic, and then to those of Zeno, the Stoic, supporting
+himself meanwhile by working all night as water-carrier to a gardener
+(hence his nickname [Greek: phrehantlês]). His power of patient
+endurance, or perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of "the Ass";
+but such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that, on
+the death of Zeno in 263, he became the leader of the school. He
+continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his own hands.
+Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus, and Antigonus, king of
+Macedon, from whom he accepted 2000 minae. The manner of his death was
+characteristic. A dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time.
+Subsequently he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was already
+half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble to retrace his
+steps.
+
+Cleanthes produced very little that was original, though he wrote some
+fifty works, of which fragments have come down to us. The principal is
+the large portion of the _Hymn to Zeus_ which has been preserved in
+Stobaeus. He regarded the sun as the abode of God, the intelligent
+providence, or (in accordance with Stoical materialism) the vivifying
+fire or aether of the universe. Virtue, he taught, is life according to
+nature; but pleasure is not according to nature. He originated a new
+theory as to the individual existence of the human soul; he held that
+the degree of its vitality after death depends upon the degree of its
+vitality in this life. The principal fragments of Cleanthes's works are
+contained in Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus; some may be found in Cicero
+and Seneca.
+
+  See G.C. Mohinke, _Kleanthes der Stoiker_ (Greifswald, 1814); C.
+  Wachsmuth, _Commentationes de Zenone Citiensi et Cleanthe Assio_
+  (Göttingen, 1874-1875); A.C. Pearson, _Fragments of Zeno and
+  Cleanthes_ (Camb., 1891); article by E. Wellmann in Ersch and Gruber's
+  _Allgemeine Encyklopädie_; R. Hirzel, _Untersuchungen zu Ciceros
+  philosophischen Schriften_, ii. (1882), containing a vindication of
+  the originality of Cleanthes; A.B. Krische, _Forschungen auf dem
+  Gebiete der alten Philosophie_ (1840); also works quoted under STOICS.
+
+
+
+
+CLEARCHUS, the son of Rhamphias, a Spartan general and condottiere. Born
+about the middle of the 5th century B.C., Clearchus was sent with a
+fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and became governor ([Greek: harmostês])
+of Byzantium, of which town he was _proxenus_. His severity, however,
+made him unpopular, and in his absence the gates were opened to the
+Athenian besieging army under Alcibiades (409). Subsequently appointed
+by the ephors to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium
+and to protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from
+Thracian attacks, he made himself tyrant of Byzantium, and, when
+declared an outlaw and driven thence by a Spartan force, he fled to
+Cyrus. In the "expedition of the ten thousand" undertaken by Cyrus to
+dethrone his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, Clearchus led the
+Peloponnesians, who formed the right wing of Cyrus's army at the battle
+of Cunaxa (401). On Cyrus's death Clearchus assumed the chief command
+and conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his
+fellow-generals by Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes and
+executed (Thuc. viii. 8. 39, 80; Xen. _Hellenica_, i. 3. 15-19;
+_Anabasis_, i. ii.; Diodorus xiv. 12. 19-26). In character he was a
+typical product of the Spartan educational system. He was a warrior to
+the finger-tips ([Greek: polemikos kai philopolemos eschatôs]. Xen.
+_Anab._ ii. 6. 1), and his tireless energy, unfaltering courage and
+strategic ability made him an officer of no mean order. But he seems to
+have had no redeeming touch of refinement or humanity.
+
+
+
+
+CLEARFIELD, a borough and the county-seat of Clearfield county,
+Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. branch of the Susquehanna river, in the
+W. central part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2248; (1900) 5081 (310
+foreign-born); (1910) 6851. It is served by the New York Central &
+Hudson River, the Pennsylvania, and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg
+railways. The borough is about 1105 ft. above sea-level, in a rather
+limited space between the hills, which command picturesque views of the
+narrow valley. The river runs through the borough. Coal and fireclay
+abound in the vicinity, and these, with leather, iron, timber and the
+products of the fertile soil, are the bases of its leading industries.
+Before the arrival of the whites the place had been cleared of timber
+(whence its name), and in 1805 it was chosen as a site for the
+county-seat of the newly erected county and laid out as a town; in 1840
+it was incorporated as a borough.
+
+
+
+
+CLEARING-HOUSE, the general term for a central institution employed in
+connexion with large and interrelated businesses for the purpose of
+facilitating the settlement of accounts.
+
+_Banking._--The London Clearing-House was established between 1750 and
+1770 as a place where the clerks of the bankers of the city of London
+could assemble daily to exchange with one another the cheques drawn upon
+and bills payable at their respective houses. Before the clearing-house
+existed, each banker had to send a clerk to the places of business of
+all the other bankers in London to collect the sums payable by them in
+respect of cheques and bills; and it is obvious that much time was
+consumed by this process, which involved the use of an unnecessary
+quantity of money and corresponding risks of safe carriage. In 1775 a
+room in Change Alley was settled upon as a common centre of exchange;
+this was afterwards removed to Post Office Court, Lombard Street. This
+clearing centre was at first confined to the bankers--at that time and
+long afterwards exclusively private bankers--doing business within the
+city, and the bankers in the west end of the metropolis used some one or
+other of the city banks as their agent in clearing. When the joint-stock
+banks were first established, the jealousy of the existing banks was
+powerful enough to exclude them altogether from the use of the
+Clearing-House; and it was not until 1854 that this feeling was removed
+so as to allow them to be admitted.
+
+At first the Clearing-House was simply a place of meeting, but it came
+to be perceived that the sorting and distribution of cheques, bills, &c,
+could be more expeditiously conducted by the appointment of two or three
+common clerks to whom each banker's clerk could give all the instruments
+of exchange he wished to collect, and from whom he could receive all
+those payable at his own house. The payment of the balance settled the
+transaction, but the arrangements were afterwards so perfected that the
+balance is now settled by means of transfers made at the Bank of England
+between the Clearing-House account and those of the various banks, the
+Clearing-House, as well as each banker using it, having an account at
+the Bank of England. The use of the Clearing-House was still further
+extended in 1858, so as to include the settlement of exchanges between
+the country bankers of England. Before that time each country banker
+receiving cheques on other country bankers sent them to those other
+bankers by post (supposing they were not carrying on business in the
+same place), and requested that the amount should be paid by the London
+agent of the banker on whom the cheques were drawn to the London agent
+of the banker remitting them. Cheques were thus collected by
+correspondence, and each remittance involved a separate payment in
+London. Since 1858, accordingly, a country banker sends cheques on other
+country banks to his London correspondent, who exchanges them at the
+Clearing-House with the correspondents of the bankers on whom they are
+drawn.
+
+The Clearing-House consists of one long room, lighted from the roof.
+Around the walls and down the centre are placed desks, allotted to the
+various banks, according to the amount of their business. The desks are
+arranged alphabetically, so that the clerks may lose no time in passing
+round the room and delivering their "charges" or batches of cheques to
+the representatives of the various banks. There are three clearings in
+London each day. The first is at 10.30 A.M., the second at noon, and the
+third at 2.30 P.M. It is the busiest of all, and continues until five
+minutes past four, when the last delivery must be made. The three
+clearings were, in 1907, divided into town, metropolitan and country
+clearings, each with a definite area. All the clearing banks have their
+cheques marked with the letters "T," "M" and "C," according to the
+district in which the issuing bank is situated. Every cheque issued by
+the clearing banks, even though drawn in the head office of a bank, goes
+through the Clearing-House.
+
+The amount of business transacted at the Clearing-House varies very much
+with the seasons of the year, the busiest time being when dividends are
+paid and stock exchange settlements are made, but the volume of
+transactions averages roughly from 200 to 300 millions sterling a week,
+and the yearly clearances amount to something like £12,000,000,000.
+There are provincial clearing-houses at Manchester, Liverpool,
+Birmingham, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Leeds, Sheffield, Leicester and Bristol.
+There are also clearing-houses in most of the large towns of Scotland
+and Ireland. In New York and the other large cities of the United States
+there are clearing-houses providing accommodation for the various
+banking institutions (see BANKS AND BANKING).
+
+The progress of banking on the continent of Europe has been slow in
+comparison with that of the United Kingdom, and the use of cheques is
+not so general, consequently the need for clearing-houses is not so
+great. In France, too, the greater proportion of the banking business
+is carried on through three banks only, the Banque de France, the
+Société Générale and the Crédit Lyonnais, and a great part of their
+transactions are settled at their own head offices. But at the same time
+large sums pass through the Paris Chambre de Compensation (the
+clearing-house), established in 1872.
+
+There are clearing-houses also in Berlin, Hamburg and many other
+European cities.
+
+_Railways._--The British Railway Clearing-House was established in 1842,
+its purpose, as defined by the Railway Clearing-House Act of 1850, being
+"to settle and adjust the receipts arising from railway traffic within,
+or partly within, the United Kingdom, and passing over more than one
+railway within the United Kingdom, booked or invoiced at throughout
+rates or fares." It is an independent body, governed by a committee
+which is composed of delegates (usually the chairman or one of the
+directors) from each of the railways that belong to it. Any railway
+company may be admitted a party to the clearing-system with the assent
+of the committee, may cease to be a member at a month's notice, and may
+be expelled if such expulsion be voted for by two-thirds of the
+delegates present at a specially convened meeting. The cost of
+maintaining it is defrayed by contributions from the companies
+proportional to the volume of business passed through it by each. It has
+two main functions. (1) When passengers or goods are booked through
+between stations belonging to different railway companies at an
+inclusive charge for the whole journey, it distributes the money
+received in due proportions between the companies concerned in rendering
+the service. To this end it receives, in the case of passenger traffic,
+a monthly return of the tickets issued at each station to stations on
+other lines, and, in the case of goods traffic, it is supplied by both
+the sending and receiving stations (when these are on different
+companies' systems) with abstracts showing the character, weight, &c.,
+of the goods that have travelled between them. By the aid of these
+particulars it allocates the proper share of the receipts to each
+company, having due regard to the distance over which the traffic has
+been carried on each line, to the terminal services rendered by each
+company, to any incidental expenses to which it may have been put, and
+to the existence of any special agreements for the division of traffic.
+(2) To avoid the inconvenience of a change of train at points where the
+lines of different companies meet, passengers are often, and goods and
+minerals generally, carried in through vehicles from their
+starting-point to their destination. In consequence, vehicles belonging
+to one company are constantly forming part of trains that belong to, and
+run over the lines of, other companies, which thus have the temporary
+use of rolling stock that does not belong to them. By the aid of a large
+staff of "number takers" who are stationed at junctions all over the
+country, and whose business is to record particulars of the vehicles
+which pass through those junctions, the Clearing-House follows the
+movements of vehicles which have left their owners' line, ascertains how
+far they have run on the lines of other companies, and debits each of
+the latter with the amount it has to pay for their use. This charge is
+known as "mileage"; another charge which is also determined by the
+Clearing-House is "demurrage," that is, the amount exacted from the
+detaining company if a vehicle is not returned to its owners within a
+prescribed time. By the exercise of these functions the Clearing-House
+accumulates a long series of credits to, and debits against, each
+company; these are periodically added up and set against each other,
+with the result that the accounts between it and the companies are
+finally settled by the transfer of comparatively small balances. It also
+distributes the money paid by the post-office to the railways on account
+of the conveyance of parcel-post traffic, and through its lost luggage
+department many thousands of articles left in railway carriages are
+every year returned to their owners. Its situation in London further
+renders it a convenient meeting-place for several "Clearing-House
+Conferences" of railway officials, as of the general managers, the goods
+managers, and the superintendents of the line, held four times a year
+for the consideration of questions in which all the companies are
+interested. The Irish Railway Clearing-House, established in 1848, has
+its headquarters in Dublin, and was incorporated by act of parliament in
+1860.
+
+_General_.--The principle of clearing adopted by banks and railways has
+been applied with considerable success in other businesses.
+
+In 1874 the London Stock Exchange Clearing-House was established for the
+purpose of settling transactions in stock, the clearing being effected
+by balance-sheets and tickets; the balance of stock to be received or
+delivered is shown on a balance-sheet sent in by each member, and the
+items are then cancelled against one another and tickets issued for the
+balances outstanding. The New York Stock Exchange Clearing-House was
+established in 1892. The settlements on the Paris Bourse are cleared
+within the Bourse itself, through the Compagnie des Agents de Change de
+Paris.
+
+In 1888 a society was formed in London called the Beetroot Sugar
+Association for clearing bargains in beetroot sugar. For every 500 bags
+of sugar of a definite weight which a broker sells, he issues a
+_filière_ (a form something like a dock-warrant), giving particulars as
+to the ship, the warehouse, trade-marks, &c. The filière contains also a
+series of transfer forms which are filled up and signed by each
+successive holder, so transferring the property to a new purchaser. The
+new purchaser also fills up a coupon attached to the transfer, quoting
+the date and hour of sale. This coupon is detached by the seller and
+retained by him as evidence to determine any liability through
+subsequent delay in the delivery of the sugar. Any purchaser requiring
+delivery of the sugar forwards the filière to the clearing-house, and
+the officials then send on his name to the first seller who tenders him
+the warrant direct. These filières pass from hand to hand within a limit
+of six days, a stamp being affixed on each transfer as a clearing-house
+fee. The difference between each of the successive transactions is
+adjusted by the clearing-house to the profit or loss of the seller.
+
+The London Produce Clearing-House was established in 1888 for regulating
+and adjusting bargains in foreign and colonial produce. The object of
+the association is to guarantee both to the buyer and the seller the
+fulfilment of bargains for future delivery. The transactions on either
+side are allowed to accumulate during a month and an adjustment made at
+the end by a settlement of the final balance owing. On the same lines
+are the Caisse de Liquidation at Havre and the Waaren Liquidations Casse
+at Hamburg. The Cotton Association also has a clearing-house at
+Liverpool for clearing the transactions which arise from dealings in
+cotton.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--W. Howarth, _Our Clearing System and Clearing Houses_
+  (1897), _The Banks in the Clearing House_ (1905); J.G. Cannon,
+  _Clearing-houses, their History, Methods and Administration_ (1901);
+  H.T. Easton, _Money, Exchange and Banking_ (1905); and the various
+  volumes of the _Journal of the Institute of Bankers_. (T.A.I.)
+
+
+
+
+CLEAT (a word common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, in the
+sense of a wedge or lump, cf. "clod" and "clot"), a wedge-shaped piece
+of wood fastened to ships' masts and elsewhere to prevent a rope, collar
+or the like from slipping, or to act as a step; more particularly a
+piece of wood or metal with double or single horns used for belaying
+ropes. A "cleat" is also a wedge fastened to a ship's side to catch the
+shores in a launching cradle or dry dock. "Cleat" is also used in mining
+for the vertical cleavage-planes of coal.
+
+
+
+
+CLEATOR MOOR, an urban district in the Egremont parliamentary division
+of Cumberland, England, 4 m. S.E. of White-haven, served by the Furness,
+London & North-Western and Cleator & Workington Junction railways. Pop.
+(1901) 8120. The town lies between the valleys of the Ehen and its
+tributary the Dub Beck, in a district rich in coal and iron ore. The
+mining of these, together with blast furnaces and engineering works,
+occupies the large industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+CLEAVERS, or GOOSE-GRASS, _Galium Aparine_ (natural order Rubiaceae), a
+common plant in hedges and waste places, with a long, weak, straggling,
+four-sided, green stem, bearing whorls of 6 to 8 narrow leaves, ½ to 2
+in. long, and, like the angles of the stem, rough from the presence of
+short, stiff, downwardly-pointing, hooked hairs. The small, white,
+regular flowers are borne, a few together, in axillary clusters, and are
+followed by the large, hispid, two-celled fruit, which, like the rest of
+the plant, readily clings to a rough surface, whence the common name.
+The plant has a wide distribution throughout the north temperate zone,
+and is also found in temperate South America.
+
+
+
+
+CLEBURNE, a town and the county-seat of Johnson county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+25 m. S. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1890) 3278; (1900) 7493, including 611
+negroes; (1910) 10,364. It is served by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé,
+the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Trinity & Brazos Valley railways.
+It is the centre of a prosperous farming, fruit and stock-raising
+region, has large railway repair shops, flour-mills, cotton gins and
+foundries, a canning factory and machine shops. It has a Carnegie
+library, and St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic; for girls). The town
+was named in honour of Patrick Ronayne Cleburne (1828-1864), a
+major-general of the Confederate army, who was of Irish birth, practised
+law in Helena, Arkansas, served at Shiloh, Perryville, Stone River,
+Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Ring-gold Gap, Jonesboro and Franklin,
+and was killed in the last-named battle; he was called the "Stonewall of
+the West."
+
+
+
+
+CLECKHEATON, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary division
+of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 5½ m. S. by E. of Bradford, on
+the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern and London & North-Western
+railways. Pop. (1901) 12,524. A chamber of commerce has held meetings
+here since 1878. The industries comprise the manufacture of woollens,
+blankets, flannel, wire-card and machinery.
+
+
+
+
+CLEETHORPES, a watering-place of Lincolnshire, England; within the
+parliamentary borough of Great Grimsby, 3 m. S.E. of that town by a
+branch of the Great Central railway. Pop. of urban district of
+Cleethorpe with Thrunscoe (1901) 12,578. Cleethorpes faces eastward to
+the North Sea, but its shore of fine sand, affording good bathing,
+actually belongs to the estuary of the Humber. There is a pier, and the
+sea-wall extends for about a mile, forming a pleasant promenade. The
+suburb of New Clee connects Cleethorpes with Grimsby. The church of the
+Holy Trinity and St Mary is principally Norman of various dates, but
+work of a date apparently previous to the Conquest appears in the tower.
+Cleethorpes is greatly favoured by visitors from the midland counties,
+Lancashire and Yorkshire.
+
+
+
+
+CLEFT PALATE and HARE-LIP, in surgery. _Cleft Palate_ is a congenital
+cleavage, or incomplete development in the roof of the mouth, and is
+frequently associated with hare-lip. The infant is prevented from
+sucking, and an operation is necessary. Cleft-palate is often a
+hereditary defect. The most favourable time for operating is between the
+age of two weeks and three months, and if the cleft is closed at this
+early date, not only are the nutrition and general development of the
+child greatly improved, but the voice is probably saved from much of the
+unpleasant tone which is usually associated with a defective roof to the
+mouth and is apt to persist even if a cleft has been successfully
+operated on later in childhood. The greatest advance which has been made
+in the operative treatment of cleft palate is due to the teaching of Dr
+Truman W. Brophy, who adopted the ingenious plan of thrusting together
+to the middle line of the mouth the halves of the palate which nature
+had unfortunately left apart. But, as noted above, this operation must,
+to give the best results, be undertaken in the earliest months of
+infancy. After the cleft in the palate has been effectually dealt with,
+the hare-lip can be repaired with ease and success.
+
+_Hare-lip_.--In the hare the splitting of the lip is in the middle line,
+but in the human subject it is on one side, or on both sides of the
+middle line. This is accounted for on developmental grounds: a cleft in
+the exact middle line is of extremely rare occurrence. Hare-lip is often
+associated with cleft palate. Though we are at present unable to explain
+why development should so frequently miss the mark in connexion with the
+formation of the lip and palate, it is unlikely that maternal
+impressions have anything to do with it. As a rule, the supposed
+"fright" comes long after the lips are developed. They are completely
+formed by the ninth week. Heredity has a powerful influence in many
+cases. The best time for operating on a hare-lip depends upon various
+circumstances. Thus, if it is associated with cleft palate, the palatine
+cleft has first to be closed, in which case the child will probably be
+several months old before the lip is operated on. If the infant is in so
+poor a state of nutrition that it appears unsuitable for surgical
+treatment, the operation must be postponed until his condition is
+sufficiently improved. But, assuming that the infant is in fair health,
+that he is taking his food well and thriving on it, that he is not
+troubled by vomiting or diarrhoea, and that the hare-lip is not
+associated with a defective palate, the sooner it is operated on the
+better. It may be successfully done even within a few hours of birth.
+When a hare-lip is unassociated with cleft palate, the infant may
+possibly be enabled to take the breast within a short time of the gap
+being closed. In such a case the operation may be advisably undertaken
+within the first few days of birth. The case being suitable, the
+operation may be conveniently undertaken at any time after the tenth
+day.    (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+CLEISTHENES, the name of two Greek statesmen, (1) of Athens, (2) of
+Sicyon, of whom the first is far the more important.
+
+
+1. CLEISTHENES, the Athenian statesman, was the son of Megacles and
+Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He thus belonged, through
+his father, to the noble family of the Alcmaeonidae (q.v.), who bore
+upon them the curse of the Cylonian massacre, and had been in exile
+during the rule of the Peisistratids. In the hope of washing out the
+stigma, which damaged their prestige, they spent the latter part of
+their exile in carrying out with great splendour the contract given out
+by the Amphictyons for the rebuilding of the temple at Delphi (destroyed
+by fire in 548 B.C.). By building the pronaos of Parian marble instead
+of limestone as specified in the contract, they acquired a high
+reputation for piety; the curse was consigned to oblivion, and their
+reinstatement was imposed by the oracle itself upon the Spartan king,
+Cleomenes (q.v.). Cleisthenes, to whom this far-seeing atonement must
+probably be attributed, had also on his side (1) the malcontents in
+Athens who were disgusted with the growing severity of Hippias, and (2)
+the oligarchs of Sparta, partly on religious grounds, and partly owing
+to their hatred of tyranny. Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_,
+however, treats the alliance of the Peisistratids with Argos, the rival
+of Sparta in the Peloponnese, as the chief ground for the action of
+Sparta (_c._ 19). In _c._ 513 B.C. Cleisthenes invaded Attica, but was
+defeated by the tyrant's mercenaries at Leipsydrium (S. of Mt. Parnes).
+Sparta then, in tardy obedience to the oracle, threw off her alliance
+with the Peisistratids, and, after one failure, expelled Hippias in
+511-510 B.C., leaving Athens once again at the mercy of the powerful
+families.
+
+
+  Home and foreign policy.
+
+Cleisthenes, on his return, was in a difficulty; he realized that Athens
+would not tolerate a new tyranny, nor were the other nobles willing to
+accept him as leader of a constitutional oligarchy. It was left for him
+to "take the people into partnership" as Peisistratus had in a different
+way done before him. Solon's reforms had failed, primarily because they
+left unimpaired the power of the great landed nobles, who, in their
+several districts, doubled the rôles of landlord, priest and patriarch.
+This evil of local influence Peisistratus had concealed by satisfying
+the nominally sovereign people that in him they had a sufficient
+representative. It was left to Cleisthenes to adopt the remaining remedy
+of giving substance to the form of the Solonian constitution. His first
+attempts roused the aristocrats to a last effort; Isagoras appealed to
+the Spartans (who, though they disliked tyranny, had no love for
+democracy) to come to his aid. Cleisthenes retired on the arrival of a
+herald from Cleomenes, reviving the old question of the curse; Isagoras
+thus became all-powerful[1] and expelled seven hundred families. The
+democrats, however, rose, and after besieging Cleomenes and Isagoras in
+the Acropolis, let them go under a safe-conduct, and brought back the
+exiles.
+
+Apart from the reforms which Cleisthenes was now able to establish, the
+period of his ascendancy is a blank, nor are we told when and how it
+came to an end. It is clear, however--and it is impossible in connexion
+with the Pan-hellenic patriotism to which Athens laid claim, to overrate
+the importance of the fact--that Cleisthenes, hard pressed in the war
+with Boeotia, Euboea and Sparta (Herod, v. 73 and foll.), sent
+ambassadors to ask the help of Persia. The story, as told by Herodotus,
+that the ambassadors of their own accord agreed to give "earth and
+water" (i.e. submission) in return for Persian assistance, and that the
+Ecclesia subsequently disavowed their action as unauthorized, is
+scarcely credible. Cleisthenes (1) was in full control and must have
+instructed the ambassadors; (2) he knew that any help from Persia meant
+submission. It is practically certain, therefore, that he (cf. the
+Alcmaeonids and the story of the shield at Marathon) was the first to
+"medize" (see Curtius, _History of Greece_). Probably he had hoped to
+persuade the Ecclesia that the agreement was a mere form. Aelian says
+that he himself was a victim to his own device of ostracism (q.v.);
+this, though apparently inconsistent with the _Constitution of Athens_
+(_c._ 22), may perhaps indicate that his political career ended in
+disgrace, a hypothesis which is explicable on the ground of this act of
+treachery in respect of the attempted Persian alliance. Whether to
+Cleisthenes are due the final success over Boeotia and Euboea, the
+planting of the 4000 cleruchs on the Lelantine Plain, and the policy of
+the Aeginetan War (see AEGINA), in which Athens borrowed ships from
+Corinth, it is impossible to determine. The eclipse of Cleisthenes in
+all records is one of the most curious facts in Greek history. It is
+also curious that we do not know in what official capacity Cleisthenes
+carried his reforms. Perhaps he was given extraordinary _ad hoc_ powers
+for a specified time; conceivably he used the ordinary mechanism. It
+seems clear that he had fully considered his scheme in advance, that he
+broached it before the last attack of Isagoras, and that it was only
+after the final expulsion of Isagoras and his Spartan allies that it
+became possible for him to put it into execution.
+
+
+  Analysis of his reforms
+
+  The ten tribes
+
+Cleisthenes aimed at being the leader of a self-governing people; in
+other words he aimed at making the democracy actual. He realized that
+the dead-weight which held the democracy down was the influence on
+politics of the local religious unit. Therefore his prime object was to
+dissociate the clans and the phratries from politics, and to give the
+democracy a totally new electoral basis in which old associations and
+vested interests would be split up and become ineffective. It was
+necessary that no man should govern a pocket-constituency merely by
+virtue of his religious, financial or ancestral prestige, and that there
+should be created a new local unit with administrative powers of a
+democratic character which would galvanize the lethargic voters into a
+new sense of responsibility and independence. His first step was to
+abolish the four Solonian tribes and create ten new ones.[2] Each of the
+new tribes was subdivided into "demes'" (roughly "townships"); this
+organization did not, except politically, supersede the system of clans
+and phratries whose old religious signification remained untouched. The
+new tribes, however, though geographically arranged, did not represent
+local interests. Further, the tribe names were taken from legendary
+heroes (Cecropis, Pandionis, Aegeis recalled the storied kings of
+Attica), and, therefore, contributed to the idea of a national unity;
+even Ajax, the eponym of the tribe Aeantis, though not Attic, was famous
+as an ally (Herod, v. 66) and ranked as a national hero. Each tribe had
+its shrine and its particular hero-cult, which, however, was free from
+local association and the dominance of particular families. This
+national idea Cleisthenes further emphasized by setting up in the
+market-place at Athens a statue of each tribal hero.
+
+
+  Demes.
+
+The next step was the organization of the deme. Within each tribe he
+grouped ten demes (see below), each of which had (1) its hero and its
+chapel, and (2) its census-list kept by the demarch. The demarch (local
+governor), who was elected popularly and held office for one year,
+presided over meetings affecting local administration and the provision
+of crews for the state-navy, and was probably under a system of scrutiny
+like the _dokimasia_ of the state-magistrates. According to the
+Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_, Cleisthenes further divided
+Attica into three districts, Urban and Suburban, Inland (_Mesogaios_),
+and Maritime (_Paralia_), each of which was subdivided into ten
+_trittyes_; each tribe had three trittyes in each of these districts.
+The problem of establishing this decimal system in connexion with the
+demes and trittyes is insoluble. Herodotus says that there were ten[3]
+demes to each tribe ([Greek: deka eis tas phylas]); but each tribe was
+composed of three trittyes, one in each of the three districts. Since
+the deme was, as will be seen, the electoral unit, it is clear that in
+tribal voting the object of ending the old threefold schism of the
+Plain, the Hill and the Shore was attained, but the relation of deme and
+trittys is obviously of an unsymmetrical kind. The _Constitution of
+Athens_ says nothing of the ten-deme-to-each-tribe arrangement, and
+there is no sufficient reason for supposing that the demes originally
+were exactly a hundred in number. We know the names of 168 demes, and
+Polemon (3rd century B.C.) enumerated 173. It has been suggested that
+the demes did originally number exactly a hundred, and that new demes
+were added as the population increased. This theory, however,
+presupposes that the demes were originally equal in numbers. In the 5th
+and 4th centuries this was certainly not the case; the number of
+demesmen in some cases was only one hundred or two hundred, whereas the
+deme Acharnae is referred to as a "great part" of the whole state, and
+is known to have furnished three thousand hoplites. The theory is
+fundamentally at fault, inasmuch as it regards the deme as consisting of
+all those _resident within its borders_. In point of fact membership was
+hereditary, not residential; Demosthenes "of the Paeanian deme" might
+live where he would without severing his deme connexion. Thus the
+increase of population could be no reason for creating new demes. This
+distinction in a deme between demesmen and residents belonging to
+another deme (the [Greek: egkektêmenoi]), who paid a deme-tax for their
+privilege, is an important one. It should further be noted that the
+demes belonging to a particular tribe do not, as a fact, appear always
+in three separate groups; the tribe Aeantis consisted of Phalerum and
+eleven demes in the district of Marathon; other tribes had demes in five
+or six groups. It must, therefore, be admitted that the problem is
+insoluble for want of data. Nor are we better equipped to settle the
+relation between the Cleisthenean division into Urban, Maritime and
+Inland, and the old divisions of the Plain, the Shore and the Upland or
+Hill. The "Maritime" of Cleisthenes and the old "Shore" are certainly
+not coincident, nor is the "Inland" identical with the "Upland."
+
+Lastly, it has been asked whether we are to believe that Cleisthenes
+invented the demes. To this the answer is in the negative. The demes
+were undoubtedly primitive divisions of Attica; Herodotus (ix. 73)
+speaks of the Dioscuri as ravaging the demes of Decelea (see R.W. Macan
+_ad loc._) and we hear of opposition between the city and the demes. The
+most logical conclusion perhaps is that Cleisthenes, while he _did_
+create the demes which Athens itself comprised, did not create the
+country demes, but merely gave them definition as political divisions.
+Thus the city itself had six demes in five different tribes, and the
+other five tribes were represented in the suburbs and the Peiraeus. It
+is clear that in the Cleisthenean system there was one great source of
+danger, namely that the residents in and about Athens must always have
+had more weight in elections than those in distant demes. There can be
+little doubt that the preponderating influence of the city was
+responsible for the unwisdom of the later imperial policy and the
+Peloponnesian war.
+
+
+  The diapsephismus.
+
+A second problem is the franchise reform of Cleisthenes. Aristotle in
+the _Politics_ (iii. 2. 3 = 1275 b) says that Cleisthenes created new
+citizens by enrolling in the tribes "many resident aliens and
+emancipated slaves."[4] But the Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_
+asserts that he gave "citizenship to the masses." These two statements
+are not compatible. It is perfectly clear that Cleisthenes is to be
+regarded as a democrat, and it would have been no bribe to the people
+merely to confer a boon on aliens and slaves. Moreover, a revision of
+the citizen-roll (_diapsephismus_) had recently taken place (after the
+end of the tyranny) and a great many citizens had been struck off the
+roll as being of impure descent ([Greek: _oi tô genei mê katharoi_]).
+This class had existed from the time of Solon, and, through fear of
+political extinction by the oligarchs, had been favourable to
+Peisistratus. Cleisthenes may have enfranchised aliens and slaves, but
+it seems certain that he must have dealt with these free Athenians who
+had lost their rights. Now Isagoras presumably did not carry out this
+revision of the roll (_diapsephismus_); as "the friend of the tyrants"
+(so _Ath. Pol._ 20; by Meyer, Busolt and others contest this) he would
+not have struck a blow at a class which favoured his own views. A
+reasonable hypothesis is that Cleisthenes was the originator of the
+measure of expulsion, and that he now changed his policy, and
+strengthened his hold on the democracy by reinstating the disfranchised
+in much larger numbers. The new citizens, whoever they were, must, of
+course, have been enrolled also in the (hitherto exclusive) phratry
+lists and the deme-rolls.
+
+
+  The council and boards of ten.
+
+The Boul[=e] (q.v.) was reorganized to suit the new tribal arrangement,
+and was known henceforward as the Council of the Five Hundred, fifty
+from each tribe. Its exact constitution is unknown, but it was certainly
+more democratic than the Solonian Four Hundred. Further, the system of
+ten tribes led in course of time to the construction of boards of ten to
+deal with military and civil affairs, e.g. the Strategi (see STRATEGUS),
+the Apodectae, and others. Of these the former cannot be attributed to
+Cleisthenes, but on the evidence of Androtion it is certain that it was
+Cleisthenes who replaced the Colacretae[5] by the Apodectae
+("receivers"), who were controllers and auditors of the finance
+department, and, before the council in the council-chamber, received the
+revenues. The Colacretae, who had done this work before, remained in
+authority over the internal expenses of the Prytaneum. A further change
+which followed from the new tribal system was the reconstitution of the
+army; this, however, probably took place about 501 B.C., and cannot be
+attributed directly to Cleisthenes. It has been said that the deme
+became the local political unit, replacing the naucrary (q.v.). But the
+naucraries still supplied the fleet, and were increased in number from
+forty-eight to fifty; if each naucrary still supplied a ship and two
+mounted soldiers as before, it is interesting to learn that, only
+seventy years before the Peloponnesian War, Athens had but fifty ships
+and a hundred horse.[6]
+
+The device of ostracism is the final stone in the Cleisthenean
+structure. An admirable scheme in theory, and, at first, in practice, it
+deteriorated in the 5th century into a mere party weapon, and in the
+case of Hyperbolus (417) became an absurdity.
+
+
+  Summary.
+
+In conclusion it should be noticed that Cleisthenes was the founder of
+the Athens which we know. To him was due the spirit of nationality, the
+principle of liberty duly apportioned and controlled by centralized and
+decentralized administration, which prepared the ground for the rich
+developments of the Golden Age with its triumphs of art and literature,
+politics and philosophy. It was Cleisthenes who organized the structure
+which, for a long time, bore the heavy burden of the Empire against
+impossible odds, the structure which the very different genius of
+Pericles was able to beautify. He was the first to appreciate the unique
+power in politics, literature and society of an organized public
+opinion.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Ancient:_ Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_ (ed. J.E.
+  Sandys), cc. 20-22, 41; Herodotus v, 63-73, vi. 131; Aristotle,
+  _Politics_, iii. 2, 3 (= 1275 b, for franchise reforms). _Modern:_
+  Histories of Greece in general, especially those of Grote and Curtius
+  (which, of course, lack the information contained in the _Constitution
+  of Athens_), and J.B. Bury. See also E. Meyer, _Geschichte des
+  Altertums_ (vol. ii.); G. Busolt, _Griech. Gesch._ (2nd ed., 1893
+  foll.); Milchhöfer, "Über die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes" in
+  appendix to _Abhandlung d. Berl. Akad._ (1892); R. Loeper in _Athen.
+  Mitteil._ (1892), pp. 319-433; A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek
+  Constitutional History_ (1896); Gilbert, _Greek Constitutional
+  Antiquities_ (Eng. trans., 1895); R.W. Macan, _Herodotus iv.-vi._,
+  vol. ii. (1895), pp. 127-148; U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Arist.
+  und Athen._ See also BOLL[=E]; ECCLESIA; OSTRACISM; NAUCRARY; SOLON.
+
+
+2. CLEISTHENES OF SICYON (c. 600-570), grandfather of the above, became
+tyrant of Sicyon as the representative of the conquered Ionian section
+of the inhabitants. He emphasized the destruction of Dorian predominance
+by giving ridiculous epithets to their tribal units, which from Hylleis,
+Dymanes and Pamphyli become Hyatae ("Swine-men"), Choireatae ("Pig-men")
+and Oneatae ("Ass-men"). He also attacked Dorian Argos, and suppressed
+the Homeric "rhapsodists" who sang the exploits of Dorian heroes. He
+championed the cause of the Delphic oracle against the town of Crisa
+(Cirrha) in the Sacred War (c. 590). Crisa was destroyed, and Delphi
+became one of the meeting-places of the old amphictyony of Anthela,
+henceforward often called the Delphic amphictyony. The Pythian games,
+largely on the initiative of Cleisthenes, were re-established with new
+magnificence, and Cleisthenes won the first chariot race in 582. He
+founded Pythian games at Sicyon, and possibly built a new Sicyonian
+treasury at Delphi. His power was so great that when he offered his
+daughter Agariste in marriage, some of the most prominent Greeks sought
+the honour, which fell upon Megacles, the Alcmaeonid. The story of the
+rival wooers with the famous retort, "Hippocleides don't care," is told
+in Herod. vi. 125; see also Herod, v. 67 and Thuc. i. 18.
+
+  CLEISTHENES is also the name of an Athenian, pilloried by Aristophanes
+  (_Clouds_, 354; _Thesm._ 574) as a fop and a profligate.    (J. M. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The archonship of Isagoras in 508 is important as showing that
+    Cleisthenes, three years after his return, had so far failed to
+    secure the support of a majority in Athens. There is no sufficient
+    reason for supposing that the election of Isagoras was procured by
+    Cleomenes; all the evidence points to its having been brought about
+    in the ordinary way. Probably, therefore, Cleisthenes did not take
+    the people thoroughly into partnership till after the spring of 508.
+
+  [2] The explanation given for this step by Herodotus (v. 67) is an
+    amusing example of his incapacity as a critical historian. To compare
+    Cleisthenes of Sicyon (see below), bent on humiliating the Dorians of
+    Sicyon by giving opprobrious names to the Dorian tribes, with his
+    grandson, whose endeavour was to elevate the very persons whose
+    tribal organization he replaced, is clearly absurd.
+
+  [3] Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (_Arist. und Athen_, pp. 149-150)
+    suggests [Greek: dekacha], "in ten batches," instead of [Greek:
+    deka].
+
+  [4] It should be observed that there are other translations of the
+    difficult phrase [Greek: xenous kai doulous metoikous].
+
+  [5] _Colacretae_ were very ancient Athenian magistrates; either (1)
+    those who "cut up the joints" in the Prytaneum ([Greek: kôla,
+    keirô]), or (2) those who "collected the joints" ([Greek: kôla,
+    ageirô]) which were left over from public sacrifices, and consumed in
+    the Prytaneum. These officials were again important in the time of
+    Aristophanes (_Wasps_, 693, 724; _Birds_, 1541), and they presided
+    over the payment of the dicasts instituted by Pericles. They are not
+    mentioned, though they may have existed, after 403 B.C. At Sicyon
+    also magistrates of this name are found.
+
+  [6] It is, however, more probable that the right reading of the
+    passage is [Greek: deka ippeis] instead of [Greek: duo], which would
+    give a cavalry force in early Athens of 480, a reasonable number in
+    proportion to the total fighting strength.
+
+
+
+
+CLEITARCHUS, one of the historians of Alexander the Great, son of
+Deinon, also an historian, was possibly a native of Egypt, or at least
+spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy Lagus. Quintilian
+(_Instit._ x. i. 74) credits him with more ability than trustworthiness,
+and Cicero (_Brutus_, 11) accuses him of giving a fictitious account of
+the death of Themistocles. But there is no doubt that his history was
+very popular, and much used by Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius, Justin
+and Plutarch, and the authors of the Alexander romances. His unnatural
+and exaggerated style became proverbial.
+
+  The fragments, some thirty in number, chiefly preserved in Aelian and
+  Strabo, will be found in C. Müller's _Scriptores Rerum Alexandri
+  Magni_ (in the Didot _Arrian_, 1846); monographs by C. Raun, _De
+  Clitarcho Diodori, Curtii, Justini auctore_ (1868), and F. Reuss,
+  "Hellenistische Beiträge" in _Rhein. Mus._ lxiii. (1908), pp. 58-78.
+
+
+
+
+CLEITHRAL (Gr. [Greek: kleithron], an enclosed or shut-up place), an
+architectural term applied to a covered Greek temple, in
+contradistinction to _hypaethral_, which designates one that is
+uncovered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it.
+
+
+
+
+CLEITOR, or CLITOR, a town of ancient Greece, in that part of Arcadia
+which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta in the nomos of
+Elis and Achaea. It stood in a fertile plain to the south of Mt Chelmos,
+the highest peak of the Aroanian Mountains, and not far from a stream
+of its own name, which joined the Aroanius, or Katzana. In the
+neighbourhood was a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive
+those who drank them of the taste for wine. The town was a place of
+considerable importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants were noted for
+their love of liberty. It extended its territory over several
+neighbouring towns, and in the Theban war fought against Orchomenus. It
+joined the other Arcadian cities in the foundation of Megalopolis. As a
+member of the Achaean league it was besieged by the Aetolians in 220
+B.C., and was on several occasions the seat of the federal assemblies.
+It coined money up to the time of Septimius Severus. The ruins, which
+bear the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen
+about 3 m. from a village that preserves the ancient designation. The
+greater part of the walls which enclose an area of about a mile and
+several of the semi-circular towers with which they were strengthened
+can be clearly made out; and there are also remains of three Doric
+temples and a small theatre.
+
+
+
+
+CLELAND, WILLIAM (1661?-1689), Scottish poet and soldier, son of Thomas
+Cleland, gamekeeper to the marquis of Douglas, was born about 1661. He
+was probably brought up on the marquess of Douglas's estate in
+Lanarkshire, and was educated at St Andrews University. Immediately on
+leaving college he joined the army of the Covenanters, and was present
+at Drumclog, where, says Robert Wodrow, some attributed to Cleland the
+manoeuvre which led to the victory. He also fought at Bothwell Bridge.
+He and his brother James were described in a royal proclamation of the
+16th of June 1679 among the leaders of the insurgents. He escaped to
+Holland, but in 1685 was again in Scotland in connexion with the
+abortive invasion of the earl of Argyll. He escaped once more, to return
+in 1688 as agent for William of Orange. He was appointed
+lieutenant-colonel of the Cameronian regiment raised from the minority
+of the western Covenanters who consented to serve under William III. The
+Cameronians were entrusted with the defence of Dunkeld, which they held
+against the fierce assault of the Highlanders on the 26th of August. The
+repulse of the Highlanders before Dunkeld ended the Jacobite rising, but
+Cleland fell in the struggle. He wrote _A Collection of several Poems
+and Verses_ composed upon various occasions (published posthumously,
+1697). Of "Hullo, my fancie, whither wilt thou go?" only the last nine
+stanzas are by Cleland. His poems have small literary merit, and are
+written, not in pure Lowland Scots, but in English with a large
+admixture of Scottish words. The longest and most important of them are
+the "mock poems" "On the Expedition of the Highland Host who came to
+destroy the western shires in winter 1678" and "On the clergie when they
+met to consult about taking the Test in the year 1681."
+
+  An Exact Narrative of the _Conflict of Dunkeld ... collected from
+  several officers of the regiment ..._ appeared in 1689.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMATIS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Ranunculaceae,
+containing nearly two hundred species, and widely distributed. It is
+represented in England by _Clematis Vitalba_, "old man's beard" or
+"traveller's joy," a common plant on chalky or light soil. The plants
+are shrubby climbers with generally compound opposite leaves, the stalk
+of which is sensitive to contact like a tendril, becoming twisted round
+suitable objects and thereby giving support to the plant. The flowers
+are arranged in axillary or terminal clusters; they have no petals, but
+white or coloured, often very large sepals, and an indefinite number of
+stamens and carpels. They contain no honey, and are visited by insects
+for the sake of the pollen, which is plentiful. The fruit is a head of
+achenes, each bearing the long-bearded persistent style, suggesting the
+popular name. This feathery style is an important agent in the
+distribution of the seed by means of the wind. Several of the species,
+especially the large-flowered ones, are favourite garden plants, well
+adapted for covering trellises or walls, or trailing over the ground.
+Many garden forms have been produced by hybridization; among the best
+known is _C. Jackmanni_, due to Mr George Jackman of Woking.
+
+  Further information may be obtained from _The Clematis as a Garden
+  Flower_, by Thos. Moore and George Jackman. See also G. Nicholson,
+  _Dictionary of Gardening_, i. (1885) and _Supplements_.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES (1841-   ), French statesman, was born at
+Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vendée, on the 28th of September 1841. Having
+adopted medicine as his profession, he settled in 1869 in Montmartre;
+and after the revolution of 1870 he had become sufficiently well known
+to be nominated mayor of the 18th arrondissement of Paris
+(Montmartre)--an unruly district over which it was a difficult task to
+preside. On the 8th of February 1871 he was elected as a Radical to the
+National Assembly for the department of the Seine, and voted against the
+peace preliminaries. The execution, or rather murder, of Generals
+Lecomte and Clément Thomas by the communists on 18th March, which he
+vainly tried to prevent, brought him into collision with the central
+committee sitting at the hôtel de ville, and they ordered his arrest,
+but he escaped; he was accused, however, by various witnesses, at the
+subsequent trial of the murderers (November 29th), of not having
+intervened when he might have done, and though he was cleared of this
+charge it led to a duel, for his share in which he was prosecuted and
+sentenced to a fine and a fortnight's imprisonment.
+
+Meanwhile, on the 20th of March 1871, he had introduced in the National
+Assembly at Versailles, on behalf of his Radical colleagues, the bill
+establishing a Paris municipal council of eighty members; but he was not
+returned himself at the elections of the 26th of March. He tried with
+the other Paris mayors to mediate between Versailles and the hôtel de
+ville, but failed, and accordingly resigned his mayoralty and his seat
+in the Assembly, and temporarily gave up politics; but he was elected to
+the Paris municipal council on the 23rd of July 1871 for the
+Clignancourt _quartier_, and retained his seat till 1876, passing
+through the offices of secretary and vice-president, and becoming
+president in 1875. In 1876 he stood again for the Chamber of Deputies,
+and was elected for the 18th arrondissement. He joined the Extreme Left,
+and his energy and mordant eloquence speedily made him the leader of the
+Radical section. In 1877, after the _Seize Mai_ (see FRANCE: _History_),
+he was one of the republican majority who denounced the Broglie
+ministry, and he took a leading part in resisting the anti-republican
+policy of which the _Seize Mai_ incident was a symptom, his demand in
+1879 for the indictment of the Broglie ministry bringing him into
+particular prominence. In 1880 he started his newspaper, _La Justice_,
+which became the principal organ of Parisian Radicalism; and from this
+time onwards throughout M. Grévy's presidency his reputation as a
+political critic, and as a destroyer of ministries who yet would not
+take office himself, rapidly grew. He led the Extreme Left in the
+Chamber. He was an active opponent of M. Jules Ferry's colonial policy
+and of the Opportunist party, and in 1885 it was his use of the Tongking
+disaster which principally determined the fall of the Ferry cabinet. At
+the elections of 1885 he advocated a strong Radical programme, and was
+returned both for his old seat in Paris and for the Var, selecting the
+latter. Refusing to form a ministry to replace the one he had
+overthrown, he supported the Right in keeping M. Freycinet in power in
+1886, and was responsible for the inclusion of General Boulanger in the
+Freycinet cabinet as war minister. When Boulanger (q.v.) showed himself
+as an ambitious pretender, Clemenceau withdrew his support and became a
+vigorous combatant against the Boulangist movement, though the Radical
+press and a section of the party continued to patronize the general.
+
+By his exposure of the Wilson scandal, and by his personal plain
+speaking, M. Clemenceau contributed largely to M. Grévy's resignation of
+the presidency in 1887, having himself declined Grévy's request to form
+a cabinet on the downfall of that of M. Rouvier; and he was primarily
+responsible, by advising his followers to vote neither for Floquet,
+Ferry nor Freycinet, for the election of an "outsider" as president in
+M. Carnot. He had arrived, however, at the height of his influence, and
+several factors now contributed to his decline. The split in the Radical
+party over Boulangism weakened his hands, and its collapse made his help
+unnecessary to the moderate republicans. A further misfortune occurred
+in the Panama affair, Clemenceau's relations with Cornelius Herz leading
+to his being involved in the general suspicion; and, though he remained
+the leading spokesman of French Radicalism, his hostility to the Russian
+alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the election for 1893 he
+was defeated for the Chamber, after having sat in it continuously since
+1876. After his defeat for the Chamber, M. Clemenceau confined his
+political activities to journalism, his career being further
+overclouded--so far as any immediate possibility of regaining his old
+ascendancy was concerned--by the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which
+he took an active and honourable part as a supporter of M. Zola and an
+opponent of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaign. In 1900 he
+withdrew from _La Justice_ to found a weekly review, _Le Bloc_, which
+lasted until March 1902. On the 6th of April 1902 he was elected senator
+for the Var, although he had previously continually demanded the
+suppression of the Senate. He sat with the Socialist Radicals, and
+vigorously supported the Combes ministry. In June 1903 he undertook the
+direction of the journal _L'Aurore_, which he had founded. In it he led
+the campaign for the revision of the Dreyfus affair, and for the
+separation of Church and State.
+
+In March 1906 the fall of the Rouvier ministry, owing to the riots
+provoked by the inventories of church property, at last brought
+Clemenceau to power as minister of the interior in the Sarrien cabinet.
+The strike of miners in the Pas de Calais after the disaster at
+Courrières, leading to the threat of disorder on the 1st of May 1906,
+obliged him to employ the military; and his attitude in the matter
+alienated the Socialist party, from which he definitely broke in his
+notable reply in the Chamber to Jean Jaurès in June 1906. This speech
+marked him out as the strong man of the day in French politics; and when
+the Sarrien ministry resigned in October, he became premier. During 1907
+and 1908 his premiership was notable for the way in which the new
+_entente_ with England was cemented, and for the successful part which
+France played in European politics, in spite of difficulties with
+Germany and attacks by the Socialist party in connexion with Morocco
+(see FRANCE: _History_). But on July 20th, 1909, he was defeated in a
+discussion in the Chamber on the state of the navy, in which bitter
+words were exchanged between him and Delcassé; and he at once resigned,
+being succeeded as premier by M. Briand, with a reconstructed cabinet.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENCÍN, DIEGO (1765-1834), Spanish scholar and politician, was born
+on the 27th of September 1765, at Murcia, and was educated there at the
+Colegio de San Fulgencio. Abandoning his intention of taking orders, he
+found employment at Madrid in 1788 as tutor to the sons of the
+countess-duchess de Benavente, and devoted himself to the study of
+archaeology. In 1807 he became editor of the _Gaceta de Madrid_, and in
+the following year was condemned to death by Murat for publishing a
+patriotic article; he fled to Cadiz, and under the Junta Central held
+various posts from which he was dismissed by the reactionary government
+of 1814. During the liberal régime of 1820-1823 Clemencín took office as
+colonial minister, was exiled till 1827, and in 1833 published the first
+volume of his edition (1833-1839) of _Don Quixote_. Its merits were
+recognized by his appointment as royal librarian, but he did not long
+enjoy his triumph: he died on the 30th of July 1834. His commentary on
+_Don Quixote_ owes something to John Bowle, and is disfigured by a
+patronizing, carping spirit; nevertheless it is the most valuable work
+of its kind, and is still unsuperseded. Clemencín is also the author of
+an interesting _Elogio de la reina Isabel la Católica_, published as the
+sixth volume of the _Memorias_ of the Spanish Academy of History, to
+which body he was elected on the 12th of September 1800.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENT (Lat. _Clemens_, i.e. merciful; Gr. [Greek: Klêmes]), the name
+of fourteen popes and two anti-popes.
+
+
+CLEMENT I., generally known as Clement of Rome, or CLEMENS ROMANUS
+(flor. c. A.D. 96), was one of the "Apostolic Fathers," and in the lists
+of bishops of Rome is given the third or fourth place--Peter, Linus,
+(Anencletus), Clement. There is no ground for identifying him with the
+Clement of Phil. iv. 3. He may have been a freedman of T. Flavius
+Clemens, who was consul with his cousin, the Emperor Domitian, in A.D.
+95. A 9th-century tradition says he was martyred in the Crimea in 102;
+earlier authorities say he died a natural death; he is commemorated on
+the 23rd of November.
+
+In _The Shepherd of Hermas_ (q.v.) (Vis. 11. iv. 3) mention is made of
+one Clement whose office it is to communicate with other churches, and
+this function agrees well with what we find in the letter to the church
+at Corinth by which Clement is best known. Whilst being on our guard
+against reading later ideas into the title "bishop" as applied to
+Clement, there is no reason to doubt that he was one of the chief
+personalities in the Christian community at Rome, where since the time
+of Paul the separate house congregations (Rom. xvi.) had been united
+into one church officered by presbyters and deacons (Clem. 40-42). The
+letter in question was occasioned by a dispute in the church of Corinth,
+which had led to the ejection of several presbyters from their office.
+It does not contain Clement's name, but is addressed by "the Church of
+God which sojourneth in Rome to the Church of God which sojourneth in
+Corinth." But there is no reason for doubting the universal tradition
+which ascribes it to Clement, or the generally accepted date, c. A.D.
+96. No claim is made by the Roman Church to interfere on any ground of
+superior rank; yet it is noteworthy that in the earliest document
+outside the canon which we can securely date, the church in the imperial
+city comes forward as a peacemaker to compose the troubles of a church
+in Greece. Nothing is known of the cause of the discontent; no moral
+offence is charged against the presbyters, and their dismissal is
+regarded by Clement as high-handed and unjustifiable, and as a revolt of
+the younger members of the community against the elder. After a
+laudatory account of the past conduct of the Corinthian Church, he
+enters upon a denunciation of vices and a praise of virtues, and
+illustrates his various topics by copious citations from the Old
+Testament scriptures. Thus he paves the way for his tardy rebuke of
+present disorders, which he reserves until two-thirds of his epistle is
+completed. Clement is exceedingly discursive, and his letter reaches
+twice the length of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Many of his general
+exhortations are but very indirectly connected with the practical issue
+to which the epistle is directed, and it is very probable that he was
+drawing largely upon the homiletical material with which he was
+accustomed to edify his fellow-Christians at Rome.
+
+This view receives some support from the long liturgical prayer at the
+close, which almost certainly represents the intercession used in the
+Roman eucharists. But we must not allow such a theory to blind us to the
+true wisdom with which the writer defers his censure. He knows that the
+roots of the quarrel lie in a wrong condition of the church's life. His
+general exhortations, courteously expressed in the first person plural,
+are directed towards a wide reformation of manners. If the wrong spirit
+can be exorcised, there is hope that the quarrel will end in a general
+desire for reconciliation. The most permanent interest of the epistle
+lies in the conception of the grounds on which the Christian ministry
+rests according to the view of a prominent teacher before the 1st
+century has closed. The orderliness of nature is appealed to as
+expressing the mind of its Creator. The orderliness of Old Testament
+worship bears a like witness; everything is duly fixed by God; high
+priests, priests and Levites, and the people in the people's place.
+Similarly in the Christian dispensation all is in order due. "The
+apostles preached the gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus
+Christ was sent from God. Christ then is from God, and the apostles from
+Christ. . . . They appointed their first-fruits, having tested them by
+the Spirit, as bishops and deacons of those who should believe. . . .
+Our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that there would be
+strife about the name of the bishop's office. For this cause therefore,
+having received perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid, and
+afterwards gave a further injunction ([Greek: heptnomên] has now the
+further evidence of the Latin _legem_) that, if these should fall
+asleep, other approved men should succeed to their ministry. . . . It
+will be no small sin in us if we eject from the bishop's office those
+who have offered the gifts blamelessly and holily" (cc. xlii. xliv.).
+
+Clement's familiarity with the Old Testament points to his being a
+Christian of long standing rather than a recent convert. We learn from
+his letter (i. 7) that the church at Rome, though suffering persecution,
+was firmly held together by faith and love, and was exhibiting its unity
+in an orderly worship. The epistle was publicly read from time to time
+at Corinth, and by the 4th century this usage had spread to other
+churches. We even find it attached to the famous Alexandrian MS. (Codex
+A) of the New Testament, but this does not imply that it ever reached
+canonical rank. For the mass of early Christian literature that was
+gradually attached to his name see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE.
+
+  The epistle was published in 1633 by Patrick Young from Cod.
+  Alexandrinus, in which a leaf near the end was missing, so that the
+  great prayer (cc. lv.-lxiv.) remained unknown. In 1875 (six years
+  after J.B. Lightfoot's first edition) Bryennius (q.v.) published a
+  complete text from the MS. in Constantinople (dated 1055), from which
+  in 1883 he gave us the _Didaché_. In 1876 R.L. Bensly found a complete
+  Syriac text in a MS. recently obtained by the University library at
+  Cambridge. Lightfoot made use of these new materials in an Appendix
+  (1877); his second edition, on which he had been at work at the time
+  of his death, came out in 1890. This must remain the standard edition,
+  notwithstanding Dom Morin's most interesting discovery of a Latin
+  version (1894), which was probably made in the 3rd century, and is a
+  valuable addition to the authorities for the text. Its evidence is
+  used in a small edition of the epistle by R. Knopf (Leipzig, 1899).
+  See also W. Wrede, _Untersuchungen zum ersten Clemensbrief_ (1891),
+  and the other literature cited in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_,
+  vol. iv.    (A. J. G.; J. A. R.)
+
+
+CLEMENT II. (Suidger) became pope on the 25th of December 1046. He
+belonged to a noble Saxon family, was bishop of Bamberg, and chancellor
+to the emperor Henry III., to whom he was indebted for his elevation to
+the papacy upon the abdication of Gregory VI. He was the first pope
+placed on the throne by the power of the German emperors, but his short
+pontificate was only signalized by the convocation of a council in which
+decrees were enacted against simony. He died on the 9th of October 1047,
+and was buried at Bamberg.    (L. D.*)
+
+
+CLEMENT III. (Paolo Scolari), pope from 1187 to 1191, a Roman, was made
+cardinal bishop of Palestrina by Alexander III. in 1180 or 1181. On the
+19th of December 1187 he was chosen at Pisa to succeed Gregory VIII. On
+the 31st of May 1188 he concluded a treaty with the Romans which removed
+difficulties of long standing, and in April 1189 he made peace with the
+emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa. He settled a controversy with William
+of Scotland concerning the choice of the archbishop of St Andrews, and
+on the 13th of March 1188 removed the Scottish church from under the
+legatine jurisdiction of the archbishop of York, thus making it
+independent of all save Rome. In spite of his conciliatory policy,
+Clement angered Henry VI. of Germany by bestowing Sicily on Tancred. The
+crisis was acute when the pope died, probably in the latter part of
+March 1191.
+
+  See "Epistolae et Privilegia," in J.P. Migne, _Patrologiae cursus
+  completes_, tom. 204 (Paris, 1853), 1253 ff.; additional material in
+  _Neues Archiv für die ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde_, 2. 219; 6.
+  293; 14. 178-182; P. Jaffé, _Regesta Pontificum Romanorum_, tom. 2
+  (2nd edition, Leipzig, 1888), 535 ff.    (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+CLEMENT IV. (Gui Foulques), pope from 1265 to 1268, son of a successful
+lawyer and judge, was born at St Gilles-sur-Rhône. He studied law, and
+became a valued adviser of Louis IX. of France. He married, and was the
+father of two daughters, but after the death of his wife took orders. In
+1257 he became bishop of Le Puy; in 1259 he was elected archbishop of
+Narbonne; and on the 24th of December 1261 Urban IV. created him
+cardinal bishop of Sabina. He was appointed legate in England on the
+22nd of November 1263, and before his return was elected pope at Perugia
+on the 5th of February 1265. On the 26th of February he invested Charles
+of Anjou with the kingdom of Sicily; but subsequently he came into
+conflict with Charles, especially after the death of Manfred in February
+1266. To the cruelty and avarice of Charles he opposed a generous
+humanity. When Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, appeared in Italy
+the pope excommunicated him and his supporters, but it is improbable
+that he was in the remotest degree responsible for his execution. At
+Viterbo, where he spent most of his pontificate, Clement died on the
+29th of November 1268, leaving a name unsullied by nepotism. As the
+benefactor and protector of Roger Bacon he has a special title to the
+gratitude of posterity.
+
+  See A. Potthast, _Regesta Pontificum Romanorum_, vol. ii. (Berlin,
+  l875). 1542 ff.; E. Jordan, _Les Régistres de Clement IV_ (Paris, 1893
+  ff.); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_ (3rd ed., vol. iv., Leipzig,
+  1898), 144 f.; J. Heidemann, _Papst Clemens IV., I. Teil: Das Vorleben
+  des Papstes und sein Legationsregister = Kirchengeschichtliche
+  Studien, herausgegeben von Knöpfler_, &c., 6. Band, 4. Heft (Münster,
+  1903), reprints _Processus legationis in Angliam_.    (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+CLEMENT V. (Bertrand de Gouth), pope from 1305 to 1314, was born of a
+noble Gascon family about 1264. After studying the arts at Toulouse and
+law at Orleans and Bologna, he became a canon at Bordeaux and then
+vicar-general to his brother the archbishop of Lyons, who in 1294 was
+created cardinal bishop of Albano. Bertrand was made a chaplain to
+Boniface VIII., who in 1295 nominated him bishop of Cominges (Haute
+Garonne), and in 1299 translated him to the archbishopric of Bordeaux.
+Because he attended the synod at Rome in 1302 in the controversy between
+France and the Pope, he was considered a supporter of Boniface VIII.,
+yet was by no means unfavourably regarded at the French court. At
+Perugia on the 5th of June 1305 he was chosen to succeed Benedict XI;
+the cardinals by a vote of ten to five electing one neither an Italian
+nor a cardinal, in order to end a conclave which had lasted eleven
+months. The chronicler Villani relates that Bertrand owed his election
+to a secret agreement with Philip IV., made at St Jean d'Angély in
+Saintonge; this may be dismissed as gossip, but it is probable that the
+future pope had to accept certain conditions laid down by the cardinals.
+At Bordeaux Bertrand was formally notified of his election and urged to
+come to Italy; but he caused his coronation to take place at Lyons on
+the 14th of November 1305. From the beginning Clement V. was subservient
+to French interests. Among his first acts was the creation of nine
+French cardinals. Early in 1306 he modified or explained away those
+features of the bulls _Clericis Laicos_ and _Unam sanctam_ which were
+particularly offensive to the king. Most of the year 1306 he spent at
+Bordeaux because of ill-health; subsequently he resided at Poitiers and
+elsewhere, and in March 1309 the entire papal court settled at Avignon,
+an imperial fief held by the king of Sicily. Thus began the seventy
+years "Babylonian captivity of the Church." On the 13th of October 1307
+came the arrest of all the Knights Templar in France, the breaking of a
+storm conjured up by royal jealousy and greed. From the very day of
+Clement's coronation the king had charged the Templars with heresy,
+immorality and abuses, and the scruples of the weak pope were at length
+overcome by apprehension lest the State should not wait for the Church,
+but should proceed independently against the alleged heretics, as well
+as by the royal threats of pressing the accusation of heresy against the
+late Boniface VIII. In pursuance of the king's wishes Clement summoned
+the council of Vienne (see VIENNE, COUNCIL OF), which was unable to
+conclude that the Templars were guilty of heresy. The pope abolished the
+order, however, as it seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived its
+usefulness. Its French estates were granted to the Hospitallers, but
+actually Philip IV. held them until his death.
+
+In his relations to the Empire Clement was an opportunist. He refused to
+use his full influence in favour of the candidacy of Charles of Valois,
+brother of Philip IV., lest France became too powerful; and recognized
+Henry of Luxemburg, whom his representatives crowned emperor at the
+Lateran in 1312. When Henry, however, came into conflict with Robert of
+Naples, Clement supported Robert and threatened the emperor with ban and
+interdict. But the crisis passed with the unexpected death of Henry,
+soon followed by that of the pope on the 20th of April 1314 at
+Roquemaure-sur-Rhône. Though the sale of offices and oppressive taxation
+which disgraced his pontificate may in part be explained by the
+desperate condition of the papal finances and by his saving up gold for
+a crusade, nevertheless he indulged in unbecoming pomp. Showing
+favouritism toward his family and his nation, he brought untold
+disaster on the Church.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY--See "Clementis V. . . . et aliorum epistolae," in S.
+  Baluzius, _Vitae Paparum Avenionensium_, tom. ii. (Paris, 1693), 55
+  ff.; "Tractatus cum Henrico VII. imp. Germ. anno 1309," in Pertz,
+  _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, legum ii. I. 492-496; J.F. Rabanis,
+  _Clément V et Philippe le Bel. Suivie du journal de la visite
+  pastorale de Bertrand de Got dans la province ecclésiastique de
+  Bordeaux en 1304 et 1305_ (Paris, 1858); "Clementis Papae V.
+  Constitutiones," in _Corpus Iuris Canonici_, ed. Aemilius Friedberg,
+  vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1881), 1125-1200; P.B. Gams, _Series Episcoporum
+  Ecclesiae Catholicae_ (Regensburg, 1873); Wetzer und Welte,
+  _Kirchenlexikon_, vol. iii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1884), 462-473;
+  _Regestum Clementis Papae V. ex Vaticanis archetypis cura et studio
+  monachorum ord. Ben._ (Rome, 1885-1892), 9 vols. and appendix; J.
+  Gmelin, _Schuld oder Unschuld des Templerordens_ (Stuttgart, 1893);
+  Gachon, _Pièces relatifs au débat du pape Clément V avec l'empéreur
+  Henri VII_ (Montpellier 1894); Lacoste, _Nouvelles Études sur Clément
+  V_ (1896); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie_, vol. iv. (3rd ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1898), 144 f.; J. Loserth, _Geschichte des späteren
+  Mittelalters_ (Munich, 1903); and A. Eitel, _Der Kirchenstaat unter
+  Klemens V._ (Berlin, 1907).    (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+CLEMENT VI. (Pierre Roger), pope from the 7th of May 1342 to the 6th of
+December 1352, was born at Maumont in Limousin in 1291, the son of the
+wealthy lord of Rosières, entered the Benedictine order as a boy,
+studied at Paris, and became successively prior of St Baudil, abbot of
+Fécamp, bishop of Arras, chancellor of France, archbishop of Sens and
+archbishop of Rouen. He was made cardinal-priest of Sti Nereo ed
+Achilleo and administrator of the bishopric of Avignon by Benedict XII.
+in 1338, and four years later succeeded him as pope. He continued to
+reside at Avignon despite the arguments of envoys and the verses of
+Petrarch, but threw a sop to the Romans by reducing the Jubilee term
+from one hundred years to fifty. He appointed Cola di Rienzo to a civil
+position at Rome, and, although at first approving the establishment of
+the tribunate, he later sent a legate who excommunicated Rienzo and,
+with the help of the aristocratic faction, drove him from the city
+(December 1347). Clement continued the struggle of his predecessors with
+the emperor Louis the Bavarian, excommunicating him after protracted
+negotiations on the 13th of April 1346, and directing the election of
+Charles of Moravia, who received general recognition after the death of
+Louis in October 1347, and put an end to the schism which had long
+divided Germany. Clement proclaimed a crusade in 1343, but nothing was
+accomplished beyond a naval attack on Smyrna (29th of October 1344). He
+also carried on fruitless negotiations for church unity with the
+Armenians and with the Greek emperor, John Cantacuzenus. He tried to end
+the Hundred Years' War between England and France, but secured only a
+temporary truce. He excommunicated Casimir of Poland for marital
+infidelity and forced him to do penance. He successfully resisted
+encroachments on ecclesiastical jurisdiction by the kings of England,
+Castile and Aragon. He made Prague an archbishopric in 1344, and three
+years later founded the university there. During the disastrous plague
+of 1347-1348 Clement did all he could to alleviate the distress, and
+condemned the Flagellants and Jew-baiters. He tried Queen Joanna of
+Naples for the murder of her husband and acquitted her. He secured full
+ownership of the county of Avignon through purchase from Queen Joanna
+(9th of June 1348) and renunciation of feudal claims by Charles IV. of
+France, and considerably enlarged the papal palace in that city. To
+supply money for his many undertakings Clement revived the practice of
+selling reservations and expectancies, which had been abolished by his
+predecessor. Oppressive taxation and unblushing nepotism were Clement's
+great faults. On the other hand, he was famed for his engaging manners,
+eloquence and theological learning. He died on the 6th of December 1352,
+and was buried in the Benedictine abbey at Auvergne, but his tomb was
+destroyed by Calvinists in 1562. His successor was Innocent VI.
+
+  The chief sources for the life of Clement VI. are in Baluzius, _Vitae
+  Pap. Avenion._, vol. i. (Paris, 1693); E. Werunsky, _Excerpta ex
+  registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI._ (Innsbruck, 1885); and F.
+  Cerasoli, _Clemente VI. e Giovanni I. di Napoli--Documenti inedite
+  dell' Archivio Vaticano_ (1896, &c).
+
+  See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans, by F.I.
+  Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_,
+  vol. vi. trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J.B.
+  Christophe, _Histoire de la papauté pendant le XIVe siècle_, vol. ii.
+  (Paris, 1853); also article by L. Küpper in the _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd
+  ed.). (C.H.HA.)
+
+
+CLEMENT VII. (Robert of Geneva), (d. 1394), antipope, brother of Peter,
+count of Genevois, was connected by blood or marriage with most of the
+sovereigns of Europe. After occupying the episcopal sees of Thérouanne
+and Cambrai, he attained to the cardinalate at an early age. In 1377, as
+legate of Pope Gregory XI. in the Romagna, he directed, or rather
+assisted in, the savage suppression of the revolt of the inhabitants of
+Cesena against the papal authority. In the following year he took part
+in the election of Pope Urban VI. at Rome, and was perhaps the first to
+express doubts as to the validity of that tumultuous election. After
+withdrawing to Fondi to reconsider the election, the cardinals finally
+resolved to regard Urban as an intruder and the Holy See as still
+vacant, and an almost unanimous vote was given in favour of Robert of
+Geneva (20th of September 1378), who took the name of Clement VII. Thus
+originated the Great Schism of the West.
+
+To his high connexions and his adroitness, as well as to the gross
+mistakes of his rival, Clement owed the immediate support of Queen
+Joanna of Naples and of several of the Italian barons; and the king of
+France, Charles V., who seems to have been sounded beforehand on the
+choice of the Roman pontiff, soon became his warmest protector. Clement
+eventually succeeded in winning to his cause Scotland, Castile, Aragon,
+Navarre, a great part of the Latin East, and Flanders. He had adherents,
+besides, scattered through Germany, while Portugal on two occasions
+acknowledged him, but afterwards forsook him. From Avignon, however,
+where he had immediately fixed his residence, his eyes were always
+turned towards Italy, his purpose being to wrest Rome from his rival. To
+attain this end he lavished his gold--or rather the gold provided by the
+clergy in his obedience--without stint, and conceived a succession of
+the most adventurous projects, of which one at least was to leave a
+lasting mark on history.
+
+By the bait of a kingdom to be carved expressly out of the States of the
+Church and to be called the kingdom of Adria, coupled with the
+expectation of succeeding to Queen Joanna, Clement incited Louis, duke
+of Anjou, the eldest of the brothers of Charles V., to take arms in his
+favour. These tempting offers gave rise to a series of expeditions into
+Italy carried out almost exclusively at Clement's expense, in the first
+of which Louis lost his life. These enterprises on several occasions
+planted Angevin domination in the south of the Italian peninsula, and
+their most decisive result was the assuring of Provence to the dukes of
+Anjou and afterwards to the kings of France. After the death of Louis,
+Clement hoped to find equally brave and interested champions in Louis'
+son and namesake; in Louis of Orleans, the brother of Charles VI.; in
+Charles VI. himself; and in John III., count of Armagnac. The prospect
+of his briliant progress to Rome was ever before his eyes; and in his
+thoughts force of arms, of French arms, was to be the instrument of his
+glorious triumph over his competitor.
+
+There came a time, however, when Clement and more particularly his
+following had to acknowledge the vanity of these illusive dreams; and
+before his death, which took place on the 16th of September 1394, he
+realized the impossibility of overcoming by brute force an opposition
+which was founded on the convictions of the greater part of Catholic
+Europe, and discerned among his adherents the germs of disaffection. By
+his vast expenditure, ascribable not only to his wars in Italy, his
+incessant embassies, and the necessity of defending himself in the
+Comtat Venaissin against the incursions of the adventurous Raymond of
+Turenne, but also to his luxurious tastes and princely habits, as well
+as by his persistent refusal to refer the question of the schism to a
+council, he incurred general reproach. Unity was the crying need; and
+men began to fasten upon him the responsibility of the hateful schism,
+not on the score of insincerity--which would have been very unjust,--but
+by reason of his obstinate persistence in the course he had chosen.
+
+  See N. Valois, _La France el le grand schisme d'occident_ (Paris,
+  1896). (N.V.)
+
+
+CLEMENT VII. (Giulio de' Medici), pope from 1523 to 1534, was the son of
+Giuliano de' Medici, assassinated in the conspiracy of the Pazzi at
+Florence, and of a certain Fioretta, daughter of Antonia. Being left an
+orphan he was taken into his own house by Lorenzo the Magnificent and
+educated with his sons. In 1494 Giulio went with them into exile; but,
+on Giovanni's restoration to power, returned to Florence, of which he
+was made archbishop by his cousin Pope Leo X., a special dispensation
+being granted on account of his illegitimate birth, followed by a formal
+declaration of the fact that his parents had been secretly married and
+that he was therefore legitimate. On the 23rd of September 1513 the pope
+conferred on him the title of cardinal and made him legate at Bologna.
+During the reign of the pleasure-loving Leo, Cardinal Giulio had
+practically the whole papal government in his hands and displayed all
+the qualities of a good administrator; and when, on the death of Adrian
+VI.--whose election he had done most to secure--he was chosen pope (Nov.
+18, 1523), his accession was hailed as the dawn of a happier era. It
+soon became clear, however, that the qualities which had made Clement an
+excellent second in command were not equal to the exigencies of supreme
+power at a time of peculiar peril and difficulty.
+
+Though free from the grosser vices of his predecessors, a man of taste,
+and economical without being avaricious, Clement VII. was essentially a
+man of narrow outlook and interests. He failed to understand the great
+spiritual movement which was convulsing the Church; and instead of
+bending his mind to the problem of the Reformation, he from the first
+subordinated the cause of Catholicism and of the world to his interests
+as an Italian prince and a Medici. Even in these purely secular affairs,
+moreover, his timidity and indecision prevented him from pursuing a
+consistent policy; and his ill fortune, or his lack of judgment, placed
+him, as long as he had the power of choice, ever on the losing side.
+
+Clement's accession at once brought about a political change in favour
+of France; yet he was unable to take a strong line, and wavered between
+the emperor and Francis I., concluding a treaty of alliance with the
+French king, and then, when the crushing defeat of Pavia had shown him
+his mistake, making his peace with Charles (April 1, 1525), only to
+break it again by countenancing Girolamo Morone's League of Freedom, of
+which the aim was to assert the independence of Italy from foreign
+powers. On the betrayal of this conspiracy Clement made a fresh
+submission to the emperor, only to follow this, a year later, by the
+Holy League of Cognac with Francis I. (May 22, 1526). Then followed the
+imperial invasion of Italy and Bourbon's sack of Rome (May 1527) which
+ended the Augustan age of the papal city in a horror of fire and blood.
+The pope himself was besieged in the castle of St Angelo, compelled on
+the 6th of June to ransom himself with a payment of 400,000 scudi, and
+kept in confinement until, on the 26th of November, he accepted the
+emperor's terms, which besides money payments included the promise to
+convene a general council to deal with Lutheranism. On the 6th of
+December Clement escaped, before the day fixed for his liberation, to
+Orvieto, and at once set to work to establish peace. After the signature
+of the treaty of Cambrai on the 3rd of August 1529 Charles met Clement
+at Bologna and received from him the imperial crown and the iron crown
+of Lombardy. The pope was now restored to the greater part of his
+temporal power; but for some years it was exercised in subservience to
+the emperor. During this period Clement was mainly occupied in urging
+Charles to arrest the progress of the Reformation in Germany and in
+efforts to elude the emperor's demand for a general council, which
+Clement feared lest the question of the mode of his election and his
+legitimacy should be raised. It was due to his dependence on Charles V.,
+rather than to any conscientious scruples, that Clement evaded Henry
+VIII.'s demand for the nullification of his marriage with Catherine of
+Aragon, and so brought about the breach between England and Rome. Some
+time before his death, however, the dynastic interests of his family led
+him once more to a rapprochement with France. On the 9th of June 1531 an
+agreement was signed for the marriage of Henry of Orleans with
+Catherine de' Medici; but it was not till October 1533 that Clement met
+Francis at Marseilles, the wedding being celebrated on the 27th. Before,
+however, the new political alliance, thus cemented, could take effect,
+Clement died, on the 25th of September 1534.
+
+  See E. Casanova, _Lettere di Carlo V. a Clemente VII._ (Florence,
+  1893); Hugo Lämmer, _Monumenta Vaticana_, &c (Freiburg, 1861); P.
+  Balan, _Monumenta saeculi XVI. hist. illustr._ (Innsbruck, 1885); ib.
+  _Mon. Reform. Luther_ (Regensburg, 1884); Stefan Ehses, _Röm. Dokum.
+  z. Gesch. der Ehescheidung Heinrichs VIII._ (Paderborn, 1893);
+  _Calendar of State Papers_ (London, 1869, &c.); J.J.I. von Döllinger,
+  _Beiträge zur politischen, kirchlichen und Kulturgeschichte_ (3 vols.,
+  Vienna, 1882); F. Guicciardini, _Istoria d'Italia_; L. von Ranke, _Die
+  römischen Päpste in den letzten vier Jahrhunderten_, and _Deutsche
+  Gesch. im Zeitalter der Reformation_; W. Hellwig, _Die politischen
+  Beziehungen Clements VII. zu Karl V., 1526_ (Leipzig, 1889); H.
+  Baumgarten, _Gesch. Karls V._ (Stuttgart, 1888); F. Gregorovius,
+  _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. viii. p. 414. (2nd ed., 1874); P.
+  Balan, _Clemente VII. e l' Italia de' suoi tempi_ (Milan, 1887); E.
+  Armstrong, _Charles the Fifth_ (2 vols., London, 1902); M. Creighton,
+  _Hist. of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation_ (London,
+  1882); and H.M. Vaughan, _The Medici Popes_ (1908). Further references
+  will be found in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopädie, s. Clemens VII_. See
+  also _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ii. chap. i. and bibliography.
+     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+CLEMENT VIII. (Aegidius Muñoz), antipope from 1425 to the 26th of July
+1429, was a canon at Barcelona until elected at Peñiscola by three
+cardinals whom the stubborn antipope Benedict XIII. had named on his
+death-bed. Clement was immediately recognized by Alphonso V. of Aragon,
+who was hostile to Pope Martin V. on account of the latter's opposition
+to his claims to the kingdom of Naples, but abdicated as soon as an
+agreement was reached between Alphonso and Martin through the exertions
+of Cardinal Pierre de Foix, an able diplomat and relation of the king's.
+Clement spent his last years as bishop of Majorca, and died on the 28th
+of December 1446.
+
+  See. L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i. trans, by F.I.
+  Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol.
+  ii. (London, 1899); and consult bibliography on MARTIN V. (C.H.HA.)
+
+
+CLEMENT VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope from 1592 to 1605, was born
+at Fano, in 1535. He became a jurist and filled several important
+offices. In 1585 he was made a cardinal, and subsequently discharged a
+delicate mission to Poland with skill. His moderation and experience
+commended him to his fellow cardinals, and on the 30th of January 1592
+he was elected pope, to succeed Innocent IX. While not hostile to Philip
+II., Clement desired to emancipate the papacy from undue Spanish
+influence, and to that end cultivated closer relations with France. In
+1595 he granted absolution to Henry IV., and so removed the last
+objection to the acknowledgment of his legitimacy. The peace of Vervins
+(1598), which marked the end of Philip's opposition to Henry, was mainly
+the work of the pope. Clement also entertained hopes of recovering
+England. He corresponded with James I. and with his queen, Anne of
+Denmark, a convert to Catholicism. But James was only half in earnest,
+and, besides, dared not risk a breach with his subjects. Upon the
+failure of the line of Este, Clement claimed the reversion of Ferrara
+and reincorporated it into the States of the Church (1598). He
+remonstrated against the exclusion of the Jesuits from France, and
+obtained their readmission. But in their doctrinal controversy with the
+Dominicans (see MOLINA, LUIS) he refrained from a decision, being
+unwilling to offend either party. Under Clement the publication of the
+revised edition of the Vulgate, begun by Sixtus V., was finished; the
+Breviary, Missal and Pontifical received certain corrections; the Index
+was expanded; the Vatican library enlarged; and the Collegium
+Clementinum founded. Clement was an unblushing nepotist; three of his
+nephews he made cardinals, and to one of them gradually surrendered the
+control of affairs. But on the other hand among those whom he promoted
+to the cardinalate were such men as Baronius, Bellarmine and Toledo.
+During this pontificate occurred the burning of Giordano Bruno for
+heresy; and the tragedy of the Cenci (see the respective articles).
+Clement died on the 5th of March 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XI.
+
+  See the contemporary life by Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum
+  Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1601-1602); Francolini, _Ippolito Aldobrandini,
+  che fu Clemente VIII._ (Perugia, 1867); Ranke's excellent sketch,
+  _Popes_ (Eng. trans. Austin), ii. 234 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der
+  Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 599 seq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des Kirchenstaates_
+  (1880), i. 301 seq.    (T. F. C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi) was born in 1600, became successively
+auditor of the Rota, archbishop of Tarsus _in partibus_, and cardinal,
+and was elected pope on the 20th of June 1667. He effected a temporary
+adjustment of the Jansenist controversy; was instrumental in concluding
+the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668); healed a long-standing breach
+between the Holy See and Portugal; aided Venice against the Turks, and
+laboured unceasingly for the relief of Crete, the fall of which hastened
+his death on the 9th of October 1669.
+
+  See Oldoin, continuator of Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum
+  Pontiff. Rom._; Palazzi, _Gesta Pontiff. Rom._ (Venice, 1687-1688),
+  iv. 621 seq. (both contemporary); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans. Austin),
+  iii. 59 seq.; and v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 634 seq.
+  (T.F.C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT X. (Emilio Altieri) was born in Rome, on the 13th of July 1590.
+Before becoming pope, on the 29th of April 1670 he had been auditor in
+Poland, governor of Ancona, and nuncio in Naples. His advanced age
+induced him to resign the control of affairs to his adopted nephew,
+Cardinal Paluzzi, who embroiled the papacy in disputes with the resident
+ambassadors, and incurred the enmity of Louis XIV., thus provoking the
+long controversy over the regalia (see INNOCENT XI.). Clement died on
+the 22nd of July 1676.
+
+  See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751),
+  (contin. of Ciaconius), i. 1 seq.; Palazzi, _Gesta Pontiff. Rom._
+  (Venice, 1687-1688), iv. 655 seq.; and Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans.
+  Austin), iii. 172 seq. (T.F.C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT XI (Giovanni Francesco Albani), pope from 1700 to 1721, was born
+in Urbino, on the 22nd of July 1649, received an extraordinary education
+in letters, theology and law, filled various important offices in the
+Curia, and finally, on the 23rd of November 1700, succeeded Innocent
+XII. as pope. His private life and his administration were blameless,
+but it was his misfortune to reign in troublous times. In the war of the
+Spanish Succession he would willingly have remained neutral, but found
+himself between two fires, forced first to recognize Philip V., then
+driven by the emperor to recognize the Archduke Charles. In the peace of
+Utrecht he was ignored; Sardinia and Sicily, Parma and Piacenza, were
+disposed of without regard to papal claims. When he quarrelled with the
+duke of Savoy, and revoked his investiture rights in Sicily (1715), his
+interdict was treated with contempt. The prestige of the papacy had
+hardly been lower within two centuries. About 1702 the Jansenist
+controversy broke out afresh. Clement reaffirmed the infallibility of
+the pope, in matters of _fact_ (1705), and, in 1713, issued the bull
+_Unigenitus_, condemning 101 Jansenistic propositions extracted from the
+_Moral Reflections_ of Pasquier Quesnel. The rejection of this bull by
+certain bishops led to a new party division and a further prolonging of
+the controversy (see JANSENISM and QUESNEL, PASQUIER). Clement also
+forbade the practice of the Jesuit missionaries in China of
+"accommodating" their teachings to pagan notions or customs, in order to
+win converts. Clement was a polished writer, and a generous patron of
+art and letters. He died on the 19th of March 1721.
+
+  For contemporary lives see Elci, _The Present State of the Court of
+  Rome_, trans, from the Ital. (London, 1706); Polidoro, _De Vita et
+  Reb. Gest. Clem. XI._ (Urbino, 1727); Reboulet, _Hist. de Clem. XI.
+  Pape_ (Avignon, 1752); Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gest. Pontiff. Rom._
+  (Rome, 1751); Sandini, _Vitae Pontiff Rom._ (Padua, 1739); Buder,
+  _Leben u. Thaten Clementis XI._ (Frankfort, 1720-1721). See also
+  _Clementis XI. Opera Omnia_ (Frankfort, 1729); the detailed "Studii
+  sul pontificato di Clem. XI.," by Pometti in the _Archivio della R.
+  Soc. romana di storia patria_, vols. 21, 22, 23 (1898-1900), and the
+  extended bibliography in Hergenröther, _Allg. Kirchengesch._ (1880),
+  iii. 506.    (T. F. C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT XII. (Lorenzo Corsini), pope from 1730 to 1740, succeeded
+Benedict XIII. on the 12th of July 1730, at the age of seventy-eight.
+The rascally Cardinal Coscia, who had deluded Benedict, was at once
+brought to justice and forced to disgorge his dishonest gains.
+Politically the papacy had sunk to the level of pitiful helplessness,
+unable to resist the aggressions of the Powers, who ignored or coerced
+it at will. Yet Clement entertained high hopes for Catholicism; he
+laboured for a union with the Greek Church, and was ready to facilitate
+the return of the Protestants of Saxony. He deserves well of posterity
+for his services to learning and art; the restoration of the Arch of
+Constantine; the enrichment of the Capitoline museum with antique
+marbles and inscriptions, and of the Vatican library With oriental
+manuscripts (see ASSEMANI); and the embellishment of the city with many
+buildings. He died on the 6th of February 1740, and was succeeded by
+Benedict XIV.
+
+  See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751);
+  Sandini, _Vitae Pontiff. Rom._ (Padua, 1739); Fabroni, _De Vita et
+  Reb. Gest. Clementis XII_. (Rome, 1760); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans.
+  Austin), iii. 191 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2,
+  653 seq. (T.F.C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT XIII. (Carlo della Torre Rezzonico), pope from 1758 to 1769, was
+born in Venice, on the 7th of March 1693, filled various important posts
+in the Curia, became cardinal in 1737, bishop of Padua in 1743, and
+succeeded Benedict XIV. as pope on the 6th of July 1758. He was a man of
+upright, moderate and pacific intentions, but his pontificate of eleven
+years was anything but tranquil. The Jesuits had fallen upon evil days;
+in 1758 Pombal expelled them from Portugal; his example was followed by
+the Bourbon countries--France, Spain, the Two Sicilies and Parma
+(1764-1768). The order turned to the pope as its natural protector; but
+his protests (cf. the bull _Apostolicum pascendi munus_, 7th of January
+1765) were unheeded (see JESUITS). A clash with Parma occurred to
+aggravate his troubles. The Bourbon kings espoused their relative's
+quarrel, seized Avignon, Benevento and Ponte Corvo, and united in a
+peremptory demand for the suppression of the Jesuits (January 1769).
+Driven to extremities, Clement consented to call a Consistory to
+consider the step, but on the very eve of the day set for its meeting he
+died (2nd of February 1769), not without suspicion of poison, of which,
+however, there appears to be no conclusive evidence.
+
+  A contemporary account of Clement was written by Augustin de Andrès y
+  Sobiñas, ... _el nacimiento, estudios y empleos de ... Clem. XIII_.
+  (Madrid, 1759). Ravignan's _Clement XIII. e Clement XIV._ (Paris,
+  1854) is partisan but free from rancour; and appends many interesting
+  documents. See also the bibliographical note under Clement XIV.
+  _infra_.; and the extended bibliography in Hergenröther, _Allg.
+  Kirchengesch._ (1880), iii. 509.    (T. F. C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT XIV. (Lorenzo Ganganelli), pope from 1769 to 1774, son of a
+physician of St Arcangelo, near Rimini, was born on the 31st of October
+1705, entered the Franciscan order at the age of seventeen, and became a
+teacher of theology and philosophy. As regent of the college of S.
+Bonaventura, Rome, he came under the notice of Benedict XIV., who
+conceived a high opinion of his talents and made him consulter of the
+Inquisition. Upon the recommendation of Ricci, general of the Jesuits,
+Clement XIII. made him a cardinal; but, owing to his disapproval of the
+pope's policy, he found himself out of favour and without influence. The
+conclave following the death of Clement XIII. was the most momentous of
+at least two centuries. The fate of the Jesuits hung in the balance; and
+the Bourbon princes were determined to have a pope subservient to their
+hostile designs. The struggle was prolonged three months. At length, on
+the 19th of May 1769, Ganganelli was chosen, not as a declared enemy of
+the Jesuits, but as being least objectionable to each of the contending
+factions. The charge of simony was inspired by Jesuit hatred; there is
+absolutely no evidence that Ganganelli pledged himself to suppress the
+order.
+
+The outlook for the papacy was dark; Portugal was talking of a
+patriarchate; France held Avignon; Naples held Ponte Corvo and
+Benevento; Spain was ill-affected; Parma, defiant; Venice, aggressive;
+Poland meditating a restriction of the rights of the nuncio. Clement
+realized the imperative necessity of conciliating the powers. He
+suspended the public reading of the bull _In Coena Domini_, so obnoxious
+to civil authority; resumed relations with Portugal; revoked the
+_monitorium_ of his predecessor against Parma. But the powers were bent
+upon the destruction of the Jesuits, and they had the pope at their
+mercy. Clement looked abroad for help, but found none. Even Maria
+Theresa, his last hope, suppressed the order in Austria. Temporizing
+and partial concessions were of no avail. At last, convinced that the
+peace of the Church demanded the sacrifice, Clement signed the brief
+_Dominus ac Redemptor_, dissolving the order, on the 21st of July 1773.
+The powers at once gave substantial proof of their satisfaction;
+Benevento, Ponte Corvo, Avignon and the Venaissin were restored to the
+Holy See. But it would be unfair to accept this as evidence of a
+bargain. Clement had formerly indignantly rejected the suggestion of
+such an exchange of favours.
+
+There is no question of the legality of the pope's act; whether he was
+morally culpable, however, continues to be a matter of bitter
+controversy. On the one hand, the suppression is denounced as a base
+surrender to the forces of tyranny and irreligion, an act of treason to
+conscience, which reaped its just punishment of remorse; on the other
+hand, it is as ardently maintained that Clement acted in full accord
+with his conscience, and that the order merited its fate by its own
+mischievous activities which made it an offence to religion and
+authority alike. But whatever the guilt or innocence of the Jesuits, and
+whether their suppression were ill-advised or not, there appears to be
+no ground for impeaching the motives of Clement, or of doubting that he
+had the approval of his conscience. The stories of his having swooned
+after signing the brief, and of having lost hope and even reason, are
+too absurd to be entertained. The decline in health, which set in
+shortly after the suppression, and his death (on the 22nd of September
+1774) proceeded from wholly natural causes. The testimony of his
+physician and of his confessor ought to be sufficient to discredit the
+oft-repeated story of slow poisoning (see Duhr, _Jesuiten Fabeln_, 4th
+ed., 1904, pp. 69 seq.).
+
+The suppression of the Jesuits bulks so large in the pontificate of
+Clement that he has scarcely been given due credit for his praiseworthy
+attempt to reduce the burdens of taxation and to reform the financial
+administration, nor for his liberal encouragement of art and learning,
+of which the museum Pio-Clementino is a lasting monument.
+
+No pope has been the subject of more diverse judgments than Clement XIV.
+Zealous defenders credit him with all virtues, and bless him as the
+instrument divinely ordained to restore the peace of the Church;
+virulent detractors charge him with ingratitude, cowardice and
+double-dealing. The truth is at neither extreme. Clement's was a deeply
+religious and poetical nature, animated by a lofty and refined spirit.
+Gentleness, equanimity and benevolence were native to him. He cherished
+high purposes and obeyed a lively conscience. But he instinctively
+shrank from conflict; he lacked the resoluteness and the sterner sort of
+courage that grapples with a crisis.
+
+  Caraccioli's _Vie de Clément XIV_ (Paris, 1775) (freq. translated), is
+  incomplete, uncritical and too laudatory. The middle of the 19th
+  century saw quite a spirited controversy over Clement XIV.; St Priest,
+  in his _Hist. de la chute des Jésuites_ (Paris, 1846), represented
+  Clement as lamentably, almost culpably, weak; Cretineau-Joly, in his
+  _Hist. ... de la Comp. de Jésus_ (Paris, 1844-1845), and his _Clément
+  XIV et les Jésuites_ (Paris, 1847), was outspoken and bitter in his
+  condemnation; this provoked Theiner's _Gesch. des Pontificats Clemens'
+  XIV._ (Leipzig and Paris, 1852), a vigorous defence based upon
+  original documents to which, as custodian of the Vatican archives, the
+  author had freest access; Cretineau-Joly replied with _Le Pape Clément
+  XIV; Lettres au P. Theiner_ (Paris, 1852). Ravignan's _Clem. XIII. e
+  Clem. XIV._ (Paris, 1854) is a weak, half-hearted apology for Clement
+  XIV. See also v. Reumont, _Ganganelli, Papst Clemens XIV._ (Berlin,
+  1847); and Reinerding, _Clemens XIV. u. d. Aufhebung der Gesellschaft
+  Jesu_ (Augsburg, 1854). The letters of Clement have frequently been
+  printed; the genuineness of Caraccioli's collection (Paris, 1776;
+  freq. translated) has been questioned, but most of the letters are now
+  generally accepted as genuine; see also _Clementis XIV. Epp. ac
+  Brevia_, ed. Theiner (Paris, 1852). An extended bibliography is to be
+  found in Hergenröther, _Allg. Kirchengesch._ (1880), iii. 510 seq.
+     (T. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (_Clemens Alexandrinus_), Greek Father of the
+Church. The little we know of him is mainly derived from his own works.
+He was probably born about A.D. 150 of heathen parents in Athens. The
+earliest writer after himself who gives us any information with regard
+to him is Eusebius. The only points on which his works now extant inform
+us are his date and his instructors. In the _Stromateis_, while
+attempting to show that the Jewish Scriptures were older than any
+writings of the Greeks, he invariably brings down his dates to the death
+of Commodus, a circumstance which at once suggests that he wrote in the
+reign of the emperor Severus, from 193 to 211 A.D. (see _Strom._ lib. i.
+cap. xxi. 140, p. 403, Potter's edition). The passage in regard to his
+teachers is corrupt, and the sense is therefore doubtful (_Strom._ lib.
+i. cap. i. 11, p. 322, P.).
+
+  "This treatise," he says, speaking of the _Stromateis_, "has not been
+  contrived for mere display, but memoranda are treasured up in it for
+  my old age to be a remedy for forgetfulness,--an image, truly, and an
+  outline of those clear and living discourses, and those men truly
+  blessed and noteworthy I was privileged to hear. One of these was in
+  Greece, the Ionian, the other was in Magna Graecia; the one of them
+  was from Coele Syria, the other from Egypt; but there were others in
+  the East, one of whom belonged to the Assyrians, but the other was in
+  Palestine, originally a Jew. The last of those whom I met was first in
+  power. On falling in with him I found rest, having tracked him while
+  he lay concealed in Egypt. He was in truth the Sicilian bee, and,
+  plucking the flowers of the prophetic and apostolic meadow, he
+  produced a wonderfully pure knowledge in the souls of the listeners."
+
+Some have supposed that in this passage seven teachers are named, others
+that there are only five, and various conjectures have been hazarded as
+to what persons were meant. The only one about whom conjecture has any
+basis for speculating is the last, for Eusebius states (_H.E._ v. 11)
+that Clement made mention of Pantaenus as his teacher in the
+_Hypotyposes_. The reference in this passage is plainly to one whom he
+might well designate as his teacher.
+
+To the information which Clement here supplies subsequent writers add
+little. By Eusebius and Photius he is called Titus Flavius Clemens, and
+"the Alexandrian" is added to his name. Epiphanius tells us that some
+said Clement was an Alexandrian, others that he was an Athenian (_Haer._
+xxxii. 6), and a modern writer imagined that he reconciled this
+discordance by the supposition that he was born at Athens, but lived at
+Alexandria. We know nothing of his conversion except that he passed from
+heathenism to Christianity. This is expressly stated by Eusebius
+(_Praep. Evangel._ lib. ii. cap. 2), though it is likely that Eusebius
+had no other authority than the works of Clement. These works, however,
+warrant the inference. They show a singularly minute acquaintance with
+the ceremonies of pagan religion, and there are indications that Clement
+himself had been initiated in some of the mysteries (_Protrept._ cap.
+ii. sec. 14, p. 13, P.). There is no means of determining the date of
+his conversion. He attained the position of presbyter in the church of
+Alexandria (Eus. _H.E._ vi. 11, and Jerome, _De Vir. Ill._ 38), and
+became perhaps the assistant, and certainly the successor of Pantaenus
+in the catechetical school of that place. Among his pupils were Origen
+(Eus. _H.E._ vi. 7) and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem (Eus. _H.E._ vi.
+14.). How long he continued in Alexandria, and when and where he died,
+are all matters of pure conjecture. The only further notice of Clement
+that we have in history is in a letter written in 211 by Alexander,
+bishop of Jerusalem, to the Antiochians, and preserved by Eusebius
+(_H.E._ vi. 11). The words are as follows:--"This letter I sent through
+Clement the blessed presbyter, a man virtuous and tried, whom ye know
+and will come to know completely, who being here by the providence and
+guidance of the Ruler of all strengthened and increased the church of
+the Lord." A statement of Eusebius in regard to the persecution of
+Severus in 202 (_H.E._ vi. 3) would render it likely that Clement left
+Alexandria on that occasion. It is conjectured that he went to his old
+pupil Alexander, who was at that time bishop of Flaviada in Cappadocia,
+and that when his pupil was raised to the see of Jerusalem Clement
+followed him there. The letter implies that he was known to the
+Antiochians, and that it was likely he would be still better known. Some
+have conjectured that he returned to Alexandria, but there is not the
+shadow of evidence for such conjecture. Alexander, writing to Origen (c.
+216), mentions Clement as dead (Eus. _H.E._ vi. 14, 9).
+
+  Eusebius and Jerome give us lists of the works which Clement left
+  behind him. Photius has also described some of them. They are as
+  follows:--(1) [Greek: Pros Hellênas logos o protreptikos], _A
+  Hortatory Address to the Greeks_. (2) [Greek: O Paidagogos], _The
+  Tutor_, in three books. (3) [Greek: Stromateis], or _Patch-work_, in
+  eight books. (4) [Greek: Tis o sozomenos plousios]; _Who is the Rich
+  Man that is Saved?_ (5) Eight books of [Greek: Hypotyposeis],
+  _Adumbrations or Outlines._ (6) _On the Passover._ (7) _Discourses on
+  Fasting._ (8) _On Slander._ (9) _Exhortation to Patience, or to the
+  Newly Baptized._ (10) The [Greek: Kanon ekklêsiastikos], the _Rule of
+  the Church, or to those who Judaize_, a work dedicated to Alexander,
+  bishop of Jerusalem.
+
+  Of these, the first four have come down to us complete, or nearly
+  complete. The first three form together a progressive introduction to
+  Christianity corresponding to the stages through which the [Greek:
+  mystês] passed at Eleusis--purification, initiation, revelation. The
+  _Hortatory Address to the Greeks_ is an appeal to them to give up the
+  worship of their gods, and to devote themselves to the worship of the
+  one living and true God. Clement exhibits the absurdity and immorality
+  of the stories told with regard to the pagan deities, the cruelties
+  perpetrated in their worship, and the utter uselessness of bowing down
+  before images made by hands. He at the same time shows the Greeks that
+  their own greatest philosophers and poets recognized the unity of the
+  divine Being, and had caught glimpses of the true nature of God, but
+  that fuller light had been thrown on this subject by the Hebrew
+  prophets. He replies to the objection that it was not right to abandon
+  the customs of their forefathers, and points them to Christ as their
+  only safe guide to God.
+
+  The _Paedagogue_ is divided into three books. In the first Clement
+  discusses the necessity for and the true nature of the Paedagogus, and
+  shows how Christ as the Logos acted as Paedagogus, and still acts. In
+  the second and third books Clement enters into particulars, and
+  explains how the Christian following the Logos or Reason ought to
+  behave in the various circumstances of life--in eating, drinking,
+  furnishing a house, in dress, in the relations of social life, in the
+  care of the body, and similar concerns, and concludes with a general
+  description of the life of a Christian. Appended to the _Paedagogue_
+  are two hymns, which are, in all probability, the production of
+  Clement, though some have conjectured that they were portions of the
+  church service of that time. [Greek: stromateis] were bags in which
+  bedclothes ([Greek: stromata]) were kept. The phrase was used as a
+  book-title by Origen and others, and is equivalent to our
+  "miscellanies." It is difficult to give a brief account of the varied
+  contents of the book. Sometimes Clement discusses chronology,
+  sometimes philosophy, sometimes poetry, entering into the most minute
+  critical and chronological details; but one object runs through all,
+  and this is to show what the true Christian Gnostic is, and what is
+  his relation to philosophy. The work was in eight books. The first
+  seven are complete. The eighth now extant is really an incomplete
+  treatise on logic. Some critics have rejected this book as spurious,
+  since its matter is so different from that of the rest. Others,
+  however, have held to its genuineness, because in a Patch-work or Book
+  of Miscellanies the difference of subject is no sound objection, and
+  because Photius seems to have regarded our present eighth book as
+  genuine (Phot. cod. iii. p. 89b, Bekker).
+
+  The treatise _Who is the Rich Man that is Saved?_ is an admirable
+  exposition of the narrative contained in St Mark's Gospel x. 17-31.
+  Here Clement argues that wealth, if rightly used, is not unchristian.
+
+  The _Hypotyposes_[1] in eight books, have not come down to us.
+  Cassiodorus translated them into Latin, freely altering to suit his
+  own ideas of orthodoxy. Both Eusebius and Photius describe the work.
+  It was a short commentary on all the books of Scripture, including
+  some of the apocryphal works, such as the Epistle of Barnabas and the
+  Revelation of Peter. Photius speaks in strong language of the impiety
+  of some opinions in the book (_Bibl._ cod. 109, p. 89 a Bekker), but
+  his statements are such as to prove conclusively that he must have had
+  a corrupt copy, or read very carelessly, or grossly misunderstood
+  Clement. Notes in Latin on the first epistle of Peter, the epistle of
+  Jude, and the first two of John have come down to us; but whether they
+  are the translation of Cassiodorus, or indeed a translation of
+  Clement's work at all, is a matter of dispute.
+
+  The treatise on the Passover was occasioned by a work of Melito on the
+  same subject. Two fragments of this treatise were given by Petavius,
+  and are contained in the modern editions.
+
+  We know nothing of the work called _The Ecclesiastical Canon_ from any
+  external testimony. Clement himself often mentions the [Greek:
+  ekklêsiastikos kanon], and defines it as the agreement and harmony of
+  the law and the prophets with the covenant delivered at the appearance
+  of Christ (_Strom._ vi. cap. xv. 125, p. 803, P.). No doubt this was
+  the subject of the treatise. Jerome and Photius call the work
+  _Ecclesiastical Canons_, but this seems to be a mistake.
+
+  Of the other treatises mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome nothing is
+  known. A fragment of Clement, quoted by Antonius Melissa, is most
+  probably taken from the treatise on slander.
+
+  Besides the treatises mentioned by Eusebius, fragments of treatises on
+  Providence and the Soul have been preserved. Mention is also made of a
+  work by Clement on the Prophet Amos, and another on Definitions.
+
+  In addition to these Clement often speaks of his intention to write on
+  certain subjects, but it may well be doubted whether in most cases, if
+  not all, he intended to devote separate treatises to them. Some have
+  found an allusion to the treatise on the Soul already mentioned. The
+  other subjects are Marriage ([Greek: gamikos logos]), Continence, the
+  Duties of Bishops, Presbyters, Deacons and Widows, Prophecy, the Soul,
+  the Transmigration of the Soul and the Devil, Angels, the Origin of
+  the World, First Principles and the Divinity of the Logos, Allegorical
+  Interpretations of Statements made with regard to God's anger and
+  similar affections, the Unity of the Church, and the Resurrection.
+
+  Two works are incorporated in the editions of Clement which are not
+  mentioned by himself or any ancient writer. They are [Greek: Ek tôn
+  Theodoton kai tês anatolikês kaloumenês didaskalias kata tous
+  Oualentinou chronous epitomai], and [Greek: Ek tôn prophêtikôn
+  eklogai]. The first, if it is the work of Clement, must be a book
+  merely of excerpts, for it contains many opinions which Clement
+  opposed. Mention is made of Pantaenus in the second, and some have
+  thought it more worthy of him than the first. Others have regarded it
+  as a work similar to the first, and derived from Theodorus.
+
+Clement occupies a profoundly interesting position in the history of
+Christianity. He is the first to bring all the culture of the Greeks and
+all the speculations of the Christian heretics to bear on the exposition
+of Christian truth. He does not attain to a systematic exhibition of
+Christian doctrine, but he paves the way for it, and lays the first
+stones of the foundation. In some respects Justin anticipated him. He
+also was well acquainted with Greek philosophy, and took a genial view
+of it; but he was not nearly so widely read as Clement. The list of
+Greek authors whom Clement has quoted occupies upwards of fourteen of
+the quarto pages in Fabricius's _Bibliotheca Graeca_. He is at home
+alike in the epic and the lyric, the tragic and the comic poets, and his
+knowledge of the prose writers is very extensive. Some, however, of the
+classic poets he appears to have known only from anthologies; hence he
+was misled into quoting as from Euripides and others verses which were
+written by Jewish forgers. He made a special study of the philosophers.
+Equally minute is his knowledge of the systems of the Christian
+heretics. And in all cases it is plain that he not merely read but
+thought deeply on the questions which the civilization of the Greeks and
+the various writings of poets, philosophers and heretics raised. But it
+was in the Scriptures that he found his greatest delight. He believed
+them to contain the revelation of God's wisdom to men. He quotes all the
+books of the Old Testament except Ruth and the Song of Solomon, and
+amongst the sacred writings of the Old Testament he evidently included
+the book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus. He is
+equally full in his quotations from the New Testament, for he quotes
+from all the books except the epistle to Philemon, the second epistle of
+St Peter, and the epistle of St James, and he quotes from _The Shepherd
+of Hermas_, and the epistles of Clemens Romanus and of Barnabas, as
+inspired. He appeals also to many of the lost gospels, such as those of
+the Hebrews, of the Egyptians and of Matthias.
+
+Notwithstanding this adequate knowledge of Scripture, the modern
+theologian is disappointed to find very little of what he deems
+characteristically Christian. In fact Clement regarded Christianity as a
+philosophy. The ancient philosophers sought through their philosophy to
+attain to a nobler and holier life, and this also was the aim of
+Christianity. The difference between the two, in Clement's judgment, was
+that the Greek philosophers had only glimpses of the truth, that they
+attained only to fragments of the truth, while Christianity revealed in
+Christ the absolute and perfect truth. All the stages of the world's
+history were therefore preparations leading up to this full revelation,
+and God's care was not confined to the Hebrews alone. The worship of the
+heavenly bodies, for instance, was given to man at an early stage that
+he might rise from a contemplation of these sublime objects to the
+worship of the Creator. Greek philosophy in particular was the
+preparation of the Greeks for Christ. It was the schoolmaster or
+paedagogue to lead them to Christ. Plato was Moses atticizing. Clement
+varies in his statement how Plato got his wisdom or his fragments of the
+Reason. Sometimes he thinks that they came direct from God, like all
+good things, but he is also fond of maintaining that many of Plato's
+best thoughts were borrowed from the Hebrew prophets; and he makes the
+same statement in regard to the wisdom of the other philosophers. But
+however this may be, Christ was the end to which all that was true in
+philosophies pointed. Christ himself was the Logos, the Reason. God the
+Father was ineffable. The Son alone can manifest Him fully. He is the
+Reason that pervades the universe, that brings out all goodness, that
+guides all good men. It was through possessing somewhat of this Reason
+that the philosophers attained to any truth and goodness; but in
+Christians he dwells more fully and guides them through all the
+perplexities of life. Photius, probably on a careless reading of
+Clement, argued that he could not have believed in a real incarnation.
+But the words of Clement are quite precise and their meaning
+indisputable. The real difficulty attaches not to the Second Person, but
+to the First. The Father in Clement's mind becomes the Absolute of the
+philosophers, that is to say, not the Father at all, but the Monad, a
+mere point devoid of all attributes. He believed in a personal Son of
+God who was the Reason and Wisdom of God; and he believed that this Son
+of God really became incarnate though he speaks of him almost invariably
+as the Word, and attaches little value to his human nature. The object
+of his incarnation and death was to free man from his sins, to lead him
+into the path of wisdom, and thus in the end elevate him to the position
+of a god. But man's salvation was to be gradual. It began with faith,
+passed from that to love, and ended in full and complete knowledge.
+There could be no faith without knowledge. But the knowledge is
+imperfect, and the Christian was to do many things in simple obedience
+without knowing the reason. But he has to move upwards continually until
+he at length does nothing that is evil, and he knows fully the reason
+and object of what he does. He thus becomes the true Gnostic, but he can
+become the true Gnostic only by contemplation and by the practice of
+what is right. He has to free himself from the power of passion. He has
+to give up all thoughts of pleasure. He must prefer goodness in the
+midst of torture to evil with unlimited pleasure. He has to resist the
+temptations of the body, keeping it under strict control, and with the
+eye of the soul undimmed by corporeal wants and impulses, contemplate
+God the supreme good, and live a life according to reason. In other
+words, he must strive after likeness to God as he reveals himself in his
+Reason or in Christ. Clement thus looks entirely at the enlightened
+moral elevation to which Christianity raises man. He believed that
+Christ instructed men before he came into the world, and he therefore
+viewed heathenism with kindly eye. He was also favourable to the pursuit
+of all kinds of knowledge. All enlightenment tended to lead up to the
+truths of Christianity, and hence knowledge of every kind not evil was
+its handmaid. Clement had at the same time a strong belief in evolution
+or development. The world went through various stages in preparation for
+Christianity. The man goes through various stages before he can reach
+Christian perfection. And Clement conceived that this development took
+place not merely in this life, but in the future through successive
+grades. The Jew and the heathen had the gospel preached to them in the
+world below by Christ and his apostles, and Christians will have to pass
+through processes of purification and trial after death before they
+reach knowledge and perfect bliss.
+
+The beliefs of Clement have caused considerable difference of opinion
+among modern scholars. He sought the truth from whatever quarter he
+could get it, believing that all that is good comes from God, wherever
+it be found. He belongs therefore to no school of philosophers. He calls
+himself an Eclectic. He was in the main a Neoplatonist, drawing from
+that school his doctrines of the Monad and his strong tendency towards
+mysticism. For his moral doctrine he borrowed freely from Stoicism.
+Aristotelian features may be found but are quite subordinate. But
+Clement always regards the articles of the Christian creed as the axioms
+of a new philosophy. Daehne had tried to show that he was Neoplatonic,
+and Reinkens has maintained that he was essentially Aristotelian. His
+mode of viewing Christianity does not fit into any classification. It is
+the result of the period in which he lived, of his wide culture and the
+simplicity and noble purity of his character.
+
+It is needless to say that his books well deserve study; but the study
+is not smoothed by simplicity of style. Clement professed to despise
+rhetoric, but was himself a rhetorician, and his style is turgid,
+involved and difficult. He is singularly simple in his character. In
+discussing marriage he refuses to use any but the plainest language. A
+euphemism is with him a falsehood. But he is temperate in his opinions;
+and the practical advices in the second and third books of the
+_Paedagogue_ are remarkably sound and moderate. He is not always very
+critical, and he is passionately fond of allegorical interpretations,
+but these were the faults of his age.
+
+All early writers speak of Clement in the highest terms of laudation,
+and he certainly ought to have been a saint in any Church that reveres
+saints. But Clement is not a saint in the Roman Church. He was a saint
+up till the time of Benedict XIV., who read Photius on Clement, believed
+him, and struck the Alexandrian's name out of the calendar. But many
+Roman Catholic writers, though they yield a practical obedience to the
+papal decision, have adduced good reason why it should be reversed
+(Cognat, p. 451).
+
+  EDITIONS.--The standard edition of the collected works will be that of
+  O. Stählin (first vol. containing _Protrepticus_ and _Paedagogus_,
+  Leipzig, 1905). Separate editions of _Strom_. vii., Hort and Major
+  (1902); _Q.D.S._, Barnard in _Texts and Studies_, v. 2 (1897); W.
+  Dindorf's edition in 4 vols. (Oxford, 1869) is little more than a
+  reprint of the text of Bishop Potter, 1715. For the _Fragments_ see
+  Zahn, _Forschungen zur Gesch. des neut. Kanons_, part iii., or Harnack
+  and Preuschen, _Gesch. der altch. Litt._, vol. i.
+
+  LITERATURE.--A copious bibliography will be found in Harnack,
+  _Chronologie_, vol. ii., or in Bardenhewer, _Gesch. der altk. Lit._
+  Either of these will supply the names of works upon Clement's biblical
+  text, his use of Stoic writers, his quotations from heathen writers,
+  and his relation to heathen philosophy. A valuable book is de Faye,
+  _Clém. d'Alex_. (1898). For his theological position see Harnack,
+  _Dogmengeschichte_; Hort, _Six Lectures on the Ante-Nicene Fathers_;
+  Westcott, "Clem, of Alex." in _Dict. Christ. Biog._; Bigg, _Christian
+  Platonists of Alex._ (1886). A book on Clement's relation to Mysticism
+  is wanted.    (C. Bi.; J. D.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Zahn thinks we have part of them in the _Adumbrationes Clem.
+    Alex. in epistolas canonicas_ (Codex Lindum, 96, sec. ix.). They were
+    perhaps intended as a completion of the preceding course.
+
+
+
+
+CLÉMENT, FRANÇOIS (1714-1793), French historian, was born at Bèze, near
+Dijon, and was educated at the Jesuit College at Dijon. At the age of
+seventeen he entered the society of the Benedictines of Saint Maur, and
+worked with such intense application that at the age of twenty-five he
+was obliged to take a protracted rest. He now resided in Paris, where he
+wrote the 11th and 12th vols. of the _Histoire littéraire de la France_,
+and edited (with Dom Brial) the 12th and 13th vols. of the _Recueil des
+historiens des Gauls et de la France_. The king appointed him on the
+committee which was engaged in publishing charters, diplomas and other
+documents connected with French history (see Xavier Charmes, _Le Comité
+des travaux historiques et scientifiques_, vol. i., 1886, passim); and
+the Academy of Inscriptions chose him as a member (1785). Dom Clément
+also revised the _Art de vérifier les dates_, edited in 1750 by Dom
+Clémencet. Three volumes with the Indexes appeared from 1783 to 1792. He
+was engaged in preparing another volume including the period before the
+Christian era, when he died suddenly of apoplexy, at the age of
+sixty-nine. The work was afterwards brought down from 1770 to 1827 by
+Julien de Courcelles and Fortia d'Urban.
+
+
+
+
+CLÉMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589), murderer of the French king Henry III.,
+was born at Sorbon in the Ardennes, and became a Dominican friar. Civil
+war was raging in France, and Clément became an ardent partisan of the
+League; his mind appears to have become unhinged by religious
+fanaticism, and he talked of exterminating the heretics, and formed a
+plan to kill Henry III. His project was encouraged by some of the heads
+of the League; he was assured of temporal rewards if he succeeded, and
+of eternal bliss if he failed. Having obtained letters for the king, he
+left Paris on the 31st of July 1589, and reached St Cloud, the
+headquarters of Henry, who was besieging Paris. On the following day he
+was admitted to the royal presence, and presenting his letters he told
+the king that he had an important and confidential message to deliver.
+The attendants then withdrew, and while Henry was reading the letters
+Clément mortally wounded him with a dagger which had been concealed
+beneath his cloak. The assassin was at once killed by the attendants who
+rushed in, and Henry died early on the following day. Clément's body
+was afterwards quartered and burned. This deed, however, was viewed with
+far different feelings in Paris and by the partisans of the League, the
+murderer being regarded as a martyr and extolled by Pope Sixtus V.,
+while even his canonization was discussed.
+
+  See E. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, tome vi. (Paris, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENTI, MUZIO (c. 1751-1832), Italian pianist and composer, was born
+at Rome between 1750 and 1752. His father, a jeweller, encouraged his
+son's early musical talent. Buroni and Cordicelli were his first
+masters, and at the age of nine Clementi's theoretical and practical
+studies had advanced to such a degree that he was able to win the
+position of organist at a church. He continued his studies under
+Santarelli and Carpani, and at the age of fourteen wrote a mass which
+was performed in public. About 1766 Beckford, the author of _Vathek_,
+persuaded Clementi to follow him to England, where the young composer
+lived in retirement at one of the country seats of his protector in
+Dorsetshire until 1770. In that year he first appeared in London, where
+his success both as composer and pianist was rapid and brilliant. In
+1777 he was for some time employed as conductor of the Italian opera,
+but he soon afterwards left London for Paris. Here also his concerts
+were crowded by enthusiastic audiences, and the same success accompanied
+Clementi on a tour about the year 1780 to southern Germany and Austria.
+At Vienna, which he visited between 1781 and 1782, he was received with
+high honour by the emperor Joseph II., in whose presence he met Mozart,
+and fought a kind of musical duel with him. His technical skill proved
+to be equal if not superior to that of his rival, who on the other hand
+infinitely surpassed him by the passionate beauty of his interpretation.
+It is worth noting that one of the finest of Clementi's sonatas, that in
+B flat, shows an exactly identical opening theme with Mozart's overture
+to the _Flauto Magico_.
+
+In May 1782 Clementi returned to London, where for the next twelve years
+he continued his lucrative occupations of fashionable teacher and
+performer at the concerts of the aristocracy. He took shares in the
+pianoforte business of a firm which went bankrupt in 1800. He then
+established a pianoforte and music business of his own, under the name
+of Clementi & Co. Other members were added to the firm, including
+Collard and Davis, and the firm was ultimately taken over by Messrs
+Collard alone. Amongst his pupils on the pianoforte during this period
+may be mentioned John Field, the composer of the celebrated _Nocturnes_.
+In his company Clementi paid, in 1804, a visit to Paris, Vienna, St
+Petersburg, Berlin and other cities. While he was in Berlin, Meyerbeer
+became one of his pupils. He also revisited his own country after an
+absence of more than thirty years. In 1810 Clementi returned to London,
+but refused to play again in public, devoting the remainder of his life
+to composition. Several symphonies belong to this time, and were played
+with much success at contemporary concerts, but none of them seem to
+have been published. His intellectual and musical faculties remained
+unimpaired until his death, on the 9th of March 1832, at Evesham,
+Worcester.
+
+Of Clementi's playing in his youth, Moscheles wrote that it was "marked
+by a most beautiful _legato_, a supple touch in lively passages, and a
+most unfailing _technique_." Mozart may be said to have closed the old
+and Clementi to have founded the newer school of _technique_ on the
+piano. Amongst Clementi's compositions the most remarkable are sixty
+sonatas for pianoforte, and the great collection of _Études_ called
+_Gradus ad Parnassum_.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENTINE LITERATURE, the name generally given to the writings which at
+one time or another were fathered upon Pope Clement I. (q.v.), commonly
+called Clemens Romanus, who was early regarded as a disciple of St
+Peter. Thus they are for the most part a species of the larger
+pseudo-Petrine genus. Chief among them are: (1) The so-called Second
+Epistle; (2) two Epistles on Virginity; (3) the _Homilies_ and
+_Recognitions_; (4) the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (q.v.); and (5) five
+epistles forming part of the Forged Decretals (see DECRETALS). The
+present article deals mainly with the third group, to which the title
+"Clementine literature" is usually confined, owing to the stress laid
+upon it in the famous Tübingen reconstruction of primitive Christianity,
+in which it played a leading part; but later criticism has lowered its
+importance as its true date and historical relations have been
+progressively ascertained. (1) and (2) became "Clementine" only by
+chance, but (3) was so originally by literary device or fiction, the
+cause at work also in (4) and (5). But while in all cases the suggestion
+of Clement's authorship came ultimately from his prestige as writer of
+the genuine Epistle of Clement (see CLEMENT I.), both (3) and (4) were
+due to this idea as operative on Syrian soil; (5) is a secondary
+formation based on (3) as known to the West.
+
+(1) _The "Second Epistle of Clement."_--This is really the earliest
+extant Christian homily (see APOSTOLIC FATHERS). Its theme is the duty
+of Christian repentance, with a view to obedience to Christ's precepts
+as the true confession and homage which He requires. Its special charge
+is "Preserve the flesh pure and the seal (i.e. baptism) unstained"
+(viii. 6). But the peculiar way in which it enforces its morals in terms
+of the Platonic contrast between the spiritual and sensuous worlds, as
+archetype and temporal manifestation, suggests a special local type of
+theology which must be taken into account in fixing its _provenance_.
+This theology, the fact that the preacher seems to quote the _Gospel
+according to the Egyptians_ (in ch. xii. and possibly elsewhere) as if
+familiar to his hearers, and indeed its literary affinities generally,
+all point to Alexandria as the original home of the homily, at a date
+about 120-140 (see _Zeit. f. N. T. Wissenschaft_, vii. 123 ff). Neither
+Corinth (as Lightfoot) nor Rome (as Harnack, who assigns it to Bishop
+Soter, c. 166-174) satisfies all the internal conditions, while the
+Eastern nature of the external evidence and the homily's quasi-canonical
+status in the Codex-Alexandrinus strongly favour an Alexandrine origin.
+
+(2) _The Two Epistles to Virgins_, i.e. to Christian celibates of both
+sexes. These are known in their entirety only in Syriac, and were first
+published by Wetstein (1752), who held them genuine. This view is now
+generally discredited, even by Roman Catholics like Funk, their best
+recent editor (_Patres Apost._, vol. ii.). External evidence begins with
+Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 15) and Jerome (_Ad Jovin._ i. 12); and the
+silence of Eusebius tells heavily against their existence before the 4th
+century, at any rate as writings of Clement. The Monophysite Timothy of
+Alexandria (A.D. 457) cites one of them as Clement's, while Antiochus of
+St Saba (c. A.D. 620) makes copious but unacknowledged extracts from
+both in the original Greek. There is no trace of their use in the West.
+Thus their Syrian origin is manifest, the more so that in the Syriac MS.
+they are appended to the New Testament, like the better-known epistles
+of Clement in the Codex Alexandrinus. Indeed, judging from another
+Syriac MS. of earlier date, which includes the latter writings in its
+canon, it seems that the Epistles on Virginity gradually replaced the
+earlier pair in certain Syrian churches--even should Lightfoot be right
+in doubting if this had really occurred by Epiphanius's day (_S. Clement
+of Rome_, i. 412).
+
+Probably these epistles did not originally bear Clement's name at all,
+but formed a single epistle addressed to ascetics among an actual circle
+of churches. In that case they, or rather it, may date from the 3rd
+century in spite of Eusebius's silence, and are not pseudo-Clementine in
+any real sense. It matters little whether or not the false ascription
+was made before the division into two implied already by Epiphanius (c.
+A.D. 375). Special occasion for such a hortatory letter may be discerned
+in its polemic against intimate relations between ascetics of opposite
+sex, implied to exist among its readers, in contrast to usage in the
+writer's own locality. Now we know that spiritual unions, prompted
+originally by highstrung Christian idealism as to a religious fellowship
+transcending the law of nature in relation to sex, did exist between
+persons living under vows of celibacy during the 3rd century in
+particular, and not least in Syria (cf. the case of Paul of Samosata, c.
+265, and the Synod of Ancyra in Galatia, c. 314). It is natural, then,
+to see in the original epistle a protest against the dangers of such
+spiritual boldness (cf. "Subintroductae" in Herzog-Hauck's
+_Realencyklopädie_), prior perhaps to the famous case at Antioch just
+noted. Possibly it is the feeling of south Syria or Palestine that here
+expresses itself in remonstrance against usages prevalent in north
+Syria. Such a view finds support also in the New Testament canon implied
+in these epistles.
+
+(3)[a] _The Epistle of Clement to James_ (the Lord's brother). This was
+originally part of (3)[b], in connexion with which its origin and date
+are discussed. But as known to the West through Rufinus's Latin version,
+it was quoted as genuine by the synod of Vaison (A.D. 442) and
+throughout the middle ages. It became "the starting point of the most
+momentous and gigantic of medieval forgeries, the Isidorian Decretals,"
+"where it stands at the head of the pontifical letters, extended to more
+than twice its original length." This extension perhaps occurred during
+the 5th century. At any rate the letter in this form, along with a
+"second epistle to James" (on the Eucharist, church furniture, &c.),
+dating from the early 6th century, had separate currency long before the
+9th century, when they were incorporated in the _Decretals_ by the
+forger who raised the Clementine epistles to five (see Lightfoot,
+_Clement_, i. 414 ff.).
+
+(3)[b] _The "Homilies" and "Recognitions_"--"The two chief extant
+Clementine writings, differing considerably in some respects in
+doctrine, are both evidently the outcome of a peculiar speculative type
+of Judaistic Christianity, for which the most characteristic name of
+Christ was 'the true Prophet.' The framework of both is a narrative
+purporting to be written by Clement (of Rome) to St James, the Lord's
+brother, describing at the beginning his own conversion and the
+circumstances of his first acquaintance with St Peter, and then a long
+succession of incidents accompanying St Peter's discourses and
+disputations, leading up to a romantic recognition of Clement's father,
+mother and two brothers, from whom he had been separated since
+childhood. The problems discussed under this fictitious guise are with
+rare exceptions fundamental problems for every age; and, whatever may be
+thought of the positions maintained, the discussions are hardly ever
+feeble or trivial. Regarded simply as mirroring the past, few, if any,
+remains of Christian antiquity present us with so vivid a picture of the
+working of men's minds under the influence of the new leaven which had
+entered into the world" (Hort, _Clem. Recog._, p. xiv.).
+
+The indispensable preliminary to a really historic view of these
+writings is some solution of the problem of their mutual relations. The
+older criticism assumed a dependence of one upon the other, and assigned
+one or both to the latter part of the 2nd century. Recent criticism,
+however, builds on the principle, which emerges alike from the external
+and internal evidence (see Salmon in the _Dict. of Christian
+Biography_), that both used a common basis. Our main task, then, is to
+define the nature, origin and date of the parent document, and if
+possible its own literary antecedents. Towards the solution of this
+problem two contributions of prime importance have recently been made.
+The earlier of these is by F.J.A. Hort, and was delivered in the form of
+lectures as far back as 1884, though issued posthumously only in 1901;
+the other is the elaborate monograph of Dr Hans Waitz (1904).
+
+_Criticism._--(i.) _External Evidence as to the Clementine Romance._ The
+evidence of ancient writers really begins, not with Origen,[1] but with
+Eusebius of Caesarea, who in his _Eccl. Hist._ iii. 38, writes as
+follows: "Certain men have quite lately brought forward as written by
+him (Clement) other verbose and lengthy writings, containing dialogues
+of Peter, forsooth, and Apion, whereof not the slightest mention is to
+be found among the ancients, for they do not even preserve in purity the
+stamp of the Apostolic orthodoxy." Apion, the Alexandrine grammarian
+and foe of Judaism, whose criticism was answered by Josephus, appears
+in this character both in _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_, though mainly
+in the former (iv. 6-vii. 5). Thus Eusebius implies (1) a spurious
+Clementine work containing matter found also in our _Homilies_ at any
+rate; and (2) its quite recent origin. Next we note that an extract in
+the _Philocalia_ is introduced as follows: "Yea, and Clement the Roman,
+a disciple of Peter the Apostle, after using words in harmony with these
+on the present problem, in conversation with his father at Laodicea in
+the _Circuits_, speaks a very necessary word for the end of arguments
+touching this matter, viz. those things which seem to have proceeded
+from _genesis_ (= astrological destiny), in the fourteenth book." The
+extract answers to _Recognitions_, x. 10-13, but it is absent from our
+_Homilies_. Here we observe that (1) the extract agrees this time with
+_Recognitions_, not with _Homilies_; (2) its framework is that of the
+Clementine romance found in both; (3) the tenth and last book of
+_Recognitions_ is here parallel to book xiv. of a work called _Circuits_
+(_Periodoi_).
+
+This last point leads on naturally to the witness of Epiphanius (c.
+375), who, speaking of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians of various
+sorts, and particularly the Essene type, says (_Haer._ xxx. 15) that
+"they use certain other books likewise, to wit, the so-called _Circuits_
+of Peter, which were written by the hand of Clement, falsifying their
+contents, though leaving a few genuine things." Here Ephiphanius simply
+assumes that the Ebionite _Circuits of Peter_ was based on a genuine
+work of the same scope, and goes on to say that the spurious elements
+are proved such by contrast with the tenor of Clement's "encyclic
+epistles" (i.e. those to virgins, (2) above); for these enjoin virginity
+(celibacy), and praise Elijah, David, Samson, and all the prophets,
+whereas the Ebionite _Circuits_ favour marriage (even in Apostles) and
+depreciate the prophets between Moses and Christ, "the true Prophet."
+"In the _Circuits_, then, they adapted the whole to their own views,
+representing Peter falsely in many ways, as that he was daily baptized
+for the sake of purification, as these also do; and they say that he
+likewise abstained from animal food and meat, as they themselves also
+do." Now all the points here noted in the _Circuits_ can be traced in
+our _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_, though toned down in different
+degrees.
+
+The witness of the Arianizing _Opus Imperfectum in Matthaeum_ (c. 400) is
+in general similar. Its usual form of citation is "Peter in Clement"
+(_apud Clementem_). This points to "Clement" as a brief title for the
+Clementine _Periodoi_, a title actually found in a Syriac MS. of A.D. 411
+which contains large parts of _Recognitions_ and _Homilies_, and twice
+used by Rufinus, e.g. when he proposes to inscribe his version of the
+_Recognitions_ "Rufinus _Clemens_." Rufinus in his preface to this
+work--in which for the first time we meet the title
+_Recognition(s)_--observes that there are two editions to which the name
+applies, two collections of books differing in some points but in many
+respects containing the same narrative. This he remarks in explanation of
+the order of his version in some places, which he feels may strike his
+friend Gaudentius as unusual, the inference being that the other edition
+was the better-known one, although it lacked "the transformation of Simon"
+(i.e. of Clement's father into Simon's likeness), which is common to the
+close both of our _Recognitions_ and _Homilies_, and so probably belonged
+to the _Circuits_. We may assume, too (e.g. on the basis of our Syriac
+MS.), that the Greek edition of the _Recognition(s)_ actually used by
+Rufinus was much nearer the text of the _Periodoi_ of which we have found
+traces than we should imagine from its Latin form.
+
+So far we have no sure trace of our _Homilies_ at all, apart from the
+Syriac version. Even four centuries later, Photius, in referring to a
+collection of books called both _Acts of Peter_ and the _Recognition of
+Clement_, does not make clear whether he means _Homilies_ or
+_Recognitions_ or either. "In all the copies which we have seen (and
+they are not a few) after those different epistles (viz. 'Peter to
+James' and 'Clement to James,' prefixed, the one in some MSS. the other
+in others) and titles, we found without variation the same treatise,
+beginning, I, Clement, &c." But it is not clear that he had read more
+than the opening of these MSS. The fact that different epistles are
+prefixed to the same work leads him to conjecture "that there were two
+editions made of the _Acts of Peter_ (his usual title for the
+collection), but in course of time the one perished and that of Clement
+prevailed." This is interesting as anticipating a result of modern
+criticism, as will appear below. The earliest probable reference to our
+_Homilies_ occurs in a work of doubtful date, the pseudo-Athanasian
+_Synopsis_, which mentions "Clementines, whence came by selection and
+rewriting the true and inspired form." Here too we have the first sure
+trace of an expurgated recension, made with the idea of recovering the
+genuine form assumed, as earlier by Epiphanius, to lie behind an
+unorthodox recension of Clement's narrative. As, moreover, the extant
+_Epitome_ is based on our _Homilies_, it is natural to suppose it was
+also the basis of earlier orthodox recensions, one or more of which may
+be used in certain Florilegia of the 7th century and later. Nowhere do
+we find the title _Homilies_ given to any form of the Clementine
+collection in antiquity.
+
+(ii.) _The Genesis of the Clementine Literature._ It has been needful to
+cite so much of the evidence proving that our _Homilies_ and
+_Recognitions_ are both recensions of a common basis, at first known as
+the _Circuits of Peter_ and later by titles connecting it rather with
+Clement, its ostensible author, because it affords data also for the
+historical problems touching (a) the contents and origin of the primary
+Clementine work, and (b) the conditions under which our extant
+recensions of it arose.
+
+(a) _The Circuits of Peter_, as defined on the one hand by the epistle
+of Clement to James originally prefixed to it and by patristic evidence,
+and on the other by the common element in our _Homilies_ and
+_Recognitions_, may be conceived as follows. It contained accounts of
+Peter's teachings and discussions at various points on a route beginning
+at Caesarea, and extending northwards along the coast-lands of Syria as
+far as Antioch. During this tour he meets with persons of typically
+erroneous views, which it was presumably the aim of the work to refute
+in the interests of true Christianity, conceived as the final form of
+divine revelation--a revelation given through true prophecy embodied in
+a succession of persons, the chief of whom were Moses and the prophet
+whom Moses foretold, Jesus the Christ. The prime exponent of the
+spurious religion is Simon Magus. A second protagonist of error, this
+time of Gentile philosophic criticism directed against fundamental
+Judaism, is Apion, the notorious anti-Jewish Alexandrine grammarian of
+Peter's day; while the rôle of upholder of astrological fatalism
+(_Genesis_) is played by Faustus, father of Clement, with whom Peter and
+Clement debate at Laodicea. Finally, all this is already embedded in a
+setting determined by the romance of Clement and his lost relatives,
+"recognition" of whom forms the _dénouement_ of the story.
+
+There is no reason to doubt that such, roughly speaking, were the
+contents of the Clementine work to which Eusebius alludes slightingly,
+in connexion with that section of it which had to his eye least
+verisimilitude, viz. the dialogues between Peter and Apion. Now Eusebius
+believed the work to have been of quite recent and suspicious origin.
+This points to a date about the last quarter of the 3rd century; and the
+prevailing doctrinal tone of the contents, as known to us, leads to the
+same result. The standpoint is that of the peculiar Judaizing or Ebonite
+Christianity due to persistence among Christians of the tendencies known
+among pre-Christian Jews as Essene. The Essenes, while clinging to what
+they held to be original Mosaism, yet conceived and practised their
+ancestral faith in ways which showed distinct traces of syncretism, or
+the operation of influences foreign to Judaism proper. They thus
+occupied an ambiguous position on the borders of Judaism. Similarly
+Christian Essenism was syncretist in spirit, as we see from its
+best-known representatives, the Elchasaites, of whom we first hear about
+220, when a certain Alcibiades of Apamea in Syria (some 60 m. south of
+Antioch) brought to Rome the _Book of Helxai_--the manifesto of their
+distinctive message (Hippol., _Philos._ ix. 13)--and again some twenty
+years later, when Origen refers to one of their leaders as having lately
+arrived at Caesarea (Euseb. vi. 38). The first half of the 3rd century
+was marked, especially in Syria, by a strong tendency to syncretism,
+which may well have stirred certain Christian Essenes to fresh
+propaganda. Other writings than the _Book of Helxai_, representing also
+other species of the same genus, would take shape. Such may have been
+some of the pseudo-apostolic _Acts_ to which Epiphanius alludes as in
+use among the Ebionites of his own day: and such was probably the
+nucleus of our Clementine writings, the _Periodoi_ of Peter.
+
+Harnack (_Chronologie_, ii. 522 f.), indeed, while admitting that much
+(e.g. in _Homilies_, viii. 5-7) points the other way, prefers the view
+that even the _Circuits_ were of Catholic origin (Chapman, as above, says
+Arian, soon after 325), regarding the syncretistic Jewish-Christian
+features in it as due either to its earlier basis or to an instinct to
+preserve continuity of manner (e.g. absence of explicit reference to
+Paul). Hort, on the contrary, assumes as author "an ingenious Helxaite ...
+perhaps stimulated by the example of the many Encratite _Periodoi_" (p.
+131), and writing about A.D. 200.
+
+Only it must not be thought of as properly Elchasaite, since it knew no
+baptism distinct from the ordinary Christian one. It seems rather to
+represent a later and modified Essene Christianity, already
+half-Catholic, such as would suit a date after 250, in keeping with
+Eusebius's evidence. Confirmation of such a date is afforded by the
+silence of the Syrian _Didascalia_, itself perhaps dating from about
+250, as to any visit of Simon Magus to Caesarea, in contrast to the
+reference in its later form, the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (c.
+350-400), which is plainly coloured (vi. 9) by the Clementine story. On
+the other hand, the _Didascalia_ seems to have been evoked partly by
+Judaizing propaganda in north Syria. If, then, it helps to date the
+_Periodoi_ as after 250, it may also suggest as place of origin one of
+the large cities lying south of Antioch, say Laodicea (itself on the
+coast about 30 m. from Apamea), where the Clementine story reaches its
+climax. The intimacy of local knowledge touching this region implied in
+the narrative common to _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_ is notable, and
+tells against an origin for the _Periodoi_ outside Syria (e.g. in Rome,
+as Waitz and Harnack hold, but Lightfoot disproves, _Clem._ i. 55 f.,
+64,100, cf. Hort, p. 131). Further, though the curtain even in it fell
+on Peter at Antioch itself (our one complete MS. of the _Homilies_ is
+proved by the _Epitome_, based on the _Homilies_, to be here abridged),
+the interest of the story culminates at Laodicea.
+
+If we assume, then, that the common source of our extant Clementines
+arose in Syria, perhaps c. 265,[2] had it also a written source or
+sources which we can trace? Though Hort doubts it, most recent scholars
+(e.g. Waitz, Harnack) infer the existence of at least one source,
+"Preachings (_Kerygmata_) of Peter," containing no reference at all to
+Clement. Such a work seems implied by the epistle of Peter to James and
+its appended adjuration, prefixed in our MSS. to the _Homilies_ along
+with the epistle of Clement to James. Thus the later work aimed at
+superseding the earlier, much as Photius suggests (see above). It was,
+then, to these "Preachings of Peter" that the most Ebionite features,
+and especially the anti-Pauline allusions under the guise of Simon still
+inhering in the _Periodoi_ (as implied by _Homilies_ in particular),
+originally belonged. The fact, however, that these were not more
+completely suppressed in the later work, proves that it, too, arose in
+circles of kindred, though largely modified, Judaeo-Christian sentiment
+(cf. _Homilies_, vii., e.g. ch. 8). The differences of standpoint may be
+due not only to lapse of time, and the emergence of new problems on the
+horizon of Syrian Christianity generally, but also to change in locality
+and in the degree of Greek culture represented by the two works. A
+probable date for the "Preachings" used in the _Periodoi_ is c. 200.[3]
+
+If the home of the _Periodoi_ was the region of the Syrian Laodicea, we
+can readily explain most of its characteristics. Photius refers to the
+"excellences of its language and its learning"; while Waitz describes
+the aim and spirit of its contents as those of an apology for
+Christianity against heresy and paganism, in the widest sense of the
+word, written in order to win over both Jews (cf. _Recognitions_, i.
+53-70) and pagans, but mainly the latter. In particular it had in view
+persons of culture, as most apt to be swayed by the philosophical
+tendencies in the sphere of religion prevalent in that age, the age of
+neo-Platonism. It was in fact designed for propaganda among religious
+seekers in a time of singular religious restlessness and varied inquiry,
+and, above all, for use by catechumens (cf. _Ep. Clem._ 2, 13) in the
+earlier stages of their preparation for Christian baptism. To such its
+romantic setting would be specially adapted, as falling in with the
+literary habits and tastes of the period; while its doctrinal
+peculiarities would least give offence in a work of the aim and
+character just described.
+
+As regards the sources to the narrative part of the _Periodoi_, it is
+possible that the "recognition" _motif_ was a literary commonplace. The
+account of Peter's journeyings was no doubt based largely on local
+Syrian tradition, perhaps as already embodied in written _Acts of Peter_
+(so Waitz and Harnack), but differing from the Western type, e.g. in
+bringing Peter to Rome long before Nero's reign. As for the allusions,
+more or less indirect, to St Paul behind the figure of Simon, as the
+arch-enemy of the truth--allusions which first directed attention to the
+Clementines in the last century--there can be no doubt as to their
+presence, but only as to their origin and the degree to which they are
+so meant in _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_. There is certainly "an
+application to Simon of words used by or of St Paul, or of claims made
+by or in behalf of St Paul" (Hort), especially in _Homilies_ (ii. 17 f.,
+xi. 35, xvii. 19), where a consciousness also of the double reference
+must still be present, though this does not seem to be the case in
+_Recognitions_ (in Rufinus's Latin.) Such covert reference to Paul must
+designedly have formed part of the _Periodoi_, yet as adopted from its
+more bitterly anti-Pauline basis, the "Preachings of Peter" (cf.
+_Homilies_, ii. 17 f. with _Ep. Pet. ad Jac. 2_), which probably shared
+most of the features of Ebionite Essenism as described by Epiphanius
+xxx. 15 f. (including the qualified dualism of the two kingdoms--the
+present one of the devil, and the future one of the angelic
+Christ--which appears also in the _Periodoi_, cf. _Ep. Clem. ad Jac. 1
+fin._).
+
+(b) That the _Periodoi_ was a longer work than either our _Homilies_ or
+_Recognitions_ is practically certain; and its mere bulk may well, as
+Hort suggests (p. 88), have been a chief cause of the changes of form.
+Yet _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_ are abridgments made on different
+principles and convey rather different impressions to their readers.
+"The _Homilies_ care most for doctrine," especially philosophical
+doctrine, "and seem to transpose very freely for doctrinal purposes"
+(e.g. matter in xvi.-xix. is placed at the end for effect, while xx.
+1-10 gives additional emphasis to the _Homilies_' theory of evil,
+perhaps over against Manichaeism). "The _Recognitions_ care most for the
+story," as a means of religious edification, "and have preserved the
+general framework much more nearly." They arose in different circles:
+indeed, save the compiler of the text represented by the Syriac MS. of
+411 A.D., "not a single ancient writer shows a knowledge of both books
+in any form." But Hort is hardly right in suggesting that, while
+_Homilies_ arose in Syria, _Recognitions_ took shape in Rome. Both
+probably arose in Syria (so Lightfoot), but in circles varying a good
+deal in religious standpoint.[4] _Homilies_ was a sort of second
+edition, made largely in the spirit of its original and perhaps in much
+the same locality, with a view to maintaining and propagating the
+doctrines of a semi-Judaic Christianity (cf. bk. vii.), as it existed a
+generation or two after the _Periodoi_ appeared. The _Recognitions_, in
+both recensions, as is shown by the fact that it was read in the
+original with general admiration not only by Rufinus but also by others
+in the West, was more Catholic in tone and aimed chiefly at commending
+the Christian religion over against all non-Christian rivals or gnostic
+perversions. That is, more than one effort of this sort had been made to
+adapt the story of Clement's _Recognitions_ to general Christian use.
+Later the _Homilies_ underwent further adaptation to Catholic feeling
+even before the _Epitome_, in its two extant forms, was made by more
+drastic methods of expurgation. One kind of adaptation at least is
+proved to have existed before the end of the 4th century, namely a
+selection of certain discourses from the _Homilies_ under special
+headings, following on _Recognitions_, i.-iii., as seen in a Syriac MS.
+of A.D. 411. As this MS. contains transcriptional errors, and as its
+archetype had perhaps a Greek basis, the _Recognitions_ may be dated c.
+350-375[5] (its Christology suggested to Rufinus an Arianism like that
+of Eunomius of Cyzicus, c. 362), and the _Homilies_ prior even to 350.
+But the different circles represented by the two make relative dating
+precarious.
+
+_Summary._--The Clementine literature throws light upon a very obscure
+phase of Christian development, that of Judaeo-Christianity, and proves
+that it embraced more intermediate types, between Ebionism proper and
+Catholicism, than has generally been realized. Incidentally, too, its
+successive forms illustrate many matters of belief and usage among
+Syrian Christians generally in the 3rd and 4th centuries, notably their
+apologetic and catechetical needs and methods. Further, it discusses, as
+Hort observes, certain indestructible problems which much early
+Christian theology passes by or deals with rather perfunctorily; and it
+does so with a freshness and reality which, as we compare the original
+3rd-century basis with the conventional manner of the _Epitome_, we see
+to be not unconnected with origin in an age as yet free from the
+trammels of formal orthodoxy. Again it is a notable specimen of early
+Christian pseudepigraphy, and one which had manifold and far-reaching
+results. Finally the romance to which it owed much of its popular
+appeal, became, through the medium of Rufinus's Latin, the parent of the
+late medieval legend of Faust, and so the ancestor of a famous type in
+modern literature.
+
+  LITERATURE.--For a full list of this down to 1904 see Hans Waitz, "Die
+  Pseudoklementinen" (_Texte u. Untersuchungen zur Gesch. der altchr.
+  Literatur, neue Folge_, Bd. x. Heft 4), and A. Harnack, _Chronologie
+  der altchr. Litteratur_ (1904), ii. 518 f. In English, besides Hort's
+  work, there are articles by G. Salmon, in _Dict. of Christ. Biog._, C.
+  Bigg, _Studia Biblica_, ii., A.C. Headlam, _Journal of Theol.
+  Studies_, iii.    (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Dr Armitage Robinson, in his edition of the _Philocalia_
+    (extracts made c. 358 by Basil and Gregory from Origen's writings),
+    proved that the passage cited below is simply introduced as a
+    parallel to an extract of Origen's; while Dom Chapman, in the
+    _Journal of Theol. Studies_, iii. 436 ff., made it probable that the
+    passages in Origen's _Comm. on Matthew_ akin to those in the _Opus
+    Imperf. in Matth._ are insertions in the former, which is extant only
+    in a Latin version. Subsequently he suggested (_Zeitsch. f. N.T.
+    Wissenschaft_, ix. 33 f.) that the passage in the _Philocalia_ is due
+    not to its authors but to an early editor, since it is the only
+    citation not referred to Origen.
+
+  [2] While Hort and Waitz say c. 200, Harnack says c. 260. The reign
+    of Gallienus (260-268) would suit the tone of its references to the
+    Roman emperor (Waitz, p. 74), and also any polemic against the
+    Neoplatonic philosophy of revelation by visions and dreams which it
+    may contain.
+
+  [3] Even Waitz agrees to this, though he argues back to a yet earlier
+    anti-Pauline (rather than anti-Marcionite) form, composed in
+    Caesarea, c. 135.
+
+  [4] Dom Chapman maintains that the _Recognitions_ (c. 370-390,) even
+    attack the doctrine of God in the _Homilies_ or their archetype.
+
+  [5] Dom Chapman (ut supra, p. 158) says during the Neoplatonist
+    reaction under Julian 361-363, to which period he also assigns the
+    _Homilies_.
+
+
+
+
+CLEOBULUS, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, a native and tyrant of
+Lindus in Rhodes. He was distinguished for his strength and his handsome
+person, for the wisdom of his sayings, the acuteness of his riddles and
+the beauty of his lyric poetry. Diogenes Laërtius quotes a letter in
+which Cleobulus invites Solon to take refuge with him against
+Peisistratus; and this would imply that he was alive in 560 B.C. He is
+said to have held advanced views as to female education, and he was the
+father of the wise Cleobuline, whose riddles were not less famous than
+his own (Diogenes Laërtius i. 89-93).
+
+  See F.G. Mullach, _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, i.
+
+
+
+
+CLEOMENES ([Greek: Kleomenês]), the name of three Spartan kings of the
+Agiad line.
+
+
+CLEOMENES I. was the son of Anaxandridas, whom he succeeded about 520
+B.C. His chief exploit was his crushing victory near Tiryns over the
+Argives, some 6000 of whom he burned to death in a sacred grove to which
+they had fled for refuge (Herodotus vi. 76-82). This secured for Sparta
+the undisputed hegemony of the Peloponnese. Cleomenes' interposition in
+the politics of central Greece was less successful. In 510 he marched to
+Athens with a Spartan force to aid in expelling the Peisistratidae, and
+subsequently returned to support the oligarchical party, led by
+Isagoras, against Cleisthenes (q.v.). He expelled seven hundred families
+and transferred the government from the council to three hundred of the
+oligarchs, but being blockaded in the Acropolis he was forced to
+capitulate. On his return home he collected a large force with the
+intention of making Isagoras despot of Athens, but the opposition of
+the Corinthian allies and of his colleague Demaratus caused the
+expedition to break up after reaching Eleusis (Herod. v. 64-76;
+Aristotle, _Ath. Pol._ 19, 20). In 491 he went to Aegina to punish the
+island for its submission to Darius, but the intrigues of his colleague
+once again rendered his mission abortive. In revenge Cleomenes accused
+Demaratus of illegitimacy and secured his deposition in favour of
+Leotychides (Herod. vi. 50-73). But when it was discovered that he had
+bribed the Delphian priestess to substantiate his charge he was himself
+obliged to flee; he went first to Thessaly and then to Arcadia, where he
+attempted to foment an anti-Spartan rising. About 488 B.C. he was
+recalled, but shortly afterwards, in a fit of madness, he committed
+suicide (Herod. vi. 74, 75). Cleomenes seems to have received scant
+justice at the hands of Herodotus or his informants, and Pausanias (iii.
+3, 4) does little more than condense Herodotus's narrative. In spite of
+some failures, largely due to Demaratus's jealousy, Cleomenes
+strengthened Sparta in the position, won during his father's reign, of
+champion and leader of the Hellenic race; it was to him, for example,
+that the Ionian cities of Asia Minor first applied for aid in their
+revolt against Persia (Herod. v. 49-51).
+
+  For the chronology see J. Wells, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ (1905),
+  p. 193 ff., who assigns the Argive expedition to the outset of the
+  reign, whereas nearly all historians have dated it in or about 495
+  B.C.
+
+
+CLEOMENES II. was the son of Cleombrotus I., brother and successor of
+Agesipolis II. Nothing is recorded of his reign save the fact that it
+lasted for nearly sixty-one years (370-309 B.C.).
+
+
+CLEOMENES III., the son and successor of Leonidas II., reigned about
+235-219 B.C. He made a determined attempt to reform the social condition
+of Sparta along the lines laid down by Agis IV., whose widow Agiatis he
+married; at the same time he aimed at restoring Sparta's hegemony in the
+Peloponnese. After twice defeating the forces of the Achaean League in
+Arcadia, near Mount Lycaeum and at Leuctra, he strengthened his position
+by assassinating four of the ephors, abolishing the ephorate, which had
+usurped the supreme power, and banishing some eighty of the leading
+oligarchs. The authority of the council was also curtailed, and a new
+board of magistrates, the _patronomi_, became the chief officers of
+state. He appointed his own brother Eucleidas as his colleague in
+succession to the Eurypontid Archidamus, who had been murdered. His
+social reforms included a redistribution of land, the remission of
+debts, the restoration of the old system of training ([Greek: agôgê])
+and the admission of picked perioeci into the citizen body. As a general
+Cleomenes did much to revive Sparta's old prestige. He defeated the
+Achaeans at Dyme, made himself master of Argos, and was eventually
+joined by Corinth, Phlius, Epidaurus and other cities. But Aratus, whose
+jealousy could not brook to see a Spartan at the head of the Achaean
+league called in Antigonus Doson of Macedonia, and Cleomenes, after
+conducting successful expeditions to Megalopolis and Argos, was finally
+defeated at Sellasia, to the north of Sparta, in 222 or 221 B.C. He took
+refuge at Alexandria with Ptolemy Euergetes, but was arrested by his
+successor, Ptolemy Philopator, on a charge of conspiracy. Escaping from
+prison he tried to raise a revolt, but the attempt failed and to avoid
+capture he put an end to his life. Both as general and as politician
+Cleomenes was one of Sparta's greatest men, and with him perished her
+last hope of recovering her ancient supremacy in Greece.
+
+  See Polybius ii. 45-70, v. 35-39, viii. 1; Plutarch, _Cleomenes;
+  Aratus_, 35-46; _Philopoemen_, 5, 6; Pausanias ii. 9; Gehlert, _De
+  Cleomene_ (Leipzig, 1883); Holm, _History of Greece_, iv. cc. 10, 15.
+     (M. N. T.)
+
+
+
+
+CLEON (d. 422 B.C.), Athenian politician during the Peloponnesian War,
+was the son of Cleaenetus, from whom he inherited a lucrative tannery
+business. He was the first prominent representative of the commercial
+class in Athenian politics. He came into notice first as an opponent of
+Pericles, to whom his advanced ideas were naturally unacceptable, and in
+his opposition somewhat curiously found himself acting in concert with
+the aristocrats, who equally hated and feared Pericles. During the dark
+days of 430, after the unsuccessful expedition of Pericles to
+Peloponnesus, and when the city was devastated by the plague, Cleon
+headed the opposition to the Periclean régime. Pericles was accused by
+Cleon of maladministration of public money, with the result that he was
+actually found guilty (see Grote's _Hist. of Greece_, abridged ed.,
+1907, p. 406, note 1). A revulsion of feeling, however, soon took place.
+Pericles was reinstated, and Cleon now for a time fell into the
+background. The death of Pericles (429) left the field clear for him.
+Hitherto he had only been a vigorous opposition speaker, a trenchant
+critic and accuser of state officials. He now came forward as the
+professed champion and leader of the democracy, and, owing to the
+moderate abilities of his rivals and opponents, he was for some years
+undoubtedly the foremost man in Athens. Although rough and unpolished,
+he was gifted with natural eloquence and a powerful voice, and knew
+exactly how to work upon the feelings of the people. He strengthened his
+hold on the poorer classes by his measure for trebling the pay of the
+jurymen, which provided the poorer Athenians with an easy means of
+livelihood. The notorious fondness of the Athenians for litigation
+increased his power; and the practice of "sycophancy" (raking up
+material for false charges; see SYCOPHANT), enabled him to remove those
+who were likely to endanger his ascendancy. Having no further use for
+his former aristocratic associates, he broke off all connexion with
+them, and thus felt at liberty to attack the secret combinations for
+political purposes, the oligarchical clubs to which they mostly
+belonged. Whether he also introduced a property-tax for military
+purposes, and even held a high position in connexion with the treasury,
+is uncertain. His ruling principles were an inveterate hatred of the
+nobility, and an equal hatred of Sparta. It was mainly through him that
+the opportunity of concluding an honourable peace (in 425) was lost, and
+in his determination to see Sparta humbled he misled the people as to
+the extent of the resources of the state, and dazzled them by promises
+of future benefits.
+
+In 427 Cleon gained an evil notoriety by his proposal to put to death
+indiscriminately all the inhabitants of Mytilene, which had put itself
+at the head of a revolt. His proposal, though accepted, was, fortunately
+for the credit of Athens, rescinded, although, as it was, the chief
+leaders and prominent men, numbering about 1000, fell victims. In 425,
+he reached the summit of his fame by capturing and transporting to
+Athens the Spartans who had been blockaded in Sphacteria (see PYLOS).
+Much of the credit was probably due to the military skill of his
+colleague Demosthenes; but it must be admitted that it was due to
+Cleon's determination that the Ecclesia sent out the additional force
+which was needed. It was almost certainly due to Cleon that the tribute
+of the "allies" was doubled in 425 (see DELIAN LEAGUE). In 422 he was
+sent to recapture Amphipolis, but was outgeneralled by Brasidas and
+killed. His death removed the chief obstacle to an arrangement with
+Sparta, and in 421 the peace of Nicias was concluded (see PELOPONNESIAN
+WAR).
+
+The character of Cleon is represented by Aristophanes and Thucydides in
+an extremely unfavourable light. But neither can be considered an
+unprejudiced witness. The poet had a grudge against Cleon, who had
+accused him before the senate of having ridiculed (in his _Babylonians_)
+the policy and institutions of his country in the presence of foreigners
+and at the time of a great national war. Thucydides, a man of strong
+oligarchical prejudices, had also been prosecuted for military
+incapacity and exiled by a decree proposed by Cleon. It is therefore
+likely that Cleon has had less than justice done to him in the portraits
+handed down by these two writers.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For the literature on Cleon see C.F. Hermann, _Lehrbuch
+  der griechischen Antiquitäten_, i. pt. 2 (6th ed. by V. Thumser,
+  1892), p. 709, and G. Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, iii. pt. 2
+  (1904), p. 988, note 3. The following are the chief authorities:--(a)
+  _Favourable to Cleon_.--C.F. Ranke, _Commentatio de Vita Aristophanis_
+  (Leipzig, 1845); J.G. Droysen, _Aristophanes_, ii., introd. to the
+  _Knights_ (Berlin, 1837); G. Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, chs. 50, 54; W.
+  Oncken, _Athen und Hellas_, ii. p. 204 (Leipzig, 1866); H.
+  Müller-Strübing, _Aristophanes und die historische Kritik_ (Leipzig,
+  1873); J.B. Bury, _Hist. of Greece_, i. (1902). (b)
+  _Unfavourable_.--J.F. Kortüm, _Geschichtliche Forschungen_ (Leipzig,
+  1863), and _Zur Geschichte hellenischen Staatsverfassungen_
+  (Heidelberg, 1821); F. Passow, _Vermischte Schriften_ (Leipzig,
+  1843); C. Thirlwall, _Hist. of Greece_, ch. 21; E. Curtius, _Hist. of
+  Greece_ (Eng. tr.) iii. p. 112; J. Schvarcz, _Die Demokratie_ (Leipzig,
+  1882); H. Delbrück, _Die Strategie des Perikles_ (Berlin, 1890); E.
+  Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_, ii. p. 333 (Halle, 1899).
+  The balance between the two extreme views is fairly held by J. Beloch,
+  _Die attische Politik seit Perikles_ (Leipzig, 1884), and _Griechische
+  Geschichte_, i. p. 537; and by A. Holm, _Hist. of Greece_, ii. (Eng.
+  tr.), ch. 23, with the notes.
+
+
+
+
+CLEOPATRA, the regular name of the queens of Egypt in the Ptolemaic
+dynasty after Cleopatra, daughter of the Seleucid Antiochus the Great,
+wife of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. The best known was the daughter of
+Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, born 69 (or 68) B.C. At the age of seventeen she
+became queen of Egypt jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy Dionysus,
+whose wife, in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few
+years afterwards, deprived of all royal authority, she withdrew into
+Syria, and made preparation to recover her rights by force of arms. At
+this juncture Julius Caesar followed Pompey into Egypt. The personal
+fascinations of Cleopatra induced him to undertake a war on her behalf,
+in which Ptolemy lost his life, and she was replaced on the throne in
+conjunction with a younger brother, of whom, however, she soon rid
+herself by poison. In Rome she lived openly with Caesar as his mistress
+until his assassination, when, aware of her unpopularity, she returned
+at once to Egypt. Subsequently she became the ally and mistress of Mark
+Antony (see ANTONIUS). Their connexion was highly unpopular at Rome, and
+Octavian (see AUGUSTUS) declared war upon them and defeated them at
+Actium (31 B.C.). Cleopatra took to flight, and escaped to Alexandria,
+where Antony joined her. Having no prospect of ultimate success, she
+accepted the proposal of Octavian that she should assassinate Antony,
+and enticed him to join her in a mausoleum which she had built in order
+that "they might die together." Antony committed suicide, in the
+mistaken belief that she had already done so, but Octavian refused to
+yield to the charms of Cleopatra who put an end to her life, by applying
+an asp to her bosom, according to the common tradition, in the
+thirty-ninth year of her age (29th of August, 30 B.C.). With her ended
+the dynasty of the Ptolemies, and Egypt was made a Roman province.
+Cleopatra had three children by Antony, and by Julius Caesar, as some
+say, a son, called Caesarion, who was put to death by Octavian. In her
+the type of queen characteristic of the Macedonian dynasties stands in
+the most brilliant light. Imperious will, masculine boldness, relentless
+ambition like hers had been exhibited by queens of her race since the
+old Macedonian days before Philip and Alexander. But the last Cleopatra
+had perhaps some special intellectual endowment. She surprised her
+generation by being able to speak the many tongues of her subjects.
+There may have been an individual quality in her luxurious profligacy,
+but then her predecessors had not had the Roman lords of the world for
+wooers.
+
+  For the history of Cleopatra see ANTONIUS, MARCUS; CAESAR, GAIUS
+  JULIUS; PTOLEMIES. The life of Antony by Plutarch is our main
+  authority; it is upon this that Shakespeare's _Antony and Cleopatra_
+  is based. Her life is the subject of monographs by Stahr (1879, an
+  _apologia_), and Houssaye, _Aspasie, Cléopâtre_, &c. (1879).
+
+
+
+
+CLEPSYDRA (from Gr. [Greek: klheptein], to steal, and [Greek: hudôr],
+water), the chronometer of the Greeks and Romans, which measured time by
+the flow of water. In its simplest form it was a short-necked
+earthenware globe of known capacity, pierced at the bottom with several
+small holes, through which the water escaped or "stole away." The
+instrument was employed to set a limit to the speeches in courts of
+justice, hence the phrases _aquam dare_, to give the advocate speaking
+time, and _aquam perdere_, to waste time. Smaller clepsydrae of glass
+were very early used in place of the sun-dial, to mark the hours. But as
+the length of the hour varied according to the season of the year,
+various arrangements, of which we have no clear account, were necessary
+to obviate this and other defects. For instance, the flow of water
+varied with the temperature and pressure of the air, and secondly, the
+rate of flow became less as the vessel emptied itself. The latter defect
+was remedied by keeping the level of the water in the clepsydra uniform,
+the volume of that discharged being noted. Plato is said to have
+invented a complicated clepsydra to indicate the hours of the night as
+well as of the day. In the clepsydra or hydraulic clock of Ctesibius of
+Alexandria, made about 135 B.C., the movement of water-wheels caused the
+gradual rise of a little figure, which pointed out the hours with a
+little stick on an index attached to the machine. The clepsydra is said
+to have been known to the Egyptians. There was one in the Tower of the
+Winds at Athens; and the turret on the south side of the tower is
+supposed to have contained the cistern which supplied the water.
+
+  See Marquardt, _Das Privatleben der Römer_, i. (2nd ed., 1886), p.
+  792; G. Bilfinger, _Die Zeitmesser der antiken Völker_ (1886), and
+  _Die antiken Stundenangaben_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+CLERESTORY, or CLEARSTORY (Ital. _chiaro piano_, Fr. _clairevoie_,
+_claire étage_, Ger. _Lichtgaden_), in architecture, the upper storey of
+the nave of a church, the walls of which rise above the aisles and are
+pierced with windows ("clere" being simply "clear," in the sense of
+"lighted"). Sometimes these windows are very small, being mere
+quatrefoils or spherical triangles. In large buildings, however, they
+are important objects, both for beauty and utility. The windows of the
+clerestories of Norman work, even in large churches, are of less
+importance than in the later styles. In Early English they became
+larger; and in the Decorated they are more important still, being
+lengthened as the triforium diminishes. In Perpendicular work the latter
+often disappears altogether, and in many later churches, as at Taunton,
+and many churches in Norfolk and Suffolk, the clerestories are close
+ranges of windows. The term is equally applicable to the Egyptian
+temples, where the lighting of the hall of columns was obtained over the
+stone roofs of the adjoining aisles, through slits pierced in vertical
+slabs of stone. The Romans also in their baths and palaces employed the
+same method, and probably derived it from the Greeks; in the palaces at
+Crete, however, light-wells would seem to have been employed.
+
+
+
+
+CLERFAYT (or CLAIRFAYT), FRANÇOIS SEBASTIEN CHARLES JOSEPH DE CROIX,
+COUNT OF (1733-1798), Austrian field marshal, entered the Austrian army
+in 1753. In the Seven Years' War he greatly distinguished himself,
+earning rapid promotion, and receiving the decoration of the order of
+Maria Theresa. At the conclusion of the peace, though still under
+thirty, he was already a colonel. During the outbreak of the Netherlands
+in 1787, he was, as a Walloon by birth, subjected to great pressure to
+induce him to abandon Joseph II., but he resisted all overtures, and in
+the following year went to the Turkish war in the rank of lieutenant
+field marshal. In an independent command Clerfayt achieved great
+success, defeating the Turks at Mehadia and Calafat. In 1792, as one of
+the most distinguished of the emperor's generals, he received the
+command of the Austrian contingent in the duke of Brunswick's army, and
+at Croix-sous-Bois his corps inflicted a reverse on the troops of the
+French revolution. In the Netherlands, to which quarter he was
+transferred after Jemappes, he opened the campaign of 1793 with the
+victory of Aldenhoven and the relief of Maestricht, and on March 18th
+mainly brought about the complete defeat of Dumouriez at Neerwinden.
+Later in the year, however, his victorious career was checked by the
+reverse at Wattignies, and in 1794 he was unsuccessful in West Flanders
+against Pichegru. In the course of the campaign Clerfayt succeeded the
+duke of Saxe-Coburg in the supreme command, but was quite unable to make
+head against the French, and had to recross the Rhine. In 1795, now
+field marshal, he commanded on the middle Rhine against Jourdan, and
+this time the fortune of war changed. Jourdan was beaten at Höchst and
+Mainz brilliantly relieved. But the field marshal's action in concluding
+an armistice with the French not being approved by Thugut, he resigned
+the command, and became a member of the Aulic Council in Vienna. He died
+in 1798. A brave and skilful soldier, Clerfayt perhaps achieved more
+than any other Austrian commander (except the archduke Charles) in the
+hopeless struggle of small dynastic armies against a "nation in arms."
+
+  See von Vivenot, _Thugut, Clerfayt, und Würmser_ (Vienna, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CLERGY (M.E. _clergie_, O. Fr. _clergie_, from Low Lat. form _clericia_
+[Skeat], by assimilation with O. Fr. _clergié_, Fr. _clergé_, from Low
+Lat. _clericatus_), a collective term signifying in English strictly the
+body of "clerks," i.e. men in holy orders (see CLERK). The word has,
+however, undergone sundry modifications of meaning. Its M.E. senses of
+"clerkship" and "learning" have long since fallen obsolete. On the other
+hand, in modern times there has been an increasing tendency to depart
+from its strict application to technical "clerks," and to widen it out
+so as to embrace all varieties of ordained Christian ministers. While,
+however, it is now not unusual to speak of "the Nonconformist clergy,"
+the word "clergyman" is still, at least in the United Kingdom, used of
+the clergy of the Established Church in contradistinction to "minister."
+As applied to the Roman Catholic Church the word embraces the whole
+hierarchy, whether its _clerici_ be in holy orders or merely in minor
+orders. The term has also been sometimes loosely used to include the
+members of the regular orders; but this use is improper, since monks and
+friars, as such, have at no time been _clerici_. The use of the word
+"clergy" as a plural, though the _New English Dictionary_ quotes the
+high authority of Cardinal Newman for it, is less rare than wrong; in
+the case cited "Some hundred Clergy" should have been "Some hundred of
+the Clergy."
+
+In distinction to the "clergy" we find the "laity" (Gr. [Greek: laos],
+people), the great body of "faithful people" which, in nearly every
+various conception of the Christian Church, stands in relation to the
+clergy as a flock of sheep to its pastor. This distinction was of early
+growth, and developed, with the increasing power of the hierarchy,
+during the middle ages into a very lively opposition (see ORDER, HOLY;
+CHURCH HISTORY; PAPACY; INVESTITURES). The extreme claim of the great
+medieval popes, that the priest, as "ruler over spiritual things," was
+as much superior to temporal rulers as the soul is to the body (see
+INNOCENT III.), led logically to the vast privileges and immunities
+enjoyed by the clergy during the middle ages. In those countries where
+the Reformation triumphed, this triumph represented the victory of the
+civil over the clerical powers in the long contest. The victory was,
+however, by no means complete. The Presbyterian model was, for instance,
+as sacerdotal in its essence as the Catholic; Milton complained with
+justice that "new presbyter is but old priest writ large," and declared
+that "the Title of Clergy St Peter gave to all God's people," its later
+restriction being a papal and prelatical usurpation (i.e. i Peter v. 3,
+for [Greek: klêros] and [Greek: klêron]).
+
+Clerical immunities, of course, differed largely at different times and
+in different countries, the extent of them having been gradually
+curtailed from a period a little earlier than the close of the middle
+ages. They consisted mainly in exemption from public burdens, both as
+regarded person and pocket, and in immunity from lay jurisdiction. This
+last enormous privilege, which became one of the main and most efficient
+instruments of the subjection of Europe to clerical tyranny, extended to
+matters both civil and criminal; though, as Bingham shows, it did not
+(always and everywhere) prevail in cases of heinous crime (_Origines
+Eccles._ bk. v.).
+
+This diversity of jurisdiction, and subjection of the clergy only to the
+sentences of judges bribed by their _esprit de corps_ to judge
+leniently, led to the adoption of a scale of punishments for the
+offences of clerks avowedly much lighter than that which was inflicted
+for the same crimes on laymen; and this in turn led to the survival in
+England, long after the Reformation, of the curious legal fiction of
+benefit of clergy (see below), used to mitigate the extreme harshness of
+the criminal law.
+
+
+
+
+CLERGY, BENEFIT OF, an obsolete but once very important feature in
+English criminal law. Benefit of clergy began with the claim on the part
+of the ecclesiastical authorities in the 12th century that every
+_clericus_ should be exempt from the jurisdiction of the temporal courts
+and be subject to the spiritual courts alone. The issue of the conflict
+was that the common law courts abandoned the extreme punishment of death
+assigned to some offences when the person convicted was a _clericus_,
+and the church was obliged to accept the compromise and let a secondary
+punishment be inflicted. The term "clerk" or _clericus_ always included
+a large number of persons in what were called minor orders, and in 1350
+the privilege was extended to secular as well as to religious clerks;
+and, finally, the test of being a clerk was the ability to read the
+opening words of verse 1 of Psalm li., hence generally known as the
+"neck-verse." Even this requirement was abolished in 1705. In 1487 it
+was enacted that every layman, when convicted of a clergyable felony,
+should be branded on the thumb, and disabled from claiming the benefit a
+second time. The privilege was extended to peers, even if they could not
+read, in 1547, and to women, partially in 1622 and fully in 1692. The
+partial exemption claimed by the Church did not apply to the more
+atrocious crimes, and hence offences came to be divided into clergyable
+and unclergyable. According to the common practice in England of working
+out modern improvements through antiquated forms, this exemption was
+made the means of modifying the severity of the criminal law. It became
+the practice to claim and be allowed the benefit of clergy; and when it
+was the intention by statute to make a crime really punishable with
+death, it was awarded "without benefit of clergy." The benefit of clergy
+was abolished by a statute of 1827, but as this statute did not repeal
+that of 1547, under which peers were given the privilege, a further
+statute was passed in 1841 putting peers on the same footing as commons
+and clergy.
+
+  For a full account of benefit of clergy see Pollock and Maitland,
+  _History of English Law_, vol. i. 424-440; also Stephen, _History of
+  the Criminal Law of England_, vol. i.; E. Friedberg, _Corpus juris
+  canonici_ (Leipzig, 1879-1881).
+
+
+
+
+CLERGY RESERVES, in Canada. By the act of 1791, establishing the
+provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, the British government set apart
+one-eighth of all the crown lands for the support of "a Protestant
+clergy." These reservations, after being for many years a
+stumbling-block to the economic development of the province, and the
+cause of much bitter political and ecclesiastical controversy, were
+secularized by the Canadian parliament in 1854, and the proceeds applied
+to other purposes, chiefly educational. Owing to the wording of the
+imperial act, the amount set apart is often stated as one-seventh, and
+was sometimes claimed as such by the clergy.
+
+
+
+
+CLERK[1] (from A.S. _cleric_ or _clerc_, which, with the similar Fr.
+form, comes direct from the Lat. _clericus_), in its original sense, as
+used in the civil law, one who had taken religious orders of whatever
+rank, whether "holy" or "minor." The word _clericus_ is derived from the
+Greek [Greek: klêrikos], "of or pertaining to an inheritance," from
+[Greek: koêros], "lot," "allotment," "estate," "inheritance"; but the
+authorities are by no means agreed in which sense the root is connected
+with the sense of the derivative, some conceiving that the original idea
+was that the clergy received the service of God as their lot or portion;
+others that they were the portion of the Lord; while others again, with
+more reason as Bingham (_Orig. Eccl._ lib. i. cap. 5, sec. 9) seems to
+think, maintain that the word has reference to the choosing by lot, as
+in early ages was the case of those to whom public offices were to be
+entrusted.
+
+In the primitive times of the church the term canon was used as
+synonymous with clerk, from the names of all the persons in the service
+of any church having been inscribed on a roll, or [Greek: kanon], whence
+they were termed _canonici_, a fact which shows that the practice of the
+Roman Catholic Church of including all persons of all ranks in the
+service of the church, ordained or unordained, in the term clerks, or
+clergy, is at least in conformity with the practice of antiquity. Thus,
+too, in English ecclesiastical law, a clerk was any one who had been
+admitted to the ecclesiastical state, and had taken the tonsure. The
+application of the word in this sense gradually underwent a change, and
+"clerk" became more especially the term applied to those in minor
+orders, while those in "major" or "holy" orders were designated in full
+"clerks in holy orders," which in English law still remains the
+designation of clergymen of the Established Church. After the
+Reformation the word "clerk" was still further extended to include
+laymen who performed duties in cathedrals, churches, &c., e.g. the
+choirmen, who were designated "lay clerks." Of these lay clerks or
+choirmen there was always one whose duty it was to be constantly present
+at every service, to sing or say the responses as the leader or
+representative of the laity. His duties were gradually enlarged to
+include the care of the church and precincts, assisting at baptisms,
+marriages, &c., and he thus became the precursor of the later _parish
+clerk_. In a somewhat similar sense we find _bible clerk, singing
+clerk_, &c. The use of the word "clerk" to denote a person ordained to
+the ministry is now mainly legal or formal.
+
+The word also developed in a different sense. In medieval times the
+pursuit of letters and general learning was confined to the clergy, and
+as they were practically the only persons who could read and write all
+notarial and secretarial work was discharged by them, so that in time
+the word was used with special reference to secretaries, notaries,
+accountants or even mere penmen. This special meaning developed into
+what is now one of the ordinary senses of the word. We find,
+accordingly, the term applied to those officers of courts, corporations,
+&c., whose duty consists in keeping records, correspondence, and
+generally managing business, as _clerk of the market, clerk of the petty
+bag, clerk of the peace, town clerk_, &c. Similarly, a clerk also means
+any one who in a subordinate position is engaged in writing, making
+entries, ordinary correspondence, or similar "clerkly" work. In the
+United States the word means also an assistant in a commercial house, a
+retail salesman.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The accepted English pronunciation, "clark," is found in southern
+    English as early as the 15th century; but northern dialects still
+    preserve the e sound ("clurk"), which is the common pronunciation in
+    America.
+
+
+
+
+CLERKE, AGNES MARY (1842-1907), English astronomer and scientific
+writer, was born on the 10th of February 1842, and died in London on the
+20th of January 1907. She wrote extensively on various scientific
+subjects, but devoted herself more especially to astronomy. Though not a
+practical astronomer in the ordinary sense, she possessed remarkable
+skill in collating, interpreting and summarizing the results of
+astronomical research, and as a historian her work has an important
+place in scientific literature. Her chief works were _A Popular History
+of Astronomy during the 19th Century_, first edition 1885, fourth 1902;
+_The System of the Stars_, first edition 1890, second 1905; and
+_Problems in Astrophysics_, 1903. In addition she wrote _Familiar
+Studies in Homer_ (1892), _The Herschels and Modern Astronomy_ (1895),
+_Modern Cosmogonies_ (1906), and many valuable articles, such as her
+contributions to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. In 1903 she was elected
+an honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society.
+
+
+
+
+CLERKENWELL, a district on the north side of the city of London,
+England, within the metropolitan borough of Finsbury (q.v.). It is so
+called from one of several wells or springs in this district, near which
+miracle plays were performed by the parish clerks of London. This well
+existed until the middle of the 19th century. Here was situated a
+priory, founded in 1100, which grew to great wealth and fame as the
+principal institution in England of the Knights Hospitallers of the
+Order of St John of Jerusalem. Its gateway, erected in 1504, and
+remaining in St John's Square, served various purposes after the
+suppression of the monasteries, being, for example, the birthplace of
+the _Gentleman's Magazine_ in 1731, and the scene of Dr Johnson's work
+in connexion with that journal. In modern times the gatehouse again
+became associated with the Order, and is the headquarters of the St
+John's Ambulance Association. An Early English crypt remains beneath the
+neighbouring parish church of St John, where the notorious deception of
+the "Cock Lane Ghost," in which Johnson took great interest, was
+exposed. Adjoining the priory was St Mary's Benedictine nunnery, St
+James's church (1792) marking the site, and preserving in its vaults
+some of the ancient monuments. In the 17th century Clerkenwell became a
+fashionable place of residence. A prison erected here at this period
+gave place later to the House of Detention, notorious as the scene of a
+Fenian outrage in 1867, when it was sought to release certain prisoners
+by blowing up part of the building. Clerkenwell is a centre of the
+watch-making and jeweller's industries, long established here; and the
+Northampton Polytechnic Institute, Northampton Square, a branch of the
+City Polytechnic, has a department devoted to instruction in these
+trades.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS, or CLERMONT-DE-L'OISE, a town of northern
+France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Oise, on the
+right bank of the Brèche, 41 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway to
+Amiens. Pop. (1906) 4014. The hill on which the town is built is
+surmounted by a keep of the 14th century, the relic of a fortress the
+site of which is partly occupied by a large penitentiary for women. The
+church dates from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The hôtel-de-ville,
+built by King Charles IV., who was born at Clermont in 1294, is the
+oldest in the north of France. The most attractive feature of the town
+is the Promenade du Châtellier on the site of the old ramparts. Clermont
+is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a
+communal college and a large lunatic asylum. It manufactures felt and
+corsets, and carries on a trade in horses, cattle and grain.
+
+The town was probably founded during the time of the Norman invasions,
+and was an important military post, during the middle ages. It was
+several times taken and retaken by the contending parties during the
+Hundred Years' War, and the Wars of Religion, and in 1615 Henry II.,
+prince of Condé, was besieged and captured there by the marshal d'Ancre.
+
+COUNTS OF CLERMONT. Clermont was at one time the seat of a countship,
+the lords of which were already powerful in the 11th century. Raoul de
+Clermont, constable of France, died at Acre in 1191, leaving a daughter
+who brought Clermont to her husband, Louis, count of Blois and Chartres.
+Theobald, count of Blois and Clermont, died in 1218 without issue, and
+King Philip Augustus, having received the countship of Clermont from the
+collateral heirs of this lord, gave it to his son Philip Hurepel, whose
+daughter Jeanne, and his widow, Mahaut, countess of Dammartin, next held
+the countship. It was united by Saint Louis to the crown, and afterwards
+given by him (1269) to his son Robert, from whom sprang the house of
+Bourbon. In 1524 the countship of Clermont was confiscated from the
+constable de Bourbon, and later (1540) given to the duke of Orleans, to
+Catherine de' Medici (1562), to Eric, duke of Brunswick (1569), from
+whom it passed to his brother-in-law Charles of Lorraine (1596), and
+finally to Henry II., prince of Condé (1611). In 1641 it was again
+confiscated from Louis de Bourbon, count of Soissons, then in 1696 sold
+to Louis Thomas Amadeus of Savoy, count of Soissons, in 1702 to
+Françoise de Brancas, princesse d'Harcourt, and in 1719 to Louis-Henry,
+prince of Condé. From a branch of the old lords of Clermont were
+descended the lords of Nesle and Chantilly.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-FERRAND, a city of central France, capital of the department of
+Puy-de-Dôme, 113 m. W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906)
+town, 44,113; commune, 58,363. Clermont-Ferrand is situated on an
+eminence on the western border of the fertile plain of Limagne. On the
+north, west and south it is surrounded by hills, with a background of
+mountains amongst which the Puy-de-Dôme stands out prominently. A small
+river, the Tiretaine, borders the town on the north. Since 1731 it has
+been composed of the two towns of Clermont and Montferrand, now
+connected by a fine avenue of walnut trees and willows, 2 m. in length,
+bordered on one side by barracks. The watering-place of Royat lies a
+little more than a mile to the west. Clermont has several handsome
+squares ornamented with fountains, the chief of which is a graceful
+structure erected by Bishop Jacques d'Amboise in 1515. The streets of
+the older and busier quarter of Clermont in the neighbourhood of the
+cathedral and the Place de Jaude, the principal square, are for the most
+part narrow, sombre and bordered by old houses built of lava; boulevards
+divide this part from more modern and spacious quarters, which adjoin
+it. To the south lies the fine promenade known as the Jardin Lecoq.
+
+The principal building is the cathedral, a Gothic edifice begun in the
+13th century. It was not completed, however, till the 19th century, when
+the west portal and towers and two bays of the nave were added,
+according to the plans of Viollet-le-Duc. The fine stained glass of the
+windows dates from the 13th to the 15th centuries. A monument of the
+Crusades with a statue of Pope Urban II. stands in the Cathedral square.
+The church of Notre-Dame du Port is a typical example of the Romanesque
+style of Auvergne, dating chiefly from the 11th and 12th centuries. The
+exterior of the choir, with its four radiating chapels, its jutting
+cornices supported by modillions and columns with carved capitals, and
+its mosaic decoration of black and white stones, is the most interesting
+part of the exterior. The rest of the church comprises a narthex
+surmounted by a tower, three naves and a transept, over which rises
+another tower. There are several churches of minor importance in the
+town. Among the old houses one, dating from the 16th century, was the
+birthplace of Blaise Pascal, whose statue stands in a neighbouring
+square. There is a statue of General Louis Charles Desaix de Veygoux in
+the Place de Jaude. Montferrand has several interesting houses of the
+15th and 16th centuries, and a church of the 13th, 14th and 15th
+centuries.
+
+Clermont-Ferrand is the seat of a bishopric and a prefecture and
+headquarters of the XIII. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an
+exchange and a branch of the Bank of France. The town is the centre of
+an educational division (_académie_), and has faculties of science and
+of literature. It also has lycées and training colleges for both sexes,
+ecclesiastical seminaries, a preparatory school of medicine and
+pharmacy, schools of architecture, music, commerce and industry, museums
+of art and antiquities and natural history and a library. A great
+variety of industries is carried on, the chief being the manufacture of
+semolina and other farinaceous foods, confectionery, preserved fruit and
+jams, chemicals and rubber goods. Liqueurs, chicory, chocolate, candles,
+hats, boots and shoes, and woollen and linen goods are also made, and
+tanning is practised. Clermont is the chief market for the grain and
+other agricultural produce of Auvergne and Velay. Its waters are in
+local repute. On the bank of the Tiretaine there is a remarkable
+calcareous spring, the fountain of St Allyre, the copious deposits of
+which have formed a curious natural bridge over the stream.
+
+Clermont is identified with the ancient _Augustonemetum_, the chief town
+of the Arverni, and it still preserves some remains of the Roman period.
+The present name, derived from Clarus Mons and originally applied only
+to the citadel, was used of the town as early as the 9th century. During
+the disintegration of the Roman empire Clermont suffered as much perhaps
+from capture and pillage as any city in the country; its history during
+the middle ages chiefly records the struggles between its bishops and
+the counts of Auvergne, and between the citizens and their overlord the
+bishop. It was the seat of seven ecclesiastical councils, held in the
+years 535, 549, 587, 1095, 1110, 1124 and 1130; and of these the council
+of 1095 is for ever memorable as that in which Pope Urban II. proclaimed
+the first crusade. In the wars against the English in the 14th and 15th
+centuries and the religious wars of the 16th century the town had its
+full participation; and in 1665 it acquired a terrible notoriety by the
+trial and execution of many members of the nobility of Auvergne who had
+tyrannized over the neighbouring districts. The proceedings lasted six
+months, and the episode is known as _les Grands Jours de Clermont_.
+Before the Revolution the town possessed several monastic
+establishments, of which the most important were the abbey of Saint
+Allyre, founded, it is said, in the 3rd century by St Austremonius (St
+Stremoine), the apostle of Auvergne and first bishop of Clermont, and
+the abbey of St André, where the counts of Clermont were interred.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON (1846-   ), French Orientalist, the son of
+a sculptor of some repute, was born in Paris on the 19th of February 1846.
+After an education at the École des Langues Orientales, he entered the
+diplomatic service as dragoman to the consulate at Jerusalem, and
+afterwards at Constantinople. He laid the foundation of his reputation by
+his discovery (in 1870) of the "stele" of Mesha (Moabite Stone), which
+bears the oldest Semitic inscription known. In 1874 he was employed by the
+British government to take charge of an archaeological expedition to
+Palestine, and was subsequently entrusted by his own government with
+similar missions to Syria and the Red Sea. He was made chevalier of the
+Legion of Honour in 1875. After serving as vice-consul at Jaffa from 1880
+to 1882, he returned to Paris as "secrétaire-interprète" for oriental
+languages, and in 1886 was appointed consul of the first class. He
+subsequently accepted the post of director of the École des Langues
+Orientales and professor at the Collège de France. In 1889 he was elected
+a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, of which he
+had been a correspondent since 1880. In 1896 he was promoted to be
+consul-general, and was minister plenipotentiary in 1906. He was the first
+in England to expose the famous forgeries of Hebrew texts offered to the
+British Museum by M.W. Shapira (q.v.) in 1883, and in 1903 he took a
+prominent part in the investigation of the so-called "tiara of
+Saïtapharnes." This tiara had been purchased by the Louvre for 400,000
+francs, and exhibited as a genuine antique. Much discussion arose as to
+the perpetrators of the fraud, some believing that it came from southern
+Russia. It was agreed, however, that the whole object, except perhaps the
+band round the tiara, was of modern manufacture.
+
+  His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to journals,
+  are:--_Palestine inconnue_ (1886), _Études d'archéologie orientale_
+  (1880, &c.), _Les Fraudes archéologiques_ (1885), _Recueil
+  d'archéologie orientale_ (1885, &c.), _Album d'antiquités orientales_
+  (1897, &c.).
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-L'HERAULT, or CLERMONT DE LODÈVE, a town of southern France in
+the department of Hérault, 10 m. S.S.E. by rail of Lodève. Pop. (1906)
+4731. The town is built on the slope of a hill which is crowned by an
+ancient castle and skirted by the Rhonel, a tributary of the Lergue. It
+has an interesting church of the 13th and 14th centuries. The chief
+manufacture is that of cloth for military clothing, and woollen goods,
+an industry which dates from the latter half of the 17th century.
+Tanning and leather-dressing are also carried on, and there is trade in
+wine, wool and grain. Among the public institutions are a tribunal of
+commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of
+trade-arbitration and a communal college. The town was several times
+taken and retaken in the religious wars of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-TONNERRE, the name of a French family, members of which played
+some part in the history of France, especially in Dauphiné, from about
+1100 to the Revolution. Sibaud, lord of Clermont in Viennois, who first
+appears in 1080, was the founder of the family. His descendant, another
+Sibaud, commanded some troops which aided Pope Calixtus II. in his
+struggle with the anti-pope Gregory VIII.; and in return for this
+service it is said that the pope allowed him to add certain emblems--two
+keys and a tiara--to the arms of his family. A direct descendant, Ainard
+(d. 1349), called vicomte de Clermont, was granted the dignity of
+captain-general and first baron of Dauphiné by his suzerain Humbert,
+dauphin of Viennois, in 1340; and in 1547 Clermont was made a county for
+Antoine (d. 1578), who was governor of Dauphiné and the French king's
+lieutenant in Savoy. In 1572 Antoine's son Henri was created a duke, but
+as this was only a "brevet" title it did not descend to his son. Henri
+was killed before La Rochelle in 1573. In 1596 Henri's son, Charles
+Henri, count of Clermont (d. 1640), added Tonnerre to his heritage; but
+in 1648 this county was sold by his son and successor, François (d.
+1679).
+
+A member of a younger branch of Charles Henri's descendants was Gaspard
+de Clermont-Tonnerre (1688-1781). This soldier served his country during
+a long period, fighting in Bohemia and Alsace, and then distinguishing
+himself greatly at the battles of Fontenoy and Lawfeldt. In 1775 he was
+created duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, and made a peer of France; as the
+senior marshal (cr. 1747) of France he assisted as constable at the
+coronation of Louis XVI. in 1774. His son and successor, Charles Henri
+Jules, governor of Dauphiné, was guillotined in July 1794, a fate which
+his grandson, Gaspard Charles, had suffered at Lyons in the previous
+year. A later duke, Aimé Marie Gaspard (1779-1865), served for some
+years as a soldier, afterwards becoming minister of marine and then
+minister of war under Charles X., and retiring into private life after
+the revolution of 1830. Aimé's grandson, Roger, duke of
+Clermont-Tonnerre, was born in 1842.
+
+Among other distinguished members of this family was Catherine (c.
+1545-1603), only daughter of Claude de Clermont-Tonnerre. This lady,
+_dame d'honneur_ to Henry II.'s queen, Catherine de' Medici, and
+afterwards wife of Albert de Gondi, due de Retz, won a great reputation
+by her intellectual attainments, being referred to as the "tenth muse"
+and the "fourth grace." One of her grandsons was the famous cardinal de
+Retz. Other noteworthy members of collateral branches of the family
+were: François (1629-1701), bishop of Noyon from 1661 until his death, a
+member of the French Academy, notorious for his inordinate vanity;
+Stanislas M. A., comte de Clermont-Tonnerre (q.v.); and Anne Antoine
+Jules (1740-1830), cardinal and bishop of Châlons, who was a member of
+the states-general in 1789, afterwards retiring into Germany, and after
+the return of the Bourbons to France became archbishop of Toulouse.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS MARIE ADELAIDE, COMTE DE (1757-1792),
+French politican, was born at Pont-à-Mousson on the 10th of October
+1757. At the beginning of the Revolution he was a colonel, with some
+reputation as a freemason and a Liberal. He was elected to the
+states-general of 1789 by the noblesse of Paris, and was the spokesman
+of the minority of Liberal nobles who joined the Third Estate on the
+25th of June. He desired to model the new constitution of France on that
+of England. He was elected president of the Constituent Assembly on the
+17th of August 1789; but on the rejection by the Assembly of the scheme
+elaborated by the first constitutional committee, he attached himself to
+the party of moderate royalists, known as _monarchiens_, led by P.V.
+Malouet. His speech in favour of reserving to the crown the right of
+absolute veto under the new constitution drew down upon him the wrath of
+the advanced politicians of the Palais Royal; but in spite of threats
+and abuse he continued to advocate a moderate liberal policy, especially
+in the matter of removing the political disabilities of Jews and
+Protestants and of extending the system of trial by jury. In January
+1790 he collaborated with Malouet in founding the Club des Impartiaux
+and the _Journal des Impartiaux_, the names of which were changed in
+November to the Société des Amis de la Constitution Monarchique and
+_Journal de la Société, &c._. in order to emphasize their opposition to
+the Jacobins (Société des Amis de la Constitution). This club was
+denounced by Barnave in the Assembly (January 21st, 1791), and on the
+28th of March it was attacked by a mob, whereupon it was closed by order
+of the Assembly. Clermont-Tonnerre was murdered by the populace during
+the rising of the 9th and 10th of August 1792. He was an excellent
+orator, having acquired practice in speaking, before the Revolution, in
+the masonic lodges. He is a good representative of the type of the
+_grands seigneurs_ holding advanced and liberal ideas, who helped to
+bring about the movement of 1789, and then tried in vain to arrest its
+course.
+
+  See _Recueil des opinions de Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre_ (4 vols.,
+  Paris, 1791), the text of his speeches as published by himself; A.
+  Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Constituante_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+CLERUCHY (Gr. [Greek: klêrouchia], from [Greek: klêros], a lot, [Greek:
+echein], to have), in ancient Greek history a kind of colony composed of
+Athenian[1] citizens planted, practically as a garrison, in a conquered
+country. Strictly, the settlers (cleruchs) were not colonists, inasmuch
+as they retained their status as citizens of Athens (e.g. _ho dêmos ho
+en Hphaistia_), and their allotments were politically part of Attic
+soil. These settlements were of three kinds: (1) where the earlier
+inhabitants were extirpated or expatriated, and the settlers occupied
+the whole territory; (2) where the settlers occupied allotments in the
+midst of a conquered people; and (3) where the inhabitants gave up
+portions of land to settlers in return for certain pecuniary
+concessions. The primary object (cf. the 4000 cleruchs settled in 506
+B.C. upon the lands of the conquered oligarchs of Euboea, known as the
+Hippobotae) was unquestionably military, and in the later days of the
+Delian League the system was the simplest precaution against
+disaffection on the part of the allies, the strength of whose resentment
+may be gathered from an inscription (Hicks and Hill, 101 [81]), which,
+in setting forth the terms of the second Delian Confederacy, expressly
+forbids the holding of land by Athenians in allied territory.
+
+A secondary object of the cleruchies was social or agrarian, to provide
+a source of livelihood to the poorer Athenians. Plutarch (_Pericles_,
+11) suggests that Pericles by this means rid the city of the idle and
+mischievous loafers; but it would appear that the cleruchs were selected
+by lot, and in any case a wise policy would not deliberately entrust
+important military duties to recognized wastrels. When we remember that
+in 50 years of the 5th century some 10,000 cleruchs went out, it is
+clear that the drain on the citizen population was considerable.
+
+It is impossible to decide precisely how far the state retained control
+over the cleruchs. Certainly they were liable to military service and
+presumably to that taxation which fell upon Athenians at home. That they
+were not liable for the tribute which members of the Delian League paid
+is clear from the fact that the assessments of places where cleruchs
+were settled immediately went down considerably (cf. the Periclean
+cleruchies, 450-445); indeed, this follows from their status as Athenian
+citizens, which is emphasized by the fact that they retained their
+membership of deme and tribe. In internal government the cleruchs
+adopted the Boul[=e] and Assembly system of Athens itself; so we read of
+Polemarchs, Archons Eponymi, Agoranomi, Strategi, in various places.
+With a measure of local self-government there was also combined a
+certain central authority (e.g. in the matter of jurisdiction, some
+case being tried by the Nautodicae at Athens); in fact we may assume
+that the more important cases, particularly those between a cleruch and
+a citizen at home, were tried before the Athenian dicasts. In a few
+cases, the cleruchs, e.g. in the case of Lesbos (427), were apparently
+allowed to remain in Athens receiving rent for their allotments from the
+original Lesbian owners (Thuc. iii. 50); but this represents the
+perversion of the original idea of the cleruchy to a system of reward
+and punishment.
+
+  See G. Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta_
+  (Eng. trans., London, 1895), but note that Brea, wrongly quoted as an
+  example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41 [29]);
+  A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional Antiquities_
+  (London, 1896); for the Periclean cleruchs see PERICLES; DELIAN
+  LEAGUE.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It seems (Strabo, p. 635) that similar colonies were sent out by
+    the Milesians, e.g. to Leros.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4
+       "Cincinnatus" to "Cleruchy"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 14, 2010 [EBook #31641]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6, SL 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME VI SLICE IV<br /><br />
+Cincinnatus to Cleruchy</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 180%;">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 100%; font-size: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">CINCINNATUS, LUCIUS QUINCTIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">CLARINA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">CINDERELLA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">CLARINET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">CINEAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">CLARK, SIR ANDREW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">CINEMATOGRAPH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">CINERARIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">CINGOLI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">CLARK, SIR JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">CINNA</a> (Roman family)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">CLARK, JOHN BATES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">CINNABAR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">CLARK, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">CINNAMIC ACID</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">CINNAMON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">CLARKE, ADAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">CINNAMON-STONE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">CLARKE, SIR ANDREW</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">CINNAMUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">CINNOLIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">CINO DA PISTOIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">CINQ-MARS, D&rsquo;EFFIAT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">CINQUE CENTO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">CINQUE PORTS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">CINTRA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">CLARKE, MARY ANNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">CIPHER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">CLARKE, SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">CIPPUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">CIRCAR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">CLARKSON, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">CIRCASSIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">CLARKSVILLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">CIRCE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">CLASSICS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">CIRCEIUS MONS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">CLASSIFICATION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">CIRCLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">CLASTIDIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">CIRCLEVILLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">CLAUBERG, JOHANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">CIRCUIT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">CLAUDE, JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">CIRCULAR NOTE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">CLAUDE OF LORRAINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">CIRCUMCISION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">CLAUDIUS</a> (Nero Germanicus)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">CIRCUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">CLAUDIUS</a> (famous Roman gens.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">CIRENCESTER</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">CIRILLO, DOMENICO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">CIRQUE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">CLAUSEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">CIRTA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">CLAUSEN, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">CISSEY, ERNEST COURTOT DE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">CISSOID</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF EMMANUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">CIS-SUTLEJ STATES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">CLAUSTHAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">CIST</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">CLAVECIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">CISTERCIANS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">CLAVICEMBALO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">CITATION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">CLAVICHORD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">CÎTEAUX</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">CLAVICYTHERIUM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">CITHAERON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">CLAVIE, BURNING THE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">CITHARA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">CLAVIÈRE, ÉTIENNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">CITIUM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">CITIZEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">CITOLE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">CITRIC ACID</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">CLAY, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">CITRON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">CLAY, FREDERIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">CITTADELLA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">CLAY, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">CITTÀ DELLA PIEVE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">CLAY</a> (substance)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">CITTÀ DI CASTELLO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">CLAY CROSS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">CITTÀ VECCHIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">CLAYMORE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">CITTERN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">CLAYS, PAUL JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">CITY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">CIUDAD BOLÍVAR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">CIUDAD DE CURA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">CLAY-WITH-FLINTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">CIUDAD JUAREZ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">CLAZOMENAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">CLEANTHES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">CIUDAD REAL</a> (province of Spain)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">CLEARCHUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">CIUDAD REAL</a> (city in Spain)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">CLEARFIELD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">CIUDAD RODRIGO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">CLEARING-HOUSE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">CLEAT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">CIVET</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">CLEATOR MOOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">CLEAVERS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">CLEBURNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">CIVILIZATION</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">CLECKHEATON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">CIVIL LAW</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">CLEETHORPES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">CIVIL LIST</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">CLEFT PALATE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">CIVIL SERVICE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">CLEISTHENES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">CIVITA CASTELLANA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">CLEITARCHUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">CIVITA VECCHIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">CLEITHRAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">CLACKMANNAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183">CLEITOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">CLACKMANNANSHIRE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">CLELAND, WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">CLACTON-ON-SEA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">CLEMATIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">CLADEL, LÉON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187">CLEMENCÍN, DIEGO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">CLAIRAULT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">CLEMENT</a> (popes)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">CLAIRON, LA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">CLAIRVAUX</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">CLÉMENT, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">CLAIRVOYANCE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">CLÉMENT, JACQUES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">CLAMECY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">CLEMENTI, MUZIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">CLAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">CLEMENTINE LITERATURE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH</a> (Earl)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">CLEOBULUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH</a> (Marquess)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">CLEOMENES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">CLEON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">CLAPARÈDE, JEAN LOUIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">CLEOPATRA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">CLAPPERTON, HUGH</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198">CLEPSYDRA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">CLAQUE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">CLERESTORY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">CLARA, SAINT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">CLERFAYT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">CLARE</a> (English family)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">CLERGY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">CLARE, JOHN</a> (English poet)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">CLERGY, BENEFIT OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">CLERGY RESERVES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">CLARE</a> (county in Ireland)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">CLERK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">CLAREMONT</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">CLERKE, AGNES MARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">CLARENCE, DUKES OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">CLERKENWELL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">CLARENDON, GEORGE VILLIERS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">CLERMONT-FERRAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">CLERMONT-L&rsquo;HERAULT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">CLARES, POOR</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">CLERMONT-TONNERRE</a> (French family)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">CLARET</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">CLARETIE, JULES ARNAUD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">CLERUCHY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA</a></td>  <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page374" id="page374"></a>374</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CINCINNATUS,</span><a name="FnAnchor_1a" id="FnAnchor_1a" href="#Footnote_1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> <span class="bold">LUCIUS QUINCTIUS<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span>, (b. c. 519 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), one of
+the heroes of early Rome, a model of old Roman virtue and
+simplicity. A persistent opponent of the plebeians, he resisted
+the proposal of Terentilius Arsa (or Harsa) to draw up a code of
+written laws applicable equally to patricians and plebeians. He
+was in humble circumstances, and lived and worked on his own
+small farm. The story that he became impoverished by paying
+a fine incurred by his son Caeso is an attempt to explain the needy
+position of so distinguished a man. Twice he was called from
+the plough to the dictatorship of Rome in 458 and 439. In 458
+he defeated the Aequians in a single day, and after entering
+Rome in triumph with large spoils returned to his farm. The
+story of his success, related five times under five different years,
+possibly rests on an historical basis, but the account given in Livy
+of the achievements of the Roman army is obviously incredible.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Livy iii. 26-29; Dion. Halic. x. 23-25; Florus i. 11. For a
+critical examination of the story see Schwegler, <i>Römische Geschichte</i>,
+bk. xxviii. 12; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, <i>Credibility of early Roman
+History</i>, ch. xii. 40; W. Ihne, <i>History of Rome</i>, i.; E. Pais,
+<i>Storia di Roma</i>, i. ch. 4 (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1a" id="Footnote_1a" href="#FnAnchor_1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> I.e. the &ldquo;curly-haired.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINDERELLA<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost
+universal fairy-tale. Its essential features are (1) the persecuted
+maiden whose youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy
+of her step-mother and sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or
+other supernatural instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who
+falls in love with and marries her. In the English version, a
+translation of Perrault&rsquo;s <i>Cendrillon</i>, the <i>glass</i> slipper which she
+drops on the palace stairs is due to a mistranslation of <i>pantoufle
+en vair</i> (a <i>fur</i> slipper), mistaken for <i>en verre</i>. It has been
+suggested that the story originated in a nature-myth, Cinderella being
+the dawn, oppressed by the night-clouds (cruel relatives) and
+finally rescued by the sun (prince).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Marian Rolfe Cox, <i>Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five
+Variants</i> (1893); A Lang, <i>Perrault&rsquo;s Popular Tales</i> (1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINEAS<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span>, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of
+Epirus. He studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the
+most eloquent man of his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus
+from invading Italy, and after the defeat of the Romans at
+Heraclea (280 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) was sent to Rome to discuss terms of peace.
+These terms, which are said by Appian (<i>De Rebus Samniticis</i>,
+10, 11) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy
+and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of
+all that had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through
+the vehement and patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius
+Caecus the censor. The withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was
+demanded, and Cineas returned to his master with the report
+that Rome was a temple and its senate an assembly of kings.
+Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations with
+Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities,
+and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for
+Pyrrhus&rsquo;s campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is
+said to have made an epitome of the <i>Tactica</i> of Aeneas, probably
+referred to by Cicero, who speaks of a Cineas as the author of a
+treatise <i>De Re Militari</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Plutarch, <i>Pyrrhus</i>, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12;
+Cicero, <i>Ad Fam.</i> ix. 25.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINEMATOGRAPH<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Kinematograph</span> (from <span class="grk" title="khinêma">&#954;&#943;&#957;&#951;&#956;&#945;</span>, motion,
+and <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views
+representing closely successive phases of a moving object are
+exhibited in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to
+persistence of vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous
+motion. It is a development of the zoetrope or &ldquo;wheel of life,&rdquo;
+described by W.G. Horner about 1833, which consists of a
+hollow cylinder turning on a vertical axis and having its surface
+pierced with a number of slots. Round the interior is arranged
+a series of pictures representing successive stages of such a subject
+as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated an observer
+looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently in
+motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photography
+was afterwards applied to their production. E. Muybridge
+about 1877 obtained successive pictures of a running
+horse by employing a row of cameras, the shutters of which
+were opened and closed electrically by the passage of the horse
+in front of them, and in 1883 E.J. Marey of Paris established
+a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar
+photographic methods.</p>
+
+<p>The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the
+invention of the celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1890),
+on which the serial pictures are impressed by instantaneous
+photography, a long sensitized film being moved across the focal
+plane of a camera and exposed intermittently. In one apparatus
+for making the exposures a cam jerks the film across the field
+once for each picture, the slack being gathered in on a drum
+at a constant rate. In another four lenses are rotated so as to
+give four images for each rotation, the film travelling so as to
+present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place.
+Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films
+are developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric
+light may be fixed to enable the process to be watched. A
+positive is made from the negative thus obtained, and is passed
+through an optical lantern, the images being thus successively
+projected through an objective lens upon a distant screen.
+For an hour&rsquo;s exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures are needed.
+To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the film
+for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in
+position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the
+picture dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another
+method of exhibiting cinematographic effects is to bind the
+pictures together in book form by one edge, and then release
+them from the other in rapid succession by means of the thumb
+or some mechanical device as the book is bent backwards. In
+this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but directly,
+either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.</p>
+
+<p>Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic
+processes, being in black and white only, fail to reproduce the
+colouring of the subjects they represent. To some extent this
+defect has been remedied by painting them by hand, but this
+method is too expensive for general adoption, and moreover
+does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt
+three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films,
+each with a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining
+the three images on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties
+in regard to maintenance of register, because very minute errors
+of adjustment between the pictures on the films are magnified
+to an intolerable extent by projection. In a process devised by
+G.A. Smith, the results of which were exhibited at the Society
+of Arts, London, in December 1908, the number of colour records
+was reduced to two. The films were specially treated to increase
+their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were taken through
+two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the film;
+both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition
+specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and
+the other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and
+violet. The camera was arranged to take not less than 16
+pictures a second through each filter, or 32 a second in all. The
+positive transparency made from the negative thus obtained
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page375" id="page375"></a>375</span>
+was used in a lantern so arranged that beams of red (composed
+of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow and
+blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting
+the pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those
+made with the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary
+shutter was provided to introduce violet and blue, to compensate
+for the deficiency in those colours caused by the necessity of
+cutting them out in the camera owing to the over-sensitiveness
+of the film to them, and the result was that the successive pictures,
+blending on the screen by persistence of vision, gave a
+reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which were
+sensibly the same as those of the original.</p>
+
+<p>The cinematograph enables &ldquo;living&rdquo; or &ldquo;animated pictures&rdquo;
+of such subjects as an army on the march, or an express train
+at full speed, to be presented with marvellous distinctness
+and completeness of detail. Machines of this kind have been
+devised in enormous numbers and used for purposes of amusement
+under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope, mutograph,
+&amp;c.) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin words
+for life, movement, change, &amp;c., with suffixes taken from such
+words as <span class="grk" title="skopein">&#963;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to see, <span class="grk" title="graphein">&#947;&#961;&#940;&#966;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to depict; they have also
+been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for
+example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer
+are simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they
+are used in public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme
+inflammability of the celluloid film and its employment in close
+proximity to a powerful source of light and heat, such as is
+required if the pictures are to show brightly on the screen,
+precautions must be taken to prevent, as far as possible, the heat
+rays from reaching it, and effective means must be provided
+to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of films
+composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the
+attention of inventors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H.V. Hopwood, <i>Living Pictures</i> (London, 1899), containing
+a bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is supplemented
+in the <i>Optician</i>, vol. xviii. p. 85; Eugène Trutat, <i>La Photographie
+animée</i> (1899), which contains a list of the French patents.
+For the camera see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Photography</a></span>: <i>Apparatus</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINERARIA<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span>. The garden plants of this name have originated
+from a species of <i>Senecio</i>, <i>S. cruentus</i> (nat. ord. Compositae), a
+native of the Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at
+Kew in 1777. It was known originally as <i>Cineraria cruenta</i>,
+but the genus <i>Cineraria</i> is now restricted to a group of South
+African species, and the Canary Island species has been transferred
+to the large and widespread genus <i>Senecio</i>. Cinerarias can
+be raised freely from seeds. For spring flowering in England the
+seeds are sown in April or May in well-drained pots or pans, in
+soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with one-sixth
+sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the surface
+firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them
+out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot
+them singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They
+should be grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so
+situated that the sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the
+day, they must be slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never
+allow them to get dry. When well established with roots, shift
+them into 6-in. pots, which should be liberally supplied with
+manure water as they get filled with roots. In winter remove
+to a pit or house, where a little heat can be supplied whenever
+there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should stand on a
+moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts.
+When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every
+alternate watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown on in this
+way, will be in bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of
+from 40° to 45° at night, with a little more warmth in the day;
+and those sown in April and May will succeed them during the
+early spring months, the latter set of plants being subjected to a
+temperature of 38° or 40° during the night. If grown much
+warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make its appearance
+in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and lower
+surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such
+affected leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a
+great pest on young plants, and can only be kept down by
+fumigating or vaporizing the houses, and syringing with a solution
+of quassia chips, soft soap and tobacco.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINGOLI<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (anc. <i>Cingulum</i>), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the
+province of Macerata, about 14 m. N.W. direct, and 17 m. by
+road, from the town of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The
+Gothic church of S. Esuperanzio contains interesting works of
+art. The town occupies the site of the ancient Cingulum, a
+town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by Caesar&rsquo;s
+lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier village)
+in 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft.) made
+it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is
+heard of it. Under the empire it was a <i>municipium</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINNA<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span>, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The
+most prominent member was <span class="sc">Lucius Cornelius Cinna</span>, a
+supporter of Marius in his contest with Sulla. After serving in
+the war with the Marsi as praetorian legate, he was elected
+consul in 87 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Breaking the oath he had sworn to Sulla that
+he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna allied
+himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took possession
+of the city. Soon after his triumphant entry and the
+massacre of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his
+vengeance, Marius died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna&rsquo;s
+colleague, and on the murder of Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo.
+In 84, however, Cinna, who was still consul, was forced to advance
+against Sulla; but while embarking his troops to meet him in
+Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter Cornelia was
+the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, <span class="sc">L. Cornelius
+Cinna</span>, praetor in 44 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, nevertheless sided with the murderers
+of Caesar and publicly extolled their action.</p>
+
+<p>The hero of Corneille&rsquo;s tragedy <i>Cinna</i> (1640) was Cn. Cornelius
+Cinna, surnamed <i>Magnus</i> (after his maternal grandfather
+Pompey), who was magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for
+conspiring against him.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span>, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian
+age. Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was
+the friend of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the
+suite of the praetor Memmius. The circumstances of his death
+have given rise to some discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus,
+Appian and Dio Cassius all state that, at Caesar&rsquo;s funeral, a
+certain Helvius Cinna was killed by mistake for Cornelius Cinna,
+the conspirator. The last three writers mentioned above add
+that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch, referring to
+the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna who
+was killed by the mob was a poet. This points to the identity
+of Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet.
+The chief objection to this view is based upon two lines in the
+9th eclogue of Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Here reference is made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such importance
+that Virgil deprecates comparison with him; it is argued
+that the manner in which this Cinna, who could hardly have been
+any one but Helvius Cinna, is spoken of implies that he was
+then alive; if so, he could not have been killed in 44. But such
+an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by no means
+absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a reference
+to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that
+it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at
+Caesar&rsquo;s funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities.
+Cinna&rsquo;s chief work was a mythological epic poem called <i>Smyrna</i>,
+the subject of which was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or
+Myrrha) for her father Cinyras, treated after the manner of the
+Alexandrian poets. It is said to have taken nine years to finish.
+A <i>Propempticon Pollionis</i>, a send-off to [Asinius] Pollio, is also
+attributed to him. In both these poems, the language of which
+was so obscure that they required special commentaries, his
+model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Weichert, <i>Poëtarum Latinorum Vitae</i> (1830); L. Müller&rsquo;s
+edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna&rsquo;s poems are
+printed; A. Kiessling, &ldquo;De C. Helvio Cinna Poëta&rdquo; in <i>Commentationes
+Philologicae in honorem T. Mommsen</i> (1878); O. Ribbeck,
+<i>Geschichte der römischen Dichtung</i>, i. (1887); Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>Hist.
+of Roman Lit.</i> (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5);  Plessis, <i>Poésie latine</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page376" id="page376"></a>376</span></p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINNABAR<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Zinnober</i>), sometimes written cinnabarite,
+a name applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native
+vermilion, the common ore of mercury. The name comes from
+the Greek <span class="grk" title="kinnabari">&#954;&#953;&#957;&#957;&#940;&#946;&#945;&#961;&#953;</span>, used by Theophrastus, and probably
+applied to several distinct substances. Cinnabar is generally
+found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of bright red colour,
+but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a metallic adamantine
+lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system, and are
+generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar
+presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and
+optical characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization,
+and A. Des Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the
+rotatory power of quartz (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Polarization of Light</a></span>). Cinnabar
+has higher refractive power than any other known mineral, its
+mean index for sodium light being 3.02, whilst the index for
+diamond&mdash;a substance of remarkable refraction&mdash;is only 2.42 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Refraction</a></span>). The hardness of cinnabar is 3, and its specific
+gravity 8.998.</p>
+
+<p>Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver,
+notably Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria
+(Austria), Landsberg, near Ober-Moschel in the Palatinate,
+Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps (Tuscany), the mountain
+Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the province of Kweichow
+in China, whence very fine crystals have been obtained.
+Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from the
+hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat
+Springs, Nevada.</p>
+
+<p>Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola,
+in which the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy
+matter.</p>
+
+<p>Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this
+compound being dimorphous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a general description of cinnabar, see G.F. Becker&rsquo;s <i>Geology
+of the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope</i>, U.S. Geol. Surv.
+Monographs, No. xiii. (1888).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINNAMIC ACID<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Phenylacrylic Acid</span>, C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">2</span> or
+C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>.CH:CH.COOH, an acid found in the form of its benzyl
+ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in storax and in some gum-benzoins.
+It can be prepared by the reduction of phenyl propiolic
+acid with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal malonic
+acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde
+in the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called &ldquo;Perkin
+reaction&rdquo;; the latter being the method commonly employed.
+In making the acid by this process benzaldehyde, acetic anhydride
+and anhydrous sodium acetate are heated for some
+hours to about 1800 C, the resulting product is made alkaline
+with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed
+by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and
+acidified with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipitated,
+C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CHO+CH<span class="su">3</span>COONa = C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>CH:CH.COONa + H<span class="su">2</span>O. It
+may be purified by recrystallization from hot water. Considerable
+controversy has taken place as to the course pursued by
+this reaction, but the matter has been definitely settled by the
+work of R. Fittig and his pupils (<i>Annalen</i>, 1883, 216, pp. 100,
+115; 1885, 227, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown that the
+aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt
+of the fatty acid, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of
+a dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or
+prisms, melting at 133°C; on reduction it gives <i>phenyl propionic
+acid</i>, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>.CH<span class="su">2</span>.CH<span class="su">2</span>.COOH. Nitric acid oxidizes it to benzoic
+acid and acetic acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic
+and acetic acids. Being an unsaturated acid it combines directly
+with hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, bromine, &amp;c. On
+nitration it gives a mixture of ortho and para nitrocinnamic
+acids, the former of which is of historical importance, as by
+converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A. Baeyer was
+enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Reduction of orthonitrocinnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic
+acid, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(NH<span class="su">2</span>)CH:CH.COOH, which is of theoretical importance,
+as it readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of
+cinnamic acid known as <i>allo-cinnamic acid</i> is also known.</p>
+
+<p>For the oxy-cinnamic adds see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coumarin</a></span>.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINNAMON<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span>, the inner bark of <i>Cinnamomum zeylanicum</i>, a
+small evergreen tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae,
+native to Ceylon. The leaves are large, ovate-oblong in shape,
+and the flowers, which are arranged in panicles, have a greenish
+colour and a rather disagreeable odour. Cinnamon has been
+known from remote antiquity, and it was so highly prized among
+ancient nations that it was regarded as a present fit for monarchs
+and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod. xxx. 23,
+where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon (<i>Kinnamon</i>)
+and cassia, and it is alluded to by Herodotus under the
+name <span class="grk" title="Kinnamômon">&#954;&#953;&#957;&#957;&#940;&#956;&#969;&#956;&#959;&#957;</span>, and by other classical writers. The tree is
+grown at Tellicherry, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil and Egypt,
+but the produce of none of these places approaches in quality
+that grown in Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon of fine quality is a very
+thin smooth bark, with a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly
+fragrant odour, and a peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing
+aromatic taste. Its flavour is due to an aromatic oil which it
+contains to the extent of from 0.5 to 1%. This essential oil,
+as an article of commerce, is prepared by roughly pounding the
+bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly distilling the
+whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the peculiar odour
+of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. It consists essentially
+of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the absorption of oxygen as
+it becomes old it darkens in colour and develops resinous compounds.
+Cinnamon is principally employed in cookery as a
+condiment and flavouring material, being largely used in the
+preparation of some kinds of chocolate and liqueurs. In medicine
+it acts like other volatile oils and has a reputation as a cure for
+colds. Being a much more costly spice than cassia, that comparatively
+harsh-flavoured substance is frequently substituted
+for or added to it. The two barks when whole are easily enough
+distinguished, and their microscopical characters are also quite
+distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine,
+little effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality,
+but when cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the
+intensity of the coloration depending on the proportion of the
+cassia.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINNAMON-STONE<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span>, a variety of garnet, belonging to the
+lime-alumina type, known also as essonite or hessonite, from
+the Gr. <span class="grk" title="êssôn">&#7971;&#963;&#963;&#969;&#957;</span>, &ldquo;inferior,&rdquo; in allusion to its being less hard and
+less dense than most other garnet. It has a characteristic red
+colour, inclining to orange, much like that of hyacinth or
+jacinth. Indeed it was shown many years ago, by Sir A.H.
+Church, that many gems, especially engraved stones, commonly
+regarded as hyacinth, were really cinnamon-stone. The difference
+is readily detected by the specific gravity, that of hessonite being
+3.64 to 3.69, whilst that of hyacinth (zircon) is about 4.6.
+Hessonite is rather a soft stone, its hardness being about that of
+quartz or 7, whilst the hardness of most garnet reaches 7.5.
+Cinnamon-stone comes chiefly from Ceylon, where it is found
+generally as pebbles, though its occurrence in its native matrix
+is not unknown.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINNAMUS<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Kinnamos</span>], <span class="bold">JOHN</span>, Byzantine historian, flourished
+in the second half of the 12th century. He was imperial secretary
+(probably in this case a post connected with the military administration)
+to Manuel I. Comnenus (1143-1180), whom he
+accompanied on his campaigns in Europe and Asia Minor. He
+appears to have outlived Andronicus I., who died in 1185.
+Cinnamus was the author of a history of the period 1118-1176,
+which thus continues the <i>Alexiad</i> of Anna Comnena, and embraces
+the reigns of John II. and Manuel I., down to the unsuccessful
+campaign of the latter against the Turks, which ended
+with the disastrous battle of Myriokephalon and the rout of
+the Byzantine army. Cinnamus was probably an eye-witness
+of the events of the last ten years which he describes. The work
+breaks off abruptly; originally it no doubt went down to the
+death of Manuel, and there are indications that, even in its
+present form, it is an abridgment. The text is in a very corrupt
+state. The author&rsquo;s hero is Manuel; he is strongly impressed
+with the superiority of the East to the West, and is a determined
+opponent of the pretensions of the papacy. But he
+cannot be reproached with undue bias; he writes with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span>
+straightforwardness of a soldier, and is not ashamed on occasion
+to confess his ignorance. The matter is well arranged, the style
+(modelled on that of Xenophon) simple, and on the whole free
+from the usual florid bombast of the Byzantine writers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Editio princeps</i>, C. Tollius (1652); in Bonn, <i>Corpus Scriptorum
+Hist. Byz.</i>, by A. Meineke (1836), with Du Cange&rsquo;s valuable notes;
+Migne, <i>Patrologia Graeca</i>, cxxxiii.; see also C. Neumann, <i>Griechische
+Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert</i> (1888); H. von Kap-Herr,
+<i>Die abendländische Politik Kaiser Manuels</i> (1881); C. Krumbacher,
+<i>Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur</i> (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINNOLIN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span>, C<span class="su">8</span>H<span class="su">6</span>N<span class="su">2</span>, a compound isomeric with phthalazine,
+prepared by boiling dihydrocinnolin dissolved in benzene with
+freshly precipitated mercuric oxide. The solution is filtered
+and the hydrochloride of the base precipitated by alcoholic
+hydrochloric acid; the free base is obtained as an oil by adding
+caustic soda. It may be obtained in white silky needles, melting
+at 24-25°C. and containing a molecule of ether of crystallization
+by cooling the oil dissolved in ether. The free base melts at
+39°C. It is a strong base, forming stable salts with mineral
+acids, and is easily soluble in water and in the ordinary organic
+solvents. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate,
+and leaves a sharp irritation for some time on the tongue; it is
+also very poisonous (M. Busch and A. Rast, <i>Berichte</i>, 1897, 30,
+p. 521). Cinnolin derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin
+carboxylic acid, which is formed by digesting orthophenyl
+propiolic acid diazo chloride with water. Oxycinnolin carboxylic
+acid on heating gives oxycinnolin, melting at 225°,
+which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin. This
+substance is reduced by iron filings and sulphuric acid to dihydrocinnolin.</p>
+
+<p>The relations of these compounds are here shown:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img style="border:0; width:550px; height:112px"
+     src="images/img377.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINO DA PISTOIA<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (1270-1336), Italian poet and jurist,
+whose full name was <span class="sc">Guittoncino de&rsquo; Sinibaldi</span>, was born in
+Pistoia, of a noble family. He studied law at Bologna under
+Dinus Muggelanus (Dino de Rossonis: d. 1303) and Franciscus
+Accursius, and in 1307 is understood to have been assessor of
+civil causes in his native city. In that year, however, Pistoia
+was disturbed by the Guelph and Ghibelline feud. The Ghibellines,
+who had for some time been the stronger party, being
+worsted by the Guelphs, Cino, a prominent member of the former
+faction, had to quit his office and the city of his birth. Pitecchio,
+a stronghold on the frontiers of Lombardy, was yet in the hands
+of Filippo Vergiolesi, chief of the Pistoian Ghibellines; Selvaggia,
+his daughter, was beloved by Cino (who was probably already
+the husband of Margherita degli Unghi); and to Pitecchio did
+the lawyer-poet betake himself. It is uncertain how long he
+remained at the fortress; it is certain, however, that he was not
+with the Vergiolesi at the time of Selvaggia&rsquo;s death, which
+happened three years afterwards (1310), at the Monte della
+Sambuca, in the Apennines, whither the Ghibellines had been
+compelled to shift their camp. He visited his mistress&rsquo;s grave
+on his way to Rome, after some time spent in travel in France
+and elsewhere, and to this visit is owing his finest sonnet. At
+Rome Cino held office under Louis of Savoy, sent thither by
+the Ghibelline leader Henry of Luxemburg, who was crowned
+emperor of the Romans in 1312. In 1313, however, the emperor
+died, and the Ghibellines lost their last hope. Cino appears to
+have thrown up his party, and to have returned to Pistoia.
+Thereafter he devoted himself to law and letters. After filling
+several high judicial offices, a doctor of civil law of Bologna in
+his forty-fourth year, he lectured and taught from the professor&rsquo;s
+chair at the universities of Treviso, Siena, Florence and Perugia
+in succession; his reputation and success were great, his judicial
+experience enabling him to travel out of the routine of the schools.
+In literature he continued in some sort the tradition of Dante
+during the interval dividing that great poet from his successor
+Petrarch. The latter, besides celebrating Cino in an obituary
+sonnet, has coupled him and his Selvaggia with Dante and
+Beatrice in the fourth <i>capitolo</i> of his <i>Trionfi d&rsquo; Amore</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Cino, the master of Bartolus, and of Joannes Andreae the
+celebrated canonist, was long famed as a jurist. His commentary
+on the statutes of Pistoia, written within two years, is said to
+have great merit; while that on the code (<i>Lectura Cino Pistoia
+super codice</i>, Pavia, 1483; Lyons, 1526) is considered by Savigny
+to exhibit more practical intelligence and more originality of
+thought than are found in any commentary on Roman law since
+the time of Accursius. As a poet he also distinguished himself
+greatly. He was the friend and correspondent of Dante&rsquo;s later
+years, and possibly of his earlier also, and was certainly, with
+Guido Cavalcanti and Durante da Maiano, one of those who
+replied to the famous sonnet <i>A ciascun&rsquo; alma presa e gentil core</i>
+of the <i>Vita Nuova</i>. In the treatise <i>De Vulgari Eloquio</i> Dante
+refers to him as one of &ldquo;those who have most sweetly and subtly
+written poems in modern Italian,&rdquo; but his works, printed at
+Rome in 1559, do not altogether justify the praise. Strained and
+rhetorical as many of his outcries are, however, Cino is not
+without moments of true passion and fine natural eloquence.
+Of these qualities the sonnet in memory of Selvaggia, <i>Io
+fui in sull&rsquo; alto e in sul beato monte</i>, and the canzone to Dante,
+<i>Avegnachè di omaggio più per tempo</i>, are interesting examples.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The text-book for English readers is D.G. Rossetti&rsquo;s <i>Early Italian
+Poets</i>, wherein will be found not only a memoir of Cino da Pistoia,
+but also some admirably translated specimens of his verse&mdash;the
+whole wrought into significant connexion with that friendship of
+Cino&rsquo;s which is perhaps the most interesting fact about him. See
+also Ciampi, <i>Vita e poesie di messer Cino da Pistoia</i> (Pisa, 1813).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINQ-MARS, HENRI COIFFIER RUZÉ D&rsquo;EFFIAT<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Marquis
+de</span> (1620-1642), French courtier, was the second son of Antoine
+Coiffier Ruzé, marquis d&rsquo;Effiat, marshal of France (1581-1632),
+and was introduced to the court of Louis XIII. by Richelieu,
+who had been a friend of his father and who hoped he would
+counteract the influence of the queen&rsquo;s favourite Mlle. de
+Hautefort. Owing to his handsome appearance and agreeable
+manners he soon became a favourite of the king, and was made
+successively master of the wardrobe and master of the horse.
+After distinguishing himself at the siege of Arras in 1640, Cinq-Mars
+wished for a high military command, but Richelieu opposed
+his pretensions and the favourite talked rashly about overthrowing
+the minister. He was probably connected with the
+abortive rising of the count of Soissons in 1641; however that
+may be, in the following year he formed a conspiracy with the
+duke of Bouillon and others to overthrow Richelieu. This plot
+was under the nominal leadership of the king&rsquo;s brother Gaston
+of Orleans. The plans of the conspirators were aided by the
+illness of Richelieu and his absence from the king, and at the
+siege of Narbonne Cinq-Mars almost induced Louis to agree to
+banish his minister. Richelieu, however, recovered, became
+acquainted with the attempt of Cinq-Mars to obtain assistance
+from Spain, and laid the proofs of his treason before the king,
+who ordered his arrest. Cinq-Mars was brought to trial, admitted
+his guilt, and was condemned to death. He was executed at
+Lyons on the 12th of September 1642. It is possible that
+Cinq-Mars was urged to engage in this conspiracy by his affection
+for Louise Marie de Gonzaga (1612-1667), afterwards queen of
+Poland, who was a prominent figure at the court of Louis XIII.;
+and this tradition forms part of the plot of Alfred de Vigny&rsquo;s
+novel <i>Cinq-Mars</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Le P. Griffet, <i>Histoire de Louis XIII</i>; A. Bazin, <i>Histoire de
+Louis XIII</i> (1846); L. D&rsquo;Astarac de Frontrailles, <i>Relations des
+choses particulières de la cour pendant la faveur de M. de Cinq-Mars</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINQUE CENTO<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (Italian for five hundred; short for 1500), in
+architecture, the style which became prevalent in Italy in the
+century following 1500, now usually called &ldquo;16th-century work.&rdquo;
+It was the result of the revival of classic architecture known as
+Renaissance, but the change had commenced already a century
+earlier, in the works of Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture,
+and of Brunelleschi and Alberti in architecture.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINQUE PORTS<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span>, the name of an ancient jurisdiction in the
+south of England, which is still maintained with considerable
+modifications and diminished authority. As the name implies,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span>
+the ports originally constituting the body were only five in
+number&mdash;Hastings, Romney, Hythe, Dover and Sandwich;
+but to these were afterwards added the &ldquo;ancient towns&rdquo; of
+Winchelsea and Rye with the same privileges, and a good many
+other places, both corporate and non-corporate, which, with
+the title of limb or member, held a subordinate position. To
+Hastings were attached the corporate members of Pevensey
+and Seaford, and the non-corporate members of Bulvarhythe,
+Petit Iham (Yham or Higham), Hydney, Bekesbourn, Northeye
+and Grenche or Grange; to Romney, Lydd, and Old Romney,
+Dengemarsh, Orwaldstone, and Bromehill or Promehill; to
+Dover, Folkestone and Faversham, and Margate, St John&rsquo;s,
+Goresend (now Birchington), Birchington Wood (now Woodchurch),
+St Peter&rsquo;s, Kingsdown and Ringwould; to Sandwich,
+Fordwich and Deal, and Walmer, Ramsgate, Reculver, Stonor
+(Estanor), Sarre (or Serre) and Brightlingsea (in Essex). To
+Rye was attached the corporate member of Tenterden, and to a
+Hythe the non-corporate member of West Hythe. The jurisdiction
+thus extends along the coast from Seaford in Sussex
+to Birchington near Margate in Kent; and it also includes a
+number of inland districts, at a considerable distance from the
+ports with which they are connected. The non-incorporated
+members are within the municipal jurisdiction of the ports to
+which they are attached; but the corporate members are as
+free within their own liberties as the individual ports themselves.</p>
+
+<p>The incorporation of the Cinque Ports had its origin in the
+necessity for some means of defence along the southern seaboard
+of England, and in the lack of any regular navy. Up to the
+reign of Henry VII. they had to furnish the crown with nearly
+all the ships and men that were needful for the state; and for
+a long time after they were required to give large assistance to
+the permanent fleet. The oldest charter now on record is one
+belonging to the 6th year of Edward I.; and it refers to previous
+documents of the time of Edward the Confessor and William
+the Conqueror. In return for their services the ports enjoyed
+extensive privileges. From the Conquest or even earlier they
+had, besides various lesser rights&mdash;(1) exemption from tax
+and tallage; (2) soc and sac, or full cognizance of all criminal
+and civil cases within their liberties; (3) tol and team, or the
+right of receiving toll and the right of compelling the person
+in whose hands stolen property was found to name the person
+from whom he received it; (4) blodwit and fledwit, or the right
+to punish shedders of blood and those who were seized in an
+attempt to escape from justice; (5) pillory and tumbrel; (6)
+infangentheof and outfangentheof, or power to imprison and
+execute felons; (7) mundbryce (the breaking into or violation
+of a man&rsquo;s <i>mund</i> or property in order to erect banks or
+dikes as a defence against the sea); (8) waives and strays,
+or the right to appropriate lost property or cattle not claimed
+within a year and a day; (9) the right to seize all flotsam,
+jetsam, or ligan, or, in other words, whatever of value was cast
+ashore by the sea; (10) the privilege of being a gild with power
+to impose taxes for the common weal; and (11) the right of
+assembling in portmote or parliament at Shepway or Shepway
+Cross, a few miles west of Hythe (but afterwards at Dover),
+the parliament being empowered to make by-laws for the
+Cinque Ports, to regulate the Yarmouth fishery, to hear appeals
+from the local courts, and to give decision in all cases of treason,
+sedition, illegal coining or concealment of treasure trove. The
+ordinary business of the ports was conducted in two courts
+known respectively as the court of brotherhood and the court
+of brotherhood and guestling,&mdash;the former being composed of
+the mayors of the seven principal towns and a number of jurats
+and freemen from each, and the latter including in addition the
+mayors, bailiffs and other representatives of the corporate
+members. The court of brotherhood was formerly called the
+brotheryeeld, brodall or brodhull; and the name guestling
+seems to owe its origin to the fact that the officials of the
+&ldquo;members&rdquo; were at first in the position of invited guests.</p>
+
+<p>The highest office in connexion with the Cinque Ports is that
+of the lord warden, who also acts as governor of Dover Castle,
+and has a maritime jurisdiction (<i>vide infra</i>) as admiral of the
+ports. His power was formerly of great extent, but he has now
+practically no important duty to exercise except that of chairman
+of the Dover harbour board. The emoluments of the office are
+confined to certain insignificant admiralty droits. The patronage
+attached to the office consists of the right to appoint the judge
+of the Cinque Ports admiralty court, the registrar of the Cinque
+Ports and the marshal of the court; the right of appointing
+salvage commissioners at each Cinque Port and the appointment
+of a deputy to act as chairman of the Dover harbour board in
+the absence of the lord warden. Walmer Castle was for long
+the official residence of the lord warden, but has, since the
+resignation of Lord Curzon in 1903, ceased to be so used, and
+those portions of it which are of historic interest are now open
+to the public. George, prince of Wales (lord warden, 1903-1907),
+was the first lord warden of royal blood since the office was held
+by George, prince of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne.</p>
+
+<p><i>Admiralty Jurisdiction.</i>&mdash;The court of admiralty for the
+Cinque Ports exercises a co-ordinate but not exclusive admiralty
+jurisdiction over persons and things found within the territory
+of the Cinque Ports. The limits of its jurisdiction were declared
+at an inquisition taken at the court of admiralty, held by the
+seaside at Dover in 1682, to extend from Shore Beacon in Essex
+to Redcliff, near Seaford, in Sussex; and with regard to salvage,
+they comprise all the sea between Seaford in Sussex to a point
+five miles off Cape Grisnez on the coast of France, and the coast
+of Essex. An older inquisition of 1526 is given by R.G. Marsden
+in his <i>Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty</i>, II. xxx. The court
+is an ancient one. The judge sits as the official and commissary
+of the lord warden, just as the judge of the high court of admiralty
+sat as the official and commissary of the lord high admiral. And,
+as the office of lord warden is more ancient than the office of
+lord high admiral (<i>The Lord Warden</i> v. <i>King in his office of
+Admiralty</i>, 1831, 2 Hagg. Admy. Rep. 438), it is probable that
+the Cinque Ports court is the more ancient of the two.</p>
+
+<p>The jurisdiction of the court has been, except in one matter
+of mere antiquarian curiosity, unaffected by statute. It exercises
+only, therefore, such jurisdiction as the high court of admiralty
+exercised, apart from restraining statutes of 1389 and 1391 and
+enabling statutes of 1840 and 1861. Cases of collision have been
+tried in it (the &ldquo;Vivid,&rdquo; 1 <i>Asp. Maritime Law Cases</i>, 601).
+But salvage cases (the &ldquo;Clarisse,&rdquo; <i>Swabey</i>, 129; the &ldquo;Marie,&rdquo;
+<i>Law. Rep. 7 P.D.</i> 203) are the principal cases now tried. It has
+no prize jurisdiction. The one case in which jurisdiction has
+been given to it by statute is to enforce forfeitures under the
+statute of 1538.</p>
+
+<p>Dr (afterwards the Right Hon. Robert Joseph) Phillimore
+succeeded his father as judge of the court from 1855 to 1875,
+being succeeded by Mr Arthur Cohen, K.C. As Sir R. Phillimore
+was also the last judge of the high court of admiralty, from 1867
+(the date of his appointment to the high court) to 1875, the two
+offices were, probably for the first time in history, held by the
+same person. Dr Phillimore&rsquo;s patent had a grant of the &ldquo;place
+or office of judge official and commissary of the court of admiralty
+of the Cinque Ports, and their members and appurtenances,
+and to be assistant to my lieutenant of Dover castle in all such
+affairs and business concerning the said court of admiralty
+wherein yourself and assistance shall be requisite and necessary.&rdquo;
+Of old the court sat sometimes at Sandwich, sometimes at other
+ports. But the regular place for the sitting of the court has for
+a long time been, and still is, the aisle of St James&rsquo;s church,
+Dover. For convenience the judge often sits at the royal courts
+of justice. The office of marshal in the high court is represented
+in this court by a serjeant, who also bears a silver oar. There
+is a registrar, as in the high court. The appeal is to the king in
+council, and is heard by the judicial committee of the privy
+council. The court can hear appeals from the Cinque Ports
+salvage commissioners, such appeals being final (Cinque Ports
+Act 1821). Actions may be transferred to it, and appeals made
+to it, from the county courts in all cases, arising within the
+jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports as defined by that act. At the
+solemn installation of the lord warden the judge as the next
+principal officer installs him.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span></p>
+
+<p>The Cinque Ports from the earliest times claimed to be exempt
+from the jurisdiction of the admiral of England. Their early
+charters do not, like those of Bristol and other seaports, express
+this exemption in terms. It seems to have been derived from
+the general words of the charters which preserve their liberties
+and privileges.</p>
+
+<p>The lord warden&rsquo;s claim to prize was raised in, but not finally
+decided by, the high court of admiralty in the &ldquo;Ooster Ems,&rdquo;
+1 <i>C. Rob.</i> 284, 1783.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See S. Jeake, <i>Charters of the Cinque Ports</i> (1728); Boys, <i>Sandwich
+and Cinque Ports</i>; Knocker, <i>Grand Court of Shepway</i> (1862); M,
+Burrows, <i>Cinque Ports</i> (1895); F.M. Hueffer, <i>Cinque Ports</i> (1900);
+<i>Indices of the Great White and Black Books of the Cinque Ports</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CINTRA<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span>, a town of central Portugal, in the district of Lisbon,
+formerly included in the province of Estramadura; 17 m.
+W.N.W. of Lisbon by the Lisbon-Caçem-Cintra railway, and
+6 m. N. by E. of Cape da Roca, the westernmost promontory of
+the European mainland. Pop. (1900) 5914. Cintra is magnificently
+situated on the northern slope of the Serra da Cintra, a
+rugged mountain mass, largely overgrown with pines, eucalyptus,
+cork and other forest trees, above which the principal summits
+rise in a succession of bare and jagged grey peaks; the highest
+being Cruz Alta (1772 ft.), marked by an ancient stone cross,
+and commanding a wonderful view southward over Lisbon and
+the Tagus estuary, and north-westward over the Atlantic and
+the plateau of Mafra. Few European towns possess equal
+advantages of position and climate; and every educated
+Portuguese is familiar with the verses in which the beauty of
+Cintra is celebrated by Byron in <i>Childe Harold</i> (1812), and by
+Camoens in the national epic <i>Os Lusiadas</i> (1572). One of the
+highest points of the Serra is surmounted by the Palacio da Pena,
+a fantastic imitation of a medieval fortress, built on the site of a
+Hieronymite convent by the prince consort Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg
+(d. 1885); while an adjacent part of the range is occupied
+by the Castello des Mouros, an extensive Moorish fortification,
+containing a small ruined mosque and a very curious set of
+ancient cisterns. The lower slopes of the Serra are covered
+with the gardens and villas of the wealthier inhabitants of
+Lisbon, who migrate hither in spring and stay until late
+autumn.</p>
+
+<p>In the town itself the most conspicuous building is a 14th-15th-century
+royal palace, partly Moorish, partly debased Gothic
+in style, and remarkable for the two immense conical chimneys
+which rise like towers in the midst. The 18th-century Palacio
+de Seteaes, built in the French style then popular in Portugal,
+is said to derive its name (&ldquo;Seven <i>Ahs</i>&rdquo;) from a sevenfold echo;
+here, on the 22nd of August 1808, was signed the convention of
+Cintra, by which the British and Portuguese allowed the French
+army to evacuate the kingdom without molestation. Beside the
+road which leads for 3½ m. W. to the village of Collares, celebrated
+for its wine, is the Penha Verde, an interesting country house and
+chapel, founded by João de Castro (1500-1548), fourth viceroy
+of the Indies. De Castro also founded the convent of Santa Cruz,
+better known as the Convento de Cortiça or Cork convent, which
+stands at the western extremity of the Serra, and owes its name
+to the cork panels which formerly lined its walls. Beyond the
+Penha Verde, on the Collares road, are the palace and park of
+Montserrate. The palace was originally built by William
+Beckford, the novelist and traveller (1761-1844), and was
+purchased in 1856 by Sir Francis Cook, an Englishman who
+afterwards obtained the Portuguese title viscount of Montserrate.
+The palace, which contains a valuable library, is built of pure
+white stone, in Moorish style; its walls are elaborately sculptured.
+The park, with its tropical luxuriance of vegetation and its variety
+of lake, forest and mountain scenery, is by far the finest example
+of landscape gardening in the Iberian Peninsula, and probably
+among the finest in the world. Its high-lying lawns, which
+overlook the Atlantic, are as perfect as any in England, and
+there is one ravine containing a whole wood of giant tree-ferns
+from New Zealand. Other rare plants have been systematically
+collected and brought to Montserrate from all parts of the world
+by Sir Francis Cook, and afterwards by his successor, Sir
+Frederick Cook, the second viscount. The Praia das Maçãs, or
+&ldquo;beach of apples,&rdquo; in the centre of a rich fruit-bearing valley,
+is a favourite sea-bathing station, connected with Cintra by an
+extension of the electric tramway which runs through the town.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIPHER<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Cypher</span> (from Arab, <i>&#351;ifr</i>, void), the symbol 0,
+nought, or zero; and so a name for symbolic or secret writing
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cryptography</a></span>), or even for shorthand (<i>q.v.</i>), and also in
+elementary education for doing simple sums (&ldquo;ciphering&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIPPUS<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (Lat. for a &ldquo;post&rdquo; or &ldquo;stake&rdquo;), in architecture,
+a low pedestal, either round or rectangular, set up by the Romans
+for various purposes such as military or mile stones, boundary
+posts, &amp;c. The inscriptions on some in the British Museum show
+that they were occasionally funeral memorials.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1727-1785), Italian painter
+and engraver, Pistoiese by descent, was born in Florence in 1727.
+His first lessons were given him by an Englishman, Ignatius
+Heckford or Hugford, and under his second master, Antonio
+Domenico Gabbiani, he became a very clever draughtsman.
+He was in Rome from 1750 to 1753, where he became acquainted
+with Sir William Chambers, the architect, and Joseph Wilton,
+the sculptor, whom he accompanied to England in August 1755.
+He had already painted two pictures for the abbey of San
+Michele in Pelago, Pistoia, which had brought him reputation,
+and on his arrival in England he was patronized by Lord Tilney,
+the duke of Richmond and other noblemen. His acquaintance
+with Sir William Chambers no doubt helped him on, for when
+Chambers designed the Albany in London for Lord Holland,
+Cipriani painted a ceiling for him. He also painted part of a
+ceiling in Buckingham Palace, and a room with poetical subjects
+at Standlynch in Wiltshire. Some of his best and most permanent
+work was, however, done at Somerset House, built by his friend
+Chambers, upon which he lavished infinite pains. He not only
+prepared the decorations for the interior of the north block, but,
+says Joseph Baretti in his <i>Guide through the Royal Academy</i>
+(1780), &ldquo;the whole of the carvings in the various fronts of
+Somerset Place&mdash;excepting Bacon&rsquo;s bronze figures&mdash;were carved
+from finished drawings made by Cipriani.&rdquo; These designs
+include the five masks forming the keystones to the arches on the
+courtyard side of the vestibule, and the two above the doors
+leading into the wings of the north block, all of which are believed
+to have been carved by Nollekens. The grotesque groups
+flanking the main doorways on three sides of the quadrangle
+and the central doorway on the terrace appear also to have been
+designed by Cipriani. The apartments in Sir William Chambers&rsquo;s
+stately palace that were assigned to the Royal Academy, into
+which it moved in 1780, owed much to Cipriani&rsquo;s graceful, if
+mannered, pencil. The central panel of the library ceiling was
+painted by Sir Joshua Reynolds, but the four compartments
+in the coves, representing Allegory, Fable, Nature and History,
+were Cipriani&rsquo;s. These paintings still remain at Somerset House,
+together with the emblematic painted ceiling, also his work, of
+what was once the library of the Royal Society. It was natural
+that Cipriani should thus devote himself to adorning the apartments
+of the academy, since he was an original member (1768)
+of that body, for which he designed the diploma so well engraved
+by Bartolozzi. In recognition of his services in this respect the
+members presented him in 1769 with a silver cup with a commemorative
+inscription. He was much employed by the publishers,
+for whom he made drawings in pen and ink, sometimes
+coloured. His friend Bartolozzi engraved most of them. Drawings
+by him are in both the British Museum and Victoria and
+Albert Museum. His best autograph engravings are &ldquo;The Death
+of Cleopatra,&rdquo; after Benvenuto Cellini; &ldquo;The Descent of the
+Holy Ghost,&rdquo; after Gabbiani; and portraits for Hollis&rsquo;s memoirs,
+1780. He painted allegorical designs for George III.&rsquo;s state
+coach&mdash;which is still in use&mdash;in 1782, and repaired Verrio&rsquo;s
+paintings at Windsor and Rubens&rsquo;s ceiling in the Banqueting
+House at Whitehall. If his pictures were often weak, his decorative
+treatment of children was usually exceedingly happy. Some
+of his most pleasing work was that which, directly or indirectly,
+he executed for the decoration of furniture. He designed many
+groups of nymphs and <i>amorini</i> and medallion subjects to form
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span>
+the centre of Pergolesi&rsquo;s bands of ornament, and they were
+continually reproduced upon the elegant satin-wood furniture
+which was growing popular in his later days and by the end of
+the 18th century became a rage. Sometimes these designs were
+inlaid in marqueterie, but most frequently they were painted
+upon the satin-wood by other hands with delightful effect, since
+in the whole range of English furniture there is nothing more
+enchanting than really good finished satin-wood pieces. There
+can be little doubt that some of the beautiful furniture designed
+by the Adams was actually painted by Cipriani himself. He also
+occasionally designed handles for drawers and doors. Cipriani
+died at Hammersmith in 1785 and was buried at Chelsea, where
+Bartolozzi erected a monument to his memory. He had married
+an English lady, by whom he had two sons.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCAR<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span>, an Indian term applied to the component parts of a
+<i>subah</i> or province, each of which is administered by a deputy-governor.
+In English it is principally employed in the name
+of the <span class="sc">Northern Circars</span>, used to designate a now obsolete
+division of the Madras presidency, which consisted of a narrow
+slip of territory lying along the western side of the Bay of Bengal
+from 15° 40&prime; to 20° 17&prime; N. lat. These Northern Circars were
+five in number, Chicacole, Rajahmundry, Ellore, Kondapalli
+and Guntur, and their total area was about 30,000 sq. m.</p>
+
+<p>The district corresponds in the main to the modern districts
+of Kistna, Godavari, Vizagapatam, Ganjam and a part of
+Nellore. It was first invaded by the Mahommedans in 1471;
+in 1541 they conquered Kondapalli, and nine years later they
+extended their conquests over all Guntur and the districts of
+Masulipatam. But the invaders appear to have acquired only
+an imperfect possession of the country, as it was again wrested
+from the Hindu princes of Orissa about the year 1571, during
+the reign of Ibrahim, of the Kutb Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad
+or Golconda. In 1687 the Circars were added, along with the
+empire of Hyderabad, to the extensive empire of Aurangzeb.
+Salabat Jang, the son of the nizam ul mulk Asaf Jah, who was
+indebted for his elevation to the throne to the French East
+India Company, granted them in return for their services the
+district of Kondavid or Guntur, and soon afterwards the other
+Circars. In 1759, by the conquest of the fortress of Masulipatam,
+the dominion of the maritime provinces on both sides, from the
+river Gundlakamma to the Chilka lake, was necessarily transferred
+from the French to the British. But the latter left them
+under the administration of the nizam, with the exception of
+the town and fortress of Masulipatam, which were retained by
+the English East India Company. In 1765 Lord Clive obtained
+from the Mogul emperor Shah Alam a grant of the five Circars.
+Hereupon the fort of Kondapalli was seized by the British, and
+on the 12th of November 1766 a treaty of alliance was signed
+with Nizam Ali by which the Company, in return for the grant
+of the Circars, undertook to maintain troops for the nizam&rsquo;s
+assistance. By a second treaty, signed on the 1st of March
+1768, the nizam acknowledged the validity of Shah Alam&rsquo;s
+grant and resigned the Circars to the Company, receiving as a
+mark of friendship an annuity of £50,000. Guntur, as the
+personal estate of the nizam&rsquo;s brother Basalat Jang, was excepted
+during his lifetime under both treaties. He died in 1782,
+but it was not till 1788 that Guntur came under British administration.
+Finally, in 1823, the claims of the nizam over the
+Northern Circars were bought outright by the Company, and
+they became a British possession.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCASSIA<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span>, a name formerly given to the north-western
+portion of the Caucasus, including the district between the
+mountain range and the Black Sea, and extending to the north
+of the central range as far as the river Kuban. Its physical
+features are described in the article on the Russian province of
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kuban</a></span>, with which it approximately coincides. The present
+article is confined to a consideration of the ethnographical
+relations and characteristics of the people, their history being
+treated under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caucasia</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The Cherkesses or Circassians, who gave their name to this
+region, of which they were until lately the sole inhabitants, are a
+peculiar race, differing from the other tribes of the Caucasus in
+origin and language. They designate themselves by the name
+of Adigheb, that of Cherkesses being a term of Russian origin.
+By their long-continued struggles with the power of Russia,
+during a period of nearly forty years, they attracted the attention
+of the other nations of Europe in a high degree, and were at the
+same time an object of interest to the student of the history of
+civilization, from the strange mixture which their customs
+exhibited of chivalrous sentiment with savage customs. For
+this reason it may be still worth while to give a brief summary
+of their national characteristics and manners, though these
+must now be regarded as in great measure things of the past.</p>
+
+<p>In the patriarchal simplicity of their manners, the mental
+qualities with which they were endowed, the beauty of form
+and regularity of feature by which they were distinguished, they
+surpassed most of the other tribes of the Caucasus. At the
+same time they were remarkable for their warlike and intrepid
+character, their independence, their hospitality to strangers,
+and that love of country which they manifested in their determined
+resistance to an almost overwhelming power during the
+period of a long and desolating war. The government under
+which they lived was a peculiar form of the feudal system. The
+free Circassians were divided into three distinct ranks, the princes
+or <i>pshi</i>, the nobles or <i>uork</i> (Tatar <i>usden</i>), and the
+peasants or <i>hokotl</i>. Like the inhabitants of the other regions of the
+Caucasus, they were also divided into numerous families, tribes
+or clans, some of which were very powerful, and carried on war
+against each other with great animosity. The slaves, of whom
+a large proportion were prisoners of war, were generally employed
+in the cultivation of the soil, or in the domestic service of some
+of the principal chiefs.</p>
+
+<p>The will of the people was acknowledged as the supreme
+source of authority; and every free Circassian had a right to
+express his opinion in those assemblies of his tribe in which the
+questions of peace and war, almost the only subjects which
+engaged their attention, were brought under deliberation. The
+princes and nobles, the leaders of the people in war and their
+rulers in peace, were only the administrators of a power which
+was delegated to them. As they had no written laws, the
+administration of justice was regulated solely by custom and
+tradition, and in those tribes professing Mahommedanism by
+the precepts of the Koran. The most aged and respected
+inhabitants of the various <i>auls</i> or villages frequently sat in
+judgment, and their decisions were received without a murmur
+by the contending parties. The Circassian princes and nobles
+were professedly Mahommedans; but in their religious services
+many of the ceremonies of their former heathen and Christian
+worship were still preserved. A great part of the people had
+remained faithful to the worship of their ancient gods&mdash;Shible,
+the god of thunder, of war and of justice; Tleps, the god of fire;
+and Seosseres, the god of water and of winds. Although the
+Circassians are said to have possessed minds capable of the
+highest cultivation, the arts and sciences, with the exception
+of poetry and music, were completely neglected. They possessed
+no written language. The wisdom of their sages, the knowledge
+they had acquired, and the memory of their warlike deeds were
+preserved in verses, which were repeated from mouth to mouth
+and descended from father to son.</p>
+
+<p>The education of the young Circassian was confined to riding,
+fencing, shooting, hunting, and such exercises as were calculated
+to strengthen his frame and prepare him for a life of active
+warfare. The only intellectual duty of the <i>atalik</i> or instructor,
+with whom the young men lived until they had completed
+their education, was that of teaching them to express their
+thoughts shortly, quickly and appropriately. One of their
+marriage ceremonies was very strange. The young man who
+had been approved by the parents, and had paid the stipulated
+price in money, horses, oxen, or sheep for his bride, was expected
+to come with his friends fully armed, and to carry her off by force
+from her father&rsquo;s house. Every free Circassian had unlimited
+right over the lives of his wife and children. Although polygamy
+was allowed by the laws of the Koran, the custom of the country
+forbade it, and the Circassians were generally faithful to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span>
+marriage bond. The respect for superior age was carried to
+such an extent that the young brother used to rise from his seat
+when the elder entered an apartment, and was silent when he
+spoke. Like all the other inhabitants of the Caucasus, the
+Circassians were distinguished for two very opposite qualities&mdash;the
+most generous hospitality and implacable vindictiveness.
+Hospitality to the stranger was considered one of the most
+sacred duties. Whatever were his rank in life, all the members
+of the family rose to receive him on his entrance, and conduct
+him to the principal seat in the apartment. The host was considered
+responsible with his own life for the security of his guest,
+upon whom, even although his deadliest enemy, he would inflict
+no injury while under the protection of his roof. The chief who
+had received a stranger was also bound to grant him an escort
+of horse to conduct him in safety on his journey, and confide
+him to the protection of those nobles with whom he might be on
+friendly terms. The law of vengeance was no less binding on
+the Circassian. The individual who had slain any member of a
+family was pursued with implacable vengeance by the relatives,
+until his crime was expiated by death. The murderer might,
+indeed, secure his safety by the payment of a certain sum of
+money, or by carrying off from the house of his enemy a newly-born
+child, bringing it up as his own, and restoring it when its
+education was finished. In either case, the family of the slain
+individual might discontinue the pursuit of vengeance without
+any stain upon its honour. The man closely followed by his
+enemy, who, on reaching the dwelling of a woman, had merely
+touched her hand, was safe from all other pursuit so long as he
+remained under the protection of her roof. The opinions of the
+Circassians regarding theft resembled those of the ancient
+Spartans. The commission of the crime was not considered so
+disgraceful as its discovery; and the punishment of being
+compelled publicly to restore the stolen property to its original
+possessor, amid the derision of his tribe, was much dreaded by
+the Circassian who would glory in a successful theft. The greatest
+stain upon the Circassian character was the custom of selling
+their children, the Circassian father being always willing to
+part with his daughters, many of whom were bought by Turkish
+merchants for the harems of Eastern monarchs. But no degradation
+was implied in this transaction, and the young women
+themselves were generally willing partners in it. Herds of cattle
+and sheep constituted the chief riches of the inhabitants. The
+princes and nobles, from whom the members of the various tribes
+held the land which they cultivated, were the proprietors of the
+soil. The Circassians carried on little or no commerce, and the
+state of perpetual warfare in which they lived prevented them
+from cultivating any of the arts of peace.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCE<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="Kirkê">&#922;&#943;&#961;&#954;&#951;</span>), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, the
+daughter of Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. Having
+murdered her husband, the prince of Colchis, she was expelled
+by her subjects and placed by her father on the solitary island
+of Aeaea on the coast of Italy. She was able by means of drugs
+and incantations to change human beings into the forms of
+wolves or lions, and with these beings her palace was surrounded.
+Here she was found by Odysseus and his companions; the
+latter she changed into swine, but the hero, protected by the herb
+<i>moly</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), which he had received from Hermes, not only forced her
+to restore them to their original shape, but also gained her love.
+For a year he relinquished himself to her endearments, and
+when he determined to leave, she instructed him how to sail
+to the land of shades which lay on the verge of the ocean stream,
+in order to learn his fate from the prophet Teiresias. Upon his
+return she also gave him directions for avoiding the dangers of
+the journey home (Homer, <i>Odyssey</i>, x.-xii.; Hyginus, <i>Fab.</i>
+125). The Roman poets associated her with the most ancient
+traditions of Latium, and assigned her a home on the promontory
+of Circei (Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, vii. 10). The metamorphoses of Scylla
+and of Picus, king of the Ausonians, by Circe, are narrated in
+Ovid (<i>Metamorphoses</i>, xiv.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Myth of Kirke</i>, by R. Brown (1883), in which Circe is explained
+as a moon-goddess of Babylonian origin, contains an exhaustive
+summary of facts, although many of the author&rsquo;s speculations may
+be proved untenable (review by H. Bradley in <i>Academy</i>, January 19,
+1884); see also J.E. Harrison, <i>Myths of the Odyssey</i> (1882);
+C. Seeliger in W.H. Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCEIUS MONS<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> (mod. <i>Monte Circeo</i>), an isolated promontory
+on the S.W. coast of Italy, about 80 m. S.E. of Rome. It is a
+ridge of limestone about 3½ m. long by 1 m. wide at the base,
+running from E. to W. and surrounded by the sea on all sides
+except the N. The land to the N. of it is 53 ft. above sea-level,
+while the summit of the promontory is 1775 ft. The origin of
+the name is uncertain: it has naturally been connected with the
+legend of Circe, and Victor Bérard (in <i>Les Phéniciens et l&rsquo;Odyssée</i>,
+ii. 261 seq.) maintains in support of the identification that <span class="grk" title="Ahiaiê">&#913;&#7984;&#945;&#943;&#951;</span>,
+the Greek name for the island of Circe, is a faithful transliteration
+of a Semitic name, meaning &ldquo;island of the hawk,&rdquo; of which
+<span class="grk" title="nêsos Kirkês">&#957;&#8134;&#963;&#959;&#962; &#922;&#943;&#961;&#954;&#951;&#962;</span> is the translation. The difficulty has been raised,
+especially by geologists, that the promontory ceased to be an
+island at a period considerably before the time of Homer; but
+Procopius very truly remarked that the promontory has all the
+appearance of an island until one is actually upon it. Upon the
+E. end of the ridge of the promontory are the remains of an
+enceinte, forming roughly a rectangle of about 200 by 100 yds.
+of very fine polygonal work, on the outside, the blocks being
+very carefully cut and jointed and right angles being intentionally
+avoided. The wall stands almost entirely free, as at Arpinum&mdash;polygonal
+walls in Italy are as a rule embanking walls&mdash;and
+increases considerably in thickness as it descends. The blocks
+of the inner face are much less carefully worked both here and at
+Arpinum. It seems to have been an acropolis, and contains no
+traces of buildings, except for a subterranean cistern, circular,
+with a beehive roof of converging blocks. The modern village
+of S. Felice Circeo seems to occupy the site of the ancient town,
+the citadel of which stood on the mountain top, for its medieval
+walls rest upon ancient walls of Cyclopean work of less careful
+construction than those of the citadel, and enclosing an area of
+200 by 150 yds.</p>
+
+<p>Circei was founded as a Roman colony at an early date&mdash;according
+to some authorities in the time of Tarquinius Superbus,
+but more probably about 390 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The existence of a previous
+population, however, is very likely indicated by the revolt of
+Circei in the middle of the 4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, so that it is doubtful
+whether the walls described are to be attributed to the Romans
+or the earlier Volscian inhabitants. At the end of the republic,
+however, or at latest at the beginning of the imperial period,
+the city of Circei was no longer at the E. end of the promontory,
+but on the E. shores of the Lago di Paola (a lagoon&mdash;now a
+considerable fishery&mdash;separated from the sea by a line of
+sandhills and connected with it by a channel of Roman date:
+Strabo speaks of it as a small harbour) one mile N. of the W.
+end of the promontory. Here are the remains of a Roman town,
+belonging to the 1st and 2nd centuries, extending over an area
+of some 600 by 500 yards, and consisting of fine buildings along
+the lagoons, including a large open <i>piscina</i> or basin, surrounded
+by a double portico, while farther inland are several very large
+and well-preserved water-reservoirs, supplied by an aqueduct
+of which traces may still be seen. An inscription speaks of an
+amphitheatre, of which no remains are visible. The transference
+of the city did not, however, mean the abandonment of the E.
+end of the promontory, on which stand the remains of several
+very large villas. An inscription, indeed, cut in the rock near
+S. Felice, speaks of this part of the <i>promunturium Veneris</i> (the
+only case of the use of this name) as belonging to the city of
+Circei. On the S. and N. sides of the promontory there are
+comparatively few buildings, while, at the W. end there is a
+sheer precipice to the sea. The town only acquired municipal
+rights after the Social War, and was a place of little importance,
+except as a seaside resort. For its villas Cicero compares it
+with Antium, and probably both Tiberius and Domitian possessed
+residences there. The beetroot and oysters of Circei had a
+certain reputation. The view from the highest summit of the
+promontory (which is occupied by ruins of a platform attributed
+with great probability to a temple of Venus or Circe) is of remarkable
+beauty; the whole mountain is covered with fragrant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span>
+shrubs. From any point in the Pomptine Marshes or on the
+coast-line of Latium the Circeian promontory dominates the
+landscape in the most remarkable way.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See T. Ashby, &ldquo;Monte Circeo,&rdquo; in <i>Mélanges de l&rsquo;école française de
+Rome</i>, xxv. (1905) 157 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCLE<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (from the Lat. <i>circulus</i>, the diminutive of <i>circus</i>, a
+ring; the cognate Gr. word is <span class="grk" title="kirkos">&#954;&#953;&#961;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, generally used in the form
+<span class="grk" title="krikos">&#954;&#961;&#943;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>), a plane curve definable as the locus of a point which
+moves so that its distance from a fixed point is constant.</p>
+
+<div style="float: left;" class="figleft1">
+<img style="border:0; width:400px; height:426px"
+     src="images/img382.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The form of a circle is familiar to all; and we proceed to define
+certain lines, points, &amp;c., which constantly occur in studying
+its geometry. The fixed point in the preceding definition is
+termed the &ldquo;centre&rdquo; (C in fig. 1); the constant distance, <i>e.g.</i>
+CG, the &ldquo;radius.&rdquo; The curve itself is sometimes termed the
+&ldquo;circumference.&rdquo; Any line through the centre and terminated
+at both extremities by the curve, <i>e.g.</i> AB, is a &ldquo;diameter&rdquo;;
+any other line similarly terminated, <i>e.g.</i> EF, a &ldquo;chord.&rdquo; Any
+line drawn from an external point to cut the circle in two points,
+<i>e.g.</i> DEF, is termed a &ldquo;secant&rdquo;; if it touches the circle, <i>e.g.</i>
+DG, it is a &ldquo;tangent.&rdquo; Any portion of the circumference
+terminated by two points, <i>e.g.</i> AD (fig. 2), is termed an &ldquo;arc&rdquo;;
+and the plane figure enclosed by a chord and arc, <i>e.g.</i> ABD, is
+termed a &ldquo;segment&rdquo;;
+if the chord be a diameter,
+the segment
+is termed a &ldquo;semicircle.&rdquo;
+The figure
+included by two radii
+and an arc is a
+&ldquo;sector,&rdquo; <i>e.g.</i> ECF
+(fig. 2). &ldquo;Concentric
+circles&rdquo; are, as the
+name obviously
+shows, circles having
+the same centre; the
+figure enclosed by the
+circumferences of two
+concentric circles is
+an &ldquo;annulus&rdquo; (fig. 3),
+and of two non-concentric
+circles a &ldquo;lune,&rdquo; the shaded portions in fig. 4; the
+clear figure is sometimes termed a &ldquo;lens.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The circle was undoubtedly known to the early civilizations,
+its simplicity specially recommending it as an object for study.
+Euclid defines it (Book I. def. 15) as a &ldquo;plane figure enclosed
+by one line, all the straight lines drawn to which from one point
+within the figure are equal to one another.&rdquo; In the succeeding
+three definitions the centre, diameter and the semicircle are
+defined, while the third postulate of the same book demands
+the possibility of describing a circle for every &ldquo;centre&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;distance.&rdquo; Having employed the circle for the construction
+and demonstration of several propositions in Books I. and II.
+Euclid devotes his third book entirely to theorems and problems
+relating to the circle, and certain lines and angles, which he
+defines in introducing the propositions. The fourth book deals
+with the circle in its relations to inscribed and circumscribed
+triangles, quadrilaterals and regular polygons. Reference
+should be made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Euclidean</i>, for a
+detailed summary of the Euclidean treatment, and the elementary
+properties of the circle.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Analytical Geometry of the Circle.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Analytical</i>, it is shown that the
+general equation to a circle in rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates
+is x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0, <i>i.e.</i> in the general equation
+of the second degree the co-efficients of x<span class="sp">2</span> and y<span class="sp">2</span> are
+<span class="sidenote">Cartesian co-ordinates.</span>
+equal, and of xy zero.    The co-ordinates of its centre
+are -g/c, -f/c;   and  its  radius  is  (g<span class="sp">2</span> + f<span class="sp">2</span> - c)<span class="sp">½</span>. The
+equations to the chord, tangent and normal are readily derived
+by the ordinary methods.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Consider the two circles:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,&emsp; x<span class="sp">2</span> + y<span class="sp">2</span> + 2g&prime;x + 2f&prime;y + c&rsquo; = 0.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Obviously these equations show that the curves intersect in
+four points, two of which lie on the intersection of the line,
+2(g - g&prime;)x + 2(f - f&prime;)y + c - c&prime; = 0, the radical axis, with the circles, and
+the other two where the lines x² + y² = (x + iy) (x - iy) = 0 (where
+i = &radic;-1) intersect the circles. The first pair of intersections may
+be either real or imaginary; we proceed to discuss the second pair.</p>
+
+<p>The equation x² + y² = 0 denotes a pair of perpendicular imaginary
+lines; it follows, therefore, that circles always intersect in two
+imaginary points at infinity along these lines, and since the terms
+x² + y² occur in the equation of every circle, it is seen that all circles
+pass through two fixed points at infinity. The introduction of these
+lines and points constitutes a striking achievement in geometry,
+and from their association with circles they have been named
+the &ldquo;circular lines&rdquo; and &ldquo;circular points.&rdquo; Other names for the
+circular lines are &ldquo;circulars&rdquo; or &ldquo;isotropic lines.&rdquo; Since the
+equation to a circle of zero radius is x² + y² = 0, <i>i.e.</i> identical with the
+circular lines, it follows that this circle consists of a real point and the
+two imaginary lines; conversely, the circular lines are both a pair
+of lines and a circle. A further deduction from the principle of
+continuity follows by considering the intersections of concentric
+circles. The equations to such circles may be expressed in the form
+x² + y² = &alpha;², x² + y² = &beta;². These equations show that the circles touch
+where they intersect the lines x² + y² = 0, <i>i.e.</i> concentric circles have
+double contact at the circular points, the chord of contact being the
+line at infinity.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In various systems of triangular co-ordinates the equations
+to circles specially related to the triangle of reference assume
+comparatively simple forms; consequently they provide elegant
+algebraical demonstrations of properties concerning a triangle
+and the circles intimately associated with its geometry. In this
+article the equations to the more important circles&mdash;the circumscribed,
+inscribed, escribed, self-conjugate&mdash;will be given;
+reference should be made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Triangle</a></span> for the consideration
+of other circles (nine-point, Brocard, Lemoine, &amp;c.);
+while in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Analytical</i>, the principles of the
+different systems are discussed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+
+<p>The equation to the circumcircle assumes the simple form
+a&beta;&gamma; + b&gamma;&alpha; + c&alpha;&beta; = 0, the centre being cos A, cos B, cos C. The inscribed
+circle is cos ½A &radic;(&alpha;)  cos ½B &radic;(&beta;) + cos ½C &radic;(&gamma;) = 0, with centre
+&alpha; = &beta; = &gamma;; while the escribed circle opposite the angle A
+<span class="sidenote">Trilinear co-ordinates.</span>
+is cos ½A &radic;(-&alpha;) + sin ½B &radic;(&beta;) + sin ½C &radic;(&gamma;) = 0, with centre
+-&alpha; = &beta; = &gamma;. The self-conjugate circle is &alpha;² sin 2A + &beta;² sin 2B
++ &gamma;² sin 2C = 0, or the equivalent form a cosA &alpha;²
++ b cos B &beta;² + c cos C &gamma;² = 0,
+the centre being sec A, sec B, sec C.</p>
+
+<p>The general equation to the circle in trilinear co-ordinates is readily
+deduced from the fact that the circle is the only curve which intersects
+the line infinity in the circular points.   Consider the equation</p>
+
+<p class="center">a&beta;&gamma; + b&gamma;&alpha; + C&alpha;&beta; + (l&alpha; + m&beta; + n&gamma;) (a&alpha; + b&beta; + c&gamma;) = 0&emsp;&emsp;(1).</p>
+
+<p>This obviously represents a conic intersecting the circle a&beta;&gamma; + b&gamma;&alpha;
++ c&alpha;&beta; = 0 in points on the common chords l&alpha; + m&beta; + n&gamma; = 0, a&alpha; + b&beta;
++ c&gamma; = 0. The line l&alpha; + m&beta; + n&gamma; is the radical axis, and since a&alpha; + b&beta;
++ c&gamma; = 0 is the line infinity, it is obvious that equation (1) represents
+a conic passing through the circular points, <i>i.e.</i> a circle. If we
+compare (1) with the general equation of the second degree
+u&alpha;² + v&beta;² + w&gamma;² + 2u&prime;&beta;&gamma; + 2v&prime;&gamma;&alpha; + 2w&prime;&alpha;&beta; = 0, it is readily seen that for
+this equation to represent a circle we must have</p>
+
+<p class="center">-kabc = vc² + wb² - 2u&prime;bc = wa² + uc² - 2v&prime;ca = ub² + va² - 2w&prime;ab.</p>
+
+<p>The corresponding equations in areal co-ordinates are readily
+derived by substituting x/a, y/b, z/c for &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma; respectively in
+the trilinear equations. The circumcircle is thus seen
+<span class="sidenote">Areal co-ordinates.</span>
+to be a²yz + b²zx + c²xy = 0, with centre sin 2A, sin 2B,
+sin 2C; the inscribed circle is &radic;(x cot ½A) + &radic;(y cot ½B)
++ &radic;(z cot ½C) = 0, with centre sin A, sin B, sin C; the
+escribed circle opposite the angle A is &radic;(-x cot ½A) + &radic;(y tan ½B)
++ &radic;(z tan ½C)=0, with centre - sin A, sin B, sin C; and the self-conjugate
+circle is x² cot A + y² cot B + z² cot C = 0, with centre tan A,
+tan B, tan C. Since in areal co-ordinates the line infinity is represented
+by the equation x + y + z = 0 it is seen that every circle is
+of the form a²yz + b²zx + c²xy + (lx + my + nz)(x + y + z) = 0. Comparing
+this equation with ux² + vy² + wz² + 2u&prime;yz + 2v&prime;zx + 2w&prime;xy = 0, we
+obtain as the condition for the general equation of the second degree
+to represent a circle:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">(v + w - 2u&prime;)/a² = (w + u - 2v&prime;)/b² = (u + v - 2w&prime;)/c².</p>
+
+<p>In tangential (p, q, r) co-ordinates the inscribed circle has for its
+equation (s - a)qr + (s - b)rp + (s - c)pq = 0, s being equal to ½(a + b + c);
+an alternative form is qr cot ½A + rp cot ½B + pq cot ½C = 0;
+the centre is ap + bq + cr = 0, or p sin A + q sin B + r sin C = 0.
+<span class="sidenote">Tangential co-ordinates.</span>
+The escribed circle opposite the angle A is -sqr + (s - c)rp
++ (s - b)pq = 0 or -qr cot ½A + rp tan ½B + pq tan ½C = 0, with
+centre -ap + bq + cr = 0. The circumcircle is a &radic;(p) + b &radic;(q) + c &radic;(r) = 0,
+the centre being p sin 2A + q sin 2B + r sin 2C = 0. The general
+equation to a circle in this system of co-ordinates is deduced as
+follows: If &rho; be the radius and lp + mq  + nr = 0 the centre, we have
+&rho; = (lp<span class="su">1</span> - mq<span class="su">1</span> + nr<span class="su">1</span>/(l + m + n), in which p<span class="su">1</span>, q<span class="su">1</span>, r<span class="su">1</span> is a line distant &rho;
+from the point lp + mq + nr = 0. Making this equation homogeneous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span>
+by the relation &Sigma;a²(p - q) (p - r) = 4&Delta;² (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Geometry</a></span>: <i>Analytical</i>),
+which is generally written {ap, bq, cr}² = 4&Delta;², we obtain
+{ap, bq, cr}²&rho;² = 4&Delta;² {(lp + mq + nr)/(l + m + n)}², the accents being
+dropped, and p, q, r regarded as current co-ordinates. This equation,
+which may be more conveniently written {ap, bq, cr}²
+= (&lambda;p + &mu;q + &nu;r)², obviously represents a circle,
+the centre being &lambda;p + &mu;q + &nu;r = 0,
+and radius 2&Delta;/(&lambda; + &mu; + &nu;).
+If we make &lambda; = &mu; = &nu; = 0,
+&rho; is infinite, and we obtain {ap, bq, cr}² = 0 as the equation to the
+circular points.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Systems of Circles.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Centres and Circle of Similitude.</i>&mdash;The &ldquo;centres of similitude&rdquo;
+of two circles may be defined as the intersections of the common
+tangents to the two circles, the direct common tangents giving
+rise to the &ldquo;external centre,&rdquo; the transverse tangents to the
+&ldquo;internal centre.&rdquo; It may be readily shown that the external
+and internal centres are the points where the line joining the
+centres of the two circles is divided externally and internally in
+the ratio of their radii.</p>
+
+<p>The circle on the line joining the internal and external centres
+of similitude as diameter is named the &ldquo;circle of similitude.&rdquo;
+It may be shown to be the locus of the vertex of the triangle
+which has for its base the distance between the centres of the
+circles and the ratio of the remaining sides equal to the ratio of the
+radii of the two circles.</p>
+
+<p>With a system of three circles it is readily seen that there
+are six centres of similitude, viz. two for each pair of circles,
+and it may be shown that these lie three by three on four lines,
+named the &ldquo;axes of similitude.&rdquo; The collinear centres are the
+three sets of one external and two internal centres, and the three
+external centres.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coaxal Circles.</i>&mdash;A system of circles is coaxal when the locus
+of points from which tangents to the circles are equal is a straight
+line. Consider the case of two circles, and in the first place
+suppose them to intersect in two real points A and B. Then by
+Euclid iii. 36 it is seen that the line joining the points A and B is
+the locus of the intersection of equal tangents, for if P be any
+point on AB and PC and PD the tangents to the circles, then
+PA·PB = PC² = PD², and therefore PC = PD. Furthermore it is
+seen that AB is perpendicular to the line joining the centres,
+and divides it in the ratio of the squares of the radii. The line
+AB is termed the &ldquo;radical axis.&rdquo; A system coaxal with the two
+given circles is readily constructed by describing circles through
+the common points on the radical axis and any third point;
+the minimum circle of the system is obviously that which has
+the common chord of intersection for diameter, the maximum
+is the radical axis&mdash;considered as
+a circle of infinite radius. In the
+case of two non-intersecting circles
+it may be shown that the radical
+axis has the same metrical relations
+to the line of centres.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<div style="float: left;" class="figleft1">
+<img style="border:0; width:350px; height:328px"
+     src="images/img383.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>There are several methods of constructing
+the radical axis in this case.
+One of the simplest is: Let P and P&prime;
+(fig. 5) be the points of contact of
+a common tangent; drop perpendiculars
+PL, P&prime;L&prime;, from P and P&rsquo;
+to OO&prime;, the line joining the centres,
+then the radical axis bisects LL&rsquo; (at X) and is perpendicular to OO&prime;.
+To prove this let AB, AB¹ be the tangents from any point on the
+line AX. Then by Euc. i. 47, AB² = AO² - OB² = AX² + OX² + OP²;
+and OX² = OD² - DX² = OP² + PD² - DX². Therefore AB² = AX²
+ - DX² + PD². Similarly AB&prime;² = AX² - DX² + DP&prime;². Since PD = PD&prime;,
+it follows that AB = AB&prime;.</p>
+
+<p>To construct circles coaxal with the two given circles, draw the
+tangent, say XR, from X, the point where the radical axis intersects
+the line of centres, to one of the given circles, and with centre X and
+radius XR describe a circle. Then circles having the intersections of
+tangents to this circle and the line of centres for centres, and the
+lengths of the tangents as radii, are members of the coaxal system.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the case of non-intersecting circles, it is seen that the
+minimum circles of the coaxal system are a pair of points I and I&prime;,
+where the orthogonal circle to the system intersects the line of
+centres; these points are named the &ldquo;limiting points.&rdquo; In the
+case of a coaxal system having real points of intersection the
+limiting  points are imaginary. Analytically, the Cartesian
+equation to a coaxal system can be written in the form
+x² + y² + 2ax ± k² = 0, where a varies from member to member,
+while k is a constant. The radical axis is x = 0, and it may be
+shown that the length of the tangent from a point (0, h) is
+h² ± k², <i>i.e.</i> it is independent of a, and therefore of any particular
+member of the system. The circles intersect in real or imaginary
+points according to the lower or upper sign of k², and the limiting
+points are real for the upper sign and imaginary for the lower sign.
+The fundamental properties of coaxal systems may be summarized:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The centres of circles forming a coaxal system are collinear;</p>
+
+<p>2. A coaxal system having real points of intersection has imaginary
+limiting points;</p>
+
+<p>3. A coaxal system having imaginary points of intersection has
+real limiting points;</p>
+
+<p>4. Every circle through the limiting points cuts all circles of the
+system orthogonally;</p>
+
+<p>5. The limiting points are inverse points for every circle of the
+system.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The theory of centres of similitude and coaxal circles affords
+elegant demonstrations of the famous problem: To describe a
+circle to touch three given circles. This problem, also termed
+the &ldquo;Apollonian problem,&rdquo; was demonstrated with the aid of
+conic sections by Apollonius in his book on <i>Contacts</i> or <i>Tangencies</i>;
+geometrical solutions involving the conic sections were also given
+by Adrianus Romanus, Vieta, Newton and others. The earliest
+analytical solution appears to have been given by the princess
+Elizabeth, a pupil of Descartes and daughter of Frederick V.
+John Casey, professor of mathematics at the Catholic university
+of Dublin, has given elementary demonstrations founded on
+the theory of similitude and coaxal circles which are reproduced
+in his <i>Sequel to Euclid</i>; an analytical solution by Gergonne is
+given in Salmon&rsquo;s <i>Conic Sections</i>. Here we may notice that
+there are eight circles which solve the problem.</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Mensuration of the Circle.</i></p>
+
+<p>All exact relations pertaining to the mensuration of the circle
+involve the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. This
+ratio, invariably denoted by &pi;, is constant for all circles, but
+it does not admit of exact arithmetical expression, being of the
+nature of an incommensurable number. Very early in the history
+of geometry it was known that the circumference and area of a
+circle of radius r could be expressed in the forms 2&pi;r and &pi;r².
+The exact geometrical evaluation of the second quantity, viz.
+&pi;r², which, in reality, is equivalent to determining a square
+equal in area to a circle, engaged the attention of mathematicians
+for many centuries. The history of these attempts, together
+with modern contributions to our knowledge of the value and
+nature of the number &pi;, is given below (<i>Squaring of the Circle</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following table gives the values of this constant and several
+expiessions involving it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="data">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tccm allb">Number.</td>  <td class="tccm tb bb rb2 lb">Logarithm.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td>  <td class="tccm allb">Number.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">Logarithm.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.1415927</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.4971499</td>
+    <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2">&pi;²</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">9.8696044</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.9942997</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">2&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.2831858</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.7981799</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.5663706</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.0992099</td>
+    <td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.0168869</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">2.2275490</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&frac12;&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.5707963</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.1961199</td>
+    <td class="tcc lb rb ov">6&pi;²</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.0471976</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.0200286</td>
+    <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2">&radic;&pi;</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.7724539</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.2485750</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&frac14;&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.7853982</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.8950899</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">6</span>&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.5235988</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.7189986</td>
+    <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2"><span class="sp">3</span>&radic;&pi;</td>
+          <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.4645919</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.1657166</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.3926991</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.5940599</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">12</span>&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.2617994</td> <td class="tcr rb2">1.4179686</td>
+    <td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.5641896</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.7514251</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>&pi;</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.1887902</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0.6220886</td>
+    <td class="tcc lb rb ov">&radic;&pi;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&pi;</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.0174533</td> <td class="tcrm rb2" rowspan="2">2.2418774</td>
+    <td class="tcc lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.1283792</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.0524551</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov">180</td>
+    <td class="tcc lb rb ov">&radic;&pi;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.3183099</td> <td class="tcrm rb2" rowspan="2">1.5028501</td>
+    <td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.2820948</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.4503951</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov">&pi;</td>
+    <td class="tcc lb rb ov">2&radic;&pi;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.2732395</td> <td class="tcrm rb2" rowspan="2">0.1049101</td>
+    <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2"><span class="sp">3</span>&radic;(<span class="spp">6</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">&pi;</span>)</td>
+         <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.2820948</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.4503951</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov">&pi;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.0795775</td> <td class="tcrm rb2" rowspan="2">2.9097901</td>
+    <td class="tccm lb rb" rowspan="2"><span class="sp">3</span>&radic;(<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4&pi;</span>)</td>
+         <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">0.6203505</td> <td class="tcrm rb" rowspan="2">1.7926371</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov">4&pi;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">180</td> <td class="tcrm rb bb" rowspan="2">57.2957795</td> <td class="tcrm rb2 bb" rowspan="2">1.7581226</td>
+    <td class="tccm lb rb bb" rowspan="2">log<span class="su">e</span> &pi;</td>
+         <td class="tcrm rb bb" rowspan="2">1.1447299</td> <td class="tcrm rb bb" rowspan="2">0.0587030</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb ov bb">&pi;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Useful fractional approximations are <span class="spp">22</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">7</span> and <span class="spp">355</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">113</span>.</p>
+
+<p>A synopsis of the leading formula connected with the circle will
+now be given.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Circle.</i>&mdash;Data: radius = a. &emsp;Circumference = 2&pi;a. &emsp;Area = &pi;a².</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Arc</i> and <i>Sector</i>.&mdash;Data: radius = a; &theta; = circular measure of
+angle subtended at centre by arc; c = chord of arc; c<span class="su">2</span> = chord of
+semi-arc; c<span class="su">4</span> = chord of quarter-arc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span></p>
+
+<p>Exact formulae are:&mdash;Arc = a&theta;, where &theta; may be given directly,
+or indirectly by the relation c = 2a sin ½&theta;. Area of sector = ½a²&theta;
+= ½ radius &times; arc.</p>
+
+<p>Approximate formulae are:&mdash;Arc = <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>(8c<span class="su">2</span> - c) (Huygen&rsquo;s formula);
+arc = <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">45</span>(c - 40c<span class="su">2</span> + 256c<span class="su">4</span>).</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Segment.</i>&mdash;Data: a, &theta;, c, c<span class="su">2</span>, as in (2); h = height of segment,
+<i>i.e.</i> distance of mid-point of arc from chord.</p>
+
+<p>Exact formulae are:&mdash;Area = ½a²(&theta; - sin &theta;) = ½a²&theta; - ¼c² cot ½&theta;
+= ½a² - ½c &radic;(a² - ¼c²). If h be given, we can use c² + 4h² = 8ah, 2h
+= c tan ¼&theta; to determine &theta;.</p>
+
+<p>Approximate formulae are:&mdash;Area = <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">15</span>(6c + 8c<span class="su">2</span>)h; = <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> &radic;(c² + 8/5h²)·h;
+= <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">15</span>(7c + 3&alpha;)h, &alpha; being the true length of the arc.</p>
+
+<p>From these results the mensuration of any figure bounded by
+circular arcs and straight lines can be determined, <i>e.g.</i> the area
+of a <i>lune</i> or <i>meniscus</i> is expressible as the difference or sum of two
+segments, and the circumference as the sum of two arcs.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. E.*)</div>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Squaring of the Circle.</i></p>
+
+<p>The problem of finding a square equal in area to a given circle,
+like all problems, may be increased in difficulty by the imposition
+of restrictions; consequently under the designation there may
+be embraced quite a variety of geometrical problems. It has
+to be noted, however, that, when the &ldquo;squaring&rdquo; of the circle
+is especially spoken of, it is almost always tacitly assumed that
+the restrictions are those of the Euclidean geometry.</p>
+
+<p>Since the area of a circle equals that of the rectilineal triangle
+whose base has the same length as the circumference and whose
+altitude equals the radius (Archimedes, <span class="grk" title="Kyklou metrêsis">&#922;&#973;&#954;&#955;&#959;&#965; &#956;&#941;&#964;&#961;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>, prop. 1),
+it follows that, if a straight line could be drawn equal in length
+to the circumference, the required square could be found by
+an ordinary Euclidean construction; also, it is evident that,
+conversely, if a square equal in area to the circle could be obtained
+it would be possible to draw a straight line equal to the circumference.
+Rectification and quadrature of the circle have thus been,
+since the time of Archimedes at least, practically identical
+problems. Again, since the circumferences of circles are proportional
+to their diameters&mdash;a proposition assumed to be true
+from the dawn almost of practical geometry&mdash;the rectification
+of the circle is seen to be transformable into finding the ratio of
+the circumference to the diameter. This correlative numerical
+problem and the two purely geometrical problems are inseparably
+connected historically.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the earliest value for the ratio was 3. It was so
+among the Jews (1 Kings vii. 23, 26), the Babylonians (Oppert,
+<i>Journ. asiatique</i>, August 1872, October 1874), the Chinese (Biot,
+<i>Journ. asiatique</i>, June 1841), and probably also the Greeks.
+Among the ancient Egyptians, as would appear from a calculation
+in the Rhind papyrus, the number (<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>)<span class="sp">4</span>, <i>i.e.</i> 3.1605, was at one
+time in use.<a name="FnAnchor_1b" id="FnAnchor_1b" href="#Footnote_1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The first attempts to solve the purely geometrical
+problem appear to have been made by the Greeks (Anaxagoras,
+&amp;c.)<a name="FnAnchor_2b" id="FnAnchor_2b" href="#Footnote_2b"><span class="sp">2</span></a>, one of whom, Hippocrates, doubtless raised hopes of a
+solution by his quadrature of the so-called <i>meniscoi</i> or <i>lune</i>.<a name="FnAnchor_3b" id="FnAnchor_3b" href="#Footnote_3b"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:550px; height:237px"
+     src="images/img384a.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>[The Greeks were in possession of several relations pertaining
+to the quadrature of the lune. The following are among the more
+interesting. In fig. 6, ABC is an isosceles triangle right
+angled at C, ADB is the semicircle described on AB as diameter,
+AEB the circular arc described with centre C and radius
+CA = CB. It is easily shown that the areas of the lune ADBEA
+and the triangle ABC are equal. In fig. 7, ABC is any triangle
+right angled at C, semicircles are described on the three sides,
+thus forming two lunes AFCDA and CGBEC. The sum of the
+areas of these lunes equals the area of the triangle ABC.]</p>
+
+<p>As for Euclid, it is sufficient to recall the facts that the original
+author of prop. 8 of book iv. had strict proof of the ratio being
+&lt; 4, and the author of prop. 15 of the ratio being &gt; 3, and to
+direct attention to the importance of book x. on incommensurables
+and props. 2 and 16 of book xii., viz. that &ldquo;circles are to
+one another as the squares on their diameters&rdquo; and that &ldquo;in
+the greater of two concentric circles a regular 2n-gon can be
+inscribed which shall not meet the circumference of the less,&rdquo;
+however nearly equal the circles may be.</p>
+
+<div style="float: right;" class="figright1">
+<img style="border:0; width:250px; height:164px"
+     src="images/img384b.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>With Archimedes (287-212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) a notable advance was made.
+Taking the circumference as intermediate between the perimeters
+of the inscribed and the circumscribed regular n-gons, he showed
+that, the radius of the circle being given and the perimeter of
+some particular circumscribed regular polygon obtainable, the
+perimeter of the circumscribed regular polygon of double the
+number of sides could be calculated; that the like was true of
+the inscribed polygons; and that consequently a means was
+thus afforded of approximating to the
+circumference of the circle. As a
+matter of fact, he started with a semi-side
+AB of a circumscribed regular
+hexagon meeting the circle in B (see
+fig. 8), joined A and B with O the
+centre, bisected the angle AOB by
+OD, so that BD became the semi-side of a circumscribed regular
+12-gon; then as AB:BO:OA::1: &radic;3:2 he sought an approximation
+to &radic;3 and found that AB:BO &gt; 153:265. Next
+he applied his theorem<a name="FnAnchor_4b" id="FnAnchor_4b" href="#Footnote_4b"><span class="sp">4</span></a> BO + OA:AB::OB:BD to calculate
+BD; from this in turn he calculated the semi-sides of the
+circumscribed regular 24-gon, 48-gon and 96-gon, and so finally
+established for the circumscribed regular 96-gon that
+perimeter:diameter &lt; 3<span class="sp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="su">7</span>:1. In a quite analogous manner he proved for
+the inscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter:diameter &gt; 3<span class="sp">10</span>&frasl;<span class="su">71</span>:1.
+The conclusion from these therefore was that the ratio of circumference
+to diameter is &lt; 3<span class="sp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="su">7</span> and &gt; 3<span class="sp">10</span>&frasl;<span class="su">71</span>. This is a most notable
+piece of work; the immature condition of arithmetic at the time
+was the only real obstacle preventing the evaluation of the ratio
+to any degree of accuracy whatever.<a name="FnAnchor_5b" id="FnAnchor_5b" href="#Footnote_5b"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>No advance of any importance was made upon the achievement
+of Archimedes until after the revival of learning. His
+immediate successors may have used his method to attain a
+greater degree of accuracy, but there is very little evidence
+pointing in this direction. Ptolemy (fl. 127-151), in the <i>Great
+Syntaxis</i>, gives 3.141552 as the ratio<a name="FnAnchor_6b" id="FnAnchor_6b" href="#Footnote_6b"><span class="sp">6</span></a>; and the Hindus
+(c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 500), who were very probably indebted to the Greeks,
+used <span class="spp">62832</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">20000</span>, that is, the now familiar 3.1416.<a name="FnAnchor_7b" id="FnAnchor_7b" href="#Footnote_7b"><span class="sp">7</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It was not until the 15th century that attention in Europe
+began to be once more directed to the subject, and after the
+resuscitation a considerable length of time elapsed before any
+progress was made. The first advance in accuracy was due to a
+certain Adrian, son of Anthony, a native of Metz (1527), and
+father of the better-known Adrian Metius of Alkmaar. In
+refutation of Duchesne(Van der Eycke), he showed that the ratio
+was &lt; 3<span class="spp">17</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">120</span> and &gt; 3<span class="spp">15</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">106</span>, and thence made the exceedingly lucky
+step of taking a mean between the two by the quite unjustifiable
+process of halving the sum of the two numerators for a new
+numerator and halving the sum of the two denominators for
+a new denominator, thus arriving at the now well-known approximation
+3<span class="spp">16</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">113</span> or <span class="spp">335</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">113</span>, which, being equal to 3.1415929...,
+is correct to the sixth fractional place.<a name="FnAnchor_8b" id="FnAnchor_8b" href="#Footnote_8b"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span></p>
+
+<p>The next to advance the calculation was Francisco Vieta.
+By finding the perimeter of the inscribed and that of the circumscribed
+regular polygon of 393216 (<i>i.e.</i> 6 &times; 2<span class="sp">16</span>) sides, he proved
+that the ratio was &gt; 3.1415926535 and &lt; 3.1415926537, so that
+its value became known (in 1579) correctly to 10 fractional places.
+The theorem for angle-bisection which Vieta used was not that
+of Archimedes, but that which would now appear in the form
+1 - cos &theta; = 2 sin² ½&theta;. With Vieta, by reason of the advance in
+arithmetic, the style of treatment becomes more strictly trigonometrical;
+indeed, the <i>Universales Inspectiones</i>, in which the
+calculation occurs, would now be called plane and spherical
+trigonometry, and the accompanying <i>Canon mathematicus</i> a
+table of sines, tangents and secants.<a name="FnAnchor_9b" id="FnAnchor_9b" href="#Footnote_9b"><span class="sp">9</span></a> Further, in comparing
+the labours of Archimedes and Vieta, the effect of increased
+power of symbolical expression is very noticeable. Archimedes&rsquo;s
+process of unending cycles of arithmetical operations could at
+best have been expressed in his time by a &ldquo;rule&rdquo; in words; in
+the 16th century it could be condensed into a &ldquo;formula.&rdquo;
+Accordingly, we find in Vieta a formula for the ratio of diameter
+to circumference, viz. the interminate product<a name="FnAnchor_10b" id="FnAnchor_10b" href="#Footnote_10b"><span class="sp">10</span></a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">½&radic;<span class="ov">½</span> · &radic;<span class="ov">½ + ½&radic;½</span> · &radic;<span class="tb">½ + ½&radic;<span class="ov">(½ + ½&radic;½)</span></span> ...</p>
+
+<p>From this point onwards, therefore, no knowledge whatever
+of geometry was necessary in any one who aspired to determine
+the ratio to any required degree of accuracy; the problem
+being reduced to an arithmetical computation. Thus in connexion
+with the subject a genus of workers became possible who may
+be styled &ldquo;&pi;-computers or circle-squarers&rdquo;&mdash;a name which, if
+it connotes anything uncomplimentary, does so because of the
+almost entirely fruitless character of their labours. Passing over
+Adriaan van Roomen (Adrianus Romanus) of Louvain, who
+published the value of the ratio correct to 15 places in his <i>Idea
+mathematica</i> (1593),<a name="FnAnchor_11b" id="FnAnchor_11b" href="#Footnote_11b"><span class="sp">11</span></a> we come to the notable computer Ludolph
+van Ceulen (d. 1610), a native of Germany, long resident in
+Holland. His book, <i>Van den Circkel</i> (Delft, 1596), gave the ratio
+correct to 20 places, but he continued his calculations as long
+as he lived, and his best result was published on his tombstone
+in St Peter&rsquo;s church, Leiden. The inscription, which is not
+known to be now in existence,<a name="FnAnchor_12b" id="FnAnchor_12b" href="#Footnote_12b"><span class="sp">12</span></a> is in part as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>... Qui in vita sua multo labore circumferentiae circuli proximam
+rationem ad diametrum invenit sequentem&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl">quando diameter est 1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="2">tum circuli circumferentia plus est</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="2">quam</td>   <td class="tcl">314159265358979323846264338327950288</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">100000000000000000000000000000000000</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">et minus</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="2">quam</td>   <td class="tcl">314159265358979323846264338327950289</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">100000000000000000000000000000000000 ...</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>This gives the ratio correct to 35 places. Van Ceulen&rsquo;s process
+was essentially identical with that of Vieta. Its numerous root
+extractions amply justify a stronger expression than &ldquo;multo
+labore,&rdquo; especially in an epitaph. In Germany the &ldquo;Ludolphische
+Zahl&rdquo; (Ludolph&rsquo;s number) is still a common name for the ratio.<a name="FnAnchor_13b" id="FnAnchor_13b" href="#Footnote_13b"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>
+
+<div style="float: left;" class="figleft1">
+<img style="border:0; width:300px; height:131px"
+     src="images/img385a.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>Up to this point the credit of most that had been done may be
+set down to Archimedes. A new departure, however, was made
+by Willebrord Snell of Leiden
+in his <i>Cyclometria</i>, published
+in 1621. His achievement
+was a closely approximate
+geometrical solution of the
+problem of rectification (see
+fig. 9): ACB being a semicircle
+whose centre is O, and AC the arc to be rectified, he produced
+AB to D,  making BD equal to the radius, joined DC,
+and produced it to meet the tangent at A in E; and then his
+assertion (not established by him) was that AE was nearly equal
+to the arc AC, the error being in defect. For the purposes of
+the calculator a solution erring in excess was also required, and
+this Snell gave by slightly varying the former construction.
+Instead of producing AB
+(see fig. 10) so that BD was
+
+<span style="float: right;" class="figright1">
+<img style="border:0; width:300px; height:132px"
+     src="images/img385b.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</span>
+
+equal to r, he produced it
+only so far that, when the
+extremity D&prime; was joined with
+C, the part D&prime;F outside the
+circle was equal to r; in
+other words, by a non-Euclidean construction he trisected the
+angle AOC, for it is readily seen that, since FD&prime; = FO = OC, the
+angle FOB = <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>AOC.<a name="FnAnchor_14b" id="FnAnchor_14b" href="#Footnote_14b"><span class="sp">14</span></a> This couplet of constructions is as important
+from the calculator&rsquo;s point of view as it is interesting
+geometrically. To compare it on this score with the fundamental
+proposition of Archimedes, the latter must be put into a form
+similar to Snell&rsquo;s. AMC being an arc of a circle (see fig. 11)
+whose centre is O, AC its chord, and HK the tangent drawn at
+the middle point of the arc and bounded by OA, OC produced,
+then, according to Archimedes, AMC &lt; HK, but &gt; AC. In
+modern trigonometrical notation the propositions to be compared
+stand as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center">2 tan ½&theta; &gt; &theta;  &gt; 2 sin ½&theta; &emsp;&emsp;(Archimedes);</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="data">
+<tr><td class="tclm" rowspan="2">tan <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>&theta; + 2 sin <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>&theta; &gt; &theta;  &gt; </td> <td class="tccm">3 sin &theta;</td>
+    <td class="tclm" rowspan="2">(Snell).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm ov">2 + cos &theta;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">It is readily shown that the latter gives the best approximation
+to &theta;; but, while the former requires for its application a
+knowledge of the trigonometrical ratios of only one angle (in
+other words, the ratios of the sides of only one right-angled
+triangle), the latter requires the same for two angles, &theta; and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>&theta;.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:550px; height:255px"
+     src="images/img385c.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">Grienberger, using Snell&rsquo;s method, calculated the ratio correct
+to 39 fractional places.<a name="FnAnchor_15b" id="FnAnchor_15b" href="#Footnote_15b"><span class="sp">15</span></a> C. Huygens, in his <i>De Circuli Magnitudine
+Inventa</i>, 1654, proved the propositions of Snell, giving
+at the same time a number of other interesting theorems, for
+example, two inequalities which may be written as follows<a name="FnAnchor_16b" id="FnAnchor_16b" href="#Footnote_16b"><span class="sp">16</span></a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">chd &theta; +</td>
+    <td>4 chd &theta; + sin &theta;</td>
+    <td rowspan="2"><span class="spp">. 1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>(chd &theta; - sin &theta;) &gt; &theta; &gt; chd &theta; + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>(chd &theta; - sin &theta;).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2 chd &theta; + 3 sin &theta;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>As might be expected, a fresh view of the matter was taken
+by René Descartes. The problem he set himself was the exact
+converse of that of Archimedes. A given straight line being
+viewed as equal in length to the circumference of a circle, he
+sought to find the diameter of the circle. His construction is
+as follows (see fig. 12). Take AB equal to one-fourth of the given
+line; on AB describe a square ABCD; join AC; in AC produced
+find, by a known process, a point C<span class="su">1</span> such that, when C<span class="su">1</span>B<span class="su">1</span> is
+drawn perpendicular to AB produced and C<span class="su">1</span>D<span class="su">1</span> perpendicular
+to BC produced, the rectangle BC<span class="su">1</span> will be equal to ¼ABCD; by
+the same process find a point C<span class="su">2</span> such that the rectangle B<span class="su">1</span>C<span class="su">2</span> will
+be equal to ¼BC<span class="su">1</span>; and so on <i>ad infinitum</i>. The diameter sought
+is the straight line from A to the limiting position of the series of
+B&rsquo;s, say the straight line AB<span class="su">&infin;</span>. As in the case of the process of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span>
+Archimedes, we may direct our attention either to the infinite
+series of geometrical operations or to the corresponding infinite
+series of arithmetical operations. Denoting the number of units
+in AB by ¼c, we can express BB<span class="su">1</span>, B<span class="su">1</span>B<span class="su">2</span>, ... in terms of ¼c, and
+the identity AB<span class="su">&infin;</span> = AB + BB<span class="su">1</span> + B<span class="su">1</span>B<span class="su">2</span> + ... gives us at once
+an expression for the diameter in terms of the circumference by
+means of an infinite series.<a name="FnAnchor_17b" id="FnAnchor_17b" href="#Footnote_17b"><span class="sp">17</span></a> The proof of the correctness of the
+construction is seen to be involved in the following theorem,
+which serves likewise to throw new light on the subject:&mdash;AB
+being any straight line whatever, and the above construction
+being made, then AB is the diameter of the circle circumscribed
+by the square ABCD (self-evident), AB<span class="su">1</span> is the diameter of the
+circle circumscribed by the regular 8-gon having the same
+perimeter as the square, AB<span class="su">2</span> is the diameter of the circle circumscribed
+by the regular 16-gon having the same perimeter as the
+square, and so on. Essentially, therefore, Descartes&rsquo;s process
+is that known later as the process of <i>isoperimeters</i>, and often
+attributed wholly to Schwab.<a name="FnAnchor_18b" id="FnAnchor_18b" href="#Footnote_18b"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In 1655 appeared the <i>Arithmetica Infinitorum</i> of John Wallis,
+where numerous problems of quadrature are dealt with, the
+curves being now represented in Cartesian co-ordinates, and
+algebra playing an important part. In a very curious manner,
+by viewing the circle y = (1 - x²)<span class="sp">½</span> as a member of the series of
+curves y = (1 - x²)¹, y = (1 - x²)², &amp;c., he was led to the proposition
+that four times the reciprocal of the ratio of the circumference
+to the diameter, <i>i.e.</i> <span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">&pi;</span>;, is equal to the infinite product</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+
+<tr><td>3 · 3 · 5 · 5 · 7 · 7 · 9 ...</td> <td rowspan="2">;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2 · 4 · 4 · 6 · 6 · 8 · 8 ...</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">and, the result having been communicated to Lord Brounker,
+the latter discovered the equally curious equivalent continued
+fraction</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2">1 + </td> <td>1²</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>3²</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>5²</td> <td>&nbsp;</td> <td>7²</td> <td rowspan="2"> ...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">2</td> <td> + </td> <td class="denom">2</td> <td> + </td> <td class="denom">2</td> <td> + </td> <td class="denom">2</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">The work of Wallis had evidently an important influence
+on the next notable personality in the history of the subject,
+James Gregory, who lived during the period when the higher
+algebraic analysis was coming into power, and whose genius
+helped materially to develop it. He had, however, in a certain
+sense one eye fixed on the past and the other towards the
+future. His first contribution<a name="FnAnchor_19b" id="FnAnchor_19b" href="#Footnote_19b"><span class="sp">19</span></a> was a variation of the method
+of Archimedes. The latter, as we know, calculated the perimeters
+of successive polygons, passing from one polygon to another of
+double the number of sides; in a similar manner Gregory
+calculated the areas. The general theorems which enabled him
+to do this, after a start had been made, are</p>
+
+<p class="center">A<span class="su">2n</span> = &radic;<span class="ov">A<span class="su">n</span>A&prime;<span class="su">n</span></span> (Snell&rsquo;s <i>Cyclom.</i>),</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2">A&prime;<span class="su">2n</span> = </td>
+    <td>2A<span class="su">n</span> A&prime;<span class="su">n</span></td>  <td rowspan="2">&emsp;or&nbsp;&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>2A&prime;<span class="su">n</span> A<span class="su">2n</span></td>  <td rowspan="2">(Gregory),</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="denom">A<span class="su">n</span> + A&prime;<span class="su">2n</span></td>
+    <td class="denom">A&prime;<span class="su">n</span> + A<span class="su">2n</span></td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">where A<span class="su">n</span>, A&prime;<span class="su">n</span> are the areas of the inscribed and the circumscribed
+regular n-gons respectively. He also gave approximate
+rectifications of circular arcs after the manner of Huygens;
+and, what is very notable, he made an ingenious and, according
+to J.E. Montucla, successful attempt to show that quadrature
+of the circle by a Euclidean construction was impossible.<a name="FnAnchor_20b" id="FnAnchor_20b" href="#Footnote_20b"><span class="sp">20</span></a> Besides
+all this, however, and far beyond it in importance, was his use
+of infinite series. This merit he shares with his contemporaries
+N. Mercator, Sir I. Newton and G.W. Leibnitz, and the exact
+dates of discovery are a little uncertain. As far as the circle-squaring
+functions are concerned, it would seem that Gregory
+was the first (in 1670) to make known the series for the arc in
+terms of the tangent, the series for the tangent in terms of the
+arc, and the secant in terms of the arc; and in 1669 Newton
+showed to Isaac Barrow a little treatise in manuscript containing
+the series for the arc in terms of the sine, for the sine in terms of
+the arc, and for the cosine in terms of the arc. These discoveries
+formed an epoch in the history of mathematics generally, and
+had, of course, a marked influence on after investigations
+regarding circle-quadrature. Even among the mere computers
+the series</p>
+
+<p class="center">&theta; = tan - <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> tan<span class="sp">3</span> &theta; + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> tan<span class="sp">5</span> &theta; - ...,</p>
+
+<p class="noind">specially known as Gregory&rsquo;s series, has ever since been a
+necessity of their calling.</p>
+
+<p>The calculator&rsquo;s work having now become easier and more
+mechanical, calculation went on apace. In 1699 Abraham
+Sharp, on the suggestion of Edmund Halley, took Gregory&rsquo;s
+series, and, putting tan &theta; = <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>&radic;3, found the ratio equal to</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2">&radic;<span class="ov">12</span> <span style="font-size: 200%;">(</span> 1 -</td>
+    <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td>  <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">-</td>  <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+ ... <span style="font-size: 200%;">)</span>,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="denom">3 · 3</td>  <td class="denom">5 · 3²</td>  <td class="denom">7 · 3³</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">from which he calculated it correct to 71 fractional places.<a name="FnAnchor_21b" id="FnAnchor_21b" href="#Footnote_21b"><span class="sp">21</span></a>
+About the same time John Machin calculated it correct to 100
+places, and, what was of more importance, gave for the ratio the
+rapidly converging expression</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+
+<tr><td>16</td>  <td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%;">(</span> 1 -</td>
+    <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td>  <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">-</td>  <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+ ... <span style="font-size: 200%;">)</span> -</td>
+    <td>4</td>  <td rowspan="2"><span style="font-size: 200%;">(</span> 1 -</td>
+    <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">+</td>  <td>1</td> <td rowspan="2">- ... <span style="font-size: 200%;">)</span>,</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="denom">5</td>  <td class="denom">3 · 5²</td>  <td class="denom">5 · 5<span class="sp">4</span></td>  <td class="denom">7 · 5<span class="sp">6</span></td>
+    <td class="denom">239</td>  <td class="denom">3 · 239²</td>  <td class="denom">5 · 239<span class="sp">4</span></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">which long remained without explanation.<a name="FnAnchor_22b" id="FnAnchor_22b" href="#Footnote_22b"><span class="sp">22</span></a> Fautet de Lagny,
+still using tan 30°, advanced to the 127th place.<a name="FnAnchor_23b" id="FnAnchor_23b" href="#Footnote_23b"><span class="sp">23</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Leonhard Euler took up the subject several times during his
+life, effecting mainly improvements in the theory of the various
+series.<a name="FnAnchor_24b" id="FnAnchor_24b" href="#Footnote_24b"><span class="sp">24</span></a>  With him, apparently, began the usage of denoting
+by &pi; the ratio of the circumference to the diameter.<a name="FnAnchor_25b" id="FnAnchor_25b" href="#Footnote_25b"><span class="sp">25</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The most important publication, however, on the subject
+in the 18th century was a paper by J.H. Lambert,<a name="FnAnchor_26b" id="FnAnchor_26b" href="#Footnote_26b"><span class="sp">26</span></a> read before
+the Berlin Academy in 1761, in which he demonstrated the
+irrationality of &pi;. The general test of irrationality which he
+established is that, if</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+
+<tr><td>a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>a<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="2">...</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="denom">b<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>±</td>
+    <td class="denom">b<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>±</td>
+    <td class="denom">b<span class="su">3</span></td> <td>±</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">be an interminate continued fraction, a<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>, ..., b<span class="su">1</span>, b<span class="su">2</span> ...
+be integers, a<span class="su">1</span>/b<span class="su">1</span>, a<span class="su">2</span>/b<span class="su">2</span>, ... be proper fractions, and the value
+of every one of the interminate continued fractions</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+
+<tr><td>a<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>a<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td rowspan="2">...</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="denom">b<span class="su">1</span></td> <td>± ...,</td>
+    <td class="denom">b<span class="su">2</span></td> <td>± ...,</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">be &lt; 1, then the given continued fraction represents
+an irrational quantity. If this be applied to the right-hand
+side of the identity</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+
+<tr><td rowspan="2">tan</td> <td>m</td>  <td rowspan="2"> = </td>  <td>m</td>  <td>&nbsp;</td>  <td>m²</td>  <td>&nbsp;</td>  <td>m²</td>  <td rowspan="2">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">n</td>  <td class="denom">n</td>  <td>-</td>  <td class="denom">3n</td>  <td>-</td>  <td class="denom">5n</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">it follows that the tangent of every arc commensurable with
+the radius is irrational, so that, as a particular case, an arc of
+45°, having its tangent rational, must be incommensurable
+with the radius; that is to say, <span class="spp">&pi;</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span> is an incommensurable
+number.<a name="FnAnchor_27b" id="FnAnchor_27b" href="#Footnote_27b"><span class="sp">27</span></a></p>
+
+<p>This incontestable result had no effect, apparently, in repressing
+the &pi;-computers. G. von Vega in 1789, using series
+like Machin&rsquo;s, viz. Gregory&rsquo;s series and the identities</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="spp">&pi;</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span> = 5 tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">7</span> + 2 tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">79</span> (Euler, 1779),</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="spp">&pi;</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span> = &ensp; tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">7</span> + 2 tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> (Hutton, 1776),</p>
+
+<p class="noind">neither of which was nearly so advantageous as several found
+by Charles Hutton, calculated &pi; correct to 136 places.<a name="FnAnchor_28b" id="FnAnchor_28b" href="#Footnote_28b"><span class="sp">28</span></a> This
+achievement was anticipated or outdone by an unknown calculator,
+whose manuscript was seen in the Radcliffe library,
+Oxford, by Baron von Zach towards the end of the century,
+and contained the ratio correct to 152 places. More astonishing
+still have been the deeds of the &pi;-computers of the 19th century.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span>
+A condensed record compiled by J.W.L. Glaisher (<i>Messenger
+of Math.</i> ii. 122) is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="data">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Date.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">Computer.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />fr. digits<br />calcd.</td>  <td class="tccm allb">No. of<br />fr. digits<br />correct.</td>
+    <td class="tccm allb">Place of Publication.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1842</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Rutherford</td>  <td class="tccm rb">208</td>  <td class="tccm rb">152</td>  <td class="tcl rb"><i>Trans. Roy. Soc.</i> (London, 1841), p. 283.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1844</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Dase</td>  <td class="tccm rb">205</td>  <td class="tccm rb">200</td>  <td class="tcl rb"><i>Crelle&rsquo;s Journ.</i>. xxvii. 198.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1847</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Clausen</td>  <td class="tccm rb">250</td>  <td class="tccm rb">248</td>  <td class="tcl rb"><i>Astron. Nachr.</i> xxv. col. 207.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Shanks</td>  <td class="tccm rb">318</td>  <td class="tccm rb">318</td>  <td class="tcl rb"><i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> (London, 1853), 273.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Rutherford</td>  <td class="tccm rb">440</td>  <td class="tccm rb">440</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Ibid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Shanks</td>  <td class="tccm rb">530</td>  <td class="tccm rb">..</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Ibid.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Shanks</td>  <td class="tccm rb">607</td>  <td class="tccm rb">..</td>  <td class="tcl rb">W. Shanks, <i>Rectification of the Circle</i> (London, 1853).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1853</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Richter</td>  <td class="tccm rb">333</td>  <td class="tccm rb">330</td>  <td class="tcl rb"><i>Grunert&rsquo;s Archiv</i>, xxi. 119.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1854</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Richter</td>  <td class="tccm rb">400</td>  <td class="tccm rb">330</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Ibid. xxii. 473.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1854</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Richter</td>  <td class="tccm rb">400</td>  <td class="tccm rb">400</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Ibid. xxiii. 476.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb">1854</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Richter</td>  <td class="tccm rb">500</td>  <td class="tccm rb">500</td>  <td class="tcl rb">Ibid. xxv. 472.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tccm lb rb bb">1873</td>  <td class="tcl rb bb">Shanks</td>  <td class="tccm rb bb">707</td>  <td class="tccm rb bb">..</td>  <td class="tcl rb bb"><i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i> (London), xxi.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>By these computers Machin&rsquo;s identity, or identities analogous
+to it, <i>e.g.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="spp">&pi;</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span> = &ensp; tan<span class="sp">-1</span> ½  + tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>  + tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>  (Dase, 1844),</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="spp">&pi;</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span> = 4tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> - tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">70</span> + tan<span class="sp">-1</span> <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">99</span> (Rutherford),</p>
+
+
+<p class="noind">and Gregory&rsquo;s series were employed.<a name="FnAnchor_29b" id="FnAnchor_29b" href="#Footnote_29b"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p>
+
+<p>A much less wise class than the &pi;-computers of modern times
+are the pseudo-circle-squarers, or circle-squarers technically so
+called, that is to say, persons who, having obtained by illegitimate
+means a Euclidean construction for the quadrature or a
+finitely expressible value for &pi;, insist on using faulty reasoning
+and defective mathematics to establish their assertions. Such
+persons have flourished at all times in the history of mathematics;
+but the interest attaching to them is more psychological than
+mathematical.<a name="FnAnchor_30b" id="FnAnchor_30b" href="#Footnote_30b"><span class="sp">30</span></a></p>
+
+<p>It is of recent years that the most important advances in the
+theory of circle-quadrature have been made. In 1873 Charles
+Hermite proved that the base &eta; of the Napierian logarithms
+cannot be a root of a rational algebraical equation of any degree.<a name="FnAnchor_31b" id="FnAnchor_31b" href="#Footnote_31b"><span class="sp">31</span></a>
+To prove the same proposition regarding &pi; is to prove that a
+Euclidean construction for circle-quadrature is impossible.
+For in such a construction every point of the figure is obtained
+by the intersection of two straight lines, a straight line and a
+circle, or two circles; and as this implies that, when a unit of
+length is introduced, numbers employed, and the problem
+transformed into one of algebraic geometry, the equations to
+be solved can only be of the first or second degree, it follows that
+the equation to which we must be finally led is a rational equation
+of even degree. Hermite<a name="FnAnchor_32b" id="FnAnchor_32b" href="#Footnote_32b"><span class="sp">32</span></a> did not succeed in his attempt on &pi;;
+but in 1882 F. Lindemann, following exactly in Hermite&rsquo;s steps,
+accomplished the desired result.<a name="FnAnchor_33b" id="FnAnchor_33b" href="#Footnote_33b"><span class="sp">33</span></a> (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trigonometry</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">References</span>.&mdash;Besides the various writings mentioned, see for
+the history of the subject F. Rudio, <i>Geschichte des Problems von der
+Quadratur des Zirkels</i> (1892);
+M. Cantor, <i>Geschichte der Mathematik</i> (1894-1901);
+Montucla, <i>Hist. des. math.</i> (6 vols., Paris, 1758, 2nd ed. 1799-1802);
+Murhard, <i>Bibliotheca Mathematica</i>, ii. 106-123 (Leipzig, 1798);
+Reuss, <i>Repertorium Comment.</i> vii. 42-44 (Göttingen, 1808).
+For a few approximate geometrical solutions, see
+Leybourn&rsquo;s <i>Math. Repository</i>, vi. 151-154;
+<i>Grunert&rsquo;s Archiv</i>, xii. 98, xlix. 3;
+<i>Nieuw Archief v. Wisk.</i> iv. 200-204. For experimental
+determinations of &pi;, dependent on the theory of probability,
+see <i>Mess. of Math.</i> ii. 113, 119; <i>Casopis pro pïstováni
+math. a fys.</i> x. 272-275; <i>Analyst</i>, ix. 176.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. MU.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1b" id="Footnote_1b" href="#FnAnchor_1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Eisenlohr, <i>Ein math. Handbuch d. alten Ägypter, übers. u.
+erklärt</i> (Leipzig, 1877); Rodet, <i>Bull. de la Soc. Math. de France</i>, vi.
+pp. 139-149.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2b" id="Footnote_2b" href="#FnAnchor_2b"><span class="fn">2</span></a> H. Hankel, <i>Zur Gesch. d. Math. im Alterthum</i>, &amp;c., chap, v
+(Leipzig, 1874); M. Cantor, <i>Vorlesungen über Gesch. d. Math.</i> i.
+(Leipzig, 1880); Tannery, <i>Mém. de la Soc.</i>, &amp;c., <i>à Bordeaux</i>; Allman,
+in <i>Hermathena</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3b" id="Footnote_3b" href="#FnAnchor_3b"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Tannery. <i>Bull. des sc. math.</i> [2], x. pp. 213-226.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4b" id="Footnote_4b" href="#FnAnchor_4b"><span class="fn">4</span></a> In modern trigonometrical notation, 1 + sec &theta;:tan &theta;::1:tan ½&theta;.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5b" id="Footnote_5b" href="#FnAnchor_5b"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Tannery, &ldquo;Sur la mesure du cercle d&rsquo;Archimède,&rdquo; in <i>Mém....Bordeaux</i>[2],
+iv. pp. 313-339; Menge, <i>Des Archimedes Kreismessung</i>
+(Coblenz, 1874).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6b" id="Footnote_6b" href="#FnAnchor_6b"><span class="fn">6</span></a> De Morgan, in <i>Penny Cyclop,</i> xix. p. 186.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7b" id="Footnote_7b" href="#FnAnchor_7b"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Kern, <i>Aryabhattíyam</i> (Leiden, 1874), trans. by Rodet  (Paris,1879).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8b" id="Footnote_8b" href="#FnAnchor_8b"><span class="fn">8</span></a> De Morgan, art. &ldquo;Quadrature of the Circle,&rdquo; in <i>English Cyclop.</i>;
+Glaisher, <i>Mess. of Math.</i> ii. pp. 119-128, iii. pp. 27-46; de Haan,
+<i>Nieuw Archief v. Wisk.</i> i. pp. 70-86, 206-211.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9b" id="Footnote_9b" href="#FnAnchor_9b"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Vieta, <i>Opera math.</i>  (Leiden,  1646); Marie, <i>Hist. des sciences
+math.</i> iii. 27 seq. (Paris, 1884).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10b" id="Footnote_10b" href="#FnAnchor_10b"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Klügel, <i>Math. Wörterb.</i> ii. 606, 607.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11b" id="Footnote_11b" href="#FnAnchor_11b"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Kästner, <i>Gesch. d. Math.</i> i. (Göttingen, 1796-1800).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12b" id="Footnote_12b" href="#FnAnchor_12b"><span class="fn">12</span></a> But see <i>Les Délices de Leide</i> (Leiden, 1712); or de Haan, <i>Mess.
+of Math.</i> iii. 24-26.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13b" id="Footnote_13b" href="#FnAnchor_13b"><span class="fn">13</span></a> For minute and lengthy details regarding the quadrature of the
+circle in the Low Countries, see de Haan, &ldquo;Bouwstoffen voor de
+geschiedenis, &amp;c.,&rdquo; in <i>Versl. en Mededeel. der K. Akad. van Wetensch.</i>
+ix., x., xi., xii. (Amsterdam); also his &ldquo;Notice sur quelques quadrateurs,
+&amp;c.,&rdquo; in <i>Bull. di bibliogr. e di storia delle sci. mat. e fis.</i> vii.
+99-144.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14b" id="Footnote_14b" href="#FnAnchor_14b"><span class="fn">14</span></a> It is thus manifest that by his first construction Snell gave an
+approximate solution of two great problems of antiquity.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15b" id="Footnote_15b" href="#FnAnchor_15b"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Elementa trigonometrica</i> (Rome, 1630); Glaisher, <i>Messenger of
+Math.</i> iii. 35 seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16b" id="Footnote_16b" href="#FnAnchor_16b"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See Kiessling&rsquo;s edition of the <i>De Circ. Magn. Inv.</i> (Flensburg,
+1869); or Pirie&rsquo;s tract on <i>Geometrical Methods of Approx. to the Value
+of &pi;</i> (London, 1877).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17b" id="Footnote_17b" href="#FnAnchor_17b"><span class="fn">17</span></a> See Euler, &ldquo;Annotationes in locum quendam Cartesii,&rdquo; in <i>Nov.
+Comm. Acad. Petrop.</i> viii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18b" id="Footnote_18b" href="#FnAnchor_18b"><span class="fn">18</span></a> Gergonne, <i>Annales de math.</i> vi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19b" id="Footnote_19b" href="#FnAnchor_19b"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See <i>Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura</i> (Padua, 1667); and
+the <i>Appendicula</i> to the same in his <i>Exercitationes  geometricae</i>
+(London, 1668).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20b" id="Footnote_20b" href="#FnAnchor_20b"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Penny Cyclop.</i> xix. 187.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21b" id="Footnote_21b" href="#FnAnchor_21b"><span class="fn">21</span></a> See Sherwin&rsquo;s <i>Math. Tables</i> (London, 1705), p. 59.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22b" id="Footnote_22b" href="#FnAnchor_22b"><span class="fn">22</span></a> See W. Jones, <i>Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos</i> (London, 1706);
+Maseres, <i>Scriptores Logarithmici</i> (London, 1791-1796), iii. 159 seq.;
+Hutton, <i>Tracts</i>, i. 266.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23b" id="Footnote_23b" href="#FnAnchor_23b"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See <i>Hist. de l&rsquo;Acad.</i> (Paris, 1719); 7 appears instead of 8 in the
+113th place.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24b" id="Footnote_24b" href="#FnAnchor_24b"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Comment. Acad. Petrop.</i> ix., xi.; <i>Nov. Comm. Ac. Pet.</i>  xvi.;
+<i>Nova Acta Acad. Pet.</i> xi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25b" id="Footnote_25b" href="#FnAnchor_25b"><span class="fn">25</span></a> <i>Introd. in Analysin Infin.</i> (Lausanne, 1748), chap. viii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26b" id="Footnote_26b" href="#FnAnchor_26b"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Mém. sur quelques propriétés remarquables des quantités transcendantes,
+circulaires, et logarithmiques.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27b" id="Footnote_27b" href="#FnAnchor_27b"><span class="fn">27</span></a> See Legendre, <i>Eléments de géométrie</i> (Paris,  1794), note iv.;
+Schlömilch, <i>Handbuch d. algeb. Analysis</i> (Jena, 1851), chap. xiii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28b" id="Footnote_28b" href="#FnAnchor_28b"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Nova Acta Petrop.</i> ix. 41; <i>Thesaurus Logarithm. Completus</i>, 633.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29b" id="Footnote_29b" href="#FnAnchor_29b"><span class="fn">29</span></a> On the calculations made before Shanks, see Lehmann, &ldquo;Beitrag
+zur Berechnung der Zahl &pi;,&rdquo; in <i>Grunert&rsquo;s Archiv</i>, xxi. 121-174.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30b" id="Footnote_30b" href="#FnAnchor_30b"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See Montucla, <i>Hist. des rech. sur la quad. du cercle</i> (Paris, 1754,
+2nd ed. 1831); de Morgan, <i>Budget of Paradoxes</i> (London, 1872).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31b" id="Footnote_31b" href="#FnAnchor_31b"><span class="fn">31</span></a> &ldquo;Sur la fonction exponentielle,&rdquo; <i>Comples rendus</i> (Paris), lxxvii.
+18, 74, 226, 285.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32b" id="Footnote_32b" href="#FnAnchor_32b"><span class="fn">32</span></a> See <i>Crelle&rsquo;s Journal</i>, lxxvi. 342.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33b" id="Footnote_33b" href="#FnAnchor_33b"><span class="fn">33</span></a> See &ldquo;Über die Zahl &pi;,&rdquo; in <i>Math. Ann.</i> xx. 213.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCLEVILLE<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Pickaway
+county, Ohio, U.S.A., about 26 m. S. by E. of Columbus, on the
+Scioto river and the Ohio Canal. Pop. (1890) 6556; (1900)
+6991 (551 negroes); (1910) 6744. It is served by the Cincinnati
+&amp; Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania lines) and the Norfolk &amp;
+Western railways, and by the Scioto Valley electric line. Circleville
+is situated in a farming region, and its leading industries
+are the manufacture of straw boards and agricultural implements,
+and the canning of sweet corn and other produce. The
+city occupies the site of prehistoric earth-works, from one of
+which, built in the form of a circle, it derived
+its name. Circleville, first settled about 1806,
+was chosen as the county-seat in 1810. The
+court-house was built in the form of an octagon
+at the centre of the circle, and circular streets
+were laid out around it; but this arrangement
+proved to be inconvenient, the court-house was
+destroyed by fire in 1841, and at present no
+trace of the ancient landmarks remains. Circleville
+was incorporated as a village in 1814, and
+was chartered as a city in 1853.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCUIT<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (Lat. <i>circuitus</i>, from <i>circum</i>, round,
+and <i>ire</i>, to go), the act of moving round; so
+circumference, or anything encircling or encircled.
+The word is particularly known as a law term,
+signifying the periodical progress of a legal tribunal for
+the purpose of carrying out the administration of the law in the
+several provinces of a country. It has long been applied to the
+journey or progress which the judges have been in the habit of
+making through the several counties of England, to hold courts
+and administer justice, where recourse could not be had to the
+king&rsquo;s court at Westminster (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assize</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>In England, by sec. 23 of the Judicature Act 1875, power was
+conferred on the crown, by order in council, to make regulations
+respecting circuits, including the discontinuance of any circuit,
+and the formation of any new circuit, and the appointment of
+the place at which assizes are to be held on any circuit. Under
+this power an order of council, dated the 5th of February 1876,
+was made, whereby the circuit system was remodelled. A new
+circuit, called the North-Eastern circuit, was created, consisting
+of Newcastle and Durham taken out of the old Northern circuit,
+and York and Leeds taken out of the Midland circuit. Oakham,
+Leicester and Northampton, which had belonged to the Norfolk
+circuit, were added to the Midland. The Norfolk circuit and the
+Home circuit were abolished and a new South-Eastern circuit
+was created, consisting of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ipswich,
+Norwich, Chelmsford, Hertford and Lewes, taken partly out
+of the old Norfolk circuit and partly out of the Home circuit.
+The counties of Kent and Surrey were left out of the circuit
+system, the assizes for these counties being held by the judges
+remaining in London. Subsequently Maidstone and Guildford
+were united under the revived name of the Home circuit for the
+purpose of the summer and winter assizes, and the assizes in
+these towns were held by one of the judges of the Western circuit,
+who, after disposing of the business there, rejoined his colleague
+in Exeter. In 1899 this arrangement was abolished, and Maidstone
+and Guildford were added to the South-Eastern circuit.
+Other minor changes in the assize towns were made, which it is
+unnecessary to particularize. Birmingham first became a
+circuit town in the year 1884, and the work there became,
+by arrangement, the joint property of the Midland and Oxford
+circuits. There are alternative assize towns in the following
+counties, viz.:&mdash;On the Western circuit, Salisbury and Devizes
+for Wiltshire, and Wells and Taunton for Somerset; on the
+South-Eastern, Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds for Suffolk;
+on the North Wales circuit, Welshpool and Newtown for Montgomery;
+and on the South Wales circuit, Cardiff and Swansea for Glamorgan.</p>
+
+<p>According to the arrangements in force in 1909 there are
+four assizes in each year. There are two principal assizes, viz.
+the winter assizes, beginning in January, and the summer assizes,
+beginning at the end of May. At these two assizes criminal and
+civil business is disposed of in all the circuits. There are two
+other assizes, viz. the autumn assizes and the Easter assizes.
+The autumn assizes are regulated by acts of 1876 and 1877
+(Winter Assizes Acts 1876 and 1877), and orders of council made
+under the former act. They are held for the whole of England
+and Wales, but for the purpose of these assizes the work is to a
+large extent &ldquo;grouped,&rdquo; so that not every county has a separate
+assize. For example, on the South-Eastern circuit Huntingdon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span>
+is grouped with Cambridge; on the Midland, Rutland is grouped
+with Lincoln; on the Northern, Westmorland is grouped with
+Cumberland; and the North Wales and South Wales circuits
+are united, and no assizes are held at some of the smaller towns.
+At these assizes criminal business only is taken, except at
+Manchester, Liverpool, Swansea, Birmingham and Leeds.
+The Easter assizes are held in April and May on two circuits
+only, viz. at Manchester and Liverpool on the Northern and at
+Leeds on the North-Eastern. Both civil and criminal business
+is taken at Manchester and Liverpool, but criminal business
+only at Leeds.</p>
+
+<p>Other changes were made, with a view to preventing the
+complete interruption of the London sittings in the common law
+division by the absence of the judges on circuit. The assizes
+were so arranged as to commence on different dates in the various
+circuits. For example, the summer assizes begin in the
+South-Eastern and Western circuits on the 29th of May; in the
+Northern circuit on the 28th of June; in the Midland and
+Oxford circuits on the 16th of June; in the North-Eastern
+circuit on the 6th of July; in the North Wales circuit on the
+7th of July; and in the South Wales circuit on the 11th of July.
+Again, there has been a continuous development of what may
+be called the single-judge system. In the early days of the new
+order the members of the court of appeal and the judges of the
+chancery division shared the circuit work with the judges in the
+common law division. This did not prove to be a satisfactory
+arrangement. The assize work was not familiar and was
+uncongenial to the chancery judges, who had but little training
+or experience to fit them for it. Arrears increased in chancery,
+and the appeal court was shorn of much of its strength for a
+considerable part of the year. The practice was discontinued
+in or about the year 1884. The appeal and chancery judges were
+relieved of the duty of going on circuit, and an arrangement
+was made by the treasury for making an allowance for expenses
+of circuit to the common law judges, on whom the whole work
+of the assizes was thrown. In order to cope with the assize
+work, and at the same time keep the common law sittings going
+in London, an experiment, which had been previously tried
+by Lord Cairns and Lord Cross (then home secretary) and
+discontinued, was revived. Instead of two judges going together
+to each assize town, it was arranged that one judge should go
+by himself to certain selected places&mdash;practically, it may be
+said, to all except the more important provincial centres. The
+only places to which two judges now go are Exeter, Winchester,
+Bristol, Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Stafford, Birmingham,
+Newcastle, Durham, York, Leeds, Chester, and Cardiff or Swansea.</p>
+
+<p>It could scarcely be said that, even with the amendments
+introduced under orders in council, the circuit system was
+altogether satisfactory or that the last word had been pronounced
+on the subject. In the first report of the Judicature Commission,
+dated March 25th, 1869, p. 17 (<i>Parl. Papers</i>, 1868-1869), the
+majority report that &ldquo;the necessity for holding assizes in every
+county without regard to the extent of the business to be transacted
+in such county leads, in our judgment, to a great waste of
+judicial strength and a great loss of time in going from one
+circuit town to another, and causes much unnecessary cost and
+inconvenience to those whose attendance is necessary or customary
+at the assizes.&rdquo; And in their second report, dated July 3rd,
+1872 (<i>Parl. Papers</i>, 1872, vol. xx.), they dwell upon the
+advisability of grouping or a discontinuance of holding assizes &ldquo;in
+several counties, for example, Rutland and Westmorland, where
+it is manifestly an idle waste of time and money to have assizes.&rdquo;
+It is thought that the grouping of counties which has been effected
+for the autumn assizes might be carried still further and applied
+to all the assizes; and that the system of holding the assizes
+alternately in one of two towns within a county might be extended
+to two towns in adjoining counties, for example, Gloucester
+and Worcester. The facility of railway communication renders
+this reform comparatively easy, and reforms in this direction
+have been approved by the judges, but ancient custom and
+local patriotism, interests, or susceptibility bar the way. The
+Assizes and Quarter Sessions Act 1908 contributed something
+to reform by dispensing with the obligation to hold assizes
+at a fixed date if there is no business to be transacted. Nor
+can it be said that the single-judge system has been altogether
+a success. When there is only one judge for both civil and
+criminal work, he properly takes the criminal business first.
+He can fix only approximately the time when he can hope to
+be free for the civil business. If the calendar is exceptionally
+heavy or one or more of the criminal cases prove to be unexpectedly
+long (as may easily happen), the civil business necessarily
+gets squeezed into the short residue of the allotted time. Suitors
+and their solicitors and witnesses are kept waiting for days, and
+after all perhaps it proves to be impossible for the judge to take
+the case, and a &ldquo;remanet&rdquo; is the result. It is the opinion of
+persons of experience that the result has undoubtedly been to
+drive to London much of the civil business which properly
+belongs to the provinces, and ought to be tried there, and thus
+at once to increase the burden on the judges and jurymen in
+London, and to increase the costs of the trial of the actions sent
+there. Some persons advocate the continuous sittings of the
+high court in certain centres, such as Manchester, Liverpool,
+Leeds, Newcastle, Birmingham and Bristol, or (in fact) a
+decentralization of the judicial system. There is already an
+excellent court for chancery cases for Lancashire in the county
+palatine court, presided over by the vice-chancellor, and with a
+local bar which has produced many men of great ability and
+even eminence. The Durham chancery court is also capable
+of development. Another suggestion has been made for continuous
+circuits throughout the legal year, so that a certain
+number of the judges, according to a rota, should be continuously
+in the provinces while the remaining judges did the London
+business. The value of this suggestion would depend on an
+estimate of the number of cases which might thus be tried in the
+country in relief of the London list. This estimate it would be
+difficult to make. The opinion has also been expressed that it
+is essential in any changes that may be made to retain the
+occasional administration by judges of the high court of criminal
+jurisdiction, both in populous centres and in remote places. It
+promotes a belief in the importance and dignity of justice and
+the care to be given to all matters affecting a citizen&rsquo;s life,
+liberty or character. It also does something, by the example
+set by judges in country districts, to check any tendency to
+undue severity of sentences in offences against property.</p>
+
+<p>Counsel are not expected to practise on a circuit other than
+that to which they have attached themselves, unless they receive
+a special retainer. They are then said to &ldquo;go special,&rdquo; and the
+fee in such a case is one hundred guineas for a king&rsquo;s counsel,
+and fifty guineas for a junior. It is customary to employ one
+member of the circuit on the side on which the counsel comes
+special. Certain rules have been drawn up by the Bar Committee
+for regulating the practice as to retainers on circuit.
+(1) A special retainer must be given for a particular assize (a
+circuit retainer will not, however, make it compulsory upon
+counsel retained to go the circuit, but will give the right to
+counsel&rsquo;s services should he attend the assize and the case be
+entered for trial); (2) if the venue is changed to another place
+on the same circuit, a fresh retainer is not required; (3) if the
+action is not tried at the assize for which the retainer is given,
+the retainer must be renewed for every subsequent assize until
+the action is disposed of, unless a brief has been delivered;
+(4) a retainer may be given for a future assize, without a retainer
+for an intervening assize, unless notice of trial is given for such
+intervening assize. There are also various regulations enforced
+by the discipline of the circuit bar mess.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the English circuit system still exists
+in some states, as in Massachusetts, where the judges sit in
+succession in the various counties of the state. The term <i>circuit
+courts</i> applies distinctively in America to a certain class of
+inferior federal courts of the United States, exercising jurisdiction,
+concurrently with the state courts, in certain matters
+where the United States is a party to the litigation, or in cases
+of crime against the United States. The circuit courts act in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span>
+nine judicial circuits, divided as follows: <i>1st circuit</i>, Maine,
+Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island; <i>2nd circuit</i>,
+Connecticut, New York, Vermont; <i>3rd circuit</i>, Delaware, New
+Jersey, Pennsylvania; <i>4th circuit</i>, Maryland, North Carolina,
+South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia; <i>5th circuit</i>, Alabama,
+Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas; <i>6th circuit</i>,
+Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee; <i>7th circuit</i>, Illinois,
+Indiana, Wisconsin; <i>8th circuit</i>, Arkansas, Colorado, Oklahoma,
+Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New
+Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming; <i>9th
+circuit</i>, Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana, Nevada,
+Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii. A circuit court of appeals
+is made up of three judges of the circuit court, the
+judges of the district courts of the circuit, and the judge of the
+Supreme Court allotted to the circuit.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland the judges of the supreme criminal court, or high
+court of justiciary, form also three separate circuit courts,
+consisting of two judges each; and the country, with the exception
+of the Lothians, is divided into corresponding districts,
+called the Northern, Western and Southern circuits. On the
+Northern circuit, courts are held at Inverness, Perth, Dundee
+and Aberdeen; on the Western, at Glasgow, Stirling and
+Inveraray; and on the Southern, at Dumfries, Jedburgh and Ayr.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland is divided into the North-East and the North-West
+circuits, and those of Leinster, Connaught and Munster.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCULAR NOTE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span>, a documentary request by a bank to its
+foreign correspondents to pay a specified sum of money to a
+named person. The person in whose favour a circular note is
+issued is furnished with a letter (containing the signature of an
+official of the bank and the person named) called a letter of
+indication, which is usually referred to in the circular note,
+and must be produced on presentation of the note. Circular
+notes are generally issued against a payment of cash to the
+amount of the notes, but the notes need not necessarily be
+cashed, but may be returned to the banker in exchange for the
+amount for which they were originally issued. A forged signature
+on a circular note conveys no right, and as it is the duty of the
+payer to see that payment is made to the proper person, he
+cannot recover the amount of a forged note from the banker
+who issued the note. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Letter of Credit</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (Lat. for &ldquo;circle in proving&rdquo;),
+in logic, a phrase used to describe a form of argument in which
+the very fact which one seeks to demonstrate is used as a premise,
+<i>i.e.</i> as part of the evidence on which the conclusion is based.
+This argument is one form of the fallacy known as <i>petitio
+principii</i>, &ldquo;begging the question.&rdquo; It is most common in
+lengthy arguments, the complicated character of which enables
+the speaker to make his hearers forget the data from which he
+began. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fallacy</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCUMCISION<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (Lat. <i>circum</i>, round, and <i>caedere</i>, to cut),
+the cutting off of the foreskin. This surgical operation, which is
+commonly prescribed for purely medical reasons, is also an
+initiation or religious ceremony among Jews and Mahommedans,
+and is a widespread institution in many Semitic races. It
+remains, with Jews, a necessary preliminary to the admission of
+proselytes, except in some Reformed communities. The origin
+of the rite among the Jews is in Genesis (xvii.) placed in the age
+of Abraham, and at all events it must have been very ancient,
+for flint stones were used in the operation (Exodus iv. 25;
+Joshua v. 2). The narrative in Joshua implies that the custom
+was introduced by him, not that it had merely been in abeyance
+in the Wilderness. At Gilgal he &ldquo;rolled away the reproach of
+the Egyptians&rdquo; by circumcising the people. This obviously
+means that whereas the Egyptians practised circumcision the
+Jews in the land of the Pharaohs did not, and hence were regarded
+with contempt. It was an old theory (Herodotus ii. 36) that
+circumcision originated in Egypt; at all events it was practised
+in that country in ancient times (Ebers, <i>Egypten und die Bücher
+Mosis</i>, i. 278-284), and the same is true at the present day.
+But it is not generally thought probable that the Hebrews
+derived the rite directly from the Egyptians. As Driver puts it
+(<i>Genesis</i>, p. 190): &ldquo;It is possible that, as Dillmann and Nowack
+suppose, the peoples of N. Africa and Asia who practised the rite
+adopted it from the Egyptians, but it appears in so many parts
+of the world that it must at any rate in these cases have originated
+independently.&rdquo; In another biblical narrative (Exodus iv. 25)
+Moses is subject to the divine anger because he had not made
+himself &ldquo;a bridegroom of blood,&rdquo; that is, had not been circumcised
+before his marriage.</p>
+
+<p>The rite of circumcision was practised by all the inhabitants
+of Palestine with the exception of the Philistines. It was an
+ancient custom among the Arabs, being presupposed in the
+Koran. The only important Semitic peoples who most probably
+did not follow the rite were the Babylonians and Assyrians
+(Sayce, <i>Babyl. and Assyrians</i>, p. 47). Modern investigations have
+brought to light many instances of the prevalence of circumcision
+in various parts of the world. These facts are collected by Andrée
+and Ploss, and go to prove that the rite is not only spread through
+the Mahommedan world (Turks, Persians, Arabs, &amp;c.), but also is
+practised by the Christian Abyssinians and the Copts, as well
+as in central Australia and in America. In central Australia
+(Spencer and Gillen, pp. 212-386) circumcision with a stone knife
+must be undergone by every youth before he is reckoned a full
+member of the tribe or is permitted to enter on the married state.
+In other parts, too (<i>e.g.</i> Loango), no uncircumcised man may
+marry. Circumcision was known to the Aztecs (Bancroft,
+<i>Native Races</i>, vol. iii.), and is still practised by the Caribs of
+the Orinoco and the Tacunas of the Amazon. The method and
+period of the operation vary in important particulars. Among
+the Jews it is performed in infancy, when the male child is eight
+days old. The child is named at the same time, and the ceremony
+is elaborate. The child is carried in to the godfather (<i>sandek</i>,
+a hebraized form of the Gr. <span class="grk" title="sunteknos">&#963;&#973;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#954;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;godfather,&rdquo; post-class.),
+who places the child on a cushion, which he holds on his knees
+throughout the ceremony. The operator (<i>mohel</i>) uses a steel
+knife, and pronounces various benedictions before and after the
+rite is performed (see S. Singer, <i>Authorized Daily Prayer Book</i>,
+pp. 304-307; an excellent account of the domestic festivities
+and spiritual joys associated with the ceremony among medieval
+and modern Jews may be read in S. Schechter&rsquo;s <i>Studies in
+Judaism</i>, first series, pp. 351 seq.). Some tribes in South America
+and elsewhere are said to perform the rite on the eighth day,
+like the Jews. The Mazequas do it between the first and second
+months. Among the Bedouins the rite is performed on children
+of three years, amid dances and the selection of brides (Doughty,
+<i>Arabia Deserta</i>, i. 340); among the Somalis the age is seven
+(Reinisch, <i>Somalisprache</i>, p. 110). But for the most part the
+tribes who perform the rite carry it out at the age of puberty.
+Many facts bearing on this point are given by B. Stade in <i>Zeitschrift
+für die alttest. Wissenschaft</i>, vi. (1886) pp. 132 seq.</p>
+
+<p>The significance of the rite of circumcision has been much
+disputed. Some see in it a tribal badge. If this be the true
+origin of circumcision, it must go back to the time when men
+went about naked. Mutilations (tattooing, removal of teeth
+and so forth) were tribal marks, being partly sacrifices and
+partly means of recognition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mutilation</a></span>). Such initiatory
+rites were often frightful ordeals, in which the neophyte&rsquo;s
+courage was severely tested (Robertson Smith, <i>Religion of the
+Semites</i>, p. 310). Some regard circumcision as a substitute for
+far more serious rites, including even human sacrifice. Utilitarian
+explanations have also been suggested. Sir R. Burton (<i>Memoirs
+Anthrop. Soc.</i> i. 318) held that it was introduced to promote
+fertility, and the claims of cleanliness have been put forward
+(following Philo&rsquo;s example, see ed. Mangey, ii. 210). Most
+probably, however, circumcision (which in many tribes is performed
+on both sexes) was connected with marriage, and was a
+preparation for connubium. It was in Robertson Smith&rsquo;s words
+&ldquo;originally a preliminary to marriage, and so a ceremony of
+introduction to the full prerogative of manhood,&rdquo; the transference
+to infancy among the Jews being a later change. On
+this view, the decisive Biblical reference would be the Exodus
+passage (iv. 25), in which Moses is represented as being in danger
+of his life because he had neglected the proper preliminary to
+marriage. In Genesis, on the other hand, circumcision is an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span>
+external sign of God&rsquo;s covenant with Israel, and later Judaism
+now regards it in this symbolical sense. Barton (<i>Semitic Origins</i>,
+p. 100) declares that &ldquo;the circumstances under which it is performed
+in Arabia point to the origin of circumcision as a sacrifice
+to the goddess of fertility, by which the child was placed under
+her protection and its reproductive powers consecrated to her
+service.&rdquo; But Barton admits that initiation to the connubium
+was the primitive origin of the rite.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the non-ritual use of male circumcision, it may be
+added that in recent years the medical profession has been
+responsible for its considerable extension among other than
+Jewish children, the operation being recommended not merely
+in cases of malformation, but generally for reasons of health.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;On the present diffusion of circumcision see H.
+Ploss, <i>Das Kind im Brauch und Sitte der Völker</i>, i. 342 seq., and his
+researches in <i>Deutsches Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin</i>, viii.
+312-344; Andrée, &ldquo;Die Beschneidung&rdquo; in <i>Archiv für Anthropologie</i>,
+xiii. 76; and Spencer and Gillen, <i>Tribes of Central Australia</i>.
+The articles in the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i> and <i>Dictionary of the Bible</i>
+contain useful bibliographies as well as historical accounts of the
+rite and its ceremonies, especially as concerns the Jews. The <i>Jewish
+Encyclopedia</i> in particular gives an extensive list of books on the
+Jewish customs connected with circumcision, and the various articles
+in that work are full of valuable information (vol. iv. pp. 92-102).
+On the rite among the Arabs, see Wellhausen, <i>Reste arabischen
+Heidentums</i>, 154.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>circum</i>, round,
+and <i>vallum</i>, a rampart), in fortification, a continuous circle of
+entrenchments surrounding a besieged place. &ldquo;Lines of
+Contravallation&rdquo; were similar works by which the besieger protected
+himself against the attack of a relieving army from any
+quarter. These continuous lines of circumvallation and contravallation
+were used only in the days of small armies and small
+fortresses, and both terms are now obsolete.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRCUS<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (Lat. <i>circus</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kirkos">&#954;&#943;&#961;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span> or <span class="grk" title="krikos">&#954;&#961;&#943;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, a ring or circle;
+probably &ldquo;circus&rdquo; and &ldquo;ring&rdquo; are of the same origin), a space,
+in the strict sense circular, but sometimes oval or even oblong,
+intended for the exhibition of races and athletic contests generally.
+The circus differs from the theatre inasmuch as the
+performance takes place in a central circular space, not on a stage
+at one end of the building.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>In Roman antiquities</i> the circus was a building for the
+exhibition of horse and chariot races and other amusements.
+It consisted of tiers of seats running parallel with the sides of
+the course, and forming a crescent round one of the ends. The
+other end was straight and at right angles to the course, so that
+the plan of the whole had nearly the form of an ellipse cut in
+half at its vertical axis. Along the transverse axis ran a fence
+(<i>spina</i>) separating the return course from the starting one. The
+straight end had no seats, but was occupied by the stalls (<i>carceres</i>)
+where the chariots and horses were held in readiness. This end
+constituted also the front of the building with the main entrance.
+At each end of the course were three conical pillars (<i>metae</i>) to
+mark its limits.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest building of this kind in Rome was the <i>Circus
+Maximus</i>, in the valley between the Palatine and Aventine
+hills, where, before the erection of any permanent structure,
+races appear to have been held beside the altar of the god
+Consus. The first building is assigned to Tarquin the younger,
+but for a long time little seems to have been done to complete
+its accommodation, since it is not till 329 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> that we hear
+of stalls being erected for the chariots and horses. It was not
+in fact till under the empire that the circus became a conspicuous
+public resort. Caesar enlarged it to some extent, and also made
+a canal 10 ft. broad between the lowest tier of seats (<i>podium</i>)
+and the course as a precaution for the spectators&rsquo; safety when
+exhibitions of fighting with wild beasts, such as were afterwards
+confined to the amphitheatre, took place. When these exhibitions
+were removed, and the canal (<i>euripus</i>) was no longer
+necessary, Nero had it filled up. Augustus is said to have placed
+an obelisk on the <i>spina</i> between the <i>metae</i>, and to have built a
+new <i>pulvinar</i>, or imperial box; but if this is taken in connexion
+with the fact that the circus had been partially destroyed by
+fire in 31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, it may be supposed that besides this he had
+restored it altogether. Only the lower tiers of seats were of
+stone, the others being of wood, and this, from the liability to
+fire, may account for the frequent restorations to which the circus
+was subject; it would also explain the falling of the seats by
+which a crowd of people were killed in the time of Antoninus
+Pius. In the reign of Claudius, apparently after a fire, the
+<i>carceres</i> of stone (tufa) were replaced by marble, and the <i>metae</i>
+of wood by gilt bronze. Under Domitian, again, after a fire, the
+circus was rebuilt and the carceres increased to 12 instead
+of 8 as before. The work was finished by Trajan. See further
+for seating capacity, &amp;c., <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>Archaeology</i>, § &ldquo;Places of
+Amusement.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The circus was the only public spectacle at which men and
+women were not separated. The lower seats were reserved for
+persons of rank; there were also various state boxes, <i>e.g.</i> for
+the giver of the games and his friends (called <i>cubicula</i> or <i>suggestus</i>).
+The principal object of attraction apart from the racing must
+have been the <i>spina</i> or low wall which ran down the middle
+of the course, with its obelisks, images and ornamental shrines.
+On it also were seven figures of dolphins and seven oval objects,
+one of which was taken down at every round made in a race,
+so that spectators might see readily how the contest proceeded.
+The chariot race consisted of seven rounds of the course. The
+chariots started abreast, but in an oblique line, so that the outer
+chariot might be compensated for the wider circle it had to make
+at the other end. Such a race was called a <i>missus</i>, and as many
+as 24 of these would take place in a day. The competitors
+wore different colours, originally white and red (<i>albata</i> and
+<i>russata</i>), to which green (<i>prasina</i>) and blue (<i>veneta</i>) were added.
+Domitian introduced two more colours, gold and purple (<i>purpureus
+et auratus pannus</i>), which probably fell into disuse after
+his death. To provide the horses and large staff of attendants
+it was necessary to apply to rich capitalists and owners of studs,
+and from this there grew up in time four select companies
+(<i>factiones</i>) of circus purveyors, which were identified with the
+four colours, and with which those who organized the races had
+to contract for the proper supply of horses and men. The drivers
+(<i>aurigae, agitatores</i>), who were mostly slaves, were sometimes
+held in high repute for their skill, although their calling was
+regarded with contempt. The horses most valued were those of
+Sicily, Spain and Cappadocia, and great care was taken in training
+them. Chariots with two horses (<i>bigae</i>) or four (<i>quadrigae</i>)
+were most common, but sometimes also they had three (<i>trigae</i>),
+and exceptionally more than four horses. Occasionally there
+was combined with the chariots a race of riders (<i>desultores</i>),
+each rider having two horses and leaping from one to the other
+during the race. At certain of the races the proceedings were
+opened by a <i>pompa</i> or procession in which images of the gods
+and of the imperial family deified were conveyed in cars drawn
+by horses, mules or elephants, attended by the colleges of priests,
+and led by the presiding magistrate (in some cases by the
+emperor himself) seated in a chariot in the dress and with the
+insignia of a triumphator. The procession passed from the
+capitol along the forum, and on to the circus, where it was received
+by the people standing and clapping their hands. The
+presiding magistrate gave the signal for the races by throwing
+a white flag (<i>mappa</i>) on to the course.</p>
+
+<p>Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome was the
+<i>Circus Flaminius</i>, erected 221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in the censorship of C.
+Flaminius, from whom it may have taken its name; or the
+name may have been derived from Prata Flaminia, where it
+was situated, and where also were held plebeian meetings.
+The only games that are positively known to have been celebrated
+in this circus were the <i>Ludi Taurii</i> and <i>Plebeii</i>. There is no
+mention of it after the 1st century. Its ruins were identified
+in the 16th century at S. Catarina dei Funari and the Palazzo
+Mattei.</p>
+
+<p>A third circus in Rome was erected by Caligula in the gardens
+of Agrippina, and was known as the <i>Circus Neronis</i>, from the
+notoriety which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of
+Nero. A fourth was constructed by Maxentius outside the
+Porta Appia near the tomb of Caecilia Metella, where its ruins
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span>
+are still, and now afford the only instance from which an idea
+of the ancient circi in Rome can be obtained. It was traced to
+Caracalla, till the discovery of an inscription in 1825 showed
+it to be the work of Maxentius. Old topographers speak of six
+circi, but two of these appear to be imaginary, the Circus Florae
+and the Circus Sallustii.</p>
+
+<p>Circus races were held in connexion with the following public
+festivals, and generally on the last day of the festival, if it
+extended over more than one day:&mdash;(1) The <i>Consualia</i>,
+August 21st, December 15th; (2) <i>Equirria</i>, February 27th,
+March 14th; (3) <i>Ludi Romani</i>, September 4th-19th; (4) <i>Ludi
+Plebeii</i>, November 4th-17th; (5) <i>Cerialia</i>, April 12th-19th;
+(6) <i>Ludi Apollinares</i>, July 6th-13th; (7) <i>Ludi Megalenses</i>,
+April 4th-10th; (8) <i>Floralia</i>, April 28th-May 3rd.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dictionary of Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1890),
+see articles in Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités</i>,
+Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>,
+iii. 2 (1899), and Marquardt, <i>Römische Staatsverwaltung</i>, iii.
+(2nd ed., 1885), p. 504. For existing remains see works quoted
+under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>Archaeology</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>The Modern Circus.</i>&mdash;The &ldquo;circus&rdquo; in modern times is
+a form of popular entertainment which has little in common
+with the institution of classical Rome. It is frequently nomadic
+in character, the place of the permanent building known to the
+ancients as the circus being taken by a tent, which is carried
+from place to place and set up temporarily on any site procurable
+at country fairs or in provincial towns, and in which spectacular
+performances are given by a troupe employed by the proprietor.
+The centre of the tent forms an arena arranged as a horse-ring,
+strewn with tan or other soft substance, where the performances
+take place, the seats of the spectators being arranged in ascending
+tiers around the central space as in the Roman circus. The
+traditional type of exhibition in the modern travelling circus
+consists of feats of horsemanship, such as leaping through hoops
+from the back of a galloping horse, standing with one foot on
+each of two horses galloping side by side, turning somersaults
+from a springboard over a number of horses standing close
+together, or accomplishing acrobatic tricks on horseback. These
+performances, by male and female riders, are varied by the
+introduction of horses trained to perform tricks, and by drolleries
+on the part of the clown, whose place in the circus is as firmly
+established by tradition as in the pantomime.</p>
+
+<p>The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that
+kept by Philip Astley (d. 1814) in London at the end of the 18th
+century. Astley was followed by Ducrow, whose feats of horsemanship
+had much to do with establishing the traditions of the
+circus, which were perpetuated by Hengler&rsquo;s and Sanger&rsquo;s
+celebrated shows in a later generation. In America a circus-actor
+named Ricketts is said to have performed before George Washington
+in 1780, and in the first half of the 19th century the establishments
+of Purdy, Welch &amp; Co., and of van Amburgh gave a
+wide popularity to the circus in the United States. All former
+circus-proprietors were, however, far surpassed in enterprise and
+resource by P.T. Barnum (<i>q.v.</i>), whose claim to be the possessor
+of &ldquo;the greatest show on earth&rdquo; was no exaggeration. The
+influence of Barnum, however, brought about a considerable
+change in the character of the modern circus. In arenas too
+large for speech to be easily audible, the traditional comic dialogue
+of the clown assumed a less prominent place than formerly,
+while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties relegated
+to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which
+were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and
+by exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the
+employment of immense numbers of performers and often of
+complicated and expensive machinery. These tendencies are,
+as is natural, most marked in shows given in permanent buildings
+in large cities, such as the London Hippodrome, which was built
+as a combination of the circus, the menagerie and the variety
+theatre, where wild animals such as lions and elephants from
+time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions of
+nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have
+been produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display.
+At the Hippodrome in Paris&mdash;unlike its London namesake, a
+circus of the true classical type in which the arena is entirely
+surrounded by the seats of the spectators&mdash;chariot races after
+the Roman model were held in the latter part of the 19th
+century, at which prizes of considerable value were given by the
+management.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRENCESTER<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (traditionally pronounced <i>Ciceter</i>), a market
+town in the Cirencester parliamentary division of Gloucestershire,
+England, on the river Churn, a tributary of the Thames, 93 m.
+W.N.W. of London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7536. It is
+served by a branch of the Great Western railway, and there is
+also a station on the Midland and South-Western Junction
+railway. This is an ancient and prosperous market town of
+picturesque old houses clustering round a fine parish church,
+with a high embattled tower, and a remarkable south porch with
+parvise. The church is mainly Perpendicular, and among its
+numerous chapels that of St Catherine has a beautiful roof of
+fan-tracery in stone dated 1508. Of the abbey founded in
+1117 by Henry I. there remain a Norman gateway and a few
+capitals. There are two good museums containing mosaics,
+inscriptions, carved and sculptured stones, and many smaller
+remains, for the town was the Roman <i>Corinium</i> or <i>Durocornovium
+Dobunorum</i>. Little trace of Corinium, however, can be seen
+<i>in situ</i>, except the amphitheatre and some indications of the walls.
+To the west of the town is Cirencester House, the seat of Earl
+Bathurst. The first Lord Bathurst (1684-1775) devoted himself
+to beautifying the fine demesne of Oakley Park, which he
+planted and adorned with remarkable artificial ruins. This
+nobleman, who became baron in 1711 and earl in 1772, was a
+patron of art and literature no less than a statesman; and Pope,
+a frequent visitor here, was allowed to design the building known
+as Pope&rsquo;s Seat, in the park, commanding a splendid prospect
+of woods and avenues. Swift was another appreciative visitor.
+The house contains portraits by Lawrence, Gainsborough,
+Romney, Lely, Reynolds, Hoppner, Kneller and many others.
+A mile west of the town is the Royal Agricultural College,
+incorporated by charter in 1845. Its buildings include a chapel,
+a dining hall, a library, a lecture theatre, laboratories, classrooms,
+private studies and dormitories for the students, apartments
+for resident professors, and servants&rsquo; offices; also a
+museum containing a collection of anatomical and pathological
+preparations, and mineralogical, botanical and geological specimens.
+The college farm comprises 500 acres, 450 of which
+are arable; and on it are the well-appointed farm-buildings
+and the veterinary hospital. Besides agriculture, the course of
+instruction at the college includes chemistry, natural and
+mechanical philosophy, natural history, mensuration, surveying
+and drawing, and other subjects of practical importance to the
+farmer, proficiency in which is tested by means of sessional
+examinations. The industries of Cirencester comprise various
+branches of agriculture. It has connexion by a branch canal
+with the Thames and Severn canal.</p>
+
+<p>Corinium was a flourishing Romano-British town, at first
+perhaps a cavalry post, but afterwards, for the greater part of
+the Roman period, purely a civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 m.
+N.E., is one of the most noteworthy Roman villas in England.
+Cirencester (<i>Cirneceaster</i>, <i>Cyrenceaster</i>, <i>Cyringceaster</i>) is described
+in Domesday as ancient demesne of the crown. The manor was
+granted by William I. to William Fitzosbern; on reverting to
+the crown it was given in 1189, with the township, to the Augustinian
+abbey founded here by Henry I. The struggle of the
+townsmen to prove that Cirencester was a borough probably
+began in the same year, when they were amerced for a false
+presentment. Four inquisitions during the 13th century supported
+the abbot&rsquo;s claims, yet in 1343 the townsmen declared
+in a chancery bill of complaint that Cirencester was a borough
+distinct from the manor, belonging to the king but usurped by
+the abbot, who since 1308 had abated their court of provostry.
+Accordingly they produced a copy of a forged charter from
+Henry I. to the town; the court ignored this and the abbot
+obtained a new charter and a writ of <i>supersedeas</i>. For their
+success against the earls of Kent and Salisbury Henry IV. in
+1403 gave the townsmen a gild merchant, although two
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span>
+inquisitions reiterated the abbot&rsquo;s rights. These were confirmed
+in 1408-1409 and 1413; in 1418 the charter was annulled, and
+in 1477 parliament declared that Cirencester was not corporate.
+After several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish the gild
+merchant, the government in 1592 was vested in the bailiff of the
+lord of the manor. Cirencester became a parliamentary borough
+in 1572, returning two members, but was deprived of representation
+in 1885. Besides the &ldquo;new market&rdquo; of Domesday
+Book the abbots obtained charters in 1215 and 1253 for fairs
+during the octaves of All Saints and St Thomas the Martyr.
+The wool trade gave these great importance; in 1341 there
+were ten wool merchants in Cirencester, and Leland speaks of
+the abbots&rsquo; cloth-mill, while Camden calls it the greatest market
+for wool in England.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Transactions</i> of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
+Society, vols. ii., ix., xviii.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRILLO, DOMENICO<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1739-1799), Italian physician and
+patriot, was born at Grumo in the kingdom of Naples. Appointed
+while yet a young man to a botanical professorship, Cirillo went
+some years afterwards to England, where he was elected fellow
+of the Royal Society, and to France. On his return to Naples
+he was appointed successively to the chairs of practical and
+theoretical medicine. He wrote voluminously and well on
+scientific subjects and secured an extensive medical practice.
+On the French occupation of Naples and the proclamation of
+the Parthenopean republic (1799), Cirillo, after at first refusing
+to take part in the new government, consented to be chosen a
+representative of the people and became a member of the
+legislative commission, of which he was eventually elected
+president. On the abandonment of the republic by the French
+(June 1799), Cardinal Ruffo and the army of King Ferdinand
+IV. returned to Naples, and the Republicans withdrew, ill-armed
+and inadequately provisioned, to the forts. After a short siege
+they surrendered on honourable terms, life and liberty being
+guaranteed them by the signatures of Ruffo, of Foote, and of
+Micheroux. But the arrival of Nelson changed the complexion
+of affairs, and he refused to ratify the capitulation. Secure
+under the British flag, Ferdinand and his wife, Caroline of
+Austria, showed themselves eager for revenge, and Cirillo was
+involved with the other republicans in the vengeance of the
+royal family. He asked Lady Hamilton (wife of the British
+minister to Naples) to intercede on his behalf, but Nelson wrote
+in reference to the petition: &ldquo;Domenico Cirillo, who had been
+the king&rsquo;s physician, might have been saved, but that he chose
+to play the fool and lie, denying that he had ever made any
+speeches against the government, and saying that he only took
+care of the poor in the hospitals&rdquo; (<i>Nelson and the Neapolitan
+Jacobins</i>, Navy Records Society, 1903). He was condemned
+and hanged on the 29th of October 1799. Cirillo, whose favourite
+study was botany, and who was recognized as an entomologist
+by Linnaeus, left many books, in Latin and Italian, all of them
+treating of medical and scientific subjects, and all of little value
+now. Exception must, however, be made in favour of the
+<i>Virtù morali dell&rsquo; Asino</i>, a pleasant philosophical pamphlet
+remarkable for its double charm of sense and style. He introduced
+many medical innovations into Naples, particularly
+inoculation for smallpox.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Giglioli, <i>Naples in 1799</i> (London, 1903); L. Conforti, <i>Napoli
+nel 1799</i> (Naples, 1889); C. Tivaroni, <i>L&rsquo; Italia durante il dominio
+francese</i>, vol. ii. pp. 179-204. Also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naples</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nelson</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ferdinand Iv. Of Naples</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRQUE<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (Lat. <i>circus</i>, ring), a French word used in physical
+geography to denote a semicircular crater-like amphitheatre
+at the head of a valley, or in the side of a glaciated mountain.
+The valley cirque is characteristic of calcareous districts. In
+the Chiltern Hills especially, and generally along the chalk
+escarpments, a flat-bottomed valley with an intermittent
+stream winds into the hill and ends suddenly in a cirque. There
+is an excellent example at Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire, where
+it appears as though an enormous flat-bottomed scoop had been
+driven into the hillside and dragged outwards to the plain. In
+all cases it is found that the valley floor consists of hard or
+impervious rock above which lies a permeable or soluble stratum
+of considerable thickness. In the case of the chalk hills the
+upper strata are very porous, and the descending water with
+atmospheric and humous acids in solution has great solvent
+power. During the winter this upper layer becomes saturated
+and some of the water drains away along joints in the escarpment.
+An underground stream is thus developed carrying away a great
+deal of material in solution, and in consequence the ground above
+slowly collapses over the stream, while the cirque at the head,
+where the stream issues, gradually works backward and may
+pass completely through the hills, leaving a gap of which another
+drainage system may take possession. In the limestone country
+of the Cotteswold Hills, many small intermittent tributary
+streams are headed by cirques, and some of the longer dry valleys
+have springs issuing from beneath their lower ends, the dry
+valleys being collapsed areas above underground streams not
+yet revealed. In this case the pervious limestone is underlain
+by beds of impervious clay. There are many of these in the
+Jura Mountains. The Cirque de St Sulpice is a fine example
+where the impervious bed is a marly clay.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the glacial cirque is entirely different and is
+said by W.D. Johnson (<i>Journal of Geology</i>, xii. No. 7, 1904) to
+be due to basal sapping and erosion under the <i>bergschrund</i> of
+the glacier. In this he is supported by G.K. Gilbert in the same
+journal, who produces some remarkable examples from the
+Sierra Nevada in California, where the mountain fragments
+have been left behind &ldquo;like a sheet of dough upon a board after
+the biscuit tin has done its work&rdquo;; so that above the head
+of the glaciers &ldquo;the rock detail is rugged and splintered but its
+general effect is that of a great symmetrical arc.&rdquo; Descending
+one of the bergschrunds of Mt. Lyell to a depth of 150 ft.,
+Johnson found a rock floor cumbered with ice and blocks of
+rock and the rock face a literally vertical cliff &ldquo;much riven, its
+fracture planes outlining sharp angular masses in all stages of
+displacement and dislodgment.&rdquo; Judging from these facts,
+he interprets the deep valleys with cirques at their head in
+formerly glaciated regions where at the head there is a &ldquo;reversed
+grade&rdquo; of slope, as due to ice-erosion at valley-heads where
+scour is impossible at the sides of the mountain but strongest
+under the glacier head where the ice is deepest. The opponents
+of ice-erosion nevertheless recognize the very frequent occurrence
+of glacial cirques often containing small lakes such as that
+under Cader Idris in Wales, or at the head of Little Timber
+Creek, Montana, and numerous examples in Alpine districts.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIRTA<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (mod. <i>Constantine</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), an ancient city of Numidia,
+in Africa, in the country of the Massyli. It was regarded by
+the Romans as the strongest position in Numidia, and was made
+by them the converging point of all their great military roads
+in that country. By the early emperors it was allowed to fall
+into decay, but was afterwards restored by Constantine, from
+whom it took its modern name.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CISSEY, ERNEST LOUIS OCTAVE COURTOT DE<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1810-1882),
+French general, was born at Paris on the 23rd of September
+1810, and after passing through St Cyr, entered the army in
+1832, becoming captain in 1839. He saw active service in Algeria,
+and became <i>chef d&rsquo;escadron</i> in 1849 and lieutenant-colonel in
+1850. He took part as a colonel in the Crimean War, and after
+the battle of Inkerman received the rank of general of brigade.
+In 1863 he was promoted general of division. When the Franco-German
+War broke out in 1870, de Cissey was given a divisional
+command in the Army of the Rhine, and he was included in
+the surrender of Bazaine&rsquo;s army at Metz. He was released from
+captivity only at the end of the war, and on his return was at
+once appointed by the Versailles government to a command
+in the army engaged in the suppression of the Commune, a task
+in the execution of which he displayed great rigour. From July
+1871 de Cissey sat as a deputy, and he had already become
+minister of war. He occupied this post several times during the
+critical period of the reorganization of the French army. In
+1880, whilst holding the command of the XI. corps at Nantes,
+he was accused of having relations with a certain Baroness
+Kaula, who was said to be a spy in the pay of Germany, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span>
+he was in consequence relieved from duty. An inquiry subsequently
+held resulted in de Cissey&rsquo;s favour (1881). He died on
+the 15th of June 1882 at Paris.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CISSOID<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="kissos">&#954;&#953;&#963;&#963;&#972;&#962;</span>, ivy, and <span class="grk" title="eidos">&#949;&#7984;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>, form), a
+curve invented by the Greek mathematician Diocles about
+180 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, for the purpose of constructing two mean proportionals
+between two given lines, and in order to solve the problem of
+duplicating the cube. It was further investigated by John Wallis,
+Christiaan Huygens (who determined the length of any arc in
+1657), and Pierre de Fermat (who evaluated the area between
+the curve and its asymptote in 1661). It is constructed in the
+following manner. Let APB be a semicircle, BT the tangent
+at B, and APT a line cutting the circle in P and BT at T; take
+
+<span class="figleft1" style="float: left">
+<img style="border:0; width:200px; height:376px"
+     src="images/img393.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</span>
+
+a point Q on AT so that AQ always equals
+PT; then the locus of Q is the cissoid.
+Sir Isaac Newton devised the following
+mechanical construction. Take a rod LMN
+bent at right angles at M, such that
+MN = AB; let the leg LM always pass
+through a fixed point O on AB produced
+such that OA = CA, where C is the middle
+point of AB, and cause N to travel along
+the line perpendicular to AB at C; then
+the midpoint of MN traces the cissoid.
+The curve is symmetrical about the axis
+of x, and consists of two infinite branches
+asymptotic to the line BT and forming a
+cusp at the origin. The cartesian equation,
+when A is the origin and AB = 2a, is
+y²(2a - x) = x³; the polar equation is r = 2a sin &theta; tan &theta;. The
+cissoid is the first positive pedal of the parabola y² + 8ax = 0
+for the vertex, and the inverse of the parabola y² = 8ax, the
+vertex being the centre of inversion, and the semi-latus rectum
+the constant of inversion. The area between the curve and its
+asymptote is 3&pi;a², <i>i.e.</i> three times the area of the generating
+circle.</p>
+
+<p>The term cissoid has been given in modern times to curves
+generated in similar manner from other figures than the circle,
+and the form described above is distinguished as the cissoid of
+Diocles.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>cissoid angle</i> is the angle included between the concave sides
+of two intersecting curves; the convex sides include the <i>sistroid
+angle</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See John Wallis, <i>Collected Works</i>, vol. i.; T.H. Eagles, <i>Plane
+Curves</i> (1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" style="clear: both;" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIS-SUTLEJ STATES<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span>, the southern portion of the Punjab,
+India. The name, now obsolete, came into use in 1809, when the
+Sikh chiefs south of the Sutlej passed under British protection,
+and was generally applied to the country south of the Sutlej
+and north of the Delhi territory, bounded on the E. by the
+Himalayas, and on the W. by Sirsa district. Before 1846 the
+greater part of this territory was independent, the chiefs being
+subject merely to control from a political officer stationed at
+Umballa, and styled the agent of the governor-general for the
+Cis-Sutlej states. After the first Sikh War the full administration
+of the territory became vested in this officer. In 1849 occurred
+the annexation of the Punjab, when the Cis-Sutlej states commissionership,
+comprising the districts of Umballa, Ferozepore,
+Ludhiana, Thanesar and Simla, was incorporated with the new
+province. The name continued to be applied to this division
+until 1862, when, owing to Ferozepore having been transferred
+to the Lahore, and a part of Thanesar to the Delhi division, it
+ceased to be appropriate. Since then, the tract remaining has
+been known as the Umballa division. Patiala, Jind and Nabha
+were appointed a separate political agency in 1901. Excluding
+Bahawalpur, for which there is no political agent, and Chamba,
+the other states are grouped under the commissioners of Jullunder
+and Delhi, and the superintendent of the Simla hill states.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIST<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kistê">&#954;&#943;&#963;&#964;&#951;</span>, Lat. <i>cista</i>, a box; cf. Ger. <i>Kiste</i>, Welsh <i>kistvaen</i>,
+stone-coffin, and also the other Eng. form &ldquo;chest&rdquo;), in
+Greek archaeology, a wicker-work receptacle used in the Eleusinian
+and other mysteries to carry  the  sacred vessels; also,
+in the archaeology of prehistoric man, a coffin formed of flat
+stones placed edgeways with another flat stone for a cover.
+The word is also used for a sepulchral chamber cut in the rock
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coffin</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Cistern,&rdquo; the common term for a water-tank, is a derivation
+of the same word (Lat. <i>cisterna</i>; cf. &ldquo;cave&rdquo; and &ldquo;cavern&rdquo;).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CISTERCIANS<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span>, otherwise <span class="sc">Grey</span> or <span class="sc">White Monks</span> (from the
+colour of the habit, over which is worn a black scapular or apron).
+In 1098 St Robert, born of a noble family in Champagne, at first
+a Benedictine monk, and then abbot of certain hermits settled at
+Molesme near Châtillon, being dissatisfied with the manner of
+life and observance there, migrated with twenty of the monks
+to a swampy place called Cîteaux in the diocese of Châlons, not
+far from Dijon. Count Odo of Burgundy here built them a
+monastery, and they began to live a life of strict observance
+according to the letter of St Benedict&rsquo;s rule. In the following
+year Robert was compelled by papal authority to return to
+Molesme, and Alberic succeeded him as abbot of Cîteaux and
+held the office till his death in 1109, when the Englishman St
+Stephen Harding became abbot, until 1134. For some years
+the new institute seemed little likely to prosper; few novices
+came, and in the first years of Stephen&rsquo;s abbacy it seemed
+doomed to failure. In 1112, however, St Bernard and thirty
+others offered themselves to the monastery, and a rapid and
+wonderful development at once set in. The next three years
+witnessed the foundation of the four great &ldquo;daughter-houses of
+Cîteaux&rdquo;&mdash;La Ferté, Pontigny, Clairvaux and Morimond.
+At Stephen&rsquo;s death there were over 30 Cistercian houses; at
+Bernard&rsquo;s (1154) over 280; and by the end of the century over
+500; and the Cistercian influence in the Church more than kept
+pace with this material expansion, so that St Bernard saw one of
+his monks ascend the papal chair as Eugenius III.</p>
+
+<p>The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance
+of St Benedict&rsquo;s rule&mdash;how literal may be seen from the controversy
+between St Bernard and Peter the Venerable, abbot of
+Cluny (see Maitland, <i>Dark Ages</i>, § xxii.). The Cistercians rejected
+alike all mitigations and all developments, and tried to reproduce
+the <span class="correction" title="amended from 'lire'">life</span> exactly as it had been in St Benedict&rsquo;s time, indeed in
+various points they went beyond it in austerity. The most
+striking feature in the reform was the return to manual labour,
+and especially to field-work, which became a special characteristic
+of Cistercian life. In order to make time for this work they cut
+away the accretions to the divine office which had been steadily
+growing during three centuries, and in Cluny and the other
+Black Monk monasteries had come to exceed greatly in length
+the regular canonical office: one only of these accretions did
+they retain, the daily recitation of the Office of the Dead (Edm.
+Bishop, <i>Origin of the Primer</i>, Early English Text Society, original
+series, 109, p. xxx.).</p>
+
+<p>It was as agriculturists and horse and cattle breeders that,
+after the first blush of their success and before a century had
+passed, the Cistercians exercised their chief influence on the
+progress of civilization in the later middle ages: they were the
+great farmers of those days, and many of the improvements in
+the various farming operations were introduced and propagated
+by them; it is from this point of view that the importance of
+their extension in northern Europe is to be estimated. The
+Cistercians at the beginning renounced all sources of income
+arising from benefices, tithes, tolls and rents, and depended for
+their income wholly on the land. This developed an organized
+system for selling their farm produce, cattle and horses, and
+notably contributed to the commercial progress of the countries
+of western Europe. Thus by the middle of the 13th century the
+export of wool by the English Cistercians had become a feature
+in the commerce of the country. Farming operations on so
+extensive a scale could not be carried out by the monks alone,
+whose choir and religious duties took up a considerable portion
+of their time; and so from the beginning the system of lay
+brothers was introduced on a large scale. The lay brothers
+were recruited from the peasantry and were simple uneducated
+men, whose function consisted in carrying out the various field-works
+and plying all sorts of useful trades; they formed a body
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span>
+of men who lived alongside of the choir monks, but separate
+from them, not taking part in the canonical office, but having
+their own fixed round of prayer and religious exercises. A lay
+brother was never ordained, and never held any office of
+superiority. It was by this system of lay brothers that the
+Cistercians were able to play their distinctive part in the progress
+of European civilization. But it often happened that the number
+of lay brothers became excessive and out of proportion to the
+resources of the monasteries, there being sometimes as many
+as 200, or even 300, in a single abbey. On the other hand, at
+any rate in some countries, the system of lay brothers in course
+of time worked itself out; thus in England by the close of the
+14th century it had shrunk to relatively small proportions, and
+in the 15th century the régime of the English Cistercian houses
+tended to approximate more and more to that of the Black
+Monks.</p>
+
+<p>The Cistercian polity calls for special mention. Its lines were
+adumbrated by Alberic, but it received its final form at a meeting
+of the abbots in the time of Stephen Harding, when was drawn
+up the <i>Carta Caritatis</i> (Migne, <i>Patrol. Lat.</i> clxvi. 1377), a
+document which arranged the relations between the various
+houses of the Cistercian order, and exercised a great influence
+also upon the future course of western monachism. From one
+point of view, it may be regarded as a compromise between
+the primitive Benedictine system, whereby each abbey was
+autonomous and isolated, and the complete centralization of
+Cluny, whereby the abbot of Cluny was the only true superior
+in the body. Cîteaux, on the one hand, maintained the independent
+organic life of the houses&mdash;each abbey had its own
+abbot, elected by its own monks; its own community, belonging
+to itself and not to the order in general; its own property
+and finances administered by itself, without interference from
+outside. On the other hand, all the abbeys were subjected to
+the general chapter, which met yearly at Cîteaux, and consisted
+of the abbots only; the abbot of Cîteaux was the president of
+the chapter and of the order, and the visitor of each and every
+house, with a predominant influence and the power of enforcing
+everywhere exact conformity to Cîteaux in all details of the
+exterior life&mdash;observance, chant, customs. The principle was
+that Cîteaux should always be the model to which all the other
+houses had to conform. In case of any divergence of view at
+the chapter, the side taken by the abbot of Cîteaux was always
+to prevail (see F.A. Gasquet, <i>Sketch of Monastic Constitutional
+History</i>, pp. xxxv-xxxviii, prefixed to English trans, of Montalembert&rsquo;s
+<i>Monks of the West</i>, ed. 1895).</p>
+
+<p>By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered
+500; in the 13th a hundred more were added; and in the 15th,
+when the order attained its greatest extension, there were close
+on 750 houses: the larger figures sometimes given are now
+recognized as apocryphal. Nearly half of the houses had been
+founded, directly or indirectly, from Clairvaux, so great was
+St Bernard&rsquo;s influence and prestige: indeed he has come almost
+to be regarded as the founder of the Cistercians, who have often
+been called Bernardines. The order was spread all over western
+Europe,&mdash;chiefly in France, but also in Germany, England,
+Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, Italy and Sicily,
+Spain and Portugal,&mdash;where some of the houses, as Alcobaça,
+were of almost incredible magnificence. In England the first
+foundation was Furness (1127), and many of the most beautiful
+monastic buildings of the country, beautiful in themselves and
+beautiful in their sites, were Cistercian,&mdash;as Tintern, Rievaulx,
+Byland, Fountains. A hundred were established in England in
+the next hundred years, and then only one more up to the
+Dissolution (for list, see table and map in F.A. Gasquet&rsquo;s <i>English
+Monastic Life</i>, or <i>Catholic Dictionary</i>, art. &ldquo;Cistercians&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>For a hundred years, till the first quarter of the 13th century,
+the Cistercians supplanted Cluny as the most powerful order
+and the chief religious influence in western Europe. But then
+in turn their influence began to wane, chiefly, no doubt, because
+of the rise of the mendicant orders, who ministered more directly
+to the needs and ideas of the new age. But some of the reasons
+of Cistercian decline were internal. In the first place, there was
+the permanent difficulty of maintaining in its first fervour a
+body embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of
+monks, spread all over Europe; and as the Cistercian very
+<i>raison d&rsquo;être</i> consisted in its being a &ldquo;reform,&rdquo; a return to
+primitive monachism, with its field-work and severe simplicity,
+any failures to live up to the ideal proposed worked more
+disastrously among Cistercians than among mere Benedictines,
+who were intended to live a life of self-denial, but not of great
+austerity. Relaxations were gradually introduced in regard to
+diet and to simplicity of life, and also in regard to the sources
+of income, rents and tolls being admitted and benefices incorporated,
+as was done among the Benedictines; the farming
+operations tended to produce a commercial spirit; wealth and
+splendour invaded many of the monasteries, and the choir
+monks abandoned field-work.</p>
+
+<p>The later history of the Cistercians is largely one of attempted
+revivals and reforms. The general chapter for long battled
+bravely against the invasion of relaxations and abuses. In 1335
+Benedict XII., himself a Cistercian, promulgated a series of
+regulations to restore the primitive spirit of the order, and in
+the 15th century various popes endeavoured to promote reforms.
+All these efforts at a reform of the great body of the order proved
+unavailing; but local reforms, producing various semi-independent
+offshoots and congregations, were successfully carried
+out in many parts in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries.
+In the 17th another great effort at a general reform was made,
+promoted by the pope and the king of France; the general
+chapter elected Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Cîteaux,
+thinking he would protect them from the threatened reform.
+In this they were disappointed, for he threw himself wholly on
+the side of reform. So great, however, was the resistance, and
+so serious the disturbances that ensued, that the attempt to
+reform Cîteaux itself and the general body of the houses had
+again to be abandoned, and only local projects of reform could
+be carried out. In 1598 had arisen the reformed congregation
+of the Feuillants, which spread widely in France and Italy, in
+the latter country under the name of &ldquo;Improved Bernardines.&rdquo;
+The French congregation of Sept-Fontaines (1654) also deserves
+mention. In 1663 de Rancé reformed La Trappe (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Trappists</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation, the ecclesiastical policy of Joseph II., the
+French Revolution, and the revolutions of the 19th century,
+almost wholly destroyed the Cistercians; but some survived,
+and since the beginning of the last half of the 19th century
+there has been a considerable recovery. They are at present
+divided into three bodies: (1) the Common Observance, with
+about 30 monasteries and 800 choir monks, the large majority
+being in Austria-Hungary; they represent the main body of
+the order and follow a mitigated rule of life; they do not carry
+on field-work, but have large secondary schools, and are in
+manner of life little different from fairly observant Benedictine
+Black monks; of late years, however, signs are not wanting
+of a tendency towards a return to older ideas; (2) the Middle
+Observance, embracing some dozen monasteries and about 150
+choir monks; (3) the Strict Observance, or Trappists (<i>q.v.</i>), with
+nearly 60 monasteries, about 1600 choir monks and 2000 lay
+brothers.</p>
+
+<p>In all there are about 100 Cistercian monasteries and about
+4700 monks, including lay brothers. There have always been a
+large number of Cistercian nuns; the first nunnery was founded
+at Tart in the diocese of Langres, 1125; at the period of their
+widest extension there are said to have been 900 nunneries,
+and the communities were very large. The nuns were devoted
+to contemplation and also did field-work. In Spain and France
+certain Cistercian abbesses had extraordinary privileges. Numerous
+reforms took place among the nuns. The best known of
+all Cistercian convents was probably Port-Royal (<i>q.v.</i>), reformed
+by Angélique Arnaud, and associated with the story of the
+Jansenist controversy. After all the troubles of the 19th century
+there still exist 100 Cistercian nunneries with 3000 nuns, choir
+and lay; of these, 15 nunneries with 900 nuns are Trappist.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Accounts of the beginnings of the Cistercians and of the primitive
+life and spirit will be found in the lives of St Bernard, the best
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span>
+whereof is that of Abbé E. Vacandard (1895); also in the Life of
+St Stephen Harding, in the <i>English Saints</i>. See also Henry Collins
+(one of the Oxford Movement, who became a Cistercian), <i>Spirit and
+Mission of the Cistercian Order</i> (1866). The facts are related in
+Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1792), v. cc. 33-46, vi cc. 1, 2.
+Useful sketches, with references to the literature, are supplied in
+Herzog, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (ed. 3), art. &ldquo;Cistercienser&rdquo;; Wetzer
+und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (ed. 2), art. &ldquo;Cistercienserorden&rdquo;;
+Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896), i. §§ 33, 34.
+Prof. Brewer&rsquo;s discriminating, yet on the whole sympathetic,
+Preface to vol. iv. of the Works of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls Series
+of <i>Chronicles and Memorials</i>) is very instructive. Denis Murphy&rsquo;s
+<i>Triumphalia Monasterii S. Crucis</i> (1891) contains a general sketch,
+with a particular account of the Irish Cistercians.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITATION<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (Lat. <i>citare</i>, to cite), in law, a summons to appear,
+more particularly applied in England to process in the probate
+and divorce division of the high court. In the ecclesiastical
+courts, citation was a method of commencing a probate suit,
+answering to a writ of summons at common law, and it is now
+in English probate practice an instrument issuing from the
+principal probate registry, chiefly used when a person, having
+the superior right to take a grant, delays or declines to do so,
+and another having an inferior right desires to obtain a grant;
+the party having the prior right is cited to appear and either to
+renounce the grant or show cause why it should not be decreed
+to the citator. In divorce practice, when a petitioner has filed his
+petition and affidavit, he extracts a citation, <i>i.e.</i> a command
+drawn in the name of the sovereign and signed by one of the
+registrars of the court, calling upon the alleged offender to appear
+and make answer to the petition. In Scots law, citation is used
+in the sense of a writ of summons. The word in its more general
+literary sense means the act of quoting, or the referring to an
+authority in support of an argument.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CÎTEAUX<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span>, a village of eastern France, in the department of
+Côte d&rsquo;Or, 16 m. S.S.E. of Dijon by road. It is celebrated
+for the great abbey founded by Robert, abbot of Molesme,
+in 1098, which became the headquarters of the Cistercian
+order. The buildings which remain date chiefly from the 18th
+century and are of little interest. The church, destroyed
+in 1792, used to contain the tombs of the earlier dukes of
+Burgundy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITHAERON<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span>, now called from its pine forests Elatea, a famous
+mountain range (4626 ft.) in the south of Boeotia, separating
+that state from Megaris and Attica. It was famous in Greek
+mythology, and is frequently mentioned by the great poets,
+especially by Sophocles. It was on Cithaeron that Aetaeon
+was changed into a stag, that Pentheus was torn to pieces by
+the Bacchantes whose orgies he had been watching, and that the
+infant Oedipus was exposed. This mountain, too, was the scene
+of the mystic rites of Dionysus, and the festival of the Daedala
+in honour of Hera. The carriage-road from Athens to Thebes
+crosses the range by a picturesque defile (the pass of Dryoscephalae,
+&ldquo;Oak-heads&rdquo;), which was at one time guarded on the
+Attic side by a strong fortress, the ruins of which are known as
+Ghyphto-kastro (&ldquo;Gipsy Castle&rdquo;). Plataea is situated on the
+north slope of the mountain, and the strategy of the battle of
+479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was considerably affected by the fact that it was necessary
+for the Greeks to keep their communications open by the passes
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Plataea</a></span>). The best known of these is that of Dryoscephalae,
+which must then, as now, have been the direct route
+from Athens to Thebes. Two other passes, farther to the west,
+were crossed by the roads from Plataea to Athens and to Megara
+respectively.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. GR.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:300px; height:499px" src="images/img395a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.&mdash;Nero Citharoedus (<i>Mus.
+Pio-Clementino</i>), showing back of a
+Roman Cithara.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">CITHARA<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (Assyrian <i>chetarah</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="kithara">&#954;&#953;&#952;&#940;&#961;&#945;</span>; Lat. <i>cithara</i>; perhaps
+Heb. <i>kinura, kinnor</i>), one of the most ancient stringed
+instruments, traced back to 1700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> among the Semitic races,
+in Egypt, Assyria, Asia Minor, Greece and the Roman empire,
+whence the use of it spread over Europe. The main feature of
+the Greek <i>kithara</i>, its shallow sound-chest, being the most
+important part of it, is also that in which developments are most
+noticeable; its contour varied considerably during the many
+musical ages, but the characteristic in respect of which it fore-shadowed
+the precursors of the violin family, and by which they
+were distinguished from other contemporary stringed instruments
+of the middle ages, was preserved throughout in all European
+descendants bearing derived names. This <span class="correction" title="amended from characteristc">characteristic</span> box
+sound-chest (fig. 1) consisted of two resonating tables, either flat
+or delicately arched, connected by ribs or sides of equal width.
+The cithara may be regarded as an attempt by a more skilful
+craftsman or race to improve upon the lyre (<i>q.v.</i>), while retaining
+some of its features. The construction of the cithara can fortunately
+be accurately studied from two actual specimens found in
+Egypt and preserved in the
+museums of Berlin and
+Leiden. The Leiden cithara
+(fig. 2), which forms part of
+the d&rsquo;Anastasy Collection in
+the Museum of Antiquities,
+is in a very good state of
+preservation. The sound-chest,
+in the form of an
+irregular square (17 cm. &times; 17
+cm.), is hollowed out of a
+solid block of wood from
+the base, which is open;
+the little bar, seen through
+the open base and measuring
+2½ cm. (1 in.), is also of
+the same piece of wood.
+The arms, one short and
+one long, are solid and are
+fixed to the body by means
+of wooden pins; they are
+glued as well for greater
+strength. W. Pleyte, through
+whose courtesy the sketch
+was revised and corrected,
+states that there are no
+indications on the instrument of any kind of bridge or attachment
+for strings except the little half-hoop of iron wire which
+passes through the base from back to front. To this the strings
+were probably attached, and the little bar performed the double
+duty of sound-post and support for strengthening the tail-piece
+and enabling it to resist the tension of the strings. The oblique
+transverse bar, rendered necessary by the increasing length of
+the strings, was characteristic of the
+Egyptian cithara,<a name="FnAnchor_1c" id="FnAnchor_1c" href="#Footnote_1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> whereas the Asiatic
+and Greek instruments were generally
+constructed with horizontal bars resting
+on arms of equal length, the pitch of the
+strings being varied by thickness and
+tension, instead of by length. (For the
+Berlin cithara see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lyre</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:200px; height:393px" src="images/img395b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Ancient
+Egyptian Cithara from Thebes. Museum of Antiquities, Leiden.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The number of strings with which the
+cithara was strung varied from 4 to 19
+or 20 at different times; they were
+added less for the purpose of increasing
+the compass in the modern sense than
+to enable the performer to play in the
+different modes of the Greek musical
+system. Terpander is credited with having
+increased the number of strings
+to seven; Euclid, quoting him as his
+authority, states that &ldquo;loving no more
+the tetrachordal chant, we will sing aloud
+new hymns to a seven-toned phorminx.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>What has been said of the scale of the lyre applies also to the
+cithara, and need therefore not be repeated here. The strings
+were vibrated by means of the fingers or plectrum (<span class="grk" title="plêktron">&#960;&#955;&#8134;&#954;&#964;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>,
+from <span class="grk" title="plêssein">&#960;&#955;&#942;&#963;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to strike; Lat. <i>plectrum</i>, from <i>plango</i>, I strike).
+Twanging with the fingers for strings of gut, hemp or silk was
+undoubtedly the more artistic method, since the player was able
+to command various shades of expression which are impossible
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span>
+with a rigid plectrum.<a name="FnAnchor_2c" id="FnAnchor_2c" href="#Footnote_2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Loudness of accent and great brilliancy
+of tone, however, can only be obtained by the use of the plectrum.</p>
+
+<p>Quotations from the classics abound to show what was the
+practice of the Greeks and Romans in this respect. The plectrum
+was held in the right hand, with elbow outstretched and palm
+bent inwards, and the strings were plucked with the straightened
+fingers of the left hand.<a name="FnAnchor_3c" id="FnAnchor_3c" href="#Footnote_3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Both methods were used with intention
+according to the dictates of art for the sake of the variation in
+tone colour obtainable thereby.<a name="FnAnchor_4c" id="FnAnchor_4c" href="#Footnote_4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The strings of the cithara were either knotted round the
+transverse tuning bar itself (<i>zugon</i>) or to rings threaded over
+the bar, which enabled the performer to increase or decrease
+the tension by shifting the knots or rings; or else they were
+wound round pegs,<a name="FnAnchor_5c" id="FnAnchor_5c" href="#Footnote_5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> knobs<a name="FnAnchor_6c" id="FnAnchor_6c" href="#Footnote_6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a> or pins<a name="FnAnchor_7c" id="FnAnchor_7c" href="#Footnote_7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a> fixed to the zugon. The
+other end of the strings was secured to a tail-piece after passing
+over a flat bridge, or the two were combined in the curious
+high box tail-piece which acted as a bridge. Plutarch<a name="FnAnchor_8c" id="FnAnchor_8c" href="#Footnote_8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a> states
+that this contrivance was added to the cithara in the days of
+Cepion, pupil of Terpander. These boxes were hinged in order
+to allow the lid to be opened for the purpose of securing the
+strings to some contrivance concealed
+therein. It is a curious fact
+that no sculptured cithara provided
+with this box tail-piece is
+represented with strings, and in
+many cases there could never have
+been any, for the hand and arm<a name="FnAnchor_9c" id="FnAnchor_9c" href="#Footnote_9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+are visible across the space that
+would be filled by the strings,
+which are always carved in a solid
+block.</p>
+
+<div style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:220px; height:452px" src="images/img396a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.&mdash;Apollo Citharoedus,
+showing Cithara with box tail-pieces.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Like the lyre the cithara was
+made in many sizes, conditioned
+by the pitch and the use to which
+the instrument was to be put.
+These instruments may have been
+distinguished by different names;
+the <i>pectis</i>, for instance, is declared
+by Sappho (22nd fragment) to
+have been small and shrill; the
+<i>phorminx</i>, on the other hand, seems
+to have been identical with the
+cithara.<a name="FnAnchor_10c" id="FnAnchor_10c" href="#Footnote_10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The Greek <i>kithara</i> was the instrument
+of the professional singer
+or citharoedus (<span class="grk" title="kitharôdos">&#954;&#953;&#952;&#945;&#961;&#8179;&#948;&#972;&#962;</span>) and of
+the instrumentalist or citharista (<span class="grk" title="kitharistês">&#954;&#953;&#952;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>), and thus served
+the double purpose of (1) accompanying the voice&mdash;a use
+placed by the Greeks far above mere instrumental music&mdash;in
+epic recitations and rhapsodies, in odes and lyric songs;
+and (2) of accompanying the dance; it was also used for
+playing solos at the national games, at receptions and banquets
+and at trials of skill. The costume of the citharoedus and
+citharista was rich and recognized as being distinctive; it
+varied but little throughout the ages, as may be deduced from
+a comparison of representations of the citharoedus on a coin
+and on a Greek vase of the best period (fig. 4). The costume
+consisted of a <i>palla</i> or long tunic with sleeves embroidered
+with gold and girt high above the waist, falling in graceful
+folds to the feet. This <i>palla</i> must not be confounded with the
+mantle of the same name worn by women. Over one shoulder,
+or hanging down the back, was the purple <i>chlamys</i> or cloak,
+and on his brow a golden wreath of laurels. All the citharoedi
+bear instruments of the type here described as the cithara, and
+never one of the lyre type. The records of the citharoedi extend
+over more than thirteen centuries and fall into two natural
+divisions: (1) The mythological period, approximately from the
+13th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the first Olympiad, 776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; and (2) the
+historical period to the days of Ptolemy, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 161. One of the
+very few authentic Greek odes extant is a Pythian ode by Pindar,
+in which the phorminx of Apollo is mentioned; the solo is followed
+by a chorus of citharoedi. The scope of the solemn games and
+processions, called <i>Panathenaea</i>, held every four years in honour
+of the goddess Athena, which originally consisted principally of
+athletic sports and horse and chariot races, was extended under
+Peisistratus (c. 540 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and the celebration made to include
+contests of singers and instrumentalists, recitations of portions
+of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>, such as are represented on the frieze
+of the Parthenon (in the Elgin Room at the British Museum)
+and later on friezes by Pheidias. It was at the same period that
+the first contests for solo-playing on the cithara (<span class="grk" title="kitharistus">&#954;&#953;&#952;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#973;&#962;</span>)
+and for solo <i>aulos</i>-playing were instituted at the 8th Pythian
+Games.<a name="FnAnchor_11c" id="FnAnchor_11c" href="#Footnote_11c"><span class="sp">11</span></a> One of the
+principal items at these
+contests for aulos and
+cithara was the <i>Nomos
+Pythikos</i>, descriptive of
+the victory of Apollo
+over the python and
+of the defeat of the
+monster.<a name="FnAnchor_12c" id="FnAnchor_12c" href="#Footnote_12c"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p>
+
+<div style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 400px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:350px; height:464px" src="images/img396b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.&mdash;Cithara or Phorminx, from a vase
+in the British Museum.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The Pythian Games
+survived the classic
+Greek period and
+were continued under
+Roman sway until
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 394. Not
+only were these games
+held at Delphi, but
+smaller contests, called
+Pythia, modelled on
+the great Pythian, were
+instituted in various
+provinces of the empire,
+and more especially
+in Asia Minor.
+The games lasted for several days, the first being devoted
+to music. To the games at Delphi came musicians from
+all parts of the civilized world; and the Spaniards, at the
+beginning of our era, had attained to such a marvellous proficiency
+in playing the cithara, an instrument which they had
+learnt to know from the Phoenician colonists before the conquest
+by the Romans, that some of their citharoedi easily carried off
+the honours at the musical contests. The consul Metellus was
+so charmed with the music of the Spanish competitors that he
+sent some to Rome for the festivals, where the impression created
+was so great that the Spanish citharoedi obtained a permanent
+footing in Rome. Aulus Gellius (<i>Noct. Att.</i>) describes an incident
+at a banquet which corroborates this statement.</p>
+
+<p>The degeneration of music as an art among the Romans, and its
+gradual degradation by association with the sensual amusements
+of corrupt Rome, nearly brought about its extinction at the
+end of the 4th century, when the condemnation of the Church
+closed the theatres, and the great national games came to an end.
+Instrumental music was banished from civil life and from
+religious rites, and thenceforth the slender threads which connect
+the musical instruments of Greeks and Romans with those of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span>
+the middle ages must be sought among the unconverted barbarians
+of northern and western Europe, who kept alive the
+traditions taught them by conquerors and colonists; but as
+civilization was in its infancy with them the instruments sent
+out from their workshops must have been crude and primitive.
+Asia, the cradle of the cithara, also became its foster-mother;
+it was among the Greeks of Asia Minor that the several steps
+in the transition from cithara into guitar<a name="FnAnchor_13c" id="FnAnchor_13c" href="#Footnote_13c"><span class="sp">13</span></a> (<i>q.v.</i>) took place.</p>
+
+<div style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 500px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:263px; height:450px" src="images/img397a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figleft1"><img style="width:173px; height:450px" src="images/img397b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.&mdash;Asiatic Cithara in transition (or rotta). From a fresco at Beni-Hasan (c. 1700 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</td>
+<td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.&mdash;Roman Cithara in transition, of the Lycian Apollo (Rome Mus. Capit.).</td>
+</tr></table>
+
+<p>The first of these steps produced the rotta (<i>q.v.</i>), by the
+construction of body, arms and transverse bar in one piece.
+The Semitic races used the rotta at a very remote period (1700
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), as we know from a fresco at Beni-Hasan, dating from the
+reign of Senwosri II., which depicts a procession of strangers
+bringing tribute; among them is a bearded musician of Semitic
+type bearing a rotta which he holds horizontally in front of him
+in the Assyrian manner, and quite unlike the Greeks, who always
+played the lyre and cithara in an upright position. A unique
+specimen of this rectangular rotta was found in an Alamannic
+tomb of the 5th or 6th century at Oberflacht in the Black Forest.
+The instrument was clasped in the arms of an armed knight;
+it is now preserved in the Völker Museum in Berlin. This old
+German rotta is an exact counterpart of instruments pictured in
+illuminated MSS. of the 8th century, and is derived from the
+cithara with rectangular
+body, while
+from the cithara with
+a body having the
+curve of the lower
+half of the violin was
+produced a rotta with
+the outline of the
+body of the guitar.
+Both types were
+common in Europe
+until the 14th century,
+some played
+with a bow, others
+twanged by the
+fingers, and bearing
+indifferently both
+names, cithara and
+rotta. The addition
+of  a  finger-board,
+stretching like a short neck from body to transverse bar,
+leaving on each side of the finger-board space for the hand to pass
+through in order to stop the strings, produced the crwth or crowd
+(<i>q.v.</i>), and brought about the reduction in the number of the
+strings to three or four. The conversion of the rotta into the
+guitar (<i>q.v.</i>) was an easy transition effected by the addition of a
+long neck to a body derived from the oval rotta. When the bow
+was applied the result was the guitar or troubadour fiddle. At
+first the instrument called <i>cithara</i> in the Latin versions of the
+Psalms was glossed <i>citran, citre</i> in Anglo-Saxon, but in the 11th
+century the same instrument was rendered <i>hearpan</i>, and in
+French and English <i>harpe</i> or <i>harp</i>, and our modern versions
+have retained this translation. The <i>cittern</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), a later
+descendant of the cithara, although preserving the characteristic
+features of the cithara, the shallow sound-chest with ribs, adopted
+the pear-shaped outline of the Eastern instruments of the lute
+tribe.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1c" id="Footnote_1c" href="#FnAnchor_1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A drawing of an Egyptian cithara, similar to the Leiden specimen,
+may be seen in Champollion, <i>Monuments de l&rsquo;Égypte et de la Nubie</i>,
+ii. pl. 175.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2c" id="Footnote_2c" href="#FnAnchor_2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Plutarch, <i>Apophthegm. Lacon.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3c" id="Footnote_3c" href="#FnAnchor_3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Philostratus the Elder, <i>Imagines</i>, No. 10, &ldquo;Amphion,&rdquo; and
+Philostratus the Younger, <i>Imagines</i>, No. 7, &ldquo;Orpheus,&rdquo; p. 403.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4c" id="Footnote_4c" href="#FnAnchor_4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Tibullus, <i>Eleg.</i> iii. 4. 39.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5c" id="Footnote_5c" href="#FnAnchor_5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Le Antichità de Ercolano</i>, vol. iii. p. 5.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6c" id="Footnote_6c" href="#FnAnchor_6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Idem</i>, vol. iv. p. 201.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7c" id="Footnote_7c" href="#FnAnchor_7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Thomas Hope, <i>Costumes of the Ancients</i>, vol. ii. p. 193; also
+Edward Buhle, <i>Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen
+des frühen Mittelalters</i> (Leipzig, 1903), frontispiece.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8c" id="Footnote_8c" href="#FnAnchor_8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See <i>De Musica</i>, ch. vi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9c" id="Footnote_9c" href="#FnAnchor_9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Visconti, <i>Museo Clementino</i>, pl. 22, Erato&rsquo;s cithara, and in
+the same work that of Apollo Citharoedus (fig. 3 above).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10c" id="Footnote_10c" href="#FnAnchor_10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See <i>Od.</i> i. 153, 155; <i>Il.</i> xviii. 569-570. In Homer the form is
+always <span class="grk" title="kitharis">&#954;&#7984;&#952;&#945;&#961;&#953;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11c" id="Footnote_11c" href="#FnAnchor_11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See Pausanias x. 7, § 4 et seq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12c" id="Footnote_12c" href="#FnAnchor_12c"><span class="fn">12</span></a> For a description of the <i>Nomos Pythikos</i> in its relation to Greek
+music see Kathleen Schlesinger, &ldquo;Researches into the Origin of the
+Organs of the Ancients,&rdquo; <i>Intern. Mus. Ges.</i> Sbd. ii. (1901), 2, p. 177,
+and Strabo ix. p. 421.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13c" id="Footnote_13c" href="#FnAnchor_13c"><span class="fn">13</span></a> For a discussion of this question see Kathleen Schlesinger,
+<i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, part ii., and especially chapters on
+the cithara in transition during the middle ages, and the question
+of the origin of the Utrecht Psalter, in which the evolution of the
+cithara is traced at some length.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITIUM<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> (Gr. <i>Kition</i>), the principal Phoenician city in Cyprus,
+situated at the north end of modern Larnaca, on the bay of the
+same name on the S.E. coast of the island. Converging currents
+from E. and W. meet and pass seawards off Cape Kiti a few miles
+south, and greatly facilitated ancient trade. To S. and W. the
+site is protected by lagoons, the salt from which was one of the
+sources of its prosperity. The earliest remains near the site go
+back to the Mycenaean age (c. 1400-1100 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and seem to mark
+an Aegean colony.<a name="FnAnchor_1d" id="FnAnchor_1d" href="#Footnote_1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> but in historic times Citium is the chief
+centre of Phoenician influence in Cyprus. That this was still a
+recent settlement in the 7th century is suggested by an allusion
+in a list of the allies of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to a
+King Damasu of &#310;artihadasti (Phoenician for &ldquo;New-town&rdquo;),
+where Citium would be expected. A Phoenician dedication to
+&ldquo;Baal of Lebanon&rdquo; found here, and dated also to the 7th
+century, suggests that Citium may have belonged to Tyre. The
+biblical name Kittim, derived from Citium, is in fact used quite
+generally for Cyprus as a whole;<a name="FnAnchor_2d" id="FnAnchor_2d" href="#Footnote_2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> later also for Greeks and
+Romans in general.<a name="FnAnchor_3d" id="FnAnchor_3d" href="#Footnote_3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The discovery here of an official monument
+of Sargon II. suggests that Citium was the administrative centre
+of Cyprus during the Assyrian protectorate (700-668 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).<a name="FnAnchor_4d" id="FnAnchor_4d" href="#Footnote_4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+During the Greek revolts of 500, 386 foll. and 352 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Citium
+led the side loyal to Persia and was besieged by an Athenian
+force in 449 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; its extensive necropolis proves that it remained
+a considerable city even after the Greek cause triumphed with
+Alexander. But like other cities of Cyprus, it suffered repeatedly
+from earthquake, and in medieval times when its harbour became
+silted the population moved to Larnaca, on the open roadstead,
+farther south. Harbour and citadel have now quite disappeared,
+the latter having been used to fill up the former shortly after the
+British occupation; some gain to health resulted, but an
+irreparable loss to science. Traces remain of the circuit wall,
+and of a sanctuary with copious terra-cotta offerings; the large
+necropolis yields constant loot to illicit excavation.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;W.H. Engel, <i>Kypros</i> (Berlin, 1841), (classical
+allusions); J.L. Myres, <i>Journ. Hellenic Studies</i>, xvii. 147 ff.
+(excavations); <i>Cyprus Museum Catalogue</i> (Oxford, 1899), p. 5-6;
+153-155; Index (Antiquities); G.F. Hill, <i>Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of
+Cyprus</i> (London, 1904), (Coins).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. L. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1d" id="Footnote_1d" href="#FnAnchor_1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Cf. the name Kathian in a Ramessid list of cities of Cyprus,
+Oberhummer, <i>Die Insel Cypern</i> (Munich, 1903), p. 4.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2d" id="Footnote_2d" href="#FnAnchor_2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Gen. x. 4; Num. xxiv. 24; Is. xxiii.  1,  12; Jer. ii.  10; Ezek.
+xxvii. 6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3d" id="Footnote_3d" href="#FnAnchor_3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Dan. xi. 30;  I Macc. i. 1; viii. 5.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4d" id="Footnote_4d" href="#FnAnchor_4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Schrader, &ldquo;Die Sargonstele des Berliner Museums,&rdquo; in <i>Abh.
+d. k. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.</i> (1881); <i>Zur Geogr. d. assyr. Reiches</i>
+(Berlin, 1890), pp. 337-344.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITIZEN<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with &ldquo;denizen,&rdquo;
+from O. Fr. <i>citeain</i>, mod. Fr. <i>citoyen</i>), etymologically
+the inhabitant of a city, <i>cité</i> or <i>civitas</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">City</a></span>),
+and in England the term still used primarily of persons possessing
+civic rights in a borough; thus used also of a townsman as
+opposed to a countryman. The more extended use of the word,
+however, corresponding to <i>civitas</i>, gives &ldquo;citizen&rdquo; the meaning
+of one who is a constituent member of a state in international
+relations and as such has full national rights and owes a certain
+allegiance (<i>q.v.</i>) as opposed to an &ldquo;alien&rdquo;; in republican countries
+the term is then commonly employed as the equivalent of
+&ldquo;subject&rdquo; in monarchies of feudal origin. For the rules governing
+the obtaining of citizenship in this latter sense in the United
+States and elsewhere see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naturalization</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITOLE<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span>, also spelled <span class="sc">Sytole, Cythole, Gytolle</span>, &amp;c. (probably
+a Fr. diminutive form of <i>cithara</i>, and not from Lat. <i>cista</i>,
+a box), an obsolete musical instrument of which the exact form
+is uncertain. It is frequently mentioned by poetical writers of
+the 13th to the 15th centuries, and is found in Wycliffe&rsquo;s Bible
+(1360) in 2 Samuel vi. 5, &ldquo;Harpis and sitols and tympane.&rdquo;
+The Authorized Version has &ldquo;psaltiries,&rdquo; and the Vulgate
+&ldquo;lyrae.&rdquo; It has been supposed to be another name for the
+psaltery (<i>q.v.</i>), a box-shaped instrument often seen in the
+illuminated missals of the middle ages.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITRIC ACID<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span>, <i>Acidum citricum</i>, or <span class="sc">Oxytricarballylic Acid</span>,
+C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(OH) (CO·OH)<span class="su">3</span>, a tetrahydroxytribasic acid, first obtained
+in the solid state by Karl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1784, from the juice
+of lemons. It is present also in oranges, citrons, currants,
+gooseberries and many other fruits, and in several bulbs and tubers.
+It is made on a large scale from lime or lemon juice, and also by
+the fermentation of glucose under the influence of <i>Citromycetes
+pfefferianus, C. glaber</i> and other ferments. Lemon juice is
+fermented for some time to free it from mucilage, then boiled
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span>
+and filtered, and neutralized with powdered chalk and a little
+milk of lime; the precipitate of calcium citrate so obtained
+is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, the solution filtered,
+evaporated to remove calcium sulphate and concentrated, preferably
+in vacuum pans. The acid is thus obtained in colourless
+rhombic prisms of the composition C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">7</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O. Crystals
+of a different form are deposited from a strong boiling solution
+of the acid. About 20 gallons of lemon juice should yield about
+10 lb of crystallized citric acid. The acid may also be prepared
+from the juice of unripe gooseberries. Calcium citrate must be
+manufactured with care to avoid an excess of chalk or lime,
+which would precipitate constituents of the juice that cause the
+fermentation of the citrate and the production of calcium acetate
+and butyrate.</p>
+
+<p>The synthesis of citric acid was accomplished by L.E.
+Grimaux and P. Adam in 1881. Glycerin when treated with
+hydrochloric acid gives propenyl dichlorhydrin, which may be
+oxidized to s-dichloracetone. This compound combines with
+hydrocyanic acid to form a nitrile which hydrolyses to dichlor-hydroxy
+iso-butyric acid. Potassium cyanide reacts with this
+acid to form the corresponding dinitrile, which is converted by
+hydrochloric acid into citric acid. This series of operations
+proves the constitution of the acid. A. Haller and C.A. Held
+synthesized the acid from ethyl chlor-acetoacetate (from chlorine
+and acetoacetic ester) by heating with potassium cyanide and
+saponifying the resulting nitrile. The acetone dicarboxylic
+acid, CO(CH<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">2</span>H)<span class="su">2</span>, so obtained combines with hydrocyanic
+acid, and this product yields citric acid on hydrolysis.</p>
+
+<p>Citric acid has an agreeable sour taste. It is soluble in ¾ths
+of its weight of cold, and in half its weight of boiling water, and
+dissolves in alcohol, but not in ether. At 150°C. it melts, and on
+the continued application of heat boils, giving off its water of
+crystallization. At 175° C. it is resolved into water and aconitic
+acid, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">6</span>, a substance found in <i>Equisetum fluviatile</i>,
+monks-hood and other plants. A higher temperature decomposes this
+body into carbon dioxide and itaconic acid, C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">6</span>C<span class="su">4</span>, which,
+again, by the expulsion of a molecule of water, yields citraconic
+anhydride, C<span class="su">5</span>H<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. Citric acid digested at a temperature
+below 40°C. with concentrated sulphuric acid gives off carbon
+monoxide and forms acetone dicarboxylic acid. With fused
+potash it forms potassium oxalate and acetate. It is a strong
+acid, and dissolved in water decomposes carbonates and attacks
+iron and zinc.</p>
+
+<p>The citrates are a numerous class of salts, the most soluble
+of which are those of the alkaline metals; the citrates of the
+alkaline earth metals are insoluble. Citric acid, being tribasic,
+forms either acid monometallic, acid dimetallic or neutral
+trimetallic salts; thus, mono-, di- and tri-potassium and sodium
+citrates are known. On warming citric acid with an excess of
+lime-water a precipitate of calcium citrate is obtained which is
+redissolved as the liquid cools.</p>
+
+<p>The impurities occasionally present in commercial citric acid
+are salts of potassium and sodium, traces of iron, lead and copper
+derived from the vessels used for its evaporation and crystallization,
+and free sulphuric, tartaric and even oxalic acid. Tartaric
+acid, which is sometimes present in large quantities as an adulterant
+in commercial citric acid, may be detected in the presence
+of the latter, by the production of a precipitate of acid potassium
+tartrate when potassium acetate is added to a cold solution.
+Another mode of separating the two acids is to convert them
+into calcium salts, which are then treated with a perfectly
+neutral solution of cupric chloride, soluble cupric citrate and
+calcium chloride being formed, while cupric tartrate remains
+undissolved. Citric acid is also distinguished from tartaric
+acid by the fact that an ammonia solution of silver tartrate
+produces a brilliant silver mirror when boiled, whereas silver
+citrate is reduced only after prolonged ebullition.</p>
+
+<p>Citric acid is used in calico printing, also in the preparation
+of effervescing draughts, as a refrigerant and sialogogue, and
+occasionally as an antiscorbutic, instead of fresh lemon juice.
+In the form of lime juice it has long been known as an antidote for
+scurvy. Several of the citrates are much employed as medicines,
+the most important being the scale preparations of iron. Of
+these iron and ammonium citrate is much used as a haematinic,
+and as it has hardly any tendency to cause gastric irritation or
+constipation it can be taken when the ordinary forms of iron are
+inadmissible. Iron and quinine citrate is used as a bitter
+stomachic and tonic. In the blood citrates are oxidized into
+carbonates; they therefore act as <i>remote alkalis</i>, increasing the
+alkalinity of the blood and thereby the general rate of chemical
+change within the body (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Acetic Acid</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITRON<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span>, a species of <i>Citrus</i> (<i>C. medica</i>), belonging to the tribe
+<i>Aurantieae</i>, of the botanical natural order Rutaceae; the same
+genus furnishes also the orange, lime and shaddock. The citron
+is a small evergreen tree or shrub growing to a height of about
+10 ft.; it has irregular straggling spiny branches, large pale-green
+broadly oblong, slightly serrate leaves and generally unisexual
+flowers purplish without and white within. The large fruit is
+ovate or oblong, protuberant at the tip, and from 5 to 6 in. long,
+with a rough, furrowed, adherent rind, the inner portion of which
+is thick, white and fleshy, the outer, thin, greenish-yellow and
+very fragrant. The pulp is sub-acid and edible, and the seeds
+are bitter. There are many varieties of the fruit, some of them
+of great weight and size. The Madras citron has the form of an
+oblate sphere; and in the &ldquo;fingered citron&rdquo; of China the lobes
+are separated into finger-like divisions formed by separation
+of the constituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in the orange.</p>
+
+<p>The citron-tree thrives in the open air in China, Persia, the
+West Indies, Madeira, Sicily, Corsica, and the warmer parts of
+Spain and Italy; and in conservatories it is often to be seen
+in more northerly regions. Sir Joseph Hooker (<i>Flora of British
+India</i>, i. 514) regards it as a native of the valleys at the
+foot of the Himalaya, and of the Khasia hills and the Western
+Ghauts; Dr Bonavia, however, considers it to have originated
+in Cochin China or China, and to have been introduced into
+India, whence it spread to Media and Persia. It was described
+by Theophrastus as growing in Media, three centuries before
+Christ, and was early known to the ancients, and the fruit was
+held in great esteem by them; but they seem to have been acquainted
+with no other member of the <i>Aurantieae</i>, the introduction
+of oranges and lemons into the countries of the Mediterranean
+being due to the Arabs, between the 10th and 15th centuries.
+Josephus tells us that &ldquo;the law of the Jews required that at the
+feast of tabernacles every one should have branches of palm-tree
+and citron-tree&rdquo; (<i>Antiq.</i> xiii. 13. 5); and the Hebrew
+word <i>tappuach</i>, rendered &ldquo;apples&rdquo; and &ldquo;apple-tree&rdquo; in Cant. ii.
+3, 5, Prov. xxv. 11, &amp;c., probably signifies the citron-tree and
+its fruit. Oribasius in the 4th century describes the fruit,
+accurately distinguishing the three parts of it. About the 3rd
+century the tree was introduced into Italy; and, as Gallesio
+informs us, it was much grown at Salerno in the 11th century.
+In China citrons are placed in apartments to make them fragrant.
+The rind of the citron yields two perfumes, <i>oil of cedra</i> and
+<i>oil of citron</i>, isomeric with oil of turpentine; and when candied
+it is much esteemed as a dessert and in confectionery. The lemon
+(<i>q.v.</i>) is now generally regarded as a subspecies <i>Limonum</i> of
+<i>Citrus medica</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Oribasii Sardiani, <i>Collectorum Medicinalium Libri XVII.</i> i. 64
+(<i>De citrio</i>); Gallesio, <i>Traité du citrus</i> (1811); Darwin,
+<i>Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>, i. 334-336 (1868);
+Brandis, <i>Forest Flora of North-West and Central India</i>, p. 51 (1874); E.
+Bonavia, <i>The Cultivated Oranges and Lemons, &amp;c., of India and
+Ceylon</i> (1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITTADELLA<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span>, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
+Padua, 20 m. N.W. by rail from the town of Padua; 160 ft.
+above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 3616; commune, 9686. The
+town was founded in 1220 by the Paduans to counterbalance
+the fortification of Castelfranco, 8 m. to the E., in 1218 by the
+Trevisans, and retains its well-preserved medieval walls, surrounded
+by a wet ditch. It was always a fortress of importance,
+and in modern times is a centre for the agricultural produce of
+the district, being the junction of the lines from Padua to Bassano
+and from Vicenza to Treviso.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITTÀ DELLA PIEVE<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
+Italy, in the province of Perugia, situated 1666 ft. above the sea,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span>
+3 m. N.E. of its station on the railway between Chiusi and
+Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 8381. Etruscan tombs have been found
+in the neighbourhood, but it is not certain that the present town
+stands on an ancient site. It was the birthplace of the painter
+Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), and possesses several of his works,
+but none of the first rank.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITTÀ DI CASTELLO<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span>, a town and episcopal see of Umbria,
+Italy, in the province of Perugia, 38 m. E. of Arezzo by rail
+(18 m. direct), situated on the left bank of the Tiber, 945 ft.
+above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of town, 6096; of commune,
+26,885. It occupies, as inscriptions show, the site of the ancient
+<i>Tifernum Tiberinum</i>, near which Pliny had a villa (<i>Epist.</i> v. 6;
+cf. H. Winnefeld in <i>Jahrbuch des deutschen archäologischen
+Instituts</i>, vi. Berlin, 1891, 203), but no remains exist above
+ground. The town was devastated by Totila, but seems to have
+recovered. We find it under the name of <i>Castrum Felicitatis</i>
+at the end of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from the
+7th century. The town went through various political vicissitudes
+in the middle ages, being subject now to the emperor,
+now to the Church, until in 1468 it came under the Vitelli:
+but when they died out it returned to the allegiance of the
+Church. It is built in the form of a rectangle and surrounded
+by walls of 1518. It contains fine buildings of the Renaissance,
+especially the palaces of the Vitelli, and the cathedral, originally
+Romanesque. The 12th-century altar front of the latter in
+silver is fine. The Palazzo Comunale is of the 14th century.
+Some of Raphael&rsquo;s earliest works were painted for churches in
+this town, but none of them remains there. There is, however,
+a small collection of pictures.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Magherini Graziani, <i>L&rsquo;Arte a Città di Castello</i> (1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITTÀ VECCHIA<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Città Notabile</span>, a fortified city of
+Malta, 7 m. W. of Valletta, with which it is connected by railway.
+Pop. (1901) 7515. It lies on high, sharply rising ground which
+affords a view of a large part of the island. It is the seat of a
+bishop, and contains an ornate cathedral, overthrown by an
+earthquake in 1693, but rebuilt, which is said by an acceptable
+tradition to occupy the site of the house of the governor Publius,
+who welcomed the apostle Paul. It contains some rich stalls
+of the 15th century and other objects of interest. In the rock
+beneath the city there are some remarkable catacombs in part
+of pre-Christian origin, but containing evidence of early Christian
+burial; and a grotto, reputed to have given shelter to the apostle,
+is pointed out below the church of San Paolo. Remains of
+Roman buildings have been excavated in the town. About
+2 m. E. of the town is the residence of the English governor,
+known as the palace of S. Antonio; and at a like distance to
+the south is the ancient palace of the grand masters of the order
+of St John, with an extensive public garden called Il Boschetto.
+Città Vecchia was called Civitas Melita by the Romans and
+oldest writers, Medina (<i>i.e.</i> the city) by the Saracens, Notabile
+(<i>locale notabile, et insigne coronae regiae</i>, as it is called
+in a charter by Alphonso, 1428) under the Sicilian rule,
+and Città Vecchia (old city) by the knights. It was the
+capital of the island till its supersession by Valletta in 1570.
+(See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Malta</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITTERN<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (also <span class="sc">Cithern, Cithron, Cythren, Citharen</span>, &amp;c.;
+Fr. <i>citre, cistre, cithre, guitare allemande</i> or <i>anglaise</i>; Ger. <i>Cither</i>,
+Zither (<i>mit Hals</i>, with neck); Ital. <i>cetera, cetra</i>), a medieval
+stringed instrument with a neck terminating in a grotesque and
+twanged by fingers or plectrum. The popularity of the cittern
+was at its height in England and Germany during the 16th and
+
+<span class="figleft1" style="float: left">
+<img style="border:0; width:400px; height:96px"
+     src="images/img399a.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</span>
+
+17th centuries. The cittern consisted
+of a pear-shaped body
+similar to that of the lute but
+with a flat back and sound-board
+joined by ribs. The neck was provided with a fretted finger-board;
+the head was curved and surmounted by a grotesque
+head of a woman or of an animal.<a name="FnAnchor_1e" id="FnAnchor_1e" href="#Footnote_1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>  The strings were of wire in
+pairs of unisons, known as courses, usually four in number in
+England. A peculiarity of the cittern lay in the tuning of the
+courses, the third course known as bass being lower than the
+fourth styled tenor.</p>
+
+<p>According to Vincentio Galilei (the father of the great astronomer)
+England was the birthplace of the cittern.<a name="FnAnchor_2e" id="FnAnchor_2e" href="#Footnote_2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Several
+lesson books for this popular instrument were published during
+the 17th century in England. A very rare book (of which the
+British Museum does not possess a copy), <i>The Cittharn Schoole</i>,
+written by Anthony Holborne in 1597, is mentioned in Sir
+P. Leycester&rsquo;s manuscript commonplace book<a name="FnAnchor_3e" id="FnAnchor_3e" href="#Footnote_3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> dated 1656,
+&ldquo;For the little Instrument called a <i>Psittyrne</i> Anthony Holborne
+and Tho. Robinson were most famous of any before them and
+have both of them set out a booke of Lessons for this Instrument.
+Holborne has composed a Basse-parte for the Viole to play unto
+the Psittyrne with those Lessons set out in his booke. These
+lived about Anno Domini 1600.&rdquo; Thomas Robinson&rsquo;s <i>New
+Citharen Lessons with perfect tunings for the same from Foure course
+of strings to Fourteene course</i>, &amp;c. (printed London, 1609, by
+William Barley), contains illustrations of both kinds of instruments.
+The fourteen-course cittern was also known in England
+as <i>Bijuga</i>; the seven courses in pairs were stretched over the
+finger-board, and the seven single strings,
+fastened to the grotesque
+head, were stretched as in the lyre <i>à vide</i> alongside the
+neck; all the strings rested on the one flat bridge near the tail-piece.
+Robinson gives instructions for learning to play the
+cittern and for reading the tablature. John Playford&rsquo;s <i>Musick&rsquo;s
+Delight on the Cithren</i> (London, 1666) also contains illustrations
+of the instrument as well as of the viol da Gamba and Pochette;
+he claims to have revived the instrument and restored it to what
+it was in the reign of Queen Mary.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:550px; height:190px" src="images/img399b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">From Thomas Robinson&rsquo;s <i>New Citharen Lessons</i>, 1609.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">Four-course Cittern.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The cittern probably owed its popularity at this time to the
+ease with which it might be mastered and used to accompany
+the voice; it was one of four instruments generally found in
+barbers&rsquo; shops, the others being the gittern, the lute and the
+virginals. The customers while waiting took down the instrument
+from its peg and played a merry tune to pass the time.<a name="FnAnchor_4e" id="FnAnchor_4e" href="#Footnote_4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+We read that when Konstantijn Huygens came over to England
+and was received by James I. at Bagshot, he played to the
+king on the cittern (cithara), and that his performance was
+duly appreciated and applauded. He tells us that, although he
+learnt to play the barbiton in a few weeks with skill, he had
+lessons from a master for two years on the cittern.<a name="FnAnchor_5e" id="FnAnchor_5e" href="#Footnote_5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> On the
+occasion of a third visit he witnessed the performance of some
+fine musicians and was astonished to hear a lady, mother of
+twelve, singing in divine fashion, accompanying herself on the
+cittern; one of these artists he calls Lanivius, the British
+Orpheus, whose performance was really enchanting.</p>
+
+<p>Michael Praetorius<a name="FnAnchor_6e" id="FnAnchor_6e" href="#Footnote_6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> gives various tunings for the cittern as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span>
+well as an illustration (sounded an octave higher than the
+notation).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:600px; height:72px"
+     src="images/img400a.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>During the 18th century the cittern, citra or English guitar,
+had twelve wire strings in six pairs of unisons tuned thus:</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:250px; height:51px"
+     src="images/img400b.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The introduction of the Spanish guitar, which at once leapt
+into favour, gradually displaced the English variety. The
+Spanish guitar had gut strings twanged by the fingers. The
+last development of the cittern before its disappearance was the
+addition of keys. The keyed cithara<a name="FnAnchor_7e" id="FnAnchor_7e" href="#Footnote_7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> was first made by Claus
+&amp; Co. of London in 1783. The keys, six in number, were
+placed on the left of the sound-board, and on being depressed
+they acted on hammers inside the sound-chest, which rising
+through the rose sound-hole struck the strings. Sometimes
+the keys were placed in a little box right over the strings, the
+hammers striking from above. M.J.B. Vuillaume of Paris
+possessed an Italian cetera (not keyed) by Antoine Stradivarius,<a name="FnAnchor_8e" id="FnAnchor_8e" href="#Footnote_8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+1700 (now in the Museum of the Conservatoire, Paris), with
+twelve strings tuned in pairs of unisons to E, D, G, B, C, A,
+which was exhibited in London in 1871.</p>
+
+<p>The cittern of the 16th century was the result of certain
+transitions which took place during the evolution of the violin
+from the Greek kithara (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cithara</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p class="center1"><i>Genealogical Table of the Cittern.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:600px; height:287px"
+     src="images/img400c.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p>The cittern has retained the following characteristics of the
+archetype. (1) The derivation of the name, which after the
+introduction of the bow was used to characterize various instruments
+whose strings were twanged by fingers or plectrum, such
+as the harp and the rotta (both known as <i>cithara</i>), the citola and
+the zither. In an interlinear Latin and Anglo-Saxon version
+of the Psalms, dated <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 700 (Brit. Mus., Vesp. A. 1), <i>cithara</i>
+is translated <i>citran</i>, from which it is not difficult to trace the
+English <i>cithron, citteran, cittarn</i>, of the 16th century. (2) The
+construction of the sound-chest with flat back and sound-board
+connected by ribs. The pear-shaped outline was possibly
+borrowed from the Eastern instruments, both bowed as the
+rebab and twanged as the lute, so common all over Europe
+during the middle ages, or more probably derived from the
+<i>kithara</i> of the Greeks of Asia Minor, which had the corners
+rounded. These early steps in the transition from the <i>cithara</i>
+may be seen in the miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter,<a name="FnAnchor_9e" id="FnAnchor_9e" href="#Footnote_9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> a unique
+and much-copied Carolingian MS. executed at Reims (9th
+century), the illustrations of which were undoubtedly adapted
+from an earlier psalter from the Christian East. The instruments
+which remained true to the prototype in outline as well as in
+construction and in the derivation of the name were the ghittern
+and the guitar, so often confused with the cittern. It is evident
+that the kinship of cittern and guitar was formerly recognized,
+for during the 18th century, as stated above, the cittern was
+known as the English guitar to distinguish it from the Spanish
+guitar. The grotesque head, popularly considered the characteristic
+feature of the cittern, was probably added in the 12th
+century at a time when this style of decoration was very noticeable
+in other musical instruments, such as the cornet or <i>Zinck</i>, the
+<i>Platerspiel</i>, the chaunter of the bagpipe, &amp;c. The cittern of the
+middle ages was also to be found in oval shape. From the 13th
+century representations of the pear-shaped instrument abound in
+miniatures and carvings.<a name="FnAnchor_10e" id="FnAnchor_10e" href="#Footnote_10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A very clearly drawn cittern of the 14th century occurs in a MS.
+treatise on astronomy (Sloane MS. 3983, Brit. Mus.) translated from
+the Persian of Albumazar into Latin by Georgius Zothari Zopari
+Fenduli, priest and philosopher, with a prologue and numerous
+illustrations by his own hand; the cittern is here called <i>giga</i> in an
+inscription at the side of the drawing.</p>
+
+<p>References to the cittern are plentiful in the literature of the
+16th and 17th centuries. Robert Fludd<a name="FnAnchor_11e" id="FnAnchor_11e" href="#Footnote_11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> describes it thus:
+&ldquo;Cistrona quae quatuor tantum chordas duplicatas habet easque
+cupreas et ferreas de quibus aliquid dicemus quo loco.&rdquo; Others are
+given in the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, &ldquo;Cittern,&rdquo; and in Godefroy&rsquo;s
+<i>Dict. de l&rsquo;anc. langue franç. du IXe au XVe siècle</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1e" id="Footnote_1e" href="#FnAnchor_1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Shakespeare, <i>Love&rsquo;s Labour&rsquo;s Lost</i>, act v. sc. 2, where Boyet
+compares the countenance of Holofernes to a cittern head; John
+Forde, <i>Lovers&rsquo; Melancholy</i> (1629), act ii. sc. 1, &ldquo;Barbers shall wear
+thee on their citterns.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2e" id="Footnote_2e" href="#FnAnchor_2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Dialogo della musica</i> (Florence, 1581), p. 147.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3e" id="Footnote_3e" href="#FnAnchor_3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The musical extracts from the commonplace book were prepared
+by Dr Rimbault for the Early English Text Society. Holborne&rsquo;s
+work is mentioned in his <i>Bibliotheca Madrigaliana</i>. The descriptive
+list of the musical instruments in use in England during Leycester&rsquo;s
+lifetime (about 1656) has been extracted and published by Dr F.J.
+Furnivall, in <i>Captain Cox, his Ballads and Books, or Robert Laneham&rsquo;s
+Letter</i> (1575), (London, 1871), pp. 65-68.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4e" id="Footnote_4e" href="#FnAnchor_4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See Knight&rsquo;s <i>London</i>, i. 142.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5e" id="Footnote_5e" href="#FnAnchor_5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See <i>De Vita propria sermonum inter liberos libri duo</i> (Haarlem,
+1817) and  E. van der Straeten, <i>La Musique aux  Pays-Bas</i>, ii.
+348-35O.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6e" id="Footnote_6e" href="#FnAnchor_6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Syntagma Musicum</i> (1618). See also M. Mersenne, <i>Harmonie
+universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xv., who gives different
+accordances.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7e" id="Footnote_7e" href="#FnAnchor_7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See Carl Engel, <i>Catalogue</i> of the Exhibition of Ancient Musical
+Instruments (London, 1872), Nos. 289 and 290.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8e" id="Footnote_8e" href="#FnAnchor_8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See note above. Illustration in A.J. Hipkins, <i>Musical Instruments;
+Historic, Rare and Unique</i> (Edinburgh, 1888).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9e" id="Footnote_9e" href="#FnAnchor_9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> For a  résumé of the question of the origin of this famous
+psalter, and an inquiry into its bearing on the history of musical instruments
+with illustrations and facsimile reproductions, see Kathleen
+Schlesinger, <i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>, part ii. &ldquo;The Precursors
+of the Violin Family,&rdquo; pp. 127-166 (London, 1908-1909).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10e" id="Footnote_10e" href="#FnAnchor_10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> An oval cittern and a ghittern, side by side, occur in the beautiful
+13th-century Spanish MS. known as <i>Cantigas de Santa Maria</i> in the
+Escorial. For a fine facsimile in colours see marquis de Valmar,
+<i>Real. Acad. Esq.</i>, publ. by L. Aguado (Madrid, 1889). Reproductions
+in black and white in Juan F. Riaño, <i>Critical and Bibliog.
+Notes on Early Spanish Music</i> (London, 1887). See also K.
+Schlesinger, op. cit. fig. 167, p. 223, also boat-shaped citterns,
+figs. 155 and 156, p. 197. Cittern with woman&rsquo;s head, 15th century,
+on one of six bas-reliefs on the under parts of the seats of the choir
+of the Priory church, Great Malvern, reproduced in J. Carter&rsquo;s
+<i>Ancient Sculptures</i>, &amp;c., vol. ii. pl. following p. 12. Another without
+a head, ibid. pl. following p. 16, from a brass monumental plate
+in St Margaret&rsquo;s, King&rsquo;s Lynn.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11e" id="Footnote_11e" href="#FnAnchor_11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> <i>Historia utriusque Cosmi</i> (Oppenheim, ed. 1617)  i. 226.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CITY<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (through Fr. <i>cité</i>, from Lat. <i>civitas</i>). In the United
+Kingdom, strictly speaking, &ldquo;city&rdquo; is an honorary title, officially
+applied to those towns which, in virtue of some preeminence
+(<i>e.g.</i> as episcopal sees, or great industrial centres), have by
+traditional usage or royal charter acquired the right to the
+designation. In the United Kingdom the official style of &ldquo;city&rdquo;
+does not necessarily involve the possession of municipal power
+greater than those of the ordinary boroughs, nor indeed the
+possession of a corporation at all (<i>e.g.</i> Ely). In the United
+States and the British colonies, on the other hand, the official
+application of the term &ldquo;city&rdquo; depends on the kind and extent
+of the municipal privileges possessed by the corporations, and
+charters are given raising towns to the rank of cities. Both in
+France and England the word is used to distinguish the older
+and central nucleus of some of the large towns, <i>e.g.</i> the <i>Cité</i> in
+Paris, and the &ldquo;square mile&rdquo; under the jurisdiction of the lord
+mayor which is the &ldquo;City of London.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In common usage, however, the word implies no more than a
+somewhat vague idea of size and dignity, and is loosely applied
+to any large centre of population. Thus while, technically,
+the City of London is quite small, London is yet properly described
+as the largest city in the world. In the United States
+this use of the word is still more loose, and any town, whether
+technically a city or not, is usually so designated, with little
+regard to its actual size or importance.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear from the above that the word &ldquo;city&rdquo; is incapable
+of any very clear and inclusive definition, and the attempt to
+show that historically it possesses a meaning that clearly differentiates
+it from &ldquo;town&rdquo; or &ldquo;borough&rdquo; has led to some controversy.
+As the translation of the Greek <span class="grk" title="polis">&#960;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span> or Latin <i>civitas</i>
+it involves the ancient conception of the state or &ldquo;city-state,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> of the state as not too large to prevent its government
+through the body of the citizens assembled in the <i>agora</i>, and is
+applied not to the place but to the whole body politic. From
+this conception both the word and its dignified connotation are
+without doubt historically derived. On the occupation of Gaul
+the Gallic states and tribes were called <i>civitates</i> by the Romans,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span>
+and subsequently the name was confined to the chief towns of
+the various administrative districts. These were also the seats
+of the bishops. It is thus affirmed that in France from the 5th
+to the 15th century the name <i>civitas</i> or <i>cité</i> was confined to such
+towns as were episcopal sees, and Du Cange (<i>Gloss.</i> s.v. <i>civitas</i>)
+defines that word as <i>urbs episcopalis</i>, and states that other
+towns were termed <i>castra</i> or <i>oppida</i>. How far any such
+distinction can be sharply drawn may be doubted. With regard to
+England no definite line can be drawn between those towns
+to which the name <i>civitas</i> or <i>cité</i> is given in medieval documents
+and those called <i>burgi</i> or boroughs (see J.H. Round, <i>Feudal
+England</i>, p. 338; F.W. Maitland, <i>Domesday Book and After</i>,
+p. 183). It was, however, maintained by Coke and Blackstone
+that a city is a town incorporate which is or has been the see
+of a bishop. It is true, indeed, that the actual sees in England
+all have a formal right to the title; the boroughs erected into
+episcopal sees by Henry VIII. thereby became &ldquo;cities&rdquo;; but
+towns such as Thetford, Sherborne and Dorchester are never
+so designated, though they are regularly incorporated and were
+once episcopal sees. On the other hand, it has only been since
+the latter part of the 19th century that the official style of &ldquo;city&rdquo;
+has, in the United Kingdom, been conferred by royal authority
+on certain important towns which were not episcopal sees,
+Birmingham in 1889 being the first to be so distinguished. It
+is interesting to note that London, besides 27 boroughs, now
+contains two cities, one (the City of London) outside, the other
+(the City of Westminster) included in the administrative county.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the history of the origin and development of modern city
+government see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Borough</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commune</a></span>: <i>Medieval</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD BOLÍVAR<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span>, an inland city and river port of Venezuela,
+capital of the state of Bolívar, on the right bank of the Orinoco
+river, 240 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1891) 11,686. It stands
+upon a small hill about 187 ft. above sea-level, and faces the
+river where it narrows to a width of less than half a mile. The
+city is largely built upon the hillside. It is the seat of the
+bishopric of Guayana (founded in 1790), and is the commercial
+centre of the great Orinoco basin. Among its noteworthy edifices
+are the cathedral, federal college, theatre, masonic temple,
+market, custom-house, and hospital. The mean temperature
+is 83°. The city has a public water-supply, a tramway line,
+telephone service, subfluvial cable communication with Soledad
+near the mouth of the Orinoco, where connexion is made with the
+national land lines, and regular steamship communication with
+the lower and upper Orinoco. Previous to the revolution of
+1901-3 Ciudad Bolívar ranked fourth among the Venezuelan
+custom-houses, but the restrictions placed upon transit trade
+through West Indian ports have made her a dependency of the
+La Guaira custom-house to a large extent. The principal exports
+from this region include cattle, horses, mules, tobacco, cacáo,
+rubber, tonka beans, bitters, hides, timber and many valuable
+forest products. The town was founded by Mendoza in 1764 as
+San Tomás de la Nueva Guayana, but its location at this particular
+point on the river gave to it the popular name of <i>Angostura</i>,
+the Spanish term for &ldquo;narrows.&rdquo; This name was used until
+1849, when that of the Venezuelan liberator was bestowed upon
+it. Ciudad Bolívar played an important part in the struggle for
+independence and was for a time the headquarters of the revolution.
+The town suffered severely in the struggle for its possession,
+and the political disorders which followed greatly retarded its
+growth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD DE CURA<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span>, an inland town of the state of Aragua,
+Venezuela, 55 m. S.W. of Carácas, near the Lago de Valencia.
+Pop. (1891) 12,198. The town stands in a broad, fertile valley,
+between the sources of streams running southward to the Guárico
+river and northward to the lake, with an elevation above sea-level
+of 1598 ft. Traffic between Puerto Cabello and the Guárico
+plains has passed through this town since early colonial times,
+and has made it an important commercial centre, from which
+hides, cheese, coffee, cacao and beans are sent down to the coast
+for export; it bears a high reputation in Venezuela for commercial
+enterprise. Ciudad de Cura was founded in 1730, and suffered
+severely in the war of independence.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD JUAREZ<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span>, formerly <span class="sc">El Paso del Norte</span>, a northern
+frontier town of Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua, 1223 m. by
+rail N.N.W. of Mexico City. Pop. (1895) 6917. Ciudad Juarez
+stands 3800 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Rio
+Grande del Norte, opposite the city of El Paso, Texas, with which
+it is connected by two bridges. It is the northern terminus of
+the Mexican Central railway, and has a large and increasing
+transit trade with the United States, having a custom-house
+and a United States consulate. It is also a military post with a
+small garrison. The town has a straggling picturesque appearance,
+a considerable part of the habitations being small adobe
+or brick cabins. In the fertile neighbouring district cattle are
+raised, and wheat, Indian corn, fruit and grapes are grown, wine
+and brandy being made. The town was founded in 1681-1682;
+its present importance is due entirely to the railway. It was the
+headquarters of President Juarez in 1865, and was renamed
+in 1885 because of its devotion to his cause.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span>, formerly <span class="sc">Piedras Negras</span>, a
+northern frontier town of Mexico in the state of Coahuila, 1008 m.
+N. by W. from Mexico City, on the Rio Grande del Norte, 720 ft.
+above sea-level, opposite the town of Eagle Pass, Texas. Pop.
+(1900, estimate) 5000. An international bridge connects the two
+towns, and the Mexican International railway has its northern
+terminus in Mexico at this point. The town has an important
+transfer trade with the United States, and is the centre of a
+fertile district devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. Coal is
+found in the vicinity. The Mexican government maintains a
+custom-house and military post here. The town was founded
+in 1849.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD REAL<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span>, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833
+of districts taken from New Castile, and bounded on the N.
+by Toledo, E. by Albacete, S. by Jaen and Cordova and W. by
+Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 321,580; area, 7620 sq. m. The surface
+of Ciudad Real consists chiefly of a level or slightly undulating
+plain, with low hills in the north-east and south-west; but along
+the south-western frontier the Sierra de Alcudia rises in two
+parallel ridges on either side of the river Alcudia, and is continued
+in the Sierra Madrona on the east. The river Guadiana drains
+almost the entire province, which it traverses from east to west;
+only the southernmost districts being watered by tributaries of
+the Guadalquivir. Numerous smaller streams flow into the
+Guadiana, which itself divides near Herencia into two branches,&mdash;the
+northern known as the Giguela, the southern as the Zancara.
+The eastern division of Ciudad Real forms part of the region
+known as La Mancha, a flat, thinly-peopled plain, clothed with
+meagre vegetation which is often ravaged by locusts. La Mancha
+(<i>q.v.</i>) is sometimes regarded as coextensive with the whole province.
+Severe drought is common here, although some of the
+rivers, such as the Jabalon and Azuer, issue fully formed from
+the chalky soil, and from their very sources give an abundant
+supply of water to the numerous mills. Towards the west, where
+the land is higher, there are considerable tracts of forest.</p>
+
+<p>The climate is oppressively hot in summer, and in winter the
+plains are exposed to violent and bitterly cold winds; while the
+cultivation of grain, the vine and the olive is further impeded
+by the want of proper irrigation, and the general barrenness of
+the soil. Large flocks of sheep and goats find pasture in the
+plains; and the swine which are kept in the oak and beech
+forests furnish bacon and hams of excellent quality. Coal is
+mined chiefly at Puertollano, lead in various districts, mercury
+at Almadén. There are no great manufacturing towns. The
+roads are insufficient and ill-kept, especially in the north-east
+where they form the sole means of communication; and neither
+the Guadiana nor its tributaries are navigable. The main railway
+from Madrid to Lisbon passes through the capital, Ciudad Real,
+and through Puertollano; farther east, the Madrid-Lináres line
+passes through Manzanares and Valdepeñas. Branch railways
+also connect the capital with Manzanares, and Valdepeñas with
+the neighbouring town of La Calzada.</p>
+
+<p>The principal towns, Alcázar de San Juan (11,499), Almadén
+(7375), Almodóvar del Campo (12,525), Ciudad Real (15,255),
+Manzanares (11,229) and Valdepeñas (21,015), are described in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span>
+separate articles. Almagro (7974) and Daimiel (11,825), in the
+district of La Mancha known as the Campo de Calatrava, belonged
+in the later middle ages to the knightly Order of Calatrava,
+which was founded in 1158 to keep the Moors in check. Almagro
+was long almost exclusively inhabited by monks and knights, and
+contains several interesting churches and monasteries, besides
+the castle of the knights, now used as barracks. Almagro is
+further celebrated for its lace, Daimiel for its medicinal salts.
+Tomelloso (13,929) is one of the chief market towns of La Mancha.
+Education is very backward, largely owing to the extreme poverty
+which has frequently brought the inhabitants to the verge of
+famine. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Castile</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD REAL<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span>, the capital formerly of La Mancha, and
+since 1833 of the province described above; 107 m. S. of Madrid,
+on the Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon and Ciudad Real-Manzanares
+railways. Pop. (1900) 15,255. Ciudad Real lies in the midst
+of a wide plain, watered on the north by the river Guadiana,
+and on the south by its tributary the Jabalon. Apart from the
+remnants of its 13th-century fortifications, and one Gothic
+church of immense size, built without aisles, the town contains
+little of interest; its public buildings&mdash;town-hall, barracks,
+churches, hospital and schools&mdash;being in no way distinguished
+above those of other provincial capitals. There are no important
+local manufactures, and the trade of the town consists chiefly
+in the weekly sales of <span class="correction" title="amended from agricultrual">agricultrural</span> produce and live-stock.
+Ciudad Real was founded by Alphonso X. of Castile (1252-1284),
+and fortified by him as a check upon the Moorish power. Its
+original name of <i>Villarreal</i> was changed to <i>Ciudad Real</i> by John
+VI. in 1420. During the Peninsular War a Spanish force was
+defeated here by the French, on the 27th of March 1809.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIUDAD RODRIGO<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span>, a town of western Spain, in the province
+of Salamanca, situated 8 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier, on
+the right bank of the river Agueda, and the railway from
+Salamanca to Coimbra in Portugal. Pop. (1900) 8930. Ciudad
+Rodrigo is an episcopal see, and was for many centuries an
+important frontier fortress. Its cathedral dates from 1190,
+but was restored in the 15th century. The remnants of a Roman
+aqueduct, the foundations of a bridge across the Agueda, and
+other remains, seem to show that Ciudad Rodrigo occupies the
+site of a Roman settlement. It was founded in the 12th century
+by Count Rodrigo Gonzalez, from whom its name is derived.
+During the Peninsular War, it was captured by the French
+under Marshal Ney, in 1810; but on the 19th of January 1812
+it was retaken by the British under Viscount Wellington, who,
+for this exploit, was created earl of Wellington, duke of Ciudad
+Rodrigo, and marquess of Torres Vedras, in Portugal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span>, an early 16th-century Italian painter,
+born at Crema. There are altar-pieces by him at Brescia, and
+at Crema the altar-piece at the duomo (1509). His &ldquo;Birth of
+Christ&rdquo; is in the Brera, Milan; and at Lovere are other of
+his works dating from 1539 and 1540.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVET<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span>, or properly <span class="sc">Civet-cat</span>, the designation of the more
+typical representatives of the mammalian family <i>Viverridae</i>
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Carnivora</a></span>). Civets are characterized by the possession
+of a deep pouch in the neighbourhood of the genital organs,
+into which the substance known as civet is poured from the
+glands by which it is secreted. This fatty substance is at first
+semifluid and yellow, but afterwards acquires the consistency
+of pomade and becomes darker. It has a strong musky odour,
+exceedingly disagreeable to those unaccustomed to it, but &ldquo;when
+properly diluted and combined with other scents it produces
+a very pleasing effect, and possesses a much more floral fragrance
+than musk, indeed it would be impossible to imitate some
+flowers without it.&rdquo; The African civet (<i>Viverra civetta</i>) is from
+2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the tail, which is half the length
+of the body, and stands from 10 to 12 in. high. It is covered
+with long hair, longest on the middle line of the back, where it
+is capable of being raised or depressed at will, of a dark-grey
+colour, with numerous transverse black bands and spots. In
+habits it is chiefly nocturnal, and by preference carnivorous,
+feeding on birds and the smaller quadrupeds, in pursuit of which
+it climbs trees, but it is said also to eat fruits, roots and other
+vegetable matters. In a state of captivity the civet is never
+completely tamed, and only kept for the sake of its perfume,
+which is obtained in largest quantity from the male, especially
+when in good condition and subjected to irritation, being scraped
+from the pouch with a small spoon usually twice a week. The
+zibeth (<i>Viverra zibetha</i>) is a widely distributed species extending
+from Arabia to Malabar, and throughout several of the larger
+islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is smaller than the true
+civet, and wants the dorsal crest. In the wild state it does
+great damage among poultry, and frequently makes off with
+the young of swine and sheep. When hunted it makes a determined
+resistance, and emits a scent so strong as even to sicken
+the dogs, who nevertheless are exceedingly fond of the sport,
+and cannot be got to pursue any other game while the stench
+of the zibeth is in their nostrils. In confinement, it becomes
+comparatively tame, and yields civet in considerable quantity.
+In preparing this for the market it is usually spread out on the
+leaves of the pepper plant in order to free it from the hairs that
+have become detached from the pouch. On the Malabar coast
+this species is replaced by <i>V. civettina</i>. The small Indian civet
+or rasse (<i>Viverricula malaccensis</i>) ranges from Madagascar
+through India to China, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands
+of the Archipelago. It is almost 3 ft. long including the tail,
+and prettily marked with dark longitudinal stripes, and spots
+which have a distinctly linear arrangement. The perfume,
+which is extracted in the same way as in the two preceding
+species, is highly valued and much used by the Javanese. Although
+this animal is said to be an expert climber it usually
+inhabits holes in the ground. It is frequently kept in captivity
+in the East, and becomes tame. Fossil remains of extinct
+civets are found in the Miocene strata of Europe.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (anc. <i>Forum Iulii</i>), a town of Venetia,
+Italy, in the province of Udine, 10 m. E. by N. by rail from the
+town of Udine; 453 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town, 4143;
+commune, 9061. It is situated on the river Natisone, which
+forms a picturesque ravine here. It contains some interesting
+relics of the art of the 8th century. The cathedral of the 15th
+century contains an octagonal marble canopy with sculptures
+in relief, with a font below it belonging to the 8th century, but
+altered later. The high altar has a fine silver altar front of 1185.
+The museum contains various Roman and Lombard antiquities,
+and valuable MSS. and works of art in gold, silver and ivory
+formerly belonging to the cathedral chapter. The small church
+of S. Maria in Valle belongs to the 8th century, and contains
+fine decorations in stucco which probably belong to the 11th
+or 12th century. The fine 15th-century Ponte del Diavolo
+leads to the church of S. Martino, which contains an altar of
+the 8th century with reliefs executed by order of the Lombard
+king Ratchis. At Cividale were born Paulus Diaconus, the
+historian of the Lombards in the time of Charlemagne, and the
+actress Adelaide Ristori (1822-1906).</p>
+
+<p>The Roman town (a <i>municipium</i>) of Forum Iulii was founded
+either by Julius Caesar or by Augustus, no doubt at the same
+time as the construction of the Via Iulia Augusta, which passed
+through Utina (Udine) on its way north. After the decay of
+Aquileia and Iulium Carnicum (Zuglio) it became the chief town
+of the district of Friuli and gave its name to it. The patriarchs
+of Aquileia resided here from 773 to 1031, when they returned
+to Aquileia, and finally in 1238 removed to Udine. This last
+change of residence was the origin of the antagonism between
+Cividale and Udine, which was only terminated by their surrender
+to Venice in 1419 and 1420 respectively.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span>, or more correctly, <span class="sc">Julius</span>, leader of the
+Batavian revolt against Rome (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69-70). He was twice
+imprisoned on a charge of rebellion, and narrowly escaped
+execution. During the disturbances that followed the death
+of Nero, he took up arms under pretence of siding with Vespasian
+and induced the inhabitants of his native country to rebel.
+The Batavians, who had rendered valuable aid under the early
+emperors, had been well treated in order to attach them to the
+cause of Rome. They were exempt from tribute, but were
+obliged to supply a large number of men for the army, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span>
+burden of conscription and the oppressions of provincial governors
+were important incentives to revolt. The Batavians were
+immediately joined by several neighbouring German tribes,
+the most important of whom were the Frisians. The Roman
+garrisons near the Rhine were driven out, and twenty-four ships
+captured. Two legions under Mummius Lupercus were defeated
+at Castra Vetera (near the modern Xanten) and surrounded.
+Eight cohorts of Batavian veterans joined their countrymen,
+and the troops sent by Vespasian to the relief of Vetera threw in
+their lot with them. The result of these accessions to the forces of
+Civilis was a rising in Gaul. Hordeonius Flaccus was murdered
+by his troops (70), and the whole of the Roman forces were induced
+by two commanders of the Gallic auxiliaries&mdash;Julius
+Classicus and Julius Tutor&mdash;to revolt from Rome and join
+Civilis. The whole of Gaul thus practically declared itself
+independent, and the foundation of a new kingdom of Gaul
+was contemplated. The prophetess Velleda predicted the complete
+success of Civilis and the fall of the Roman Empire. But
+disputes broke out amongst the different tribes and rendered
+co-operation impossible; Vespasian, having successfully ended
+the civil war, called upon Civilis to lay down his arms, and on
+his refusal resolved to take strong measures for the suppression
+of the revolt. The arrival of Petillius Cerialis with a strong force
+awed the Gauls and mutinous troops into submission; Civilis was
+defeated at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Trèves) and Vetera,
+and forced to withdraw to the island of the Batavians. He
+finally came to an agreement with Cerialis whereby his countrymen
+obtained certain advantages, and resumed amicable
+relations with Rome. From this time Civilis disappears from
+history.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief authority for the history of the insurrection is Tacitus,
+<i>Historiae</i>, iv., v., whose account breaks off at the beginning of Civilis&rsquo;s
+speech to Cerialis; see also Josephus, <i>Bellum Judaicum</i>, vii. 4.
+There is a monograph by E. Meyer, <i>Der Freiheitskrieg der Bataver
+unter Civilis</i> (1856); see also Merivale, <i>Hist. of the Romans under
+the Empire</i>, ch. 58; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>,
+bk. ii. ch. 2, § 54 (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVILIZATION<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span>. The word &ldquo;civilization&rdquo; is an obvious
+derivative of the Lat. <i>civis</i>, a citizen, and <i>civilis</i>, pertaining to
+a citizen. Etymologically speaking, then, it would be putting no
+undue strain upon the word to interpret it as having to do with
+the entire period of human progress since mankind attained
+sufficient intelligence and social unity to develop a system of
+government. But in practice &ldquo;civilization&rdquo; is usually interpreted
+in a somewhat narrower sense, as having application
+solely to the most recent and comparatively brief period of time
+that has elapsed since the most highly developed races of men
+have used systems of writing. This restricted usage is probably
+explicable, in part at least, by the fact that the word, though
+distinctly modern in origin, is nevertheless older than the interpretation
+of social evolution that now finds universal acceptance.
+Only very recently has it come to be understood that primitive
+societies vastly antedating the historical period had attained
+relatively high stages of development and fixity, socially and
+politically. Now that this is understood, however, nothing but
+an arbitrary and highly inconvenient restriction of meanings
+can prevent us from speaking of the citizens of these early
+societies as having attained certain stages of civilization. It will
+be convenient, then, in outlining the successive stages of human
+progress here, to include under the comprehensive term &ldquo;civilization&rdquo;
+those long earlier periods of &ldquo;savagery&rdquo; and &ldquo;barbarism&rdquo;
+as well as the more recent period of higher development to which
+the word &ldquo;civilization&rdquo; is sometimes restricted.</p>
+
+<p>Adequate proof that civilization as we now know it is the
+result of a long, slow process of evolution was put forward not
+long after the middle of the 19th century by the
+students of palaeontology and of prehistoric archaeology.
+<span class="sidenote">Savagery and barbarism.</span>
+A recognition of the fact that primitive man
+used implements of chipped flint, of polished stone,
+and of the softer metals for successive ages, before he attained
+a degree of technical skill and knowledge that would enable
+him to smelt iron, led the Danish archaeologists to classify the
+stages of human progress under these captions: the Rough
+Stone Age; the Age of Polished Stone; the Age of Bronze;
+and the Age of Iron. These terms acquired almost universal
+recognition, and they retain popularity as affording a very broad
+outline of the story of human progress. It is obviously desirable,
+however, to fill in the outlines of the story more in detail.
+To some extent it has been possible to do so, largely through
+the efforts of ethnologists who have studied the social conditions
+of existing races of savages. A recognition of the principle
+that, broadly speaking, progress has everywhere been achieved
+along the same lines and through the same sequence of changes,
+makes it possible to interpret the past history of the civilized
+races of to-day in the light of the present-day conditions of other
+races that are still existing under social and political conditions
+of a more primitive type. Such races as the Maoris and the
+American Indians have furnished invaluable information to
+the student of social evolution; and the knowledge thus gained
+has been extended and fortified by the ever-expanding researches
+of the palaeontologist and archaeologist.</p>
+
+<p>Thus it has become possible to present with some confidence
+a picture showing the successive stages of human development
+during the long dark period when our prehistoric ancestor was
+advancing along the toilsome and tortuous but on the whole
+always uprising path from lowest savagery to the stage of relative
+enlightenment at which we find him at the so-called &ldquo;dawnings
+of history.&rdquo; That he was for long ages a savage before he
+attained sufficient culture to be termed, in modern phraseology,
+a barbarian, admits of no question. Equally little in doubt is it
+that other long ages of barbarism preceded the final ascent
+to civilization. The precise period of time covered by these
+successive &ldquo;Ages&rdquo; is of course only conjectural; but something
+like one hundred thousand years may perhaps be taken as a
+safe minimal estimate. At the beginning of this long period,
+the most advanced race of men must be thought of as a promiscuous
+company of pre-troglodytic mammals, at least partially
+arboreal in habit, living on uncooked fruits and vegetables, and
+possessed of no arts and crafts whatever&mdash;nor even of the knowledge
+of the rudest implement. At the end of the period, there
+emerges into the more or less clear light of history a large-brained
+being, living in houses of elaborate construction, supplying
+himself with divers luxuries through the aid of a multitude
+of elaborate handicrafts, associated with his fellows under the
+sway of highly organized governments, and satisfying aesthetic
+needs through the practice of pictorial and literary arts of a
+high order. How was this amazing transformation brought
+about?</p>
+
+<p>If an answer can be found to that query, we shall have a clue
+to all human progress, not only during the prehistoric but also
+during the historic periods; for we may well believe
+that recent progress has not departed from the scheme
+<span class="sidenote">Crucial developments.</span>
+of development impressed on humanity during that
+long apprenticeship. Ethnologists believe that an
+answer can be found. They believe that the metamorphosis from
+beast-like savage to cultured civilian may be proximally explained
+(certain potentialities and attributes of the species being
+taken for granted) as the result of accumulated changes that
+found their initial impulses in a half-dozen or so of practical
+inventions. Stated thus, the explanation seems absurdly simple.
+Confessedly it supplies only a proximal, not a final, analysis
+of the forces impelling mankind along the pathway of progress.
+But it has the merit of tangibility; it presents certain highly
+important facts of human history vividly: and it furnishes a
+definite and fairly satisfactory basis for marking successive stages
+of incipient civilization.</p>
+
+<p>In outlining the story of primitive man&rsquo;s advancement, upon
+such a basis, we may follow the scheme of one of the most
+philosophical of ethnologists, Lewis H. Morgan, who made a
+provisional analysis of the prehistoric period that still remains
+among the most satisfactory attempts in this direction. Morgan
+divides the entire epoch of man&rsquo;s progress from bestiality to
+civilization into six successive periods, which he names respectively
+the Older, Middle and Later periods of Savagery, and
+the Older, Middle and Later periods of Barbarism.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span></p>
+
+<p>The first of these periods, when mankind was in the lower
+status of savagery, comprises the epoch when articulate speech
+was being developed. Our ancestors of this epoch
+<span class="sidenote">Speech.</span>
+inhabited a necessarily restricted tropical territory,
+and subsisted upon raw nuts and fruits. They had no knowledge
+of the uses of fire. All existing races of men had advanced
+beyond this condition before the opening of the historical period.</p>
+
+<p>The Middle Period of Savagery began with a knowledge of the
+uses of fire. This wonderful discovery enabled the developing
+race to extend its habitat almost indefinitely, and to
+include flesh, and in particular fish, in its regular
+<span class="sidenote">Fire.</span>
+dietary. Man could now leave the forests, and wander along
+the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less enervating
+than those to which he had previously been confined. Doubtless
+he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly equipped
+for hunting, being provided, probably, with no weapon more
+formidable than a crude hatchet and a roughly fashioned spear.
+The primitive races of Australia and Polynesia had not advanced
+beyond this middle status of savagery when they were discovered
+a few generations ago. It is obvious, then, that in dealing with
+the further progress of nascent civilization we have to do with
+certain favoured portions of the race, which sought out new
+territories and developed new capacities while many tribes of
+their quondam peers remained static and hence by comparison
+seemed to retrograde.</p>
+
+<p>The next great epochal discovery, in virtue of which a portion
+of the race advanced to the Upper Status of Savagery, was that
+of the bow and arrow,&mdash;a truly wonderful implement.
+The possessor of this device could bring down the
+<span class="sidenote">Bow and arrow.</span>
+fleetest animal and could defend himself against the
+most predatory. He could provide himself not only with food
+but with materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus
+could migrate at will back from the seas and large rivers, and
+far into inhospitable but invigorating temperate and sub-Arctic
+regions. The meat diet, now for the first time freely available,
+probably contributed, along with the stimulating climate, to
+increase the physical vigour and courage of this highest savage,
+thus urging him along the paths of progress. Nevertheless
+many tribes came thus far and no further, as witness the Athapascans
+of the Hudson&rsquo;s Bay Territory and the Indians of the
+valley of the Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to the marvellous discovery that enabled our
+ancestor to make such advances upon the social conditions of
+his forbears as to entitle him, in the estimate of his
+remote descendants, to be considered as putting
+<span class="sidenote">Pottery.</span>
+savagery behind him and as entering upon the Lower Status of
+Barbarism. The discovery in question had to do with the
+practice of the art of making pottery (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>). Hitherto
+man had been possessed of no permanent utensils that could
+withstand the action of fire. He could not readily boil water
+except by some such cumbersome method as the dropping of
+heated stones into a wooden or skin receptacle. The effect
+upon his dietary of having at hand earthen vessels in which
+meat and herbs could be boiled over a fire must have been
+momentous. Various meats and many vegetables become
+highly palatable when boiled that are almost or quite inedible
+when merely roasted before a fire. Bones, sinews and even
+hides may be made to give up a modicum of nutriment in this
+way; and doubtless barbaric man, before whom starvation
+always loomed threateningly, found the crude pot an almost
+perennial refuge. And of course its use as a cooking utensil
+was only one of many ways in which the newly discovered
+mechanism exerted a civilizing influence.</p>
+
+<p>The next great progressive movement, which carried man
+into the Middle Status of Barbarism, is associated with the
+domestication of animals in the Eastern hemisphere,
+and with the use of irrigation in cultivating the soil and
+<span class="sidenote">Domestic animals.</span>
+of adobe bricks and stone in architecture in the Western
+hemisphere. The dog was probably the first animal to be
+domesticated, but the sheep, the ox, the camel and the horse
+were doubtless added in relatively rapid succession, so soon
+as the idea that captive animals could be of service had been
+clearly conceived. Man now became a herdsman, no longer
+dependent for food upon the precarious chase of wild animals.
+Milk, procurable at all seasons, made a highly important addition
+to his dietary. With the aid of camel and horse he could traverse
+wide areas hitherto impassable, and come in contact with
+distant peoples. Thus commerce came to play an extended
+rôle in the dissemination of both commodities and ideas. In
+particular the nascent civilization of the Mediterranean region
+fell heir to numerous products of farther Asia,&mdash;gums, spices,
+oils, and most important of all, the cereals. The cultivation of
+the latter gave the finishing touch to a comprehensive and
+varied diet, while emphasizing the value of a fixed abode. For
+the first time it now became possible for large numbers of people
+to form localized communities. A natural consequence was
+the elaboration of political systems, which, however, proceeded
+along lines already suggested by the experience of earlier epochs.
+All this tended to establish and emphasize the idea of nationality,
+based primarily on blood-relationship; and at the same
+time to develop within the community itself the idea of property,&mdash;that
+is to say, of valuable or desirable commodities which have
+come into the possession of an individual through his enterprise
+or labour, and which should therefore be subject to his voluntary
+disposal. At an earlier stage of development, all property had
+been of communal, not of individual, ownership. It appears, then,
+that our mid-period barbarian had attained&mdash;if the verbal contradiction
+be permitted&mdash;a relatively high stage of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>There remained, however, one master craft of which he had
+no conception. This was the art of smelting iron. When,
+ultimately, his descendants learned the wonderful
+secrets of that art, they rose in consequence to the
+<span class="sidenote">Iron.</span>
+Upper Status of Barbarism. This culminating practical invention,
+it will be observed, is the first of the great discoveries
+with which we have to do that was not primarily concerned
+with the question of man&rsquo;s food supply. Iron, to be sure, has
+abundant uses in the same connexion, but its most direct and
+obvious utilities have to do with weapons of war and with
+implements calculated to promote such arts of peace as house-building,
+road-making and the construction of vehicles. Wood
+and stone could now be fashioned as never before. Houses
+could be built and cities walled with unexampled facility; to
+say nothing of the making of a multitude of minor implements
+and utensils hitherto quite unknown, or at best rare and costly.
+Nor must we overlook the aesthetic influence of edged implements,
+with which wood and stone could readily be sculptured
+when placed in the hands of a race that had long been accustomed
+to scratch the semblance of living forms on bone or ivory and to
+fashion crude images of clay. In a word, man, the &ldquo;tool-making
+animal,&rdquo; was now for the first time provided with tools worthy
+of his wonderful hands and yet more wonderful brain.</p>
+
+<p>Thus through the application of one revolutionary invention
+after another, the most advanced races of men had arrived,
+after long ages of effort, at a relatively high stage of development.
+A very wide range of experiences had enabled man to evolve
+a complex body politic, based on a fairly secure social basis,
+and his brain had correspondingly developed into a relatively
+efficient and stable organ of thought. But as yet he had devised
+no means of communicating freely with other people at a distance
+except through the medium of verbal messages; nor had he
+any method by which he could transmit his experiences to
+posterity more securely than by fugitive and fallible oral traditions.
+A vague symbolization of his achievements was preserved
+from generation to generation in myth-tale and epic, but he
+knew not how to make permanent record of his history. Until
+he could devise a means to make such record, he must remain,
+in the estimate of his descendants, a barbarian, though he might
+be admitted to have become a highly organized and even in a
+broad sense a cultured being.</p>
+
+<p>At length, however, this last barrier was broken. Some race
+or races devised a method of symbolizing events and ultimately
+of making even abstruse ideas tangible by means of
+graphic signs. In other words, a system of writing
+<span class="sidenote"><b>Writing.</b></span>
+was developed. Man thus achieved a virtual conquest over time
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span>
+as he had earlier conquered space. He could now transmit
+the record of his deeds and his thoughts to remote posterity.
+Thus he stood at the portals of what later generations would term
+secure history. He had graduated out of barbarism, and become
+in the narrower sense of the word a civilized being. Henceforth,
+his knowledge, his poetical dreamings, his moral aspirations
+might be recorded in such form as to be read not merely by his
+contemporaries but by successive generations of remote posterity.
+The inspiring character of such a message is obvious. The validity
+of making this great culminating intellectual achievement the
+test of &ldquo;civilized&rdquo; existence need not be denied. But we should
+ill comprehend the character of the message which the earlier
+generations of civilized beings transmit to us from the period
+which we term the &ldquo;dawning of history&rdquo; did we not bear
+constantly in mind the long series of progressive stages of
+&ldquo;savagery&rdquo; and &ldquo;barbarism&rdquo; that of necessity preceded the
+final stage of &ldquo;civilization&rdquo; proper. The achievements of
+those earlier stages afforded the secure foundation for the progress
+of the future. A multitude of minor arts, in addition
+to the important ones just outlined, had been developed; and
+for a long time civilized man was to make no other epochal
+addition to the list of accomplishments that came to him as a
+heritage from his barbaric progenitor. Indeed, even to this
+day the list of such additions is not a long one, nor, judged in
+the relative scale, so important as might at first thought be
+supposed. Whoever considers the subject carefully must admit
+the force of Morgan&rsquo;s suggestion that man&rsquo;s achievements as a
+barbarian, considered in their relation to the sum of human
+progress, &ldquo;transcend, in relative importance, all his subsequent
+works.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Without insisting on this comparison, however, let us ask
+what discoveries and inventions man has made within the
+historical period that may fairly be ranked with the half-dozen
+great epochal achievements that have been put forward as
+furnishing the keys to all the progress of the prehistoric periods.
+In other words, let us sketch the history of progress during the ten
+thousand years or so that have elapsed since man learned the
+art of writing, adapting our sketch to the same scale which we
+have already applied to the unnumbered millenniums of the prehistoric
+period. The view of world-history thus outlined will be
+a very different one from what might be expected by the student
+of national history; but it will present the essentials of the
+progress of civilization in a suggestive light.</p>
+
+<p>Without pretending to fix an exact date,&mdash;which the historical
+records do not at present permit,&mdash;we may assume that the
+most advanced race of men elaborated a system of
+writing not less than six thousand years before the
+<span class="sidenote">Civilization proper.</span>
+beginning of the Christian era. Holding to the
+terminology already suggested for the earlier periods,
+we may speak of man&rsquo;s position during the ensuing generations
+as that of the First or Lowest Status of civilization. If we review
+the history of this period we shall find that it extends unbroken
+over a stretch of at least four or five thousand years. During
+the early part of this period such localized civilizations as those
+of the Egyptians, the Sumerians, the Babylonians and the Hittites
+rose, grew strong and passed beyond their meridian. This suggests
+that we must now admit the word &ldquo;civilization&rdquo; to yet
+another definition, within its larger meaning: we must speak
+of &ldquo;<i>a</i> civilization,&rdquo; as that of Egypt, of Babylonia, of Assyria,
+and we must understand thereby a localized phase of society bearing
+the same relation to civilization as a whole that a wave bears
+to the ocean or a tree to the forest. Such other localized civilizations
+as those of Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, Rome, Byzantium,
+the Sassanids, in due course waxed and waned, leaving a tremendous
+imprint on national history, but creating only minor
+and transitory ripples in the great ocean of civilization. Progress
+in the elaboration of the details of earlier methods and inventions
+took place as a matter of course. Some nation, probably the
+Phoenicians, gave a new impetus to the art of writing by developing
+a phonetic alphabet; but this achievement, remarkable as
+it was in itself, added nothing fundamental to human capacity.
+Literatures had previously flourished through the use of hieroglyphic
+and syllabic symbols; and the Babylonian syllabics
+continued in vogue throughout western Asia for a long time
+after the Phoenician alphabet had demonstrated its intrinsic
+superiority.</p>
+
+<p>Similarly the art of Egyptian and Assyrian and Greek was but
+the elaboration and perfection of methods that barbaric man
+had practised away back in the days when he was a cave-dweller.
+The weapons of warfare of Greek and Roman were the spear
+and the bow and arrow that their ancestors had used in the period
+of savagery, aided by sword and helmet dating from the upper
+period of barbarism. Greek and Roman government at their
+best were founded upon the system of <i>gentes</i> that barbaric man
+had profoundly studied,&mdash;as witness, for example, the federal
+system of the barbaric Iroquois Indians existing in America
+before the coming of Columbus. And if the Greeks had better
+literature, the Romans better roads and larger cities, than their
+predecessors, these are but matters of detailed development,
+the like of which had marked the progress of the more important
+arts and the introduction of less important ancillary ones in
+each antecedent period. The axe of steel is no new implement,
+but a mere perfecting of the axe of chipped flint. The <i>Iliad</i>
+represents the perfecting of an art that unnumbered generations
+of barbarians practised before their camp-fires.</p>
+
+<p>Thus for six or seven thousand years after man achieved
+civilization there was rhythmic progress in many lines, but there
+came no great epochal invention to usher in a new
+ethnic period. Then, towards the close of what
+<span class="sidenote">Great inventions of the middle ages.</span>
+historians of to-day are accustomed to call the middle
+ages, there appeared in rapid sequence three or four
+inventions and a great scientific discovery that, taken
+together, were destined to change the entire aspect of European
+civilization. The inventions were gunpowder, the mariner&rsquo;s
+compass, paper and the printing-press, three of which appear to
+have been brought into Europe by the Moors, whether or not
+they originated in the remote East. The scientific discovery
+which must be coupled with these inventions was the Copernican
+demonstration that the sun and not the earth is the centre of our
+planetary system. The generations of men that found themselves
+(1) confronted with the revolutionary conception of the
+universe given by the Copernican theory; (2) supplied with the
+new means of warfare provided by gunpowder; (3) equipped
+with an undreamed-of guide across the waters of the earth; and
+(4) enabled to promulgate knowledge with unexampled speed and
+cheapness through the aid of paper and printing-press&mdash;such
+generations of men might well be said to have entered upon a new
+ethnic period. The transition in their mode of thought and in
+their methods of practical life was as great as can be supposed
+to have resulted, in an early generation, from the introduction
+of iron, or in a yet earlier from the invention of the bow and
+arrow. So the Europeans of about the 15th century of the
+Christian era may be said to have entered upon the Second or
+Middle Status of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>The new period was destined to be a brief one. It had compassed
+only about four hundred years when, towards the close
+of the 18th century, James Watt gave to the world
+the perfected steam-engine. Almost contemporaneously
+<span class="sidenote">Steam machinery.</span>
+Arkwright and Hargreaves developed revolutionary
+processes of spinning and weaving by machinery.
+Meantime James Hutton and William Smith and their successors
+on the one hand, and Erasmus Darwin, François Lamarck, and
+(a half-century later) Charles Darwin on the other, turned men&rsquo;s
+ideas topsy-turvy by demonstrating that the world as the
+abiding-place of animals and man is enormously old, and that
+man himself instead of deteriorating from a single perfect pair
+six thousand years removed, has ascended from bestiality through
+a slow process of evolution extending over hundreds of centuries.
+The revolution in practical life and in the mental life of our race
+that followed these inventions and this new presentation of
+truth probably exceeded in suddenness and in its far-reaching
+effects the metamorphosis effected at any previous transition
+from one ethnic period to another. The men of the 19th century,
+living now in the period that may be termed the Upper Status
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span>
+of civilization, saw such changes effected in the practical affairs
+of their everyday lives as had not been wrought before during the
+entire historical period. Their fathers had travelled in vehicles
+drawn by horses, quite as their remoter ancestors had done since
+the time of higher barbarism. It may be doubted whether
+there existed in the world in the year 1800 a postal service that
+could compare in speed and efficiency with the express service
+of the Romans of the time of Caesar; far less was there a telegraph
+service that could compare with that of the ancient
+Persians. Nor was there a ship sailing the seas that a Phoenician
+trireme might not have overhauled. But now within the
+lifetime of a single man the world was covered with a network
+of steel rails on which locomotives drew gigantic vehicles, laden
+with passengers at an hourly speed almost equalling Caesar&rsquo;s
+best journey of a day; over the land and under the seas were
+stretched wires along which messages coursed from continent
+to continent literally with the speed of lightning; and the waters
+of the earth were made to teem with gigantic craft propelled
+without sail or oar at a speed which the Phoenician captain of
+three thousand years ago and the English captain of the 18th
+century would alike have held incredible.</p>
+
+<p>There is no need to give further details here of the industrial
+revolutions that have been achieved in this newest period of
+civilization, since in their broader outlines at least
+they are familiar to every one. Nor need we dwell
+<span class="sidenote">Social and political organization.</span>
+upon the revolution in thought whereby man has for
+the first time been given a clear inkling as to his
+origin and destiny. It suffices to point out that such periods
+of fermentation of ideas as this suggests have probably always
+been concomitant with those outbursts of creative genius that
+gave the world the practical inventions upon which human
+progress has been conditioned. The same attitude of receptivity
+to new ideas is pre-requisite to one form of discovery as to the
+other. Nor, it may be added, can either form of idea become
+effective for the progress of civilization except in proportion as a
+large body of any given generation are prepared to receive it.
+Doubtless here and there a dreamer played with fire, in a literal
+sense, for generations before the utility of fire as a practical aid
+to human progress came to be recognized in practice. And&mdash;to
+seek an illustration at the other end of the scale&mdash;we know
+that the advanced thinkers of Greece and Rome believed in the
+antiquity of the earth and in the evolution of man two thousand
+years before the coming of Darwin. We have but partly solved
+the mysteries of the progress of civilization, then, when we have
+pointed out that each tangible stage of progress owed its initiative
+to a new invention or discovery of science. To go to the root
+of the matter we must needs explain how it came about that a
+given generation of men was in mental mood to receive the new
+invention or discovery.</p>
+
+<p>The pursuit of this question would carry us farther into the
+realm of communal and racial psychology&mdash;to say nothing of
+the realm of conjecture&mdash;than comports with the purpose of
+this article. It must suffice to point out that alertness of mind&mdash;that
+all mentality&mdash;is, in the last analysis, a reaction to the
+influences of the environment. It follows that man may subject
+himself to new influences and thus give his mind a new stimulus
+by changing his habitat. A fundamental secret of progress is
+revealed in this fact. Man probably never would have evolved
+from savagery had he remained in the Tropics where he doubtless
+originated. But successive scientific inventions enabled him,
+as has been suggested, to migrate to distant latitudes, and thus
+more or less involuntarily to become the recipient of new creative
+and progressive impulses. After migrations in many directions
+had resulted in the development of divers races, each with
+certain capacities and acquirements due to its unique environment,
+there was opportunity for the application of the principle
+of environmental stimulus in an indirect way, through the
+mingling and physical intermixture of one race with another.
+Each of the great localized civilizations of antiquity appears
+to have owed its prominence in part at least&mdash;perhaps very
+largely&mdash;to such intermingling of two or more races. Each
+of these civilizations began to decay so soon as the nation had
+remained for a considerable number of generations in its localized
+environment, and had practically ceased to receive accretions
+from distant races at approximately the same stage of development.
+There is a suggestive lesson for present-day civilization
+in that thought-compelling fact. Further evidence of the
+application of the principle of environmental stimulus, operating
+through changed habitat and racial intermixture, is furnished
+by the virility of the colonial peoples of our own day. The
+receptiveness to new ideas and the rapidity of material progress
+of Americans, South Africans and Australians are proverbial.
+No one doubts, probably, that one or another of these countries
+will give a new stimulus to the progress of civilization, through
+the promulgation of some great epochal discovery, in the not
+distant future. Again, the value of racial intermingling is
+shown yet nearer home in the long-continued vitality of the
+British nation, which is explicable, in some measure at least, by
+the fact that the Celtic element held aloof from the Anglo-Saxon
+element century after century sufficiently to maintain racial
+integrity, yet mingled sufficiently to give and receive the fresh
+stimulus of &ldquo;new blood.&rdquo; It is interesting in this connexion
+to examine the map of Great Britain with reference to the
+birthplaces of the men named above as being the originators
+of the inventions and discoveries that made the close of the 18th
+century memorable as ushering in a new ethnic era. It may be
+added that these names suggest yet another element in the
+causation of progress: the fact, namely, that, however necessary
+racial receptivity may be to the dynamitic upheaval of a new
+ethnic era, it is after all <i>individual</i> genius that applies its
+detonating spark.</p>
+
+<p>Without further elaboration of this aspect of the subject
+it may be useful to recapitulate the analysis of the evolution
+of civilization above given, prior to characterizing
+it from another standpoint. It appears that the entire
+<span class="sidenote">Nine periods of progress.</span>
+period of human progress up to the present may be
+divided into nine periods which, if of necessity more
+or less arbitrary, yet are not without certain warrant of logic.
+They may be defined as follows: (1) The Lower Period of
+Savagery, terminating with the discovery and application of the
+uses of fire. (2) The Middle Period of Savagery, terminating
+with the invention of the bow and arrow. (3) The Upper Period
+of Savagery, terminating with the invention of pottery. (4) The
+Lower Period of Barbarism, terminating with the domestication
+of animals. (5) The Middle Period of Barbarism, terminating
+with the discovery of the process of smelting iron ore. (6) The
+Upper Period of Barbarism, terminating with the development
+of a system of writing meeting the requirements of literary
+composition. (7) The First Period of Civilization (proper)
+terminating with the introduction of gunpowder. (8) The Second
+Period of Civilization, terminating with the invention of a
+practical steam-engine. (9) The Upper Period of Civilization,
+which is still in progress, but which, as will be suggested in a
+moment, is probably nearing its termination.</p>
+
+<p>It requires but a glance at the characteristics of these successive
+epochs to show the ever-increasing complexity of the inventions
+that delimit them and of the conditions of life that they
+connote. Were we to attempt to characterize in a few phrases the
+entire story of achievement thus outlined, we might say that
+during the three stages of Savagery man was attempting to make
+himself master of the geographical climates. His unconscious
+ideal was, to gain a foothold and the means of subsistence in
+every zone. During the three periods of Barbarism the ideal
+of conquest was extended to the beasts of the field, the vegetable
+world, and the mineral contents of the earth&rsquo;s crust. During the
+three periods of Civilization proper the ideal of conquest has
+become still more intellectual and subtle, being now extended
+to such abstractions as an analysis of speech-sounds, and to such
+intangibles as expanding gases and still more elusive electric
+currents: in other words, to the forces of nature, no less than
+to tangible substances. Hand in hand with this growing
+complexity of man&rsquo;s relations with the external world has
+gone a like increase of complexity in the social and political
+organizations that characterize man&rsquo;s relations with his fellowmen.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span>
+In savagery the family expanded into the tribe; in
+barbarism the tribe developed into the nation. The epoch of
+civilization proper is aptly named, because it has been a time in
+which citizenship, in the narrower national significance, has
+probably been developed to its apogee. Throughout this period,
+in every land, the highest virtue has been considered to be
+patriotism,&mdash;by which must be understood an instinctive
+willingness on the part of every individual to defend even with
+his life the interests of the nation into which he chances to be
+born, regardless of whether the national cause in which he struggles
+be in any given case good or bad, right or wrong. The communal
+judgment of this epoch pronounces any man a traitor who will
+not uphold his own nation even in a wrong cause&mdash;and the word
+&ldquo;traitor&rdquo; marks the utmost brand of ignominy.</p>
+
+<p>But while the idea of nationality has thus been accentuated,
+there has been a never-ending struggle within the bounds of the
+nation itself to adjust the relations of one citizen to
+another. The ideas that might makes right, that the
+<span class="sidenote">Nationality and cosmopolitanism.</span>
+strong man must dominate the weak, that leadership
+in the community properly belongs to the man who is
+physically most competent to lead&mdash;these ideas were
+a perfectly natural, and indeed an inevitable, outgrowth of the
+conditions under which man fought his way up through savagery
+and barbarism. Man in the first period of civilization inherited
+these ideas, along with the conditions of society that were their
+concomitants. So throughout the periods when the oriental
+civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria and Persia
+were dominant, a despotic form of government was accepted
+as the natural order of things. It does not appear that any other
+form was even considered as a practicality. A despot might
+indeed be overthrown, but only to make way for the coronation
+of another despot. A little later the Greeks and Romans modified
+the conception of a heaven-sent individual monarch; but they
+went no further than to substitute a heaven-favoured community,
+with specially favoured groups (<i>Patricii</i>) within the community.
+With this, national egoism reached its climax; for each people
+regarded its own citizens as the only exemplars of civilization,
+openly branding all the rest of the world as &ldquo;barbarians,&rdquo; fit
+subjects for the exaction of tribute or for the imposition of the
+bonds of actual slavery. During the middle ages there was a
+reaction towards individualism as opposed to nationalism:
+but the entire system of feudalism, with its clearly recognized
+conditions of over-lordship and of vassaldom, gave expression,
+no less clearly than oriental despotism and classical &ldquo;democracy&rdquo;
+had done, to the idea of individual inequality; of
+divergence of moral and legal status based on natural inheritance.
+Thus this idea, a reminiscence of barbarism, maintained its
+dominance throughout the first period of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>But gunpowder, marking the transition to the second period
+of civilization, came as a great levelling influence. With its aid
+the weakest peasant might prove more than a match for the most
+powerful knight. Before its assaults the castle of the lord ceased
+to be an impregnable fortress. And while gunpowder thus
+levelled down the power of the mighty, the printing-press levelled
+up the intelligence, and hence the power and influence of the
+lowly. Meantime the mariner&rsquo;s compass opened up new territories
+beyond the seas, and in due course men of lowly origin were
+seen to attain to wealth and power through commercial pursuits,
+thus tending to break in upon the established social order. In
+the colonial territories themselves all men were subjected more
+or less to the same perils and dependent upon their own efforts.
+Success and prominence in the community came not as a birthright,
+but as the result of demonstrated fitness. The great
+lesson that the interests of all members of a community are,
+in the last analysis, mutual could be more clearly distinguished
+in these small colonies than in larger and older bodies politic.
+Through various channels, therefore, in the successive generations
+of this middle period of civilization, the idea gained ground
+that intelligence and moral worth, rather than physical prowess,
+should be the test of greatness; that it is incumbent on the strong
+in the interests of the body politic to protect the weak; and that,
+in the long run, the best interests of the community are conserved
+if all its members, without exception, are given moral equality
+before the law. This idea of equal rights and privileges for all
+members of the community&mdash;for each individual &ldquo;the greatest
+amount of liberty consistent with a like liberty of every other
+individual&rdquo;&mdash;first found expression as a philosophical doctrine
+towards the close of the 18th century; at which time also tentative
+efforts were made to put it into practice. It may be said
+therefore to represent the culminating sociological doctrine of
+the middle period of civilization,&mdash;the ideal towards which all
+the influences of the period had tended to impel the race.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed, however, that this ideal of individual
+equality within the body politic in no direct wise influences the
+status of the body politic itself as the centre of a localized
+civilization that may be regarded as in a sense antagonistic to
+all other similarly localized civilizations. If there were any such
+influence, it would rather operate in the direction of accentuating
+the patriotism of the member of a democratical community, as
+against that of the subject of a despot, through the sense of
+personal responsibility developed in the former. The developments
+of the middle period of civilization cannot be considered,
+therefore, to have tended to decrease the spirit of nationality,
+with its concomitant penalty of what is sometimes called provincialism.
+The history of this entire period, as commonly
+presented, is largely made up of the records of international
+rivalries and jealousies, perennially culminating in bitterly
+contested wars. It was only towards the close of the epoch that
+the desirability of free commercial intercourse among nations
+began to find expression as a philosophical creed through the
+efforts of Quesnay and his followers; and the doctrine that both
+parties to an international commercial transaction are gainers
+thereby found its first clear expression in the year 1776 in the
+pages of Condillac and of Adam Smith.</p>
+
+<p>But the discoveries that ushered in the third period of civilization
+were destined to work powerfully from the outset for the
+breaking down of international barriers, though, of course,
+their effects would not be at once manifest. Thus the substitution
+of steam power for water power, besides giving a tremendous
+impetus to manufacturing in general, mapped out new industrial
+centres in regions that nature had supplied with coal but not
+always with other raw materials. To note a single result,
+England became the manufacturing centre of the world, drawing
+its raw materials from every corner of the globe; but in so
+doing it ceased to be self-supporting as regards the production
+of food-supplies. While growing in national wealth, as a result
+of the new inventions, England has therefore lost immeasurably
+in national self-sufficiency and independence; having become
+in large measure dependent upon other countries both for the
+raw materials without which her industries must perish and for
+the foods to maintain the very life of her people.</p>
+
+<p>What is true of England in this regard is of course true in
+greater or less measure of all other countries. Everywhere,
+thanks to the new mechanisms that increase industrial efficiency,
+there has been an increasing tendency to specialization; and
+since the manufacturer must often find his raw materials in one
+part of the world and his markets in another, this implies
+an ever-increasing intercommunication and interdependence
+between the nations. This spirit is obviously fostered by the
+new means of transportation by locomotive and steamship, and
+by the electric communication that enables the Londoner, for
+example, to transact business in New York or in Tokio with
+scarcely an hour&rsquo;s delay; and that puts every one in touch at
+to-day&rsquo;s breakfast table with the happenings of the entire world.
+Thanks to the new mechanisms, national isolation is no longer
+possible; globe-trotting has become a habit with thousands of
+individuals of many nations; and Orient and Occident, representing
+civilizations that for thousands of years were almost
+absolutely severed and mutually oblivious of each other, have
+been brought again into close touch for mutual education and
+betterment. The Western mind has learned with amazement
+that the aforetime <i>Terra Incognita</i> of the far East has nurtured
+a gigantic civilization having ideals in many ways far different
+from our own. The Eastern mind has proved itself capable, in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span>
+self-defence, of absorbing the essential practicalities of Western
+civilization within a single generation. Some of the most
+important problems of world-civilization of the immediate
+future hinge upon the mutual relations of these two long-severed
+communities, branched at some early stage of progress to
+opposite hemispheres of the globe, but now brought by the new
+mechanisms into daily and even hourly communication.</p>
+
+<p>While the new conditions of the industrial world have thus
+tended to develop a new national outlook, there has come about,
+as a result of the scientific discoveries already referred
+to, a no less significant broadening of the mental and
+<span class="sidenote">Modern humanism.</span>
+spiritual horizons. Here also the trend is away from
+the narrowly egoistic and towards the cosmopolitan view.
+About the middle of the 19th century Dr Pritchard declared
+that many people debated whether it might not be permissible
+for the Australian settlers to shoot the natives as food for their
+dogs; some of the disputants arguing that savages were without
+the pale of human brotherhood. To-day the thesis that all
+mankind are one brotherhood needs no defence. The most
+primitive of existing aborigines are regarded merely as brethren
+who, through some defect or neglect of opportunity, have lagged
+behind in the race. Similarly the defective and criminal classes
+that make up so significant a part of the population of even
+our highest present-day civilizations, are no longer regarded
+with anger or contempt, as beings who are suffering just punishment
+for wilful transgressions, but are considered as pitiful
+victims of hereditary and environmental influences that they
+could neither choose nor control. Insanity is no longer thought
+of as demoniac possession, but as the most lamentable of diseases.</p>
+
+<p>The changed attitude towards savage races and defective
+classes affords tangible illustrations of a fundamental transformation
+of point of view which doubtless represents the most important
+result of the operation of new scientific knowledge in the
+course of the 19th century. It is a transformation that is only
+partially effected as yet, to be sure; but it is rapidly making
+headway, and when fully achieved it will represent, probably,
+the most radical metamorphosis of mental view that has taken
+place in the entire course of the historical period. The essence
+of the new view is this: to recognize the universality and the
+invariability of natural law; stated otherwise, to understand
+that the word &ldquo;supernatural&rdquo; involves a contradiction of
+terms and has in fact no meaning. Whoever has grasped the
+full import of this truth is privileged to sweep mental horizons
+wider by far than ever opened to the view of any thinker of an
+earlier epoch. He is privileged to forecast, as the sure heritage
+of the future, a civilization freed from the last ghost of superstition&mdash;an
+Age of Reason in which mankind shall at last find
+refuge from the hosts of occult and invisible powers, the fearsome
+galaxies of deities and demons, which have haunted him thus
+far at every stage of his long journey through savagery, barbarism
+and civilization. Doubtless here and there a thinker, even in
+the barbaric eras, may have realized that these ghosts that so
+influenced the everyday lives of his fellows were but children
+of the imagination. But the certainty that such is the case
+could not have come with the force of demonstration even to
+the most clear-sighted thinker until 19th-century science had
+investigated with penetrating vision the realm of molecule
+and atom; had revealed the awe-inspiring principle of the
+conservation of energy; and had offered a comprehensible
+explanation of the evolution of one form of life from another,
+from monad to man, that did not presuppose the intervention of
+powers more &ldquo;supernatural&rdquo; than those that operate about
+us everywhere to-day.</p>
+
+<p>The stupendous import of these new truths could not, of
+course, make itself evident to the generality of mankind in a
+single generation, when opposed to superstitions of a thousand
+generations&rsquo; standing. But the new knowledge has made its
+way more expeditiously than could have been anticipated;
+and its effects are seen on every side, even where its agency is
+scarcely recognized. As a single illustration, we may note the
+familiar observation that the entire complexion of orthodox
+teaching of religion has been more altered in the past fifty
+years than in two thousand years before. This of course is not
+entirely due to the influence of physical and biological science;
+no effect has a unique cause, in the complex sociological scheme.
+Archaeology, comparative philology and textual criticism have
+also contributed their share; and the comparative study of
+religions has further tended to broaden the outlook and to make
+for universality, as opposed to insularity, of view. It is coming
+to be more and more widely recognized that all theologies are
+but the reflex of the more or less faulty knowledge of the times
+in which they originate, that the true and abiding purpose of
+religion should be the practical betterment of humanity&mdash;the
+advancement of civilization in the best sense of the word; and
+that this end may perhaps be best subserved by different systems
+of theology, adapted to the varied genius of different times and
+divers races. Wherefore there is not the same enthusiastic
+desire to-day that found expression a generation ago, to impose
+upon the cultured millions of the East a religion that seems to
+them alien to their manner of thought, unsuited to their needs
+and less distinctly ethical in teaching than their own religions.</p>
+
+<p>Such are but a few of the illustrations that might be cited from
+many fields to suggest that the mind of our generation is becoming
+receptive to a changed point of view that augurs the coming
+of a new ethnic era. If one may be permitted to enter very
+tentatively the field of prophecy, it seems not unlikely that the
+great revolutionary invention which will close the third period
+of civilization and usher in a new era is already being evolved.
+It seems not over-hazardous to predict that the air-ship, in one
+form or another, is destined to be the mechanism that will give
+the new impetus to human civilization; that the next era will
+have as one of its practical ideals the conquest of the air; and
+that this conquest will become a factor in the final emergence of
+humanity from the insularity of nationalism to the broad view
+of cosmopolitanism, towards which, as we have seen, the tendencies
+of the present era are verging. That the gap to be
+covered is a vastly wide one no one need be reminded who recalls
+that the civilized nations of Europe, together with America and
+Japan, are at present accustomed to spend more than three
+hundred million pounds each year merely that they may keep
+armaments in readiness to fly at one another&rsquo;s throats should
+occasion arise. Formidable as these armaments now seem,
+however, the developments of the not very distant future will
+probably make them quite obsolete; and sooner or later, as
+science develops yet more deadly implements of destruction,
+the time must come when communal intelligence will rebel at
+the suicidal folly of the international attitude that characterized,
+for example, the opening decade of the 20th century. At some
+time, after the first period of cosmopolitanism shall be ushered
+in as a tenth ethnic period, it will come to be recognized that
+there is a word fraught with fuller meanings even than the word
+patriotism. That word is humanitarianism. The enlightened
+generation that realizes the full implications of that word will
+doubtless marvel that their ancestors of the third period of
+civilization should have risen up as nations and slaughtered one
+another by thousands to settle a dispute about a geographical
+boundary. Such a procedure will appear to have been quite as
+barbarous as the cannibalistic practices of their yet more remote
+ancestors, and distinctly less rational, since cannibalism might
+sometimes save its practiser from starvation, whereas warfare
+of the civilized type was a purely destructive agency.</p>
+
+<p>Equally obvious must it appear to the cosmopolite of some
+generation of the future that quality rather than mere numbers
+must determine the efficiency of any given community. Race
+suicide will then cease to be a bugbear; and it will no longer be
+considered rational to keep up the census at the cost of propagating
+low orders of intelligence, to feed the ranks of paupers,
+defectives and criminals. On the contrary it will be thought
+fitting that man should become the conscious arbiter of his own
+racial destiny to the extent of applying whatever laws of heredity
+he knows or may acquire in the interests of his own species, as
+he has long applied them in the case of domesticated animals.
+The survival and procreation of the unfit will then cease to be
+a menace to the progress of civilization. It does not follow that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span>
+all men will be brought to a dead level of equality of body and
+mind, nor that individual competition will cease; but the average
+physical mental status of the race will be raised immeasurably
+through the virtual elimination of that vast company of defectives
+which to-day constitutes so threatening an obstacle to racial
+progress. There are millions of men in Europe and America
+to-day whose whole mental equipment&mdash;despite the fact that they
+have been taught to read and write&mdash;is far more closely akin to
+the average of the Upper Period of Barbarism than to the highest
+standards of their own time; and these undeveloped or atavistic
+persons have on the average more offspring than are produced
+by the more highly cultured and intelligent among their contemporaries.
+&ldquo;Race suicide&rdquo; is thereby prevented, but the progress
+of civilization is no less surely handicapped. We may well
+believe that the cosmopolite of the future, aided by science,
+will find rational means to remedy this strange illogicality. In so
+doing he will exercise a more consciously purposeful function,
+and perhaps a more directly potent influence, in determining
+the line of human progress than he has hitherto attempted to
+assume, notwithstanding the almost infinitely varied character
+of the experiments through which he has worked his way from
+savagery to civilization.</p>
+
+<p>All these considerations tend to define yet more clearly the
+ultimate goal towards which the progressive civilization of past
+and present appears to be trending. The contemplation
+of this goal brings into view the outlines of a vastly
+<span class="sidenote">Ethical evolution.</span>
+suggestive evolutionary cycle. For it appears that
+the social condition of cosmopolite man, so far as the present-day
+view can predict it, will represent a state of things, magnified
+to world-dimensions, that was curiously adumbrated by the social
+system of the earliest savage. At the very beginning of the
+journey through savagery, mankind, we may well believe, consisted
+of a limited tribe, representing no great range or variety
+of capacity, and an almost absolute identity of interests. Thanks
+to this community of interests,&mdash;which was fortified by the
+recognition of blood-relationship among all members of the tribe,&mdash;a
+principle which we now define as &ldquo;the greatest ultimate
+good to the greatest number&rdquo; found practical, even if unwitting,
+recognition; and therein lay the germs of all the moral development
+of the future. But obvious identity of interests could be
+recognized only so long as the tribe remained very small. So
+soon as its numbers became large, patent diversities of interest,
+based on individual selfishness, must appear, to obscure the
+larger harmony. And as savage man migrated hither and thither,
+occupying new regions and thus developing new tribes and
+ultimately a diversity of &ldquo;races,&rdquo; all idea of community of
+interests, as between race and race, must have been absolutely
+banished. It was the obvious and patent fact that each race was
+more or less at rivalry, in disharmony, with all the others. In
+the hard struggle for subsistence, the expansion of one race meant
+the downfall of another. So far as any principle of &ldquo;greatest
+good&rdquo; remained in evidence, it applied solely to the members of
+one&rsquo;s own community, or even to one&rsquo;s particular phratry or
+gens.</p>
+
+<p>Barbaric man, thanks to his conquest of animal and vegetable
+nature, was able to extend the size of the unified community,
+and hence to develop through diverse and intricate channels
+the application of the principle of &ldquo;greatest good&rdquo; out of which
+the idea of right and wrong was elaborated. But quite as little
+as the savage did he think of extending the application of the
+principle beyond the bounds of his own race. The laws with
+which he gave expression to his ethical conceptions applied,
+of necessity, to his own people alone. The gods with which his
+imagination peopled the world were local in habitat, devoted
+to the interests of his race only, and at enmity with the gods of
+rival peoples. As between nation and nation, the only principle
+of ethics that ever occurred to him was that might makes right.
+Civilized man for a long time advanced but slowly upon this view
+of international morality. No Egyptian or Babylonian or
+Hebrew or Greek or Roman ever hesitated to attack a weaker
+nation on the ground that it would be wrong to do so. And
+few indeed are the instances in which even a modern nation has
+judged an international question on any other basis than that
+of self-interest. It was not till towards the close of the 19th
+century that an International Peace Conference gave tangible
+witness that the idea of fellowship of nations was finding recognition;
+and in the same recent period history has recorded the first
+instance of a powerful nation vanquishing a weaker one without
+attempting to exact at least an &ldquo;indemnifying&rdquo; tribute.</p>
+
+<p>But the citizen of the future, if the auguries of the present
+prove true, will be able to apply principles of right and wrong
+without reference to national boundaries. He will understand
+that the interests of the entire human family are, in the last
+analysis, common interests. The census through which he
+attempts to estimate &ldquo;the greatest good of the greatest number&rdquo;
+must include, not his own nation merely, but the remotest
+member of the human race. On this universal basis must be
+founded that absolute standard of ethics which will determine
+the relations of cosmopolite man with his fellows. When this
+ideal is attained, mankind will again represent a single family,
+as it did in the day when our primeval ancestors first entered
+on the pathway of progress; but it will be a family whose habitat
+has been extended from the narrow glade of some tropical forest
+to the utmost habitable confines of the globe. Each member of
+this family will be permitted to enjoy the greatest amount of
+liberty consistent with the like liberty of every other member;
+but the interests of the few will everywhere be recognized as
+subservient to the interests of the many, and such recognition
+of mutual interests will establish the practical criterion for the
+interpretation of international affairs.</p>
+
+<p>But such an extension of the altruistic principle by no means
+presupposes the elimination of egoistic impulses&mdash;of individualism.
+On the contrary, we must suppose that man at
+the highest stages of culture will be, even as was the
+<span class="sidenote">Progress and efficiency.</span>
+savage, a seeker after the greatest attainable degree of
+comfort for the least necessary expenditure of energy.
+The pursuit of this ideal has been from first to last the ultimate
+impelling force in nature urging man forward. The only change
+has been a change in the interpretation of the ideal, an altered
+estimate as to what manner of things are most worth the purchase-price
+of toil and self-denial. That the things most worth the
+having cannot, generally speaking, be secured without such toil
+and self-denial, is a lesson that began to be inculcated while man
+was a savage, and that has never ceased to be reiterated generation
+after generation. It is the final test of progressive civilization
+that a given effort shall produce a larger and larger modicum
+of average individual comfort. That is why the great inventions
+that have increased man&rsquo;s efficiency as a worker have been the
+necessary prerequisites to racial progress. Stated otherwise, that
+is why the industrial factor is everywhere the most powerful
+factor in civilization; and why the economic interpretation is
+the most searching interpretation of history at its every stage.
+It is the basal fact that progress implies increased average
+working efficiency&mdash;a growing ratio between average effort and
+average achievement&mdash;that gives sure warrant for such a prognostication
+as has just been attempted concerning the future
+industrial unification of our race. The efforts of civilized man
+provide him, on the average, with a marvellous range of comforts,
+as contrasted with those that rewarded the most strenuous
+efforts of savage or barbarian, to whom present-day necessaries
+would have been undreamed-of luxuries. But the ideal ratio
+between effort and result has by no means been achieved;
+nor will it have been until the inventive brain of man has provided
+a civilization in which a far higher percentage of citizens
+will find the life-vocations to which they are best adapted by
+nature, and in which, therefore, the efforts of the average worker
+may be directed with such vigour, enthusiasm and interest as can
+alone make for true efficiency; a civilization adjusted to such
+an economic balance that the average man may live in reasonable
+comfort without heart-breaking strain, and yet accumulate a
+sufficient surplus to ensure ease and serenity for his declining
+days. Such, seemingly, should be the normal goal of progressive
+civilization. Doubtless mankind in advancing towards that
+goal will institute many changes that could by no possibility be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span>
+foretold, but (to summarize the views just presented) it seems a
+safe augury from present-day conditions and tendencies that the
+important lines of progress will include (1) the organic betterment
+of the race through wise application of the laws of heredity;
+(2) the lessening of international jealousies and the consequent
+minimizing of the drain upon communal resources that attends
+a military régime; and (3) an ever-increasing movement towards
+the industrial and economic unification of the world.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. S. WI.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;A list of works dealing with the savage and
+barbarous periods of human development will be found appended
+to the article ANTHROPOLOGY. Special reference may here be made
+to E.B. Tylor&rsquo;s <i>Early History of Mankind</i> (1865), <i>Primitive Culture</i>
+(1871) and <i>Anthropology</i> (1881); Lord Avebury&rsquo;s <i>Prehistoric Times</i>
+(new edition, 1900) and <i>Origin of Civilization</i> (new edition, 1902);
+A.H. Keane&rsquo;s <i>Man Past and Present</i> (1899); and Lewis H. Morgan&rsquo;s
+<i>Ancient Society</i> (1877). The earliest attempt at writing a history
+of civilization which has any value for the 20th-century reader
+was F. Guizot&rsquo;s in 1828-1830, a handy English translation by
+William Hazlitt being included in Bohn&rsquo;s Standard Library under
+the title of <i>The History of Civilization</i>. The earlier lectures, delivered
+at the Old Sorbonne, deal with the general progress of
+European civilization, whilst the greater part of the work is an
+account of the growth of civilization in France. Guizot&rsquo;s attitude
+is somewhat antiquated, but this book still has usefulness as a storehouse
+of facts. T.H. Buckle&rsquo;s famous work, <i>The History of Civilization
+in England</i> (1857-1861), though only a gigantic unfinished
+introduction to the author&rsquo;s proposed enterprise, holds an important
+place in historical literature on account of the new method which
+it introduced, and has given birth to a considerable number of
+valuable books on similar lines, such as Lecky&rsquo;s <i>History of European
+Morals</i> (1869) and <i>Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe</i>
+(1865). J.W. Draper&rsquo;s <i>History of the Intellectual Development of
+Europe</i> (1861) undertook, from the American stand-point, &ldquo;the
+labour of arranging the evidence offered by the intellectual history
+of Europe in accordance with physiological principles, so as to
+illustrate the orderly progress of civilization.&rdquo; Its objective treatment
+and wealth of learning still give it great value to the student.
+Since the third quarter of the 19th century it may be said that all
+serious historical work has been more or less a history of civilization
+as displayed in all countries and ages, and a bibliography of the
+works bearing on the subject would be coextensive with the catalogue
+of a complete historical library. Special mention, however,
+may be made of such important and suggestive works as C.H.
+Pearson&rsquo;s <i>National Life and Character</i> (1893); Benjamin Kidd&rsquo;s
+<i>Social Evolution</i> (1894) and <i>Principles of Western Civilization</i>
+(1902); Edward Eggleston&rsquo;s <i>Transit of Civilization</i> (1901); C.
+Seignobos&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la civilisation</i> (1887); C. Faulmann&rsquo;s <i>Illustrirte
+Culturgeschichte</i> (1881); G. Ducoudray&rsquo;s <i>Histoire de la
+civilisation</i> (1886); J. von Hellwald&rsquo;s <i>Kulturgeschichte</i> (1896);
+J. Lippert&rsquo;s <i>Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit</i> (1886); O. Henne-am-Rhyn&rsquo;s
+<i>Die Kultur der Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft</i> (1890);
+G. Kurth&rsquo;s <i>Origines de la civilisation moderne</i> (1886), &amp;c. The vast
+collection of modern works on sociology, from Herbert Spencer
+onwards, should also be consulted; see bibliography attached to
+the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sociology</a></span>. The historical method on which practically
+all the articles of the present edition of the <i>Ency. Brit.</i> are planned,
+makes the whole work itself in essentials the most comprehensive
+history of civilization in existence.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVIL LAW<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span>, a phrase which, with its Latin equivalent <i>jus
+civile</i>, has been used in a great variety of meanings. <i>Jus civile</i>
+was sometimes used to distinguish that portion of the Roman
+law which was the proper or ancient law of the city or state of
+Rome from the <i>jus gentium</i>, or the law common to all the nations
+comprising the Roman world, which was incorporated with
+the former through the agency of the praetorian edicts. This
+historical distinction remained as a permanent principle of division
+in the body of the Roman law. One of the first propositions of
+the Institutes of Justinian is the following:&mdash;&ldquo;Jus autem civile
+vel gentium ita dividitur. Omnes populi qui legibus et moribus
+reguntur partim suo proprio, partim communi omnium hominum
+jure utuntur; nam quod quisque populus ipsi sibi jus constituit,
+id ipsius civitatis proprium est, vocaturque jus civile quasi jus
+proprium ipsius civitatis. Quod vero naturalis ratio inter omnes
+homines constituit, id apud omnes peraeque custoditur, vocaturque
+jus gentium quasi quo jure omnes gentes utuntur.&rdquo; The
+<i>jus gentium</i> of this passage is elsewhere identified with <i>jus naturale</i>,
+so that the distinction comes to be one between civil law and
+natural or divine law. The municipal or private law of a state
+is sometimes described as civil law in distinction to public or
+international law. Again, the municipal law of a state may be
+divided into civil law and criminal law. The phrase, however,
+is applied <i>par excellence</i> to the system of law created by the
+genius of the Roman people, and handed down by them to the
+nations of the modern world (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>). The civil law
+in this sense would be distinguished from the local or national
+law of modern states. The civil law in this sense is further to
+be distinguished from that adaptation of its principles to ecclesiastical
+purposes which is known as the canon law (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVIL LIST<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span>, the English term for the account in which are
+contained all the expenses immediately applicable to the support
+of the British sovereign&rsquo;s household and the honour and
+dignity of the crown. An annual sum is settled by the British
+parliament at the beginning of the reign on the sovereign, and is
+charged on the consolidated fund. But it is only from the reign
+of William IV. that the sum thus voted has been restricted solely
+to the personal expenses of the crown. Before his accession
+many charges properly belonging to the ordinary expenses of
+government had been placed on the civil list. The history
+<span class="sidenote">History</span>
+of the civil list dates from the reign of William and
+Mary. Before the Revolution no distinction had
+been made between the expenses of government in time of
+peace and the expenses relating to the personal dignity and
+support of the sovereign. The ordinary revenues derived from
+the hereditary revenues of the crown, and from certain taxes
+voted for life to the king at the beginning of each reign, were
+supposed to provide for the support of the sovereign&rsquo;s dignity
+and the civil government, as well as for the public defence in
+time of peace. Any saving made by the king in the expenditure
+touching the government of the country or its defence would go to
+swell his privy purse. But with the Revolution a step forward
+was made towards the establishment of the principle that the
+expenses relating to the support of the crown should be separated
+from the ordinary expenses of the state. The evils of the old
+system under which no appropriation was made of the ordinary
+revenue granted to the crown for life had been made manifest
+in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.; it was their control
+of these large revenues that made them so independent of
+parliament. Moreover, while the civil government and the defences
+suffered, the king could use these revenues as he liked. The
+parliament of William and Mary fixed the revenue of the crown
+in time of peace at £1,200,000 per annum; of this sum about
+£700,000 was appropriated towards the &ldquo;civil list.&rdquo; But from
+this the sovereign was to defray the expenses of the civil service
+and the payment of pensions, as well as the cost of the support
+of the royal household and his own personal expenses. It was
+from this that the term &ldquo;civil list&rdquo; arose, to distinguish it from
+the statement of military and naval charges. The revenue voted
+to meet the civil list consisted of the hereditary revenues of the
+crown and a part of the excise duties. Certain changes and additions
+were made in the sources of revenue thus appropriated
+between the reign of William and Mary and the accession of
+George III., when a different system was adopted. Generally
+speaking, however, the sources of revenue remained as settled
+at the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Anne had the same civil list, estimated to produce an annual
+income of £700,000. During her reign a debt of £1,200,000 was
+incurred. This debt was paid by parliament and
+charged on the civil list itself. George I. enjoyed the
+<span class="sidenote">Anne, George I. and George II.</span>
+same revenue by parliamentary grant, in addition to
+an annual sum of £120,000 on the aggregate fund.
+A debt of £1,000,000 was incurred, and discharged by parliament
+in the same manner as Anne&rsquo;s debt had been. To George II.
+a civil list of £800,000 as a minimum was granted, parliament
+undertaking to make up any deficiency if the sources of income
+appropriated to its service fell short of that sum. Thus in 1746
+a debt of £456,000 was paid by parliament on the civil list.
+On the accession of George III. a change was made in the system
+of the civil list. Hitherto the sources of revenue appropriated
+<span class="sidenote">George III.</span>
+to the service of the civil list had been settled on
+the crown. If these revenues exceeded the sum they
+were computed to produce annually, the surplus went to the king.
+George III., however, surrendered the life-interest in the hereditary
+revenues and the excise duties hitherto voted to defray
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span>
+the civil list expenditure, and any claim to a surplus for a fixed
+amount. The king still retained other large sources of revenue
+which were not included in the civil list, and were free from the
+control of parliament. The revenues from which the civil list
+had been defrayed were henceforward to be carried into, and
+made part of, the aggregate fund. In their place a fixed civil
+list was granted&mdash;at first of £723,000 per annum, to be increased
+to £800,000 on the falling in of certain annuities to members
+of the royal family. From this £800,000 the king&rsquo;s household
+and the honour and dignity of the crown were to be supported,
+as well as the civil service offices, pensions and other charges
+still laid on the list.</p>
+
+<p>During the reign of George III. the civil list played an important
+part in the history of the struggle on the part of the king
+to establish the royal ascendancy. From the revenue appropriated
+to its service came a large portion of the money employed
+by the king in creating places and pensions for his supporters
+in parliament, and, under the colour of the royal bounty, bribery
+was practised on a large scale. No limit was set to the amount
+applicable to the pensions charged on the civil list, so long as the
+sum granted could meet the demand; and there was no principle
+on which the grant was regulated. Secret pensions at the king&rsquo;s
+pleasure were paid out of it, and in every way the independence
+of parliament was menaced; and though the more legitimate
+expenses of the royal household were diminished by the king&rsquo;s
+penurious style of living, and though many charges not directly
+connected with the king&rsquo;s personal expenditure were removed,
+the amount was constantly exceeded, and applications were
+made from time to time to parliament to pay off debts incurred;
+and thus opportunity was given for criticism. In 1769 a debt
+of £513,511 was paid off in arrears; and in spite of the demand
+for accounts and for an inquiry into the cause of the debt, the
+<span class="sidenote">Indebtedness of civil list.</span>
+ministry succeeded in securing this vote without
+granting such information. All attempts to investigate
+the civil list were successfully resisted, though Lord
+Chatham went so far as to declare himself convinced
+that the funds were expended in corrupting members of parliament.
+Again, in 1777, an application was made to parliament
+to pay off £618,340 of debts; and in view of the growing discontent
+Lord North no longer dared to withhold accounts. Yet,
+in spite of strong opposition and free criticism, not only was the
+amount voted, but also a further £100,000 per annum, thus
+raising the civil list to an annual sum of £900,000.</p>
+
+<p>In 1779, at a time when the expenditure of the country and
+the national debt had been enormously increased by the American
+War, the general dissatisfaction found voice in parliament,
+and the abuses of the civil list were specially singled out for
+attack. Many petitions were presented to the House of Commons
+praying for its reduction, and a motion was made in the House
+of Lords in the same sense, though it was rejected. In 1780
+Burke brought forward his scheme of economic reform, but his
+name was already associated with the growing desire to remedy
+the evils of the civil list by the publication in 1769 of his pamphlet
+on &ldquo;The Causes of the Present Discontent.&rdquo; In this scheme
+Burke freely animadverts on the profusion and abuse of the
+civil list, criticizing the useless and obsolete offices and the
+offices performed by deputy. In every department he discovers
+jobbery, waste and peculation. His proposal was that the many
+offices should be reduced and consolidated, that the pension
+list should be brought down to a fixed sum of £60,000 per annum,
+and that pensions should be conferred only to reward merit or
+fulfil real public charity. All pensions were to be paid at the
+exchequer. He proposed also that the civil list should be
+divided into classes, an arrangement which later was carried
+into effect. In 1780 Burke succeeded in bringing in his Establishment
+Bill; but though at first it met with considerable support,
+and was even read a second time, Lord North&rsquo;s government
+defeated it in committee. The next year the bill was again
+introduced into the House of Commons, and Pitt made his
+first speech in its favour. The bill was, however, lost on the
+second reading.</p>
+
+<p>In 1782 the Rockingham ministry, pledged to economic
+reform, came into power; and the Civil List Act 1782 was
+introduced and carried with the express object of limiting the
+patronage and influence of ministers, or, in other
+<span class="sidenote">Civil List Act 1782.</span>
+words, the ascendancy of the crown over parliament.
+Not only did the act effect the abolition of a
+number of useless offices, but it also imposed restraints on the
+issue of secret service money, and made provision for a more
+effectual supervision of the royal expenditure. As to the pension
+list, the annual amount was to be limited to £95,000; no pension
+to any one person was to exceed £1200, and all pensions were to
+be paid at the exchequer, thus putting a stop to the secret
+pensions payable during pleasure. Moreover, pensions were
+only to be bestowed in the way of royal bounty for persons in
+distress or as a reward for merit. Another very important
+change was made by this act: the civil list was divided into
+classes, and a fixed amount was to be appropriated to each
+class. The following were the classes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed1">
+<p>1. Pensions and allowances of the royal family.</p>
+<p>2. Payment of salaries of lord chancellor, speaker and judges.</p>
+<p>3. Salaries of ministers to foreign courts resident at the same.</p>
+<p>4. Approved bills of tradesmen, artificers and labourers for any
+   article supplied and work done for His Majesty&rsquo;s service.</p>
+<p>5. Menial servants of the household.</p>
+<p>6. Pension list.</p>
+<p>7. Salaries of all other places payable out of the civil list revenues.</p>
+<p>8. Salaries and pensions of treasurer or commissioners of the
+   treasury and of the chancellor of the exchequer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Yet debt was still the condition of the civil list down to the
+end of the reign, in spite of the reforms established by the
+Rockingham ministry, and notwithstanding the removal from
+the list of many charges unconnected with the king&rsquo;s personal
+expenses. The debts discharged by parliament between 1782,
+the date of the passing of the Civil List Act, and the end of
+George III.&rsquo;s reign, amounted to £2,300,000. In all, during
+his reign £3,398,061 of debt owing by the civil list was paid off.</p>
+
+<p>With the regency the civil list was increased by £70,000 per
+annum, and a special grant of £100,000 was settled on the prince
+regent. In 1816 the annual amount was settled at £1,083,727,
+including the establishment of the king, now insane; though
+the civil list was relieved from some annuities payable to the
+royal family. Nevertheless, the fund still continued charged
+with such civil expenses as the salaries of judges, ambassadors
+and officers of state, and with pensions granted for public
+services. Other reforms were made as regards the definition
+of the several classes of expenditure, while the expenses of the
+royal household were henceforth to be audited by a treasury
+official&mdash;the auditor of the civil list. On the accession of George
+IV. the civil list, freed from the expenses of the late king, was
+settled at £845,727. On William IV. coming to the throne a
+sum of £510,000 per annum was fixed for the service of the civil
+list. The king at the same time surrendered all the sources of
+revenue enjoyed by his predecessors, apart from the civil list,
+represented by the hereditary revenues of Scotland&mdash;the Irish
+civil list, the droits of the crown and admiralty, the 4½% duties,
+the West India duties, and other casual revenues hitherto vested
+in the crown, and independent of parliament. The revenues
+of the duchy of Lancaster were still retained by the crown.
+In return for this surrender and the diminished sum voted,
+the civil list was relieved from all the charges relating rather
+to the civil government than to the support of the dignity of the
+crown and the royal household. The future expenditure was
+divided into five classes, and a fixed annual sum was appropriated
+to each class. The pension list was reduced to £75,000. The
+king resisted an attempt on the part of the select committee to
+reduce the salaries of the officers of state on the grounds that
+this touched his prerogative, and the ministry of Earl Grey
+yielded to his remonstrance.</p>
+
+<p>The civil list of Queen Victoria was settled on the same principles
+as that of William IV. A considerable reduction
+was made in the aggregate annual sum voted,
+from £510,000 to £385,000, and the pension list was
+<span class="sidenote">Queen Victoria&rsquo;s civil list.</span>
+separated from the ordinary civil list. The civil list
+proper was divided into the following five classes, with a fixed
+sum appropriated to each:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 50%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Privy purse</td>  <td class="tcr">£60,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Salaries of household</td>  <td class="tcr">131,260</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Expenses of household</td>  <td class="tcr">172,500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Royal bounty, &amp;c.</td>  <td class="tcr">13,200</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Unappropriated</td>  <td class="tcr">8,040</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In addition the queen might, on the advice of her ministers,
+grant pensions up to £1200 per annum, in accordance with a
+resolution of the House of Commons of February 18th, 1834,
+&ldquo;to such persons as have just claims on the royal beneficence
+or who, by their personal services to the crown, by the performance
+of duties to the public, or by their useful discoveries in
+science and attainments in literature and art, have merited the
+gracious consideration of the sovereign and the gratitude of
+their country.&rdquo; The service of these pensions increased the
+annual sum devoted to support the dignity of the crown and the
+expenses of the household to about £409,000. The list of pensions
+must be laid before parliament within thirty days of 20th June.
+Thus the civil list was reduced in amount, and relieved from the
+very charges which gave it its name as distinct from the statement
+of military and naval charges. It now really only dealt
+with the support of the dignity and honour of the crown and
+the royal household. The arrangement was most successful,
+and during the last three reigns there was no application to
+parliament for the discharge of debts incurred on the civil list.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Queen Victoria rendered it necessary that
+a renewed provision should be made for the civil list; and King
+Edward VII., following former precedents, placed
+unreservedly at the disposal of parliament his hereditary
+<span class="sidenote">Civil List Act 1901.</span>
+revenues. A select committee of the House of
+Commons was appointed to consider the provisions of the civil
+list for the crown, and to report also on the question of grants
+for the honourable support and maintenance of Her Majesty the
+Queen and the members of the royal family. The committee in
+their conclusions were guided to a considerable extent by the
+actual civil list expenditure during the last ten years of the last
+reign, and made certain recommendations which, without undue
+interference with the sovereign&rsquo;s personal arrangements, tended
+towards increased efficiency and economy in the support of the
+sovereign&rsquo;s household and the honour and dignity of the crown.
+On their report was based the Civil List Act 1901, which established
+the new civil list. The system that the hereditary revenues
+should as before be paid into the exchequer and be part of the
+consolidated fund was maintained. The amount payable for
+the civil list was increased from £385,000 to £470,000. In the
+application of this sum the number of classes of expenditure
+to which separate amounts were to be appropriated was increased
+from five to six. The following was the new arrangement of
+classes:&mdash;1st class, Their Majesties&rsquo; privy purse, £110,000;
+2nd class, salaries of His Majesty&rsquo;s household and retired allowances,
+£125,800; 3rd class, expenses of His Majesty&rsquo;s household,
+£193,000; 4th class, works (the interior repair and decoration
+of Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle), £20,000; 5th class,
+royal bounty, alms and special services, £13,200; 6th class,
+unappropriated, £8000. The system relating to civil list pensions,
+established by the Civil List Act 1837, continued to apply, but
+the pensions were not regarded as chargeable on the sum paid
+for the civil list. The committee also advised that the mastership
+of the Buckhounds should not be continued; and the king, on
+the advice of his ministers, agreed to accept their recommendation.
+The maintenance of the royal hunt thus ceased to be a
+charge on the civil list. The annuities of £20,000 to the prince
+of Wales, of £10,000 to the princess of Wales, and of £18,000 to
+His Majesty&rsquo;s three daughters, were not included in the civil
+list, though they were conferred by the same act. Other grants
+made by special acts of parliament to members of the royal
+family were also excluded from it; these were £6000 to the
+princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, £6000 to the princess
+Louise (duchess of Argyll), £25,000 to the duke of Connaught,
+£6000 to the duchess of Albany, £6000 to the princess Beatrice
+(Henry of Battenberg), and £3000 to the duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>It may be interesting to compare with the British civil list the
+corresponding figures in other countries. These are as follows,
+the figures being those, for convenience, of 1905. Spain, £280,000,
+exclusive of allowances to members of the royal family; Portugal,
+<span class="sidenote">Figures in other countries.</span>
+£97,333, in addition to £1333 to the queen-consort&mdash;total
+grant to the royal family, £116,700; Italy, £602,000,
+from which was deducted £16,000 for the children of the
+deceased Prince Amedeo, duke of Aosta, £16,000 to Prince
+Tommaso, duke of Genoa, and £40,000 to Queen Margherita;
+Belgium, £140,000; Netherlands, £50,000, with, in addition,
+£4000 for the maintenance of the royal palaces; Germany, £770,500
+(<i>Krondotations Rente</i>), the sovereign also possessing large private
+property (<i>Kronfideikommiss und Schatullgüter</i>), the revenue from
+which contributed to the expenditure of the court and the members
+of the royal family; Denmark, £55,500, in addition to £6600 to
+the heir-apparent; Norway, £38,888; Sweden, £72,700; Greece,
+£52,000, which included £4000 each from Great Britain, France
+and Russia; Austria-Hungary, £941,666, made up of £387,500 as
+emperor of Austria out of the revenues of Austria, and £554,166 as
+king of Hungary out of the revenues of Hungary; Japan, £300,000;
+Rumania, £47,000, in addition to revenues from certain crown lands;
+Servia, £48,000; Bulgaria, £40,000, besides £30,000 for maintenance
+of palaces, &amp;c.; Montenegro, £8300; Russia had no civil list, the
+sovereign having all the revenue from the crown domains (actual
+amount unknown, but supposed to amount to over £4,000,000);
+the president of the French Republic had a salary of £24,000 a
+year, with a further £24,000 for expenses; and the president of the
+United States had a salary of $50,000 (from 1909, $75,000).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVIL SERVICE<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span>, the generic name given to the aggregate of
+all the public servants, or paid civil administrators and clerks,
+of a state. It is the machinery by which the executive, through
+the various administrations, carries on the central government
+of the country.</p>
+
+<p><i>British Empire.</i>&mdash;The appointments to the civil service until
+the year 1855 were made by nomination, with an examination
+not sufficient to form an intellectual or even a physical test.
+It was only after much consideration and almost years of discussion
+that the nomination system was abandoned. Various
+commissions reported on the civil service, and orders in council
+were issued. Finally in 1855 a qualifying examination of a
+stringent character was instituted, and in 1870 the principle
+of open competition was adopted as a general rule. On the
+report of the Playfair Commission (1876), an order in council
+was issued dividing the civil service into an upper and lower
+division. The order in council directed that a lower division
+should be constituted, and men and boy clerks holding permanent
+positions replaced the temporary assistants and writers.
+The &ldquo;temporary&rdquo; assistant was not found to be advantageous
+to the service. In December 1886 a new class of assistant
+clerks was formed to replace the men copyists. In 1887 the
+Ridley Commission reported on the civil service establishment.
+In 1890 two orders in council were issued based on the reports
+of the Ridley Commission, which sat from 1886 to 1890. The
+first order constituted what is now known as the second division
+of the civil service. The second order in council concerned the
+officers of the 1st class; and provision was made for the possible
+promotion of the second division clerks to the first division after
+eight years&rsquo; service.</p>
+
+<p>The whole system is under the administration of the civil
+service commissioners, and power is given to them, with the
+approval of the treasury, to prescribe the subjects of examination,
+limits of age, &amp;c. The age is fixed for compulsory retirement
+at sixty-five. In exceptional cases a prolongation of five
+years is within the powers of the civil service commissioners.
+The examination for 1st class clerkships is held concurrently
+with that of the civil service of India and Eastern cadetships
+in the colonial service. Candidates can compete for all three
+or for two. In addition to the intellectual test the candidate
+must fulfil the conditions of age (22 to 24), must present recommendations
+as to character, and pass a medical examination.
+This examination approximates closely to the university type
+of education. Indeed, there is little chance of success except
+for candidates who have had a successful university career,
+and frequently, in addition, special preparation by a private
+teacher. The subjects include the language and literature of
+England, France, Germany, Italy, ancient Greece and Rome,
+Sanskrit and Arabic, mathematics (pure and applied), natural
+science (chemistry, physics, zoology, &amp;c.), history (English,
+Greek, Roman and general  modern), political economy and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span>
+economic history, mental and moral philosophy, Roman and
+English law and political science. The candidate is obliged to
+reach a certain standard of knowledge in each subject before
+any marks at all are allowed him. This rule was made to prevent
+success by mere cramming, and to ensure competent knowledge
+on the basis of real study.</p>
+
+<p>The maximum scale of the salaries of clerks of Class I. is as
+follows:&mdash;3rd class, £200 a year, increasing by £20 a year to
+£500; 2nd class, £600, increasing by £25 a year to £800; 1st
+class, £850, increasing by £50 a year to £1000. Their pensions
+are fixed by the Superannuation Act 1859, 22 Vict. c. 26:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;To any person who shall have served ten years and upwards,
+and under eleven years, an annual allowance of ten-sixtieths of
+the annual salary and emoluments of his office:</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;For eleven years and under twelve years, an annual allowance
+of eleven-sixtieths of such salary and emoluments:</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;And in like manner a further addition to the annual allowance
+of one-sixtieth in respect of each additional year of such service,
+until the completion of a period of service of forty years, when the
+annual allowance of forty-sixtieths may be granted; and no additions
+shall be made in respect of any service beyond forty years.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;ordinary annual holidays allowed to officers&rdquo; (1st class)
+&ldquo;shall not exceed thirty-six week-days during each of their first
+ten years of service and forty-eight week-days thereafter.&rdquo; Order
+in Council, 15th August 1890.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Within that maximum heads of departments have now, as
+they have hitherto had, an absolute discretion in fixing the annual
+leave.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sick leave can be granted on full salary for not more than six
+months, on half-salary for another six months.</p>
+
+<p>The scale of salary for 2nd division clerks begins at £70 a year,
+increasing by £5 to £100; then £100 a year, increasing by £7, 10s.
+to £190; and then £190 a year, increasing by £10 to £250. The
+highest is £300 to £500. Advancement in the 2nd division to the
+higher ranks depends on merit, not seniority. The ordinary
+annual holiday of the 2nd division clerks is 14 working days for
+the first five years, and 21 working days afterwards. They can
+be allowed sick leave for six months on full pay and six months
+on half-pay. The subjects of their examination are: (1) handwriting
+and orthography, including copying MS.; (2) arithmetic;
+(3) English composition; (4) précis, including indexing and digest
+of returns; (5) book-keeping and shorthand writing; (6) geography
+and English history; (7) Latin; (8) French; (9) German;
+(10) elementary mathematics; (11) inorganic chemistry
+with elements of physics. Not more than four of the subjects
+(4) to (11) can be taken. The candidate must be between the
+ages of 17 and 20. A certain number of the places in the 2nd
+division were reserved for the candidates from the boy clerks
+appointed under the old system. The competition is severe, only
+about one out of every ten candidates being successful. Candidates
+are allowed a choice of departments subject to the exigencies
+of the services.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is also a class of boy copyists who are almost entirely
+employed in London, a few in Dublin and Edinburgh, and, very
+seldom, in some provincial towns. The subjects of their examination
+are: <i>Obligatory</i>&mdash;handwriting and orthography, arithmetic and
+English composition. <i>Optional</i>&mdash;(any two of the following): (1)
+copying MS.; (2) geography; (3) English history; (4) translation
+from one of the following languages&mdash;Latin, French or German;
+(5) Euclid, bk. i. and ii., and algebra, up to and including simple
+equations; (6) rudiments of chemistry and physics. Candidates
+must be between the ages of 15 and 18. They have no claims to
+superannuation or compensation allowance. Boy copyists are not
+retained after the age of 20.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Candidates for the civil service of India take the same examination
+as for 1st class clerkships. Candidates successful in
+the examination must subsequently spend one year in England.
+They receive for that year £150 if they elect to live at one of the
+universities or colleges approved by the secretary of state for
+India. They are submitted to a final examination in the following
+subjects&mdash;Indian Penal Code and the Code of Criminal Procedure,
+the principal vernacular language of the province to which they
+are assigned, the Indian Evidence Act (these three subjects are
+compulsory), either Hindu and Mahommedan Law, or Sanskrit,
+Arabic or Persian, Burmese (for Burma only). A candidate may
+not take Arabic or Sanskrit both in the first examination and in
+the final. They must also pass a thorough examination in riding.
+On reaching India their salary begins at 400 rupees a month.
+They may take, as leave, one-fourth of the time on active
+service in periods strictly limited by regulation. After 25 years&rsquo;
+service (of which 21 must be active service) they can retire on a
+pension of £1000 a year. The unit of administration is the district.
+At the head of the district is an executive officer called either
+collector-magistrate or deputy-commissioner. In most provinces
+he is responsible to the commissioner, who corresponds directly
+with the provincial government. The Indian civilian after four
+years&rsquo; probation in both branches of the service is called upon
+to elect whether he will enter the revenue or judicial department,
+and this choice as a rule is held to be final for his future work.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Candidates for the Indian Forest Service have to pass a competitive
+examination, one of the compulsory subjects being German
+or French. They have also to pass a severe medical examination,
+especially in their powers of vision and hearing. They must be
+between the ages of 18 and 22. Successful candidates are required
+to pass a three years&rsquo; course, with a final examination, seven
+terms of the course at an approved school of forestry, the rest of
+the time receiving practical instruction in continental European
+forests. On reaching India they start as assistant conservators at
+380 rupees a month. The highest salary, that of inspector-general
+of forests, in the Indian Forest Service is 2650 rupees a month.</p>
+
+<p>The Indian Police Service is entered by a competitive examination
+of very much the same kind as for the forest service, except that
+special subjects such as German and botany are not included. The
+candidates are limited in age to 19 and 21. They must pass a
+riding examination. A free passage out is given them. They are
+allotted as probationers, their wishes being consulted as far as
+possible as to their province. A probationer receives 300 rupees
+a month. A district superintendent can rise to 1200 rupees a
+month, while there are a few posts with a salary of 3000 rupees a
+month in the police service. The leave and pension in both these
+departments follow the general rules for Indian services.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The civil service also includes student interpreterships for
+China, Japan and Siam, and for the Ottoman dominions, Persia,
+Greece and Morocco. Both these classes of student interpreters
+are selected by open competition. Their object is to supply the
+consular service in the above-named countries with persons
+having a thorough knowledge of the language of the country
+in which they serve.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the first case, China, Japan, &amp;c., they learn their language in
+the country itself, receiving £200 as probationers. Then they become
+assistants in a consulate. The highest post is that of consul-general.
+In the case of student interpreters for the Ottoman dominions,
+Persia, Greece and Morocco, the successful candidates learn
+their languages at Oxford. Turkish is taught gratuitously, but
+they pay the usual fees for other languages. At Oxford they receive
+£200 a year for two years. On leaving Oxford they become assistants
+under the embassy at Constantinople, the legations at Teheran,
+Athens or Morocco, or at one of H.B.M. consulates. As assistants
+they receive £300 a year. The consuls, the highest post to which
+they can reach, receive in the Levant from £500 to £1600 a year.
+The civil services of Ceylon, Hong-Kong, the Straits Settlements,
+and the Malay Peninsula are supplied by the Eastern cadetships.
+The limits of age for the examination are 18 and 24. The cadets
+are required to learn the native language of the colony or
+dependency to which they are assigned. In the case of the Straits
+Settlements and Malay cadets they may have to learn Chinese or
+Tamil, as well as the native language. The salaries are: passed
+cadets, 3500 rupees per annum, gradually increasing until first-class
+officers receive from 12,000 to 18,000 rupees per annum. They are
+allowed three months&rsquo; vacation on full pay in two years, and leave
+of absence on half-pay after six years&rsquo; service, or before that if
+urgently needed. They can retire for ill-health after ten years with
+fifteen-sixtieths of their annual salary. Otherwise they can add
+one-sixtieth of their annual salary to their pension for every
+additional year&rsquo;s service up to thirty-five years&rsquo; service.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In spite of the general rule of open competition, there are still
+a few departments where the system of <i>nomination</i> obtains,
+accompanied by a severe test of knowledge, either active or
+implied. Such are the foreign office, British Museum, and board
+of education.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of women in the civil service has been
+principally developed in the post office. Women are employed
+in the post office as female clerks, counter clerks, telegraphists,
+returners, sorters and post-mistresses all over the United Kingdom.
+The board of agriculture, the customs and the India office
+employ women. The department of agriculture, the board of
+education generally, the local government board, all to a certain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span>
+extent employ women, whilst in the home office there are an
+increasing number of women inspectors of workshops and
+factories.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1881 the postmaster-general took a decided step in favour of
+female employment, and with the consent of the treasury instituted
+female clerkships. Female clerks do not come in contact with the
+public. Their duties are purely clerical, and entirely in the accountant-general&rsquo;s
+department at the savings bank. Their leave is one
+month per annum; their pension is on the ordinary civil service
+scale. The examination is competitive; the subjects are handwriting
+and spelling, arithmetic, English composition, geography,
+English history, French or German. Candidates must be between
+the ages of 18 and 20. Whether unmarried or widows they must
+resign on marriage. The class of girl clerks take the same subjects
+in a competitive examination. They must be between the ages of
+16 and 18; they serve only in the Savings Bank department. If
+competent they can pass on later to female clerkships. The salaries
+of the female clerkships range from £200 to £500 in the higher
+grade, £55 to £190 in the 2nd class, whilst girl clerks are paid from
+£35 to £40, with the chance of advancement to higher posts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;Civil service reform, like other great administrative
+reforms, began in America in the latter half of the 19th
+century. Personal and partisan government, with all the entailed
+evils of the patronage system, culminated in Great Britain
+during the reign of George III., and was one of the efficient
+causes of the American revolution. Trevelyan characterizes the
+use of patronage to influence legislation, and the giving of colonial
+positions as sinecures to the privileged classes and personal
+favourites of the administration, by saying, &ldquo;It was a system
+which, as its one achievement of the first order, brought about
+the American War, and made England sick, once and for all,
+of the very name of personal government.&rdquo; It was natural that
+the founders of the new government in America, after breaking
+away from the mother-country, should strive to avoid the evils
+which had in a measure brought about the revolution. Their
+intention that the administrative officers of the government
+should hold office during good behaviour is manifest, and was
+given thorough and practical effect by every administration
+during the first forty years of the life of the government. The
+constitution fixed no term of office in the executive branch of
+the government except those of president and vice-president;
+and Madison, the expounder of the constitution, held that the
+wanton removal of a meritorious officer was an impeachable
+offence. Not until nine years after the passage of the Four Years&rsquo;
+Tenure of Office Act in 1820 was there any material departure
+from this traditional policy of the government. This act
+(suggested by an appointing officer who wished to use the
+power it gave in order to secure his own nomination for the
+presidency, and passed without debate and apparently without
+any adequate conception of its full effect) opened the doors of
+the service to all the evils of the &ldquo;spoils system.&rdquo; The foremost
+statesmen of the time were not slow to perceive the baleful
+possibilities of this legislation, Jefferson,<a name="FnAnchor_1f" id="FnAnchor_1f" href="#Footnote_1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Webster, Clay, Calhoun,
+Benton and many others being recorded as condemning and
+deploring it in the strongest terms. The transition to the
+&ldquo;spoils system&rdquo; was not, however, immediate, and for the next
+nine years the practice of reappointing all meritorious officers
+was practically universal; but in 1829 this practice ceased,
+and the act of 1820 lent the sanction of law to the system of
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;spoils system&rdquo;.</span>
+proscriptions which followed, which was a practical
+application of the theory that &ldquo;to the victor belong
+the spoils of the enemy.&rdquo; In 1836 the provisions of
+this law, which had at first been confined mainly to
+officers connected with the collection of revenue, were extended
+to include also all postmasters receiving a compensation of $1000
+per annum or more. It rapidly became the practice to regard all
+these four years&rsquo; tenure offices as agencies not so much for the
+transaction of the public business as for the advancement of
+political ends. The revenue service from being used for political
+purposes merely came to be used for corrupt purposes as well,
+with the result that in one administration frauds were practised
+upon the government to the extent of $75,000,000. The corrupting
+influences permeated the whole body politic. Political retainers
+were selected for appointment not on account of their
+ability to do certain work but because they were followers of
+certain politicians; these &ldquo;public servants&rdquo; acknowledged
+no obligation except to those politicians, and their public duties,
+if not entirely disregarded, were negligently and inefficiently
+performed. Thus grew a saturnalia of spoils and corruption
+which culminated in the assassination of a president.</p>
+
+<p>Acute conditions, not theories, give rise to reforms. In
+the congressional election of November 1882, following the
+assassination of President Garfield as an incident in the operation
+of the spoils system, the voice of the people commanding
+reform was unmistakable. Congress assembled in December 1882,
+and during the same month a bill looking to the improvement
+of the civil service, which had been pending in the Senate for
+nearly two years, was finally taken up and considered by that
+body. In the debate upon this bill its advocates declared that
+it would &ldquo;vastly improve the whole civil service of the country,&rdquo;
+which they characterized as being at that time &ldquo;inefficient,
+expensive and extravagant, and in many instances corrupt.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_2f" id="FnAnchor_2f" href="#Footnote_2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+<span class="sidenote">Law of 1883.</span>
+This bill passed the Senate on the 27th of December
+1882, and the House on the 4th of January 1883, and
+was signed by the president on the 16th of January
+1883, coming into full operation on the 16th of July 1883.
+It is now the national civil service law. The fundamental principles
+of this law are:&mdash;(1) selection by competitive examination
+for all appointments to the &ldquo;classified service,&rdquo; with a
+period of probationary service before absolute appointment;
+(2) apportionment among the states and territories, according
+to population, of all appointments in the departmental service
+at Washington; (3) freedom of all the employees of the government
+from any necessity to contribute to political campaign
+funds or to render political services. For putting these principles
+into effect the Civil Service Commission was created, and penalties
+were imposed for the solicitation or collection from government
+employees of contributions for political purposes, and for the
+use of official positions in coercing political action. The commission,
+in addition to its regular duties of aiding in the preparation
+of civil service rules, of regulating and holding examinations,
+and certifying the results thereof for use in making appointments,
+and of keeping records of all changes in the service, was given
+authority to investigate and report upon any violations of the
+act or rules. The &ldquo;classified&rdquo; service to which the act applies
+has grown, by the action of successive presidents in progressively
+including various branches of tne service within it, from 13,924
+positions in 1883 to some 80,000 (in round numbers) in 1900,
+constituting about 40% of the entire civil service of the government
+and including practically all positions above the grade of
+mere labourer or workman to which appointment is <i>not</i> made
+directly by the president with the consent of the Senate.<a name="FnAnchor_3f" id="FnAnchor_3f" href="#Footnote_3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> A
+very large class to which the act is expressly applicable, and
+which has been partly brought within its provisions by executive
+action, is that of fourth-class postmasters, of whom there are
+between 70,000 and 80,000 (about 15,000 classified in 1909).</p>
+
+<p>In order to provide registers of eligibles for the various grades
+of positions in the classified service, the United States Civil
+Service Commission holds annually throughout the country
+about 300 different kinds of examinations. In the work of
+preparing these examinations and of marking the papers of
+competitors in them the commission is authorized by law
+to avail itself, in addition to its own corps of trained men, of
+the services of the scientific and other experts in the various
+executive departments. In the work of holding the examinations
+it is aided by about 1300 local boards of examiners, which
+are its local representatives throughout the country and are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span>
+located at the principal post offices, custom houses and other
+government offices, being composed of three or more Federal
+employees in those offices. About 50,000 persons annually
+compete in these examinations, and about 10,000 of those who
+are successful receive appointments through regular certification.
+Persons thus appointed, however, must serve six months &ldquo;on
+probation&rdquo; before their appointment can be made absolute.
+At the end of this probation, if his service has not been
+satisfactory, the appointee is simply dropped; and the fact that less
+than 1% of those appointed prove thus deficient on trial is high
+testimony to the practical nature of the examinations held by
+the commission, and to their aptness for securing persons qualified
+for all classes of positions.</p>
+
+<p>The effects of the Civil Service Act within the scope of its
+actual operation have amply justified the hopes and promises of
+its advocates. After its passage, absentee holders of lucrative
+appointments were required to report for duty or to sever their
+connexion with the service. Improved methods were adopted
+in the departments, and superfluous and useless work was no
+longer devised in order to provide a show of employment and a
+<i>locus standi</i> for the parasites upon the public service. Individual
+clerks were required, and by reason of the new conditions were
+enabled, to do more and better work; and this, coupled with
+the increase in efficiency in the service on account of new blood
+coming in through the examinations, made possible an actual
+decrease in the force required in many offices, notwithstanding
+the natural growth in the amount of work to be done.<a name="FnAnchor_4f" id="FnAnchor_4f" href="#Footnote_4f"><span class="sp">4</span></a>
+Experience proves that the desire to create new and unnecessary
+positions was in direct proportion to the power to control them,
+for where the act has taken away this power of control the desire
+had disappeared naturally. There is no longer any desire on
+the part of heads of departments to increase the number or
+salaries of classified positions which would fall by law within the
+civil service rules and be subject to competitive examinations.
+Thus the promises of improvement and economy in the service
+have been fulfilled.</p>
+
+<p>The chief drawback to the full success of the act within its
+intended scope of operation has been the withholding of
+certain positions in the service from the application of the
+vital principle of competition. The Civil Service Act contemplated
+no exceptions, within the limits to which it was made
+applicable, to the general principle of competition upon merit
+for entrance to the service. In framing the first civil service
+rules, however, in 1883, the president, yielding to the pressure
+of the heads of some of the departments, and against the
+urgent protest of the Civil Service Commission, excepted from
+the requirement of examination large numbers of positions in the
+higher grades of the service, chiefly fiduciary and administrative
+positions such as cashiers, chief clerks and chiefs of division.
+These positions being thus continued under the absolute control
+of the appointing officer, the effect of their exception from
+examination was to retain just that much of the old or &ldquo;spoils&rdquo;
+system within the nominal jurisdiction of the new or &ldquo;merit&rdquo;
+system. Even more: under the old system, while appointments
+from the outside had been made regardless of fitness, still those
+appointments had been made in the lower grades, the higher
+positions being filled by promotion within the service, usually of
+the most competent, but under the new system with its exceptions,
+while appointments to the lower grades were filled on the basis of
+merit, the pressure for spoils at each change of administration
+forced inexperienced, political or personal favourites in at the top.
+This blocked promotions and demoralized the service. Thus, while
+the general effect of the act was to limit very greatly the number
+of vicious appointments, at the same time the effect of these
+exceptions was to confine them to the upper grades, where the
+demoralizing effect of each upon the service would be a maximum.
+By constant efforts the Civil Service Commission succeeded in
+having position after position withdrawn from this excepted
+class, until by the action of the president, on the 6th of May 1896,
+it was finally reduced almost to a minimum. By subsequent
+presidential action, however, on the 29th of May 1899, the
+excepted class was again greatly extended.<a name="FnAnchor_5f" id="FnAnchor_5f" href="#Footnote_5f"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>A further obstacle to the complete success of the merit system,
+and one which prevents the carrying forward of the reform to
+the extent to which it has been carried in Great Britain, is
+inherent in the Civil Service Act itself. All postmasters who
+receive compensation of $1000 or more per annum, and all
+collectors of customs and collectors of internal revenue, are
+appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, and
+are therefore, by express provision of the act, not &ldquo;required
+to be classified.&rdquo; The universal practice of treating these
+offices as political agencies instead of as administrative business
+offices is therefore not limited by the act. Such officers are
+active in political work throughout the country, and their
+official position adds greatly to their power to affect the political
+prospects of the leaders in their districts. Accordingly the
+Senate, from being, as originally intended, merely a confirming
+body as to these officers, has become in a large measure, actually
+if not formally, a nominating body, and holds with tenacity
+to the power thus acquired by the individual senators. Thorough
+civil service reform requires that these positions also, and all
+those of fourth-class postmasters (partly classified by order of
+1st Dec. 1908), be made subject to the merit system, for in
+them is the real remaining stronghold of the spoils system. Even
+though all their subordinates be appointed through examination,
+it will be impossible to carry the reform to ultimate and complete
+success so long as the officers in charge are appointed mainly
+for political reasons and are changed with every change of
+administration.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of the act to protect the individual employees
+in the service from the rapacity of the &ldquo;political barons&rdquo; has
+been measurably, if not completely, successful. The power
+given the Civil Service Commission, to investigate and report
+upon violations of the law, has been used to bring to light such
+abuses as the levying of political contributions, and to set the
+machinery of the law in motion against them. While comparatively
+few actual prosecutions have been brought about, and
+although the penalties imposed by the act for this offence have
+been but seldom inflicted, still the publicity given to all such
+cases by the commission&rsquo;s investigations has had a wholesome
+deterrent effect. Before the passage of the act, positions were
+as a general rule held upon a well-understood lease-tenure, the
+political contributions for them being as securely and as certainly
+collected as any rent. Now, however, it can be said that these
+forced contributions have almost entirely disappeared. The
+efforts which are still made to collect political funds from government
+employees in evasion of the law are limited in the main
+to persuasion to make &ldquo;voluntary&rdquo; contributions, and it has
+been possible so to limit and obstruct these efforts that their
+practical effect upon the character of the service is now very
+small.</p>
+
+<p>The same evils that the Federal Civil Service Act was designed
+to remedy exist to a large degree in many of the state governments,
+and are especially aggravated in the administration
+of the local governments of some of the larger
+<span class="sidenote">State examination.</span>
+cities. The chief, if not the only, test of fitness for
+office in many cases has been <span class="correction" title="amended from partly">party</span> loyalty, honesty
+and capacity being seldom more than secondary considerations.
+The result has been the fostering of dishonesty and extravagance,
+which have brought weakness and gross corruption into the
+administration of the local governments. In consequence of
+this there has been a constantly growing tendency, among the
+more intelligent class of citizens, to demand that honest business
+methods be applied to local public service, and that appointments
+be made on the basis of intelligence and capacity, rather than
+of party allegiance. The movement for the reform of the civil
+service of cities is going hand in hand with the movement for
+general municipal reform, those reformers regarding the merit
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span>
+system of appointments as not merely the necessary and only
+safe bulwark to preserve the results of their labours, but also as
+the most efficient means for bringing about other reforms.
+Hence civil service reform is given a leading position in all
+programmes for the reform of state and municipal governments.
+This has undoubtedly been due, in the first instance, at least, to
+the success which attended the application of the merit system
+to the Federal service, municipal and state legislation following
+in the wake of the national civil service law. In New York an act
+similar to the Federal Civil Service Act was passed on the 4th
+of May 1883, and in 1894 the principles of the merit system
+were introduced by an amendment into the state constitution,
+and made applicable to cities and villages as well. In Massachusetts
+an act was passed on the 3rd of June 1884 which in
+its general features was based upon the Federal act and the
+New York act. Similar laws were passed in Illinois and Wisconsin
+in 1895, and in New Jersey in 1908; the laws provide for the
+adoption of the merit system in state and municipal government.
+In New Orleans, La., and in Seattle, Wash., the merit
+system was introduced by an amendment to the city charter
+in 1896. The same result was accomplished by New Haven,
+Conn., in 1897, and by San Francisco, Cal., in 1899. In still
+other cities the principles of the merit system have been enacted
+into law, in some cases applying to the entire service and in
+others to only a part of it.</p>
+
+<p>The application of the merit system to state and municipal
+governments has proved successful wherever it has been given
+a fair trial.<a name="FnAnchor_6f" id="FnAnchor_6f" href="#Footnote_6f"><span class="sp">6</span></a> As experience has fostered public confidence in the
+system, and at the same time shown those features of the law
+which are most vulnerable, and the best means for fortifying
+them, numerous and important improvements upon the pioneer
+act applying to the Federal service have been introduced in
+the more recent legislation. This is particularly true of the acts
+now in force in New York (passed in 1899) and in Chicago.
+The power of the commission to enforce these acts is materially
+greater than the power possessed by the Federal commission.
+In making investigations they are not confined to taking the
+testimony of voluntary witnesses, but may administer oaths,
+and compel testimony and the production of books and papers
+where necessary; and in taking action they are not confined
+to the making of a report of the findings in their investigations,
+but may themselves, in many cases, take final judicial action.
+Further than this, the payment of salaries is made dependent
+upon the certificate of the commission that the appointments
+of the recipients were made in accordance with the civil service
+law and rules. Thus these commissions have absolute power
+to prevent irregular or illegal appointments by refractory
+appointing officers. Their powers being so much greater than
+those of the national commission, their action can be much
+more drastic in most cases, and they can go more directly to the
+heart of an existing abuse, and apply more quickly and effectually
+the needed remedy.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the termination of the Spanish-American War, the
+necessity for the extension of the principles of the merit system
+to the new territories, the responsibility for whose government
+the results of this war had thrown upon the United States, was
+realized. By the acts providing for civil government in Porto
+Rico (April 12th, 1900) and Hawaii (April 30th, 1900), the
+provisions of the Civil Service Act and Rules were applied to
+those islands. Under this legislation the classification applies
+to all positions which are analogous to positions in the Federal
+service, those which correspond to positions in the municipal
+and state governments being considered as local in character,
+and not included in the classification.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th of September 1900 the United States Philippine
+Commission passed an act &ldquo;for the establishment and maintenance
+of an efficient and honest civil service in the Philippine
+Islands.&rdquo; This act, in its general features, is based upon the
+national civil service law, but includes also a number of the
+stronger points to be found in the state and municipal law
+mentioned above. Among these are the power given the civil
+service board to administer oaths, summon witnesses, and require
+the production of official records; and the power to stop payment
+of salaries to persons illegally appointed. Promotions are
+determined by competitive examinations, and are made throughout
+the service, as there are no excepted positions. A just
+right of preference in local appointments is given to natives.
+The president of the Philippine commission in introducing this
+bill said: &ldquo;The purpose of the United States government ...
+in these islands is to secure for the Filipino people as honest
+and as efficient a government as may be possible.... It is the
+hope of the commission to make it possible for one entering the
+lowest ranks to reach the highest, under a tenure based solely
+upon merit.&rdquo; Judging by past experience it is believed that
+this law is well adapted to accomplish the purpose above stated.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For fuller information upon the details of the present workings
+of the merit system in the Federal service, recourse should be had
+to the publications of the U.S. Civil Service Commission, which are
+to be found in the public libraries in all the principal cities in the
+United States, or which may be had free of charge upon application
+to the commission. The <i>Manual of Examinations</i>, published semi-annually,
+gives full information as to the character of the examinations
+held by the commission, together with the schedule of dates
+and places for the holding of those examinations. The <i>Annual
+Reports</i> of the commission contain full statistics of the results of its
+work, together with comprehensive statements as to the difficulties
+encountered in enforcing the law, and the means used to overcome
+them. In the <i>Fifteenth Report</i>, pp. 443-485, will be found a very
+valuable historical compilation from original sources, upon the
+&ldquo;practice of the presidents in appointments and removals in the
+executive civil service, from 1789 to 1883.&rdquo; In the same report,
+pp. 511-517, is a somewhat comprehensive bibliography of &ldquo;civil
+service&rdquo; in periodical literature in the 19th century, brought down
+to the end of 1898. See also C.R. Fish, <i>The Civil Service and the
+Patronage</i> (New York, 1905).</p>
+
+<p>In most European countries the civil service is recruited on much
+the same lines as in the United Kingdom and the United States,
+that is, either by examination or by nomination or by both. In
+some cases the examination is purely competitive, in other cases,
+as in France, holders of university degrees get special privileges, such
+as being put at the head of the list, or going up a certain number of
+places; or, as in Germany, many departmental posts are filled by
+nomination, combined with the results of general examinations,
+either at school or university. In the publications of the United
+States Department of Labour and Commerce for 1904-1905 will
+be found brief details of the systems adopted by the various foreign
+countries for appointing their civil service employees.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1f" id="Footnote_1f" href="#FnAnchor_1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See letter to Monroe, November 29th, 1820, Jefferson&rsquo;s <i>Writings</i>,
+vii. 190. A quotation from this letter is given at p. 454 of the
+<i>Fifteenth Report of the U.S. Civil Service Commission</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2f" id="Footnote_2f" href="#FnAnchor_2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See <i>Senate Report No. 576</i>, 47th Congress, 1st session; also <i>U.S.
+Civil Service Commission&rsquo;s Third Report</i>, p. 16 et seq., <i>Tenth Report</i>,
+pp. 136, 137, and <i>Fifteenth Report</i>, pp. 483, 484.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3f" id="Footnote_3f" href="#FnAnchor_3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The progressive classification of the executive civil service,
+showing the growth of the merit system, is discussed, with statistics,
+in the <i>U.S. Civil Service Commission&rsquo;s Sixteenth Report</i>, pp. 129-137.
+A revision of this discussion, with important additions, appears in
+the <i>Seventeenth Report</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4f" id="Footnote_4f" href="#FnAnchor_4f"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For details justifying these statements, see <i>U.S. Civil Service
+Commission&rsquo;s Fourteenth Report</i>, pp. 12-14.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5f" id="Footnote_5f" href="#FnAnchor_5f"><span class="fn">5</span></a> For the scope of these exceptions, see Civil Service Rule VI.,
+at p. 57 of the <i>U.S. Civil Service Commission&rsquo;s Fifteenth and Sixteenth
+Reports</i>. A statement of the number of positions actually affected
+by this action of the president appears in the <i>Seventeenth Report</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6f" id="Footnote_6f" href="#FnAnchor_6f"><span class="fn">6</span></a> In the <i>U.S. Civil Service Commission&rsquo;s Fifteenth Report</i>, pp. 489-502,
+the &ldquo;growth of the civil service reform in states and cities&rdquo; is
+historically treated, briefly, but with some thoroughness.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVITA CASTELLANA<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (anc. <i>Falerii</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), a town and episcopal
+see of the province of Rome, 45 m. by rail from the city of Rome
+(the station is 5 m. N.E. of the town). Population (1901) 5265.
+The cathedral of S. Maria possesses a fine portico, erected in
+1210 by Laurentius Romanus, his son Jacobus and his grandson
+Cosmas, in the cosmatesque style, with ancient columns and
+mosaic decorations: the interior was modernized in the 18th
+century, but has some fragments of cosmatesque ornamentation.
+The citadel was erected by Pope Alexander VI. from the designs
+of Antonio da Sangallo the elder, and enlarged by Julius II.
+and Leo X. The lofty bridge by which the town is approached
+belongs to the 18th century. Mount Soracte lies about 6 m.
+to the south-east.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CIVITA VECCHIA<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span>, a seaport town and episcopal see of Italy,
+in the province of Rome, 50 m. N.W. by rail and 35 m. direct
+from the city of Rome. Pop. (1871) 8143; (1901) 17,589. It
+is the ancient <i>Centum Cellae</i>, founded by Trajan. Interesting
+descriptions of it are given by Pliny the Younger (<i>Epist.</i> vi. 31)
+and Rutilius Namat. i. 237. The modern harbour works rest
+on the ancient foundations, and near it the cemetery of detachments
+of the <i>Classes Misenensis</i> and <i>Ravennas</i> has been found
+(<i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i> vol. xi., Berlin, 1888, pp. 3520 seq.). Remains
+of an aqueduct and other Roman buildings are preserved; the
+imperial family had a villa here. Procopius mentions it in the
+6th century as a strong and populous place, but it was destroyed
+in 813 by the Saracens. Leo IV. erected a new city for the
+inhabitants on the site where they had taken refuge, about 8 m.
+N.N.E. of Civita Vecchia towards the hills, near La Farnesina,
+where its ruins may still be seen; the city walls and some of
+the streets and buildings may be traced, and an inscription
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span>
+(which must have stood over one of the city gates) recording
+its foundation has been discovered. It continued to exist under
+the name Cencelle as a feudal castle until the 15th century.
+In the meantime, however, the inhabitants returned to the old
+town by the shore in 889 and rebuilt it, giving it the name
+Civitas Vetus, the modern Civita Vecchia (see O. Marucchi in
+<i>Nuovo Bullettino di archeologia cristiana</i>, vi., 1900, p. 195 seq.).
+In 1508 Pope Julius II. began the construction of the castle
+from the designs of Bramante, Michelangelo being responsible
+for the addition of the central tower. It is considered by Burckhardt
+the finest building of its kind. Pius IV. added a convict
+prison. The arsenal was built by Alexander VII. and designed
+by Bernini. Civita Vecchia was the chief port of the Papal
+State and has still a considerable trade. There are cement
+factories in the town, and calcium carbide is an important article
+of export. The principal imports are coal, cattle for the home
+markets, and fire-bricks from the United Kingdom. Three
+miles N.E. were the <i>Aquae Tauri</i>, warm springs, now known
+as <i>Bagni della Ferrata</i>: considerable remains of the Roman
+baths are still preserved. About 1 m. W. of these are other
+hot springs, those of the <i>Ficoncella</i>, also known in Roman times.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLACKMANNAN<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span>, the county town of Clackmannanshire,
+Scotland. Pop. 1505. It lies near the north bank of the Forth,
+2 m. E. of Alloa, with two stations on the North British railway.
+Among the public buildings are the parish church, the tower of
+which, standing on a commanding eminence, is a conspicuous
+landmark. Clackmannan Tower is now a picturesque ruin,
+but at one time played an important part in Scottish history,
+and was the seat of a lineal descendant of the Bruce family
+after the failure of the male line. The old market cross still
+exists, and close to it stands the stone that gives the town its
+name (Gaelic, <i>clach</i>, stone; Manann, the name of the district).
+A large spinning-mill and coalpits lend a modern touch in
+singular contrast with the quaint, old-world aspect of the place.
+About 1 m. to the S.E. is Kennet House, the seat of Lord Balfour
+of Burleigh, another member of the Bruce family.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLACKMANNANSHIRE<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span>, the smallest county in Scotland,
+bounded S.W. by the Forth, W. by Stirlingshire, N.N.E. and
+N.W. by Perthshire, and E. by Fifeshire. It has an area of
+35,160 acres, or about 55 sq. m. An elevated ridge starting on
+the west, runs through the middle of the county, widening
+gradually till it reaches the eastern boundary, and skirting
+the alluvial or carse lands in the valleys of the Forth and Devon.
+Still farther to the N. the Ochil hills form a picturesque feature
+in the landscape, having their generally verdant surface broken
+by bold projecting rocks and deeply indented ravines. The
+principal summits are within the limits of the shire, among
+them Ben Cleuch (2363 ft.), King&rsquo;s Seat (2111 ft.), Whitewisp
+(2110 ft.), the Law (above Tillicoultry, 2094 ft.) and Blairdenon
+(2072 ft.), on the northern slope, in which the river Devon takes
+its rise. The rivers of importance are the Devon and the Black
+or South Devon. The former, noted in the upper parts for its
+romantic scenery and its excellent trout-fishing, runs through the
+county near the base of the Ochils, and falls into the Forth at
+the village of Cambus, after a winding course of 33 m., although
+as the crow flies its source is only 5&frac14; m. distant. The Black
+Devon, rising in the Cleish Hills, flows westwards in a direction
+nearly parallel to that of the Devon, and falls into the Forth
+near Clackmannan. It supplies motive power to numbers of
+mills and collieries; and its whole course is over coal strata.
+The Forth is navigable as far as it forms the boundary of the
+county, and ships of 500 tons burden run up as far as Alloa.
+The only lake is Gartmorn, 1 m. long by about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> of a mile broad,
+which has been dammed in order to furnish water to Alloa and
+power to mills. The Ochils are noted for the number of their
+glens. Though these are mostly small, they are well wooded
+and picturesque, and those at Menstrie, Alva, Tillicoultry and
+Dollar are particularly beautiful.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;This county is divided geologically into two areas, the
+boundary line skirting the southern margin of the Ochils and running
+westwards from a point north of Dollar by Alva in the direction of
+Airthrev in Stirlingshire. The northern portion forms part of the
+volcanic range of the Ochils which belongs to the Old Red Sandstone
+period, and consists of a great succession of lavas&mdash;basalts and
+andesites&mdash;with intercalations of tuff and agglomerate. As the
+rocks dip gently towards the north and form the highest ground
+in the county they must reach a great thickness. They are pierced
+by small intrusive masses of diorite, north of Tillicoultry House.
+The well-marked feature running E. and W. along the southern
+base of the Ochils indicates a line of fault or dislocation which
+abruptly truncates the Lower Old Red volcanic rocks and brings
+down an important development of Carboniferous strata occupying
+the southern part of the county. These belong mainly to the Coal-measures
+and comprise a number of valuable coal-seams which
+have been extensively worked. The Clackmannan field is the
+northern continuation of the great Lanarkshire basin which extends
+northwards by Slamannan, Falkirk and the Carron Ironworks to
+Alloa. Along the eastern margin between Cairnmuir and Brucefield
+the underlying Millstone Grit, consisting mainly of false-bedded
+sandstones, comes to the surface. Close to the river Devon
+south of Dollar the Vicars Bridge Limestone, which there marks the
+top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, rises from beneath the
+Millstone Grit. The structure of the Clackmannan field is interesting.
+The strata are arranged in synclinal form, the highest seams being
+found near the Devon ironworks, and they are traversed by a series
+of parallel east and west faults each with a downthrow to the south,
+whereby the coals are repeated and the field extended. During
+mining operations evidence has been obtained of the existence of
+a buried river-channel, filled with boulder clay and stratified deposits
+along the course of the Devon, which extends below the
+present sea-level and points to greater elevation of the land in
+pre-glacial time. An excellent example of a dolerite dyke trending
+slightly north of west occurs in the north part of the county where
+it traverses the volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sandstone age.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;The soil is generally productive and well cultivated,
+though the greater part of the elevated range which is
+interposed between the carse lands on the Forth and the vale
+of Devon at the base of the Ochils on the north consists of inferior
+soils, often lying upon an impervious clay. Oats are the chief
+crop, but wheat and barley are profitably grown. Sheep-farming
+is successfully pursued, the Ochils affording excellent
+pasturage, and cattle, pigs and horses are also raised. There is
+a small tract of moorland in the east, called the Forest, bounded
+on its northern margin by the Black Devon. Iron-ore (haematite),
+copper, silver, lead, cobalt and arsenic have all been
+discovered in small quantity in the Ochils, between Alva and
+Dollar. Ironstone&mdash;found either in beds, or in oblate balls
+embedded in slaty clay, and yielded from 25 to 30% of iron&mdash;is
+mined for the Devon iron-works, near Clackmannan. Coal
+has been mined for a long period. The strata which compose the
+field are varieties of sandstone, shale, fire-clay and argillaceous
+ironstone. There is a heavy continuous output of coal at the
+mines at Sauchie, Fishcross, Coalsnaughton, Devonside, Clackmannan
+and other pits. The spinning-mills at Alloa, Tillicoultry
+and Alva are always busy, Alloa yarns and fingering being widely
+famous. The distilleries at Glenochil and Carsebridge and the
+breweries in Alloa and Cambus do a large export business.
+The minor trades include glass-blowing, pottery, coopering,
+tanning, iron-founding, electrical apparatus making, ship-building
+and paper-making.</p>
+
+<p>The north British railway serves the whole county, while the
+Caledonian has access to Alloa.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Government.</i>&mdash;The population was 33,140
+in 1891 and 32,029 in 1901, when 170 persons spoke Gaelic and
+English and one person Gaelic only. The county unites with
+Kinross-shire in returning one member to parliament. Clackmannan
+(pop. 1505) is the county town, but Alloa (14,458),
+Alva (4624), and Tillicoultry (3338) take precedence in population
+and trade. Menstrie (pop. 898) near Alloa has a large
+furniture factory and the great distillery of Glenochil. To the
+north-east of Alloa is the thriving mining village of Sauchie.
+Clackmannan forms a sheriffdom with Stirling and Dumbarton
+shires, and a sheriff-substitute sits at Alloa. Most of the schools
+in the shire are under school-board control, but there are a
+few voluntary schools, besides an exceptionally well-equipped
+technical school in Alloa and a well-known academy at Dollar.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See James Wallace, <i>The Sheriffdom of Clackmannan: a Sketch
+of its History</i> (Edinburgh, 1890); D. Beveridge, <i>Between the Ochils
+and the Forth</i> (Edinburgh, 1888); John Crawford, <i>Memorials of
+Alloa</i> (1885); William Gibson, <i>Reminiscences of Dollar, Tillicoultry</i>,</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLACTON-ON-SEA<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span>, a watering-place in the Harwich parliamentary
+division of Essex, England; 71 m. E.N.E. from London
+by a branch from Colchester of the Great Eastern railway;
+served also by steamers from London in the summer months.
+Pop. of urban district (1901) 7456. Clay cliffs of slight altitude
+rise from the sandy beach and face south-eastward. In the
+neighbourhood, however, marshes fringe the shore. The church
+of Great Clacton, at the village 1½ m. inland, is Norman and
+later, and of considerable interest. Clacton is provided with
+a pier, promenade and marine parade; and is the seat of various
+convalescent and other homes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLADEL, LÉON<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1835-1892), French novelist, was born at
+Montauban (Tarn-et-Garonne) on the 13th of March 1835.
+The son of an artisan, he studied law at Toulouse and became
+a solicitor&rsquo;s clerk in Paris. He made a reputation in a limited
+circle by his first book, <i>Les Martyrs ridicules</i> (1862), a novel for
+which Charles Baudelaire, whose literary disciple Cladel was,
+wrote a preface. He then returned to his native district of
+Quercy, where he produced a series of pictures of peasant life in
+<i>Eral le dompteur</i> (1865), <i>Le Nommé Qouael</i> (1868) and other
+volumes. Returning to Paris he published the two novels
+which are generally acknowledged as his best work, <i>Le Bouscassié</i>
+(1869) and <i>La Fête votive de Saint Bartholomée Porte-glaive</i> (1872).
+<i>Une Maudite</i> (1876) was judged dangerous to the public morals
+and cost its author a month&rsquo;s imprisonment. Other works by
+Cladel are <i>Les Va-nu-pieds</i> (1873), a volume of short stories;
+<i>N&rsquo;a qu&rsquo;un &oelig;il</i> (1882), <i>Urbains et ruraux</i> (1884), <i>Gueux de
+marque</i> (1887), and the posthumous <i>Juive errante</i> (1897). He died at
+Sèvres on the 20th of July 1892.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>La Vie de Léon Cladel</i> (Paris, 1905), by his daughter Judith
+Cladel, containing also an article on Cladel by Edmond Picard, a
+complete list of his works, and of the critical articles on his work.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1811-1885), American
+merchant, was born in Milford, Massachusetts, on the 18th of
+December 1811. He was educated at Milford Academy, became
+a clerk in his father&rsquo;s store in Milford, and in 1831, with his
+brother Aaron and his brother-in-law Samuel Daniels, succeeded
+to his father&rsquo;s business. In 1832 the firm opened a branch store
+in Worcester, Mass., and in 1833 Horace B. Claflin and Daniels
+secured the sole control of this establishment and restricted their
+dealing to dry goods. In 1843 Claflin removed to New York
+City and became a member of the firm of Bulkley &amp; Claflin,
+wholesale dry goods merchants. In 1851 and in 1864 the firm
+was reorganized, being designated in these respective years
+as Claflin, Mellin &amp; Company and H.B. Claflin &amp; Company.
+Under Claflin&rsquo;s management the business increased so rapidly
+that the sales for a time after 1865 probably exceeded those
+of any other mercantile house in the world. Though the firm
+was temporarily embarrassed at the beginning of the Civil War,
+on account of its large business interests in the South, and during
+the financial panic of 1873, the promptness with which Mr
+Claflin met these crises and paid every dollar of his liabilities
+greatly increased his reputation for business ability and integrity.
+He died at Fordham, New York, on the 14th of November 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAIRAULT<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Clairaut</span>), <span class="bold">ALEXIS CLAUDE</span> (1713-1765),
+French mathematician, was born on the 13th or 7th of May 1713,
+at Paris, where his father was a teacher of mathematics. Under
+his father&rsquo;s tuition he made such rapid progress in mathematical
+studies that in his thirteenth year he read before the French
+Academy an account of the properties of four curves which he
+had then discovered. When only sixteen he finished a treatise,
+<i>Recherches sur les courbes à double courbure</i>, which, on its
+publication in 1731, procured his admission into the Academy of
+Sciences, although even then he was below the legal age. In
+1736, together with Pierre Louis Maupertuis, he took part in the
+expedition to Lapland, which was undertaken for the purpose
+of estimating a degree of the meridian, and on his return he
+published his treatise <i>Théorie de la figure de la terre</i> (1743). In
+this work he promulgated the theorem, known as &ldquo;Clairault&rsquo;s
+theorem,&rdquo; which connects the gravity at points on the surface
+of a rotating ellipsoid with the compression and the centrifugal
+force at the equator (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Earth, Figure of the</a></span>). He obtained
+an ingenious approximate solution of the problem of the three
+bodies; in 1750 he gained the prize of the St Petersburg Academy
+for his essay <i>Théorie de la lune</i>; and in 1759 he calculated the
+perihelion of Halley&rsquo;s comet. He also detected singular solutions
+in differential equations of the first order, and of the second and
+higher degrees.    Clairault died at Paris, on the 17th of May 1765.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAIRON, LA<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1723-1803), French actress, whose real name
+was <span class="sc">Claire Joseph Hippolyte Leris</span>, was born at Condé sur
+l&rsquo;Escaut, Hainaut, on the 25th of January 1723, the natural
+daughter of <span class="correction" title="amended from any">an</span> army sergeant. In 1736 she made her first stage
+appearance at the Comédie Italienne, in a small part in Marivaux&rsquo;s
+<i>Île des esclaves</i>. After several years in the provinces she returned
+to Paris. Her life, meanwhile, had been decidedly irregular,
+even if not to the degree indicated by the libellous pamphlet
+<i>Histoire de la demoiselle Cronel, dite Frétillon, actrice de la Comédie
+de Rouen, écrite par elle-même</i> (The Hague, 1746), or to be inferred
+from the disingenuousness of her own <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;Hippolyte
+Clairon</i> (1798); and she had great difficulty in obtaining an
+order to make her <i>début</i> at the Comédie Française. Succeeding,
+however, at last, she had the courage to select the title-rôle of
+<i>Phèdre</i> (1743), and she obtained a veritable triumph. During
+her twenty-two years at this theatre, dividing the honours
+with her rival Mlle Dumesnil, she filled many of the classical
+rôles of tragedy, and created a great number of parts in the plays
+of Voltaire, Marmontel, Saurin, de Belloy and others. She
+retired in 1766, and trained pupils for the stage, among them
+Mlle Raucourt. Goldsmith called Mlle Clairon &ldquo;the most perfect
+female figure I have ever seen on any stage&rdquo; (<i>The Bee</i>, 2nd No.);
+and Garrick, while recognizing her unwillingness or inability
+to make use of the inspiration of the instant, admitted that
+&ldquo;she has everything that art and a good understanding with
+great natural spirit can give her.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAIRVAUX<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span>, a village of north-eastern France, in the department
+of Aube, 40 m. E.S.E. of Troyes on the Eastern railway to
+Belfort. Clairvaux (<i>Clara Vallis</i>) is situated in the valley of the
+Aube on the eastern border of the Forest of Clairvaux. Its
+celebrity is due to the abbey founded in 1115 by St Bernard,
+which became the centre of the Cistercian order. The buildings
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abbey</a></span>) belong for the most part to the 18th century, but
+there is a large storehouse which dates from the 12th century.
+The abbey, suppressed at the Revolution, now serves as a prison,
+containing on an average 800 inmates, who are employed in
+agricultural and industrial occupations. Clairvaux has iron-works
+of some importance.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAIRVOYANCE<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Fr. for &ldquo;clear-seeing&rdquo;), a technical term in
+psychical research, properly equivalent to lucidity, a supernormal
+power of obtaining knowledge in which no part is played
+by (<i>a</i>) the ordinary processes of sense-perception or (<i>b</i>) supernormal
+communication with other intelligences, incarnate, or
+discarnate. The word is also used, sometimes qualified by the
+word <i>telepathic</i>, to mean the power of gaining supernormal
+knowledge from the mind of another (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telepathy</a></span>). It is
+further commonly used by spiritualists to mean the power of
+seeing spirit forms, or, more vaguely, of discovering facts by some
+supernormal means.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lucidity.</i>&mdash;Few experiments have been made to test the
+existence of this faculty. If communications from discarnate
+minds are regarded as possible, there are no means of distinguishing
+facts obtained in this way from facts obtained by independent
+clairvoyance. In practice no evidence has been obtained
+pointing to the possession by a discarnate spirit of knowledge not
+possessed by any living person (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medium</a></span>). As explanation of
+the few successful experiments in independent clairvoyance we
+have the choice of three explanations: (1) lucidity; (2) telepathy
+from living persons; (3) hyperaesthesia. The second possibility
+was overlooked in Richet&rsquo;s diagram experiments; it cannot be
+assumed that a picture put into an envelope and not consciously
+recalled has been in reality forgotten. Similarly the clairvoyant
+diagnosis of diseases may depend on knowledge gained telepathically
+from the patient, who may be subliminally aware of
+diseased states of the body. The most elaborate experiments are
+by Prof. Richet with a hypnotized subject who succeeded in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span>
+naming twelve cards out of sixty-eight. But no precautions were
+taken against hyperaesthesia further than enclosing the card in a
+second envelope. There is a power possessed by a certain number
+of people, of naming a card drawn by them or held in the hand
+face downwards, so that there is no normal knowledge of its suit
+and number. Few thorough trials have been made; but it seems
+to point to some kind of hyperaesthesia rather than to clairvoyance;
+in the Richet experiments even if the envelopes
+excluded hyperaesthesia of touch on the part of the medium,
+there may have been subliminal knowledge on Prof. Richet&rsquo;s
+part of the card which he put in the envelope. The experience
+known as the <i>déjà vu</i> has sometimes been explained as due to
+clairvoyance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Telepathic Clairvoyance.</i>&mdash;For a discussion of this see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Telepathy</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Crystal-gazing</a></span>. It may be noted here that some
+curious relation seems to exist between apparently telepathic
+acquisition of knowledge and the arrival of a letter, newspaper,
+&amp;c, from which the same knowledge could be directly gained.
+We are confronted with a similar problem in attempting an
+explanation of the power of mediums to state correctly facts
+relating to objects placed in their hands. Of a somewhat
+different character is retrocognition (<i>q.v.</i>), where the knowledge in
+many cases, if telepathic, must be derived from a discarnate mind.</p>
+
+<p>Clairvoyance, as a term of spiritualism, with its correlative
+<i>clairaudience</i>, is the name given to the power of seeing and hearing
+discarnate spirits of dead relatives and others, with whom the
+living are said to be surrounded. More vaguely it includes the
+power of gaining knowledge, either through the spirit world or by
+means of psychometry (<i>i.e.</i> the supernormal acquisition of
+knowledge about owners of objects, writers of letters, &amp;c).
+Some evidence for these latter powers has been accumulated by
+the Society for Psychical Research, but in many cases the
+piecing together of normally acquired knowledge, together with
+shrewd guessing, suffices to explain the facts, especially where the
+investigator has had no special training for his task.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Richet, <i>Experimentelle Studien</i> (1891); also in <i>Proc. S.P.R.</i>
+vi. 66. For a criticism see N.W. Thomas, <i>Thought Transference</i>,
+pp. 44-48. For Clairvoyance in general see F.W.H. Myers, <i>Human
+Personality</i>, and in <i>Proc. S.P.R.</i> xi. 334 et seq. For a criticism of the
+evidence see Mrs Sidgwick in <i>Proc. S.P.R.</i> vii. 30, 356.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAMECY<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span>, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement
+in the department of Nièvre, at the confluence of the Yonne
+and Beuvron and on the Canal du Nivernais, 46 m. N.N.E. of
+Nevers on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 4455. Its
+principal building is the church of St Martin, which dates chiefly
+from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The tower and façade
+are of the 16th century. The chevet, which is surrounded by an
+aisle, is rectangular&mdash;a feature found in few French churches.
+Of the old castle of the counts of Nevers, vaulted cellars alone
+remain. A church in the suburb of Bethlehem, dating from the
+12th and 13th centuries, now serves as part of an hotel. The
+public institutions include the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first
+instance and of commerce and a communal college. Among the
+industrial establishments are saw-mills, fulling-mills and flour-mills,
+tanneries and manufactories of boots and shoes and
+chemicals; and there is considerable trade in wine and cattle and
+in wood and charcoal, which is conveyed principally to Paris, by
+way of the Yonne.</p>
+
+<p>In the early middle ages Clamecy belonged to the abbey of St
+Julian at Auxerre; in the 11th century it passed to the counts of
+Nevers, one of whom, Hervé, enfranchised the inhabitants in
+1213. After the capture of Jerusalem by Saladin in 1188,
+Clamecy became the seat of the bishops of Bethlehem, who till the
+Revolution resided in the hospital of Panthenor, bequeathed by
+William IV., count of Nevers. On the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1851 an
+insurrection broke out in the town, and was repressed by the new
+authorities with great severity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAN<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (Gaelic <i>clann</i>, O. Ir. <i>cland</i>, connected with Lat. <i>planta</i>,
+shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p),
+a group of people united by common blood, and usually settled in
+a common habitat. The clan system existed in Ireland and the
+Highlands of Scotland from early times. In its strictest sense the
+system was peculiar to those countries, but, in its wider meaning
+of a group of kinsmen forming a self-governing community, the
+system as represented by the village community has been shown
+by Sir H. Maine and others to have existed at one time or
+another in all lands.</p>
+
+<p>Before the use of surnames and elaborate written genealogies,
+a tribe in its definite sense was called in Celtic a <i>tuath</i>, a word
+of wide affinities, from a root <i>tu</i>, to grow, to multiply, existing
+in all European languages. When the tribal system began to
+be broken up by conquest and by the rise of towns and of territorial
+government, the use of a common surname furnished a
+new bond for keeping up a connexion between kindred. The
+head of a tribe or smaller group of kindred selected some ancestor
+and called himself his <i>Ua</i>, grandson, or as it has been anglicized
+<i>O&rsquo;, e.g. Ua Conchobair</i> (O&rsquo; Conor), <i>Ua Suilleabhain</i> (O&rsquo;Sullivan).
+All his kindred adopted the same name, the chief using no
+fore-name however. The usual mode of distinguishing a person
+before the introduction of surnames was to name his father and
+grandfather, <i>e.g.</i> Owen, son of Donal, son of Dermot. This
+naturally led some to form their surnames with <i>Mac</i>, son, instead
+of <i>Ua</i>, grandson, <i>e.g.</i> <i>MacCarthaigh</i>, son of <i>Carthach</i> (MacCarthy),
+<i>MacRuaidhri</i>, son of Rory (Macrory). Both methods have been
+followed in Ireland, but in Scotland <i>Mac</i> came to be exclusively
+used. The adoption of such genealogical surnames fostered the
+notion that all who bore the same surname were kinsmen, and
+hence the genealogical term <i>clann</i>, which properly means the
+descendants of some progenitor, gradually became synonymous
+with <i>tuath</i>, tribe. Like all purely genealogical terms, <i>clann</i> may
+be used in the limited sense of a particular tribe governed by a
+chief, or in that of many tribes claiming descent from a common
+ancestor. In the latter sense it was synonymous with <i>síl, siol,</i>
+seed <i>e.g.</i> <i>Siol Alpine</i>, a great clan which included the smaller
+clans of the Macgregors, Grants, Mackinnons, Macnabs, Macphies,
+Macquarries and Macaulays.</p>
+
+<p>The clan system in the most archaic form of which we have
+any definite information can be best studied in the Irish <i>tuath</i>,
+or tribe.<a name="FnAnchor_1g" id="FnAnchor_1g" href="#Footnote_1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> This consisted of two classes: (1) tribesmen, and
+(2) a miscellaneous class of slaves, criminals, strangers and their
+descendants. The first class included tribesmen by blood in the
+male line, including all illegitimate children acknowledged by
+their fathers, and tribesmen by adoption or sons of tribeswomen
+by strangers, foster-sons, men who had done some signal service
+to the tribe, and lastly the descendants of the second class after
+a certain number of generations. Each <i>tuath</i> had a chief called
+a <i>ríg</i>, king, a word cognate with the Gaulish <i>ríg-s</i> or <i>rix</i>, the
+Latin <i>reg-s</i> or <i>rex</i>, and the Old Norse <i>rik-ir</i>. The tribesmen
+formed a number of communities, each of which, like the tribe
+itself, consisted of a head, <i>ceann fine</i>, his kinsmen, slaves and
+other retainers. This was the <i>fine</i>, or sept. Each of these
+occupied a certain part of the tribe-land, the arable part being
+cultivated under a system of co-tillage, the pasture land co-grazed
+according to certain customs, and the wood, bog and
+mountains forming the marchland of the sept being the unrestricted
+common land of the sept. The sept was in fact a
+village community.</p>
+
+<p>What the sept was to the tribe, the homestead was to the sept.
+The head of a homestead was an <i>aire</i>, a representative freeman
+capable of acting as a witness, compurgator and bail. These
+were very important functions, especially when it is borne in
+mind that the tribal homestead was the home of many of the
+kinsfolk of the head of the family as well as of his own children.
+The descent of property being according to a gavel-kind custom,
+it constantly happened that when an <i>aire</i> died the share of his
+property which each member of his immediate family was entitled
+to receive was not sufficient to qualify him to be an <i>aire</i>.
+In this case the family did not divide the inheritance, but
+remained together as &ldquo;a joint and undivided family,&rdquo; one of the
+members being elected chief of the family or household, and in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span>
+this capacity enjoyed the rights and privileges of an <i>aire</i>. Sir
+H.S. Maine directed attention to this kind of family as an
+important feature of the early institutions of all Indo-European
+nations. Beside the &ldquo;joint and undivided family,&rdquo; there was
+another kind of family which we might call &ldquo;the joint family.&rdquo;
+This was a partnership composed of three or four members of a
+sept whose individual wealth was not sufficient to qualify each
+of them to be an <i>aire</i>, but whose joint wealth qualified one of the
+co-partners as head of the joint family to be one.</p>
+
+<p>So long as there was abundance of land each family grazed
+its cattle upon the tribe-land without restriction; unequal
+increase of wealth and growth of population naturally led to its
+limitation, each head of a homestead being entitled to graze
+an amount of stock in proportion to his wealth, the size of his
+homestead, and his acquired position. The arable land was no
+doubt applotted annually at first; gradually, however, some
+of the richer families of the tribe succeeded in evading this
+exchange of allotments and converting part of the common land
+into an estate in sevralty. Septs were at first colonies of the
+tribe which settled on the march-land; afterwards the conversion
+of part of the common land into an estate in sevralty enabled
+the family that acquired it to become the parent of a new sept.
+The same process might, however, take place within a sept
+without dividing it; in other words, several members of the
+sept might hold part of the land of the sept as separate estate.
+The possession of land in sevralty introduced an important
+distinction into the tribal system&mdash;it created an aristocracy.
+An <i>aire</i> whose family held the same land for three generations
+was called a <i>flaith</i>, or lord, of which rank there were several
+grades according to their wealth in land and chattels. The <i>aires</i>
+whose wealth consisted in cattle only were called <i>bó-aires</i>, or
+cow-<i>aires</i>, of whom there were also several grades, depending
+on their wealth in stock. When a <i>bó-aire</i> had twice the wealth
+of the lowest class of <i>flaith</i> he might enclose part of the land
+adjoining his house as a lawn; this was the first step towards
+his becoming a <i>flaith</i>. The relations which subsisted between
+the <i>flaiths</i> and the <i>bó-aires</i> formed the most curious part of the
+Celtic tribal system, and throw a flood of light on the origin
+of the feudal system. Every tribesman without exception owed
+<i>ceilsinne</i> to the <i>ríg</i>, or chief, that is, he was bound to become
+his <i>ceile</i>, or vassal. This consisted in paying the <i>ríg</i> a tribute
+in kind, for which the <i>ceile</i> was entitled to receive a proportionate
+amount of stock without having to give any bond for their
+return, giving him service, <i>e.g.</i> in building his <i>dun</i>, or stronghold,
+reaping his harvest, keeping his roads clean and in repair, killing
+wolves, and especially service in the field, and doing him homage
+three times while seated every time he made his return of tribute.
+Paying the &ldquo;<i>calpe</i>&rdquo; to the Highland chiefs represented this
+kind of vassalage, a <i>colpdach</i> or heifer being in many cases the
+amount of food-rent paid by a free or <i>saer ceile</i>. A tribesman
+might, however, if he pleased, pay a higher rent on receiving
+more stock together with certain other chattels for which no
+rent was chargeable. In this case he entered into a contract,
+and was therefore a bond or <i>daer ceile</i>. No one need have
+accepted stock on these terms, nor could he do so without the
+consent of his sept, and he might free himself at any time from
+his obligation by returning what he had received, and the rent
+due thereon.</p>
+
+<p>What every one was bound to do to his <i>ríg</i>, or chief, he might
+do voluntarily to the <i>flaith</i> of his sept, to any <i>flaith</i> of the tribe,
+or even to one of another tribe. He might also become a bond
+<i>ceile</i>. In either case he might renounce his ceileship by returning
+a greater or lesser amount of stock than what he had received
+according to the circumstances under which he terminated his
+vassalage. In cases of disputed succession to the chiefship of a
+tribe the rival claimants were always anxious to get as many
+as possible to become their vassals. Hence the anxiety of minor
+chieftains, in later times in the Highlands of Scotland, to induce
+the clansmen to pay the &ldquo;<i>calpe</i>&rdquo; where there happened to be a
+doubt as to who was entitled to be chief.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of the custom of gavel-kind was to equalize the
+wealth of each and leave no one wealthy enough to be chief.
+The &ldquo;joint and undivided family&rdquo; and the formation of &ldquo;joint
+families,&rdquo; or gilds, was one way of obviating this result; another
+way was the custom of tanistry. The headship of the tribe was
+practically confined to the members of one family; this was
+also the case with the headship of a sept. Sometimes a son
+succeeded his father, but the rule was that the eldest and most
+capable member of the <i>geilfine</i>, that is, the relatives of the actual
+chief to the fifth degree,<a name="FnAnchor_2g" id="FnAnchor_2g" href="#Footnote_2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a> was selected during his lifetime to be
+his successor&mdash;generally the eldest surviving brother or son of
+the preceding chief. The man selected as successor to a chief
+of a tribe, or chieftain of a sept, was called the tanist, and
+should be &ldquo;the most experienced, the most noble, the most
+wealthy, the wisest, the most learned, the most truly popular,
+the most powerful to oppose, the most steadfast to sue for
+profits and (be sued) for losses.&rdquo; In addition to these qualities
+he should be free from personal blemishes and deformities and
+of fit age to lead his tribe or sept, as the case may be, to battle.<a name="FnAnchor_3g" id="FnAnchor_3g" href="#Footnote_3g"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+So far as selecting the man of the <i>geilfine</i> who was supposed to
+possess all those qualities, the office of chief of a tribe or chieftain
+of a sept was elective, but as the <i>geilfine</i> was represented by four
+persons, together with the chief or chieftain, the election was
+practically confined to one of the four. In order to support
+the dignity of the chief or chieftain a certain portion of the tribe
+or sept land was attached as an apanage to the office; this land,
+with the <i>duns</i> or fortified residences upon it, went to the successor,
+but a chief&rsquo;s own property might be gavelled. This
+custom of tanistry applied at first probably to the selection of
+the successors of a <i>ríg</i>, but was gradually so extended that even
+a <i>bó-aire</i> had a tanist.</p>
+
+<p>A sept might have only one <i>flaith</i>, or lord, connected with
+it, or might have several. It sometimes happened, however,
+that a sept might be so broken and reduced as not to have even
+one man qualified to rank as a <i>flaith</i>. The rank of a <i>flaith</i>
+depended upon the number of his <i>ceiles</i>, that is, upon his wealth.
+The <i>flaith</i> of a sept, and the highest when there was more than
+one, was <i>ceann fine</i>, or head of the sept, or as he was usually
+called in Scotland, the chieftain. He was also called the <i>flaith
+geilfine</i>, or head of the <i>geilfine</i>, that is, the kinsmen to the fifth
+degree from among whom should be chosen the tanist, and who,
+according to the custom of gavel-kind, were the immediate heirs
+who received the personal property and were answerable for the
+liabilities of the sept. The <i>flaiths</i> of the different septs were the
+vassals of the <i>ríg</i>, or chief of the tribe, and performed certain
+functions which were no doubt at first individual, but in time
+became the hereditary right of the sept. One of those was the
+office of <i>maer</i>, or steward of the chief&rsquo;s rents, &amp;c.;<a name="FnAnchor_4g" id="FnAnchor_4g" href="#Footnote_4g"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and another
+that of <i>aire tuisi</i>, leading <i>aire</i>, or <i>taoisech</i>, a word cognate with
+the Latin <i>duc-s</i> or <i>dux</i>, and Anglo-Saxon here-<i>tog</i>, leader of the
+&ldquo;here,&rdquo; or army. The <i>taoisech</i> was leader of the tribe in battle;
+in later times the term seems to have been extended to several
+offices of rank. The cadet of a Highland clan was always called
+the <i>taoisech</i>, which has been translated captain; after the
+conquest of Wales the same term, <i>tywysaug</i>, was used for a ruling
+prince. Slavery was very common in Ireland and Scotland;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span>
+in the former slaves constituted a common element in the
+stipends or gifts which the higher kings gave their vassal <i>sub-reguli</i>.
+Female slaves, who were employed in the houses of
+chiefs and <i>flaiths</i> in grinding meal with the hand-mill or quern,
+and in other domestic work, must have been very common, for
+the unit or standard for estimating the wealth of a <i>bó-aire</i>, blood-fines,
+&amp;c., was called a <i>cumhal</i>, the value of which was three
+cows, but which literally meant a female slave. The descendants
+of those slaves, prisoners of war, forfeited hostages, refugees
+from other tribes, broken tribesmen, &amp;c., gathered round the
+residence of the <i>ríg</i> and <i>flaiths</i>, or squatted upon their march-lands,
+forming a motley band of retainers which made a considerable
+element in the population, and one of the chief sources of
+the wealth of chiefs and <i>flaiths</i>. The other principal source of
+their income was the food-rent paid by <i>ceiles</i>, and especially
+by the <i>daer</i> or bond <i>ceiles</i>, who were hence called <i>biathachs</i>,
+from <i>biad</i>, food. A <i>flaith</i>, but not a <i>ríg</i>, might, if he liked, go to
+the house of his <i>ceile</i> and consume his food-rent in the house of
+the latter.</p>
+
+<p>Under the influence of feudal ideas and the growth of the
+modern views as to ownership of land, the chiefs and other
+lords of clans claimed in modern times the right of best owing
+the tribe-land as <i>turcrec</i>, instead of stock, and receiving rent not
+for cattle and other chattels as in former times, but proportionate
+to the extent of land given to them. The <i>turcrec</i>-land seems to
+have been at first given upon the same terms as <i>turcrec</i>-stock,
+but gradually a system of short leases grew up; sometimes,
+too, it was given on mortgage. In the Highlands of Scotland
+<i>ceiles</i> who received <i>turcrec</i>-land were called &ldquo;taksmen.&rdquo; On the
+death of the chief or lord, his successor either bestowed the
+land upon the same person or gave it to some other relative.
+In this way in each generation new families came into possession
+of land, and others sank into the mass of mere tribesmen. Sometimes
+a &ldquo;taksman&rdquo; succeeded in acquiring his land in perpetuity,
+by gift, marriage or purchase, or even by the &ldquo;strong hand.&rdquo;
+The universal prevalence of exchangeable allotments, or the
+rundale system, shows that down to even comparatively modern
+times some of the land was still recognized as the property of
+the tribe, and was cultivated in village communities.</p>
+
+<p>The chief governed the clan by the aid of a council called
+the <i>sabaid</i> (<i>sab</i>, a prop), but the chief exercised much power,
+especially over the miscellaneous body of non-tribesmen who
+lived on his own estate. This power seems to have extended
+to life and death. Several of the <i>flaiths</i>, perhaps, all heads of
+septs, also possessed somewhat extensive powers of the same
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>The Celtic dress, at least in the middle ages, consisted of a
+kind of shirt reaching to a little below the knees called a <i>lenn</i>,
+a jacket called an <i>inar</i>, and a garment called a <i>brat</i>, consisting
+of a single piece of cloth. This was apparently the garb of the
+<i>aires</i>, who appear to have been further distinguished by the
+number of colours in their dress, for we are told that while a
+slave had clothes of one colour, a <i>rég tuatha</i>, or chief of a tribe,
+had five, and an <i>ollamh</i> and a superior king six. The breeches
+was also known, and cloaks with a cowl or hood, which buttoned
+up tight in front. The <i>lenn</i> is the modern kilt, and the <i>brat</i> the
+plaid, so that the dress of the Irish and Welsh in former times
+was the same as that of the Scottish Highlander.</p>
+
+<p>By the abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Highland
+chiefs, and the general disarmament of the clans by the acts
+passed in 1747 after the rebellion of 1745, the clan system was
+practically broken up, though its influence still lingers in the
+more remote districts. An act was also passed in 1747 forbidding
+the use of the Highland garb; but the injustice and
+impolicy of such a law being generally felt it was afterwards
+repealed.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1g" id="Footnote_1g" href="#FnAnchor_1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The following account of the Irish clan-system differs in some
+respects from that in the article on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brehon Laws</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>); but it is
+retained here in view of the authority of the writer and the admitted
+obscurity of the whole subject.</p>
+<div class="author">(ED. <i>E. B.</i>)</div>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2g" id="Footnote_2g" href="#FnAnchor_2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The explanation here given of <i>geilfine</i> is different from that given
+in the introduction to the third volume of the <i>Ancient Laws of
+Ireland</i>, which was followed by Sir H.S. Maine in his account of it
+in his <i>Early History of Institutions</i>, and which the present writer
+believes to be erroneous.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3g" id="Footnote_3g" href="#FnAnchor_3g"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It should also be mentioned that illegitimacy was not a bar.
+The issue of &ldquo;handfast&rdquo; marriages in Scotland were eligible to be
+chiefs, and even sometimes claimed under feudal law.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4g" id="Footnote_4g" href="#FnAnchor_4g"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This office is of considerable importance in connexion with early
+Scottish history. In the Irish annals the <i>ríg</i>, or chief of a great tribe
+(<i>mor tuath</i>), such as of Ross, Moray, Marr, Buchan, &amp;c., is called a
+<i>mor maer</i>, or great <i>maer</i>. Sometimes the same person is called king
+also in these annals. Thus <i>Findlaec</i>, or Finlay, son of <i>Ruadhri</i>, the
+father of Shakespeare&rsquo;s Macbeth, is called king of Moray in the
+<i>Annals of Ulster</i>, and <i>mor maer</i> in the <i>Annals of Tighernach</i>. The
+term is never found in Scottish charters, but it occurs in the Book
+of the Abbey of Deir in Buchan, now in the library of the university
+of Cambridge. The Scotic kings and their successors obviously
+regarded the chiefs of the great tribes in question merely as their
+<i>maers</i>, while their tribesmen only knew them as kings. From these
+&ldquo;mor-maerships,&rdquo; which corresponded with the ancient <i>mor tuatha</i>,
+came most, if not all, the ancient Scottish earldoms.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Bourke</span> or <span class="sc">Burke</span>),
+1st <span class="sc">Earl of</span> (d. 1544), styled MacWilliam, and Ne-gan or Na-gCeann
+(<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;of the Heads,&rdquo; &ldquo;having made a mount of the
+heads of men slain in battle which he covered up with earth&rdquo;),
+was the son of Richard or Rickard de Burgh, lord of Clanricarde,
+by a daughter of Madden of Portumna, and grandson of Ulick de
+Burgh, lord of Clanricarde (1467-1487), the collateral heir male of
+the earls of Ulster. On the death of the last earl in 1333, his only
+child Elizabeth had married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and the
+earldom became merged in the crown, in consequence of which
+the de Burghs abjured English laws and sovereignty, and chose
+for their chiefs the sons of Sir William, the &ldquo;Red&rdquo; earl of
+Ulster&rsquo;s brother, the elder William taking the title of MacWilliam
+Eighter (Uachtar, <i>i.e.</i> Upper), and becoming the ancestor of the
+earls of Clanricarde, and his brother Sir Edmond that of MacWilliam
+Oughter (Ochtar, <i>i.e.</i> Lower), and founding the family
+of the earls of Mayo. In 1361 the duke of Clarence was sent over
+as lord-lieutenant to Ireland to enforce his claims as husband of
+the heir general, but failed, and the chiefs of the de Burghs
+maintained their independence of English sovereignty for several
+generations. Ulick de Burgh succeeded to the headship of his
+clan, exercised a quasi-royal authority and held vast estates in
+county Galway, in Connaught, including Loughry, Dunkellin, Kiltartan
+(Hilltaraght) and Athenry, as well as Clare and Leitrim.
+In March 1541, however, he wrote to Henry VIII., lamenting the
+degeneracy of his family, &ldquo;which have been brought to Irish and
+disobedient rule by reason of marriage and nurseing with those
+Irish, sometime rebels, near adjoining to me,&rdquo; and placing
+himself and his estates in the king&rsquo;s hands. The same year he was
+present at Dublin, when the act was passed making Henry VIII.
+king of Ireland. In 1543, in company with other Irish chiefs, he
+visited the king at Greenwich, made full submission, undertook to
+introduce English manners and abandon Irish names, received a
+regrant of the greater part of his estates with the addition of
+other lands, was confirmed in the captainship and rule of Clanricarde,
+and was created on the 1st of July 1543 earl of Clanricarde
+and baron of Dunkellin in the peerage of Ireland, with unusual
+ceremony. &ldquo;The making of McWilliam earl of Clanricarde
+made all the country during his time quiet and obedient,&rdquo; states
+Lord Chancellor Cusake in his review of the state of Ireland in
+1553.<a name="FnAnchor_1g1" id="FnAnchor_1g1" href="#Footnote_1g1"><span class="sp">1</span></a> He did not live long, however, to enjoy his new English
+dignities, but died shortly after returning to Ireland about March
+1544. He is called by the annalist of Loch Cé &ldquo;a haughty and
+proud lord,&rdquo; who reduced many under his yoke, and by the Four
+Masters &ldquo;the most illustrious of the English in Connaught.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Clanricarde married (1) Grany or Grace, daughter of Mulrone
+O&rsquo;Carroll, &ldquo;prince of Ely,&rdquo; by whom he had Richard or Rickard
+&ldquo;the Saxon,&rdquo; who succeeded him as 2nd earl of Clanricarde
+(grandfather of the 4th earl, whose son became marquess of
+Clanricarde), this alliance being the only one declared valid.
+After parting with his first wife he married (2) Honora, sister
+of Ulick de Burgh, from whom he also parted. He married
+(3) Mary Lynch, by whom he had John, who claimed the
+earldom in 1568. Other sons, according to Burke&rsquo;s <i>Peerage</i>,
+were Thomas &ldquo;the Athlete,&rdquo; shot in 1545, Redmond &ldquo;of the
+Broom&rdquo; (d. 1595), and Edmund (d. 1597).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also <i>Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters</i> (ed. by O. Connellan,
+1846), p. 132 note, and reign of Henry VIII.;
+<i>Annals of Loch Cé (Rerum Brit. Medii Aevi Scriptores</i>) (54) (1871);
+<i>Hist. Mem. of the O&rsquo;Briens</i>, by J.O. Donoghue (i860), pp 159, 519;
+<i>Ireland under the Tudors</i>, by R. Bagwell, vol. i.;
+<i>State Papers, Ireland, Carew MSS.</i>
+and Gairdner&rsquo;s <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Cotton MSS.</i>
+Brit. Mus., Titus B xi. f. 388.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1g1" id="Footnote_1g1" href="#FnAnchor_1g1"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Cal. of State Pap., Carew MSS.</i> 1515-1574, p. 246.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Bourke</span> or <span class="sc">Burke</span>),
+<span class="sc">Marquess of</span> (1604-1657 or 1658), son of Richard, 4th earl of
+Clanricarde, created in 1628 earl of St Albans, and of Frances,
+daughter and heir of Sir Francis Walsingham, and widow of Sir
+Philip Sidney and of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex, was born in
+1604. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Burgh in
+1628, and succeeded his father as 5th earl in 1635. He sat in the
+Short Parliament of 1640 and attended Charles I. in the Scottish
+expedition. On the outbreak of the Irish rebellion Clanricarde
+had powerful inducements for joining the Irish&mdash;the ancient
+greatness and independence of his family, his devotion to the
+Roman Catholic Church, and strongest of all, the ungrateful
+treatment meted out by Charles I. and Wentworth to his father,
+one of Elizabeth&rsquo;s most stanch adherents in Ireland, whose lands
+were appropriated by the crown and whose death, it was popularly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span>
+asserted, was hastened by the harshness of the lord-lieutenant.
+Nevertheless at the crisis his loyalty never wavered. Alone of the
+Irish Roman Catholic nobility to declare for the king, he returned
+to Ireland, took up his residence at Portumna, kept Galway, of
+which he was governor, neutral, and took measures for the
+defence of the county and for the relief of the Protestants,
+making &ldquo;his house and towns a refuge, nay, even a hospital for
+the distressed English.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_1h" id="FnAnchor_1h" href="#Footnote_1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In 1643 he was one of the commissioners
+appointed by the king to confer with the Irish confederates,
+and urged the wisdom of a cessation of hostilities in a
+document which he publicly distributed. He was appointed
+commander of the English forces in Connaught in 1644, and in
+1646 was created a marquess and a privy councillor. He supported
+the same year the treaty between Charles I. and the
+confederates, and endeavoured after its failure to persuade
+Preston, the general of the Irish, to agree to a peace; but the
+latter, being advised by Rinuccini, the papal nuncio, refused in
+December. Together with Ormonde, Clanricarde opposed the
+nuncio&rsquo;s policy; and the royalist inhabitants of Galway
+having through the latter&rsquo;s influence rejected the cessation of
+hostilities, arranged with Lord Inchiquin in 1648, he besieged the
+town and compelled its acquiescence. In 1649 he reduced Sligo.
+On Ormonde&rsquo;s departure in December 1650 Clanricarde was
+appointed deputy lord-lieutenant, but he was not trusted by the
+Roman Catholics, and was unable to stem the tide of the parliamentary
+successes. In 1651 he opposed the offer of Charles, duke
+of Lorraine, to supply money and aid on condition of being
+acknowledged &ldquo;Protector&rdquo; of the kingdom. In May 1652
+Galway surrendered to the parliament, and in June Clanricarde
+signed articles with the parliamentary commissioners which
+allowed his departure from Ireland. In August he was excepted
+from pardon for life and estate, but by permits, renewed from
+time to time by the council, he was enabled to remain in England
+for the rest of his life, and in 1653 £500 a year was settled upon
+him by the council of state in consideration of the protection
+which he had given to the Protestants in Ireland at the time of
+the rebellion. He died at Somerhill in Kent in 1657 or 1658 and
+was buried at Tunbridge.</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;great earl,&rdquo; as he was called, supported Ormonde in his
+desire to unite the English royalists with the more moderate
+Roman Catholics on the basis of religious toleration under the
+authority of the sovereign, against the papal scheme advocated by
+Rinuccini, and in opposition to the parliamentary and Puritan
+policy. By the author of the <i>Aphorismical Discovery</i>, who
+represents the opinion of the native Irish, he is denounced as the
+&ldquo;masterpiece of the treasonable faction,&rdquo; &ldquo;a foe to his king,
+nation and religion,&rdquo; and by the duke of Lorraine as &ldquo;a traitor
+and a base fellow&rdquo;; but there is no reason to doubt Clarendon&rsquo;s
+opinion of him as &ldquo;a person of unquestionable fidelity. . . and
+of the most eminent constancy to the Roman Catholic religion of
+any man in the three kingdoms,&rdquo; or the verdict of Hallam, who
+describes him &ldquo;as perhaps the most unsullied character in the
+annals of Ireland.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>He married Lady Anne Compton, daughter of William
+Compton, 1st earl of Northampton, but had issue only one
+daughter. On his death, accordingly, the marquessate and the
+English peerages became extinct, the Irish titles reverting to his
+cousin Richard, 6th earl, grandson of the 3rd earl of Clanricarde.
+Henry, the 12th earl (1742-1797), was again created a marquess in
+1789, but the marquessate expired at his death without issue, the
+earldom going to his brother. In 1825 the 14th earl (1802-1874)
+was created a marquess; he was ambassador at St Petersburg,
+and later postmaster-general and lord privy seal, and married
+George Canning&rsquo;s daughter. His son (b. 1832), who achieved
+notoriety in the Irish land agitation, succeeded him as 2nd
+marquess.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;See the article &ldquo;Burgh, Ulick de,&rdquo; in the <i>Dict.  of Nat.
+Biography</i>, and authorities there given; <i>Hist. of the Irish
+Confederation</i>, by R. Bellings, ed. by J.T. Gilbert (1882);
+<i>Aphorismical Discovery</i> (Irish Archaeological Society, 1879);
+<i>Memoirs of the Marquis of Clanricarde</i> (1722, repr. 1744); <i>Memoirs of Ulick</i>,
+<i>Marquis of Clanricarde</i>, by John, 11th earl (1757); <i>Life of Ormonde</i>,
+by T. Carte (1851); S.R. Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of the Civil War</i> and
+of the <i>Commonwealth; Thomason Tracts</i> (Brit. Mus.) E 371 (11),
+456 (10); <i>Cal. of State Papers, Irish</i>, esp. <i>Introd.</i> 1633-1647 and
+<i>Domestic; Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Ormonde</i> and <i>Earl
+of Egmont</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1h" id="Footnote_1h" href="#FnAnchor_1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS of Earl of Egmont</i>, i. 223.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span>, the name of an English poet first
+mentioned in the history of English literature by F.S. Ellis in
+1896, when, in editing the text of <i>The Book of Cupid, God of Love,
+or The Cuckoo and the Nightingale</i>, for the Kelmscott Press, he
+stated that Professor Skeat had discovered that at the end of the
+best of the MSS. the author was called Clanvowe. In 1897 this
+information was confirmed and expanded by Professor Skeat in
+the supplementary volume of his Clarendon Press <i>Chaucer</i> (1894-1897).
+The beautiful romance of <i>The Cuckoo and the Nightingale</i>
+was published by Thynne in 1532, and was attributed by him, and
+by successive editors down to the days of Henry Bradshaw, to
+Chaucer. It was due to this error that for three centuries
+Chaucer was supposed to be identified with the manor of Woodstock,
+and even painted, in fanciful pictures, as lying</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr f90">
+
+<p>&ldquo;Under a maple that is fair and green,</p>
+<p class="i05">Before the chamber-window of the Queen</p>
+<p class="i05">At Wodëstock, upon the greenë lea.&rdquo;</p>
+
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>But this queen could only be Joan of Navarre, who arrived
+in 1403, three years after Chaucer&rsquo;s death, and it is to the
+spring of that year that Professor Skeat attributes the composition
+of the poem. Sir Thomas Clanvowe was of a Herefordshire
+family, settled near Wigmore. He was a prominent figure in the
+courts of Richard II. and Henry IV., and is said to have been a
+friend of Prince Hal. He was one of those who &ldquo;had begun to
+mell of Lollardy, and drink the gall of heresy.&rdquo; He was one of the
+twenty-five knights who accompanied John Beaufort (son of
+John of Gaunt) to Barbary in 1390.</p>
+
+<p>The date of his birth is unknown, and his name is last mentioned
+in 1404. The historic and literary importance of <i>The Cuckoo and
+the Nightingale</i> is great. It is the work of a poet who had studied
+the prosody of Chaucer with more intelligent care than either
+Occleve or Lydgate, and who therefore forms an important link
+between the 14th and 15th centuries in English poetry. Clanvowe
+writes with a surprising delicacy and sweetness, in a five-line
+measure almost peculiar to himself. Professor Skeat points out a
+unique characteristic of Clanvowe&rsquo;s versification, namely, the
+unprecedented freedom with which he employs the suffix of the
+final <i>-e</i>, and rather avoids than seeks elision. <i>The Cuckoo and the
+Nightingale</i> was imitated by Milton in his sonnet to the Nightingale,
+and was rewritten in modern English by Wordsworth. It is
+a poem of so much individual beauty, that we must regret the
+apparent loss of everything else written by a poet of such unusual
+talent.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also a critical edition of the <i>Boke of Cupide</i> by Dr Erich
+Vollmer (Berlin, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAPARÈDE, JEAN LOUIS RENÉ ANTOINE ÉDOUARD<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span>
+(1832-1870), Swiss naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of
+April 1832. He belonged to a French family, some members of
+which had taken refuge in that city after the revocation of the
+Edict of Nantes. In 1852 he began to study medicine and natural
+science at Berlin, where he was greatly influenced by J. Müller
+and C.G. Ehrenberg, the former being at that period engaged in
+his important researches on the Echinoderms. In 1855 he
+accompanied Müller to Norway, and there spent two months on a
+desolate reef that he might obtain satisfactory observations.
+The latter part of his stay at Berlin he devoted, along with J.
+Lachmann, to the study of the Infusoria and Rhizopods. In 1857
+he obtained the degree of doctor, and in 1862 he was chosen
+professor of comparative anatomy at Geneva. In 1859 he
+visited England, and in company with W.B. Carpenter made a
+voyage to the Hebrides; and in 1863 he spent some months in the
+Bay of Biscay. On the appearance of Darwin&rsquo;s work on the
+<i>Origin of Species</i>, he adopted his theories and published a
+valuable series of articles on the subject in the <i>Revue Germanique</i>
+(1861). During 1865 and 1866 ill-health rendered him incapable
+of work, and he determined to pass the winter of 1866-1867 in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span>
+Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and
+his energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the
+Annelidae of the gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage
+in 1868; but in 1870, instead of recovering as before, he grew
+worse, and on the 31st of May he died at Siena on his way home.
+His <i>Recherches sur la structure des annélides sédentaires</i> were
+published posthumously in 1873.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAPPERTON, HUGH<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> (1788-1827), Scottish traveller in West-Central
+Africa, was born in 1788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where
+his father was a surgeon. He gained some knowledge of practical
+mathematics and navigation, and at thirteen was apprenticed on
+board a vessel which traded between Liverpool and North
+America. After having made several voyages across the Atlantic
+he was impressed for the navy, in which he soon rose to the rank
+of midshipman. During the Napoleonic wars he saw a good deal
+of active service, and at the storming of Port Louis, Mauritius, in
+November 1810, he was first in the breach and hauled down the
+French flag. In 1814 he went to Canada, was promoted to the
+rank of lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the
+Canadian lakes. In 1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was
+dismantled, he returned home on half-pay.</p>
+
+<p>In 1820 Clapperton removed to Edinburgh, where he made
+the acquaintance of Walter Oudney, M.D., who aroused in him an
+interest in African travel. Lieut. G.F. Lyon, R.N., having
+returned from an unsuccessful attempt to reach Bornu from
+Tripoli, the British government determined on a second expedition
+to that country. Dr Oudney was appointed by Lord
+Bathurst, then colonial secretary, to proceed to Bornu as consul
+with the object of promoting trade, and Clapperton and Major
+Dixon Denham (<i>q.v.</i>) were added to the party. From Tripoli,
+early in 1822, they set out southward to Murzuk, and from this
+point Clapperton and Oudney visited the Ghat oasis. Kuka, the
+capital of Bornu, was reached in February 1823, and Lake Chad
+seen for the first time by Europeans. At Bornu the travellers
+were well received by the sultan; and after remaining in the
+country till the 14th of December they again set out for the
+purpose of exploring the course of the Niger. At Murmur, on the
+road to Kano, Oudney died (January 1824). Clapperton continued
+his journey alone through Kano to Sokoto, the capital of
+the Fula empire, where by order of Sultan Bello he was obliged to
+stop, though the Niger was only five days&rsquo; journey to the west.
+Worn out with his travel he returned by way of Zaria and
+Katsena to Kuka, where he again met Denham. The two
+travellers then set out for Tripoli, reached on the 26th of January
+1825. An account of the travels was published in 1826 under the
+title of <i>Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and
+Central Africa in the years 1822-1824</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after his return Clapperton was raised to the rank
+of commander, and sent out with another expedition to Africa,
+the sultan Bello of Sokoto having professed his eagerness to open
+up trade with the west coast. Clapperton landed at Badagry in
+the Bight of Benin, and started overland for the Niger on the 7th
+of December 1825, having with him his servant Richard Lander
+(<i>q.v.</i>), Captain Pearce, R.N., and Dr Morrison, navy surgeon and
+naturalist. Before the month was out Pearce and Morrison were
+dead of fever. Clapperton continued his journey, and, passing
+through the Yoruba country, in January 1826 he crossed the
+Niger at Bussa, the spot where Mungo Park had died twenty years
+before. In July he arrived at Kano. Thence he went to Sokoto,
+intending afterwards to go to Bornu. The sultan, however,
+detained him, and being seized with dysentery he died near
+Sokoto on the 13th of April 1827.</p>
+
+<p>Clapperton was the first European to make known from
+personal observation the semi-civilized Hausa countries, which he
+visited soon after the establishment of the Sokoto empire by the
+Fula. In 1829 appeared the <i>Journal of a Second Expedition into
+the Interior of Africa</i>, &amp;c, by the late Commander Clapperton,
+to which was prefaced a biographical sketch of the explorer by his
+uncle, Lieut.-colonel S. Clapperton. Lander, who had brought
+back the journal of his master, also published <i>Records of Captain
+Clapperton&rsquo;s Last Expedition to Africa . . . with the subsequent
+Adventures of the Author</i> (2 vols., London, 1830).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAQUE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (Fr. <i>claquer</i>, to clap the hands), an organized body
+of professional applauders in the French theatres. The hiring
+of persons to applaud dramatic performances was common in
+classical times, and the emperor Nero, when he acted, had his
+performance greeted by an encomium chanted by five thousand
+of his soldiers, who were called Angustals. The recollection of
+this gave the 16th-century French poet, Jean Daurat, an idea
+which has developed into the modern claque. Buying up a
+number of tickets for a performance of one of his plays, he distributed
+them gratuitously to those who promised publicly to
+express their approbation. It was not, however, till 1820 that
+a M. Sauton seriously undertook the systematization of the
+claque, and opened an office in Paris for the supply of <i>claqueurs</i>.
+By 1830 the claque had become a regular institution. The
+manager of a theatre sends an order for any number of <i>claqueurs</i>.
+These people are usually under a <i>chef de claque</i>, whose duty it is
+to judge where their efforts are needed and to start the demonstration
+of approval. This takes several forms. Thus there are
+<i>commissaires</i>, those who learn the piece by heart, and call the
+attention of their neighbours to its good points between the
+acts. The <i>rieurs</i> are those who laugh loudly at the jokes. The
+<i>pleureurs</i>, generally women, feign tears, by holding their handkerchiefs
+to their eyes. The <i>chatouilleurs</i> keep the audience in a
+good humour, while the <i>bisseurs</i> simply clap their hands and cry
+<i>bis! bis!</i> to secure encores.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARA, SAINT<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1194-1253), foundress of the Franciscan
+nuns, was born of a knightly family in Assisi in 1194. At
+eighteen she was so impressed by a sermon of St Francis that
+she was filled with the desire to devote herself to the kind of life
+he was leading. She obtained an interview with him, and to
+test her resolution he told her to dress in penitential sackcloth
+and beg alms for the poor in the streets of Assisi. Clara readily
+did this, and Francis, satisfied as to her vocation, told her to
+come to the Portiuncula arrayed as a bride. The friars met her
+with lighted candles, and at the foot of the altar Francis shore
+off her hair, received her vows of poverty, chastity and obedience,
+and invested her with the Franciscan habit, 1212. He placed
+her for a couple of years in a Benedictine convent in Assisi,
+until the convent at St Damian&rsquo;s, close to the town, was ready.
+Her two younger sisters, and, after her father&rsquo;s death, her
+mother and many others joined her, and the Franciscan nuns
+spread widely and rapidly (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clares, Poor</a></span>). The relations
+of friendship and sympathy between St Clara and St Francis
+were very close, and there can be no doubt that she was one of
+the truest heirs of Francis&rsquo;s inmost spirit. After his death
+Clara threw herself wholly on the side of those who opposed
+mitigations in the rule and manner of life, and she was one of
+the chief upholders of St Francis&rsquo;s primitive idea of poverty
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Franciscans</a></span>). She was the close friend of Brother Leo
+and the other &ldquo;Companions of St Francis,&rdquo; and they assisted
+at her death. For forty years she was abbess at St Damian&rsquo;s,
+and the great endeavour of her life was that the rule of the nuns
+should be purged of the foreign elements that had been introduced,
+and should become wholly conformable to St Francis&rsquo;s
+spirit. She lived just long enough to witness the fulfilment of
+her great wish, a rule such as she desired being approved by the
+pope two days before her death on the 11th of August 1253.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The sources for her life are to be found in the Bollandist <i>Acta
+Sanctorum</i> on the 11th of August, and sketches in such <i>Lives of the
+Saints</i> as Alban Butler&rsquo;s. See also Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchen-lexicon</i>
+(2nd ed.), art. &ldquo;Clara.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARE<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span>, the name of a famous English family. The ancestor
+of this historic house, &ldquo;which played,&rdquo; in Freeman&rsquo;s words,
+&ldquo;so great a part alike in England, Wales and Ireland,&rdquo; was
+Count Godfrey, eldest of the illegitimate sons of Richard the
+Fearless, duke of Normandy. His son, Count Gilbert of Brionne,
+had two sons, Richard, lord of Bienfaite and Orbec, and Baldwin,
+lord of Le Sap and Meulles, both of whom accompanied the
+Conqueror to England. Baldwin, known as &ldquo;De Meulles&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;of Exeter,&rdquo; received the hereditary shrievalty of Devon with
+great estates in the West Country, and left three sons, William,
+Robert and Richard, of whom the first and last were in turn
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span>
+sheriffs of Devon. Richard, known as &ldquo;de Bienfaite,&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;of Tunbridge,&rdquo; or &ldquo;of Clare,&rdquo; was the founder of the house
+of Clare.</p>
+
+<p>Richard derived his English appellation from his strongholds
+at Tunbridge and at Clare, at both of which his castle-mounds
+still remain. The latter, on the borders of Essex and Suffolk,
+was the head of his great &ldquo;honour&rdquo; which lay chiefly in the
+eastern counties. Appointed joint justiciar in the king&rsquo;s absence
+abroad, he took a leading part in suppressing the revolt of 1075.
+By his wife, Rohese, daughter of Walter Giffard, through whom
+great Giffard estates afterwards came to his house, he left five
+sons and two daughters. Roger was his heir in Normandy,
+Walter founded Tintern Abbey, Richard was a monk, and
+Robert, receiving the forfeited fief of the Baynards in the eastern
+counties, founded, through his son Walter, the house of FitzWalter
+(extinct 1432), of whom the most famous was Robert
+FitzWalter, the leader of the barons against King John. Of
+this house, spoken of by Jordan Fantosme as &ldquo;Clarreaus,&rdquo;
+the Daventrys of Daventry (extinct 1380) and Fawsleys of
+Fawsley (extinct 1392) were cadets. One of Richard&rsquo;s two
+daughters married the famous Walter Tirel.</p>
+
+<p>Gilbert, Richard&rsquo;s heir in England, held his castle of Tunbridge
+against William Rufus, but was wounded and captured. Under
+Henry I., who favoured the Clares, he obtained a grant of
+Cardigan, and carried his arms into Wales. Dying about 1115,
+he left four sons, of whom Gilbert, the second, inherited Chepstow,
+with Nether-Gwent, from his uncle, Walter, the founder
+of Tintern, and was created earl of Pembroke by Stephen about
+1138; he was father of Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke
+(<i>q.v.</i>). The youngest son Baldwin fought for Stephen at the
+battle of Lincoln (1141) and founded the priories of Bourne
+and Deeping on lands acquired with his wife. The eldest son
+Richard, who was slain by the Welsh on his way to Cardigan
+in 1135 or 1136, left two sons Gilbert and Roger, of whom
+Gilbert was created earl of Hertfordshire by Stephen.</p>
+
+<p>It was probably because he and the Clares had no interests in
+Hertfordshire that they were loosely and usually styled the
+earls of (de) Clare. Dying in 1152, Gilbert was succeeded by
+his brother Roger, of whom Fitz-Stephen observes that &ldquo;nearly
+all the nobles of England were related to the earl of Clare, whose
+sister, the most beautiful woman in England, had long been
+desired by the king&rdquo; (Henry II.). He was constantly fighting
+the Welsh for his family possessions in Wales and quarrelled
+with Becket over Tunbridge Castle. In 1173 or 1174 he was
+succeeded by his son Richard as third earl, whose marriage
+with Amicia, daughter and co-heir of William, earl of Gloucester,
+was destined to raise the fortunes of his house to their highest
+point. He and his son Gilbert were among the &ldquo;barons of the
+Charter,&rdquo; Gilbert, who became fourth earl in 1217, obtained
+also, early in 1218, the earldom of Gloucester, with its great
+territorial &ldquo;Honour,&rdquo; and the lordship of Glamorgan, in right
+of his mother; &ldquo;from this time the house of Clare became the
+acknowledged head of the baronage.&rdquo; Gilbert had also inherited
+through his father his grandmother&rsquo;s &ldquo;Honour of St Hilary&rdquo;
+and a moiety of the Giffard fief; but the vast possessions of
+his house were still further swollen by his marriage with a
+daughter of William (Marshal), earl of Pembroke, through
+whom his son Richard succeeded in 1245 to a fifth of the Marshall
+lands including the Kilkenny estates in Ireland. Richard&rsquo;s
+successor, Gilbert, the &ldquo;Red&rdquo; earl, died in 1295, the most
+powerful subject in the kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>On his death his earldoms seem to have been somewhat
+mysteriously deemed to have passed to his widow Joan, daughter
+of Edward I.; for her second husband, Ralph de Monthermer,
+was summoned to parliament in right of them from 1299 to 1306.
+After her death, however, in 1307, Earl Gilbert&rsquo;s son and namesake
+was summoned in 1308 as earl of Gloucester and Hertford,
+though only sixteen. A nephew of Edward II. and brother-in-law
+of Gaveston, he played a somewhat wavering part in the
+struggle between the king and the barons. Guardian of the
+realm in 1311 and regent in 1313, he fell gloriously at Bannockburn
+(June 24th, 1314), when only twenty-three, rushing on
+the enemy &ldquo;like a wild boar, making his sword drunk with
+their blood.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The earl was the last of his mighty line, and his vast possessions
+in England (in over twenty counties), Wales and Ireland
+fell to his three sisters, of whom Elizabeth, the youngest, wife
+of John de Burgh, obtained the &ldquo;Honour of Clare&rdquo; and transmitted
+it to her son William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster, whose
+daughter brought it to Lionel, son of King Edward III., who
+was thereupon created duke of Clarence, a title associated ever
+since with the royal house. The &ldquo;Honour of Clare,&rdquo; vested in
+the crown, still preserves a separate existence, with a court and
+steward of its own.</p>
+
+<p>Clare College, Cambridge, derived its name from the above
+Elizabeth, &ldquo;Lady of Clare,&rdquo; who founded it as Clare Hall in
+1347.</p>
+
+<p>Clare County in Ireland derives its name from the family,
+though whether from Richard Strongbow, or from Thomas de
+Clare, a younger son, who had a grant of Thomond in 1276, has
+been deemed doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>Clarenceux King of Arms, an officer of the Heralds&rsquo; College,
+derives his style, through Clarence, from Clare.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.H. Round&rsquo;s <i>Geoffrey de Mandeville, Feudal England, Commune
+of London</i>, and <i>Peerage Studies</i>; also his &ldquo;Family of Clare&rdquo;
+in <i>Arch. Journ.</i> lvi., and &ldquo;Origin of Armorial Bearings&rdquo; in Ib. li.;
+Parkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Clarence, the origin and bearers of the title,&rdquo; in <i>The
+Antiquary</i>, v.; Clark&rsquo;s &ldquo;Lords of Glamorgan&rdquo; in <i>Arch. Journ.</i>
+xxxv.; Planche&rsquo;s &ldquo;Earls of Gloucester&rdquo; in <i>Journ. Arch. Assoc.</i>
+xxvi.; Dugdale&rsquo;s <i>Baronage</i>, vol. i., and <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>;
+G.E. C[okayne]&rsquo;s <i>Complete Peerage</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. H. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARE, JOHN<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (1793-1864), English poet, commonly known
+as &ldquo;the Northamptonshire Peasant Poet,&rdquo; the son of a farm
+labourer, was born at Helpstone near Peterborough, on the
+13th of July 1793. At the age of seven he was taken from
+school to tend sheep and geese; four years later he began to
+work on a farm, attending in the winter evenings a school where
+he is said to have learnt some algebra. He then became a pot-boy
+in a public-house and fell in love with Mary Joyce, but her
+father, a prosperous farmer, forbade her to meet him. Subsequently
+he was gardener at Burghley Park. He enlisted in the
+militia, tried camp life with gipsies, and worked as a lime burner
+in 1817, but in the following year he was obliged to accept
+parish relief. Clare had bought a copy of Thomson&rsquo;s <i>Seasons</i>
+out of his scanty earnings and had begun to write poems. In
+1819 a bookseller at Stamford, named Drury, lighted on one of
+Clare&rsquo;s poems, <i>The Setting Sun</i>, written on a scrap of paper
+enclosing a note to his predecessor in the business. He befriended
+the author and introduced his poems to the notice
+of John Taylor, of the publishing firm of Taylor &amp; Hussey,
+who issued the <i>Poems Descriptive of Rural Life and Scenery</i>
+in 1820. This book was highly praised, and in the next year
+his <i>Village Minstrel and other Poems</i> were published. He was
+greatly patronized; fame, in the shape of curious visitors, broke
+the tenor of his life, and the convivial habits that he had formed
+were indulged more freely. He had married in 1820, and an
+annuity of 15 guineas from Lord Exeter, in whose service he had
+been, was supplemented by subscription, and he became possessed
+of £45 annually, a sum far beyond what he had ever
+earned, but new wants made his income insufficient, and in
+1823 he was nearly penniless. The <i>Shepherd&rsquo;s Calendar</i> (1827)
+met with little success, which was not increased by his hawking
+it himself. As he worked again on the fields his health temporarily
+improved; but he soon became seriously ill. Lord
+Fitzwilliam presented him with a new cottage and a piece of
+ground, but Clare could not settle in his new home. Gradually
+his mind gave way. His last and best work, the <i>Rural Muse</i>
+(1835), was noticed by &ldquo;Christopher North&rdquo; alone. He had
+for some time shown symptoms of insanity; and in July 1837 he
+was removed to a private asylum, and afterwards to the Northampton
+general lunatic asylum, where he died on the 20th of
+May 1864. Clare&rsquo;s descriptions of rural scenes show a keen and
+loving appreciation of nature, and his love-songs and ballads
+charm by their genuine feeling; but his vogue was no doubt
+largely due to the interest aroused by his humble position in life.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Life of John Clare</i>, by Frederick Martin (1865); and <i>Life
+and Remains of John Clare</i>, by J.L. Cherry (1873), which, though
+not so complete, contains some of the poet&rsquo;s asylum verses and prose
+fragments.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span>, <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1749-1802), lord
+chancellor of Ireland, was the second son of John Fitzgibbon,
+who had abandoned the Roman Catholic faith in order to
+pursue a legal career. He was educated at Trinity College,
+Dublin, where he was highly distinguished as a classical scholar,
+and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1770. In
+1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and quickly acquired a very
+lucrative practice; he also inherited his father&rsquo;s large fortune
+on the death of his elder brother. In 1778 he entered the Irish
+House of Commons as member for Dublin University, and at
+first gave a general support to the popular party led by Henry
+Grattan (<i>q.v.</i>). He was, however, from the first hostile to that
+part of Grattan&rsquo;s policy which aimed at removing the disabilities
+of the Roman Catholics; he endeavoured to impede the Relief
+Bill of 1778 by raising difficulties about its effect on the Act of
+Settlement. He especially distrusted the priests, and many
+years later explained that his life-long resistance to all concession
+to the Catholics was based on his &ldquo;unalterable opinion&rdquo; that
+&ldquo;a conscientious Popish ecclesiastic never will become a well-attached
+subject to a Protestant state, and that the Popish
+clergy must always have a commanding influence on every
+member of that communion.&rdquo; As early as 1780 Fitzgibbon
+began to separate himself from the popular or national party,
+by opposing Grattan&rsquo;s declaration of the Irish parliament&rsquo;s
+right to independence. There is no reason to suppose that in
+this change of view he was influenced by corrupt or personal
+motives. His cast of mind naturally inclined to authority
+rather than to democratic liberty; his hostility to the Catholic
+claims, and his distrust of parliamentary reform as likely to
+endanger the connexion of Ireland with Great Britain, made him
+a sincere opponent of the aims which Grattan had in view.
+In reply, however, to a remonstrance from his constituents
+Fitzgibbon promised to support Grattan&rsquo;s policy in the future,
+and described the claim of Great Britain to make laws for Ireland
+as &ldquo;a daring usurpation of the rights of a free people.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For some time longer there was no actual breach between him
+and Grattan. Grattan supported the appointment of Fitzgibbon
+as attorney-general in 1783, and in 1785 the latter highly eulogized
+Grattan&rsquo;s character and services to the country in a speech
+in which he condemned Flood&rsquo;s volunteer movement. He also
+opposed Flood&rsquo;s Reform Bill of 1784; and from this time
+forward he was in fact the leading spirit in the Irish government,
+and the stiffest opponent of all concession to popular demands.
+In 1784 the permanent committee of revolutionary reformers in
+Dublin, of whom Napper Tandy was the most conspicuous,
+invited the sheriffs of counties to call meetings for the election of
+delegates to attend a convention for the discussion of reform; and
+when the sheriff of the county of Dublin summoned a meeting for
+this purpose Fitzgibbon procured his imprisonment for contempt
+of court, and justified this procedure in parliament, though Lord
+Erskine declared it grossly illegal. In the course of the debates
+on Pitt&rsquo;s commercial propositions in 1785, which Fitzgibbon
+supported in masterly speeches, he referred to Curran in terms
+which led to a duel between the two lawyers, when Fitzgibbon
+was accused of a deliberation in aiming at his opponent that was
+contrary to etiquette. His antagonism to Curran was life-long
+and bitter, and after he became chancellor his hostility to the
+famous advocate was said to have driven the latter out of
+practice. In January 1787 Fitzgibbon introduced a stringent
+bill for repressing the Whiteboy outrages. It was supported by
+Grattan, who, however, procured the omission of a clause
+enacting that any Roman Catholic chapel near which an illegal
+oath had been tendered should be immediately demolished. His
+influence with the majority in the Irish parliament defeated
+Pitt&rsquo;s proposed reform of the tithe system in Ireland, Fitzgibbon
+refusing even to grant a committee to investigate the subject.
+On the regency question in 1789 Fitzgibbon, in opposition to
+Grattan, supported the doctrine of Pitt in a series of powerful
+speeches which proved him a great constitutional lawyer; he
+intimated that the choice for Ireland might in certain eventualities
+rest between complete separation from England and
+legislative union; and, while he exclaimed as to the latter
+alternative, &ldquo;God forbid that I should ever see that day!&rdquo; he
+admitted that separation would be the worse evil of the two.</p>
+
+<p>In the same year Lord Lifford resigned the chancellorship, and
+Fitzgibbon was appointed in his place, being raised to the peerage
+as Baron Fitzgibbon. His removal to the House of Lords
+greatly increased his power. In the Commons, though he had
+exercised great influence as attorney-general, his position had
+been secondary; in the House of Lords and in the privy council
+he was little less than despotic. &ldquo;He was,&rdquo; says Lecky, &ldquo;by far
+the ablest Irishman who had adopted without restriction the
+doctrine that the Irish legislature must be maintained in a
+condition of permanent and unvarying subjection to the English
+executive.&rdquo; But the English ministry were now embarking on a
+policy of conciliation in Ireland. The Catholic Relief Bill of 1793
+was forced on the Irish executive by the cabinet in London, but
+it passed rapidly and easily through the Irish parliament.
+Lord Fitzgibbon, while accepting the bill as inevitable under the
+circumstances that had arisen, made a most violent though
+exceedingly able speech against the principle of concession,
+which did much to destroy the conciliatory effect of the measure;
+and as a consequence of this act he began persistently to urge the
+necessity for a legislative union. From this date until the union
+was carried, the career of Fitzgibbon is practically the history of
+Ireland. True to his inveterate hostility to the popular claims,
+he was opposed to the appointment of Lord Fitzwilliam (<i>q.v.</i>) as
+viceroy in 1795, and was probably the chief influence in procuring
+his recall; and it was Fitzgibbon who first put it into the head of
+George III. that the king would violate his coronation oath if he
+consented to the admission of Catholics to parliament. When
+Lord Camden, Fitzwilliam&rsquo;s successor in the viceroyalty, arrived
+in Dublin on the 31st of March 1795, Fitzgibbon&rsquo;s carriage was
+violently assaulted by the mob, and he himself was wounded;
+and in the riots that ensued his house was also attacked. But as
+if to impress upon the Catholics the hopelessness of their case, the
+government who had made Fitzgibbon a viscount immediately
+after his attack on the Catholics in 1793 now bestowed on him a
+further mark of honour. In June 1795 he was created earl of
+Clare. On the eve of the rebellion he warned the government
+that while emancipation and reform might be the objects aimed
+at by the better classes, the mass of the disaffected had in view
+&ldquo;the separation of the country from her connexion with Great
+Britain, and a fraternal alliance with the French Republic.&rdquo;
+Clare advocated stringent measures to prevent an outbreak; but
+he was neither cruel nor immoderate, and was inclined to mercy
+in dealing with individuals. He attempted to save Lord Edward
+Fitzgerald (<i>q.v.</i>) from his fate by giving a friendly warning to his
+friends, and promising to facilitate his escape from the country;
+and Lord Edward&rsquo;s aunt, Lady Louisa Conolly, who was conducted
+to his death-bed in prison by the chancellor in person,
+declared that &ldquo;nothing could exceed Lord Clare&rsquo;s kindness.&rdquo;
+His moderation and humanity after the rebellion was extolled by
+Cornwallis. He threw his great influence on the side of clemency,
+and it was through his intervention that Oliver Bond, when
+sentenced to death, was reprieved; and that an arrangement was
+made by which Arthur O&rsquo;Connor, Thomas Emmet and other
+state prisoners were allowed to leave the country.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1798 Lord Clare, who since 1793 had been convinced
+of the necessity for a legislative union if the connexion
+between Great Britain and Ireland was to be maintained, and
+who was equally determined that the union must be unaccompanied
+by Catholic emancipation, crossed to England and
+successfully pressed his views on Pitt. In 1799 he induced the
+Irish House of Lords to throw out a bill for providing a permanent
+endowment of Maynooth. On the 10th of February 1800 Clare in
+the House of Lords moved the resolution approving the union in
+a long and powerful speech, in which he reviewed the history of
+Ireland since the Revolution, attributing the evils of recent years
+to the independent constitution of 1782, and speaking of Grattan
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span>
+in language of deep personal hatred. He was not aware of the
+assurance which Cornwallis had been authorized to convey to the
+Catholics that the union was to pave the way for emancipation,
+and when he heard of it after the passing of the act he bitterly
+complained that Pitt and Castlereagh had deceived him. After
+the union Clare became more violent than ever in his opposition
+to any policy of concession in Ireland. He died on the 28th of
+January 1802; his funeral in Dublin was the occasion of a riot
+organized &ldquo;by a gang of about fourteen persons under orders of
+a leader.&rdquo; His wife, in compliance with his death-bed request,
+destroyed all his papers. His two sons, John (1792-1851) and
+Richard Hobart (1793-1864), succeeded in turn to the earldom,
+which became extinct on the death of the latter, whose only
+son, John Charles Henry, Viscount Fitzgibbon (1829-1854), was
+killed in the charge of the Light Brigade at Balaklava.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Clare was in private life an estimable and even an amiable
+man; many acts of generosity are related of him; the determination
+of his character swayed other wills to his purpose, and his
+courage was such as no danger, no obloquy, no public hatred or
+violence could disturb. Though not a great orator like Flood or
+Grattan, he was a skilful and ready debater, and he was by far
+the ablest Irish supporter of the union. He was, however,
+arrogant, overbearing and intolerant to the last degree. He was
+the first Irishman since the Revolution to hold the office of lord
+chancellor of Ireland. &ldquo;Except where his furious personal antipathies
+and his ungovernable arrogance were called into action,
+he appears to have been,&rdquo; says Lecky, &ldquo;an able, upright and
+energetic judge&rdquo;; but as a politician there can be little question
+that Lord Clare&rsquo;s bitter and unceasing resistance to reasonable
+measures of reform did infinite mischief in the history of Ireland,
+by inflaming the passions of his countrymen, driving them into
+rebellion, and perpetuating their political and religious divisions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.E.H. Lecky, <i>History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century</i>
+(5 vols., London, 1892); J.R. O&rsquo;Flanagan, <i>The Lives of the Lord
+Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal in Ireland</i> (2 vols., London,
+1870); <i>Cornwallis Correspondence</i>, ed. by C. Ross (3 vols., London,
+1859); Charles Phillips, <i>Recollections of Curran and some of his
+Contemporaries</i> (London, 1822); Henry Grattan, <i>Memoirs of the
+Life and Times of the Right Honble. Henry Grattan</i> (5 vols., London,
+1839-1846); Lord Auckland, <i>Journal and Correspondence</i> (4 vols.,
+London, 1861); Charles Coote, <i>History of the Union of Great Britain
+and Ireland</i> (London, 1802).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. J. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARE<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span>, a county in the province of Munster, Ireland, bounded
+N. by Galway Bay and Co. Galway, E. by Lough Derg, the river
+Shannon, and counties Tipperary and Limerick, S. by the estuary
+of the Shannon, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is
+852,389 acres, or nearly 1332 sq. m. Although the surface of the
+county is hilly, and in some parts even mountainous, it nowhere
+rises to a great elevation. Much of the western baronies of
+Moyarta and Ibrickan is composed of bog land. Bogs are
+frequent also in the mountainous districts elsewhere, except in
+the limestone barony of Burren, the inhabitants of some parts of
+which supply themselves with turf from the opposite shores of
+Connemara. Generally speaking, the eastern parts of the county
+are mountainous, with tracts of rich pasture-land interspersed;
+the west abounds with bog; and the north is rocky and best
+adapted for grazing sheep. In the southern part, along the banks
+of the Fergus and Shannon, are the bands of rich low grounds
+called corcasses, of various breadth, indenting the land in a great
+variety of shapes. They are composed of deep rich loam, and are
+distinguished as the black corcasses, adapted for tillage, and the
+blue, used more advantageously as meadow land. The coast is
+in general rocky, and occasionally bold and precipitous in the
+extreme, as may be observed at the picturesque cliffs of Moher
+within a few miles of Ennistimon and Lisdoonvarna, which rise
+perpendicularly at O&rsquo;Brien&rsquo;s Tower to an elevation of 580 ft.
+The coast of Clare is indented with several bays, the chief of
+which are Ballyvaghan, Liscannor and Malbay; but from
+Black Head to Loop Head, that is, along the entire western
+boundary of the county formed by the Atlantic, there is no safe
+harbour except Liscannor Bay. Malbay takes its name from its
+dangers to navigators, and the whole coast has been the scene of
+many fatal disasters. The county possesses only one large river,
+the Fergus; but nearly 100 m. of its boundary-line are washed by
+the river Shannon, which enters the Atlantic Ocean between this
+county and Kerry. The numerous bays and creeks on both sides
+of this great river render its navigation safe in every wind; but
+the passage to and from Limerick is often tedious, and the port of
+Kilrush has from that cause gained in importance. The river
+Fergus is navigable from the Shannon to the town of Clare, which
+is the terminating point of its natural navigation, and the port of
+all the central districts of the county.</p>
+
+<p>There are a great number of lakes and tarns in the county, of
+which the largest are Loughs Muckanagh, Graney, Atedaun and
+Dromore; but they are more remarkable for beauty than for
+size or utility, with the exception of the extensive and navigable
+Lough Derg, formed by the river Shannon between this county
+and Tipperary. The salmon fishery of the Shannon, both as a
+sport and as an industry, is famous; the Fergus also holds
+salmon, and there is much good trout-fishing in the lakes for
+which Ennis is a centre, and in the streams of the Atlantic seaboard.
+Clare is a county which, like all the western counties of
+Ireland, repays visitors in search of the pleasures of seaside
+resorts, sport, scenery or antiquarian interest. Yet, again like
+other western counties, it was long before it was rendered
+accessible. Communications, however, are now satisfactory.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Upper Carboniferous strata cover the county west of
+Ennis, the coast-sections in them being particularly fine. Shales
+and sandstones alternate, now horizontal, as in the Cliffs of Moher,
+now thrown into striking folds. The Carboniferous Limestone forms
+a barren terraced country, often devoid of soil, through the Burren
+in the north, and extends to the estuary of the Fergus and the
+Shannon. On the east, the folding has brought up two bold masses
+of Old Red Sandstone, with Silurian cores. Slieve Bernagh, the more
+southerly of these, rises to 1746 ft. above Killaloe, and the hilly
+country here traversed by the Shannon is in marked contrast with
+the upper course of the river through the great limestone plain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;Although metals and minerals have been found in
+many places throughout the county, they do not often show
+themselves in sufficient abundance to induce the application of
+capital for their extraction. The principal metals are lead, iron
+and manganese. The Milltown lead mine in the barony of Tulla
+is probably one of the oldest mines in Ireland, and formerly, if the
+extent of the ancient excavations may be taken as a guide, there
+must have been a very rich deposit. Copper pyrites occurs in
+several parts of Burren, but in small quantity. Coal exists at
+Labasheeda on the right bank of the Shannon, but the few and
+thin seams are not productive. The nodules of clay-ironstone in
+the strata that overlie the limestone were mined and smelted
+down to 1750. Within half a mile of the Milltown lead mine are
+immense natural vaulted passages of limestone, through which
+the river Ardsullas winds a singular course. The lower limestone
+of the eastern portion of the county has been found to contain
+several very large deposits of argentiferous galena. Flags, easily
+quarried, are procured near Kilrush, and thinner flags near
+Ennistimon. Slates are quarried in several places, the best being
+those of Broadford and Killaloe, which are nearly equal to the
+finest procured in Wales. A species of very fine black marble is
+obtained near Ennis; it takes a high polish, and is free from the
+white spots with which the black Kilkenny marble is marked.</p>
+
+<p>The mineral springs, which are found in many places, are
+chiefly chalybeate. That of Lisdoonvarna, a sulphur spa, about
+8 m. from Ennistimon, has been celebrated since the 18th century
+for its medicinal qualities, and now attracts a large number of
+visitors annually. It lies 9 m. by road N. of Ennistimon. There
+are chalybeate springs of less note at Kilkishen, Burren, Broadfoot,
+Lehinch, Kilkee, Kilrush, Killadysart, and near Milltown
+Malbay. Springs called by the people &ldquo;holy&rdquo; or &ldquo;blessed&rdquo;
+wells, generally mineral waters, are common; but the belief in
+their power of performing cures in inveterate maladies is nearly
+extinct.</p>
+
+<p><i>Watering-places.</i>&mdash;The Atlantic Ocean and the estuary of the
+Shannon afford many situations admirably adapted for summer
+bathing-places. Among the most frequented of these localities
+are Milltown Malbay; with one of the best beaches on the western
+coast; and the neighbouring Spanish Point (named from the
+scene of the wreck of two ships of the Armada); Lehinch, about
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span>
+2 m. from Ennistimon on Liscannor Bay, and near the interesting
+cliffs of Moher, has a magnificent beach. Kilkee is the most
+fashionable watering-place on the western coast of Ireland; and
+Kilrush on the Shannon estuary is also favoured.</p>
+
+<p><i>Industries.</i>&mdash;The soil and surface of the county are in general
+better adapted for grazing than for tillage, and the acreage
+devoted to the former consequently exceeds three times that of
+the latter. Agriculture is in a backward state, and not a fifth of
+the total area is under cultivation, while the acreage shows a
+decrease even in the principal crops of oats and potatoes. Cattle,
+sheep, poultry and pigs, however, all receive considerable
+attention. Owing to the mountainous nature of the county nearly
+one-seventh of the total area is quite barren.</p>
+
+<p>There are no extensive manufactures, although flannels and
+friezes are made for home use, and hosiery of various kinds,
+chiefly coarse and strong, is made around Ennistimon and other
+places. There are several fishing stations on the coast, and cod,
+haddock, ling, sole, turbot, ray, mackerel and other fish abound,
+but the rugged nature of the coast and the tempestuous sea
+greatly hinder the operations of the fishermen. Near Pooldoody
+is the great Burren oyster bed called the Red Bank, where a
+large establishment is maintained, from which a constant supply
+of the excellent Red Bank oysters is furnished to the Dublin
+and other large markets. Crabs and lobsters are caught on the
+shores of the Bay of Galway in every creek from Black Head to
+Ardfry. In addition to the Shannon salmon fishery mentioned
+above, eels abound in every rivulet, and form an important
+article of consumption.</p>
+
+<p>The Great Southern &amp; Western railway line from Limerick to
+Sligo intersects the centre of the county from north to south.
+From Ennis on this line the West Clare railway runs to Ennistimon
+on the coast, where it turns south and follows the coast by
+Milltown Malbay to Kilkee and Kilrush. Killaloe in the east of
+the county is the terminus of a branch of the Great Southern
+&amp; Western railway.</p>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The population (126,244
+in 1891; 112,334 in 1901; almost wholly Roman Catholic and
+rural) shows a decrease among the most serious of the Irish
+counties, and the emigration returns are proportionately heavy.
+The principal towns, all of insignificant size, are Ennis (pop.
+5093, the county town), Kilrush (4179), Kilkee (1661) and
+Killaloe (885); but several of the smaller settlements, as resorts,
+are of more than local importance. The county, which is divided
+into 11 baronies, contains 79 parishes, and includes the Protestant
+diocese of Kilfenora, the greater part of Killaloe, and a
+very small portion of the diocese of Limerick. It is within the
+Roman Catholic dioceses of Killaloe and Limerick. The assizes
+are held at Ennis, and quarter sessions here and at Ennistimon,
+Killaloe, Kilrush and Tulla. The county is divided into the
+East and West parliamentary divisions, each returning one
+member.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;This county, together with part of the neighbouring
+district, was anciently called Thomond, that is, North Munster,
+and formed part of the monarchy of the celebrated Brian
+Boroihme, who held his court at Kincora near Killaloe, where
+his palace was situated on the banks of the Shannon. The site
+is still distinguished by extensive earthen ramparts. Settlements
+were effected by the Danes, and in the 13th century by
+the Anglo-Normans, but without permanently affecting the
+possession of the district by its native proprietors. In 1543
+Murrogh O&rsquo;Brien, after dispossessing his nephew and vainly
+attempting a rebellion against the English rule, proceeded
+to England and submitted to Henry VIII., resigning his name
+and possessions. He soon received them back by an English
+tenure, together with the title of earl of Thomond, on condition
+of adopting the English dress, manners and customs. In 1565
+this part of Thomond (sometimes called O&rsquo;Brien&rsquo;s country)
+was added to Connaught, and made one of the six new counties
+into which that province was divided by Sir Henry Sidney.
+It was named Clare, the name being traceable either to Richard
+de Clare (Strongbow), earl of Pembroke, or to his younger
+brother, Thomas de Clare, who obtained a grant of Thomond
+from Edward I. in 1276, and whose family for some time maintained
+a precarious position in the district. Towards the close
+of the reign of Elizabeth, Clare was detached from the government
+of Connaught and given a separate administration; but
+at the Restoration it was reunited to Munster.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;The county abounds with remains of antiquities,
+both military and ecclesiastical, especially in the north-western
+part. There still exist above a hundred fortified castles, several
+of which are inhabited. They are mostly of small extent, a
+large portion being fortified dwellings. The chief of them is
+Bunratty Castle, built in 1277, once inhabited by the earls of
+Thomond, 10 m. W. of Limerick, on the Shannon. Those of
+Ballykinvarga, Ballynalackan and Lemaneagh, all in the
+north-west, should also be mentioned. Raths or encampments are
+to be found in every part. They are generally circular, composed
+either of large stones without mortar or of earth thrown
+up and surrounded by one or more ditches. The list of abbeys
+and other religious houses formerly flourishing here (some now
+only known by name, but many of them surviving in ruins)
+comprehends upwards of twenty. The most remarkable are&mdash;Quin,
+considered one of the finest and most perfect specimens
+of ancient monastic architecture in Ireland; Corcomroe; Ennis,
+in which is a very fine window of uncommonly elegant workmanship;
+and those on Inniscattery or Scattery Island, in the
+Shannon, said to have been founded by St Senan (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kilrush</a></span>).
+Kilfenora, 5 m. N.E. of Ennistimon, was until 1752 a separate
+diocese, and its small cathedral is of interest, with several
+neighbouring crosses and a holy well. The ruined churches
+of Kilnaboy, Nouhaval and Teampul Cronan are the most
+noteworthy of many in the north-west. Five round towers are
+to be found in various stages of preservation&mdash;at Scattery
+Island, Drumcliffe, Dysert O&rsquo;Dea, Kilnaboy and Inniscaltra
+(Lough Derg). The cathedral of the diocese of Killaloe is at
+the town of that name. Cromlechs are found, chiefly in the
+rocky limestone district of Burren in the N.W., though there
+are some in other baronies. That at Ballygannor is formed of a
+stone 40 ft. long and 10 broad.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See papers by T.J. Westropp in <i>Proceedings of the Royal Irish
+Academy</i>&mdash;&ldquo;Distribution of Cromlechs in County Clare&rdquo; (1897);
+and &ldquo;Churches of County Clare, and Origin of Ecclesiastical
+Divisions&rdquo; (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAREMONT<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span>, a city of Sullivan county, New Hampshire,
+U.S.A., situated in the W. part of the state, bordering on the
+Connecticut river. Pop. (1890) 5565; (1900) 6498 (1442
+foreign-born); (1910) 7529. Area, 6 sq. m. It is served by two
+branches of the Boston &amp; Maine railway. In Claremont is the
+Fiske free library (1873), housed in a Carnegie building (1904).
+The Stevens high school is richly endowed by the gift of Paran
+Stevens, a native of Claremont. The city contains several
+villages, the principal being Claremont, Claremont Junction
+and West Claremont. Sugar river, flowing through the city
+into the Connecticut and falling 223 ft. within the city limits,
+furnishes good water-power. Among the manufactures are
+woollen and cotton goods, paper, mining and quarrying
+machinery, rubber goods, linens, shoes, wood trim and pearl
+buttons. The first settlement here was made in 1762, and a
+township was organized in 1764; in 1908 Claremont was
+chartered as a city. It was named from Claremont, Lord
+Clive&rsquo;s country place.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARENCE, DUKES OF<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span>. The early history of this English
+title is identical with that of the family of Clare (<i>q.v.</i>), earls of
+Gloucester, who are sometimes called earls of Clare, of which
+word Clarence is a later form. The first duke of Clarence was
+Lionel of Antwerp (see below), third son of Edward III., who
+was created duke in 1362, and whose wife Elizabeth was a
+direct descendant of the Clares, the &ldquo;Honour of Clare&rdquo; being
+among the lands which she brought to her husband. When
+Lionel died without sons in 1368 the title became extinct; but
+in 1412 it was revived in favour of Thomas (see below), the
+second son of Henry IV. The third creation of a duke of Clarence
+took place in 1461, and was in favour of George (see below),
+brother of the King Edward IV. When this duke, accused by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span>
+the king, was attainted and killed in 1478, his titles and estates
+were forfeited. There appears to have been no other creation
+of a duke of Clarence until 1789, when William, third son of
+George III., was made a peer under this title. Having merged
+in the crown when William became king of Great Britain and
+Ireland in 1830, the title of duke of Clarence was again revived
+in 1890 in favour of Albert Victor (1864-1892), the elder son of
+King Edward VII., then prince of Wales, only to become extinct
+for the fifth time on his death in 1892.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Lionel of Antwerp</span>, duke of Clarence (1338-1368), third
+son of Edward III., was born at Antwerp on the 29th of November
+1338. Betrothed when a child to Elizabeth (d. 1363), daughter
+and heiress of William de Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster (d. 1332),
+he was married to her in 1352; but before this date he had
+entered nominally into possession of her great Irish inheritance.
+Having been named as his father&rsquo;s representative in England
+in 1345 and again in 1346, Lionel was created earl of Ulster, and
+joined an expedition into France in 1355, but his chief energies
+were reserved for the affairs of Ireland. Appointed governor
+of that country, he landed at Dublin in 1361, and in November
+of the following year was created duke of Clarence, while his
+father made an abortive attempt to secure for him the crown
+of Scotland. His efforts to secure an effective authority over
+his Irish lands were only moderately successful; and after
+holding a parliament at Kilkenny, which passed the celebrated
+statute of Kilkenny in 1367, he threw up his task in disgust
+and returned to England. About this time a marriage was
+arranged between Clarence and Violante, daughter of Galeazzo
+Visconti, lord of Pavia (d. 1378); the enormous dowry which
+Galeazzo promised with his daughter being exaggerated by the
+rumour of the time. Journeying to fetch his bride, the duke
+was received in great state both in France and Italy, and was
+married to Violante at Milan in June 1368. Some months were
+then spent in festivities, during which Lionel was taken ill at
+Alba, where he died on the 7th of October 1368. His only child
+Philippa, a daughter by his first wife, married in 1368 Edmund
+Mortimer, 3rd earl of March (1351-1381), and through this
+union Clarence became the ancestor of Edward IV. The poet
+Chaucer was at one time a page in Lionel&rsquo;s household.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Thomas</span>, duke of Clarence (c. 1388-1421), who was nominally
+lieutenant of Ireland from 1401 to 1413, and was in command of
+the English fleet in 1405, acted in opposition to his elder brother,
+afterwards King Henry V., and the Beauforts during the later
+part of the reign of Henry IV.; and was for a short time at the
+head of the government, leading an unsuccessful expedition
+into France in 1412. When Henry V., however, became king
+in 1413 no serious dissensions took place between the brothers,
+and as a member of the royal council Clarence took part in the
+preparations for the French war. He was with the English king
+at Harfleur, but not at Agincourt, and shared in the expedition
+of 1417 into Normandy, during which he led the assault on Caen,
+and distinguished himself as a soldier in other similar
+undertakings. When Henry V. returned to England in 1421, the duke
+remained in France as his lieutenant, and was killed at Beaugé
+whilst rashly attacking the French and their Scottish allies on
+the 22nd of March 1421. He left no legitimate issue, and the
+title again  became  extinct.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">George</span>, duke of Clarence (1449-1478), younger son of Richard,
+duke of York, by his wife Cicely, daughter of Ralph Neville,
+1st earl of Westmorland, was born in Dublin on the 21st of
+October 1449. Soon after his elder brother became king as
+Edward IV. in March 1461, he was created duke of Clarence,
+and his youth was no bar to his appointment as lord-lieutenant
+of Ireland in the following year. Having been mentioned as a
+possible husband for Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold,
+afterwards duke of Burgundy, Clarence came under the influence of
+Richard Neville, earl of Warwick, and in July 1469 was married
+at Calais to the earl&rsquo;s elder daughter Isabella. With his
+father-in-law he then acted in a disloyal manner towards the king.
+Both supported the rebels in the north of England, and when
+their treachery was discovered Clarence was deprived of his
+office as lord-lieutenant and fled to France. Returning to
+England with Warwick in September 1470, he witnessed the
+restoration of Henry VI., when the crown was settled upon
+himself in case the male line of Henry&rsquo;s family became extinct.
+The good understanding, however, between Warwick and his
+son-in-law was not lasting, and Clarence was soon secretly
+reconciled with Edward. The public reconciliation between
+the brothers took place when the king was besieging Warwick
+in Coventry, and Clarence then fought for the Yorkists at
+Barnet and Tewkesbury. After Warwick&rsquo;s death in April 1471
+Clarence appears to have seized the whole of the vast estates of
+the earl, and in March 1472 was created by right of his wife earl
+of Warwick and Salisbury. He was consequently greatly disturbed
+when he heard that his younger brother Richard, duke of
+Gloucester, was seeking to marry Warwick&rsquo;s younger daughter
+Anne, and was claiming some part of Warwick&rsquo;s lands. A violent
+quarrel between the brothers ensued, but Clarence was unable
+to prevent Gloucester from marrying, and in 1474 the king
+interfered to settle the dispute, dividing the estates between
+his brothers. In 1477 Clarence was again a suitor for the hand
+of Mary, who had just become duchess of Burgundy. Edward
+objected to the match, and Clarence, jealous of Gloucester&rsquo;s
+influence, left the court. At length Edward was convinced
+that Clarence was aiming at his throne. The duke was thrown
+into prison, and in January 1478 the king unfolded the charges
+against his brother to the parliament. He had slandered the
+king; had received oaths of allegiance to himself and his heirs;
+had prepared for a new rebellion; and was in short incorrigible.
+Both Houses of Parliament passed the bill of attainder, and the
+sentence of death which followed was carried out on the 17th
+or 18th of February 1478. It is uncertain what share Gloucester
+had in his brother&rsquo;s death; but soon after the event the rumour
+gained ground that Clarence had been drowned in a butt of
+malmsey wine. Two of the duke&rsquo;s children survived their
+father: Margaret, countess of Salisbury (1473-1541), and
+Edward, earl of Warwick (1475-1499), who passed the greater
+part of his life in prison and was beheaded in November 1499.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On the last-named see W. Stubbs, <i>Constitutional History</i>, vol. iii.
+(Oxford, 1895); Sir J.H. Ramsay, <i>Lancaster and York</i> (Oxford,
+1892); C.W.C. Oman, <i>Warwick the Kingmaker</i> (London, 1891).
+On the title generally see G.E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span>, <span class="sc">1st Earl of</span> (1609-1674),
+English historian and statesman, son of Henry Hyde of Dinton,
+Wiltshire, a member of a family for some time established at
+Norbury, Cheshire, was born on the 18th of February 1609.
+He entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1622 (having been refused
+a demyship at Magdalen College), and graduated B.A. in 1626.
+Intended originally for holy orders, the death of two elder
+brothers made him his father&rsquo;s heir, and in 1625 he entered the
+Middle Temple. At the university his abilities were more
+conspicuous than his industry, and at the bar his time was
+devoted more to general reading and to the society of eminent
+scholars and writers than to the study of law treatises. This
+wandering from the beaten track, however, was not without its
+advantages. In later years Clarendon declared &ldquo;next the
+immediate blessing and providence of God Almighty&rdquo; that he
+&ldquo;owed all the little he knew and the little good that was in him
+to the friendships and conversation  ... of the most excellent
+men in their several kinds that lived in that age.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_1i" id="FnAnchor_1i" href="#Footnote_1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> These
+included Ben Jonson, Selden, Waller, Hales, and especially Lord
+Falkland; and from their influence and the wide reading in
+which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning and
+literary talent which afterwards distinguished him.</p>
+
+<p>In 1629 he married his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir George
+Ayliffe, who died six months afterwards; and secondly, in 1634,
+Frances, daughter of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests.
+In 1633 he was called to the bar, and obtained quickly a good
+position and practice. His marriages had gained for him influential
+friends, and in December 1634 he was made keeper of
+the writs and rolls of the common pleas; while his able conduct
+of the petition of the London merchants against Portland earned
+Laud&rsquo;s approval. He was returned to the Short Parliament
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span>
+in 1640 as member for Wootton Bassett. Respect and veneration
+for the law and constitution of England were already
+fundamental principles with Hyde, and the flagrant violations
+and perversions of the law which characterized the twelve
+preceding years of absolute rule drove him into the ranks of the
+popular party. He served on numerous and important committees,
+and his parliamentary action was directed chiefly towards
+the support and restoration of the law. He assailed the
+jurisdiction of the earl marshal&rsquo;s court, and in the Long Parliament,
+in which he sat for Saltash, renewed his attacks and
+practically effected its suppression. In 1641 he served on the
+committees for inquiring into the status of the councils of Wales
+and of the North, distinguished himself by a speech against the
+latter, and took an important part in the proceedings against
+the judges. He supported Stafford&rsquo;s impeachment, and did
+not vote against the attainder, subsequently making an unsuccessful
+attempt through Essex to avert the capital penalty.<a name="FnAnchor_2i" id="FnAnchor_2i" href="#Footnote_2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+Hyde&rsquo;s allegiance, however, to the church of England was as
+staunch as his support of the law, and was soon to separate
+him from the popular faction. In February 1641 he opposed
+the reception of the London petition against episcopacy, and in
+May the project for unity of religion with the Scots, and the bill
+for the exclusion of the clergy from secular office. He showed
+special energy in his opposition to the Root and Branch Bill,
+and, though made chairman of the committee on the bill on the
+11th of July in order to silence his opposition, he caused by his
+successful obstruction the failure of the measure. In consequence
+he was summoned to the king&rsquo;s presence, and encouraged in his
+attitude, and at the beginning of the second session was regarded
+as one of the king&rsquo;s ablest supporters in the Commons. He
+considered the claims put forward at this time by parliament
+as a violation and not as a guarantee of the law and constitution.
+He opposed the demand by the parliament to choose the king&rsquo;s
+ministers, and also the Grand Remonstrance, to which he wrote
+a reply published by the king.</p>
+
+<p>He now definitely though not openly joined the royal cause,
+and refused office in January 1642 with Colepeper and Falkland
+in order to serve the king&rsquo;s interests more effectually. Charles
+undertook to do nothing in the Commons without their advice.
+Nevertheless a few days afterwards, without their knowledge and
+by the advice of Lord Digby, he attempted the arrest of the five
+members, a resort to force which reduced Hyde to despair, and
+which indeed seemed to show that things had gone too far for an
+appeal to the law. He persevered, nevertheless, in his legal policy,
+to which Charles after the failure of his project again returned,
+joined the king openly in June, and continued to compose the
+king&rsquo;s answers and declarations in which he appealed to the
+&ldquo;known Laws of the land&rdquo; against the arbitrary and illegal
+acts of a seditious majority in the parliament, his advice to the
+king being &ldquo;to shelter himself wholly under the law,... presuming
+that the king and the law together would have been
+strong enough for any encounter.&rdquo; Hyde&rsquo;s appeal had great
+influence, and gained for the king&rsquo;s cause half the nation. It by no
+means, however, met with universal support among the royalists,
+Hobbes jeering at Hyde&rsquo;s love for &ldquo;mixed monarchy,&rdquo; and the
+courtiers expressing their disapproval of the &ldquo;spirit of accommodation&rdquo;
+which &ldquo;wounded the regality.&rdquo; It was destined to
+failure owing principally to the invincible distrust of Charles
+created in the parliament leaders, and to the fact that Charles was
+simultaneously carrying on another and an inconsistent policy,
+listening to very different advisers, such as the queen and Digby,
+and resolving on measures (such as the attempt on Hull) without
+Hyde&rsquo;s knowledge or approval.</p>
+
+<p>War, accordingly, in spite of his efforts, broke out. He was
+expelled the House of Commons on the 11th of August 1642, and
+was one of those excepted later from pardon. He showed great
+activity in collecting loans, was present at Edgehill, though not as
+a combatant, and followed the king to Oxford, residing at All
+Souls College from October 1642 till March 1645. On the 22nd of
+February he was made a privy councillor and knighted, and on
+the 3rd of March appointed chancellor of the exchequer. He
+was an influential member of the &ldquo;Junto&rdquo; which met every
+week to discuss business before it was laid before the council.
+His aim was to gain over some of the leading Parliamentarians
+by personal influence and personal considerations, and at the
+Uxbridge negotiations in January 1645, where he acted as
+principal manager on the king&rsquo;s side, while remaining firm on the
+great political questions such as the church and the militia, he
+tried to win individuals by promises of places and honours. He
+promoted the assembly of the Oxford parliament in December
+1643 as a counterpoise to the influence and status of the Long
+Parliament. Hyde&rsquo;s policy and measures, however, all failed.
+They had been weakly and irregularly supported by the king, and
+were fiercely opposed by the military party, who were jealous of
+the civil influence, and were urging Charles to trust to force and
+arms alone and eschew all compromise and concessions. Charles
+fell now under the influence of persons devoid of all legal and
+constitutional scruples, sending to Glamorgan in Ireland &ldquo;those
+strange powers and instructions inexcusable to justice, piety and
+prudence.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_3i" id="FnAnchor_3i" href="#Footnote_3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Hyde&rsquo;s influence was much diminished, and on the 4th of March
+1645 he left the king for Bristol as one of the guardians of the
+prince of Wales and governors of the west. Here the disputes
+between the council and the army paralysed the proceedings, and
+lost, according to Hyde, the finest opportunity since the outbreak
+of the war of raising a strong force and gaining substantial
+victories in that part of the country. After Hopton&rsquo;s defeat on
+the 16th of February 1646, at Torrington, Hyde accompanied the
+prince, on the 4th of March, to Scilly, and on the 17th of April, for
+greater security, to Jersey. He strongly disapproved of the
+prince&rsquo;s removal to France by the queen&rsquo;s order and of the
+schemes of assistance from abroad, refused to accompany him,
+and signed a bond to prevent the sale of Jersey to the French
+supported by Jermyn. He opposed the projected sacrifice of the
+church to the Scots and the grant by the king of any but personal
+or temporary concessions, declaring that peace was only possible
+&ldquo;upon the old foundations of government in church and state.&rdquo;
+He was especially averse to Charles&rsquo;s tampering with the Irish
+Romanists. &ldquo;Oh, Mr Secretary,&rdquo; he wrote to Nicholas, &ldquo;those
+stratagems have given me more sad hours than all the misfortunes
+in war which have befallen the king and look like the
+effects of God&rsquo;s anger towards us.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_4i" id="FnAnchor_4i" href="#Footnote_4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> He refused to compound for
+his own estate. While in Jersey he resided first at St Helier and
+afterwards at Elizabeth Castle with Sir George Carteret. He
+composed the first portion of his <i>History</i> and kept in touch with
+events by means of an enormous correspondence. In 1648 he
+published <i>A Full answer to an infamous and traiterous Pamphlet...</i>,
+a reply to the resolution of the parliament to present no
+more addresses to the king and a vindication of Charles.</p>
+
+<p>On the outbreak of the second Civil War Hyde left Jersey
+(26th of June 1648) to join the queen and prince at Paris. He
+landed at Dieppe, sailed from that port to Dunkirk, and thence
+followed the prince to the Thames, where Charles had met the
+fleet, but was captured and robbed by a privateer, and only joined
+the prince in September after the latter&rsquo;s return to the Hague.
+He strongly disapproved of the king&rsquo;s concessions at Newport.
+When the army broke off the treaty and brought Charles to trial
+he endeavoured to save his life, and after the execution drew up a
+letter to the several European sovereigns invoking their assistance
+to avenge it. Hyde strongly opposed Charles II.&rsquo;s ignominious
+surrender to the Covenanters, the alliance with the Scots, and
+the Scottish expedition, desiring to accomplish whatever was
+possible there through Montrose and the royalists, and inclined
+rather to an attempt in Ireland. His advice was not followed, and
+he gladly accepted a mission with Cottington to Spain to obtain
+money from the Roman Catholic powers, and to arrange an
+alliance between Owen O&rsquo;Neill and Ormonde for the recovery of
+Ireland, arriving at Madrid on the 26th of November 1649. The
+defeat, however, of Charles at Dunbar, and the confirmation of
+Cromwell&rsquo;s ascendancy, influenced the Spanish government
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span>
+against them, and they were ordered to leave in December 1650.
+Hyde arrived at Antwerp in January 1651, and in December
+rejoined Charles at Paris after the latter&rsquo;s escape from Worcester.
+He now became one of his chief advisers, accompanying him in
+his change of residence to Cologne in October 1654 and to
+Bruges in 1658, and was appointed lord chancellor on the 13th
+of January 1658. His influence was henceforth maintained in
+spite of the intrigues of both Romanists and Presbyterians, as
+well as the violent and openly displayed hostility of the queen,
+and was employed unremittingly in the endeavour to keep
+Charles faithful to the church and constitution, and in the prevention
+of unwise concessions and promises which might estrange
+the general body of the royalists. His advice to Charles was to
+wait upon the turn of events, &ldquo;that all his activity was to
+consist in carefully avoiding to do anything that might do him
+hurt and to expect some blessed conjuncture.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_5i" id="FnAnchor_5i" href="#Footnote_5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> In 1656, during
+the war between England and Spain, Charles received offers of
+help from the latter power provided he could gain a port in
+England, but Hyde discouraged small isolated attempts. He
+expected much from Cromwell&rsquo;s death. The same year he made
+an alliance with the Levellers, and was informed of their plots to
+assassinate the protector, without apparently expressing any
+disapproval.<a name="FnAnchor_6i" id="FnAnchor_6i" href="#Footnote_6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> He was well supplied with information from
+England,<a name="FnAnchor_7i" id="FnAnchor_7i" href="#Footnote_7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> and guided the action of the royalists with great
+ability and wisdom during the interval between Cromwell&rsquo;s
+death and the Restoration, urged patience, and advocated the
+obstruction of a settlement between the factions contending for
+power and the fomentation of their jealousies, rather than
+premature risings.</p>
+
+<p>The Restoration was a complete triumph for Hyde&rsquo;s policy.
+He lays no stress on his own great part in it, but it was owing
+to him that the Restoration was a national one, by the consent
+and invitation of parliament representing the whole people
+and not through the medium of one powerful faction enforcing
+its will upon a minority, and that it was not only a restoration
+of Charles but a restoration of the monarchy. By Hyde&rsquo;s
+advice concessions to the inconvenient demands of special
+factions had been avoided by referring the decision to a &ldquo;free
+parliament,&rdquo; and the declaration of Breda reserved for parliament
+the settlement of the questions of amnesty, religious
+toleration and the proprietorship of forfeited lands.</p>
+
+<p>Hyde entered London with the king, all attempts at effecting
+his fall having failed, and immediately obtained the chief place
+in the government, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer
+till the 13th of May 1661, when he surrendered it to Lord Ashley.
+He took his seat as speaker of the House of Lords and in the
+court of chancery on the 1st of June 1660. On the 3rd of
+November 1660 he was made Baron Hyde of Hindon, and on
+the 20th of April 1661 Viscount Cornbury and earl of Clarendon,
+receiving a grant from the king of £20,000 and at different times
+of various small estates and Irish rents. The marriage of his
+daughter Anne to James, duke of York, celebrated in secret in
+September 1660, at first alarmed Clarendon on account of the
+public hostility he expected thereby to incur, but finding his
+fears unconfirmed he acquiesced in its public recognition in
+December, and thus became related in a special manner to the
+royal family and the grandfather of two English sovereigns.<a name="FnAnchor_8i" id="FnAnchor_8i" href="#Footnote_8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Clarendon&rsquo;s position was one of great difficulties, but at the
+same time of splendid opportunities. In particular a rare
+occasion now offered itself of settling the religious question on a
+broad principle of comprehension or toleration; for the monarchy
+had been restored not by the supporters of the church alone
+but largely by the influence and aid of the nonconformists and
+also of the Roman Catholics, who were all united at that happy
+moment by a common loyalty to the throne. Clarendon appears
+to have approved of comprehension but not of toleration. He
+had already in April 1660 sent to discuss terms with the leading
+Presbyterians in England, and after the Restoration offered
+bishoprics to several, including Richard Baxter. He drew up
+the royal declaration of October, promising limited episcopacy
+and a revised prayer-book and ritual, which was subsequently
+thrown out by parliament, and he appears to have anticipated
+some kind of settlement from the Savoy Conference which sat
+in April 1661. The failure of the latter proved perhaps that the
+differences were too great for compromise, and widened the
+breach. The parliament immediately proceeded to pass the
+series of narrow and tyrannical measures against the dissenters
+known as the Clarendon Code. The Corporations Act, obliging
+members of corporations to denounce the Covenant and take
+the sacrament according to the Anglican usage, became law
+on the 20th of December 1661, the Act of Uniformity enforcing
+the use of the prayer-book on ministers, as well as a declaration
+that it was unlawful to bear arms against the sovereign, on the
+19th of May 1662, and these were followed by the Conventicle Act
+in 1664 suppressing conventicles and by the Five-Mile Act in 1665
+forbidding ministers who had refused subscription to the Act of
+Uniformity to teach or reside within 5 m. of a borough. Clarendon
+appears to have reluctantly acquiesced in these civil measures
+rather than to have originated them, and to have endeavoured
+to mitigate their injustice and severity. He supported the continuance
+of the tenure by presbyterian ministers of livings not
+held by Anglicans and an amendment in the Lords allowing a
+pension to those deprived, earning the gratitude of Baxter and
+the nonconformists. On the 17th of March 1662 he introduced
+into parliament a declaration enabling the king to dispense
+with the Act of Uniformity in the case of ministers of merit.<a name="FnAnchor_9i" id="FnAnchor_9i" href="#Footnote_9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+But once committed to the narrow policy of intolerance, Clarendon
+was inevitably involved in all its consequences. His characteristic
+respect for the law and constitution rendered him
+hostile to the general policy of indulgence, which, though the
+favourite project of the king, he strongly opposed in the Lords,
+and in the end caused its withdrawal. He declared that he could
+have wished the law otherwise, &ldquo;but when it was passed, he
+thought it absolutely necessary to see obedience paid to it
+without any connivance.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_10i" id="FnAnchor_10i" href="#Footnote_10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Charles was greatly angered. It
+was believed in May 1663 that the intrigues of Bennet and
+Buckingham, who seized the opportunity of ingratiating themselves
+with the king by zealously supporting the indulgence,
+had secured Clarendon&rsquo;s dismissal, and in July Bristol ventured
+to accuse him of high treason in the parliament; but the attack,
+which did not receive the king&rsquo;s support, failed entirely and only
+ended in the banishment from court of its promoter. Clarendon&rsquo;s
+opposition to the court policy in this way acquired a personal
+character, and he was compelled to identify himself more completely
+with the intolerant measures of the House of Commons.
+Though not the originator of the Conventicle Act or of the Five-Mile
+Act, he has recorded his approval,<a name="FnAnchor_11i" id="FnAnchor_11i" href="#Footnote_11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and he ended by taking
+alarm at plots and rumours and by regarding the great party
+of nonconformists, through whose co-operation the monarchy
+had been restored, as a danger to the state whose &ldquo;faction was
+their religion.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_12i" id="FnAnchor_12i" href="#Footnote_12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Clarendon&rsquo;s influence and direction had been
+predominant in nearly all departments of state. He supported
+the exception of the actual regicides from the Indemnity, but
+only ten out of the twenty-six condemned were executed, and
+Clarendon, with the king&rsquo;s support, prevented the passing of a
+bill in 1661 for the execution of thirteen more. He upheld the
+Act of Indemnity against all the attempts of the royalists to
+upset it. The conflicting claims to estates were left to be decided
+by the law. The confiscations of the usurping government accordingly
+were cancelled, while the properly executed transactions
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span>
+between individuals were necessarily upheld. There can be
+little doubt that the principle followed was the only safe
+one in the prevailing confusion. Great injustice was indeed
+suffered by individuals, but the proper remedy of such injustice
+was the benevolence of the king, which there is too much reason
+to believe proved inadequate and partial. The settlement of
+the church lands which was directed by Clarendon presented
+equal difficulties and involved equal hardships. In settling
+Scotland Clarendon&rsquo;s aim was to make that kingdom dependent
+upon England and to uphold the Cromwellian union. He
+proposed to establish a council at Whitehall to govern Scottish
+affairs, and showed great zeal in endeavouring to restore episcopacy
+through the medium of Archbishop Sharp. His influence,
+however, ended with the ascendancy of Lauderdale in 1663.
+He was, to some extent at least, responsible for the settlement
+in Ireland, but, while anxious for an establishment upon a
+solid Protestant basis, urged &ldquo;temper and moderation and
+justice&rdquo; in securing it. He supported Ormonde&rsquo;s wise and
+enlightened Irish administration, and in particular opposed
+persistently the prohibition of the import of Irish cattle into
+England, incurring thereby great unpopularity. He showed
+great activity in the advancement of the colonies, to whom he
+allowed full freedom of religion. He was a member of the council
+for foreign plantations, and one of the eight lords proprietors
+of Carolina in 1663; and in 1664 sent a commission to settle
+disputes in New England. In the department of foreign
+affairs he had less influence. His policy was limited to the
+maintenance of peace &ldquo;necessary for the reducing [the king&rsquo;s]
+own dominions into that temper of subjection and obedience
+as they ought to be in.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_13i" id="FnAnchor_13i" href="#Footnote_13i"><span class="sp">13</span></a> In 1664 he demanded, on behalf
+of Charles, French support, and a loan of £50,000 against disturbance
+at home, and thus initiated that ignominious system
+of pensions and dependence upon France which proved so
+injurious to English interests later. But he was the promoter
+neither of the sale of Dunkirk on the 27th of October 1662, the
+author of which seems to have been the earl of Sandwich,<a name="FnAnchor_14i" id="FnAnchor_14i" href="#Footnote_14i"><span class="sp">14</span></a> nor
+of the Dutch War. He attached considerable value to the
+possession of the former, but when its sale was decided he conducted
+the negotiations and effected the bargain. He had
+zealously laboured for peace with Holland, and had concluded
+a treaty for the settlement of disputes on the 4th of September
+1662. Commercial and naval jealousies, however, soon involved
+the two states in hostilities. Cape Corso and other Dutch
+possessions on the <span class="correction" title="amended from cost">coast</span> of Africa, and New Amsterdam in
+America, were seized by squadrons from the royal navy in 1664,
+and hostilities were declared on the 22nd of February 1665.
+Clarendon now gave his support to the war, asserted the extreme
+claims of the English crown over the British seas, and contemplated
+fresh cessions from the Dutch and an alliance with Sweden
+and Spain. According to his own account he initiated the policy
+of the Triple Alliance,<a name="FnAnchor_15i" id="FnAnchor_15i" href="#Footnote_15i"><span class="sp">15</span></a> but it seems clear that his inclination
+towards France continued in spite of the intervention of the
+latter state in favour of Holland; and he took part in the
+negotiations for ending the war by an undertaking with Louis
+XIV. implying a neutrality, while the latter seized Flanders.
+The crisis in this feeble foreign policy and in the general official
+mismanagement was reached in June 1667, when the Dutch
+burnt several ships at Chatham and when &ldquo;the roar of foreign
+guns were heard for the first and last time by the citizens of
+London.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_16i" id="FnAnchor_16i" href="#Footnote_16i"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The whole responsibility for the national calamity and disgrace,
+and for the ignominious peace which followed it, was unjustly
+thrown on the shoulders of Clarendon, though it must be admitted
+that the disjointed state of the administration and want of
+control over foreign policy were largely the causes of the disaster,
+and for these Clarendon&rsquo;s influence and obstruction of official
+reforms were to some extent answerable. According to Sir
+William Coventry, whose opinion has weight and who acknowledges
+the chancellor&rsquo;s fidelity to the king, while Clarendon &ldquo;was
+so great at the council board and in the administration of matters,
+there was no room for anybody to propose any remedy to what
+was remiss ... he managing all things with that greatness which
+will now be removed.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_17i" id="FnAnchor_17i" href="#Footnote_17i"><span class="sp">17</span></a> He disapproved of the system of boards
+and committees instituted during the Commonwealth, as giving
+too much power to the parliament, and regarded the administration
+by the great officers of state, to the exclusion of pure men of
+business, as the only method compatible with the dignity and
+security of the monarchy. The lowering of the prestige of the
+privy council, and its subordination first to the parliament and
+afterwards to the military faction, he considered as one of the
+chief causes of the fall of Charles I. He aroused a strong feeling of
+hostility in the Commons by his opposition to the appropriation of
+supplies in 1665, and to the audit of the war accounts in 1666, as
+&ldquo;an introduction to a commonwealth&rdquo; and as &ldquo;a new encroachment,&rdquo;
+and by his high tone of prerogative and authority, while
+by his advice to Charles to prorogue parliament he incurred their
+resentment and gave colour to the accusation that he had advised
+the king to govern without parliaments. He was unpopular
+among all classes, among the royalists on account of the Act
+of Indemnity, among the Presbyterians because of the Act of
+Uniformity. It was said that he had invented the maxim &ldquo;that
+the king should buy and reward his enemies and do little for his
+friends, because they are his already.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_18i" id="FnAnchor_18i" href="#Footnote_18i"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Every kind of maladministration
+was currently ascribed to him, of designs to govern
+by a standing army, and of corruption. He was credited with
+having married Charles purposely to a barren queen in order to
+raise his own grandchildren to the throne, with having sold
+Dunkirk to France, and his magnificent house in St James&rsquo;s was
+nicknamed &ldquo;Dunkirk House,&rdquo; while on the day of the Dutch
+attack on Chatham the mob set up a gibbet at his gate and broke
+his windows. He had always been exceedingly unpopular at
+court, and kept severely aloof from the revels and licence which
+reigned there. Evelyn names &ldquo;the buffoons and the misses to
+whom he was an eyesore.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_19i" id="FnAnchor_19i" href="#Footnote_19i"><span class="sp">19</span></a> He was intensely disliked by the
+royal mistresses, whose favour he did not condescend to seek, and
+whose presence and influence were often the subject of his
+reproaches.<a name="FnAnchor_20i" id="FnAnchor_20i" href="#Footnote_20i"><span class="sp">20</span></a> A party of younger men of the king&rsquo;s own age,
+more congenial to his temperament, and eager to drive the old
+chancellor from power and to succeed him in office, had for some
+time been endeavouring to undermine his influence by ridicule and
+intrigue. Surrounded by such general and violent animosity,
+Clarendon&rsquo;s only hope could be in the support of the king. But
+the chancellor had early and accurately gauged the nature and
+extent of the king&rsquo;s attachment to him, which proceeded neither
+from affection nor gratitude but &ldquo;from his aversion to be
+troubled with the intricacies of his affairs,&rdquo; and in 1661 he had
+resisted the importunities of Ormonde to resign the great seal for
+the lord treasurership with the rank of &ldquo;first minister,&rdquo; &ldquo;a title
+newly translated out of French into English,&rdquo; on account of the
+obloquy this position would incur and the further dependence
+which it entailed upon the inconstant king.<a name="FnAnchor_21i" id="FnAnchor_21i" href="#Footnote_21i"><span class="sp">21</span></a> Charles, long weary
+of the old chancellor&rsquo;s rebukes, was especially incensed at this
+time owing to his failure in securing Frances Stuart (la Belle
+Stuart) for his seraglio, a disappointment which he attributed to
+Clarendon, and was now alarmed by the hostility which his
+administration had excited. He did not scruple to sacrifice at
+once the old adherent of his house and fortunes. &ldquo;The truth is,&rdquo;
+he wrote Ormonde, &ldquo;his behaviour and humour was grown so
+insupportable to myself and all the world else that I could no
+longer endure it, and it was impossible for me to live with it and
+do these things with the Parliament that must be done, or the
+government will be lost.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_22i" id="FnAnchor_22i" href="#Footnote_22i"><span class="sp">22</span></a> By the direction of Charles, James
+advised Clarendon to resign before the meeting of parliament, but
+in an interview with the king on the 26th of August Clarendon
+refused to deliver up the seal unless dismissed, and urged him not
+to take a step ruinous to the interests both of the chancellor
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span>
+himself and of the crown.<a name="FnAnchor_23i" id="FnAnchor_23i" href="#Footnote_23i"><span class="sp">23</span></a> He could not believe his dismissal was
+really intended, but on the 30th of August he was deprived of the
+great seal, for which the king received the thanks of the parliament
+on the 16th of October. On the 12th of November his impeachment,
+consisting of various charges of arbitrary government,
+corruption and maladministration, was brought up to the Lords,
+but the latter refused to order his committal, on the ground that
+the Commons had only accused him of treason in general without
+specifying any particular charge. Clarendon wrote humbly to
+the king asking for pardon, and that the prosecution might be
+prevented, but Charles had openly taken part against him, and,
+though desiring his escape, would not order or assist his departure
+for fear of the Commons. Through the bishop of Hereford,
+however, on the 29th of November he pressed Clarendon to fly,
+promising that he should not during his absence suffer in his
+honour or fortune. Clarendon embarked the same night for
+Calais, where he arrived on the 2nd of December. The Lords
+immediately passed an act for his banishment and ordered the
+petition forwarded by him to parliament to be burnt.</p>
+
+<p>The rest of Clarendon&rsquo;s life was passed in exile. He left
+Calais for Rouen on the 25th of December, returning on the
+21st of January 1668, visiting the baths of Bourbon in April,
+thence to Avignon in June, residing from July 1668 till June
+1671 at Montpellier, whence he proceeded to Moulins and to
+Rouen again in May 1674. His sudden banishment entailed
+great personal hardships. His health at the time of his flight
+was much impaired, and on arriving at Calais he fell dangerously
+ill; and Louis XIV., anxious at this time to gain popularity
+in England, sent him peremptory and repeated orders to quit
+France. He suffered severely from gout, and during the greater
+part of his exile could not walk without the aid of two men.
+At Evreux, on the 23rd of April 1668, he was the victim of a
+murderous assault by English sailors, who attributed to him the
+non-payment of their wages, and who were on the point of
+despatching him when he was rescued by the guard. For some
+time he was not allowed to see any of his children; even correspondence
+with him was rendered treasonable by the Act of
+Banishment; and it was not apparently till 1671, 1673 and 1674
+that he received visits from his sons, the younger, Lawrence
+Hyde, being present with him at his death.</p>
+
+<p>Clarendon bore his troubles with great dignity and fortitude.
+He found consolation in religious duties, and devoted a portion
+of every day to the composition of his <i>Contemplations on the
+Psalms</i>, and of his moral essays. Removed effectually from
+the public scene, and from all share in present politics, he turned
+his attention once more to the past and finished his <i>History</i> and
+his <i>Autobiography</i>. Soon after reaching Calais he had written,
+on the 17th of December 1667, to the university of Oxford,
+desiring as his last request that the university should believe
+in his innocence and remember him, though there could be no
+further mention of him in their public devotions, in their private
+prayers.<a name="FnAnchor_24i" id="FnAnchor_24i" href="#Footnote_24i"><span class="sp">24</span></a> In 1668 he wrote to the duke and duchess of York to
+remonstrate on the report that they had turned Roman Catholic,
+to the former urging &ldquo;You cannot be without zeal for the
+Church to which your blessed father made himself a sacrifice,&rdquo;
+adding that such a change would bring a great storm against
+the Romanists. He entertained to the last hopes of obtaining
+leave to return to England. He asked for permission in June
+1671 and in August 1674. In the dedication of his <i>Brief View
+of Mr Hobbes&rsquo;s Book Leviathan</i> he repeats &ldquo;the hope which
+sustains my weak, decayed spirits that your Majesty will at
+some time call to your remembrance my long and incorrupted
+fidelity to your person and your service&rdquo;; but his petitions
+were not even answered or noticed. He died at Rouen on the
+9th of December 1674. He was buried in Westminster Abbey
+at the foot of the steps at the entrance to Henry VII.&rsquo;s chapel.
+He left two sons, Henry, 2nd earl of Clarendon, and Lawrence,
+earl of Rochester, his daughter Anne, duchess of York, and a
+third son, Edward, having predeceased him. His male descendants
+became extinct on the death of the 4th earl of Clarendon
+and 2nd earl of Rochester in 1753, the title of Clarendon being
+revived in 1776 in the person of Thomas Villiers, who had
+married the granddaughter and heir of the last earl.</p>
+
+<p>As a statesman Clarendon had obvious limitations and failings.
+He brought to the consideration of political questions an essentially
+legal but also a narrow mind, conceiving the law, &ldquo;that
+great and admirable mystery,&rdquo; and the constitution as fixed,
+unchangeable and sufficient for all time, in contrast to Pym,
+who regarded them as living organisms capable of continual
+development and evolution; and he was incapable of comprehending
+and governing the new conditions and forces created
+by the civil wars. His character, however, and therefore to
+some extent his career, bear the indelible marks of greatness.
+He left the popular cause at the moment of its triumph and
+showed in so doing a strict consistency. In a court degraded
+by licence and self-indulgence, he maintained his self-respect
+and personal dignity regardless of consequences, and in an age
+of almost universal corruption and self-seeking he preserved a
+noble integrity and patriotism. At the Restoration he showed
+great moderation in accepting rewards. He refused a grant
+of 10,000 acres in the Fens from the king on the ground that
+it would create an evil precedent, and amused Charles and James
+by his indignation at the offer of a present of £10,000 from the
+French minister Fouquet, the only present he accepted from
+Louis XIV. being a set of books printed at the Louvre. His
+income, however, as lord chancellor was very large, and Clarendon
+maintained considerable state, considering it due to the dignity
+of the monarchy that the high officers should carry the external
+marks of greatness. The house built by him in St James&rsquo;s
+was one of the most magnificent ever seen in England, and was
+filled with a collection of portraits, chiefly those of contemporary
+statesmen and men of letters. It cost Clarendon £50,000, involved
+him deeply in debt and was considered one of the chief
+causes of the &ldquo;gust of envy&rdquo; that caused his fall.<a name="FnAnchor_25i" id="FnAnchor_25i" href="#Footnote_25i"><span class="sp">25</span></a> He is
+described as &ldquo;a fair, ruddy, fat, middle-statured, handsome
+man,&rdquo; and his appearance was stately and dignified. He
+expected deference from his inferiors, and one of the chief
+charges which he brought against the party of the young politicians
+was the want of respect with which they treated himself
+and the lord treasurer. His industry and devotion to public
+business, of which proofs still remain in the enormous mass of his
+state papers and correspondence, were exemplary, and were
+rendered all the more conspicuous by the negligence, inferiority
+in business, and frivolity of his successors. As lord chancellor
+Clarendon made no great impression in the court of chancery.
+His early legal training had long been interrupted, and his
+political preoccupations probably rendered necessary the
+delegation of many of his judicial duties to others. According
+to Speaker Onslow his decrees were always made with the aid
+of two judges. Burnet praises him, however, as &ldquo;a very good
+chancellor, only a little too rough but very impartial in the
+administration of justice,&rdquo; and Pepys, who saw him presiding
+in his court, perceived him to be &ldquo;a most able and ready man.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_26i" id="FnAnchor_26i" href="#Footnote_26i"><span class="sp">26</span></a>
+According to Evelyn, &ldquo;though no considerable lawyer&rdquo; he was
+&ldquo;one who kept up the fame and substance of things in the
+nation with ... solemnity.&rdquo; He made good appointments
+to the bench and issued some important orders for the reform
+of abuses in his court.<a name="FnAnchor_27i" id="FnAnchor_27i" href="#Footnote_27i"><span class="sp">27</span></a> As chancellor of Oxford University,
+to which office he was elected on the 27th of October 1660,
+Clarendon promoted the restoration of order and various educational
+reforms. In 1753 his manuscripts were left to the university
+by his great-grandson Lord Cornbury, and in 1868 the
+money gained by publication was spent in erecting the Clarendon
+Laboratory, the profits of the <i>History</i> having provided in 1713
+a building for the university press adjoining the Sheldonian
+theatre, known since the removal of the press to its present
+quarters as the Clarendon Building.</p>
+
+<p>Clarendon had risen to high office largely through his literary
+and oratorical gifts. His eloquence was greatly admired by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span>
+Evelyn and Pepys, though Burnet criticises it as too copious.
+He was a great lover of books and collected a large library, was
+well read in the Roman and in the contemporary histories both
+foreign and English, and could appreciate Carew, Ben Jonson and
+Cowley. As a writer and historian Clarendon occupies a high
+place in English literature. His great work, the <i>History of the
+Rebellion</i>, is composed in the grand style. A characteristic
+feature is the wonderful series of well-known portraits, drawn
+with great skill and liveliness and especially praised by Evelyn
+and by Macaulay. The long digressions, the lengthy sentences,
+and the numerous parentheses do not accord with modern taste
+and usage, but it may be observed that these often follow more
+closely the natural involutions of the thought, and express the
+argument more clearly, than the short disconnected sentences,
+now generally employed, while in rhythm and dignity Clarendon&rsquo;s
+style is immeasurably superior. The composition, however, of
+the work as a whole is totally wanting in proportion, and the
+book is overloaded with state papers, misplaced and tedious in the
+narrative. In considering the accuracy of the history it is
+important to remember the dates and circumstances of the
+composition of its various portions. The published <i>History</i> is
+mainly a compilation of two separate original manuscripts, the
+first being the history proper, written between 1646 and 1648,
+with the advantage of a fresh memory and the help of various
+documents and authorities, and ending in March 1644, and the
+second being the <i>Life</i>, extending from 1609 to 1660, but composed
+long afterwards in exile and without the aid of papers between
+1668 and 1670. The value of any statement, therefore, in the
+published <i>History</i> depends chiefly on whether it is taken from the
+<i>History</i> proper or the <i>Life</i>. In 1671 these two manuscripts were
+united by Clarendon with certain alterations and modifications
+making Books i.-vii. of the published <i>History</i>, while Books viii.-xv.
+were written subsequently, and, being composed for the most
+part without materials, are generally inaccurate, with the notable
+exception of Book ix., made up from two narratives written at
+Jersey in 1646, and containing very little from the <i>Life</i>. Sincerity
+and honest conviction are present on every page, and the inaccuracies
+are due not to wilful misrepresentation, but to failure
+of memory and to the disadvantages under which the author
+laboured in exile. But they lessen considerably the value of his
+work, and detract from his reputation as chronicler of contemporary
+events, for which he was specially fitted by his
+practical experience in public business, a qualification declared
+by himself to be the &ldquo;genius, spirit and soul of an historian.&rdquo;
+In general, Clarendon, like many of his contemporaries, failed
+signally to comprehend the real issues and principles at stake in
+the great struggle, laying far too much stress on personalities
+and never understanding the real aims and motives of the
+Presbyterian party. The work was first published in 1702-1704
+from a copy of a transcript made by Clarendon&rsquo;s secretary, with
+a few unimportant alterations, and was the object of a violent
+attack by John Oldmixon for supposed changes and omissions
+in <i>Clarendon and Whitelocke compared</i> (1727) and again in a
+preface to his <i>History of England</i> (1730), repelled and refuted by
+John Burton in the <i>Genuineness of Lord Clarendon&rsquo;s History
+Vindicated</i> (1744). The history was first published from the
+original in 1826; the best edition being that of 1888 edited by
+W.D. Macray and issued by the Clarendon Press. <i>The Lord
+Clarendon&rsquo;s History ... Compleated</i>, a supplement containing
+portraits and illustrative papers, was published in 1717, and <i>An
+Appendix to the History</i>, containing a life, speeches and various
+pieces, in 1724. The <i>Sutherland Clarendon</i> in the Bodleian
+library at Oxford contains several thousand portraits and
+illustrations of the <i>History</i>. <i>The Life of Edward, earl of Clarendon</i>
+... [<i>and the</i>] <i>Continuation of the History ... </i>, the first consisting
+of that portion of the <i>Life</i> not included in the <i>History</i>, and the
+second of the account of Clarendon&rsquo;s administration and exile in
+France, begun in 1672, was published in 1759, the <i>History of the
+Reign of King Charles II. from the Restoration ...</i>, published
+about 1755, being a surreptitious edition of this work, of which
+the latest and best edition is that of the Clarendon Press of 1857.</p>
+
+<p>Clarendon was also the author of <i>The Difference and Disparity
+between the Estate and Condition of George, duke of Buckingham
+and Robert, earl of Essex</i>, a youthful production vindicating
+Buckingham, printed in <i>Reliquiae Wottonianae</i> (1672), i. 184;
+<i>Animadversions on a Book entitled Fanaticism</i> (1673); <i>A Brief
+View ... of the dangerous ... errors in ... Mr Hobbes&rsquo;s
+book entitled &ldquo;Leviathan&rdquo;</i> (1676); <i>The History of the Rebellion
+and Civil War in Ireland</i> (1719); <i>A Collection of Several Pieces of
+Edward, earl of Clarendon</i>, containing reprints of speeches from
+the journals of the House of Lords and of the History of the
+Rebellion in Ireland (1727); <i>A Collection of Several Tracts</i>
+containing his <i>Vindication</i> in answer to his impeachment,
+<i>Reflections upon several Christian Duties, Two Dialogues on
+Education and on the want of Respect due to age</i>, and <i>Contemplations
+on the Psalms</i> (1727); <i>Religion and Policy</i> (1811); <i>Essays
+moral and entertaining on the various faculties and passions of the
+human mind</i> (1815, and in <i>British Prose Writers</i>, 1819, vol. i.);
+<i>Speeches</i> in <i>Rushworth&rsquo;s Collections</i> (1692), pt. iii. vol. i. 230,
+333; <i>Declarations and Manifestos</i> (Clarendon being the author of
+nearly all on the king&rsquo;s side between March 1642 and March 1645,
+the first being the answer to the Grand Remonstrance in January
+1642, but not of the answer to the XIX. Propositions or the
+apology for the King&rsquo;s attack upon Brentford) in the published
+<i>History</i>, Rushworth&rsquo;s <i>Collections</i>, E. Husband&rsquo;s <i>Collections of
+Ordinances and Declarations</i> (1646), <i>Old Parliamentary History</i>
+(1751-1762), <i>Somers Tracts, State Tracts, Harleian Miscellany,
+Thomasson Tracts</i> (Brit. Mus.), E. 157 (14); and a large number of
+anonymous pamphlets aimed against the parliament, including
+<i>Transcendent and Multiplied Rebellion and Treason</i> (1645), <i>A
+Letter from a True and Lawful Member of Parliament ... to one
+of the Lords of his Highness&rsquo;s Council</i> (1656), and <i>Two Speeches
+made in the House of Peers on Monday 19th Dec.</i> [1642] ...
+(<i>Somers Tracts</i>, Scott, vi. 576); <i>Second Thoughts</i> (n.d., in favour
+of a limited toleration) is ascribed to him in the Catalogue in the
+British Museum; <i>A Letter ... to one of the Chief Ministers of
+the Nonconforming Party</i> ... (Saumur, 7th May 1674) has been
+attributed to him on insufficient evidence.</p>
+
+<p>Clarendon&rsquo;s correspondence, amounting to over 100 volumes,
+is in the Bodleian library at Oxford, and other letters are to be
+found in <i>Additional MSS.</i> in the British Museum. Selections
+have been published under the title of <i>State Papers Collected by
+Edward, earl of Clarendon</i> (Clarendon State Papers) between 1767
+and 1786, and the collection has been calendared up to 1657 in
+1869, 1872, 1876. Other letters of Clarendon are to be found in
+Lister&rsquo;s <i>Life of Clarendon, iii.; Nicholas Papers</i> (Camden Soc.,
+1886); <i>Diary</i> of J. Evelyn, <i>appendix</i>; Sir R. Fanshaw&rsquo;s <i>Original
+Letters</i> (1724); Warburton&rsquo;s <i>Life of Prince Rupert</i> (1849):
+Barwick&rsquo;s <i>Life of Barwick</i> (1724); <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i> 10th Rep.
+pt. vi. pp. 193-216, and in the <i>Harleian Miscellany</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Clarendon&rsquo;s autobiographical works and Letters
+enumerated above, and the MS. Collection in the Bodleian library.
+The Lives of Clarendon by T.H. Lister (1838), and by C.H. Firth
+in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i> (with authorities there collected),
+completely supersede all earlier accounts including that in <i>Lives
+of All the Lord Chancellors</i> (1708), in Macdiarmid&rsquo;s <i>Lives of British
+Statesmen</i> (1807), and in the different Lives by Wood in <i>Athenae
+Oxonienses</i> (Bliss), iii. 1018; while those in J.H. Browne&rsquo;s <i>Lives
+of the Prime Ministers of England</i> (1858), in Lodge&rsquo;s <i>Portraits</i>, in
+Lord Campbell&rsquo;s <i>Lives of the Chancellors</i>, iii. 110 (1845), and in
+Foss&rsquo;s <i>Judges</i>, supply no further information. In <i>Historical Inquiries
+respecting the Character of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon</i>, various
+charges against Clarendon were collected by G.A. Ellis (1827) and
+answered by Lister, vol. ii. 529, and by Lady Th. Lewis in <i>Lives of the
+Contemporaries of Lord Clarendon</i> (1852), i. preface pt. i. For criticisms
+of the <i>History</i> see Gardiner&rsquo;s <i>Civil Wars</i> (1893), iii. 121;
+Ranke&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of England</i>, vi. 3-29; <i>Die Politik Karls des Ersten</i>
+... <i>und Lord Clarendon&rsquo;s Darstellung</i>, by A. Buff (1868); article
+in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> by C.H. Firth, and especially a series of
+admirable articles by the same author in the <i>Eng. Hist. Review</i>
+(1904). For description of the MS., Macray&rsquo;s edition of the <i>History</i>
+(1888), Lady Th. Lewis&rsquo;s <i>Lives from the Clarendon Gallery</i>, i. introd.
+pt. ii.; for list of earlier editions, <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> (Bliss) iii. 1017.
+Lord Lansdowne defends Sir R. Granville against Clarendon&rsquo;s strictures
+in the <i>Vindication (Genuine Works of G. Granville, Lord Lansdowne,
+i. 503 [1732])</i>, and Lord Ashburnham defends John Ashburnham
+in <i>A Narrative by John Ashburnham</i> (1830). See also <i>Notes at
+Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and the Earl of
+Clarendon</i> (Roxburghe Club. 1896); <i>General Orders of the High
+Court of Chancery</i>, by J. Beames (1815), 147-221; S.R. Gardiner&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span>
+<i>Hist. of England, of the Civil War and of the Commonwealth; Lord
+Clarendon</i>, by A. Chassant (account of the assault at Evreux) (1891);
+<i>Annals of the Bodleian Library</i>, by W.D. Macray (1868); Masson&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of Milton</i>; <i>Life of Sir G. Savile</i>, by H.C. Foxcroft (1898);
+<i>Cal. of St. Pap. Dom.</i>, esp. 1667-1668, 58, 354, 370; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.
+Series, MSS. of J.M. Heathcote</i> and <i>Various Collections</i>, vol. ii.;
+<i>Add. MSS.</i> in the British Museum; <i>Notes and Queries</i>, 6 ser. v. 283,
+9 ser. xi. 182, 1 ser. ix. 7; Pepys&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i>; J. Evelyn&rsquo;s <i>Diary and
+Correspondence</i>; Gen. Catalogue in British Museum; <i>Edward Hyde,
+earl of Clarendon</i> (1909), a lecture delivered at Oxford during the
+Clarendon centenary by C.H. Firth.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1i" id="Footnote_1i" href="#FnAnchor_1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Life</i>, i. 25.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2i" id="Footnote_2i" href="#FnAnchor_2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Hist. of the Rebellion</i>, iii. 164, the account being substantially
+accepted by Gardiner, in spite of inaccuracies in details (<i>Hist.</i> ix.
+341, note).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3i" id="Footnote_3i" href="#FnAnchor_3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Clarendon St. Pap.</i> ii. 337.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4i" id="Footnote_4i" href="#FnAnchor_4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Ibid.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5i" id="Footnote_5i" href="#FnAnchor_5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Hist. of the Rebellion</i>, xiii. 140.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6i" id="Footnote_6i" href="#FnAnchor_6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Clarendon State Papers</i>, iii. 316, 325, 341, 343.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7i" id="Footnote_7i" href="#FnAnchor_7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham</i>, 227.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8i" id="Footnote_8i" href="#FnAnchor_8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Anne Hyde (1637-1671), eldest daughter of the chancellor, was
+the mother by James of Queen Mary and Queen Anne, besides six
+other children, including four sons who all died in infancy. She
+became a Roman Catholic in 1670 shortly before her death, and
+was buried in the vault of Mary, queen of Scots, in Henry VII.&rsquo;s
+chapel in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9i" id="Footnote_9i" href="#FnAnchor_9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various Collections</i>, ii. 118, and <i>MSS.
+of Duke of Somerset</i>, 94.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10i" id="Footnote_10i" href="#FnAnchor_10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 339.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11i" id="Footnote_11i" href="#FnAnchor_11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Ib. 511, 776.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12i" id="Footnote_12i" href="#FnAnchor_12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Lister&rsquo;s <i>Life of Clarendon</i>, ii. 295; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various
+Collections</i>, ii. 379.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13i" id="Footnote_13i" href="#FnAnchor_13i"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 1170.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14i" id="Footnote_14i" href="#FnAnchor_14i"><span class="fn">14</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham</i>, 250.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15i" id="Footnote_15i" href="#FnAnchor_15i"><span class="fn">15</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 1066.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16i" id="Footnote_16i" href="#FnAnchor_16i"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Macaulay&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of England</i>, i. 193.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17i" id="Footnote_17i" href="#FnAnchor_17i"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Pepys&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i>, Sept. 2, 1667.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18i" id="Footnote_18i" href="#FnAnchor_18i"><span class="fn">18</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.</i>, 7th Rep. 162.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19i" id="Footnote_19i" href="#FnAnchor_19i"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>Diary</i>, iii. 95, 96.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20i" id="Footnote_20i" href="#FnAnchor_20i"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Lives from the  Clarendon Gallery</i>, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 39;
+Burnet&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of his own Times</i>, i. 209.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21i" id="Footnote_21i" href="#FnAnchor_21i"><span class="fn">21</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 88.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22i" id="Footnote_22i" href="#FnAnchor_22i"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Lister&rsquo;s <i>Life of Clarendon</i>, ii. 416.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23i" id="Footnote_23i" href="#FnAnchor_23i"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Continuation</i>, 1137.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24i" id="Footnote_24i" href="#FnAnchor_24i"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Clarendon St. Pap.</i> iii. Suppl. xxxvii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25i" id="Footnote_25i" href="#FnAnchor_25i"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Evelyn witnessed its demolition in 1683&mdash;<i>Diary</i>, May 19th,
+Sept. 18th; <i>Lives from the Clarendon Gallery</i>, by Lady Th. Lewis,
+i. 40.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26i" id="Footnote_26i" href="#FnAnchor_26i"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Diary</i>, July 14th, 1664.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27i" id="Footnote_27i" href="#FnAnchor_27i"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Lister</i>, ii. 528.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span>,
+<span class="sc">4th Earl of</span> (in the Villiers line) (1800-1870), English diplomatist
+and statesman, was born in London on the 12th of January 1800.
+He was the eldest son of Hon. George Villiers (1750-1827),
+youngest son of the 1st earl of Clarendon (second creation), by
+Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord Boringdon, and
+granddaughter of the first Lord Grantham. The earldom of the lord
+chancellor Clarendon became extinct in the Hyde line by the
+death of the 4th earl, his last male descendant. Jane Hyde,
+countess of Essex, the sister of that nobleman (she died in 1724),
+left two daughters; of these the eldest, Lady Charlotte, became
+heiress of the Hyde family. She married Thomas Villiers (1709-1786),
+second son of the 2nd earl of Jersey, who served with
+distinction as English minister in Germany, and in 1776 the
+earldom of Clarendon was revived in his favour. The connexion
+with the Hyde family was therefore in the female line and
+somewhat remote. But a portion of the pictures and plate of the
+great chancellor was preserved to this branch of the family, and
+remains at The Grove, their family seat at Hertfordshire. The
+2nd and 3rd earls were sons of the 1st, and, neither of them
+having sons, the title passed, on the death of the 3rd earl (John
+Charles) in 1838, to their younger brother&rsquo;s son.</p>
+
+<p>Young George Villiers entered upon life in circumstances
+which gave small promise of the brilliancy of his future career.
+He was well born; he was heir presumptive to an earldom;
+and his mother was a woman of great energy, admirable good
+sense, and high feeling. But the means of his family were
+contracted; his education was desultory and incomplete; he
+had not the advantages of a training either at a public school or
+in the House of Commons. He went up to Cambridge at the
+early age of sixteen, and entered St John&rsquo;s College on the 29th
+of June 1816. In 1820, as the eldest son of an earl&rsquo;s brother
+with royal descent, he was enabled to take his M.A. degree
+under the statutes of the university then in force. In the same
+year he was appointed attaché to the British embassy at St
+Petersburg, where he remained three years, and gained that
+practical knowledge of diplomacy which was of so much use to
+him in after-life. He had received from nature a singularly
+handsome person, a polished and engaging address, a ready
+command of languages, and a remarkable power of composition.</p>
+
+<p>Upon his return to England in 1823 he was appointed to a
+commissionership of customs, an office which he retained for
+about ten years. In 1831 he was despatched to France to
+negotiate a commercial treaty, which, however, led to no result.
+On the 16th of August 1833 he was appointed minister at the
+court of Spain. Ferdinand VII. died within a month of his
+arrival at Madrid, and the infant queen Isabella, then in the
+third year of her age, was placed by the old Spanish law of female
+inheritance on her contested throne. Don Carlos, the late
+king&rsquo;s brother, claimed the crown by virtue of the Salic law of
+the House of Bourbon which Ferdinand had renounced before
+the birth of his daughter. Isabella II. and her mother Christina,
+the queen regent, became the representatives of constitutional
+monarchy, Don Carlos of Catholic absolutism. The conflict
+which had divided the despotic and the constitutional powers
+of Europe since the French Revolution of 1830 broke out into
+civil war in Spain, and by the Quadruple Treaty, signed on the
+22nd of April 1834, France and England pledged themselves to
+the defence of the constitutional thrones of Spain and Portugal.
+For six years Villiers continued to give the most active and
+intelligent support to the Liberal government of Spain. He
+was accused, though unjustly, of having favoured the revolution
+of La Granja, which drove Christina, the queen mother, out of
+the kingdom, and raised Espartero to the regency. He
+undoubtedly supported the chiefs of the Liberal party, such as
+Espartero, against the intrigues of the French court; but the
+object of the British government was to establish the throne
+of Isabella on a truly national and liberal basis and to avert
+those complications, dictated by foreign influence, which
+eventually proved so fatal to that princess. Villiers received the
+grand cross of the Bath in 1838 in acknowledgment of his services,
+and succeeded, on the death of his uncle, to the title of earl of
+Clarendon; in the following year, having left Madrid, he married
+Katharine, eldest daughter of James Walter, first earl of Verulam.</p>
+
+<p>In January 1840 he entered Lord Melbourne&rsquo;s administration
+as lord privy seal, and from the death of Lord Holland in the
+autumn of that year Lord Clarendon also held the office of
+chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster until the dissolution of the
+ministry in 1841. Deeply convinced that the maintenance of a
+cordial understanding with France was the most essential
+condition of peace and of a liberal policy in Europe, he reluctantly
+concurred in the measures proposed by Lord Palmerston for
+the expulsion of the pasha of Egypt from Syria; he strenuously
+advocated, with Lord Holland, a more conciliatory policy
+towards France; and he was only restrained from sending in
+his resignation by the dislike he felt to break up a cabinet he
+had so recently joined.</p>
+
+<p>The interval of Sir Robert Peel&rsquo;s great administration (1841-1846)
+was to the leaders of the Whig party a period of repose;
+but Lord Clarendon took the warmest interest in the triumph
+of the principles of free trade and in the repeal of the corn-laws,
+of which his brother, Charles Pelham Villiers (<i>q.v.</i>), had been
+one of the earliest champions. For this reason, upon the formation
+of Lord John Russell&rsquo;s first administration, Lord Clarendon
+accepted the office of president of the Board of Trade. Twice
+in his career the governor-generalship of India was offered him,
+and once the governor-generalship of Canada;&mdash;these he refused
+from reluctance to withdraw from the politics of Europe. But
+in 1847 a sense of duty compelled him to take a far more laborious
+and uncongenial appointment. The desire of the cabinet was
+to abolish the lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, and Lord Clarendon
+was prevailed upon to accept that office, with a view to transform
+it ere long into an Irish secretaryship of state. But he had not
+been many months in Dublin before he acknowledged that the
+difficulties then existing in Ireland could only be met by the
+most vigilant and energetic authority, exercised on the spot.
+The crisis was one of extraordinary peril. Agrarian crimes of
+horrible atrocity had increased threefold. The Catholic clergy
+were openly disaffected. This was the second year of the Irish
+famine, and extraordinary measures were required to regulate
+the bounty of the government and the nation. In 1848 the
+revolution in France let loose fresh elements of discord, which
+culminated in an abortive insurrection, and for a lengthened
+period Ireland was a prey to more than her wonted symptoms
+of disaffection and disorder. Lord Clarendon remained viceroy
+of Ireland till 1852, and left behind him permanent marks of
+improvement. His services were expressly acknowledged in the
+queen&rsquo;s speech to both Houses of Parliament on the 5th of
+September 1848&mdash;this being the first time that any <i>civil</i> services
+obtained that honour; and he was made a knight of the Garter
+(retaining also the grand cross of the Bath by special order) on
+the 23rd of March 1849.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the formation of the coalition ministry between the
+Whigs and the Peelites, in 1853, under Lord Aberdeen, Lord
+Clarendon became foreign minister. The country was already
+&ldquo;drifting&rdquo; into the Crimean War, an expression of his own
+which was never forgotten. Clarendon was not responsible for
+the policy which brought war about; but when it occurred he
+employed every means in his power to stimulate and assist the
+war departments, and above all he maintained the closest
+relations with the French. The tsar Nicholas had speculated
+on the impossibility of the sustained joint action of France and
+England in council and in the field. It was mainly by Lord
+Clarendon at Whitehall and by Lord Raglan before Sevastopol
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span>
+that such a combination was rendered practicable, and did
+eventually triumph over the enemy. The diplomatic conduct
+of such an alliance for three years between two great nations
+jealous of their military honour and fighting for no separate
+political advantage, tried by excessive hardships and at moments
+on the verge of defeat, was certainly one of the most arduous
+duties ever performed by a minister. The result was due in the
+main to the confidence with which Lord Clarendon had inspired
+the emperor of the French, and to the affection and regard of
+the empress, whom he had known in Spain from her childhood.</p>
+
+<p>In 1856 Lord Clarendon took his seat at the congress of Paris
+convoked for the restoration of peace, as first British
+plenipotentiary. It was the first time since the appearance of Lord
+Castlereagh at Vienna that a secretary of state for foreign
+affairs had been present in person at a congress on the continent.
+Lord Clarendon&rsquo;s first care was to obtain the admission of
+Italy to the council chamber as a belligerent power, and to
+raise the barrier which still excluded Prussia as a neutral one.
+But in the general anxiety of all the powers to terminate the war
+there was no small danger that the objects for which it had
+been undertaken would be abandoned or forgotten. It is due
+entirely to the firmness of Lord Clarendon that the principle
+of the neutralization of the Black Sea was preserved, that the
+Russian attempt to trick the allies out of the cession in Bessarabia
+was defeated, and that the results of the war were for a time
+secured. The congress was eager to turn to other subjects,
+and perhaps the most important result of its deliberations was
+the celebrated Declaration of the Maritime Powers, which
+abolished privateering, defined the right of blockade, and
+limited the right of capture to enemy&rsquo;s property in enemy&rsquo;s
+ships. Lord Clarendon has been accused of an abandonment
+of what are termed the belligerent rights of Great Britain, which
+were undoubtedly based on the old maritime laws of Europe.
+But he acted in strict conformity with the views of the British
+cabinet, and the British cabinet adopted those views because it
+was satisfied that it was not for the benefit of the country to
+adhere to practices which exposed the vast mercantile interests
+of Britain to depredation, even by the cruisers of a secondary
+maritime power, and which, if vigorously enforced against
+neutrals, could not fail to embroil her with every maritime
+state in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the reconstitution of the Whig administration in 1859,
+Lord John Russell made it a condition of his acceptance of office
+under Lord Palmerston that the foreign department should be
+placed in his own hands, which implied that Lord Clarendon
+should be excluded from office, as it would have been inconsistent
+alike with his dignity and his tastes to fill any other post in the
+government. The consequence was that from 1859 till 1864
+Lord Clarendon remained out of office, and the critical relations
+arising out of the Civil War in the United States were left to the
+guidance of Earl Russell. But he re-entered the cabinet in May
+1864 as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; and upon the
+death of Lord Palmerston in 1865, Lord Russell again became
+prime minister, when Lord Clarendon returned to the foreign
+office, which was again confided to him for the third time upon
+the formation of Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s administration in 1868. To
+the last moment of his existence, Lord Clarendon continued to
+devote every faculty of his mind and every instant of his life
+to the public service; and he expired surrounded by the boxes
+and papers of his office on the 27th of June 1870. No man owed
+more to the influence of a generous, unselfish and liberal disposition.
+If he had rivals he never ceased to treat them with the
+consideration and confidence of friends, and he cared but little
+for the ordinary prizes of ambition in comparison with the
+advancement of the cause of peace and progress.</p>
+
+<p>He was succeeded as 5th earl by his eldest son, <span class="sc">Edward Hyde
+Villiers</span> (b. 1846), who became lord chamberlain in 1900.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also the article (by Henry Reeve) in <i>Fraser&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, August
+1876.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span>, <span class="sc">2nd Earl of</span> (1638-1709),
+English statesman, eldest son of the first earl, was born on the
+2nd of June 1638. He accompanied his parents into exile and
+assisted his father as secretary, returning with them in 1660.
+In 1661 he was returned to parliament for Wiltshire as Lord
+Cornbury. He became secretary in 1662 and lord chamberlain
+to the queen in 1665. He took no part in the life of the court,
+and on the dismissal of his father became a vehement opponent
+of the administration, defended his father in the impeachment,
+and subsequently made effective attacks upon Buckingham
+and Arlington. In 1674 he became earl of Clarendon by his
+father&rsquo;s death, and in 1679 was made a privy councillor. He
+was not included in Sir W. Temple&rsquo;s council of that year, but
+was reappointed in 1680. In 1682 he supported Halifax&rsquo;s
+proposal of declaring war on France. On the accession of James
+in 1685 he was appointed lord privy seal, but shortly afterwards,
+in September, was removed from this office to that of lord-lieutenant
+of Ireland. Clarendon was embarrassed in his
+estate, and James required a willing agent to carry out his
+design by upsetting the Protestant government and the Act of
+Settlement. Clarendon arrived in Dublin on the 9th of January
+1686. He found himself completely in the power of Tyrconnel,
+the commander-in-chief; and though, like his father, a staunch
+Protestant, elected this year high steward of Oxford University,
+and detesting the king&rsquo;s policy, he obeyed his orders to introduce
+Roman Catholics into the government and the army and upon the
+bench, and clung to office till after the dismissal of his brother,
+the earl of Rochester, in January 1687, when he was recalled
+and succeeded by Tyrconnel. He now supported the church
+in its struggle with James, opposed the Declaration of Indulgence,
+wrote to Mary an account of the resistance of the bishops,<a name="FnAnchor_1j" id="FnAnchor_1j" href="#Footnote_1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and
+visited and advised the latter in the Tower. He had no share,
+however, in inviting William to England. He assured James
+in September that the Church would be loyal, advised the
+calling of the parliament, and on the desertion of his son, Lord
+Cornbury, to William on the 14th of November, expressed to
+the king and queen the most poignant grief. In the council
+held on the 27th, however, he made a violent and unseasonable
+attack upon James&rsquo;s conduct, and on the 1st of December set
+out to meet William, joined him on the 3rd at Berwick near
+Salisbury, and was present at the conference at Hungerford
+on the 8th, and again at Windsor on the 16th. His wish was
+apparently to effect some compromise, saving the crown for
+James. According to Burnet, he advised sending James to
+Breda, and according to the duchess of Marlborough to the
+Tower, but he himself denies these statements.<a name="FnAnchor_2j" id="FnAnchor_2j" href="#Footnote_2j"><span class="sp">2</span></a> He opposed
+vehemently the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary,
+voted for the regency, and refused to take the oaths of the new
+sovereigns, remaining a non-juror for the rest of his life. He
+subsequently retired to the country, engaged in cabals against
+the government, associated himself with Richard Graham, Lord
+Preston, and organizing a plot against William, was arrested on
+the 24th of June 1690 by order of his niece, Queen Mary, and
+placed in the Tower. Liberated on the 15th of August, he immediately
+recommenced his intrigues. On Preston&rsquo;s arrest on
+the 31st of December, a compromising letter from Clarendon
+was found upon him, and he was named by Preston as one of his
+accomplices. He was examined before the privy council and
+again imprisoned in the Tower on the 4th of January 1691,
+remaining in confinement till the 3rd of July. This closed his
+public career. In 1702, on Queen Anne&rsquo;s accession, he presented
+himself at court, &ldquo;to talk to his niece,&rdquo; but the queen refused to
+see him till he had taken the oaths. He died on the 31st of
+October 1709, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>His public career had been neither distinguished nor useful, but
+it seems natural to ascribe its failure to small abilities and to the
+conflict between personal ties and political convictions which
+drew him in opposite directions, rather than, following Macaulay,
+to motives of self-interest. He was a man of some literary taste,
+a fellow of the Royal Society (1684), the author of <i>The History and
+Antiquities of the Cathedral Church of Winchester ... continued
+by S. Gale</i> (1715), and he collaborated with his brother Rochester
+in the publication of his father&rsquo;s <i>History</i> (1702-1704). He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span>
+married (1) in 1660, Theodosia, daughter of Lord Capel, and (2)
+in 1670, Flower, daughter of William Backhouse of Swallowfield
+in Berkshire, and widow of William Bishopp and of Sir William
+Backhouse, Bart. He was succeeded by his only son, Edward
+(1661-1724), as 3rd earl of Clarendon; and, the latter having no
+surviving son, the title passed to Henry, 2nd earl of Rochester
+(1672-1753), at whose death without male heirs it became extinct
+in the Hyde line.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1j" id="Footnote_1j" href="#FnAnchor_1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of the Duke of Buccleuch</i>, ii. 31.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2j" id="Footnote_2j" href="#FnAnchor_2j"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Correspondence and Diary</i> (1828), ii. 286.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span>, a body of English laws
+issued at Clarendon in 1164, by which Henry II. endeavoured to
+settle the relations between Church and State. Though they
+purported to declare the usages on the subject which prevailed in
+the reign of Henry I. they were never accepted by the clergy, and
+were formally renounced by the king at Avranches in September
+1172. Some of them, however, were in part at least, as they all
+purported to be, declaratory of ancient usage and remained in
+force after the royal renunciation. Of the sixteen provisions the
+one which provoked the greatest opposition was that which
+declared in effect that criminous clerks were to be summoned to
+the king&rsquo;s court, and from there, after formal accusation and
+defence, sent to the proper ecclesiastical court for trial. If found
+guilty they were to be degraded and sent back to the king&rsquo;s court
+for punishment. Another provision, which in spite of all opposition
+obtained a permanent place in English law, declared that all
+suits even between clerk and clerk concerning advowsons and
+presentations should be tried in the king&rsquo;s court. By other
+provisions appeals to Rome without the licence of the king were
+forbidden. None of the clergy were to leave the realm, nor were
+the king&rsquo;s tenants-in-chief and ministers to be excommunicated or
+their lands interdicted without the royal permission. Pleas of
+debt, whether involving a question of good faith or not, were to
+be in the jurisdiction of the king&rsquo;s courts. Two most interesting
+provisions, to which the clergy offered no opposition, were: (1) if
+a dispute arose between a clerk and a layman concerning a
+tenement which the clerk claimed as free-alms (frankalmoign)
+and the layman as a lay-fee, it should be determined by the
+recognition of twelve lawful men before the king&rsquo;s justice whether
+it belonged to free-alms or lay-fee, and if it were found to belong
+to free-alms then the plea was to be held in the ecclesiastical
+court, but if to lay-fee, in the court of the king or of one of his
+magnates; (2) a declaration of the procedure for election to
+bishoprics and royal abbeys, generally considered to state the
+terms of the settlement made between Henry I. and Anselm in
+1107.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;J.C. Robertson, <i>Materials for History of Thomas
+Becket</i>, Rolls Series (1875-1885); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland,
+<i>History of English Law before the Time of Ed. I.</i> (Cambridge,
+1898), and F.W. Maitland, <i>Roman Canon Law in the Church of
+England</i> (1898); the text of the Constitutions is printed by W.
+Stubbs in <i>Select Charters</i> (Oxford, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. J. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARES, POOR<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span>, otherwise <i>Clarisses</i>, Franciscan nuns, so
+called from their foundress, St Clara (<i>q.v.</i>). She was professed by
+St Francis in the Portiuncula in 1212, and two years later she
+and her first companions were established in the convent of St
+Damian&rsquo;s at Assisi. The nuns formed the &ldquo;Second Order of St
+Francis,&rdquo; the friars being the &ldquo;First Order,&rdquo; and the Tertiaries
+(<i>q.v.</i>) the &ldquo;Third.&rdquo; Before Clara&rsquo;s death in 1253, the Second
+Order had spread all over Italy and into Spain, France and
+Germany; in England they were introduced c. 1293 and established
+in London, outside Aldgate, where their name of Minoresses
+survives in the Minories; there were only two other English
+houses before the Dissolution. St Francis gave the nuns no rule,
+but only a &ldquo;Form of Life&rdquo; and a &ldquo;Last Will,&rdquo; each only five
+lines long, and coming to no more than an inculcation of his idea
+of evangelical poverty. Something more than this became
+necessary as soon as the institute began to spread; and during
+Francis&rsquo;s absence in the East, 1219, his supporter Cardinal
+Hugolino composed a rule which made the Franciscan nuns
+practically a species of unduly strict Benedictines, St Francis&rsquo;s
+special characteristics being eliminated. St Clara made it her
+life work to have this rule altered, and to get the Franciscan
+character of the Second Order restored; in 1247 a &ldquo;Second
+Rule&rdquo; was approved which went a long way towards satisfying
+her desires, and finally in 1253 a &ldquo;Third,&rdquo; which practically gave
+what she wanted. This rule has come to be known as the &ldquo;Rule
+of the Clares&rdquo;; it is one of great poverty, seclusion and austerity
+of life. Most of the convents adopted it, but several clung to
+that of 1247. To bring about conformity, St Bonaventura, while
+general (1264), obtained papal permission to modify the rule of
+1253, somewhat mitigating its austerities and allowing the
+convents to have fixed incomes,&mdash;thus assimilating them to the
+Conventual Franciscans as opposed to the Spirituals. This rule
+was adopted in many convents, but many more adhered to the
+strict rule of 1253. Indeed a counter-tendency towards a greater
+strictness set in, and a number of reforms were initiated, introducing
+an appalling austerity of life. The most important of
+these reforms were the Coletines (St Colette, c. 1400) and the
+Capucines (c. 1540; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capuchins</a></span>). The half-dozen forms of
+the Franciscan rule for women here mentioned are still in use in
+different convents, and there are also a great number of religious
+institutes for women based on the rule of the Tertiaries. By the
+term &ldquo;Poor Clares&rdquo; the Coletine nuns are now commonly
+understood; there are various convents of these nuns, as of other
+Franciscans, in England and Ireland. Franciscan nuns have
+always been very numerous; there are now about 150 convents of
+the various observances of the Second Order, in every part of the
+world, besides innumerable institutions of Tertiaries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Helyot, <i>Hist. des ordres religieux</i> (1792), vii. cc. 25-28 and
+38-42; Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (2nd ed.), art. &ldquo;Clara&rdquo;;
+Max Heimbucher, <i>Orden und Kongregationen</i> (1896), i. §§ 47, 48,
+who gives references to all the literature. For a scientific study
+of the beginnings see Lempp, &ldquo;Die Anfänge des Klarissenordens&rdquo;
+in <i>Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte</i>, xiii. (1892), 181 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. C. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARET<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (from the Fr. <i>vin claret</i>, mod. <i>clairet</i>, wine of a light
+clear colour, from Lat. <i>clarus</i>, clear), the English name for the red
+Bordeaux wines. The term was originally used in France for
+light-yellow or light-red wines, as distinguished from the <i>vins
+rouges</i> and the <i>vins blancs</i>; later it was applied to red wines
+generally, but is rarely used in French, and never with the
+particular English meaning (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wine</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARETIE, JULES ARSÈNE ARNAUD<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (1840-&emsp;&emsp;), French
+man of letters and director of the Théâtre Français, was born at
+Limoges on the 3rd of December 1840. After studying at the
+lycée Bonaparte in Paris, he became an active journalist, achieving
+great success as dramatic critic to the <i>Figaro</i> and to the
+<i>Opinion nationale</i>. He was a newspaper correspondent during
+the Franco-German War, and during the Commune acted as staff-officer
+in the National Guard. In 1885 he became director of the
+Théâtre Français, and from that time devoted his time chiefly to
+its administration. He was elected a member of the Academy in
+1888, and took his seat in <span class="correction" title="amended from Feburary">February</span> 1889, being received by
+Ernest Renan. The long list of his works includes <i>Histoire de la
+révolution de 1870-1871</i> (new ed., 5 vols., 1875-1876); <i>Cinq ans
+après; l&rsquo;Alsace et la Lorraine depuis l&rsquo;annexion</i> (1876); some
+annual volumes of reprints of his articles in the weekly press,
+entitled <i>La Vie à Paris; La Vie moderne au théâtre</i> (1868-1869);
+<i>Molière, sa vie et son &oelig;uvre</i> (1871); <i>Histoire de la littérature
+française, 900-1900</i> (2nd ed. 1905); <i>Candidat!</i> (1887), a novel of
+contemporary life; <i>Brichanteau, comédien français</i> (1896);
+several plays, some of which are based on novels of his own&mdash;<i>Les
+Muscadins</i> (1874), <i>Le Régiment de Champagne</i> (1877), <i>Les Mirabeau</i>
+(1879), <i>Monsieur le ministre</i> (1883), and others; and the opera,
+<i>La Navarraise</i>, based on his novel <i>La Cigarette</i>, and written with
+Henri Cain to the music of Massenet. <i>La Navarraise</i> was first
+produced at Covent Garden (June 1894) with Mme Calvé in the
+part of Anita. His <i>&OElig;uvres complètes</i> were published in 1897-1904.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span>, Italian musical composer,
+chapel-master at Pistoia, was born at Pisa about the year
+1669. The time of his death is unknown. He was the most
+celebrated pupil of Colonna, chapel-master of S. Petronio, at
+Bologna. He became <i>maestro di cappella</i> at Pistoia about 1712, at
+Bologna in 1720, and at Pisa in 1736. He is supposed to have
+died about 1745. The works by which Clari distinguished
+himself pre-eminently are his vocal duets and trios, with a <i>basso
+continuo</i>, published between 1740 and 1747. These compositions,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span>
+which combine graceful melody with contrapuntal learning, were
+much admired by Cherubini. They appear to have been admired
+by Handel also, since he did not hesitate to make appropriations
+from them. Clari composed one opera, <i>Il Savio delirante</i>,
+produced at Bologna in 1695, and a large quantity of church
+music, several specimens of which were printed in Novello&rsquo;s
+<i>Fitzwilliam Music</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARINA<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span>, a comparatively new instrument of the wood-wind
+class (although actually made of metal), a hybrid possessing
+characteristics of both oboe and clarinet. The clarina was
+invented by W. Heckel of Biebrich-am-Rhein, and has been used
+since 1891 at the Festspielhaus, Bayreuth, in <i>Tristan und Isolde</i>,
+as a substitute for the <i>Holztrompete</i> made according to Wagner&rsquo;s
+instructions. The clarina has been found more practical and more
+effective in producing the desired tone-colour. The clarina is a
+metal instrument with the conical bore and fingering of the oboe
+and the clarinet single-reed mouthpiece. The compass of the
+instrument is as shown, and it stands in the key of B&#9837;. Like the
+clarinet, the clarina is a transposing instrument, for which the
+music must be written in a key a tone higher than that of the
+composition. The timbre resulting from the combination of
+conical bore and single-reed mouthpiece has in the lowest
+register affinities with the <i>cor anglais</i>, in the middle with the
+saxophone, and in the highest with the clarinet. Other
+German orchestras have followed the example of Bayreuth.
+The clarina has also been found very effective as a solo
+instrument.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:500px; height:85px"
+     src="images/img437a.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARINET<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clarionet</span> (Fr. <i>clarinette</i>; Ger. <i>Clarinette,
+Klarinett</i>; Ital. <i>clarinetto, chiarinetto</i>), a wood-wind instrument
+having a cylindrical bore and played by means of a single-reed
+mouthpiece. The word &ldquo;clarinet&rdquo; is said to be derived from
+<i>clarinetto</i>, a diminutive of <i>clarino</i>, the Italian for (1) the soprano
+trumpet, (2) the highest register of the instrument, (3) the
+trumpet played musically without the blare of the martial
+instrument. The word &ldquo;clarionet&rdquo; is similarly derived from
+&ldquo;clarion,&rdquo; the English equivalent of <i>clarino</i>. It is suggested that
+the name <i>clarinet</i> or <i>clarinetto</i> was bestowed on account of the
+resemblance in timbre between the high registers of the clarino
+and clarinet. By adding the speaker-hole to the old chalumeau,
+J.C. Denner gave it an additional compass based on the overblowing
+of the harmonic twelfth, and consisting of an octave and
+a half of harmonics, which received the name of <i>clarino</i>, while
+the lower register retained the name of <i>chalumeau</i>. There is
+something to be said also in favour of another suggested derivation
+from the Italian <i>chiarina</i>, the name for reed instruments and
+the equivalent for tibia and aulos. At the beginning of the 18th
+century in Italy <i>clarinetto</i>, the diminutive of <i>clarino</i>, would be
+masculine, whereas <i>chiarinetta</i> or <i>clarinetta</i> would be feminine,<a name="FnAnchor_1k" id="FnAnchor_1k" href="#Footnote_1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> as
+in Doppelmayr&rsquo;s account of the invention written in 1730. The
+word &ldquo;clarinet&rdquo; is sometimes used in a generic sense to denote
+the whole family, which consists of the clarinet, or discant
+corresponding to the violin, oboe, &amp;c; the alto clarinet in E;
+the basset horn in F (<i>q.v.</i>); the bass clarinet (<i>q.v.</i>), and the
+pedal clarinet (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The modern clarinet consists of five (or four) separate pieces:
+(1) the mouthpiece; (2) the bulb; (3) the upper middle joint, or
+left-hand joint; (4) the lower middle joint, or right-hand joint<a name="FnAnchor_2k" id="FnAnchor_2k" href="#Footnote_2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a>;
+(5) the bell; which (the bell excepted) when joined together, form
+a tube with a continuous cylindrical bore, 2 ft. or more in length,
+according to the pitch of the instrument. The mouthpiece,
+including the beating or single-reed common to the whole
+clarinet family, has the appearance of a beak with the point
+bevelled off and thinned at the edge to correspond with the end of
+the reed shaped like a spatula. The under part of the mouthpiece
+(fig. 2) is flattened in order to form a table for the support of the
+reed which is adjusted thereon with great nicety, allowing just
+the amount of play requisite to set in vibration
+the column of air within the tube.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 120px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:72px; height:550px" src="images/img437b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Clarinet (Albert Model).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The mouthpiece, which is subject to continual
+fluctuations of dampness and dryness,
+and to changes of temperature, requires to be
+made of a material having great powers of
+resistance, such as cocus wood, ivory or
+vulcanite, which are mostly used for the
+purpose in England. A longitudinal aperture
+1 in. long and ½ in. wide, communicating with
+the bore, is cut in the table and covered by
+the reed. The aperture is thus closed except
+towards the point, where, for the distance of
+<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> to ¼ in., the reed is thinned and the table
+curves backwards towards the point, leaving
+a gap between the ends of the mouthpiece and
+of the reed of 1 mm. or about the thickness of
+a sixpence for the B flat clarinet. The curve
+of the table and the size of the gap are therefore
+of considerable importance. The reed is
+cut from a joint of the <i>Arundo donax</i> or <i>sativa</i>,
+which grows wild in the regions bordering on
+the Mediterranean. A flat slip of the reed is
+cut, flattened on one side and thinned to a
+very delicate edge on the other. At first the
+reed was fastened to the table by means of
+many turns of a fine waxed cord. The metal
+band adjusted by means of two screws, known
+as the &ldquo;ligature,&rdquo; was introduced about 1817
+by Ivan Müller. The reed is set in vibration
+by the breath of the performer, and being
+flexible it beats against the table, opening
+and closing the gap at a rate depending on
+the rate of the vibrations it sets up in the
+air column, this rate varying according to the
+length of the column as determined by opening
+the lateral holes and keys. A cylindrical tube
+played by means of a reed has the acoustic
+properties of a stopped pipe, <i>i.e.</i> the fundamental
+tone produced by the tube is an
+octave lower than the corresponding tone of
+an open pipe of the same length, and overblows
+a twelfth; whereas tubes having a conical bore like the
+oboe, and played by means of a reed, speak as open pipes and
+overblow an octave. This forms the fundamental difference
+between the instruments of the oboe and
+clarinet families. Wind instruments depending
+upon lateral holes for the production
+of their scale must either have as
+many holes pierced in the bore as they
+require notes, or make use of the property
+possessed by the air-column of dividing
+into harmonics or partials of the fundamental
+tones. Twenty to twenty-two
+holes is the number generally accepted as
+the practical limit for the clarinet; beyond
+that number the fingering and mechanism
+become too complicated. The compass of
+the clarinet is therefore extended through
+the medium of the harmonic overtones.
+In stopped pipes a node is formed near
+the mouthpiece, and they are therefore only
+able to produce the uneven harmonics, such
+as the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, &amp;c, corresponding
+to the fundamental, and the diatonic intervals of the 5th
+one octave above, and of the 3rd and 7th two octaves above the
+fundamental. By pressing the reed with the lip near the base
+where it is thicker and stiffer, and increasing the pressure of the
+breath, the air-column is forced to divide and to sound the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span>
+harmonics, a principle well understood by the ancient Greeks
+and Romans in playing upon the aulos and tibia.<a name="FnAnchor_3k" id="FnAnchor_3k" href="#Footnote_3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> This is
+easier to accomplish with the double reed than with the beating
+reed; in fact with a tube of wide diameter, such as that of the
+modern clarinet, it would not be possible by this means alone
+to do justice to the tone of the instrument or to the music now
+written for it. The bore of the aulos was very much narrower
+than that of the clarinet.</p>
+<div style="clear: both;">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 170px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:120px; height:180px" src="images/img437c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Clarinet Mouthpiece. <i>a</i>, the mouthpiece
+showing the position of the bore inside; <i>b</i>, the single or
+beating reed.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In order to facilitate the production of the harmonic notes
+on the clarinet, a small hole, closed by means of a key and called
+the &ldquo;speaker,&rdquo; is bored near the mouthpiece. By means of
+this small hole the air-column is placed in communication with
+the external atmosphere, a ventral segment is formed, and the
+air-column divides into three equal parts, producing a triple
+number of vibrations resulting in the third note of the harmonic
+series, at an interval of a twelfth above the fundamental.<a name="FnAnchor_4k" id="FnAnchor_4k" href="#Footnote_4k"><span class="sp">4</span></a> In a
+wind instrument with lateral holes the fundamental note corresponding
+to any particular hole is produced when all the holes
+below that hole are open and it itself and all above it are closed,
+the effective length of the resonating tube being shortened as
+each of the closed holes is successively uncovered. In order to
+obtain a complete chromatic scale on the clarinet at least eighteen
+holes are required. This series produces with the bell-note a
+succession of nineteen semitones, giving the range of a twelfth
+and known as the fundamental scale or <i>chalumeau</i> register, so
+called, no doubt, because it was the compass (without chromatic
+semitones) of the more primitive predecessor of the clarinet,
+known as the <i>chalumeau</i>, which must not be confounded with
+the shawm or schalmey of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p style="clear: both;">The fundamental scale of the modern clarinet in C extends from
+<img style="border:0; width:137px; height:60px" src="images/img438a.jpg" alt="" /> The next octave and a half is obtained by opening
+the speaker key, whereby each of the fundamental notes is reproduced
+a twelfth higher; the bell-note thus jumps from E to B&#9838;,
+the first key gives instead of F its twelfth C&#9839;, and so on, extending
+the compass to <img style="border:0; width:70px; height:60px" src="images/img438b.jpg" alt="" />, which ends the natural compass of the
+instrument, although a skilful performer may obtain another octave
+by cross-fingering. The names of the holes and keys on the
+clarinet are derived not from the notes of the fundamental
+scale, but from the name of the twelfth produced by overblowing
+with the speaker key open; for instance, the first key near
+the bell is known not as the E key but as the B&#9838;. The use of
+the speaker key forms the greatest technical difficulty in learning
+to play the clarinet, on account of the thumb having to do double
+duty, closing one hole and raising the lever of the speaker key
+simultaneously. In a clarinet designed by Richard Carte this
+difficulty was ingeniously overcome by placing the left thumb-hole
+towards the front, and closing it by a thumb-lever or with a ring
+action by the first or second finger of the left hand, thus leaving the
+thumb free to work the speaker key alone.</p>
+
+<p>There is good reason to think that the ancient Greeks understood
+the advantage of a speaker-hole, which they called <i>Syrinx</i>, for
+facilitating the production of harmonics on the aulos. The credit
+of the discovery of this interesting fact is due to A.A. Howard,<a name="FnAnchor_5k" id="FnAnchor_5k" href="#Footnote_5k"><span class="sp">5</span></a>
+of Harvard University; it explains many passages in the classics
+which before were obscure (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aulos</a></span>). Plutarch relates<a name="FnAnchor_6k" id="FnAnchor_6k" href="#Footnote_6k"><span class="sp">6</span></a> that
+Telephanes of Megara was so incensed with the syrinx that he never
+allowed his instrument-makers to place one on any of his auloi; he
+even went so far as to absent himself, principally on account of the
+syrinx, from the Pythian games. Telephanes was a great virtuoso
+who scorned the use of a speaker-hole, being able to obtain his harmonics
+on the aulos by the mere control of lips and teeth.</p>
+
+<p>The modern clarinet has from thirteen to nineteen keys, some being
+normally open and others closed. In order to understand why,
+when once the idea of adding keys to the chalumeau had been
+conceived, the number rose so slowly, keys being added one or two
+at a time by makers of various nationalities at long intervals, it is
+necessary to consider the effect of boring holes in the side of a
+cylindrical tube. If it were possible to proceed from an absolute
+theoretical basis, there would be but little difficulty; there are, however,
+practical reasons which make this a matter of great difficulty.
+According to V. Mahillon,<a name="FnAnchor_7k" id="FnAnchor_7k" href="#Footnote_7k"><span class="sp">7</span></a> the theoretical length of a B&#9837; clarinet
+(French pitch diapason normal A = 435 vibrations), is 39 cm. when
+the internal diameter of the bore measures exactly 1.4 cm. Any
+increase in the diameter of the cylindrical bore for a given length
+of tube raises the pitch proportionally and in the same way a decrease
+lowers it. A bore narrow in proportion to the length facilitates the
+production of the harmonics, which is no doubt the reason why the
+aulos was made with a very narrow diameter, and produced such
+deep notes in proportion to its length. In determining the position
+of the holes along the tube, the thickness of the wood to be pierced
+must be taken into consideration, for the length of the passage from
+the main bore to the outer air adds to the length of the resonating
+column; as, however, the clarinet tube is reckoned as a closed one,
+only half the extra length must be taken into account. When placed
+in its correct theoretical position, a hole should have its diameter
+equal to the diameter of the main bore, which is the ideal condition
+for obtaining a full, rich tone; it is, however, feasible to give the
+hole a smaller diameter, altering its position by placing it nearer
+the mouthpiece. These laws, which were likewise known to the
+Greeks and Romans,<a name="FnAnchor_8k" id="FnAnchor_8k" href="#Footnote_8k"><span class="sp">8</span></a> had to be rediscovered by experience in the
+18th and 19th centuries, during which the mechanism of the key
+system was repeatedly improved. Due consideration having been
+given to these points, it will also be necessary to remember that
+the stopping of the seven open holes leaves only the two little fingers
+(the thumb of the right hand being in the ordinary clarinet engaged
+in supporting the instrument) free at all times for key service,
+the other fingers doing duty when momentarily disengaged. The
+fingering of the clarinet is the most difficult of any instrument in
+the orchestra, for it differs in all four octaves of its compass. Once
+mastered, however, it is the same for all clarinets, the music being
+always written in the key of C.</p>
+
+<p>The actual tonality of the clarinet is determined by the diatonic
+scale produced when, starting with keys untouched and finger and
+thumb-holes closed, the fingers are raised one by one from the holes.
+In the B flat clarinet, the <i>real sounds</i> thus produced are</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:350px; height:60px"
+     src="images/img438c.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">being part of the scale of B flat major. By the closing of two <i>open</i>
+keys, the lower E flat and D are added.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the various sizes of clarinets with the key proper
+to each:</p>
+
+  <p class="c">E flat, a minor third above the C clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">B flat, a tone below the C clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">The high F, 4 tones above the C clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">The D, 1 tone above the C clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">The low G, a fourth below the C clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">The A, a minor third below the C clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">The B&#9838; 1 semintone below the C clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">The alto clarinet in E&#9837;, a fifth below the B&#9837; clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">The tenor or basset horn, in F, a fifth below the C clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">The bass clarinet in B&#9837;, an 8ve below that in B&#9837;.</p>
+  <p class="c">The pedal clarinet in B&#9837;, an 8ve below the bass clarinet.</p>
+  <p class="c">The clarinets in B&#9837; and A are used in the orchestra; those in
+C and E&#9837; in military bands.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History</i>.&mdash;Although the single beating-reed associated with
+the instruments of the clarinet family has been traced in ancient
+Egypt, the double reed, characteristic of the oboe family, being
+of simpler construction, was probably of still greater antiquity.
+An ancient Egyptian pipe found in a mummy-case and now
+preserved in the museum at Turin was found to contain a beating-reed
+sunk 3 in. below the end of the pipe, which is the principle
+of the drone. It would appear that the double chalumeau,
+called arghoul (<i>q.v.</i>) by the modern Egyptians, was known in
+ancient Egypt, although it was not perhaps in common use.
+The Musée Guimet possesses a copy of a fresco from the tombs at
+Saqqarah (executed under the direction of Mariette Bey) assigned
+to the 4th or 5th dynasty, on which is shown a concert
+with dancing; the instruments used are two harps, the long
+oblique flute &ldquo;nay,&rdquo; blown from the end without any mouthpiece
+or embouchure, and an instrument identified as an arghoul<a name="FnAnchor_9k" id="FnAnchor_9k" href="#Footnote_9k"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span>
+from its resemblance to the modern instrument of the same
+name. This is believed to be the only illustration of the ancient
+double chalumeau yet found in Egypt, with the single exception
+of a hieroglyph occurring also once only, <i>i.e.</i> the sign read <i>As-it</i>,
+consisting of a cylindrical pipe with a beak mouthpiece bound
+round with a cord tied in a bow. The bow is taken to indicate
+the double parallel pipes bound together; the same sign without
+the bow occurs frequently and is read <i>Ma-it</i>,<a name="FnAnchor_10k" id="FnAnchor_10k" href="#Footnote_10k"><span class="sp">10</span></a> and is considered
+to be the generic name for reed wind instruments. The beating-reed
+was probably introduced into classic Greece from Egypt or
+Asia Minor. A few ancient Greek instruments are extant, five
+of which are in the British Museum. They are as nearly cylindrical
+as would be the natural growing reed itself. The probability
+is that both single and double reeds were at times used with the
+Greek aulos and the Roman tibia. V. Mahillon and A.A.
+Howard of Harvard have both obtained facsimiles of actual
+instruments, some found at Pompeii and now deposited in the
+museum at Naples, and others in the British Museum. Experiments
+made with these instruments, whose original mouthpieces
+have perished, show that with pipes of such narrow diameter
+the fundamental scale and pitch are the same whether sounded
+by means of a single or of a double reed, but the modern combination
+of single reed and cylindrical tube alone gives the full
+pure tone quality. The subject is more fully discussed in the
+article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aulos</a></span>.<a name="FnAnchor_11k" id="FnAnchor_11k" href="#Footnote_11k"><span class="sp">11</span></a> The Roman tibia, if monuments can be trusted,
+sometimes had a beak-shaped mouthpiece, as for instance that
+attached to a pipe discovered at Pompeii, or that shown in a
+scene on Trajan&rsquo;s column.<a name="FnAnchor_12k" id="FnAnchor_12k" href="#Footnote_12k"><span class="sp">12</span></a> It is probable that when, at the
+decline of the Roman empire, instrumental music was placed
+by the church under a ban&mdash;and the tibia more especially from
+its association with every form of licence and moral depravity&mdash;this
+instrument, sharing the common fate, survived chiefly among
+itinerant musicians who carried it into western Europe, where
+it was preserved from complete extinction. An instrument
+of difficult technique requiring an advanced knowledge of
+acoustics was not, however, likely to flourish or even to be
+understood among nations whose culture was as yet in its
+infancy.</p>
+
+<p>The tide of culture from the Byzantine empire filtered through
+to the south and west, leaving many traces; a fresh impetus
+was received from the east through the Arabs; and later, as a
+result of the Crusades, the prototype of the clarinet, together
+with the practical knowledge necessary for making the instrument
+and playing upon it, may have been re-introduced through
+any one or all of these sources. However this may be, the
+instrument was during the Carolingian period identified with
+the tibia of the Romans until such time as the new western
+civilization ceased to be content to go back to classical Rome for
+its models, and began to express itself, at first naively and
+awkwardly, as the 11th century dawned. The name then
+changed to the derivatives of the Greek <i>kalamos</i>, assuming an
+almost bewildering variety of forms, of which the commonest
+are chalemie, chalumeau, schalmey, scalmeye, shawm, calemel,
+kalemele.<a name="FnAnchor_13k" id="FnAnchor_13k" href="#Footnote_13k"><span class="sp">13</span></a> The derivation of the name seems to point to a
+Byzantine rather than an Arab source for the revival of the
+instruments which formed the prototype of both oboe and
+clarinet, but it must not be forgotten that the instruments with
+a conical bore&mdash;more especially those played by a reed&mdash;are
+primarily of Asiatic origin. At the beginning of the 13th century
+in France, where the instrument remained a special favourite
+until it was displaced by the clarinet, the chalumeau is mentioned
+in some of the early romances:&mdash;&ldquo;Tabars et chalemiaux et
+estrumens sonner&rdquo; (<i>Aye d&rsquo;Avignon</i>, v. 4137); &ldquo;Grelles et
+chelimiaus et buisines bruians&rdquo; (<i>Gui de Bourgogne</i>, v. 1374),
+&amp;c. By the end of the 13th century, the German equivalent
+<i>Schalmey</i> appears in the literature of that country,&mdash;&ldquo;Pusûnen
+und Schalmeyen schal moht niemen da gehoeren wal&rdquo; (<i>Frauendienst</i>,
+492, fol. 5, Ulrich von Lichtenstein). The schalmey or
+shawm is frequently represented in miniatures from the 13th
+century, but it must have been known long before, since it was
+at that period in use as the chaunter of the bag-pipe (<i>q.v.</i>),
+a fully-developed complex instrument which presupposes a
+separate previous existence for its component parts.</p>
+
+<p>We have no reason to suppose that any distinction was drawn
+between the single and double reed instruments during the
+early middle ages&mdash;if indeed the single reed was then known at
+all&mdash;for the derivatives of <i>kalamos</i> were applied to a variety of
+pipes. The first clear and unmistakable drawing yet found of
+the single reed occurs in Mersenne&rsquo;s <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (p. 282),
+where the primitive reed pipe is shown with the beating-reed
+detached from the tube of the instrument itself, by making a
+lateral slit and then splitting back a little tongue of reed towards
+a knot. Mersenne calls this the simplest form of chalumeau or
+wheat-stalk (<i>tuyau de blé</i>). It is evident that no significance
+was then attached to the form of the vibrating reed, whether
+single or double, for Mersenne and other writers of his time
+call the chaunters of the musette and cornemuse chalumeaux
+whether they are of cylindrical or of conical bore. The difference
+in timbre produced by the two kinds of reeds was, however,
+understood, for Mersenne states that a special kind of cornemuse
+was used in concert with the <i>hautbois de Poitou</i> (an oboe whose
+double reed was enclosed in an air chamber) and was distinguished
+from the shepherd&rsquo;s cornemuse by having double reeds throughout,
+whereas the drones of the latter instrument were furnished
+with beating reeds. It is therefore evident that as late as 1636
+(the date at which Mersenne wrote) in France the word &ldquo;chalumeau&rdquo;
+was not applied to the instrument transformed some
+sixty years later into the clarinet, nor was it applied exclusively
+to any one kind of pipe except when acting as the chaunter of
+the bagpipe, and that independently of any structural characteristics.
+The chaunter was still called chalumeau in 1737.<a name="FnAnchor_14k" id="FnAnchor_14k" href="#Footnote_14k"><span class="sp">14</span></a>
+Of the instrument which has been looked upon as the chalumeau,
+there is but little trace in Germany or in France at the beginning
+of the 17th century. A chalumeau with beak mouthpiece and
+characteristic short cylindrical tube pierced with six holes
+figures among the musical instruments used for the triumphal
+procession of the emperor Maximilian I., commemorated by a
+fine series of plates,<a name="FnAnchor_15k" id="FnAnchor_15k" href="#Footnote_15k"><span class="sp">15</span></a> engraved on wood by Hans Burgkmair,
+the friend and colleague of A. Dürer. On the same plate (No.
+79) are five schalmeys with double reeds and five chalumeaux
+with single-reed beak mouthpieces; the latter instruments were
+in all probability made in the Netherlands, which excelled from
+the 12th century in the manufacture of all musical instruments.
+No single-reed instrument, with the exception of the regal (<i>q.v.</i>),
+is figured by S. Virdung,<a name="FnAnchor_16k" id="FnAnchor_16k" href="#Footnote_16k"><span class="sp">16</span></a> M. Agricola<a name="FnAnchor_17k" id="FnAnchor_17k" href="#Footnote_17k"><span class="sp">17</span></a> or M. Praetorius.<a name="FnAnchor_18k" id="FnAnchor_18k" href="#Footnote_18k"><span class="sp">18</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 160px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:63px; height:550px" src="images/img440a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1" style="font-size: 80%">(From Diderot and d&rsquo;Alembert&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopédie</i>.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3. Chalumeau, 1767. <br />(<i>a</i>) Front, <br />(<i>b</i>) Back view.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A good idea of the primitive chalumeau may be gained from a
+reproduction of one of the few specimens from the 16th or 17th
+century still extant, which belonged to Césare Snoeck and was
+exhibited at the Royal Military Exhibition in London in 1890.<a name="FnAnchor_19k" id="FnAnchor_19k" href="#Footnote_19k"><span class="sp">19</span></a>
+The tube is stopped at the mouthpiece end by a natural joint of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span>
+the reed, and a tongue has been detached just under the joint;
+there are six finger-holes and one for the thumb. An instrument
+almost identical with the above, but with a rudimentary bell,
+and showing plainly the detached tongue, is
+figured by Jost Amman in 1589.<a name="FnAnchor_20k" id="FnAnchor_20k" href="#Footnote_20k"><span class="sp">20</span></a> A plate in
+Diderot and d&rsquo;Alembert&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopédie</i><a name="FnAnchor_21k" id="FnAnchor_21k" href="#Footnote_21k"><span class="sp">21</span></a> shows a
+less primitive instrument, outwardly cylindrical
+and having a separate mouthpiece joint and a
+clarinet reed but no keys. A chalumeau without
+keys, but consisting apparently of three joints&mdash;mouthpiece,
+main tube and bell,&mdash;is figured on
+the title-page of a musical work<a name="FnAnchor_22k" id="FnAnchor_22k" href="#Footnote_22k"><span class="sp">22</span></a> dated 1690;
+it is very similar to the one represented in fig. 3,
+except that only six holes are visible.</p>
+
+<p>In his biographical notice of J. Christian
+Denner (1655-1707), J.G. Doppelmayr<a name="FnAnchor_23k" id="FnAnchor_23k" href="#Footnote_23k"><span class="sp">23</span></a> states
+that at the beginning of the 18th century
+&ldquo;Denner invented a new kind of pipe, the so-called
+clarinet, which greatly delighted lovers of
+music; he also made great improvements in the
+stock or rackett-fagottos, known in the olden
+time and finally also in the chalumeaux.&rdquo; It
+is probable that the improvements in the
+chalumeau to which Doppelmayr alludes without
+understanding them consisted (<i>a</i>) in giving
+the mouthpiece the shape of a beak and adding
+a separate reed tongue as in that of the modern
+clarinet, unless this change had already taken
+place in the Netherlands, the country which the
+unremitting labours of E. van der Straeten<a name="FnAnchor_24k" id="FnAnchor_24k" href="#Footnote_24k"><span class="sp">24</span></a>
+have revealed as taking the lead in Europe from
+the 14th to the 16th century in the construction
+of musical instruments of all kinds; (<i>b</i>) in
+the boring of two additional holes for A and B
+near the mouthpiece and covering them with
+two keys; (<i>c</i>) in replacing the long cylindrical
+mouthpiece joint by a bulb, thus restoring one
+of the characteristic features of the tibia,<a name="FnAnchor_25k" id="FnAnchor_25k" href="#Footnote_25k"><span class="sp">25</span></a> known
+as the <span class="grk" title="holmos">&#8005;&#955;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>. There are a few of these improved
+chalumeaux in existence, two being in the
+Bavarian national museum at Munich, the one in high A, in a bad
+state of preservation, the second in C, marked J.C. Denner, of
+which V. Mahillon has made a facsimile<a name="FnAnchor_26k" id="FnAnchor_26k" href="#Footnote_26k"><span class="sp">26</span></a> for the museum of the
+Brussels Conservatoire. There are two keys and eight holes;
+the first consists of two small holes on the same level giving a
+semitone if only one be closed. If the thumb-key be left open,
+the sounds of the fundamental scale (shown in the black notes
+below) rise a twelfth to form the second register (the white notes).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter1">
+<img style="border:0; width:600px; height:111px"
+     src="images/img440b.jpg"
+     alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">This early clarinet or improved chalumeau has a clarinet mouthpiece,
+but no bulb; it measures 50 cm. (20 in.), whereas the one in
+A mentioned above is only 28 cm. in length, the long cylindrical
+tube between mouthpiece and key-joint, afterwards turned into
+the bulb, being absent. Mahillon was probably the first to point
+out that the so-called invention of the clarinet by J.C. Denner
+consisted in providing a device&mdash;the speaker-key&mdash;to facilitate
+the production of the harmonics of the fundamental. Can we be
+sure that the same result was not obtained on the old chalumeau
+before keys were added, by partially uncovering the hole for the thumb?</p>
+
+<p>The Berlin museum possesses an early clarinet with two keys,
+marked J.B. Oberlender, derived from the Snoeck collection.
+Paul de Wit&rsquo;s collection has a similar specimen by Enkelmer.
+The Brussels Conservatoire possesses clarinets with two keys by
+Flemish makers, G.A. Rottenburgh and J.B. Willems<a name="FnAnchor_27k" id="FnAnchor_27k" href="#Footnote_27k"><span class="sp">27</span></a>; the
+latter, with a small bulb and bell, is in G a fifth above the C
+clarinet. The next improvements in the clarinet, made in 1720,
+are due to J. Denner, probably a son of J.C. Denner. They
+consisted in the addition of a bell and in the removal of the
+speaker-hole and key nearer the mouthpiece, involving the
+reduction of the diameter of the hole. The effect of this change of
+position was to turn the B&#9838; into B&#9837;, for J. Denner introduced into
+the hole, nearly as far as the axis of the bore, a small metal
+drainage tube<a name="FnAnchor_28k" id="FnAnchor_28k" href="#Footnote_28k"><span class="sp">28</span></a> for the moisture of the breath. In the modern
+clarinet, the same result is attained by raising this little tube
+slightly above the surface of the main tube, placing a key on the
+top of it, and bending the lever. In order to produce the missing
+B&#9838;, J. Denner lengthened the tube and pierced another hole, the
+low E, covered by an open key with a long lever which, when
+closed, gives the desired B as its twelfth, thus forming a connexion
+between the two registers. A clarinet with three keys, of similar
+construction (about 1750), marked J.W. Kenigsperger, is preserved
+in the Bavarian national museum, at Munich. Another
+in B&#9837; marked Lindner<a name="FnAnchor_29k" id="FnAnchor_29k" href="#Footnote_29k"><span class="sp">29</span></a> belongs to the collection at Brussels.
+About the middle of the 18th century, the number of keys was
+raised to five, some say<a name="FnAnchor_30k" id="FnAnchor_30k" href="#Footnote_30k"><span class="sp">30</span></a> by Barthold Fritz of Brunswick
+(1697-1766), who added keys for C&#9839; and D&#9839;.
+
+<img style="border:0; width:120px; height:63px" src="images/img440c.jpg" alt="" />
+
+According to Altenburg<a name="FnAnchor_31k" id="FnAnchor_31k" href="#Footnote_31k"><span class="sp">31</span></a> the E&#9837; or D&#9839; key is due to the virtuoso
+Joseph Beer (1744-1811). The sixth key was added about 1790
+by the celebrated French virtuoso Xavier Lefébure (or Lefèvre),
+and produced G&#9839;.
+
+<img style="border:0; width:87px; height:63px" src="images/img440d.jpg" alt="" />
+
+Anton Stadler and his brother,
+both clarinettists in the Vienna court orchestra and instrument-makers,
+are said to have lengthened the tube of the B&#9837; clarinet,
+extending the compass down to C (real sound B&#9837;). It was for
+the Stadler brothers that Mozart wrote his quintet for strings,
+with a fine obbligato for the clarinet in A (1789), and the clarinet
+concerto with orchestra in 1791.</p>
+
+<p>This, then, was the state of the clarinet in 1810 when Ivan
+Müller, then living in Paris, carried the number of keys up to
+thirteen, and made several structural improvements already
+mentioned, which gave us the modern instrument and inaugurated
+a new era in the construction and technique of the
+clarinet. Müller&rsquo;s system is still adopted in principle by most
+clarinet makers. The instrument was successively improved
+during the 19th century by the Belgian makers Bachmann, the
+elder Sax, Albert and C. Mahillon, whose invention in 1862 of the
+C&#9839; key with double action is now generally adopted. In Paris the
+labours of Lefébure, Buffet-Crampon, and Goumas are pre-eminent.
+In 1842 H.E. Klosé conceived the idea of adapting to
+the clarinet the ingenious mechanism of movable rings, invented
+by Boehm for the flute, and he entrusted the execution of this
+innovation to Buffet-Crampon; this is the type of clarinet
+generally adopted in French orchestras. From this adaptation
+has sprung the erroneous notion that Klosé&rsquo;s clarinet was
+constructed according to the Boehm system; Klosé&rsquo;s lateral
+divisions of the tube do not follow those applied by Boehm to
+the flute.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="float: left; width: 160px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figleft1"><img style="width:65px; height:550px" src="images/img441.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.&mdash;Clarinet (Boehm model, Klussmann&rsquo;s patent).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In England the clarinet has also passed through several
+progressive stages since its introduction about 1770, and first of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span>
+all at the hands of Cornelius Ward. The principal improvements
+were due to Richard Carte, who took out a patent in 1858 for an
+improved Boehm clarinet which possessed some claim to the
+name, since Boehm&rsquo;s principle of boring the holes at theoretically
+correct intervals and of venting the holes
+by means of open holes below was carried
+out. Carte made several modifications of
+his original patent, his chief endeavour
+being to so dispose the key-work as to
+reduce the difficulties in fingering. By the
+extension of the principle of the ring
+action, the work of the third and little
+fingers of the left hand was simplified and
+the fingering of certain difficult notes and
+shakes greatly facilitated. Messrs Rudall,
+Carte &amp; Company have made further
+improvements in the clarinet, which are
+embodied in Klussmann&rsquo;s patent (fig. 4);
+these consist in the introduction of the
+duplicate G&#9839; key, a note which has
+hitherto formed a serious obstacle to
+perfect execution. The duplicate key,
+operated by the third or second finger of
+the right hand, releases the fourth finger
+of the left hand. The old G&#9839; is still retained
+and may be used in the usual way
+if desired. The body of the instrument
+is now made in one joint, and the position
+of the G&#9839; hole is mathematically correct,
+whereby perfect intonation for C&#9839;, G&#9839; and
+F&#9838; is secured. Other improvements were
+made in Paris by Messrs Evette &amp; Schaeffer
+and by M. Paradis,<a name="FnAnchor_32k" id="FnAnchor_32k" href="#Footnote_32k"><span class="sp">32</span></a> a clarinet-player in
+the band of the Garde Républicaine, and
+very great improvements in boring and in
+key mechanism were effected by Albert
+of Brussels (see fig. 1).</p>
+
+<p>The clarinet appears to have received
+appreciation in the Netherlands earlier
+than in its own native land. According
+to W. Altenburg (op. cit. p. 11),<a name="FnAnchor_33k" id="FnAnchor_33k" href="#Footnote_33k"><span class="sp">33</span></a> a MS. is
+preserved in the cathedral at Antwerp of
+a mass written by A.J. Faber in 1720,
+which is scored for a clarinet. Johann
+Mattheson,<a name="FnAnchor_34k" id="FnAnchor_34k" href="#Footnote_34k"><span class="sp">34</span></a> <i>Kapellmeister</i> at Hamburg,
+mentions clarinet music in 1713, although
+Handel, whose rival he was, does not appear to have known the
+instrument. Joh. Christ. Bach scored for the clarinet in 1763 in
+his opera <i>Orione</i> performed in London, and Rameau had already
+employed the instrument in 1751 in a theatre for his pastoral
+entitled <i>Acante et Céphise</i>.<a name="FnAnchor_35k" id="FnAnchor_35k" href="#Footnote_35k"><span class="sp">35</span></a> The clarinet was formally introduced
+into the orchestra in Vienna in 1767,<a name="FnAnchor_36k" id="FnAnchor_36k" href="#Footnote_36k"><span class="sp">36</span></a> Gluck having contented
+himself with the use of the chalumeau in <i>Orfeo</i> (1762) and in
+<i>Alceste</i> (1767).<a name="FnAnchor_37k" id="FnAnchor_37k" href="#Footnote_37k"><span class="sp">37</span></a> The clarinet had already been adopted in
+military bands in France in 1755, where it very speedily completely
+replaced the oboe. One of Napoleon Bonaparte&rsquo;s bands
+is said to have had no less than twenty clarinets.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further information on the clarinet at the beginning of the
+19th century, consult the <i>Methods</i> by Ivan Müller and Xavier
+Lefébure, and Joseph Froehlich&rsquo;s admirable work on the instruments
+of the orchestra; and Gottfried Weber&rsquo;s articles in Ersch and
+Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Encyclopaedia</i>. See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Basset Horn</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bass Clarinet</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pedal Clarinet</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1k" id="Footnote_1k" href="#FnAnchor_1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Gottfried Weber&rsquo;s objection to this derivation in &ldquo;Über
+Clarinette und Basset-horn,&rdquo; <i>Caecilia</i> (Mainz, 1829), vol. xi. pp. 36
+and 37, note.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2k" id="Footnote_2k" href="#FnAnchor_2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Nos. 3 and 4 are sometimes made in one, as for instance in
+Messrs Rudall, Carte &amp; Company&rsquo;s modification, the Klussmann
+patent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3k" id="Footnote_3k" href="#FnAnchor_3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Aristotle (<i>de Audib.</i> 802 b 18, and 804 a) and Porphyry (ed.
+Wallis, pp. 249 and 252) mention that if the performer presses the
+<i>zeuge</i> (mouthpiece) or the <i>glottai</i> (reeds) of the pipes, a sharper tone
+is produced.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4k" id="Footnote_4k" href="#FnAnchor_4k"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Cf. V.C. Mahillon, <i>Éléments d&rsquo;acoustique musicale et instrumentale</i>
+(Brussels, 1874), p. 161; and Fr. Zamminer, <i>Die Musik
+und die musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen
+der Akustik ...</i> (Giessen, 1855), pp. 297 and 298.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5k" id="Footnote_5k" href="#FnAnchor_5k"><span class="fn">5</span></a> &ldquo;The Aulos or Tibia,&rdquo; <i>Harvard Studies</i>, iv. (Boston, 1893).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6k" id="Footnote_6k" href="#FnAnchor_6k"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>De Musica</i>, 1138.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_7k" id="Footnote_7k" href="#FnAnchor_7k"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Op. cit.</i> pp. 160 et seq.; and Wilhelm Altenburg, <i>Die Klarinette</i>
+(Heilbronn, 1904), p. 9, who refers to Mahillon.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_8k" id="Footnote_8k" href="#FnAnchor_8k"><span class="fn">8</span></a> See Macrobius, <i>Comm. in somnium Scipionis</i>, ii. 4. 5 &ldquo;nec
+secus probamus in tibiis de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis
+ori sonus acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis,
+gravior: item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_9k" id="Footnote_9k" href="#FnAnchor_9k"><span class="fn">9</span></a> See Victor Loret, <i>L&rsquo;Égypte au temps des Pharaons&mdash;la vie, le
+science, et l&rsquo;art</i> (Paris, 1889), illustration p. 139 and p. 143. The
+author gives no information about this fresco except that it is in the
+Musée Guimet. It is probably identical with the second of the
+mural paintings described on p. 190 of <i>Petit guide illustré au Musée
+Guimet</i>, par L. de Milloue.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_10k" id="Footnote_10k" href="#FnAnchor_10k"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See Victor Loret, &ldquo;Les flûtes égyptiennes antiques,&rdquo; <i>Journal
+asiatique</i> (Paris, 1889), [8], xiv. pp. 129, 130, 132.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_11k" id="Footnote_11k" href="#FnAnchor_11k"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See also A.A. Howard, &ldquo;Study on the Aulos or Tibia,&rdquo; <i>Harvard
+Studies</i>, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893); F.C. Gevaert, <i>Musique de l&rsquo;antiquité</i>;
+Carl von Jan, article &ldquo;Floete&rdquo; in August Baumeister&rsquo;s
+<i>Denkmäler des klassischen Alterthums</i> (Leipzig, 1884-1888), vol. i.;
+Dr Hugo Riemann, <i>Handbuch der Musikgesch.</i> vol. i. p. 90, &amp;c.
+(Leipzig, 1904); all of whom have not come to the same conclusions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_12k" id="Footnote_12k" href="#FnAnchor_12k"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Wilhelm Froehner, <i>La Colonne trajane</i> (Paris, 1872), t. ii. pl. 76.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_13k" id="Footnote_13k" href="#FnAnchor_13k"><span class="fn">13</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td>
+<div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&ldquo;Aveuc aus ert vestus Guis</p>
+<p class="i05">Ki leur cante et Kalemele,</p>
+<p class="i05">En la muse au grant bourdon.&rdquo;</p>
+<p class="s i4">J.A.U. Scheler&rsquo;s <i>Trouvères belges</i>.</p>
+</div>
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_14k" id="Footnote_14k" href="#FnAnchor_14k"><span class="fn">14</span></a> See Ernest Thoinan, <i>Les Hotteterre et les Chédeville, célèbres
+facteurs de flûtes, hautbois, bassons et musettes</i> (Paris, 1894), p. 15
+et seq., and <i>Méthode pour la musette</i>, &amp;c., par Hotteterre le Romain
+(Paris, 1737).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_15k" id="Footnote_15k" href="#FnAnchor_15k"><span class="fn">15</span></a> The whole series of 135 plates has been reproduced in <i>Jahrb. d.
+Samml. des Alterh. Kaiserhauses</i> (Vienna, 1883-1884).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_16k" id="Footnote_16k" href="#FnAnchor_16k"><span class="fn">16</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_17k" id="Footnote_17k" href="#FnAnchor_17k"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch</i> (Nuremberg, 1528 and 1545).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_18k" id="Footnote_18k" href="#FnAnchor_18k"><span class="fn">18</span></a> <i>Syntagma Musicum</i> (Wolfenbüttel, 1618). This work and those
+mentioned in the two previous notes have been reprinted by the Ges.
+f. Musikforschung in vols. xi., xx. and xiii. of <i>Publikationen</i> (Berlin).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_19k" id="Footnote_19k" href="#FnAnchor_19k"><span class="fn">19</span></a> See <i>Descriptive Catalogue</i>, by Capt. C.R. Day (London, 1891),
+pl. iv. A and p. 110, No. 221.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_20k" id="Footnote_20k" href="#FnAnchor_20k"><span class="fn">20</span></a> <i>Wappenbuch</i>, p. 111, &ldquo;Musica.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_21k" id="Footnote_21k" href="#FnAnchor_21k"><span class="fn">21</span></a> Paris, 1767, vol. v. &ldquo;Planches,&rdquo; pl. ix. 20, 21, 22.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_22k" id="Footnote_22k" href="#FnAnchor_22k"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Dr Theofilo Muffat, &ldquo;Componimenti musicali per il cembalo,&rdquo;
+in <i>Denkmäler d. Tonkunst in Österreich</i>, Bd. iii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_23k" id="Footnote_23k" href="#FnAnchor_23k"><span class="fn">23</span></a> <i>Historische Nachricht von den Nürnbergischen Mathematicis u.
+Künstlern</i>, &amp;c. (Nuremberg, 1730), p. 305.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_24k" id="Footnote_24k" href="#FnAnchor_24k"><span class="fn">24</span></a> <i>Histoire de la musique aux Pays Bas avant le XIXe siècle.</i></p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_25k" id="Footnote_25k" href="#FnAnchor_25k"><span class="fn">25</span></a> For a facsimile of one of the Pompeii tibiae, see Capt. C.R.
+Day, <i>op. cit.</i> pl. iv. C. and p. 109.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_26k" id="Footnote_26k" href="#FnAnchor_26k"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Catalogue descriptif</i> (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 211, No. 911, where
+an illustration is given. See also Capt. C.R. Day, <i>op. cit.</i> pl. iv.
+B and <i>Errata</i> where the description is printed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_27k" id="Footnote_27k" href="#FnAnchor_27k"><span class="fn">27</span></a> For a description with illustration see V. Mahillon&rsquo;s <i>Catalogue
+descriptif</i> (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 215, No. 916.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_28k" id="Footnote_28k" href="#FnAnchor_28k"><span class="fn">28</span></a> See Wilhelm Altenburg, op. cit. p. 6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_29k" id="Footnote_29k" href="#FnAnchor_29k"><span class="fn">29</span></a> See V. Mahillon, <i>Catal. descript.</i> (1896), p. 213, No. 913.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_30k" id="Footnote_30k" href="#FnAnchor_30k"><span class="fn">30</span></a> H. Welcker von Gontershausen, <i>Die musikalischen  Tonwerk-zeuge</i>
+(Frankfort-on-Main, 1855), p. 141.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_31k" id="Footnote_31k" href="#FnAnchor_31k"><span class="fn">31</span></a> Op. cit. p. 6.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_32k" id="Footnote_32k" href="#FnAnchor_32k"><span class="fn">32</span></a> See Capt. C.R. Day, op. cit. p. 106.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_33k" id="Footnote_33k" href="#FnAnchor_33k"><span class="fn">33</span></a> V. Mahillon, <i>Catal. desc.</i> (1880), p. 182, refers his statement to
+the Chevalier L. de Burbure.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_34k" id="Footnote_34k" href="#FnAnchor_34k"><span class="fn">34</span></a> <i>Das neu-eröffnete Orchester</i> (Hamburg, 1713).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_35k" id="Footnote_35k" href="#FnAnchor_35k"><span class="fn">35</span></a> Mahillon, <i>Catal. desc.</i> (1880), vol. i. p. 182.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_36k" id="Footnote_36k" href="#FnAnchor_36k"><span class="fn">36</span></a> See Chevalier Ludwig von Koechel, <i>Die kaiserliche Hofmusik-kapelle
+zu Wien, 1543-1867</i> (Vienna, 1869).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_37k" id="Footnote_37k" href="#FnAnchor_37k"><span class="fn">37</span></a> In the Italian edition of 1769 the part is scored for clarinet.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARK, SIR ANDREW<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span>, Bart. (1826-1893), British physician,
+was born at Aberdeen on the 28th of October 1826. His father,
+who also was a medical man, died when he was only a few years
+old. After attending school in Aberdeen, he was sent by his
+guardians to Dundee and apprenticed to a druggist; then
+returning to Aberdeen he began his medical studies in the university
+of that city. Soon, however, he went to Edinburgh,
+where in the extra-academical school he had a student&rsquo;s career of
+the most brilliant description, ultimately becoming assistant to
+J. Hughes Bennett in the pathological department of the Royal
+Infirmary, and assistant demonstrator of anatomy to Robert
+Knox. But symptoms of pulmonary phthisis brought his
+academic life to a close, and in the hope that the sea might
+benefit his health he joined the medical department of the navy in
+1848. Next year he became pathologist to the Haslar hospital,
+where T.H. Huxley was one of his colleagues, and in 1853 he was
+the successful candidate for the newly-instituted post of curator
+to the museum of the London hospital. Here he intended to
+devote all his energies to pathology, but circumstances brought
+him into active medical practice. In 1854, the year in which he
+took his doctor&rsquo;s degree at Aberdeen, the post of assistant-physician
+to the hospital became vacant and he was prevailed
+upon to apply for it. He was fond of telling how his phthisical
+tendencies gained him the appointment. &ldquo;He is only a poor
+Scotch doctor,&rdquo; it was said, &ldquo;with but a few months to live; let
+him have it.&rdquo; He had it, and two years before his death publicly
+declared that of those who were on the staff of the hospital at the
+time of his selection he was the only one remaining alive. In
+1854 he became a member of the College of Physicians, and in
+1858 a fellow, and then went in succession through all the offices
+of honour the college has to offer, ending in 1888 with the
+presidency, which he continued to hold till his death. From the
+time of his selection as assistant physician to the London
+hospital, his fame rapidly grew until he became a fashionable
+doctor with one of the largest practices in London, counting
+among his patients some of the most distinguished men of the
+day. The great number of persons who passed through his
+consulting-room every morning rendered it inevitable that to
+a large extent his advice should become stereotyped and his
+prescriptions often reduced to mere stock formulae, but in really
+serious cases he was not to be surpassed in the skill and carefulness
+of his diagnosis and in his attention to detail. In spite
+of the claims of his practice he found time to produce a good
+many books, all written in the precise and polished style on
+which he used to pride himself. Doubtless owing largely to
+personal reasons, lung diseases and especially fibroid phthisis
+formed his favourite theme, but he also discussed other subjects,
+such as renal inadequacy, anaemia, constipation, &amp;c. He died
+in London on the 6th of November 1893, after a paralytic stroke
+which was probably the result of persistent overwork.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1851-&emsp;&emsp;), American clergyman,
+was born of New England ancestry at Aylmer, Province of
+Quebec, Canada, on the 12th of September 1851. He was the son
+of Charles C. Symmes, but took the name of an uncle, the Rev.
+E.W. Clark, by whom he was adopted after his father&rsquo;s death in
+1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873 and at
+Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, was ordained in the
+Congregational ministry, and was pastor of the Williston Congregational
+church at Portland, Maine, from 1876 to 1883, and of
+the Phillips Congregational church, South Boston, Mass., from
+1883 to 1887. On the 2nd of February 1881 he founded at
+Portland the Young People&rsquo;s Society of Christian Endeavor,
+which, beginning as a small society in a single New England
+church, developed into a great interdenominational organization,
+which in 1908 had 70,761 societies and more than 3,500,000
+members scattered throughout the United States, Canada, Great
+Britain, Australia, South Africa, India, Japan and China.
+After 1887 he devoted his time entirely to the extension of this
+work, and was president of the United Societies of Christian
+Endeavor and of the World&rsquo;s Christian Endeavor Union, and
+editor of the <i>Christian Endeavor World</i> (originally <i>The Golden
+Rule</i>). Among his numerous publications are <i>The Children and the
+Church</i> (1882); <i>Looking Out on Life</i> (1883); <i>Young People&rsquo;s Prayer
+Meetings</i> (1884); <i>Some Christian Endeavor Saints</i> (1889); <i>World-Wide
+Endeavor</i> (1895); <i>A New Way Round an Old World</i> (1900).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>The Young People&rsquo;s Christian Endeavor, where it began,
+&amp;c.</i> (Boston, 1895); <i>Christian Endeavor Manual</i> (Boston, 1903);
+and <i>Christian Endeavor in All Lands: Record of Twenty-five Years
+of Progress</i> (Philadelphia, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (1752-1818), American frontier
+military leader, was born near Charlottesville, in Albemarle
+county, Virginia, on the 19th of November 1752. Early in life
+he became a land-surveyor; he took part in Lord Dunmore&rsquo;s
+War (1774), and in 1775 went as a surveyor for the Ohio Company
+to Kentucky (then a district of Virginia), whither he removed
+early in 1776. His iron will, strong passions, audacious courage
+and magnificent physique soon made him a leader among his
+frontier neighbours, by whom in 1776 he was sent as a delegate
+to the Virginia legislature. In this capacity he was instrumental
+in bringing about the organization of Kentucky as a county of
+Virginia, and also obtained from Governor Patrick Henry a
+supply of powder for the Kentucky settlers. Convinced that
+the Indians were instigated and supported in their raids against
+the American settlers by British officers stationed in the forts
+north of the Ohio river, and that the conquest of those forts
+would put an end to the evil, he went on foot to Virginia late
+in 1777 and submitted to Governor Henry and his council a
+plan for offensive operations. On the 2nd of January 1778 he
+was commissioned lieutenant-colonel, received £1200 in depreciated
+currency, and was authorized to enlist troops; and
+by the end of May he was at the falls of the Ohio (the site of
+Louisville) with about 175 men. The expedition proceeded
+to Fort Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, in what is now Illinois.
+This place and Cahokia, also on the Mississippi, near St Louis,
+were defended by small British garrisons, which depended upon
+the support of the French <i>habitants</i>. The French being willing
+to accept the authority of Virginia, both forts were easily taken.
+Clark gained the friendship of Father Pierre Gibault, the priest
+at Kaskaskia, and through his influence the French at Vincennes
+on the Wabash were induced (late in July) to change their
+allegiance. On the 17th of December Lieut.-Governor Henry
+Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, recovered Vincennes
+and went into winter quarters. Late in February 1779 he was
+surprised by Clark and compelled to give up Vincennes and its
+fort, Fort Sackville, and to surrender himself and his garrison
+of about 80 men, as prisoners of war. With the exception of
+Detroit and several other posts on the Canadian frontier the
+whole of the North-West was thus brought under American
+influence; many of the Indians, previously hostile, became
+friendly, and the United States was put in a position to demand
+the cession of the North-West in the treaty of 1783. For this
+valuable service, in which Clark had freely used his own private
+funds, he received practically no recompense either from Virginia
+or from the United States, and for many years before his death
+he lived in poverty. To him and his men, however, the Virginia
+legislature granted 150,000 acres of land in 1781, which was
+subsequently located in what are now Clark, Floyd and Scott
+counties, Indiana; Clark&rsquo;s individual share was 8049 acres, but
+from this he realized little. Clark built Fort Jefferson on the
+Mississippi, 4 or 5 m. below the mouth of the Ohio, in 1780,
+destroyed the Indian towns Chillicothe and Piqua in the same
+year, and in November 1782 destroyed the Indian towns on the
+Miami river. With this last expedition his active military
+service virtually ended, and in July 1783 he was relieved of his
+command by Virginia. Thereafter he lived on part of the land
+granted to him by Virginia or in Louisville for the rest of his
+life. In 1793 he accepted from Citizen Genet a commission as
+&ldquo;major-general in the armies of France, and commander-in-chief
+of the French Revolutionary Legion in the Mississippi Valley,&rdquo;
+and tried to raise a force for an attack upon the Spanish
+possessions in the valley of the Mississippi. The scheme,
+however, was abandoned after Genet&rsquo;s recall. Disappointed
+at what he regarded as his country&rsquo;s ingratitude, and broken
+down by excessive drinking and paralysis, he lost his once
+powerful influence and lived in comparative isolation until his
+death, near Louisville, Kentucky, on the 13th of February 1818.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.H. English, <i>Conquest of the Country north-west of the
+River Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of George Rogers Clark</i> (2 vols.,
+Indianapolis and Kansas City, 1896), an accurate and detailed work,
+which represents an immense amount of research among both
+printed and manuscript sources. Clark&rsquo;s own accounts of his
+expeditions, and other interesting documents, are given in the
+appendix to this work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="sc pt2">Clark, William</span> (1770-1838), the well-known explorer, was
+the youngest brother of the foregoing. He was born in Caroline
+county, Virginia, on the 1st of August 1770. At the age of
+fourteen he removed with his parents to Kentucky, settling
+at the falls of the Ohio (Louisville). He entered the United
+States army as a lieutenant of infantry in March 1792, and
+served under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians in
+1794. In July 1796 he resigned his commission on account of
+ill-health. In 1803-1806, with Meriwether Lewis (<i>q.v.</i>), he
+commanded the famous exploring expedition across the continent
+to the mouth of the Columbia river, and was commissioned
+second lieutenant in March 1804 and first lieutenant in January
+1806. In February he again resigned from the army. He then
+served for a few years as brigadier-general of the Louisiana
+territorial militia, as Indian agent for &ldquo;Upper Louisiana,&rdquo; as
+territorial governor of Missouri in 1813-1820, and as superintendent
+of Indian affairs at St Louis from 1822 until his death
+there on the 1st of September 1838.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARK, SIR JAMES<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1788-1870), English physician, was born
+at Cullen, Banffshire, and was educated at the grammar school
+of Fordyce and at the universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh.
+He served for six years as a surgeon in the army; then spent
+some time in travelling on the continent, in order to investigate
+the mineral waters and the climate of various health resorts;
+and for seven years he lived in Rome. In 1826 he began to
+practise in London. In 1835 he was appointed physician to the
+duchess of Kent, becoming physician in ordinary to Queen
+Victoria in 1837. In 1838 he was created a baronet. He published
+<i>The Influence of Climate in Chronic Diseases</i>, containing
+valuable meteorological tables (1829), and a <i>Treatise on Pulmonary
+Consumption</i> (1835).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARK, JOHN BATES<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1847-&emsp;&emsp;), American economist,
+was born at Providence, Rhode Island, on the 26th of January
+1847. Educated at Brown University, Amherst College, Heidelberg
+and Zurich, he was appointed professor of political economy
+at Carleton College, Minnesota, in 1877. In 1881 he became
+professor of history and political science in Smith College,
+Massachusetts; in 1892 professor of political economy in
+Amherst College. He was appointed professor of political
+economy at Columbia University in 1895. Among his works are:
+<i>The Philosophy of Wealth</i> (1885); <i>Wages</i> (1889); <i>Capital and its
+Earnings</i> (1898); <i>The Control of Trusts</i> (1901); <i>The Problem
+of Monopoly</i> (1904); and <i>Essentials of Economic Theory</i> (1907).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1822-1898), English engineer and
+electrician, was born on the 10th of March 1822 at Great Marlow,
+Bucks. His first interest was in chemical manufacturing, but in
+1848 he became assistant engineer at the Menai Straits bridge
+under his elder brother Edwin (1814-1894), the inventor of the
+Clark hydraulic lift graving dock. Two years later, when his
+brother was appointed engineer to the Electric Telegraph
+Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently
+succeeded him as chief engineer. In 1854 he took out a patent
+&ldquo;for conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure
+of air and vacuum,&rdquo; and later was concerned in the construction
+of a large pneumatic despatch tube between the general post
+office and Euston station, London. About the same period he
+was engaged in experimental researches on the propagation of
+the electric current in submarine cables, on which he published a
+pamphlet in 1855, and in 1859 he was a member of the committee
+which was appointed by the government to consider the
+numerous failures of submarine cable enterprises. Latimer
+Clark paid much attention to the subject of electrical measurement,
+and besides designing various improvements in method and
+apparatus and inventing the Clark standard cell, he took a
+leading part in the movement for the systematization of electrical
+standards, which was inaugurated by the paper which he and Sir
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span>
+C.T. Bright read on the question before the British Association in
+1861. With Bright also he devised improvements in the insulation
+of submarine cables. In the later part of his life he was a
+member of several firms engaged in laying submarine cables, in
+manufacturing electrical appliances, and in hydraulic engineering.
+He died in London on the 30th of October 1898. Besides professional
+papers, he published an <i>Elementary Treatise on Electrical
+Measurement</i> (1868), together with two books on astronomical
+subjects, and a memoir of Sir W.F. Cooke.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARK, THOMAS<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1801-1867), Scottish chemist, was born at
+Ayr on the 31st of March 1801. In 1826 he was appointed
+lecturer on chemistry at the Glasgow mechanics&rsquo; institute, and in
+1831 he took the degree of M.D. at the university of that city.
+Two years later he became professor of chemistry in Marischal
+College, Aberdeen, but was obliged to give up the duties of that
+position in 1844 through ill-health, though nominally he remained
+professor till 1860. His name is chiefly known in connexion with
+his process for softening hard waters, and his water tests,
+patented in 1841. The last twenty years before his death at
+Glasgow on the 27th of November 1867 were occupied with the
+study of the historical origin of the Gospels.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1821-1878), English classical
+and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Barford Hall, Darlington,
+in March 1821. He was educated at Sedbergh and Shrewsbury
+schools and Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was elected
+fellow after a brilliant university career. In 1857 he was
+appointed public orator. He travelled much during the long
+vacations, visiting Spain, Greece, Italy and Poland. His
+<i>Peloponnesus</i> (1858) was an important contribution to the
+knowledge of the country at that time. In 1853 Clark had taken
+orders, but left the Church in 1870 after the passing of the
+Clerical Disabilities Act, of which he was one of the promoters.
+He also resigned the public oratorship in the same year, and in
+consequence of illness left Cambridge in 1873. He died at York
+on the 6th of November 1878. He bequeathed a sum of money to
+his old college for the foundation of a lectureship in English
+literature. Although Clark was before all a classical scholar, he
+published little in that branch of learning. A contemplated
+edition of the works of Aristophanes, a task for which he was
+singularly fitted, was never published. He visited Italy in 1868
+for the express purpose of examining the Ravenna and other MSS.,
+and on his return began the notes to the <i>Acharnians</i>, but they
+were left in too incomplete a state to admit of publication in book
+form even after his death (see <i>Journal of Philology</i>, viii., 1879).
+He established the Cambridge <i>Journal of Philology</i>, and cooperated
+with B.H. Kennedy and James Riddell in the production
+of the well-known <i>Sabrinae Corolla</i>. The work by which
+he is best known is the Cambridge Shakespeare (1863-1866),
+containing a collation of early editions and selected emendations,
+edited by him at first with John Glover and afterwards with
+W. Aldis Wright. <i>Gazpacho</i> (1853)gives an account of his tour in
+Spain; his visits to Italy at the time of Garibaldi&rsquo;s insurrection,
+and to Poland during the insurrection of 1863, are described in
+<i>Vacation Tourists</i>, ed. F. Galton, i. and iii.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>H.A.J. Munro in <i>Journal of Philology</i> (viii. 1879) describes Clark
+as &ldquo;the most accomplished and versatile man he ever met&rdquo;; see
+also notices by W. Aldis Wright in <i>Academy</i> (Nov. 23, 1878);
+R. Burn in <i>Athenaeum</i> (Nov. 16, 1878); <i>The Times</i> (Nov. 8, 1878);
+<i>Notes and Queries</i>, 5th series, x. (1878), p. 400.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, ADAM<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1762?-1832), British Nonconformist
+divine, was born at Moybeg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in 1760
+or 1762. After receiving a very limited education he was
+apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but, finding the employment
+uncongenial, he resumed school-life at the institution
+founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he
+entered on the duties of the ministry, being appointed by Wesley
+to the Bradford (Wiltshire) circuit. His popularity as a preacher
+was very great, and his influence in the denomination is indicated
+by the fact that he was three times (1806, 1814, 1822) chosen to
+be president of the conference. He served twice on the London
+circuit, the second period being extended considerably longer
+than the rule allowed, at the special request of the British and
+Foreign Bible Society, who had employed him in the preparation
+of their Arabic Bible. Though ardent in his pastoral work, he
+found time for diligent study of Hebrew and other Oriental
+languages, undertaken chiefly with the view of qualifying himself
+for the great work of his life, his <i>Commentary on the Holy
+Scriptures</i> (8 vols., 1810-1820). In 1802 he published a <i>Bibliographical
+Dictionary</i> in six volumes, to which he afterwards
+added a supplement. He was selected by the Records Commission
+to re-edit Rymer&rsquo;s <i>Foedera</i>, a task which after ten years&rsquo;
+labour (1808-1818) he had to resign. He also wrote <i>Memoirs of
+the Wesley Family</i> (1823), and edited a large number of religious
+works. Honours were showered upon him (he was M.A., LL.D.
+of Aberdeen), and many distinguished men in church and state
+were his personal friends. He died in London on the 16th of
+August 1832.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Miscellaneous Works</i> were published in 13 vols. (1836), and a
+<i>Life</i> (3 vols.) by his son, J.B.B. Clarke, appeared in 1833.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, SIR ANDREW<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1824-1902), British soldier and
+administrator, son of Colonel Andrew Clarke, of Co. Donegal,
+Ireland, governor of West Australia, was born at Southsea,
+England, on the 27th of July 1824, and educated at King&rsquo;s
+school, Canterbury. He entered the Royal Military Academy,
+Woolwich, and obtained his commission in the army in 1844
+as second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was appointed
+to his father&rsquo;s staff in West Australia, but was transferred to be
+A.D.C. and military secretary to the governor of Tasmania;
+and in 1847 he went to New Zealand to take part in the Maori
+War, and for some years served on Sir George Grey&rsquo;s staff.
+He was then made surveyor-general in Victoria, took a prominent
+part in framing its new constitution, and held the office of
+minister of public lands during the first administration (1855-1857).
+He returned to England in 1857, and in 1863 was sent
+on a special mission to the West Coast of Africa. In 1864 he
+was appointed director of works for the navy, and held this
+post for nine years, being responsible for great improvements
+in the naval arsenals at Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth,
+and for fortifications at Malta, Cork, Bermuda and elsewhere.
+In 1873 he was made K.C.M.G., and became governor of the
+Straits Settlements, where he did most valuable work in consolidating
+British rule and ameliorating the condition of the
+people. From 1875 to 1880 he was minister of public works in
+India; and on his return to England in 1881, holding then the
+rank of lieutenant-colonel in the army, he was first appointed
+commandant at Chatham and then inspector-general of fortifications
+(1882-1886). Having attained the rank of lieutenant-general
+and been created G.C.M.G., he retired from official life,
+and in 1886 and 1893 unsuccessfully stood for parliament as a
+supporter of Mr Gladstone. During his last years he was agent-general
+for Victoria. He died on the 29th of March 1902. Both
+as a technical and strategical engineer and as an Imperial
+administrator Sir Andrew Clarke was one of the ablest and most
+useful public servants of his time; and his contributions to
+periodical literature, as well as his official memoranda, contained
+valuable suggestions on the subjects of imperial defence and
+imperial consolidation which received too little consideration
+at a period when the home governments were not properly alive
+to their importance. He is entitled to remembrance as one of
+those who first inculcated, from a wide practical experience,
+the views of imperial administration and its responsibilities,
+which in his last years he saw accepted by the bulk of his countrymen.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1787-1877), English author
+and Shakespearian scholar, was born at Enfield, Middlesex,
+on the 15th of December 1787. His father, John Clarke, was a
+schoolmaster, among whose pupils was John Keats. Charles
+Clarke taught Keats his letters, and encouraged his love of
+poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards
+became acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge and
+Hazlitt. Clarke became a music publisher in partnership with
+Alfred Novello, and married in 1828 his partner&rsquo;s sister, Mary
+Victoria (1809-1898), the eldest daughter of Vincent Novello.
+In the year after her marriage Mrs Cowden Clarke began her
+valuable Shakespeare concordance, which was eventually
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span>
+issued in eighteen monthly parts (1844-1845), and in volume
+form in 1845 as <i>The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare, being
+a Verbal Index to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works of the
+Poet</i>. This work superseded the <i>Copious Index to ... Shakespeare</i>
+(1790) of Samuel Ayscough, and the <i>Complete Verbal
+Index ...</i> (1805-1807) of Francis Twiss. Charles Cowden
+Clarke published many useful books, and edited the text for
+John Nichol&rsquo;s edition of the British poets; but his most important
+work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856
+on Shakespeare and other literary subjects. Some of the more
+notable series were published, among them being <i>Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+Characters, chiefly those subordinate</i> (1863), and <i>Molière&rsquo;s Characters</i>
+(1865). In 1859 he published a volume of original poems,
+<i>Carmina Minima</i>. For some years after their marriage the
+Cowden Clarkes lived with the Novellos in London. In 1849
+Vincent Novello with his wife removed to Nice, where he was
+joined by the Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at
+Genoa at the &ldquo;Villa Novello.&rdquo; They collaborated in <i>The
+Shakespeare Key, unlocking the Treasures of his Style ...</i> (1879),
+and in an edition of Shakespeare for Messrs Cassell, which was
+issued in weekly parts, and completed in 1868. It was reissued
+in 1886 as <i>Cassell&rsquo;s Illustrated Shakespeare</i>. Charles Clarke died
+on the 13th of March 1877 at Genoa, and his wife survived him
+until the 12th of January 1898. Among Mrs Cowden Clarke&rsquo;s
+other works may be mentioned <i>The Girlhood of Shakespeare&rsquo;s
+Heroines</i> (3 vols., 1850-1852), and a translation of Berlioz&rsquo;s
+<i>Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration</i> (1856).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Recollections of Writers</i> (1898), a joint work by the Clarkes
+containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends;
+and Mary Cowden Clarke&rsquo;s autobiography, <i>My Long Life</i> (1896).
+A charming series of letters (1850-1861), addressed by her to an
+American admirer of her work, Robert Balmanno, was edited by
+Anne Upton Nettleton as <i>Letters to an Enthusiast</i> (Chicago, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1769-1822), English mineralogist
+and traveller, was born at Willingdon, Sussex, on the 5th
+of June 1769, and educated first at Tonbridge. In 1786 he obtained
+the office of chapel clerk at Jesus College, Cambridge,
+but the loss of his father at this time involved him in difficulties.
+In 1790 he took his degree, and soon after became private tutor
+to Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset. In 1792 he
+obtained an engagement to travel with Lord Berwick through
+Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After crossing the Alps, and
+visiting a few of the principal cities of Italy, including Rome,
+he went to Naples, where he remained nearly two years. Having
+returned to England in the summer of 1794, he became tutor
+in several distinguished families. In 1799 he set out with a
+Mr Cripps on a tour through the continent of Europe, beginning
+with Norway and Sweden, whence they proceeded through
+Russia and the Crimea to Constantinople, Rhodes, and afterwards
+to Egypt and Palestine. After the capitulation of Alexandria,
+Clarke was of considerable use in securing for England the
+statues, sarcophagi, maps, manuscripts, &amp;c., which had been
+collected by the French savants. Greece was the country next
+visited. From Athens the travellers proceeded by land to
+Constantinople, and after a short stay in that city directed
+their course homewards through Rumelia, Austria, Germany
+and France. Clarke, who had now obtained considerable reputation,
+took up his residence at Cambridge. He received the
+degree of LL.D. shortly after his return in 1803, on account
+of the valuable donations, including a colossal statue of the
+Eleusinian Ceres, which he had made to the university. He
+was also presented to the college living of Harlton, near Cambridge,
+in 1805, to which, four years later, his
+father-in-law
+added that of Yeldham. Towards the end of 1808 Dr Clarke
+was appointed to the professorship of mineralogy in Cambridge,
+then first instituted. Nor was his perseverance as a traveller
+otherwise unrewarded. The MSS. which he had collected in the
+course of his travels were sold to the Bodleian library for £1000;
+and by the publication of his travels he realized altogether
+a clear profit of £6595. Besides lecturing on mineralogy and
+discharging his clerical duties, Dr Clarke eagerly prosecuted
+the study of chemistry, and made several discoveries, principally
+by means of the gas blow-pipe, which he had brought to a high
+degree of perfection. He was also appointed university librarian
+in 1817, and was one of the founders of the Cambridge Philosophical
+Society in 1819. He died in London on the 9th of
+March 1822. The following is a list of his principal works:&mdash;<i>Testimony
+of Authors respecting the Colossal Statue of Ceres in
+the Public Library, Cambridge</i> (8vo, 1801-1803); <i>The Tomb of
+Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alexandria,
+and now in the British Museum</i> (4to, 1805); <i>A Methodical
+Distribution of the Mineral Kingdom</i> (fol., Lewes, 1807); <i>A
+Description of the Greek Marbles brought from the Shores of the
+Euxine, Archipelago and Mediterranean, and deposited in the
+University Library, Cambridge</i> (8vo, 1809); <i>Travels in various
+Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa</i> (4to, 1810-1819; 2nd ed.,
+1811-1823).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life and Remains</i>, by Rev. W. Otter (1824).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), English
+lawyer and politician, son of J.G. Clarke of Moorgate Street,
+London, was born on the 15th of February 1841. In 1859 he
+became a writer in the India office, but resigned in the next year,
+and became a law reporter. He obtained a Tancred law scholarship
+in 1861, and was called to the bar at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1864.
+He joined the home circuit, became Q.C. in 1880, and a bencher of
+Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in 1882. In November 1877 he was successful in
+securing the acquittal of Chief-Inspector Clarke from the charge
+brought against certain Scotland Yard officials of conspiracy to
+defeat justice, and his reputation was assured by his defence of
+Patrick Staunton in the Penge murder case (1877), and of Mrs
+Bartlett against the charge of poisoning her husband (1886).
+Among other notable cases he was counsel for the plaintiff in the
+libel action brought by Sir William Gordon-Cumming (1890)
+against Mr and Mrs Lycett Green and others for slander, charging
+him with cheating in the game of baccarat (in this case the prince
+of Wales, afterwards Edward VII., gave evidence), and he
+appeared for Dr Jameson, Sir John Willoughby and others when
+they were tried (1896) under the Foreign Enlistment Act. He was
+knighted in 1886. He was returned as Conservative member for
+Southwark at a by-election early in 1880, but failed to retain his
+seat at the general election which followed a month or two later;
+he found a seat at Plymouth, however, which he retained until
+1900. He was solicitor-general in the Conservative administration
+of 1886-1892, but declined office under the Unionist government
+of 1895 when the law officers of the crown were debarred
+from private practice. The most remarkable, perhaps, of his
+speeches in the House of Commons was his reply to Mr Gladstone
+on the second reading of the Home Rule Bill in 1893. In 1899
+differences which arose between Sir Edward Clarke and his party
+on the subject of the government&rsquo;s South African policy led to
+his resigning his seat. At the general election of 1906 he was
+returned at the head of the poll for the city of London, but he
+offended a large section of his constituents by a speech against
+tariff reform in the House of Commons on the 12th of March, and
+shortly afterwards he resigned his seat on grounds of health.
+He published a <i>Treatise on the Law of Extradition</i> (4th ed., 1903),
+and also three volumes of his political and forensic speeches.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1810-1888), American preacher
+and author, was born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 4th of
+April 1810. He was prepared for college at the public Latin
+school of Boston, and graduated at Harvard College in 1829, and
+at the Harvard Divinity School in 1833. He was then ordained
+as minister of a Unitarian congregation at Louisville, Kentucky,
+which was then a slave state. Clarke soon threw himself heart
+and soul into the national movement for the abolition of slavery,
+though he was never what was then called in America a &ldquo;radical
+abolitionist.&rdquo; In 1839 he returned to Boston, where he and his
+friends established (1841) the &ldquo;Church of the Disciples.&rdquo; It
+brought together a body of men and women active and eager in
+applying the Christian religion to the social problems of the day,
+and he would have said that the feature which distinguished it
+from any other church was that they also were ministers of the
+highest religious life. Ordination could make no distinction
+between him and them. Of this church he was the minister from
+1841 until 1850 and from 1854 until his death. He was also
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span>
+secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-1871
+professor of natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard.
+From the beginning of his active life he wrote freely for the press.
+From 1836 until 1839 he was editor of the <i>Western Messenger</i>, a
+magazine intended to carry to readers in the Mississippi Valley
+simple statements of &ldquo;liberal religion,&rdquo; involving what were then
+the most radical appeals as to national duty, especially the
+abolition of slavery. The magazine is now of value to collectors
+because it contains the earliest printed poems of Ralph Waldo
+Emerson, who was Clarke&rsquo;s personal friend. Most of Clarke&rsquo;s
+earlier published writings were addressed to the immediate need
+of establishing a larger theory of religion than that espoused
+by people who were still trying to be Calvinists, people who
+maintained what a good American phrase calls &ldquo;hard-shelled
+churches.&rdquo; But it would be wrong to call his work controversial.
+He was always declaring that the business of the Church is
+Eirenic and not Polemic. Such books as <i>Orthodoxy: Its Truths
+and Errors</i> (1866) have been read more largely by members of
+orthodox churches than by Unitarians. In the great moral
+questions of his time Clarke was a fearless and practical advocate
+of the broadest statement of human rights. Without caring
+much what company he served in, he could always be seen and
+heard, a leader of unflinching courage, in the front rank of the
+battle. He published but few verses, but at the bottom he was a
+poet. He was a diligent and accurate scholar, and among the
+books by which he is best known is one called <i>Ten Great Religions</i>
+(2 vols., 1871-1883). Few Americans have done more than
+Clarke to give breadth to the published discussion of the subjects
+of literature, ethics and religious philosophy. Among his later
+books are <i>Every-Day Religion</i> (1886) and <i>Sermons on the Lord&rsquo;s
+Prayer</i> (1888). He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., on the 8th of
+June 1888.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His <i>Autobiography, Diary and Correspondence</i>, edited by Edward
+Everett Hale, was published in Boston in 1891.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. E. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (1833-1899), American actor, was
+born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 3rd of September 1833, and
+was educated for the law. He made his first appearance in
+Boston as Frank Hardy in <i>Paul Pry</i> in 1851. In 1859 he married
+Asia Booth, daughter of Junius Brutus Booth, and he was
+associated with his brother-in-law Edwin Booth in the management
+of the Winter Garden theatre in New York, the Walnut
+Street theatre in Philadelphia and the Boston theatre. In 1867
+he went to London, where he made his first appearance at the St
+James&rsquo;s as Major Wellington de Boots in Stirling Coynes&rsquo;s
+<i>Everybody&rsquo;s Friend</i>, rewritten for him and called <i>The Widow&rsquo;s
+Hunt</i>. His success was so great that he remained in England for
+the rest of his life, except for four visits to America. Among his
+favourite parts were Toodles, which ran for 200 nights at the
+Strand, Dr Pangloss in <i>The Heir-at-law</i>, and Dr Ollapod in <i>The
+Poor Gentleman</i>. He managed several London theatres, including
+the Haymarket, where he preceded the Bancrofts. He
+retired in 1889, and died on the 24th of September 1899. His two
+sons also were actors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1846-1881),
+Australian author, was born in London on the 24th of April 1846.
+He was the only son of William Hislop Clarke, a barrister of the
+Middle Temple who died in 1863. He emigrated forthwith to
+Australia, where his uncle, James Langton Clarke, was a county
+court judge. He was at first a clerk in the bank of Australasia,
+but showed no business ability, and soon proceeded to learn
+farming at a station on the Wimmera river, Victoria. He was
+already writing stories for the <i>Australian Magazine</i>, when in 1867
+he joined the staff of the Melbourne <i>Argus</i> through the introduction
+of Dr Robert Lewins. He also became secretary (1872) to
+the trustees of the Melbourne public library and later (1876)
+assistant librarian. He founded in 1868 the Yorick Club, which
+soon numbered among its members the chief Australian men of
+letters. The most famous of his books is <i>For the Term of his
+Natural Life</i> (Melbourne, 1874), a powerful tale of an Australian
+penal settlement, which originally appeared in serial form in a
+Melbourne paper. He also wrote <i>The Peripatetic Philosopher</i>
+(1869), a series of amusing papers reprinted from <i>The Austral-asian;
+Long Odds</i> (London, 1870), a novel; and numerous
+comedies and pantomimes, the best of which was <i>Twinkle,
+Twinkle, Little Star</i> (Theatre Royal, Melbourne; Christmas,
+1873). He married an actress, Marian Dunn. In spite of his
+popular success Clarke was constantly involved in pecuniary
+difficulties, which are said to have hastened his death at
+Melbourne on the 2nd of August 1881.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Marcus Clarke Memorial Volume</i> (Melbourne, 1884),
+containing selections from his writings with a biography and list
+of works, edited by Hamilton Mackinnon.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, MARY ANNE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (c. 1776-1852), mistress of Frederick
+duke of York, second son of George III., was born either in
+London or at Oxford. Her father, whose name was Thompson,
+seems to have been a tradesman in rather humble circumstances.
+She married before she was eighteen, but Mr Clarke, the proprietor
+of a stonemasonry business, became bankrupt, and she
+left him. After other <i>liaisons</i>, she became in 1803 the mistress of
+the duke of York, then commander-in-chief, maintaining a large
+and expensive establishment in a fashionable district. The
+duke&rsquo;s promised allowance was not regularly paid, and to escape
+her financial difficulties Mrs Clarke trafficked in her protector&rsquo;s
+position, receiving money from various promotion-seekers,
+military, civil and even clerical, in return for her promise to secure
+them the good services of the duke. Her procedure became a
+public scandal, and in 1809 Colonel Wardle, M.P., brought eight
+charges of abuse of military patronage against the duke in the
+House of Commons, and a committee of inquiry was appointed,
+before which Mrs Clarke herself gave evidence. The result of the
+inquiry clearly established the charges as far as she was concerned,
+and the duke of York was shown to have been aware of
+what was being done, but to have derived no pecuniary benefit
+himself. He resigned his appointment as commander-in-chief,
+and terminated his connexion with Mrs Clarke, who subsequently
+obtained from him a considerable sum in cash and a pension, as
+the price for withholding the publication of his numerous letters
+to her. Mrs Clarke died at Boulogne on the 21st of June 1852.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Taylor, <i>Authentic Memoirs of Mrs Clarke</i>; Clarke (? pseud.),
+<i>Life of Mrs M.A. Clarkek</i>; <i>Annual Register</i>, vol. li.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, SAMUEL<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1675-1729), English philosopher and
+divine, son of Edward Clarke, an alderman, who for several years
+was parliamentary representative of the city of Norwich, was
+born on the 11th of October 1675, and educated at the free school
+of Norwich and at Caius College, Cambridge. The philosophy of
+Descartes was the reigning system at the university; Clarke,
+however, mastered the new system of Newton, and contributed
+greatly to its extension by publishing an excellent Latin version
+of the <i>Traité de physique</i> of Jacques Rohault (1620-1675) with
+valuable notes, which he finished before he was twenty-two years
+of age. The system of Rohault was founded entirely upon
+Cartesian principles, and was previously known only through the
+medium of a rude Latin version. Clarke&rsquo;s translation (1697)
+continued to be used as a text-book in the university till supplanted
+by the treatises of Newton, which it had been designed to
+introduce. Four editions were issued, the last and best being
+that of 1718. It was translated into English in 1723 by his
+brother Dr John Clarke (1682-1757), dean of Sarum.</p>
+
+<p>Clarke afterwards devoted himself to the study of Scripture in
+the original, and of the primitive Christian writers. Having taken
+holy orders, he became chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714),
+bishop of Norwich, who was ever afterwards his friend and patron.
+In 1699 he published two treatises,&mdash;one entitled <i>Three Practical
+Essays on Baptism, Confirmation and Repentance</i>, and the other,
+<i>Some Reflections on that part of a book called Amyntor, or a
+Defence of Milton&rsquo;s Life, which relates to the Writings of the
+Primitive Fathers, and, the Canon of the New Testament</i>. In 1701
+he published <i>A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St Matthew</i>, which
+was followed, in 1702, by the <i>Paraphrases upon the Gospels of St
+Mark and St Luke</i>, and soon afterwards by a third volume upon
+St John. They were subsequently printed together in two
+volumes and have since passed through several editions. He
+intended to treat in the same manner the remaining books of the
+New Testament, but his design was unfulfilled.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span>
+Meanwhile he had been presented by Bishop Moore to the
+rectory of Drayton, near Norwich. As Boyle lecturer, he dealt in
+1704 with the <i>Being and Attributes of God</i>, and in 1705 with the
+<i>Evidences of Natural and Revealed Religion</i>. These lectures, first
+printed separately, were afterwards published together under the
+title of <i>A Discourse concerning the Being and Attributes of God, the
+Obligations of Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the
+Christian Revelation, in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the author
+of the Oracles of Reason, and other Deniers of Natural and Revealed
+Religion</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1706 he wrote a refutation of Dr Henry Dodwell&rsquo;s views on
+the immortality of the soul, and this drew him into controversy
+with Anthony Collins. He also wrote at this time a translation of
+Newton&rsquo;s <i>Optics</i>, for which the author presented him with £500.
+In the same year through the influence of Bishop Moore, he
+obtained the rectory of St Benet&rsquo;s, Paul&rsquo;s Wharf, London.
+Soon afterwards Queen Anne appointed him one of her chaplains
+in ordinary, and in 1709 presented him to the rectory of St
+James&rsquo;s, Westminster. He then took the degree of doctor in
+divinity, defending as his thesis the two propositions: <i>Nullum
+fidei Christianae dogma, in Sacris Scripturis traditum, est rectae
+rationi dissentaneum</i>, and <i>Sine actionum humanarum libertate
+nulla potest esse religio</i>. During the same year, at the request of
+the author, he revised Whiston&rsquo;s English translation of the
+<i>Apostolical Constitutions</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1712 he published a carefully punctuated and annotated
+edition (folio 1712, octavo 1720) of Caesar&rsquo;s <i>Commentaries</i>, with
+elegant engravings, dedicated to the duke of Marlborough.
+During the same year he published his celebrated treatise on <i>The
+Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity</i>. It is divided into three parts.
+The first contains a collection and exegesis of all the texts in the
+New Testament relating to the doctrine of the Trinity; in the
+second the doctrine is set forth at large, and explained in
+particular and distinct propositions; and in the third the
+principal passages in the liturgy of the Church of England
+relating to the doctrine of the Trinity are considered. Whiston
+informs us that, some time before the publication of this book,
+a message was sent to him from Lord Godolphin &ldquo;that the
+affairs of the public were with difficulty then kept in the hands of
+those that were for liberty; that it was therefore an unseasonable
+time for the publication of a book that would make a great noise
+and disturbance; and that therefore they desired him to forbear
+till a fitter opportunity should offer itself,&rdquo;&mdash;a message that
+Clarke of course entirely disregarded. The ministers were right
+in their conjectures; and the work not only provoked a great
+number of replies, but occasioned a formal complaint from the
+Lower House of Convocation. Clarke, in reply, drew up an
+apologetic preface, and afterwards gave several explanations,
+which satisfied the Upper House; and, on his pledging himself that
+his future conduct would occasion no trouble, the matter dropped.</p>
+
+<p>In 1715 and 1716 he had a discussion with Leibnitz relative
+to the principles of natural philosophy and religion, which was
+at length cut short by the death of his antagonist. A collection
+of the papers which passed between them was published in 1717
+(cf. G. v. Leroy, <i>Die philos. Probleme in dem Briefwechsel Leibniz
+und Clarke</i>, Giessen, 1893). In 1719 he was presented by Nicholas
+1st Baron Lechmere, to the mastership of Wigston&rsquo;s hospital
+in Leicester. In 1724 he published seventeen sermons, eleven
+of which had not before been printed. In 1727, on the death
+of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court the place of
+master of the mint, worth on an average from £1200 to £1500
+a year. This secular preferment, however, he absolutely refused.
+In 1728 was published &ldquo;A Letter from Dr Clarke to Benjamin
+Hoadly, F.R.S., occasioned by the controversy relating to
+the Proportion of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion,&rdquo;
+printed in the <i>Philosophical Transactions</i>. In 1729 he published
+the first twelve books of Homer&rsquo;s <i>Iliad</i>. This edition, dedicated
+to William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was highly praised
+by Bishop Hoadly. On Sunday, the 11th of May 1729, when
+going out to preach before the judges at Serjeants&rsquo; Inn, he was
+seized with a sudden illness, which caused his death on the
+Saturday following (May 17, 1729).</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his death his brother Dr John Clarke, dean of
+Sarum, published, from his original manuscripts, <i>An Exposition
+of the Church Catechism</i>, and ten volumes of sermons. The
+<i>Exposition</i> is composed of the lectures which he read every
+Thursday morning, for some months in the year, at St James&rsquo;s
+church. In the latter part of his life he revised them with great
+care, and left them completely prepared for the press. Three
+years after his death appeared also the last twelve books of the
+<i>Iliad</i>, published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of these
+books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised
+and annotated by his father.</p>
+
+<p>In disposition Clarke was cheerful and even playful. An
+intimate friend relates that he once found him swimming
+upon a table. At another time Clarke on looking out at the
+window saw a grave blockhead approaching the house; upon
+which he cried out, &ldquo;Boys, boys, be wise; here comes a fool.&rdquo;
+Dr Warton, in his observations upon Pope&rsquo;s line,</p>
+
+<p class="center1">&ldquo;Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">says, &ldquo;Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances;
+that Newton once studied astrology; that Dr Clarke valued
+himself on his agility, and frequently amused himself in a
+private room of his house in leaping over the tables and chairs?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Philosophy.</i>&mdash;Clarke, though in no way an original thinker, was
+eminent in theology, mathematics, metaphysics and philology, but
+his chief strength lay in his logical power. The materialism of
+Hobbes, the pantheism of Spinoza, the empiricism of Locke, the
+determinism of Leibnitz, Collins&rsquo; necessitarianism, Dodwell&rsquo;s denial
+of the natural immortality of the soul, rationalistic attacks on
+Christianity, and the morality of the sensationalists&mdash;all these he
+opposed with a thorough conviction of the truth of the principles
+which he advocated. His fame as theologian and philosopher rests
+to a large extent on his demonstration of the existence of God and
+his theory of the foundation of rectitude. The former is not a purely
+a priori argument, nor is it presented as such by its author. It
+starts from a fact and it often explicitly appeals to facts. The
+intelligence, for example, of the self-existence and original cause of
+all things is, he says, &ldquo;not easily proved a priori,&rdquo; but &ldquo;demonstrably
+proved a posteriori from the variety and degrees of perfection
+in things, and the order of causes and effects, from the intelligence
+that created beings are confessedly endowed with, and from the
+beauty, order, and final purpose of things.&rdquo; The propositions
+maintained in the argument are&mdash;&ldquo;(1) That something has existed
+from eternity; (2) that there has existed from eternity some one
+immutable and independent being; (3) that that immutable and
+independent being, which has existed from eternity, without any
+external cause of its existence, must be self-existent, that is, necessarily
+existing; (4) what the substance or essence of that being is,
+which is self-existent or necessarily existing, we have no idea,
+neither is it at all possible for us to comprehend it; (5) that though
+the substance or essence of the self-existent being is itself absolutely
+incomprehensible to us, yet many of the essential attributes of his
+nature are strictly demonstrable as well as his existence, and, in
+the first place, that he must be of necessity eternal; (6) that the
+self-existent being must of necessity be infinite and omnipresent;
+(7) must be but one; (8) must be an intelligent being; (9) must be
+not a necessary agent, but a being endued with liberty and choice;
+(10) must of necessity have infinite power; (11) must be infinitely
+wise, and (12) must of necessity be a being of infinite goodness,
+justice, and truth, and all other moral perfections, such as become the
+supreme governor and judge of the world.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In order to establish his sixth proposition, Clarke contends that
+time and space, eternity and immensity, are not substances, but
+attributes&mdash;the attributes of a self-existent being. Edmund Law,
+Dugald Stewart, Lord Brougham, and many other writers, have,
+in consequence, represented Clarke as arguing from the existence
+of time and space to the existence of Deity. This is a serious mistake.
+The existence of an immutable, independent, and necessary being
+is supposed to be proved before any reference is made to the nature
+of time and space. Clarke has been generally supposed to have
+derived the opinion that time and space are attributes of an infinite
+immaterial and spiritual being from the <i>Scholium Generale</i>, first
+published in the second edition of Newton&rsquo;s <i>Principia</i> (1714). The
+truth is that his work on the Being and Attributes of God appeared
+nine years before that <i>Scholium</i>. The view propounded by Clarke
+may have been derived from the Midrash, the Kabbalah, Philo,
+Henry More, or Cudworth, but not from Newton. It is a view
+difficult to prove, and probably few will acknowledge that Clarke
+has conclusively proved it.</p>
+
+<p>His ethical theory of &ldquo;fitness&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethics</a></span>) is formulated on the
+analogy of mathematics. He held that in relation to the will things
+possess an objective fitness similar to the mutual consistency of
+things in the physical universe. This fitness God has given to
+actions, as he has given laws to Nature; and the fitness is as immutable
+as the laws. The theory has been unfairly criticized by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span>
+Jouffroy, Amédée Jacques, Sir James Mackintosh, Thomas Brown
+and others. It is said, for example, that Clarke made virtue consist
+in conformity to the relations of things universally, although the
+whole tenor of his argument shows him to have had in view conformity
+to such relations only as belong to the sphere of moral
+agency. It is true that he might have emphasized the relation of
+moral fitness to the will, and in this respect J.F. Herbart (<i>q.v.</i>)
+improved on Clarke&rsquo;s statement of the case. To say, however, that
+Clarke simply confused mathematics and morals by justifying the
+moral criterion on a mathematical basis is a mistake. He compared
+the two subjects for the sake of the analogy.</p>
+
+<p>Though Clarke can thus be defended against this and similar
+criticism, his work as a whole can be regarded only as an attempt
+to present the doctrines of the Cartesian school in a form which
+would not shock the conscience of his time. His work contained
+a measure of rationalism sufficient to arouse the suspicion of orthodox
+theologians, without making any valuable addition to, or modification
+of, the underlying doctrine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;See W. Whiston&rsquo;s <i>Historical Memoirs</i>, and the
+preface by Benjamin Hoadly to Clarke&rsquo;s <i>Works</i> (4 vols., London, 1738-1742).
+See further on his general philosophical position
+J. Hunt&rsquo;s <i>Religious Thought in England</i>, <i>passim</i>, but particularly in
+vol. ii. 447-457, and vol. iii. 20-29 and 109-115, &amp;c.;
+Rob. Zimmermann in the <i>Denkschriften d. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist.
+Classe</i>, Bd. xix. (Vienna, 1870);
+H. Sidgwick&rsquo;s <i>Methods of Ethics</i> (6th ed., 1901), p. 384;
+A. Bain&rsquo;s <i>Moral Science</i> (1872), p. 562 foll.,
+and <i>Mental Science</i> (1872), p. 416;
+Sir L. Stephen&rsquo;s <i>English Thought in the Eighteenth Century</i> (3rd ed., 1902), c. iii.;
+J. E. le Rossignol, <i>Ethical Philosophy of S. Clarke</i> (Leipzig, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1860-&emsp;&emsp;), American artist,
+was born in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, on the 25th of April 1860,
+and graduated at Princeton in 1882. He was a pupil of the Art
+Students&rsquo; League, New York, and of the École des Beaux Arts,
+Paris, under J.L. Gérôme; later he entered the atelier of
+Dagnan-Bouveret, and, becoming interested in sculpture, worked
+for a while under Henri M. Chapu. As a sculptor, he received
+a medal of honour in Madrid for his &ldquo;The Cider Press,&rdquo;
+now in the Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California, and
+he made four caryatides of &ldquo;The Seasons&rdquo; for the Appellate
+Court House, New York. He designed an &ldquo;Alma Mater&rdquo;
+for Princeton University, and a model is in the library. Among
+his paintings are his &ldquo;Night Market in Morocco&rdquo; (Philadelphia
+Art Club), for which he received a medal at the International
+Exposition in Berlin in 1891, and his &ldquo;A Fool&rsquo;s Fool,&rdquo; exhibited
+at the Salon in 1887 and now in the collection of the Pennsylvania
+Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1798-1878), British
+geologist, was born at East Bergholt, in Suffolk, on the 2nd of
+June 1798. He received his early education at Dedham grammar
+school, and in 1817 entered Jesus College, Cambridge; he took
+his B.A. in 1821, was ordained and became M.A. in 1824. In
+1821 he was appointed curate of Ramsholt in Suffolk, and he
+acted in his clerical capacity in other places until 1839. Having
+become interested in geology through the teachings of Sedgwick,
+he utilized his opportunities and gathered many interesting
+facts on the geology of East Anglia which were embodied in a
+paper &ldquo;On the Geological Structure and Phenomena of Suffolk&rdquo;
+(<i>Trans. Geol. Soc.</i> 1837). He also communicated a series of
+papers on the geology of S.E. Dorsetshire to the <i>Magazine of
+Nat. Hist.</i> (1837-1838). In 1839, after a severe illness, he left
+England for New South Wales, mainly with the object of benefiting
+by the sea voyage. He remained, however, in that country,
+and came to be regarded as the &ldquo;Father of Australian Geology.&rdquo;
+From the date of his arrival in New South Wales until 1870 he
+was in clerical charge first of the country from Paramatta to
+the Hawkesbury river, then of Campbelltown, and finally of
+Willoughby. He zealously devoted attention to the geology
+of the country, with results that have been of paramount importance.
+In 1841 he discovered gold, being the first explorer
+who had obtained it <i>in situ</i> in the country, finding it both in the
+detrital deposits and in the quartzites of the Blue Mountains,
+and he then declared his belief in its abundance. In 1849 he
+made the first actual discovery of tin in Australia and in 1859
+he made known the occurrence of the diamond. He was also
+the first to indicate the presence of Silurian rocks, and to determine
+the age of the coal-bearing rocks in New South Wales.
+In 1869 he announced the discovery of remains of <i>Dinornis</i> in
+Queensland. He was a trustee of the Australian museum at
+Sydney, and an active member of the Royal Society of New
+South Wales. In 1860 he published <i>Researches in the Southern
+Gold-fields of New South Wales</i>. He was elected F.R.S. in 1876,
+and in the following year was awarded the Murchison medal
+by the Geological Society of London. His contributions to
+Australian scientific journals were numerous. He died near
+Sydney, on the 17th of June 1878.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKSON, THOMAS<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1760-1846), English anti-slavery
+agitator, was born on the 28th of March 1760, at Wisbeach, in
+Cambridgeshire, where his father was headmaster of the free
+grammar school. He was educated at St Paul&rsquo;s school and at
+St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place
+among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded
+in 1785 in gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors.
+The subject appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, was
+one in which he was himself deeply interested&mdash;<i>Anne liceat
+invitos in servitutem dare?</i> (Is it right to make men slaves
+against their will?). In preparing for this essay Clarkson
+consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which the
+chief was Benezet&rsquo;s <i>Historical Survey of New Guinea</i>; and
+the atrocities of which he read affected him so deeply that he determined
+to devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the
+slave trade, and gave up his intention of entering the church.</p>
+
+<p>His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English
+translation of his prize essay (June 1786). He then commenced
+to search in all quarters for information concerning slavery. He
+soon discovered that the cause had already been taken up to
+some extent by others, most of whom belonged to the Society of
+Friends, and among the chief of whom were William Dillwyn,
+Joseph Wood and Granville Sharp. With the aid of these
+gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 1787 to do
+all that was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade.
+Meanwhile Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce,
+Whitbread, Sturge and several other men of influence. Travelling
+from port to port, he now commenced to collect a large mass
+of evidence; and much of it was embodied in his <i>Summary View
+of the Slave Trade, and the Probable Consequences of its Abolition</i>,
+which, with a number of other anti-slavery tracts, was published
+by the committee. Pitt, Grenville, Fox and Burke looked
+favourably on the movement; in May 1788 Pitt introduced a
+parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben
+brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves
+carried in a vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A
+number of Liverpool and Bristol merchants obtained permission
+from the House to be heard by council against the bill, but on
+the 18th of June it passed the Commons. Soon after Clarkson
+published an <i>Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave Trade</i>; and for
+two months he was continuously engaged in travelling that he
+might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facts
+of the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount
+of evidence; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to
+appear before the privy council. Meanwhile other witnesses had
+been obtained by Wilberforce and the committee, and on the
+12th of May 1789 the former led a debate on the subject in the
+House of Commons, in which he was seconded by Burke and
+supported by Pitt and Fox.</p>
+
+<p>It was now the beginning of the French Revolution, and in the
+hope that he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with
+other abuses, Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he remained six
+months. He found Necker head of the government, and obtained
+from him some sympathy but little help. Mirabeau, however,
+with his assistance, prepared a speech against slavery, to be
+delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis de la
+Fayette entered enthusiastically into his views. During this
+visit Clarkson met a deputation of negroes from Santo Domingo,
+who had come to France to present a petition to the National
+Assembly, desiring to be placed on an equal footing with the
+whites; but the storm of the Revolution permitted no substantial
+success to be achieved. Soon after his return home he
+engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of which finely
+displays his unshrinking laboriousness and his passionate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span>
+enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself
+witnessed the capture of the negroes in Africa; and a friend
+having met by chance a man-of-war&rsquo;s-man who had done so,
+Clarkson, though ignorant of the name and address of the sailor,
+set out in search of him, and actually discovered him. His last
+tour was undertaken in order to form anti-slavery committees
+in all the principal towns. At length, in the autumn of 1794,
+his health gave way, and he was obliged to cease active work.
+He now occupied his time in writing a <i>History of the Abolition
+of the Slave Trade</i>, which appeared in 1808. The bill for the
+abolition of the trade became law in 1807; but it was still
+necessary to secure the assent of the other powers to its principle.
+To obtain this was, under pressure of the public opinion created
+by Clarkson and his friends, one of the main objects of British
+diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna, and in February 1815 the
+trade was condemned by the powers. The question of concerting
+practical measures for its abolition was raised at the Congress of
+Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but without result. On this occasion
+Clarkson personally presented an address to the emperor
+Alexander I., who communicated it to the sovereigns of Austria
+and Prussia. In 1823 the Anti-Slavery Society was formed,
+and Clarkson was one of its vice-presidents. He was for some
+time blind from cataract; but several years before his death
+on the 26th of September 1846, his sight was restored.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides the works already mentioned, he published the <i>Portraiture
+of Quakerism</i> (1806), <i>Memoirs of William Penn</i> (1813), <i>Researches,
+Antediluvian, Patriarchal and Historical</i> (1836), intended as a history
+of the interference of Providence for man&rsquo;s spiritual good, and
+<i>Strictures</i> on several of the remarks concerning himself made in the
+<i>Life of Wilberforce</i>, in which his claim as originator of the anti-slavery
+movement is denied.</p>
+
+<p>See the lives by Thomas Elmes (1876) and Thomas Taylor (1839).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLARKSVILLE<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span>, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery
+county, Tennessee, U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state,
+about 50 m. N.W. of Nashville, on the Cumberland river, at the
+mouth of the Red river. Pop. (1890) 7924; (1900) 9431, of whom
+5094 were negroes; (1910 census) 8548. It is served by the
+Louisville &amp; Nashville, and the Illinois Central railways, and by
+passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Cumberland river.
+The city hall, and the public library are among the principal
+public buildings, and the city is the seat of the Tennessee Odd
+Fellows&rsquo; home, and of the South-Western Presbyterian University,
+founded in 1875. Clarksville lies in the centre of the dark
+tobacco belt&mdash;commonly known as the &ldquo;Black Patch&rdquo;&mdash;and is
+an important tobacco market, with an annual trade in that
+staple of about $4,000,000, most of the product being exported
+to France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The city is situated in a
+region well adapted for the growing of wheat, Indian corn, and
+vegetables, and for the raising of live-stock; and Clarksville is a
+shipping point for the lumber&mdash;chiefly oak, poplar and birch&mdash;and
+the iron-ore of the surrounding country, a branch of the
+Louisville &amp; Nashville railway extending into the iron district.
+The city&rsquo;s principal manufactures are flour and grist mill products,
+chewing and smoking tobacco and snuff, furniture, lumber, iron,
+and pearl buttons. The value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$2,210,112, being 32% greater than in 1900. The municipality
+owns its water-works. Clarksville was first settled as early as
+1780, was named in honour of General George Rogers Clark, and
+was chartered as a city in 1850.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLASSICS<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span>. The term &ldquo;classic&rdquo; is derived from the Latin
+epithet <i>classicus</i>, found in a passage of Aulus Gellius (xix. 8. 15),
+where a &ldquo;<i>scriptor &lsquo;classicus&rsquo;</i>&rdquo; is contrasted with a &ldquo;<i>scriptor
+proletarius</i>.&rdquo; The metaphor is taken from the division of the
+Roman people into <i>classes</i> by Servius Tullius, those in the first
+class being called <i>classici</i>, all the rest <i>infra classem</i>, and those
+in the last <i>proletarii</i>.<a name="FnAnchor_1l" id="FnAnchor_1l" href="#Footnote_1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The epithet &ldquo;classic&rdquo; is accordingly
+applied (1) generally to an author of the first rank, and (2) more
+particularly to a Greek or Roman author of that character.
+Similarly, &ldquo;the classics&rdquo; is a synonym for the choicest products
+of the literature of ancient Greece and Rome. It is to this
+sense of the word that the following article is devoted in two
+main divisions: (A) the general history of classical (<i>i.e.</i> Greek
+and Latin) scholarship, and (B) its place in higher education.</p>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">(A) General History of the Study of the Classics</p>
+
+<p>We may consider this subject in four principal periods:&mdash;(i.) the
+<i>Alexandrian</i>, c. 300-1 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; (ii.) the <i>Roman</i>, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> c. 1-530;
+(iii.) the <i>Middle Ages</i>, c. 530-1350; and (iv.) the <i>Modern Age</i>,
+c. 1350 to the present day.</p>
+
+<p>(i.) <i>The Alexandrian Age.</i>&mdash;The study of the Greek classics
+begins with the school of Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy
+Philadelphus (285-247 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), learning found a home in the
+Alexandrian Museum and in the great Alexandrian Library.
+The first four librarians were Zenodotus, Eratosthenes, Aristophanes
+of Byzantium, and Aristarchus. Zenodotus produced
+before 274 the first scientific edition of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>,
+an edition in which spurious lines were marked, at the beginning,
+with a short horizontal dash called an <i>obelus</i> (&mdash;). He also drew
+up select lists of epic and lyric poets. Soon afterwards a classified
+catalogue of dramatists, epic and lyric poets, legislators, philosophers,
+historians, orators and rhetoricians, and miscellaneous
+writers, with a brief biography of each, was produced by the
+scholar and poet Callimachus (fl. 260). Among the pupils of
+Callimachus was Eratosthenes who, in 234, succeeded Zenodotus
+as librarian. Apart from his special interest in the history of the
+Old Attic comedy, he was a man of vast and varied learning;
+the founder of astronomical geography and of scientific chronology;
+and the first to assume the name of <span class="grk" title="philologos">&#966;&#953;&#955;&#972;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>. The
+greatest philologist of antiquity was, however, his successor,
+Aristophanes of Byzantium (195), who reduced accentuation
+and punctuation to a definite system, and used a variety of
+critical symbols in his recension of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i>. He
+also edited Hesiod and Pindar, Euripides and Aristophanes,
+besides composing brief introductions to the several plays, parts
+of which are still extant. Lastly, he established a scientific
+system of lexicography and drew up lists of the &ldquo;best authors.&rdquo;
+Two critical editions of the <i>Iliad</i> and <i>Odyssey</i> were produced by
+his successor, Aristarchus, who was librarian until 146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and
+was the founder of scientific scholarship. His distinguished
+pupil, Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), drew up a Greek
+grammar which continued in use for more than thirteen centuries.
+The most industrious of the successors of Aristarchus was
+Didymus (c. 65 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 10), who, in his work on the Homeric
+poems, aimed at restoring the lost recensions of Aristarchus.
+He also composed commentaries on the lyric and comic poets
+and on Thucydides and Demosthenes; part of his commentary
+on this last author was first published in 1904. He was a teacher
+in Alexandria (and perhaps also in Rome); and his death,
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 10, marks the close of the Alexandrian age. He
+is the industrious compiler who gathered up the remnants of
+the learning of his predecessors and transmitted them to posterity.
+The poets of that age, including Callimachus and Theocritus,
+were subsequently expounded by Theon, who flourished under
+Tiberius, and has been well described as &ldquo;the Didymus of the
+Alexandrian poets.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The Alexandrian canon of the Greek classics, which probably
+had its origin in the lists drawn up by Callimachus, Aristophanes
+of Byzantium and Aristarchus, included the following authors:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Epic poets</i> (5): Homer, Hesiod, Peisander, Panyasis, Antimachus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Iambic poets</i> (3): Simonides of Amorgos, Archilochus, Hipponax.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tragic poets</i> (5): Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Ion, Achaeus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Comic poets, Old</i> (7): Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes,
+Pherecrates, Crates, Plato. <i>Middle</i> (2): Antiphanes, Alexis.
+<i>New</i> (5): Menander, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Elegiac poets</i> (4):  Callinus, Mimnermus, Philetas, Callimachus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lyric poets</i> (9): Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar,
+Bacchylides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides of Ceos.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orators</i> (10): Demosthenes, Lysias, Hypereides, Isocrates,
+Aeschines, Lycurgus, Isaeus, Antiphon, Ándocides, Deinarchus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Historians</i> (10): Thucydides, Herodotus, Xenophon, Philistius,
+Theopompus, Ephorus, Anaximenes, Callisthenes, Hellanicus, Polybius.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span></p>
+
+<p>The latest name in the above list is that of Polybius, who
+died about 123 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus and Theocritus
+were subsequently added to the &ldquo;epic&rdquo; poets. Philosophers,
+such as Plato and Aristotle, were possibly classed in a separate
+&ldquo;canon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>While the scholars of Alexandria were mainly interested in
+the <i>verbal criticism</i> of the Greek <i>poets</i>, a wider variety of studies
+was the characteristic of the school of Pergamum, the literary
+rival of Alexandria. Pergamum was a home of learning for a
+large part of the 150 years of the Attalid dynasty, 283-133 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>The grammar of the Stoics, gradually elaborated by Zeno,
+Cleanthes and Chrysippus, supplied a terminology which, in
+words such as &ldquo;genitive,&rdquo; &ldquo;accusative&rdquo; and &ldquo;aorist,&rdquo; has
+become a permanent part of the grammarian&rsquo;s vocabulary;
+and the study of this grammar found its earliest home in Pergamum.</p>
+
+<p>From about 168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the head of the Pergamene school was
+Crates of Mallus, who (like the Stoics) was an adherent of the
+principle of &ldquo;anomaly&rdquo; in grammar, and was thus opposed
+to Aristarchus of Alexandria, the champion of &ldquo;analogy.&rdquo;
+He also opposed Aristarchus, and supported the Stoics, by
+insisting on an <i>allegorical</i> interpretation of Homer. He is
+credited with having drawn up the classified lists of the best
+authors for the Pergamene library. His mission as an envoy
+to the Roman senate, &ldquo;shortly after the death of Ennius&rdquo; in
+169 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, had a remarkable influence on literary studies in Rome.
+Meeting with an accident while he was wandering on the Palatine,
+and being detained in Rome, he passed part of his enforced
+leisure in giving lectures (possibly on Homer, his favourite
+author), and thus succeeded in arousing among the Romans a
+taste for the scholarly study of literature. The example set by
+Crates led to the production of a new edition of the epic poem
+of Naevius, and to the public recitation of the <i>Annals</i> of Ennius,
+and (two generations later) the <i>Satires</i> of Lucilius.</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) <i>The Roman Age.</i>&mdash;(a) <i>Latin Studies.</i>&mdash;In the 1st century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> the foremost scholar in Rome was L. Aelius Stilo (c. 154-c. 74),
+who is described by Cicero as profoundly learned in Greek
+and Latin literature, and as an accomplished critic of Roman
+antiquities and of ancient authors. Of the plays then passing
+under the name of Plautus, he recognized twenty-five as genuine.
+His most famous pupil was Varro (116-27), the six surviving
+books of whose great work on the Latin language are mainly
+concerned with the great grammatical controversy on analogy
+and anomaly&mdash;a controversy which also engaged the attention
+of Cicero and Caesar, and of the elder Pliny and Quintilian.
+The twenty-one plays of Plautus accepted by Varro are doubtless
+the twenty now extant, together with the lost <i>Vidularia</i>. The
+influence of Varro&rsquo;s last work on the nine <i>disciplinae</i>, or branches
+of study, long survived in the seven &ldquo;liberal arts&rdquo; recognized
+by St Augustine and Martianus Capella, and in the <i>trivium</i> and
+<i>quadrivium</i> of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>Part of Varro&rsquo;s treatise on Latin was dedicated to Cicero (106-43),
+who as an interpreter of Greek philosophy to his fellow-countrymen
+enlarged the vocabulary of Latin by his admirable
+renderings of Greek philosophical terms, and thus ultimately
+gave us such indispensable words as &ldquo;species,&rdquo; &ldquo;quality&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;quantity.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The earliest of Latin lexicons was produced about 10 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> by
+Verrius Flaccus in a work, <i>De Verborum Significatu</i>, which
+survived in the abridgment by Festus (2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>) and in
+the further abridgment dedicated by Paulus Diaconus to Charles
+the Great.</p>
+
+<p>Greek models were diligently studied by Virgil and Horace.
+Their own poems soon became the theme of criticism and of
+comment; and, by the time of Quintilian and Juvenal, they
+shared the fate (which Horace had feared) of becoming text-books
+for use in schools.</p>
+
+<p>Recensions of Terence, Lucretius and Persius, as well as
+Horace and Virgil, were produced by Probus (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 88), with
+critical symbols resembling those invented by the Alexandrian
+scholars. His contemporary Asconius is best known as the
+author of an extant historical commentary on five of the speeches
+of Cicero. In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 88 Quintilian was placed at the head of the first
+state-supported school in Rome. His comprehensive work on
+the training of the future orator includes an outline of general
+education, which had an important influence on the humanistic
+schools of the Italian Renaissance. It also presents us with a
+critical survey of the Greek and Latin classics arranged under the
+heads of poets, historians, orators and philosophers (book x.
+chap. i.). The lives of Roman poets and scholars were among the
+many subjects that exercised the literary skill of Hadrian&rsquo;s
+private secretary, Suetonius. One of his lost works is the
+principal source of the erudition of Isidore of Seville (d. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 636),
+whose comprehensive encyclopaedia was a favourite text-book in
+the middle ages. About the time of the death of Suetonius (<span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+160) a work entitled the <i>Noctes Atticae</i> was begun by Aulus
+Gellius. The author is an industrious student and a typical
+scholar, who frequents libraries and is interested in the MSS.
+of old Latin authors. Early in the 4th century the study of
+grammar was represented in northern Africa by the Numidian
+tiro, Nonius Marcellus (fl. 323), the author of an encyclopaedic
+work in three parts, lexicographical, grammatical and antiquarian,
+the main value of which lies in its quotations from early Latin
+literature. About the middle of the same century grammar had a
+far abler exponent at Rome in the person of Aelius Donatus, the
+preceptor of St Jerome, as well as the author of a text-book that
+remained in use throughout the middle ages. The general state
+of learning in this century is illustrated by Ausonius (c. 310-393),
+the grammarian and rhetorician of Bordeaux, the author of the
+<i>Mosella</i>, and the probable inspirer of the memorable decree of
+Gratian (376), providing for the appointment and the payment of
+teachers of rhetoric and of Greek and Latin literature in the
+principal cities of Gaul. His distinguished friend, Q. Aurelius
+Symmachus, the consul of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 391, aroused in his own immediate
+circle an interest in Livy, the whole of whose history was still
+extant. Early in the 5th century other aristocratic Romans
+interested themselves in the textual criticism of Persius and
+Martial. Among the contemporaries of Symmachus, the devoted
+adherent of the old Roman religion, was St Jerome (d. 420), the
+most scholarly representative of Christianity in the 4th century,
+the student of Plautus and Terence, of Virgil and Cicero, the
+translator of the <i>Chronology</i> of Eusebius, and the author of the
+Latin version of the Bible now known as the Vulgate. St
+Augustine (d. 430) confesses to his early fondness for Virgil, and
+also tells us that he received his first serious impressions from the
+<i>Hortensius</i> of Cicero, an eloquent exhortation to the study of
+philosophy, of which only a few fragments survive. In his
+survey of the &ldquo;liberal arts&rdquo; St Augustine imitates (as we have
+seen) the <i>Disciplinae</i> of Varro, and in the greatest of his works,
+the <i>De Civitate Dei</i> (426), he has preserved large portions of the
+<i>Antiquitates</i> of Varro and the <i>De Republica</i> of Cicero. About the
+same date, and in the same province of northern Africa, Martianus
+Capella produced his allegorical work on the &ldquo;liberal arts,&rdquo; the
+principal, and, indeed, often the only, text-book of the medieval
+schools.</p>
+
+<p>In the second half of the 5th century the foremost representative
+of Latin studies in Gaul was Apollinaris Sidonius (fl. 470),
+whose <i>Letters</i> were modelled on those of the younger Pliny, while
+his poems give proof of a wide though superficial acquaintance
+with classical literature. He laments the increasing decline in
+the classical purity of the Latin language.</p>
+
+<p>An interest in Latin literature lived longest in Gaul, where
+schools of learning flourished as early as the 1st century
+at Autun, Lyons, Toulouse, Nîmes, Vienne, Narbonne and
+Marseilles; and, from the 3rd century onwards, at Trier, Poitiers,
+Besançon and Bordeaux.</p>
+
+<p>About ten years after the death of Sidonius we find Asterius,
+the consul of 494, critically revising the text of Virgil in Rome.
+Boëthius, who early in life formed the ambitious plan of expounding
+and reconciling the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, continued
+in the year of his sole consulship (510) to instruct his fellow-countrymen
+in the wisdom of Greece. He is a link between the
+ancient world and the middle ages, having been the last of the
+learned Romans who understood the language and studied the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span>
+literature of Greece, and the first to interpret to the middle ages
+the logical treatises of Aristotle. He thereby gave the signal for
+the age-long conflict between Nominalism and Realism, which
+exercised the keenest intellects among the Schoolmen, while the
+crowning work of his life, the <i>Consolatio Philosophiae</i> (524), was
+repeatedly expounded and imitated, and reproduced in renderings
+that were among the earliest literary products of the vernacular
+languages of modern Europe. His contemporary, Cassiodorus
+(c. 480-c. 575), after spending thirty years in the service of the
+Ostrogothic dynasty at Ravenna, passed the last thirty-three
+years of his long life on the shores of the Bay of Squillace, where
+he founded two monasteries and diligently trained their inmates to
+become careful copyists. In his latest work he made extracts for
+their benefit from the pages of Priscian (fl. 512), a transcript of
+whose great work on Latin grammar was completed at Constantinople
+by one of that grammarian&rsquo;s pupils in 527, to be reproduced
+in a thousand MSS. in the middle ages. More than ten
+years before Cassiodorus founded his monasteries in the south of
+Italy, Benedict of Nursia (480-543) had rendered a more
+permanent service to the cause of scholarship by building,
+amid the ruins of the temple of Apollo on the crest of Monte
+Cassino, the earliest of those homes of learning that have
+lent an undying distinction to the Benedictine order. The
+learned labours of the Benedictines were no part of the original
+requirements of the rule of St Benedict; but before the founder&rsquo;s
+death his favourite disciple had planted a monastery in France,
+and the name of that disciple is permanently associated with the
+learned labours of the Benedictines of the Congregation of St
+Maur (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Maurists</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>(b) <i>Greek Studies.</i>&mdash;Meanwhile, the study of the Greek classics
+was ably represented at Rome in the Augustan age by Dionysius
+of Halicarnassus (fl. 30-8 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), the intelligent critic of the
+ancient Attic orators, while the 1st century of our era is the
+probable date of the masterpiece of literary criticism known as
+the treatise <i>On the Sublime</i> by Longinus (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The 2nd century is the age of the two great grammarians,
+Apollonius Dyscolus (the founder of scientific grammar and
+the creator of the study of Greek syntax) and his son Herodian,
+the larger part of whose principal work dealt with the subject
+of Greek accentuation. It is also the age of the lexicographers
+of Attic Greek, the most important of whom are Phrynichus,
+Pollux (fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 180) and Harpocration.</p>
+
+<p>In the 4th century Demosthenes was expounded and imitated
+by the widely influential teacher, Libanius of Antioch (c. 314-c.
+393), the pagan preceptor of St Chrysostom. To the same
+century we may assign the grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria,
+who, instead of confining himself (like Dionysius Thrax) to the
+tenses of <span class="grk" title="thuptô">&#964;&#973;&#960;&#964;&#969;</span> in actual use, was the first to set forth all the
+imaginary aorists and futures of that verb, which have thence
+descended through the Byzantine age to the grammars of the
+Renaissance and of modern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>In the 5th century we may place Hesychius of Alexandria,
+the compiler of the most extensive of our ancient Greek lexicons,
+and Proclus, the author of a chrestomathy, to the extracts
+from which (as preserved by Photius) we owe almost all our
+knowledge of the contents of the lost epics of early Greece.
+In the same century the study of Plato was represented by
+Synesius of Cyrene (c. 370-c. 413) and by the Neoplatonists of
+Alexandria and of Athens. The lower limit of the Roman age
+of classical studies may be conveniently placed in the year 529.
+In that year the monastery of Monte Cassino was founded in
+the West, while the school of Athens was closed in the East.
+The Roman age thus ends in the West with Boëthius, Cassiodorus
+and St Benedict, and in the East with Priscian and
+Justinian.</p>
+
+<p>(iii.) <i>The Middle Ages</i>.&mdash;(a) <i>In the East</i>, commonly called
+the <i>Byzantine Age</i>, c. 530-1350. In this age, grammatical
+learning was represented by Choeroboscus, and lexicography by
+Photius (d. 891), the patriarch of Constantinople, who is also
+the author of a <i>Bibliotheca</i> reviewing and criticizing the contents
+of 280 MSS., and incidentally preserving important extracts
+from the lost Greek historians.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of Photius the poets usually studied at school were
+Homer, Hesiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus
+(<i>Prometheus, Septem</i> and <i>Persae</i>), Sophocles (<i>Ajax, Electra</i>
+and <i>Oedipus Tyrannus</i>), and Euripides (<i>Hecuba, Orestes, Phoenissae</i>,
+and, next to these, <i>Alcestis, Andromache, Hippolytus,
+Medea, Rhesus, Troades</i>,) also Aristophanes (beginning with the
+<i>Plutus</i>), Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius Periegetes.
+The principal prose authors were Thucydides, parts of Plato
+and Demosthenes, with Aristotle, Plutarch&rsquo;s <i>Lives</i>, and, above all,
+Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age.</p>
+
+<p>One of the distinguished pupils of Photius, Arethas, bishop of
+Caesarea in Cappadocia (c. 907-932), devoted himself with
+remarkable energy to collecting and expounding the Greek
+classics. Among the important MSS. still extant that were
+copied at his expense are the Bodleian Euclid (888) and the
+Bodleian Plato (895). To the third quarter of the 10th century
+we may assign the Greek lexicon of Suïdas, a combination of a
+lexicon and an encyclopaedia, the best articles being those on
+the history of literature.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, during the &ldquo;dark age&rdquo; of secular learning at
+Constantinople (641-850), the light of Greek learning had spread
+eastwards to Syria and Arabia. At Bagdad, in the reign of
+Mamun (813-833), the son of Harun al-Rashid, philosophical
+works were translated by Syrian Christians from Greek into
+Syriac and from Syriac into Arabic. It was in his reign that
+Aristotle was first translated into Arabic, and, shortly afterwards,
+we have Syriac and Arabic renderings of commentators on
+Aristotle, and of portions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen;
+while in the 10th century new translations of Aristotle and his
+commentators were produced by the Nestorian Christians.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabic translations of Aristotle passed from the East
+to the West by being transmitted through the Arab dominions
+in northern Africa to Spain, which had been conquered by the
+Arabs in the 8th century. In the 12th century Toledo was the
+centre of the study of Aristotle in the West, and it was from
+Toledo that the knowledge of Aristotle spread to Paris and to
+other seats of learning in western Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The 12th century in Constantinople is marked by the name
+of Tzetzes (c. 1110-c. 1180), the author of a mythological,
+literary and historical miscellany called the <i>Chiliades</i>, in the
+course of which he quotes more than four hundred authors.
+The prolegomena to his scholia on Aristophanes supply us with
+valuable information on the Alexandrian libraries. The most
+memorable name, however, among the scholars of this century
+is that of Eustathius, whose philological studies at Constantinople
+preceded his tenure of the archbishopric of Thessalonica (1175-1192).
+The opening pages of his commentaries on the <i>Iliad</i> and
+the <i>Odyssey</i> dwell with enthusiasm on the abiding influence of
+Homer on the literature of Greece.</p>
+
+<p>While the Byzantine MSS. of the 11th century (such as the
+Laurentian MSS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and the Ravenna
+MS. of Aristophanes) maintain the sound traditions of the
+Alexandrian and Roman ages, those of the times of the Palaeologi
+give proof of a frequent tampering with the metres of the ancient
+poets in order to bring them into conformity with theories
+recently invented by Moschopulus and Triclinius. The scholars
+of these times are the natural precursors of the earliest representatives
+of the Revival of Learning in the West. Of these
+later Byzantines the first in order of date is the monk Planudes
+(d. 1330), who devoted his knowledge of Latin to producing
+excellent translations of Caesar&rsquo;s <i>Gallic War</i> as well as Ovid&rsquo;s
+<i>Metamorphoses</i> and <i>Heroides</i>, and the classic work of Boëthius;
+he also compiled (in 1302) the only Greek anthology known to
+scholars before the recovery in 1607 of the earlier and fuller
+anthology of Cephalas (fl. 917).</p>
+
+<p>The scholars of the Byzantine age cannot be compared with
+the great Alexandrians, but they served to maintain the continuity
+of tradition by which the Greek classics selected by the
+critics of Alexandria were transmitted to modern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>(b) <i>In the West</i> (c. 530-c. 1350).&mdash;At the portal of the middle
+ages stands Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), who had little (if any)
+knowledge of Greek and had no sympathy with the <i>secular</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span>
+side of the study of Latin. A decline in grammatical learning
+is exemplified in the three Latin historians of the 6th century,
+Jordanes, Gildas and Gregory of Tours (d. 594), who begins
+his history of the Franks by lamenting the decay of Latin
+literature in Gaul. The historian of Tours befriended the Latin
+poet, Venantius Fortunatus (d. <i>c.</i> 600), who is still remembered
+as the writer of the three well-known hymns beginning <i>Salve
+festa dies</i>, <i>Vexilla regis prodeunt</i>, and <i>Pange lingua gloriosi
+proelium certaminis</i>. The decadence of Latin early in the 7th
+century is exemplified by the fantastic grammarian Virgilius
+Maro, who also illustrates the transition from Latin to Provençal,
+and from quantitive to accentual forms of verse.</p>
+
+<p>While Latin was declining in Gaul, even Greek was not
+unknown in Ireland, and the Irish passion for travel led to the
+spread of Greek learning in the west of Europe. The Irish monk
+Columban, shortly before his death in 615, founded in the
+neighbourhood of Pavia the monastery of Bobbio, to be the
+repository of many Latin MSS. which were ultimately dispersed
+among the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin. About the same
+date his fellow-traveller, Gallus, founded above the Lake of
+Constance the monastery of St Gallen, where Latin MSS. were
+preserved until their recovery in the age of the Renaissance.
+During the next twenty-five years Isidore of Seville (d. 636)
+produced in his <i>Origines</i> an encyclopaedic work which gathered
+up for the middle ages much of the learning of the ancient world.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the 5th and 6th
+centuries led to an estrangement between the Greek and Latin
+Churches. The year 690 is regarded as the date of the temporary
+extinction of Greek in Italy, but, in the first quarters of the 8th
+and the 9th centuries, the iconoclastic decrees of the Byzantine
+emperors drove many of the Greek monks and their lay adherents
+to the south of Italy, and even to Rome itself.</p>
+
+<p>In Ireland we find Greek characters used in the Book of
+Armagh (<i>c.</i> 807); and, in the same century, a Greek psalter was
+copied by an Irish monk of Liége, named Sedulius (fl. 850), who
+had a wide knowledge of Latin literature. In England, some
+sixty years after the death of Augustine, the Greek archbishop
+of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (d. 690) founded a school for
+the study of Greek, and with the help of an African monk named
+Hadrian made many of the English monasteries schools of Greek
+and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bede (d. 735), some of
+the scholars who still survived were &ldquo;as familiar with Greek and
+Latin as with their mother-tongue.&rdquo; Among those who had
+learned their Greek at Canterbury was Aldhelm (d. 709), &ldquo;the
+first Englishman who cultivated classical learning with any
+success.&rdquo; While Aldhelm is known as &ldquo;the father of Anglo-Latin
+verse,&rdquo; Latin prose was the literary medium used by Bede
+in his celebrated <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of England (731). Nine
+years after the death of Bede (735), Boniface, &ldquo;the apostle of
+Germany,&rdquo; sanctioned the founding of Fulda (744), which soon
+rivalled St Gallen as a school of learning. Alcuin (d. 804), who
+was probably born in the year of Bede&rsquo;s death, tells us of the
+wealth of Latin literature preserved in the library at York.
+Through the invitation of Charles the Great, he became associated
+with the revival of learning which marks the reign of that
+monarch, by presiding over the School of the Palace (782-790),
+and by exercising a healthy influence as abbot of St Martin&rsquo;s at
+Tours (796-804). Among the friends of Alcuin and the advisers
+of Charles was Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans and abbot of
+Fleury (d. 821), who is memorable as an accomplished Latin
+poet, and as the initiator of free education. Einhard (d. 840), in
+his classic life of Charles the Great, models his style on that of
+Suetonius, and shows his familiarity with Caesar and Livy and
+Cicero, while Rabanus Maurus (d. 856), who long presided over
+Einhard&rsquo;s school of Fulda, was the first to introduce Priscian into
+the schools of Germany. His pupil, Walafrid Strabo, the abbot of
+Reichenau (d. 849), had a genuine gift for Latin poetry, a gift
+agreeably exemplified in his poem on the plants in the monastic
+garden. In the same century an eager interest in the Latin
+classics is displayed by Servatus Lupus, who was educated at
+Fulda, and was abbot of Ferrières for the last twenty years of his
+life (d. 862). In his literary spirit he is a precursor of the
+humanists of the Renaissance. Under Charles the Bald (d. 877)
+there was a certain revival of interest in literature, when John
+the Scot (Erigena) became, for some thirty years (c. 845-875),
+the head of the Palace School. He was familiar with the Greek
+Fathers, and was chosen to execute a Latin rendering of the
+writings of &ldquo;Dionysius the Areopagite,&rdquo; the patron saint of
+France. In the preface the translator praises the king for
+prompting him not to rest satisfied with the literature of the West,
+but to have recourse to the &ldquo;most pure and copious waters of the
+Greeks.&rdquo; In the next generation Remi of Auxerre was the first to
+open a school in Paris (900). Virgil is the main authority quoted
+in Remi&rsquo;s Commentary on Donatus, which remained in use until
+the Renaissance. During the two centuries after John the Scot,
+the study of Greek declined in France. In England the 9th
+century closes with Alfred, who, with the aid of the Welsh monk,
+Asser, produced a series of free translations from Latin texts,
+including Boëthius and Orosius and Bede, and the <i>Cura Pastoralis</i>
+of Gregory the Great.</p>
+
+<p>In the 10th century learning flourished at Aachen under Bruno,
+brother of Otto I. and archbishop of Cologne (953-965), who had
+himself learned Greek from certain Eastern monks at the imperial
+court, and who called an Irish bishop from Trier to teach Greek at
+the imperial capital. He also encouraged the transcription of
+Latin MSS., which became models of style to Widukind of
+Corvey, the imitator of Sallust and Livy. In the same century
+the monastery of Gandersheim, south of Hanover, was the
+retreat of the learned nun Hroswitha, who celebrated the
+exploits of Otho in leonine hexameters, and composed in prose
+six moral and religious plays in imitation of Terence. One of the
+most prominent personages of the century was Gerbert of
+Aurillac, who, after teaching at Tours and Fleury, became abbot
+of Bobbio, archbishop of Reims, and ultimately pope under the
+name of Silvester II. (d. 1003). He frequently quotes from the
+speeches of Cicero, and it has been surmised that the survival of
+those speeches may have been due to the influence of Gerbert.
+The most original hellenist of this age is Luitprand, bishop of
+Cremona (d. 972), who acquired some knowledge of Greek during
+his repeated missions to Constantinople. About the same time
+in England Oswald of York, who had himself been educated at
+Fleury, invited Abbo (d. 1004) to instruct the monks of the abbey
+recently founded at Ramsey, near Huntingdon. At Ramsey he
+wrote for his pupils a scholarly work dealing with points of
+prosody and pronunciation, and exhibiting an accurate knowledge
+of Virgil and Horace. During the same half-century, Ælfric,
+the abbot of Eynsham (d. c. 1030), aided Bishop Æthelwold
+in making Winchester famous as a place of education. It was there
+that he began his <i>Latin Grammar</i>, his <i>Glossary</i> (the
+earliest Latin-English dictionary in existence), and his <i>Colloquium</i>,
+in which Latin is taught in a conversational manner.</p>
+
+<p>In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the
+11th century was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In and
+after the middle of that century the Norman monastery of Bec
+flourished under the rule of Lanfranc and Anselm, both of whom
+had begun their career in northern Italy, and closed it at Canterbury.
+Meanwhile, in Germany, the styles of Sallust and Livy were
+being happily imitated in the <i>Annals</i> of Lambert of Hersfeld
+(d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin literature seems
+never to have entirely died out, young nobles and students
+preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning
+Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics,
+such as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as
+divided in his allegiance between the saints and the muses.
+Learning flourished at Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot
+Desiderius (afterwards Pope Victor III.). In this century that
+famous monastery had its classical chronicler in Leo Marsicanus,
+and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future archbishop of Salerno.</p>
+
+<p>The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle,
+and we may here briefly note the successive stages in their
+gradually increasing knowledge of his works. Until 1128 only
+the first two of the five parts of the <i>Organon</i> were known, and
+those solely in Latin translations from the original. After that
+date two more became known; the whole was familiar to John
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span>
+of Salisbury in 1159; while the <i>Physics</i> and <i>Metaphysics</i> came
+into notice about 1200. Plato was mainly represented by the
+Latin translation of the <i>Timaeus</i>. Abelard (d. 1142) was
+acquainted with no Greek works except in Latin translations,
+but he has left his mark on the history of European education.
+The wide popularity of his brilliant lectures in the &ldquo;schools&rdquo;
+of Paris made this city the resort of the many students who
+were ultimately organized as a &ldquo;university&rdquo; (c. 1170). John of
+Salisbury attended Abelard&rsquo;s lectures in 1136, and, after spending
+two years in the study of logic in Paris, passed three more in the
+scholarly study of Latin literature at Chartres, where a sound
+and healthy tradition, originally due to Bernard of Chartres
+(fl. 1120), was still perpetuated by his pupils. In that school the
+study of &ldquo;figures of speech&rdquo; was treated as merely introductory
+to that of the classical texts. Stress was laid on the sense as
+well as the style of the author studied. Discussions on set
+subjects were held, select passages from the classics learned
+by heart, while written exercises in prose and verse were founded
+on the best ancient models. In the general scheme of education
+the authority followed was Quintilian. John of Salisbury
+(d. 1180), the ripest product of this school, is the most learned
+man of his time. His favourite author is Cicero, and in all the
+Latin literature accessible to him he is the best-read scholar of
+his age. Among Latin scholars of the next generation we have
+Giraldus Cambrensis (d. c. 1222), the author of topographical
+and historical writings on Ireland and Wales, and of other works
+teeming with quotations from the Latin classics. During the
+middle ages Latin prose never dies out. It is the normal language
+of literature. In England it is used by many chroniclers and
+historians, the best known of whom are William of Malmesbury
+(d. 1142) and Matthew Paris (d. 1259). In Italy Latin verse
+had been felicitously applied to historic themes by William of
+Apulia (fl. 1100) and other Latin poets (1088-1247). In the
+12th century England claims at least seven Latin poets, one of
+these being her only Latin epic poet, Joseph of Exeter (d. 1210),
+whose poem on the Trojan war is still extant. The Latin versifier,
+John of Garlandia, an Englishman who lived mainly in France
+(fl. 1204-1252), produced several Latin vocabularies which were
+still in use in the boyhood of Erasmus. The Latin poets of French
+birth include Gautier and Alain de Lille (d. c. 1203), the former
+being the author of the <i>Alexandreis</i>, and the latter that of the
+<i>Anti-Claudianus</i>, a poem familiar to Chaucer.</p>
+
+<p>During the hundred and thirty years that elapsed between
+the early translations of Aristotle executed at Toledo about
+1150 and the death in 1281 of William of Moerbeke, the translator
+of the <i>Rhetoric</i> and the <i>Politics</i>, the knowledge of
+Aristotle had been greatly extended in Europe by means of translations,
+first from the Arabic, and, next, from the original Greek.
+Aristotle had been studied in England by Grosseteste (d. 1253),
+and expounded abroad by the great Dominican, Albertus
+Magnus (d. 1280), and his famous pupil, Thomas Aquinas
+(d. 1274). Among the keenest critics of the Schoolmen and of
+the recent translations of Aristotle was Roger Bacon (d. 1294),
+whose <i>Opus majus</i> has been recognized as the <i>Encyclopédie</i>
+and the <i>Organon</i> of the 13th century. His knowledge of Greek, as
+shown in his <i>Greek Grammar</i> (first published in 1902), was
+clearly derived from the Greeks of his own day. The medieval
+dependence on the authority of Aristotle gradually diminished.
+This was partly due to the recovery of some of the lost works
+of ancient literature, and the transition from the middle ages
+to the revival of learning was attended by a general widening
+of the range of classical studies and by a renewed interest in Plato.</p>
+
+<p>The classical learning of the middle ages was largely second-hand.
+It was often derived from glossaries, from books of
+elegant extracts, or from comprehensive encyclopaedias. Among
+the compilers of these last were Isidore and Hrabanus, William
+of Conches and Honorius of Autun, Bartholomaeus Anglicus
+(fl. 1250), Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), and, lastly, Brunetto
+Latini (d. 1290), the earlier contemporary of Dante. For
+Aristotle, as interpreted by Albertus Magnus and Thomas
+Aquinas, Dante has the highest regard. To the Latin translations
+of Aristotle and to his interpreters he refers in more than
+three hundred passages, while the number of his references to
+the Latin translation of the <i>Timaeus</i> of Plato is less than
+ten. His five great pagan poets are Homer, Virgil, Horace,
+Ovid, Lucan; Statius he regards as a &ldquo;Christian&rdquo; converted
+by Virgil&rsquo;s <i>Fourth Eclogue</i>. His standard authors in Latin
+prose are Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Frontinus and Orosius. His
+knowledge of Greek was practically nil. Latin was the language
+of his political treatise, <i>De Monarchia</i>, and even that of his
+defence of the vulgar tongue, <i>De Vulgari Eloquio</i>. He is, in a
+limited sense, a precursor of the Renaissance, but he is far more
+truly to be regarded as the crowning representative of the
+spirit of the middle ages.</p>
+
+<p>(iv.) <i>The Modern Age.</i>&mdash;(a) Our fourth period is ushered
+in by the age of the Revival of Learning in Italy (c. 1350-1527).
+Petrarch (1304-1374) has been well described as
+&ldquo;the first of modern men.&rdquo; In contrast with the
+<span class="sidenote">Italy.</span>
+Schoolmen of the middle ages, he has no partiality for Aristotle.
+He was interested in Greek, and, a full century before the fall
+of Constantinople, he was in possession of MSS. of Homer and
+Plato, though his knowledge of the language was limited to the
+barest rudiments. For that knowledge, scanty as it was, he was
+indebted to Leontius Pilatus, with whose aid Boccaccio (1313-1375)
+became &ldquo;the first of modern men&rdquo; to study Greek to some
+purpose during the three years that Leontius spent as his guest
+in Florence (1360-1363). It was also at Florence that Greek
+was taught in the next generation by Chrysoloras (in 1396-1400).
+Another generation passed, and the scholars of the East and
+West met at the council of Florence (1439). One of the envoys
+of the Greeks, Gemistus Pletho, then inspired Cosimo dei
+Medici with the thought of founding an academy for the study
+of Plato. The academy was founded, and, in the age of Lorenzo,
+Plato and Plotinus were translated into Latin by Marsilio Ficino
+(d. 1499). The <i>Apology</i> and <i>Crito</i>, the <i>Phaedo, Phaedrus</i>
+and <i>Gorgias</i> of Plato, as well as speeches of Demosthenes and
+Aeschines, with the <i>Oeconomics, Ethics</i> and <i>Politics</i> of
+Aristotle, had already been translated by Leonardo Bruni (d. 1444); the
+<i>Rhetoric</i> by Filelfo (1430), and Plato&rsquo;s <i>Republic</i> by
+Decembrio (1439). A comprehensive scheme for translating the principal
+Greek prose authors into Latin was carried out at Rome by the
+founder of the manuscript collections of the Vatican, Nicholas V.
+(1447-1455), who had belonged to the literary circle of Cosimo
+at Florence. The translation of Aristotle was entrusted to
+three of the learned Greeks who had already arrived in Italy,
+Trapezuntius, Gaza and Bessarion, while other authors were
+undertaken by Italian scholars such as Guarino, Valla, Decembrio
+and Perotti. Among the scholars of Italian birth, probably the
+only one in this age who rivalled the Greeks as a public expositor
+of their own literature was Politian (1454-1494), who lectured
+on Homer and Aristotle in Florence, translated Herodian, and
+was specially interested in the Latin authors of the Silver Age
+and in the text of the <i>Pandects</i> of Justinian. It will be observed
+that the study of Greek had been resumed in Florence half a
+century before the fall of Constantinople, and that the principal
+writers of Greek prose had been translated into Latin before that event.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, the quest of MSS. of the Latin classics had been
+actively pursued. Petrarch had discovered Cicero&rsquo;s Speech <i>pro Archia</i>
+at Liége (1333) and the <i>Letters to Atticus</i> and <i>Quintus</i>
+at Verona (1345). Boccaccio had discovered Martial and Ausonius,
+and had been the first of the humanists to be familiar with Varro
+and Tacitus, while Salutati had recovered Cicero&rsquo;s letters <i>Ad
+Familiares</i> (1389). During the council of Constance, Poggio, the
+papal secretary, spent in the quest of MSS. the interval between
+May 1415 and November 1417, during which he was left at
+leisure by the vacancy in the apostolic see.</p>
+
+<p>Thirteen of Cicero&rsquo;s speeches were found by him at Cluny and
+Langres, and elsewhere in France or Germany; the commentary
+of Asconius, a complete Quintilian, and a large part of Valerius
+Flaccus were discovered at St Gallen. A second expedition to
+that monastery and to others in the neighbourhood led to the
+recovery of Lucretius, Manilius, Silius Italicus and Ammianus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span>
+Marcellinus, while the <i>Silvae</i> of Statius were recovered shortly
+afterwards. A complete MS. of Cicero, <i>De Oratore</i>, <i>Brutus</i> and
+<i>Orator</i>, was found by Bishop Landriani at Lodi (1421). Cornelius
+Nepos was discovered by Traversari in Padua (1434). The
+<i>Agricola</i>, <i>Germania</i> and <i>Dialogue</i> of Tacitus reached Italy from
+Germany in 1455, and the early books of the <i>Annals</i> in 1508.
+Pliny&rsquo;s <i>Panegyric</i> was discovered by Aurispa at Mainz (1433),
+and his correspondence with Trajan by Fra Giocondo in Paris
+about 1500.</p>
+
+<p>Greek MSS. were brought from the East by Aurispa, who in
+1423 returned with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight,
+including the celebrated Laurentian MS. of Aeschylus, Sophocles
+and Apollonius Rhodius. A smaller number was brought from
+Constantinople by Filelfo (1427), while Quintus Smyrnaeus was
+discovered in south Italy by Bessarion, who presented his own
+collection of MSS. to the republic of Venice and thus led to the
+foundation of the library of St Mark&rsquo;s (1468). As the emissary of
+Lorenzo, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the East, returning
+from his second visit in 1492 with two hundred MSS. from
+Mount Athos.</p>
+
+<p>The Renaissance theory of a humanistic education is illustrated
+by several treatises still extant. In 1392 Vergerio
+addressed to a prince of Padua the first treatise which methodically
+maintains the claims of Latin as an essential part of a
+liberal education. Eight years later, he was learning Greek from
+Chrysoloras. Among the most distinguished pupils of the latter
+was Leonardo Bruni, who, about 1405, wrote &ldquo;the earliest
+humanistic tract on education expressly addressed to a lady.&rdquo;
+He here urges that the foundation of all true learning is a &ldquo;sound
+and thorough knowledge of Latin,&rdquo; and draws up a course of
+reading, in which history is represented by Livy, Sallust, Curtius,
+and Caesar; oratory by Cicero; and poetry by Virgil. The same
+year saw the birth of Maffeo Vegio, whose early reverence for the
+muse of Virgil and whose later devotion to the memory of
+Monica have left their mark on the educational treatise which he
+wrote a few years before his death in 1458. The authors he
+recommends include &ldquo;Aesop&rdquo; and Sallust, the tragedies of
+Seneca and the epic poets, especially Virgil, whom he interprets in
+an allegorical sense. He is in favour of an early simultaneous
+study of a wide variety of subjects, to be followed later by the
+special study of one or two. Eight years before the death of
+Vegio, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had composed a
+brief treatise on education in the form of a letter to Ladislaus, the
+young king of Bohemia and Hungary. The Latin poets to be
+studied include Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Ovid&rsquo;s <i>Metamorphoses</i>, and
+(with certain limitations) Horace, Juvenal and Persius, as well as
+Plautus, Terence and the tragedies of Seneca; the prose authors
+recommended are Cicero, Livy and Sallust. The first great
+school of the Renaissance was that established by Vittorino da
+Feltre at Mantua, where he resided for the last twenty-two years
+of his life (1424-1446). Among the Latin authors studied were
+Virgil and Lucan, with selections from Horace, Ovid and Juvenal,
+besides Cicero and Quintilian, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and
+Livy. The Greek authors were Homer, Hesiod, Pindar and the
+dramatists, with Herodotus, Xenophon and Plato, Isocrates and
+Demosthenes, Plutarch and Arrian.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, Guarino had been devoting five years to the training
+of the eldest son of the marquis of Ferrara. At Ferrara he spent
+the last thirty years of his long life (1370-1460), producing text-books
+of Greek and Latin grammar, and translations from
+Strabo and Plutarch. His method may be gathered from his
+son&rsquo;s treatise, <i>De Ordine Docendi et Studendi</i>. In that treatise
+the essential marks of an educated person are, not only ability to
+write Latin verse, but also, a point of &ldquo;at least equal importance,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;familiarity with the language and literature of Greece.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Without a knowledge of Greek, Latin scholarship itself is, in
+any real sense, impossible&rdquo; (1459).</p>
+
+<p>By the fall of Constantinople in 1453, &ldquo;Italy (in the eloquent
+phrase of Carducci) became sole heir and guardian of the ancient
+civilization,&rdquo; but its fall was in no way necessary for the revival
+of learning, which had begun a century before. Bessarion,
+Theodorus Gaza, Georgius Trepezuntius, Argyropulus, Chalcondyles,
+all had reached Italy before 1453. A few more Greeks
+fled to Italy after that date, and among these were Janus
+Lascaris, Musurus and Callierges. All three were of signal service
+in devoting their knowledge of Greek to perpetuating and
+popularizing the Greek classics with the aid of the newly-invented
+art of printing. That art had been introduced into
+Italy by the German printers, Sweynheym and Pannartz, who
+had worked under Fust at Mainz. At Subiaco and at Rome they
+had produced in 1465-1471 the earliest editions of Cicero, <i>De
+Oratore</i> and the <i>Letters</i>, and eight other Latin authors.</p>
+
+<p>The printing of Greek began at Milan with the Greek grammar
+of Constantine Lascaris (1476). At Florence the earliest editions
+of Homer (1488) and Isocrates (1493) had been produced by
+Demetrius Chalcondyles, while Janus Lascaris was the first to
+edit the Greek anthology, Apollonius Rhodius, and parts of
+Euripides, Callimachus and Lucian (1494-1496). In 1494-1515
+Aldus Manutius published at Venice no less than twenty-seven
+<i>editiones principes</i> of Greek authors and of Greek works of
+reference, the authors including Aristotle, Theophrastus,
+Theocritus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Herodotus,
+Euripides, Demosthenes (and the minor Attic orators), Pindar,
+Plato and Athenaeus. In producing Plato, Athenaeus and
+Aristophanes, the scholar-printer was largely aided by Musurus,
+who also edited the Aldine Pausanias (1516) and the <i>Etymologicum</i>
+printed in Venice by another Greek immigrant,
+Callierges (1499).</p>
+
+<p>The Revival of Learning in Italy ends with the sack of Rome
+(1527). Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to decline in
+Italy, but meanwhile an interest in that language had been
+transmitted to the lands beyond the Alps.</p>
+
+<p>In the study of Latin the principal aim of the Italian humanists
+was the <i>imitation</i> of the style of their classical models. In the
+case of poetry, this imitative spirit is apparent in Petrarch&rsquo;s
+<i>Africa</i>, and in the Latin poems of Politian, Pontano, Sannazaro,
+Vida and many others. Petrarch was not only the imitator
+of Virgil, who had been the leading name in Latin letters throughout
+the middle ages; it was the influence of Petrarch that gave
+a new prominence to Cicero. The imitation of Cicero was carried
+on with varying degrees of success by humanists such as Gasparino
+da Barzizza (d. 1431), who introduced a new style of
+epistolary Latin; by Paolo Cortesi, who discovered the importance
+of a rhythmical structure in the composition of Ciceronian
+prose (1490); and by the accomplished secretaries of Leo X.,
+Bembo and Sadoleto. Both of these papal secretaries were
+mentioned in complimentary terms by Erasmus in his celebrated
+dialogue, the <i>Ciceronianus</i> (1528), in which no less than one
+hundred and six Ciceronian scholars of all nations are briefly
+and brilliantly reviewed, the slavish imitation of Cicero denounced,
+and the law laid down that &ldquo;to speak with propriety
+we must adapt ourselves to the age in which we live&mdash;an age
+that differs entirely from that of Cicero.&rdquo; One of the younger
+Ciceronians criticized by Erasmus was Longolius, who had
+died at Padua in 1522. The cause of the Ciceronians was defended
+by the elder Scaliger in 1531 and 1536, and by Étienne
+Dolet in 1535, and the controversy was continued by other
+scholars down to the year 1610. Meanwhile, in Italy, a strict
+type of Ciceronianism was represented by Paulus Manutius
+(d. 1574), and a freer and more original form of Latinity by
+Muretus (d. 1585).</p>
+
+<p>Before touching on the salient points in the subsequent
+centuries, in connexion with the leading nations of Europe,
+we may briefly note the cosmopolitan position of Erasmus
+(1466-1536), who, although he was a native of the Netherlands,
+was far more closely connected with France, England, Italy,
+Germany and Switzerland, than with the land of his birth.
+He was still a school-boy at Deventer when his high promise
+was recognized by Rudolf Agricola, &ldquo;the first (says Erasmus)
+who brought from Italy some breath of a better culture.&rdquo; Late
+in 1499 Erasmus spent some two months at Oxford, where he
+met Colet; it was in London that he met More and Linacre and
+Grocyn, who had already ceased to lecture at Oxford. At Paris,
+in 1500, he was fully conscious that &ldquo;without Greek the amplest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span>
+knowledge of Latin was imperfect&rdquo;; and, during his three
+years in Italy (1506-1509), he worked quietly at Greek in Bologna
+and attended the lectures of Musurus in Padua. In October
+1511 he was teaching Greek to a little band of students in Cambridge;
+at Basel in 1516 he produced his edition of the Greek
+Testament, the first that was actually published; and during
+the next few years he was helping to organize the college lately
+founded at Louvain for the study of Greek and Hebrew, as well
+as Latin. Seven years at Basel were followed by five at Freiburg,
+and by two more at Basel, where he died. The names of all
+these places are suggestive of the wide range of his influence.
+By his published works, his <i>Colloquies</i>, his <i>Adages</i> and his
+<i>Apophthegms</i>, he was the educator of the nations of Europe.
+An educational aim is also apparent in his editions of Terence
+and of Seneca, while his Latin translations made his contemporaries
+more familiar with Greek poetry and prose, and his
+<i>Paraphrase</i> promoted a better understanding of the Greek
+Testament. He was not so much a scientific scholar as a keen
+and brilliant man of letters and a widely influential apostle of
+humanism.</p>
+
+<p>In France the most effective of the early teachers of Greek
+was Janus Lascaris (1495-1503). Among his occasional pupils
+was Budaeus (d. 1540), who prompted Francis I.
+<span class="sidenote">France.</span>
+to found in 1530 the corporation of the Royal Readers
+in Greek, as well as Latin and Hebrew, afterwards famous
+under the name of the Collège de France. In the study of
+Greek one of the earliest links between Italy and Germany
+was Rudolf Agricola, who had learned Greek under
+<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span>
+Gaza at Ferrara. It was in Paris that his younger contemporary
+Reuchlin acquired part of that proficiency in Greek
+which attracted the notice of Argyropulus, whose admiration
+of Reuchlin is twice recorded by Melanchthon, who soon afterwards
+was pre-eminent as the &ldquo;praeceptor&rdquo; of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>In the age of the revival the first Englishman who studied
+Greek was a Benedictine monk, William of Selling (d. 1494),
+who paid two visits to Italy. At Canterbury he
+inspired with his own love of learning his nephew,
+<span class="sidenote">England.</span>
+Linacre, who joined him on one of those visits, studied Greek
+at Florence under Politian and Chalcondyles, and apparently
+stayed in Italy from 1485 to 1499. His translation of a treatise
+of Galen was printed at Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch, who,
+in the same year and place, was the first to use Greek type in
+England. Greek had been first taught to some purpose at
+Oxford by Grocyn on his return from Italy in 1491. One of the
+younger scholars of the day was William Lilye, who picked up
+his Greek at Rhodes on his way to Palestine and became the
+first high-master of the school founded by Colet at St Paul&rsquo;s
+(1510).</p>
+
+<p>(b) That part of the <i>Modern Period</i> of classical studies which
+succeeds the age of the Revival in Italy may be subdivided
+into three periods distinguished by the names of the nations
+most prominent in each.</p>
+
+<p>1. The first may be designated the <i>French</i> period. It begins
+with the foundation of the Royal Readers by Francis I. in 1530,
+and it may perhaps be regarded as extending to 1700.
+This period is marked by a many-sided <i>erudition</i>
+<span class="sidenote">The French period.</span>
+rather than by any special cult of the <i>form</i> of the
+classical languages. It is the period of the great polyhistors of
+France. It includes Budaeus and the elder Scaliger (who
+settled in France in 1529), with Turnebus and Lambinus, and
+the learned printers Robertus and Henricus Stephanus, while
+among its foremost names are those of the younger (and greater)
+Scaliger, Casaubon and Salmasius. Of these, Casaubon ended
+his days in England (1614); Scaliger, by leaving France for the
+Netherlands in 1593, for a time at least transferred the supremacy
+in scholarship from the land of his birth to that of his adoption.
+The last sixteen years of his life (1593-1609) were spent at Leiden,
+which was also for more than twenty years (1631-1653) the
+home of Salmasius, and for thirteen (1579-1592) that of Lipsius
+(d. 1606). In the 17th century the erudition of France is best
+represented by &ldquo;Henricus Valesius,&rdquo; Du Cange and Mabillon.
+In the same period Italy was represented by Muretus, who
+had left France in 1563, and by her own sons, Nizolius, Victorius,
+Robortelli and Sigonius, followed in the 17th century by R.
+Fabretti. The Netherlands, in the 16th, claim W. Canter as
+well as Lipsius, and, in the 17th, G.J. Vossius, Johannes Meursius,
+the elder and younger Heinsius, Hugo Grotius, J.F.
+Gronovius, J.G. Graevius and J. Perizonius. Scotland, in the
+16th, is represented by George Buchanan; England by Sir John
+Cheke, Roger Ascham, and Sir Henry Savile, and, in the 17th,
+by Thomas Gataker, Thomas Stanley, Henry Dodwell, and
+Joshua Barnes; Germany by Janus Gruter, Ezechiel Spanheim
+and Chr. Cellarius, the first two of whom were also connected
+with other countries.</p>
+
+<p>We have already seen that a strict imitation of Cicero was
+one of the characteristics of the Italian humanists. In and
+after the middle of the 16th century a correct and
+pure Latinity was promoted by the educational
+<span class="sidenote">Literary Latin.</span>
+system of the Jesuits; but with the growth of the
+vernacular literatures Latin became more and more exclusively
+the language of the learned. Among the most conspicuous
+Latin writers of the 17th century are G.J. Vossius and the
+Heinsii, with Salmasius and his great adversary, Milton. Latin
+was also used in works on science and philosophy, such as Sir
+Isaac Newton&rsquo;s <i>Principia</i> (1687), and many of the works of
+Leibnitz (1646-1705). In botany the custom followed by John
+Ray (1627-1705) in his <i>Historia Plantarum</i> and in other works
+was continued in 1760 by Linnaeus in his <i>Systema Naturae</i>.
+The last important work in English theology written in Latin
+was George Bull&rsquo;s <i>Defensio Fidei Nicenae</i> (1685). The use of
+Latin in diplomacy died out towards the end of the 17th century;
+but, long after that date negotiations with the German empire
+were conducted in Latin, and Latin was the language of the
+debates in the Hungarian diet down to 1825.</p>
+
+<p>2. During the 18th century the classical scholarship of the
+Netherlands was under the healthy and stimulating influence
+of Bentley (1662-1742), who marks the beginning
+of the English and Dutch period, mainly represented
+<span class="sidenote">The English and Dutch period.</span>
+in Holland by Bentley&rsquo;s younger contemporary and
+correspondent, Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685-1766),
+and the latter scholar&rsquo;s great pupil David Ruhnken (1723-1798).
+It is the age of historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism.
+Both of these were ably represented in the first half of the
+century by Bentley himself, while, in the twenty years between
+1782 and 1803, the verbal criticism of the tragic poets of Athens
+was the peculiar province of Richard Porson (1759-1808), who
+was born in the same year as F.A. Wolf. Among other representatives
+of England were Jeremiah Markland and Jonathan
+Toup, Thomas Tyrwhitt and Thomas Twining, Samuel Parr
+and Sir William Jones; and of the Netherlands, the two Burmanns
+and L. Küster, Arnold Drakenborch and Wesseling,
+Lodewyk Valckenaer and Daniel Wyttenbach (1746-1829).
+Germany is represented by Fabricius and J.M. Gesner, J.A.
+Ernesti and J.J. Reiske, J.J. Winckelmann and Chr. G. Heyne;
+France by B. de Montfaucon and J.B.G.D. Villoison; Alsace
+by French subjects of German origin, R.F.P. Brunck and J.
+Schweighäuser; and Italy by E. Forcellini and Ed. Corsini.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>German</i> period begins with F.A. Wolf (1759-1824),
+whose <i>Prolegomena</i> to Homer appeared in 1795. He is the
+founder of the systematic and encyclopaedic type
+of scholarship embodied in the comprehensive term
+<span class="sidenote">The German period.</span>
+<i>Altertumswissenschaft</i>, or &ldquo;a scientific knowledge
+of the old classical world.&rdquo; The tradition of Wolf
+was ably continued by August Böckh (d. 1867), one of the
+leaders of the historical and antiquarian school, brilliantly
+represented in the previous generation by B.G. Niebuhr (d.
+1831).</p>
+
+<p>In contrast with this school we have the critical and grammatical
+school of Gottfried Hermann (d. 1848). During this
+period, while Germany remains the most productive of the
+nations, scholarship has been more and more international
+and cosmopolitan in its character.</p>
+
+<p><i>19th Century.</i>&mdash;We must here be content with simply recording
+the names of a few of the more prominent representatives of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span>
+the 19th century in some of the most obvious departments of
+classical learning. Among natives of Germany the leading
+<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span>
+scholars have been, in <i>Greek</i>, C.F.W. Jacobs, C.A.
+Lobeck, L. Dissen, I. Bekker, A. Meineke, C. Lehrs,
+W. Dindorf, T. Bergk, F.W. Schneidewin, H. Köchly, A. Nauck,
+H. Usener, G. Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in <i>Latin</i>, C.
+Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M. Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleckeisen,
+E. Bährens, L. Müller and O. Ribbeck. <i>Grammar</i> and
+kindred subjects have been represented by P. Buttmann, A.
+Matthiae, F.W. Thiersch, C.G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C.W.
+Krüger, R. Kühner and H.L. Ahrens; and <i>lexicography</i> by
+F. Passow and C.E. Georges. Among editors of <i>Thucydides</i>
+we have had E.F. Poppo and J. Classen; among editors of
+<i>Demosthenes or other orators</i>, G.H. Schäfer, J.T. Vömel, G.E.
+Benseler, A. Westermann, G.F. Schömann, H. Sauppe, and C.
+Rehdantz (besides Blass, already mentioned). The <i>Platonists</i>
+include F. Schleiermacher, G.A.F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the
+many-sided C.F. Hermann; the <i>Aristotelians</i>, C.A. Brandis,
+A. Trendelenburg, L. Spengel, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bernays
+and F. Susemihl. The history of <i>Greek philosophy</i> was written
+by F. Ueberweg, and, more fully, by E. Zeller. <i>Greek history</i>
+was the domain of G. Droysen, Max Duncker, Ernst Curtius,
+Arnold Schäfer and Adolf Holm; <i>Greek antiquities</i> that of
+M.H. Meier and G.F. Schömann and of G. Gilbert; <i>Greek
+epigraphy</i> that of J. Franz, A. Kirchhoff, W. von Hartel, U.
+Köhler, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittenberger; <i>Roman history
+and constitutional antiquities</i> that of Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903),
+who was associated in <i>Latin epigraphy</i> with E. Hübner
+and W. Henzen. <i>Classical art and archaeology</i> were represented
+by F.G. Welcker, E. Gerhard, C.O. Müller, F. Wieseler, O.
+Jahn, C.L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C.B. Stark, J. Overbeck, W.
+Helbig, O. Benndorf and A. Furtwängler; <i>mythology</i> (with
+cognate subjects) by G.F. Creuzer, P.W. Forchhammer, L.
+Preller, A. Kuhn, J.W. Mannhardt and E. Rohde; and <i>comparative
+philology</i> by F. Bopp, A.F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen,
+Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and H. Steinthal. The history of
+<i>classical philology</i> in Germany was written by Conrad Bursian
+(1830-1883).</p>
+
+<p>In France we have J.F. Boissonade, J.A. Letronne, L.M.
+Quicherat, M.P. Littré, B. Saint-Hilaire, J.V. Duruy, B.E.
+Miller, É. Egger, C.V. Daremberg, C. Thurot, L.E.
+<span class="sidenote">France,</span>
+Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in archaeology)
+A.C. Quatremère de Quincy, P. le Bas, C.F.M. Texier, the duc
+de Luynes, the Lenormants (C. and F.), W.H. Waddington
+and O. Rayet; and (in comparative philology) Victor
+<span class="sidenote">Belgium, Holland,</span>
+Henry. Greece was ably represented in France by
+A. Koraes. In Belgium we have P. Willems and
+the Baron De Witte (long resident in France); in Holland,
+C.G. Cobet; in Denmark, J.N. Madvig. Among the scholars
+of Great Britain and Ireland may be mentioned:
+<span class="sidenote">England.</span>
+P. Elmsley, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P.P. Dobree,
+J.H. Monk, C.J. Blomfield, W. Veitch, T.H. Key, B.H.
+Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T.W. Peile, R. Shilleto, W.H. Thompson,
+J.W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H.G. Liddell, C. Badham, G.
+Rawlinson, F.A. Paley, B. Jowett, T.S. Evans, E.M. Cope,
+H.A.J. Munro, W.G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H.A. Holden,
+J. Riddell, J. Conington, W.Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W.D. Geddes,
+D.B. Monro, H. Nettleship, A. Palmer, R.C. Jebb, A.S. Wilkins,
+W.G. Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and
+archaeologists, W.M. Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grote and
+C. Thirlwall, T. Arnold, G. Long and Charles Merivale, Sir
+Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A.S. Murray, Robert
+Burn and H.F. Pelham. Among comparative philologists
+Max Müller belonged to Germany by birth and to England by
+adoption, while, in the United States, his ablest counterpart
+was W.D. Whitney. B.L. Gildersleeve, W.W. Goodwin, Henry
+Drisler, J.B. Greenough and G.M. Lane were prominent
+American classical scholars.</p>
+
+<p>The 19th century in Germany was marked by the organization
+of the great series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by
+the foundation of the Archaeological Institute in Rome (1829),
+which was at first international in its character. The Athenian
+Institute was founded in 1874. Schools at Athens and Rome
+were founded by France in 1846 and 1873, by the United States
+of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England in 1883 and 1901;
+<span class="sidenote">Schools of Rome and Athens.</span>
+and periodicals are published by the schools of all these
+four nations. An interest in Greek studies (and especially
+in art and archaeology) has been maintained in
+England by the Hellenic Society, founded in 1879, with
+its organ the <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i>. A further interest in
+Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized lands by
+the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta,
+Olympia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete.
+The extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly
+extended our knowledge of the administration of that country in
+the times of the Ptolemies, and have materially added to the
+existing remains of Greek literature. Scholars have been
+enabled to realize in their own experience some of the enthusiasm
+that attended the recovery of lost classics during the Revival of
+Learning. They have found themselves living in a new age of
+<i>editiones principes</i>, and have eagerly welcomed the first publication
+of Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (1891), Herondas (1891)
+and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the <i>Persae</i> of Timotheus of
+Miletus (1903), with some of the <i>Paeans</i> of Pindar (1907) and
+large portions of the plays of Menander (1898-1899 and 1907).
+The first four of these were first edited by F.G. Kenyon,
+Timotheus by von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff, Menander partly by
+J. Nicole and G. Lefebre and partly by B.P. Grenfell and A.S.
+Hunt, who have also produced fragments of the <i>Paeans</i> of
+Pindar and many other classic texts (including a Greek continuation
+of Thucydides and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in
+the successive volumes of the <i>Oxyrhynchus papyri</i> and other
+kindred publications.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;For a full bibliography of the history of classical
+philology, see E. Hübner, <i>Grundriss zu Vorlesungen über die Geschichte
+und Encyklopädie der klassischen Philologie</i> (2nd ed., 1889); and for
+a brief outline, C.L. Urlichs in Iwan von Müller&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch</i>, vol. i.
+(2nd ed., 1891). 33-145; S. Reinach, <i>Manuel de philologie classique</i>
+(2nd ed., 1883-1884; <i>nouveau tirage</i> 1907), 1-22; and A. Gudemann,
+<i>Grundris</i> (Leipzig, 1907), pp. 224 seq. For the Alexandrian
+period, F. Susemihl, <i>Gesch. der griechischen Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit</i>
+(2 vols., 1891-1892); cf. F.A. Eckstein, <i>Nomenclator
+Philologorum</i> (1871), and W. Pökel, <i>Philologisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon</i>
+(1882). For the period ending <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400, see A. Gräfenhan,
+<i>Gesch. der klass. Philologie</i> (4 vols., 1843-1850); for the Byzantine
+period, C. Krumbacher in Iwan von Müller, vol. ix. (1) (2nd ed.,
+1897); for the Renaissance, G. Voigt, <i>Die Wiederbelebung des class.
+Altertums</i> (3rd ed., 1894, with bibliography); L. Geiger, <i>Renaissance
+und Humanismus in Italien und Deutschland</i> (1882, with
+bibliography); J.A. Symonds, <i>Revival of Learning</i> (1877, &amp;c.);
+R.C. Jebb, in <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, i. (1902), 532-584; and
+J.E. Sandys, <i>Harvard Lectures on the Revival of Learning</i> (1905);
+also P. de Nolhac, <i>Pétrarque et l&rsquo;humanisme</i> (2nd ed., 1907). On
+the history of Greek scholarship in France, É. Egger, <i>L&rsquo;Histoire
+d&rsquo;hellénisme en France</i> (1869); Mark Pattison, <i>Essays</i>, i., and <i>Life
+of Casaubon</i>; in Germany, C. Bursian, <i>Gesch. der class. Philologie
+in Deutschland</i> (1883); in Holland, L. Müller, <i>Gesch. der class.
+Philologie in den Niederlanden</i> (1869); in Belgium, L.C. Roersch in
+E.P. van Bemmel&rsquo;s <i>Patria Belgica</i>, vol. iii. (1875), 407-432; and
+in England, R.C. Jebb, &ldquo;Erasmus&rdquo; (1890) and &ldquo;Bentley&rdquo; (1882),
+and &ldquo;Porson&rdquo; (in <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>). On the subject as a whole
+see J.E. Sandys, <i>History of Classical Scholarship</i> (with chronological
+tables, portraits and facsimiles), vol. i.; <i>From the Sixth Century
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> to the end of the Middle Ages</i> (1903, 2nd ed., 1906); vols. ii.
+and iii., <i>From the Revival of Learning to the Present Day</i> (1908),
+including the history of scholarship in all the countries of Europe
+and in the United States of America. See also the separate biographical
+articles in this Encyclopaedia.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center1 sc">(B) The Study of the Classics in Secondary Education</p>
+
+<p>After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed
+much to the influence and example of Vittorino da Feltre,
+Budacus, Erasmus and Melanchthon, who were among the
+leading representatives of that revival in Italy, France, England
+and Germany.</p>
+
+<p>1. In <i>England</i>, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and
+Eton (1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but
+before the revival had reached Britain. The first
+school<a name="FnAnchor_2l" id="FnAnchor_2l" href="#Footnote_2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a> which came into being under the immediate
+<span class="sidenote">England.</span>
+influence of humanism was that founded at St Paul&rsquo;s by Dean
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span>
+Colet (1510), the friend of Erasmus, whose treatise <i>De pueris
+instituendis</i> (1529) has its English counterpart in the <i>Governor</i> of
+Sir Thomas Elyot (1531). The highmaster of St Paul&rsquo;s was to be
+&ldquo;learned in good and clean Latin, and also in Greek, if such may
+be gotten.&rdquo; The master and the second master of Shrewsbury
+(founded 1551) were to be &ldquo;well able to make a Latin verse, and
+learned in the Greek tongue.&rdquo; The influence of the revival
+extended to many other schools, such as Christ&rsquo;s Hospital (1552),
+Westminster (1560), and Merchant Taylors&rsquo; (1561); Repton
+(1557), Rugby (1567) and Harrow (1571).</p>
+
+<p>At the grammar school of Stratford-on-Avon, about 1571-1577,
+Shakespeare presumably studied Terence, Horace, Ovid
+and the <i>Bucolics</i> of Baptista Mantuanus (1502). In
+the early plays he quotes Ovid and Seneca. Similarly,
+<span class="sidenote">Shakespeare and the grammar-school.</span>
+in <i>Titus Andronicus</i> (iv. 2) he says, of <i>Integer vitae</i>:
+&ldquo;&rsquo;Tis a verse in Horace; I know it well: I read it in
+the grammar long ago.&rdquo; In <i>Henry VI.</i> part ii. sc. 7,
+when Jack Cade charges Lord Say with having &ldquo;most
+traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in erecting a
+grammar-school,&rdquo; Lord Say replies that &ldquo;ignorance is the curse
+of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven.&rdquo; In
+the <i>Taming of the Shrew</i> (I. i. 157) a line is quoted as from
+Terence (<i>Andria</i>, 74): &ldquo;<i>redime te captum quam queas minimo.</i>&rdquo;
+This is taken <i>verbatim</i> from Lilye&rsquo;s contribution to the <i>Brevis
+Institutio</i>, originally composed by Colet, Erasmus and Lilye for
+<span class="sidenote">Early text-books.</span>
+St Paul&rsquo;s School (1527), and ultimately adopted as the
+<i>Eton Latin Grammar</i>. The <i>Westminster Greek Grammar</i>
+of Grant (1575) was succeeded by that of Camden
+(1595), founded mainly on a Paduan text-book, and apparently
+adopted in 1596 by Sir Henry Savile at Eton, where it long
+remained in use as the <i>Eton Greek Grammar</i>, while at Westminster
+itself it was superseded by that of Busby (1663). The
+text-books to be used at Harrow in 1590 included Hesiod and
+some of the Greek orators and historians.</p>
+
+<p>In one of the <i>Paston Letters</i> (i. 301), an Eton boy of 1468 quotes
+two Latin verses of his own composition. Nearly a century later,
+on New Year&rsquo;s Day, 1560, forty-four boys of the school
+presented Latin verses to Queen Elizabeth. The queen&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Ascham.</span>
+former tutor, Roger Ascham, in his <i>Scholemaster</i> (1570), agrees
+with his Strassburg friend, J. Sturm, in making the imitation of
+the Latin classics the main aim of instruction. He is more
+original when he insists on the value of translation and retranslation
+for acquiring a mastery over Latin prose composition, and
+when he protests against compelling boys to converse in Latin
+too soon. Ascham&rsquo;s influence is apparent in the <i>Positions</i> of
+Mulcaster, who in 1581 insists on instruction in English before
+admission to a grammar-school, while he is distinctly in advance
+of his age in urging the foundation of a special college for the
+training of teachers.</p>
+
+<p>Cleland&rsquo;s <i>Institution of a Young Nobleman</i> (1607) owes much to
+the Italian humanists. The author follows Ascham in protesting
+against compulsory Latin conversation, and only
+slightly modifies his predecessor&rsquo;s method of teaching
+<span class="sidenote">Cleland.</span>
+Latin prose. When Latin grammar has been mastered, he
+bids the teacher lead his pupil &ldquo;into the sweet fountain and
+spring of all Arts and Science,&rdquo; that is, Greek learning which is
+&ldquo;as profitable for the understanding as the Latin tongue for
+speaking.&rdquo; In the study of ancient history, &ldquo;deeds and not
+words&rdquo; are the prime interest. &ldquo;In Plutarch pleasure is so
+mixed and confounded with profit; that I esteem the reading of
+him as a paradise for a curious spirit to walk in at all time.&rdquo;
+Bacon in his <i>Advancement of Learning</i> (1605) notes it as &ldquo;the first
+distemper of learning when men study words and not matter&rdquo;
+(I. iv. 3); he also observes that the Jesuits &ldquo;have much
+<span class="sidenote">Bacon, Milton, Petty.</span>
+quickened and strengthened the state of learning&rdquo;
+(I. vi. 15). He is on the side of reform in education;
+he waves the humanist aside with the words: <i>vetustas
+cessit, ratio vicit</i>. Milton, in his <i>Tractate on Education</i>
+(1644), advances further on Bacon&rsquo;s lines, protesting against the
+length of time spent on instruction in language, denouncing
+merely verbal knowledge, and recommending the study of a
+large number of classical authors for the sake of their subject-matter,
+and with a view to their bearing on practical life. His
+ideal place of education is an institution combining a school and
+a university. Sir William Petty, the economist (1623-1687),
+urged the establishment of <i>ergastula literaria</i> for instruction of a
+purely practical kind. Locke, who had been educated
+<span class="sidenote">Locke.</span>
+at Winchester and had lectured on Greek at Oxford
+(1660), nevertheless almost completely eliminated Greek from
+the scheme which he unfolded in his <i>Thoughts on Education</i>
+(1693). With Locke, the moral and practical qualities of virtue
+and prudence are of the first consideration. Instruction, he
+declares, is but the least part of education; his aim is to train,
+not men of letters or men of science, but practical men armed for
+the battle of life. Latin was, above all, to be learned through use,
+with as little grammar as possible, but with the reading of easy
+Latin texts, and with no repetition, no composition. Greek he
+absolutely proscribes, reserving a knowledge of that language to
+the learned and the lettered, and to professional scholars.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout the 18th century and the early part of the 19th,
+the old routine went on in England with little variety, and with
+no sign of expansion. The range of studies was
+widened, however, at Rugby in 1828-1842 by Thomas
+<span class="sidenote">Arnold.</span>
+Arnold, whose interest in ancient history and geography, as a
+necessary part of classical learning, is attested by his edition of
+Thucydides; while his influence was still further extended when
+those who had been trained in his traditions became head masters
+of other schools.</p>
+
+<p>During the rest of the century the leading landmarks are the
+three royal commissions known by the names of their chairmen:
+(1) Lord Clarendon&rsquo;s on nine public schools, Eton, Winchester,
+Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, St
+Paul&rsquo;s and Merchant Taylors&rsquo; (1861-1864), resulting in the
+Public Schools Act of 1868; (2) Lord Taunton&rsquo;s on 782 endowed
+schools (1864-1867), followed by the act of 1869; and (3) Mr
+Bryce&rsquo;s on secondary education (1894-1895).</p>
+
+<p>A certain discontent with the current traditions of classical
+training found expression in the <i>Essays on a Liberal Education</i>
+(1867). The author of the first essay, C.S. Parker,
+closed his review of the reforms instituted in Germany
+<span class="sidenote">Controversy on classical education.</span>
+and France by adding that in England there had
+been but little change. The same volume included a
+critical examination of the &ldquo;Theory of Classical Education&rdquo; by
+Henry Sidgwick, and an attack on compulsory Greek and Latin
+verse composition by F.W. Farrar. The claims of verse composition
+have since been judiciously defended by the Hon.
+Edward Lyttelton (1897), while a temperate and effective
+restatement of the case for the classics may be found in Sir
+Richard Jebb&rsquo;s Romanes Lecture on &ldquo;Humanism in Education&rdquo;
+(1899).</p>
+
+<p>The question of the position of Greek in secondary education
+has from time to time attracted attention in connexion with the
+requirement of Greek in Responsions at Oxford, and in the
+Previous Examination at Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Cambridge University Reporter</i> for November 9, 1870, it
+was stated that, &ldquo;in order to provide adequate encouragement
+for the study of Modern Languages and Natural
+Science,&rdquo; the commissioners for endowed schools had
+<span class="sidenote">&ldquo;Compulsory Greek.&rdquo;</span>
+determined on the establishment of modern schools of
+the first grade in which Greek would be excluded. The
+commissioners feared that, so long as Greek was a <i>sine qua non</i>
+at the universities, these schools would be cut off from direct
+connexion with the universities, while the universities would in
+some degree lose their control over a portion of the higher
+culture of the nation. On the 9th of March 1871 a syndicate
+recommended that, in the Previous Examination, French and
+German (taken together) should be allowed in place of Greek;
+on the 27th of April this recommendation (which only affected
+candidates for honours or for medical degrees) was rejected by
+51 votes to 48.</p>
+
+<p>All the other proposals and votes relating to Greek in the
+Previous Examination in 1870-1873, 1878-1880, and 1891-1892
+are set forth in the <i>Cambridge University Reporter</i> for November
+11, 1904, pp. 202-205. In November 1903 a syndicate was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span>
+appointed to consider the studies and examinations of the university,
+their report of November 1904 on the Previous Examination
+was fully discussed, and the speeches published in the
+<i>Reporter</i> fcr December 17, 1904. In the course of the discussion
+Sir Richard Jebb drew attention to the statistics collected by the
+master of Emmanuel, Mr W. Chawner, showing that, out of 86
+head masters belonging to the Head Masters&rsquo; Conference whose
+replies had been published, &ldquo;about 56 held the opinion that the
+exemption from Greek for all candidates for a degree would
+endanger or altogether extinguish the study of Greek in the vast
+majority of schools, while about 21 head masters held a different
+opinion.&rdquo; On the 3rd of March 1905 a proposal for accepting
+either French or German as an alternative for either Latin or
+Greek in the Previous Examination was rejected by 1559 to 1052
+votes, and on the 26th of May 1906 proposals distinguishing
+between students in letters and students in science, and (<i>inter
+alia</i>) <i>requiring</i> the latter to take either French or German for
+either Latin or Greek in the Previous Examination, were rejected
+by 746 to 241.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, at Oxford a proposal practically making Greek
+optional with all undergraduates was rejected, in November 1902,
+by 189 votes to 166; a preliminary proposal permitting students
+of mathematics or natural science to offer one or more modern
+languages in lieu of Greek was passed by 164 to 162 in February
+1904, but on the 29th of November the draft of a statute to this
+effect was thrown out by 200 to 164. In the course of the
+controversy three presidents of the Royal Society, Lord Kelvin,
+Lord Lister and Sir W. Huggins, expressed the opinion that the
+proposed exemption was not beneficial to science students.</p>
+
+<p>Incidentally, the question of &ldquo;compulsory Greek&rdquo; has
+stimulated a desire for greater efficiency in classical teaching. In
+December 1903, a year before the most important of
+the public discussions at Cambridge, the Classical
+<span class="sidenote">The Classical Association.</span>
+Association was founded in London. The aim of that
+association is &ldquo;to promote the development, and
+maintain the well-being, of classical studies, and in particular (a)
+to impress upon public opinion the claim of such studies to an
+eminent place in the national scheme of education; (b) to
+improve the practice of classical teaching by free discussion of its
+scope and methods; (c) to encourage investigation and call
+attention to new discoveries; (d) to create opportunities of
+friendly intercourse and co-operation between all lovers of
+classical learning in this country.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The question of the curriculum and the time-table in secondary
+education has occupied the attention of the Classical Association,
+the British Association and the Education Department
+of Scotland. The general effect of the recommendations
+<span class="sidenote">The curriculum.</span>
+already made would be to begin the study of
+foreign languages with French, and to postpone the study of
+Latin to the age of twelve and that of Greek to the age of thirteen.
+At the Head Masters&rsquo; Conference of December 1907 a proposal to
+lower the standard of Greek in the entrance scholarship examinations
+of public schools was lost by 10 votes to 16, and the &ldquo;British
+Association report&rdquo; was adopted with reservations in 1908.
+In the case of secondary schools in receipt of grants of public
+money (about 700 in England and 100 in Wales in 1907-1908),
+&ldquo;the curriculum, and time-table must be approved by the Board
+of Education.&rdquo; The Board has also a certain control over the
+curriculum of schools under the Endowed Schools Acts and the
+Charitable Trusts Acts, and also over that of schools voluntarily
+applying for inspection with a view to being recognized as
+efficient.</p>
+
+<p>Further efficiency in classical education has been the aim of the
+movement in favour of the reform of Latin pronunciation. In
+1871 this movement resulted in Munro and Palmer&rsquo;s
+<i>Syllabus of Latin Pronunciation</i>. The reform was
+<span class="sidenote">Reform in Latin pronunciation.</span>
+carried forward at University College, London, by
+Professor Key and by Professor Robinson Ellis in 1873,
+and was accepted at Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Liverpool
+College, Christ&rsquo;s Hospital, Dulwich, and the City of London
+school. It was taken up anew by the Cambridge Philological
+Society in 1886, by the Modern Languages Association in 1901, by
+the Classical Association in 1904-1905, and the Philological
+Societies of Oxford and Cambridge in 1906. The reform was
+accepted by the various bodies of head masters and assistant
+masters in December 1906-January 1907, and the proposed
+scheme was formally approved by the Board of Education in
+February 1907.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.H. Woodward, <i>Studies in Education during the Age of
+the Renaissance</i> (1906), chap. xiii.; Acland and Llewellin Smith,
+<i>Studies in Secondary Education</i>, with introduction by James Bryce
+(1892); <i>Essays on a Liberal Education</i>, ed. F.W. Farrar (1867);
+R.C. Jebb, &ldquo;Humanism in Education,&rdquo; Romanes Lecture of 1899,
+reprinted with other lectures on cognate subjects in <i>Essays and
+Addresses</i> (1907); Foster Watson, <i>The Curriculum and Practice
+of the English Grammar Schools up to 1660</i> (1908); &ldquo;Greek at
+Oxford,&rdquo; by a Resident, in <i>The Times</i> (December 27, 1904);
+<i>Cambridge University Reporter</i> (November 11 and December 17,
+1904); <i>British Association Report on Curricula of Secondary Schools</i>
+(with an independent paper by Professor Armstrong on &ldquo;The
+Teaching of Classics&rdquo;), (December 1907); W.H.D. Rouse in <i>The
+Year&rsquo;s Work in Classical Studies</i> (1907 and 1908), chap. i.; J.P.
+Postgate, <i>How to pronounce Latin</i> (Appendix B, on &ldquo;Recent Progress&rdquo;),
+(1907). For further bibliographical details see pp. 875-890
+of Dr Karl Breul&rsquo;s &ldquo;Grossbritannien&rdquo; in Baumeister&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch</i>,
+I. ii. 737-892 (Munich, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. In <i>France</i> it was mainly with a view to promoting the
+study of Greek that the corporation of Royal Readers was
+founded by Francis I. in 1530 at the prompting of
+Budaeus. In the university of Paris, which was
+<span class="sidenote">France.</span>
+originally opposed to this innovation, the statutes of 1598
+prescribed the study of Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Theocritus,
+Plato, Demosthenes and Isocrates (as well as the principal Latin
+classics), and required the production of three exercises in Greek
+or Latin in each week.</p>
+
+<p>From the middle of the 16th century the elements of Latin
+were generally learned from unattractive abridgments of the
+grammar of the Flemish scholar, van Pauteren or
+Despautère (d. 1520), which, in its original folio
+<span class="sidenote">Textbooks.</span>
+editions of 1537-1538, was an excellent work. The
+unhappy lot of those who were compelled to learn their Latin
+from the current abridgments was lamented by a Port-Royalist
+in a striking passage describing the gloomy forest of <i>le pays de
+Despautère</i> (Guyot, quoted in Sainte-Beuve&rsquo;s <i>Port-Royal</i>, iii. 429).
+The first Latin grammar written in French was that of Père de
+Condren of the <i>Oratoire</i> (c. 1642), which was followed by the
+Port-Royal <i>Méthode latine</i> of Claude Lancelot (1644), and by
+the grammar composed by Bossuet for the dauphin, and also
+used by Fénelon for the instruction of the duc de Bourgogne.
+In the second half of the 17th century the rules of grammar
+and rhetoric were simplified, and the time withdrawn from the
+practice of composition (especially verse composition) transferred
+to the explanation and the study of authors.</p>
+
+<p>Richelieu, in 1640, formed a scheme for a college in which
+Latin was to have a subordinate place, while room was to be
+found for the study of history and science, Greek, and
+French and modern languages. Bossuet, in educating
+<span class="sidenote">Richelieu, Bossuet, Fénelon, Fleury.</span>
+the dauphin, added to the ordinary classical routine
+represented by the extensive series of the &ldquo;Delphin
+Classics&rdquo; the study of history and of science. A greater originality
+in the method of teaching the ancient languages was
+exemplified by Fénelon, whose views were partially reflected
+by the Abbé Fleury, who also desired the simplification of
+grammar, the diminution of composition, and even the suppression
+of Latin verse. Of the ordinary teaching of Greek in
+his day, Fleury wittily observed that most boys &ldquo;learned just
+enough of that language to have a pretext for saying for the rest
+of their lives that Greek was a subject easily forgotten.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the 18th century Rollin, in his <i>Traité des études</i> (1726),
+agreed with the Port-Royalists in demanding that Latin
+grammars should be written in French, that the rules
+should be simplified and explained by a sufficient
+<span class="sidenote">Rollin.</span>
+number of examples, and that a more important place should
+be assigned to translation than to composition. The supremacy
+of Latin was the subject of a long series of attacks in the same
+century. Even at the close of the previous century the brilliant
+achievements of French literature had prompted La Bruyère
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span>
+to declare in <i>Des ouvrages de l&rsquo;esprit</i> (about 1680), &ldquo;We have at
+last thrown off the yoke of <i>Latinism</i>&rdquo;; and, in the same year,
+Jacques Spon claimed in his correspondence the right to use the
+French language in discussing points of archaeology.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, in 1563, notwithstanding the opposition of the
+university of Paris, the Jesuits had succeeded in founding the
+<i>Collegium Claromontanum</i>. After the accession of
+Henry IV. they were expelled from Paris and other
+<span class="sidenote">The Jesuits.</span>
+important towns in 1594, and not allowed to return
+until 1609, when they found themselves confronted once more
+by their rival, the university of Paris. They opened the doors of
+their schools to the Greek and Latin classics, but they represented
+the ancient masterpieces dissevered from their original historic
+environment, as impersonal models of taste, as isolated standards
+of style. They did much, however, for the cultivation of original
+composition modelled on Cicero and Virgil. They have been
+charged with paying an exaggerated attention to form, and
+with neglecting the subject-matter of the classics. This neglect
+is attributed to their anxiety to avoid the &ldquo;pagan&rdquo; element in
+the ancient literature. Intensely conservative in their methods,
+they kept up the system of using Latin in their grammars
+(and in their oral instruction) long after it had been abandoned
+by others.</p>
+
+<p>The use of French for these purposes was a characteristic of
+the &ldquo;Little Schools&rdquo; of the Jansenists of Port-Royal(1643-1660).
+The text-books prepared for them by Lancelot included
+not only the above-mentioned Latin grammar (1644)
+<span class="sidenote">Port-Royal.</span>
+but also the <i>Méthode grecque</i> of 1655 and the <i>Jardin
+des racines grecques</i> (1657), which remained in use for two centuries
+and largely superseded the grammar of Clenardus (1636)
+and the <i>Tirocinium</i> of Père Labbe (1648). Greek began to decline
+in the university about 1650, at the very time when the Port-Royalists
+were aiming at its revival. During the brief existence
+of their schools their most celebrated pupils were Tillemont
+and Racine.</p>
+
+<p>The Jesuits, on the other hand, claimed Corneille and Molière,
+as well as Descartes and Bossuet, Fontenelle, Montesquieu and
+Voltaire. Of their Latin poets the best-known were Denis Petau
+(d. 1652), René Rapin (d. 1687) and N.E. Sanadon (d. 1733).
+In 1762 the Jesuits were suppressed, and more than one hundred
+schools were thus deprived of their teachers. The university
+of Paris, which had prompted their suppression, and the parliament,
+which had carried it into effect, made every endeavour
+to replace them. The university took possession of the <i>Collegium
+Claromontanum</i>, then known as the <i>Collège Louis-le-Grand</i>,
+and transformed it into an <i>école normale</i>. Many of the Jesuit
+schools were transferred to the congregations of the <i>Oratoire</i>
+and the Benedictines, and to the secular clergy. On the eve of
+the Revolution, out of a grand total of 562 classical schools,
+384 were in the hands of the clergy and 178 in those of the
+congregations.</p>
+
+<p>The expulsion of the Jesuits gave a new impulse to the attacks
+directed against all schemes of education in which Latin held
+a prominent position. At the moment when the
+university of Paris was, by the absence of its rivals,
+<span class="sidenote">Classical education attacked.</span>
+placed in complete control of the education of France,
+she found herself driven to defend the principles of
+classical education against a crowd of assailants. All kinds of
+devices were suggested for expediting the acquisition of Latin;
+grammar was to be set aside; Latin was to be learned as a
+&ldquo;living language&rdquo;; much attention was to be devoted to
+acquiring an extensive vocabulary; and, &ldquo;to save time,&rdquo;
+composition was to be abolished. To facilitate the reading of
+Latin texts, the favourite method was the use of interlinear
+translations, originally proposed by Locke, first popularized in
+France by Dumarsais (1722), and in constant vogue down to the
+time of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>Early in the 18th century Rollin pleaded for the &ldquo;utility
+of Greek,&rdquo; while he described that language as the heritage of
+the university of Paris. In 1753 Berthier feared that in thirty
+years no one would be able to read Greek. In 1768 Rolland
+declared that the university, which held Greek in high honour,
+nevertheless had reason to lament that her students learnt little
+of the language, and he traced this decline to the fact that attendance
+at lectures had ceased to be compulsory. Greek, however,
+was still recognized as part of the examination held for the
+appointment of schoolmasters.</p>
+
+<p>During the 18th century, in Greek as well as in Latin, the
+general aim was to reach the goal as rapidly as possible, even at
+the risk of missing it altogether. On the eve of the
+Revolution, France was enjoying the study of the
+<span class="sidenote">Eve of the Revolution.</span>
+institutions of Greece in the attractive pages of the
+<i>Voyage du jeune Anacharsis</i> (1789), but the study of
+Greek was menaced even more than that of Latin. For fifty
+years before the Revolution there was a distinct dissatisfaction
+with the routine of the schools. To meet that dissatisfaction,
+the teachers had accepted new subjects of study, had improved
+their methods, and had simplified the learning of the dead
+languages. But even this was not enough. In the study of the
+classics, as in other spheres, it was revolution rather than
+evolution that was loudly demanded.</p>
+
+<p>The Revolution was soon followed by the long-continued
+battle of the &ldquo;Programmes.&rdquo; Under the First Republic the
+schemes of Condorcet (April 1792) and J. Lakanal
+(February 1795) were superseded by that of P.C.F.
+<span class="sidenote">First Republic.</span>
+Daunou (October 1795), which divided the pupils of
+the &ldquo;central schools&rdquo; into three groups, according to age, with
+corresponding subjects of study: (1) twelve to fourteen,&mdash;drawing,
+natural history, Greek and Latin, and a choice of modern
+languages; (2) fourteen to sixteen,&mdash;mathematics, physics,
+chemistry; (3) over sixteen,&mdash;general grammar, literature,
+history and constitutional law..</p>
+
+<p>In July 1801, under the consulate, there were two courses, (1)
+nine to twelve,&mdash;elementary knowledge, including elements of
+Latin; (2) above twelve,&mdash;a higher course, with two
+<span class="sidenote">Consulate.</span>
+alternatives, &ldquo;humanistic&rdquo; studies for the &ldquo;civil,&rdquo;
+and purely practical studies for the &ldquo;military&rdquo; section. The law
+of the 1st of May 1802 brought the <i>lycées</i> into existence, the
+subjects being, in Napoleon&rsquo;s own phrase, &ldquo;mainly Latin and
+mathematics.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>At the Restoration (1814) the military discipline of the lycées
+was replaced by the ecclesiastical discipline of the &ldquo;Royal
+Colleges.&rdquo; The reaction of 1815-1821 in favour of
+classics was followed by the more liberal programme of
+<span class="sidenote">Restoration.</span>
+Vatimesnil (1829), including, for those who had no
+taste for a classical education, certain &ldquo;special courses&rdquo; (1830),
+which were the germ of the <i>enseignement spécial</i> and the <i>enseignement
+moderne</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Under Louis Philippe (1830-1848), amid all varieties of
+administration there was a consistent desire to hold the balance
+fairly between all the conflicting subjects of study. After the
+revolution of 1848 the difficulties raised by the excessive number
+of subjects were solved by H.N.H. Fortoul&rsquo;s expedient of
+&ldquo;bifurcation,&rdquo; the alternatives being letters and science. In
+1863, under Napoleon III., Victor Duruy encouraged the study of
+history, and also did much for classical learning by founding the
+École des Hautes Études. In 1872, under the Third Republic,
+Jules Simon found time for hygiene, geography and modern
+<span class="sidenote">Third Republic.</span>
+languages by abolishing Latin verse composition and
+reducing the number of exercises in Latin prose, while
+he insisted on the importance of studying the inner
+meaning of the ancient classics. The same principles were
+carried out by Jules Ferry (1880) and Paul Bert (1881-1882). In
+the scheme of 1890 the Latin course of six years began with ten
+hours a week and ended with four; Greek was begun a year later
+with two hours, increasing to six and ending with four.</p>
+
+<p>The commission of 1899, under the able chairmanship of M.
+Alexandre Ribot, published an important report, which was
+followed in 1902 by the scheme of M. Georges Leygues. The
+preamble includes a striking tribute to the advantages that
+France had derived from the study of the classics:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;L&rsquo;étude de l&rsquo;antiquité grecque et latine a donné au génie français
+une mesure, une clarté et une élégance incomparables. C&rsquo;est par
+elle que notre philosophie, nos lettres et nos arts ont brillé d&rsquo;un si
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span>
+vif éclat; c&rsquo;est par elle que notre influence morale s&rsquo;est exercée en
+souveraine dans le monde. Les humanités doivent être protégées
+contre toute atteinte et fortifiées. Elles font partie du patrimoine
+national.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;L&rsquo;esprit classique n&rsquo;est pas ... incompatible avec l&rsquo;esprit
+moderne. Il est de tous les temps, parce qu&rsquo;il est le culte de la raison
+claire et libre, la recherche de la beauté harmonieuse et simple dans
+toutes les manifestations de la pensée.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>By the scheme introduced in these memorable terms the
+course of seven years is divided into two cycles, the first cycle (of
+four years) having two parallel courses: (1) without Greek or
+Latin, and (2) with Latin, and with optional Greek at the
+beginning of the third year. In the second cycle (of three years)
+those who have been learning both Greek and Latin, and those
+who have been learning neither, continue on the same lines as
+before; while those who have been learning Latin only may
+either (1) discontinue it in favour of modern languages <i>and</i>
+science, or (2) continue it with <i>either</i>. As an alternative to the
+second cycle, which normally ends in the examination for the
+<i>baccalauréat</i>, there is a shorter course, mainly founded on
+modern languages or applied science and ending in a public
+examination without the <i>baccalauréat</i>. The <i>baccalauréat</i>,
+however, has been condemned by the next minister, M. Briand, who
+prefers to crown the course with the award of a school diploma (1907).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Lantoine, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;enseignement secondaire en France
+au XVIIe siècle</i> (1874); A. Sicard, <i>Les Études classiques avant la
+Révolution</i> (1887); Sainte-Beuve, <i>Port-Royal</i>, vols. i.-v.
+(1840-1859), especially iii. 383-588; O. Gréard, <i>Education et instruction</i>,
+4 vols., especially &ldquo;Enseignement secondaire,&rdquo; vol. ii. pp. 1-90, with
+conspectus of programmes in the appendix (1889); A. Ribot, <i>La
+Réforme de l&rsquo;enseignement secondaire</i> (1900); G. Leygues, <i>Plan
+d&rsquo;études</i>, &amp;c. (1902); H.H. Johnson, &ldquo;Present State of Classical
+Studies in France,&rdquo; in <i>Classical Review</i> (December 1907). See also
+the English Education Department&rsquo;s <i>Special Reports on Education
+in France</i> (1899). The earlier literature is best represented in
+England by Matthew Arnold&rsquo;s <i>Schools and Universities in France</i>
+(1868; new edition, 1892) and <i>A French Eton</i> (1864).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. The history of education in Germany since 1500 falls into
+three periods: (a) the age of the Revival of Learning and the
+Reformation (1500-1650), (b) the age of French influence
+<span class="sidenote">Germany.</span>
+(1650-1800), and (c) the 19th century.</p>
+
+<p>(a) During the first twenty years of the 16th century the
+reform of Latin instruction was carried out by setting aside the
+old medieval grammars, by introducing new manuals of classical
+literature, and by prescribing the study of classical authors and
+the imitation of classical models. In all these points the lead was
+first taken by south Germany, and by the towns along the Rhine
+down to the Netherlands. The old schools and universities were
+being quietly interpenetrated by the new spirit of humanism,
+when the sky was suddenly darkened by the clouds of religious
+conflict. In 1525-1535 there was a marked depression in the
+classical studies of Germany. Erasmus, writing to W. Pirckheimer
+in 1528, exclaims: &ldquo;Wherever the spirit of Luther
+prevails, learning goes to the ground.&rdquo; Such a fate was, however,
+averted by the intervention of Melanchthon (d. 1560), the
+<span class="sidenote">Melanchthon.</span>
+<i>praeceptor Germaniae</i>, who was the embodiment of the
+spirit of the new Protestant type of education, with its
+union of evangelical doctrine and humanistic culture.
+Under his influence, new schools rapidly rose into being at
+Magdeburg, Eisleben and Nuremberg (1521-1526). During
+more than forty years of academic activity he not only provided
+manuals of Latin and Greek grammar and many other text-books
+that long remained in use, but he also formed for Germany a
+well-trained class of learned teachers, who extended his influence
+throughout the land. His principal ally as an educator and as a
+writer of text-books was Camerarius (d. 1574). Precepts of style,
+and models taken from the best Latin authors, were the means
+whereby a remarkable skill in the imitation of Cicero was attained
+at Strassburg during the forty-four years of the headmastership of
+Johannes von Sturm (d. 1589), who had himself been influenced
+by the <i>De disciplinis</i> of J.L. Vivès (1531), and in all his teaching
+aimed at the formation of a <i>sapiens atque eloquens pietas</i>. Latin
+continued to be the living language of learning and of literature,
+and a correct and elegant Latin style was regarded as the mark of
+an educated person. Greek was taught in all the great schools,
+but became more and more confined to the study of the Greek
+Testament. In 1550 it was proposed in Brunswick to
+<span class="sidenote">The Greek Testament.</span>
+banish all &ldquo;profane&rdquo; authors from the schools, and in
+1589 a competent scholar was instructed to write a
+sacred epic on the kings of Israel as a substitute for the
+works of the &ldquo;pagan&rdquo; poets. In 1637, when the doubts of Scaliger
+and Heinsius as to the purity of the Greek of the New Testament
+prompted the rector of Hamburg to introduce the study of
+classical authors, any reflection on the style of the Greek Testament
+was bitterly resented.</p>
+
+<p>The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540, and by 1600 most
+of the teachers in the Catholic schools and universities of
+Germany were Jesuits. The society was &ldquo;dissolved&rdquo;
+in 1773, but survived its dissolution. In accordance
+<span class="sidenote">The Jesuits.</span>
+with the <i>Ratio Studiorum</i> of Aquaviva (1599), which
+long remained unaltered and was only partially revised by
+J. Roothaan (1832), the main subjects of instruction were the
+<i>litterae humaniores diversarum linguarum</i>. The chief place among
+these was naturally assigned to Latin, the language of the society
+and of the Roman Church. The Latin grammar in use was that
+of the Jesuit rector of the school at Lisbon, Alvarez (1572).
+As in the Protestant schools, the principal aim was the attainment
+of <i>eloquentia</i>. A comparatively subordinate place was assigned
+to Greek, especially as the importance attributed to the Vulgate
+weakened the motive for studying the original text. It was
+recognized, however, that Latin itself (as Vivès had said) was
+&ldquo;in no small need of Greek,&rdquo; and that, &ldquo;unless Greek was
+learnt in boyhood, it would hardly ever be learnt at all.&rdquo; The
+text-book used was the <i>Institutiones linguae Graecae</i> of the
+German Jesuit, Jacob Gretser, of Ingolstadt (c. 1590), and the
+reading in the highest class included portions of Demosthenes,
+Isocrates, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Gregory
+of Nazianzus, Basil and Chrysostom. The Catholic and Protestant
+schools of the 16th century succeeded, as a rule, in giving
+a command over a correct Latin style and a taste for literary
+form and for culture. Latin was still the language of the law-courts
+and of a large part of general literature. Between
+Luther and Lessing there was no great writer of German prose.</p>
+
+<p>(b) In the early part of the period 1650-1800, while Latin
+continued to hold the foremost place, it was ceasing to be Latin
+of the strictly classical type. Greek fell still further
+into the background; and Homer and Demosthenes
+<span class="sidenote">The age of French influence.</span>
+gradually gave way to the Greek Testament. Between
+1600 and 1775 there was a great gap in the production
+of new editions of the principal Greek classics. The spell was
+only partially broken by J.A. Ernesti&rsquo;s <i>Homer</i> (1759 f.) and
+Chr. G. Heyne&rsquo;s <i>Pindar</i> (1773 f.).</p>
+
+<p>The peace of Westphalia (1648) marks a distinct epoch in
+the history of education in Germany. Thenceforth, education
+became more modern and more secular. The long
+wars of religion in Germany, as in France and England,
+<span class="sidenote">Modern and secular education.</span>
+were followed by a certain indifference as to disputed
+points of theology. But the modern and secular type
+of education that now supervened was opposed by the pietism
+of the second half of the 17th century, represented at the newly-founded
+university of Halle (1694) by A.H. Francke, the professor
+of Greek (d. 1727), whose influence was far greater than
+that of Chr. Cellarius (d. 1707), the founder of the first philological
+<i>Seminar</i> (1697). Francke&rsquo;s contemporary, Chr. Thomasius
+(d. 1728), was never weary of attacking scholarship of the old
+humanistic type and everything that savoured of antiquarian
+pedantry, and it was mainly his influence that made German the
+language of university lectures and of scientific and learned
+literature. A modern education is also the aim of the general
+introduction to the <i>nova methodus</i> of Leibnitz, where the study
+of Greek is recommended solely for the sake of the Greek
+Testament (1666). Meanwhile, Ratichius (d. 1635) had in vain
+pretended to teach Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the space of
+six months (1612), but he had the merit of maintaining that
+the study of a language should begin with the study of an author.
+Comenius (d. 1671) had proposed to teach Latin by drilling his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span>
+pupils in a thousand graduated phrases distributed over a
+hundred instructive chapters, while the Latin authors were
+banished because of their difficulty and their &ldquo;paganism&rdquo;
+(1631). One of the catchwords of the day was to insist on a
+knowledge of <i>things</i> instead of a knowledge of <i>words</i>, on &ldquo;realism&rdquo;
+instead of &ldquo;verbalism.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became
+the ideal in the German education of the upper classes of
+the 17th and 18th centuries. A large number of
+aristocratic schools (<i>Ritter-Akademien</i>) were founded,
+<span class="sidenote">Ritter-akademien.</span>
+beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tübingen
+(1589) and ending with the Hohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775).
+In these schools the subjects of study included mathematics
+and natural sciences, geography and history, and modern
+languages (especially French), with riding, fencing and dancing;
+Latin assumed a subordinate place, and classical composition
+in prose or verse was not considered a sufficiently courtly accomplishment.
+The youthful aristocracy were thus withdrawn
+from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic
+schools vanished with the dawn of the 19th century, and the
+ordinary public schools were once more frequented by the
+young nobility.</p>
+
+<p>(c) <i>The Modern Period.</i>&mdash;In the last third of the 18th century
+two important movements came into play, the &ldquo;naturalism&rdquo;
+of Rousseau and the &ldquo;new humanism.&rdquo; While
+Rousseau sought his ideal in a form of education and
+<span class="sidenote">The &ldquo;new humanism.&rdquo;</span>
+of culture that was in close accord with nature, the
+German apostles of the new humanism were convinced
+that they had found that ideal completely realized in the old
+Greek world. Hence the aim of education was to make young
+people thoroughly &ldquo;Greek,&rdquo; to fill them with the &ldquo;Greek&rdquo;
+spirit, with courage and keenness in the quest of truth, and
+with a devotion to all that was beautiful.
+<span class="sidenote">Herder.</span>
+The link between the naturalism of Rousseau and the new humanism is
+to be found in J.G. Herder, whose passion for all that
+is Greek inspires him with almost a hatred of Latin. The new
+humanism was a kind of revival of the Renaissance, which had
+been retarded by the Reformation in Germany and by the
+Counter-Reformation in Italy, or had at least been degraded
+to the dull classicism of the schools. The new humanism
+agreed with the Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of
+the old classical world as a perfect pattern of culture. But,
+while the Renaissance aimed at reproducing the Augustan age
+of <i>Rome</i>, the new humanism found its golden age in <i>Athens</i>.
+The Latin Renaissance in Italy aimed at recovering and verbally
+imitating the ancient literature; the Greek Renaissance in
+Germany sought inspiration from the creative originality of
+Greek literature with a view to producing an original literature
+in the German language. The movement had its effect on the
+schools by discouraging the old classical routine of verbal
+imitation, and giving a new prominence to Greek and to German.
+The new humanism found a home in Göttingen (1783) in the days
+of J.M. Gesner and C.G. Heyne. It was represented at Leipzig
+by Gesner&rsquo;s successor, Ernesti (d. 1781); and at Halle by F.A.
+Wolf, who in 1783 was appointed professor of education by
+Zedlitz, the minister of Frederick the Great. In literature, its
+leading names were Winckelmann, Lessing and Voss, and Herder,
+Goethe and Schiller. The tide of the new movement had
+reached its height about 1800. Goethe and Schiller were convinced
+that the old Greek world was the highest revelation of
+humanity; and the universities and schools of Germany were
+reorganized in this spirit by F.A. Wolf and his illustrious pupil,
+Wilhelm von Humboldt. In 1809-1810 Humboldt was at the
+<span class="sidenote">School reorganization.</span>
+head of the educational section of the Prussian Home
+Office, and, in the brief interval of a year and a half,
+gave to the general system of education the direction
+which it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout
+the whole century. In 1810 the <i>examen pro facultate docendi</i>
+first made the profession of a schoolmaster independent of that
+of a minister of religion. The new scheme drawn up by J.W.
+Süvern recognized four principal co-ordinated branches of
+learning: Latin, Greek, German, mathematics. All four were
+studied throughout the school, Greek being begun in the fourth
+of the nine classes, that corresponding to the English &ldquo;third
+form.&rdquo; The old Latin school had only one main subject, the
+study of Latin style (combined with a modicum of Greek). The
+new gymnasium aimed at a wider education, in which literature
+was represented by Latin, Greek and German, by the side of
+mathematics and natural science, history and religion. The
+uniform employment of the term <i>Gymnasium</i> for the highest type
+of a Prussian school dates from 1812. The leaving examination
+(<i>Abgangsprüfung</i>), instituted in that year, required Greek translation
+at sight, with Greek prose composition, and ability to speak
+and to write Latin. In 1818-1840 the leading spirit on the
+board of education was Johannes Schulze, and a <i>complete</i> and
+comprehensive system of education continued to be the ideal
+kept in view. Such an education, however, was found in practice
+to involve a prolongation of the years spent at school and a
+correspondingly later start in life. It was also attacked on the
+ground that it led to &ldquo;overwork.&rdquo; This attack was partially
+met by the scheme of 1837. Schulze&rsquo;s period of prominence in
+Berlin closely corresponded to that of Herbart at Königsberg
+(1809-1833) and Göttingen (1833-1841), who insisted that for
+boys of eight to twelve there was no better text-book than the
+Greek <i>Odyssey</i>, and this principle was brought into practice at
+Hanover by his distinguished pupil, Ahrens.</p>
+
+<p>The Prussian policy of the next period, beginning with the
+accession of Friedrich Wilhelm IV. in 1840, was to lay a new
+stress on religious teaching, and to obviate the risk of overwork
+resulting from the simultaneous study of all subjects by the
+encouragement of specialization in a few. Ludwig Wiese&rsquo;s
+scheme of 1856 insisted on the retention of Latin verse as well as
+Latin prose, and showed less favour to natural science, but it
+awakened little enthusiasm, while the attempt to revive the old
+humanistic Gymnasium led to a demand for schools of a more
+modern type, which issued in the recognition of the <i>Realgymnasium</i>
+(1859).</p>
+
+<p>In the age of Bismarck, school policy in Prussia had for its aim
+an increasing recognition of modern requirements. In 1875
+Wiese was succeeded by Bonitz, the eminent Aristotelian
+scholar, who in 1849 had introduced mathematics and natural
+science into the schools of Austria, and had substituted the wide
+reading of classical authors for the prevalent practice of speaking
+and writing Latin. By his scheme of 1882 natural science
+recovered its former position in Prussia, and the hours assigned in
+each week to Latin were diminished from 86 to 77. But neither
+of the two great parties in the educational world was satisfied;
+and great expectations were aroused when the question of reform
+was taken up by the German emperor, William II., in 1890.
+The result of the conference of December 1890 was a compromise
+between the conservatism of a majority of its members and the
+forward policy of the emperor. The scheme of 1892 reduced the
+number of hours assigned to Latin from 77 to 62, and laid
+special stress on the <i>German</i> essay; but the modern training
+given by the <i>Realgymnasium</i> was still unrecognized as an avenue
+to a university education. A conference held in June 1900, in
+which the speakers included Mommsen and von Wilamowitz,
+Harnack and Diels, was followed by the &ldquo;Kiel Decree&rdquo; of the
+26th of November. In that decree the emperor urged the equal
+recognition of the classical and the modern <i>Gymnasium</i>, and
+emphasized the importance of giving more time to Latin and to
+English in both. In the teaching of Greek, &ldquo;useless details&rdquo;
+were to be set aside, and special care devoted to the connexion
+between ancient and modern culture, while, in all subjects,
+attention was to be paid to the classic precept: <i>multum, non
+multa</i>.</p>
+
+<p>By the scheme of 1901 the pupils of the <i>Realgymnasium</i>, the
+<i>Oberrealschule</i> and the <i>Gymnasium</i> were admitted to the university
+on equal terms in virtue of their leaving-certificates, but
+Greek and Latin were still required for students of classics or
+divinity.</p>
+
+<p>For the <i>Gymnasium</i> the aim of the new scheme is, in <i>Latin</i>,
+&ldquo;to supply boys with a sound basis of grammatical training,
+with a view to their understanding the more important classical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span>
+writers of Rome, and being thus introduced to the intellectual
+life and culture of the ancient world&rdquo;; and, in <i>Greek</i>, &ldquo;to give
+them a sufficient knowledge of the language with a view to their
+obtaining an acquaintance with some of the Greek classical
+works which are distinguished both in matter and in style, and
+thus gaining an insight into the intellectual life and culture of
+Ancient Greece.&rdquo; In consequence of these changes Greek is now
+studied by a smaller number of boys, but with better results, and
+a new lease of life has been won for the classical <i>Gymnasium</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, by the side of the classical <i>Gymnasium</i>, we now have
+the &ldquo;German Reform Schools&rdquo; of two different types, that of
+Altona (dating from 1878) and that of Frankfort-on-the-Main
+(1892). The leading principle in both is the postponement of the
+time for learning Latin. Schools of the Frankfort type take
+French as their only foreign language in the first three years of
+the course, and aim at achieving in six years as much as has been
+achieved by the <i>Gymnasia</i> in nine; and it is maintained that,
+in six years, they succeed in mastering a larger amount of Latin
+literature than was attempted a generation ago, even in the best
+<i>Gymnasia</i> of the old style. It may be added that in all the
+German <i>Gymnasia</i>, whether reformed or not, more time is given
+to classics than in the corresponding schools in England.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. Paulsen, <i>Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts vom Ausgang
+des Mittelalters bis auf die Gegenwart mit besonderer Rücksicht auf
+den klassischen Unterricht</i> (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1896); <i>Das Realgymnasium
+und die humanistische Bildung</i> (1889); <i>Die höheren Schulen
+und das Universitätsstudium im 20. Jahrhundert</i> (1901); &ldquo;Das
+moderne Bildungswesen&rdquo; in <i>Die Kulture der Gegenwart</i>, vol. i. (1904);
+<i>Das deutsche Bildungswesen in seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung</i>
+(1906) (with the literature there quoted, pp. 190-192), translated
+by Dr T. Lorenz, <i>German Education, Past and Present</i> (1908);
+T. Ziegler, <i>Notwendigkeit ... des Realgymnasiums</i> (Stuttgart,
+1894); F.A. Eckstein, <i>Lateinischer und griechischer Unterricht</i>
+(1887); O. Kohl, &ldquo;Griechischer Unterricht&rdquo; (Langensalza, 1896)
+in W. Rein&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch</i>; A. Baumeister&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch</i> (1895), especially
+vol. i. 1 (History) and i. 2 (Educational Systems); P. Stötzner,
+<i>Das öffentliche Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands in der Gegenwart</i> (1901);
+F. Seiler, <i>Geschichte des deutschen Unterrichtswesens</i> (2 vols., 1906);
+<i>Verhandlungen</i> of June 1900 (2nd ed., 1902); <i>Lehrpläne</i>, &amp;c. (1901);
+<i>Die Reform des höheren Schulwesens</i>, ed. W. Lexis (1902); A.
+Harnack&rsquo;s <i>Vortrag</i> and W. Parow&rsquo;s <i>Erwiderung</i> (1905); H. Müller,
+<i>Das höhere Schulwesen Deutschlands am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts</i>
+(Stuttgart, 1904); O. Steinbart, <i>Durchführung des preussischen
+Schulreform in ganz Deutschland</i> (Duisburg, 1904); J. Schipper,
+<i>Alte Bildung und moderne Cultur</i> (Vienna, 1901); Papers by M.E.
+Sadler: (1) &ldquo;Problems in Prussian Secondary Education&rdquo; (Special
+Reports of Education Dept., 1899); (2) &ldquo;The Unrest in Secondary
+Education in Germany and Elsewhere&rdquo; (Special Reports of Board
+of Education, vol. 9, 1902); J.L. Paton, <i>The Teaching of Classics
+in Prussian Secondary Schools</i> (on &ldquo;German Reform Schools&rdquo;)
+(1907, Wyman, London); J.E. Russell, <i>German Higher Schools</i>
+(New York, 1899); and (among earlier English publications)
+Matthew Arnold&rsquo;s <i>Higher Schools and Universities in Germany</i> (1874,
+reprinted from <i>Schools and Universities on the Continent</i>, 1865).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>(4) In the <i>United States of America</i> the highest degree of
+educational development has been subsequent to the Civil War.
+The study of Latin begins in the &ldquo;high schools,&rdquo; the
+average age of admission being fifteen and the normal
+<span class="sidenote">United States.</span>
+course extending over four years. Among classical
+teachers an increasing number would prefer a longer course
+extending over six years for Latin, and at least three for Greek,
+and some of these would assign to the elementary school the first
+two of the proposed six years of Latin study. Others are content
+with the late learning of Latin and prefer that it should be
+preceded by a thorough study of modern languages (see Prof. B.I.
+Wheeler, in Baumeister&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch</i>, 1897, ii. 2, pp. 584-586).</p>
+
+<p>It was mainly owing to a pamphlet issued in 1871 by Prof.
+G.M. Lane, of Harvard, that a reformed pronunciation of Latin
+was adopted in all the colleges and schools of the
+United States. Some misgivings on this reform found
+<span class="sidenote">Latin pronunciation.</span>
+expression in a work on the <i>Teaching of Latin</i>, published
+by Prof. C.E. Bennett of Cornell in 1901, a year
+in which it was estimated that this pronunciation was in use by
+more than 96% of the Latin pupils in the secondary schools.</p>
+
+<p>Some important statistics as to the number studying Latin
+and Greek in the secondary schools were collected in 1900 by a
+committee of twelve educational experts representing all parts of
+the Union, with a view to a uniform course of instruction being
+pursued in all classical schools. They had the advantage of the
+co-operation of Dr W.T. Harris, the U.S. commissioner of
+education, and they were able to report that, in all the five
+groups into which they had divided the states, the number of
+pupils pursuing the study of Latin and Greek showed a remarkable
+advance, especially in the most progressive states of the
+middle west. The number learning Latin had increased from
+100,144 in 1890 to 314,856 in 1899-1900, and those learning
+Greek from 12,869 to 24,869. Thus the number learning Latin at
+the later date was three times, and the number learning Greek
+twice, as many as those learning Latin or Greek ten years
+previously. But the total number in 1000 was 630,048; so that,
+notwithstanding this proof of progress, the number learning
+Greek in 1900 was only about one twenty-fifth of the total
+number, while the number learning Latin was as high as half.</p>
+
+<p>The position of Greek as an &ldquo;elective&rdquo; or &ldquo;optional&rdquo; subject
+(notably at Harvard), an arrangement regarded with approval by
+some eminent educational authorities and with regret by others,
+probably has some effect on the high schools in the small number
+of those who learn Greek, and in their lower rate of increase, as
+compared with those who learn Latin. Some evidence as to the
+quality of the study of those languages in the schools is supplied
+by English commissioners in the <i>Reports of the Mosely Commission</i>.
+Thus Mr Papillon considered that, while the teaching of
+English literature was admirable, the average standard of Latin
+and Greek teaching and attainment in the upper classes was
+&ldquo;below that of an English public school&rdquo;; he felt, however,
+that the secondary schools of the United States had a &ldquo;greater
+variety of the curriculum to suit the practical needs of life,&rdquo; and
+that they existed, not &ldquo;for the select few,&rdquo; but &ldquo;for the whole
+people&rdquo; (pp. 250 f.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For full information see the &ldquo;Two volumes of Monographs
+prepared for the United States Educational Exhibit at the Paris
+Exposition of 1900,&rdquo; edited by Dr N. Murray Butler; the <i>Annual
+Reports</i> of the U.S. commissioner of education (Washington);
+and the <i>Reports of the Mosely Commission to the United States of
+America</i> (London, 1904). Cf. statistics quoted in G.G. Ramsay&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Address on Efficiency in Education&rdquo; (Glasgow, 1902, 17-20), from
+the <i>Transactions of the Amer. Philol. Association</i>, xxx. (1899),
+pp. lxxvii-cxxii; also Bennett and Bristol, <i>The Teaching of Latin
+and Greek in the Secondary School</i> (New York, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. E. S.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1l" id="Footnote_1l" href="#FnAnchor_1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The above derivation is in accordance with English usage. In
+the <i>New English Dictionary</i> the earliest example of the word
+&ldquo;classical&rdquo; is the phrase &ldquo;classical and canonical,&rdquo; found in the
+<i>Europae Speculum</i> of Sir Edwin Sandys (1599), and, as applied to
+a writer, it is explained as meaning &ldquo;of the first rank or authority.&rdquo;
+This exactly corresponds with the meaning of <i>classicus</i> in the above
+passage of Gellius. On the other hand, the French word <i>classique</i>
+(in Littré&rsquo;s view) primarily means &ldquo;used in class.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2l" id="Footnote_2l" href="#FnAnchor_2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See also the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Schools</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLASSIFICATION<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (Lat. <i>classis</i>, a class, probably from the
+root <i>cal-</i>, <i>cla-</i>, as in Gr. <span class="grk" title="kaleô">&#954;&#945;&#955;&#941;&#969;</span>, <i>clamor</i>), a logical process, common
+to all the special sciences and to knowledge in general, consisting
+in the collection under a common name of a number of objects
+which are alike in one or more respects. The process consists
+in observing the objects and abstracting from their various
+qualities that characteristic which they have in common. This
+characteristic constitutes the definition of the &ldquo;class&rdquo; to which
+they are regarded as belonging. It is this process by which we
+arrive first at &ldquo;species&rdquo; and then at &ldquo;genus,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> at all scientific
+generalization. Individual things, regarded as such, constitute
+a mere aggregate, unconnected with one another, and so far
+unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in systematic classification.
+Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies individually
+we can state merely that they have been observed to have certain
+motions through the sky, that they are luminous, and the like.
+If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover
+that, whereas all partake in the general movement of the heavens,
+some have a movement of their own. Thus we arrive at a system
+of classification according to motion, by which fixed stars are
+differentiated from planets. A further classification according
+to other criteria gives us stars of the first magnitude and stars
+of the second magnitude, and so forth. We thus arrive at a
+systematic understanding expressed in laws by the application
+of which accurate forecasts of celestial phenomena can be made.
+Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering
+the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from
+what is often called &ldquo;artificial&rdquo; classification, which is the
+preparation, <i>e.g.</i> of statistics for particular purposes, administrative
+and the like.</p>
+
+<p>Of the systems of classification adopted in physical science,
+only one requires treatment here, namely, the classification of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span>
+the sciences as a whole, a problem which has from the time of
+Aristotle attracted considerable attention. Its object is to
+delimit the spheres of influence of the positive sciences and show
+how they are mutually related. Of such attempts three are
+specially noteworthy, those of Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte
+and Herbert Spencer.</p>
+
+<p>Bacon&rsquo;s classification is based on the subjective criterion of
+the various faculties which are specially concerned. He thus
+distinguished History (natural, civil, literary, ecclesiastical) as
+the province of memory, Philosophy (including Theology) as
+that of reason, and Poetry, Fables and the like, as that of
+imagination. This classification was made the basis of the
+<i>Encyclopédie</i>. Comte adopted an entirely different system based
+on an objective criterion. Having first enunciated the theory
+that all science passes through three stages, theological, metaphysical
+and positive, he neglects the two first, and divides the
+last according to the &ldquo;things to be classified,&rdquo; in view of their
+real affinity and natural connexions, into six, in order of decreasing
+generality and increasing complexity&mdash;mathematics, astronomy,
+physics, chemistry, physiology and biology (including
+psychology), and sociology. This he conceives to be not only
+the logical, but also the historical, order of development, from
+the abstract and purely deductive to the concrete and inductive.
+Sociology is thus the highest, most complex, and most positive
+of the sciences. Herbert Spencer, condemning this division as
+both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a three-fold
+division into (1) <i>abstract</i> science (including logic and mathematics)
+dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge of
+phenomena is possible, (2) <i>abstract-concrete</i> science (including
+mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of
+phenomena themselves, <i>i.e.</i> laws of forces as deducible from
+the persistence of forces, and (3) <i>concrete</i> science (<i>e.g.</i> astronomy,
+biology, sociology), dealing with &ldquo;phenomena themselves in
+their totalities,&rdquo; the universal laws of the continuous redistribution
+of Matter and Motion, Evolution and Dissolution.</p>
+
+<p>Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief
+mention. In Greece at the dawn of systematic thought the
+physical sciences were few in number; none the less philosophers
+were not agreed as to their true relation. The Platonic school
+adopted a triple classification, physics, ethics and dialectics;
+Aristotle&rsquo;s system was more complicated, nor do we know
+precisely how he subdivided his three main classes, theoretical,
+practical and poetical (<i>i.e.</i> technical, having to do with <span class="grk" title="poiêsis">&#960;&#959;&#943;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>,
+creative). The second class covered ethics and politics, the
+latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including
+ethics; the third includes the useful and the imitative sciences;
+the first includes metaphysics and physics. As regards pure
+logic Aristotle sometimes seems to include it with metaphysics
+and physics, sometimes to regard it as ancillary to all the sciences.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Hobbes (<i>Leviathan</i>) drew up an elaborate paradigm
+of the sciences, the first stage of which was a dichotomy into
+&ldquo;Naturall Philosophy&rdquo; (&ldquo;consequences from the accidents
+of bodies naturall&rdquo;) and &ldquo;Politiques and Civill Philosophy&rdquo;
+(&ldquo;consequences from accidents of Politique bodies&rdquo;). The
+former by successive subdivisions is reduced to eighteen special
+sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and duties of
+sovereign powers, and those of the subject.</p>
+
+<p>Jeremy Bentham and A.M. Ampère both drew up elaborate
+systems based on the principle of dichotomy, and beginning
+from the distinction of mind and body. Bentham invented
+an artificial terminology which is rather curious than valuable.
+The science of the body was Somatology, that of the mind Pneumatology.
+The former include Posology (science of quantity,
+mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology
+includes Morphoscopic (geometry) and Alegomorphic(arithmetic).
+See further Bentham&rsquo;s <i>Chrestomathia</i> and works quoted under
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bentham, Jeremy</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>Carl Wundt criticized most of these systems as taking too little
+account of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on
+the standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-matter.
+His system may, therefore, be described as conceptional.
+It distinguishes philosophy, which deals with facts in their widest
+universal relations, from the special sciences, which consider
+facts in the light of a particular relation or set of relations.</p>
+
+<p>All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting
+as throwing light on the views of those who invented them. It
+will be seen, however, that none can lay claim to unique validity.
+The <i>fundamenta divisionis</i>, though in themselves more or less
+logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen, generally as being germane
+to a preconceived philosophical or scientific theory.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLASTIDIUM<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (mod. <i>Casteggio</i>), a village of the Anamares,
+in Gallia Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 m. E. of Iria
+(mod. <i>Voghera</i>) and 31 m. W. of Placentia. Here in 222 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+M. Claudius Marcellus defeated the Gauls and won the <i>spolia
+opima</i>; in 218 Hannibal took it and its stores of corn by
+treachery. It never had an independent government, and not
+later than 190 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was made part of the colony of Placentia
+(founded 219). In the Augustan division of Italy, however,
+Placentia belonged to the 8th region, Aemilia, whereas Iria
+certainly, and Clastidium possibly, belonged to the 9th, Liguria
+(see Th. Mommsen in <i>Corp. Inscrip. Lat.</i> vol. v. Berlin, 1877,
+p. 828). The remains visible at Clastidium are scanty; there
+is a fountain (the Fontana d&rsquo;Annibale), and a Roman bridge,
+which seems to have been constructed of tiles, not of stone,
+was discovered in 1857, but destroyed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Giulietti, <i>Casteggio, notizie storiche II. Avanzi di antichità</i>
+(Voghera, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUBERG, JOHANN<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (1622-1665), German philosopher,
+was born at Solingen, in Westphalia, on the 24th of February
+1622. After travelling in France and England, he studied the
+Cartesian philosophy under John Raey at Leiden. He became
+(1649) professor of philosophy and theology at Herborn, but
+subsequently (1651), in consequence of the jealousy of his
+colleagues, accepted an invitation to a similar post at Duisburg,
+where he died on the 31st of January 1665. Clauberg was one
+of the earliest teachers of the new doctrines in Germany and an
+exact and methodical commentator on his master&rsquo;s writings.
+His theory of the connexion between the soul and the body is
+in some respects analogous to that of Malebranche; but he is
+not therefore to be regarded as a true forerunner of Occasionalism,
+as he uses &ldquo;Occasion&rdquo; for the stimulus which directly produces
+a mental phenomenon, without postulating the intervention
+of God (H. Müller, <i>J. Clauberg und seine Stellung im Cartesianismus</i>).
+His view of the relation of God to his creatures is held
+to foreshadow the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist
+only through the continuous creative energy of the Divine
+Being, and are no more independent of his will than are our
+thoughts independent of us,&mdash;or rather less, for there are thoughts
+which force themselves upon us whether we will or not. For
+metaphysics Clauberg suggested the names <i>ontosophy</i> or <i>ontology</i>,
+the latter being afterwards adopted by Wolff. He also devoted
+considerable attention to the German languages, and his researches
+in this direction attracted the favourable notice of
+Leibnitz. His chief works are: <i>De conjunctione animae et
+corporis humani</i>; <i>Exercitationes centum de cognitione Dei et
+nostri</i>; <i>Logica vetus et nova</i>; <i>Initiatio philosophi, seu Dubitatio
+Cartesiana</i>; a commentary on Descartes&rsquo; <i>Meditations</i>; and
+<i>Ars etymologica Teutonum</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A collected edition of his philosophical works was published at
+Amsterdam (1691), with life by H.C. Hennin; see also E. Zeller,
+<i>Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie seit Leibnitz</i> (1873).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUDE, JEAN<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (1619-1687), French Protestant divine, was
+born at La Sauvetat-du-Dropt near Agen. After studying at
+Montauban, he entered the ministry in 1645. He was for eight
+years professor of theology in the Protestant college of Nîmes;
+but in 1661, having successfully opposed a scheme for re-uniting
+Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to preach in Lower
+Languedoc. In 1662 he obtained a post at Montauban similar
+to that which he had lost; but after four years he was removed
+from this also. He next became pastor at Charenton near Paris,
+where he engaged in controversies with Pierre Nicole (<i>Réponse
+aux deux traités intitulés la perpétuité de la foi</i>, 1665), Antoine
+Arnauld (<i>Réponse au livre de M. Arnauld</i>, 1670), and J.B.
+Bossuet (<i>Réponse au livre de M. l&rsquo;évêque de Meaux</i>, 1683).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span>
+On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he fled to Holland, and
+received a pension from William of Orange, who commissioned
+him to write an account of the persecuted Huguenots (<i>Plaintes
+des protestants cruellement opprimés dans le royaume de France</i>,
+1686). The book was translated into English, but by order of
+James II, both the translation and the original were publicly
+burnt by the common hangman on the 5th of May 1686, as
+containing &ldquo;expressions scandalous to His Majesty the king of
+France.&rdquo; Other works by him were <i>Réponse au livre de P. Nouet
+sur l&rsquo;eucharistie</i> (1668); <i>&OElig;uvres posthumes</i> (Amsterdam, 1688),
+containing the <i>Traité de la composition d&rsquo;un sermon</i>, translated
+into English in 1778.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See biographies by J.P. Nicéron and Abel Rotholf de la Devèze;
+E. Haag, <i>La France protestante</i>, vol. iv. (1884, new edition).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUDE OF LORRAINE<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Claude Gelée</span> (1600-1682),
+French landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the
+village of Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that
+he made no progress at school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly
+said, to a pastry-cook, but this is extremely dubious. At the
+age of twelve, being left an orphan, he went to live at Freiburg
+on the Rhine with an elder brother, Jean Gelée, a wood-carver
+of moderate merit, and under him he designed arabesques and
+foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a livelihood;
+but from his clownishness and ignorance of the language, he
+failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to
+Naples, to study landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a
+painter of much repute. With him he remained two years;
+then he returned to Rome, and was domesticated until April
+1625 with another landscape-painter, Augustin Tassi, who hired
+him to grind his colours and to do all the household drudgery.</p>
+
+<p>His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his
+greatest works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the
+elements of design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began
+to expand, and he devoted himself to artistic study with great
+eagerness. He exerted his utmost industry to explore the true
+principles of painting by an incessant examination of nature;
+and for this purpose he made his studies in the open fields, where
+he very frequently remained from sunrise till sunset, watching
+the effect of the shifting light upon the landscape. He generally
+sketched whatever he thought beautiful or striking, marking
+every tinge of light with a similar colour; from these sketches
+he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in
+Italy, France and a part of Germany, including his native
+Lorraine, suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl
+Dervent, painter to the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant
+for a year; and he painted at Nancy the architectural subjects
+on the ceiling of the Carmelite church. He did not, however,
+relish this employment, and in 1627 returned to Rome. Here,
+painting two landscapes for Cardinal Bentivoglio, he earned
+the protection of Pope Urban VIII, and from about 1637 he
+rapidly rose into celebrity. Claude was acquainted not only
+with the facts, but also with the laws of nature; and the German
+painter Joachim von Sandrart relates that he used to explain,
+as they walked together through the fields, the causes of the
+different appearances of the same landscape at different hours of
+the day, from the reflections or refractions of light, or from the
+morning and evening dews or vapours, with all the precision of
+a natural philosopher. He elaborated his pictures with great
+care; and if any performance fell short of his ideal, he altered,
+erased and repainted it several times over.</p>
+
+<p>His skies are aerial and full of lustre, and every object harmoniously
+illumined. His distances and colouring are delicate,
+and his tints have a sweetness and variety till then unexampled.
+He frequently gave an uncommon tenderness to his finished trees
+by glazing. His figures, however, are very indifferent; but he
+was so conscious of his deficiency in this respect, that he usually
+engaged other artists to paint them for him, among whom were
+Courtois and Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to say that he
+sold his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to avoid
+a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very
+numerous spurious copies of his works, he made tinted outline
+drawings (in six paper books prepared for this purpose) of all
+those pictures which were transmitted to different countries;
+and on the back of each drawing he wrote the name of the
+purchaser. These books he named <i>Libri di verità</i>. This valuable
+work (now belonging to the duke of Devonshire) has been engraved
+and published, and has always been highly esteemed by students
+of the art of landscape. Claude, who had suffered much from
+gout, died in Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 21st (or
+perhaps the 23rd) of November 1682, leaving his wealth, which
+was considerable, between his only surviving relatives, a nephew
+and an adopted daughter (? niece).</p>
+
+<p>Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in the
+National Gallery and in the Louvre; the landscapes in the
+Altieri and Colonna palaces in Rome are also of especial celebrity.
+A list has been printed showing no less than 92 examples in the
+various public galleries of Europe. He himself regarded a landscape
+which he painted in the Villa Madama, being a cento of
+various views with great abundance and variety of leafage, and
+a composition of Esther and Ahasuerus, as his finest works; the
+former he refused to sell, although Clement IX. offered to cover
+its surface with gold pieces. He etched a series of twenty-eight
+landscapes, fine impressions of which are greatly prized. Full
+of amenity, and deeply sensitive to the graces of nature, Claude
+was long deemed the prince of landscape painters, and he must
+always be accounted a prime leader in that form of art, and
+in his day a great enlarger and refiner of its province.</p>
+
+<p>Claude was a man of amiable and simple character, very kind
+to his pupils, a patient and unwearied worker; in his own sphere
+of study, his mind was stored (as we have seen) with observation
+and knowledge, but he continued an unlettered man till his
+death. Famous and highly patronized though he was in all his
+later years, he seems to have been very little known to his brother
+artists, with the single exception of Sandrart. This painter is
+the chief direct authority for the facts of Claude&rsquo;s life (<i>Academia
+Artis Pictoriae</i>, 1683); Baldinucci, who obtained information
+from some of Claude&rsquo;s immediate survivors, relates various
+incidents to a different effect (<i>Notizie dei professori del disegno</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Victor Cousin, <i>Sur Claude Gelée</i> (1853); M.F. Sweetser,
+<i>Claude Lorrain</i> (1878); Lady Dilke, <i>Claude Lorrain</i> (1884).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANÇOIS JEAN<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1797-1867), French
+photographer, was born at Lyons on the 12th of August 1797.
+Having acquired a share in L.J.M. Daguerre&rsquo;s invention, he was
+one of the first to practise daguerreotype portraiture in England,
+and he improved the sensitizing process by using chlorine in
+addition to iodine, thus gaining greater rapidity of action. In
+1848 he produced the photographometer, an instrument designed
+to measure the intensity of photogenic rays; and in 1849 he
+brought out the focimeter, for securing a perfect focus in photographic
+portraiture. He was elected a fellow of the Royal
+Society in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonoscope,
+in reply to a challenge from Sir David Brewster. He died in
+London on the 27th of December 1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span>, Latin epic poet and panegyrist,
+flourished during the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. He was
+an Egyptian by birth, probably an Alexandrian, but it may be
+conjectured from his name and his mastery of Latin that he was
+of Roman extraction. His own authority has been assumed for
+the assertion that his first poetical compositions were in Greek,
+and that he had written nothing in Latin before <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 395; but
+this seems improbable, and the passage (<i>Carm. Min.</i> xli. 13)
+which is taken to prove it does not necessarily bear this meaning.
+In that year he appears to have come to Rome, and made his
+début as a Latin poet by a panegyric on the consulship of Olybrius
+and Probinus, the first brothers not belonging to the imperial
+family who had ever simultaneously filled the office of consul.
+This piece proved the precursor of the series of panegyrical poems
+which compose the bulk of his writings. In Birt&rsquo;s edition a
+complete chronological list of Claudian&rsquo;s poems is given, and
+also in J.B. Bury&rsquo;s edition of Gibbon (iii. app. i. p. 485), where
+the dates given differ slightly from those in the present article.</p>
+
+<p>In 396 appeared the encomium on the third consulship of the
+emperor Honorius, and the epic on the downfall of Rufinus, the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span>
+unworthy minister of Arcadius at Constantinople. This revolution
+was principally effected by the contrivance of Stilicho, the
+great general and minister of Honorius. Claudian&rsquo;s poem appears
+to have obtained his patronage, or rather perhaps that of his wife
+Serena, by whose interposition the poet was within a year or two
+enabled to contract a wealthy marriage in Africa (<i>Epist.</i> 2).
+Previously to this event he had produced (398) his panegyric on
+the fourth consulship of Honorius, his epithalamium on the
+marriage of Honorius to Stilicho&rsquo;s daughter, Maria, and his poem
+on the Gildonic war, celebrating the repression of a revolt in
+Africa. To these succeeded his piece on the consulship of
+Manlius Theodorus (399), the unfinished or mutilated invective
+against the Byzantine prime minister Eutropius in the same year,
+the epics on Stilicho&rsquo;s first consulship and on his repulse of Alaric
+(400 and 403), and the panegyric on the sixth consulship of
+Honorius (404). From this time all trace of Claudian is lost, and
+he is generally supposed to have perished with his patron Stilicho
+in 408. It may be conjectured that he must have died in 404, as
+he could hardly otherwise have omitted to celebrate the greatest
+of Stilicho&rsquo;s achievements, the destruction of the barbarian host
+led by Radagaisus in the following year. On the other hand, he
+may have survived Stilicho, as in the dedication to the second
+book of his epic on the <i>Rape of Proserpine</i> (which Birt, however,
+assigns to 395-397), he speaks of his disuse of poetry in terms
+hardly reconcilable with the fertility which he displayed during
+his patron&rsquo;s lifetime. From the manner in which Augustine
+alludes to him in his <i>De civitate Dei</i>, it may be inferred that he
+was no longer living at the date of the composition of that work,
+between 415 and 428.</p>
+
+<p>Besides Claudian&rsquo;s chief poems, his lively Fescennines on the
+emperor&rsquo;s marriage, his panegyric on Serena, and the <i>Gigantomachia</i>,
+a fragment of an unfinished Greek epic, may also be
+mentioned. Several poems expressing Christian sentiments are
+undoubtedly spurious. Claudian&rsquo;s paganism, however, neither
+prevented his celebrating Christian rulers and magistrates nor his
+enjoying the distinction of a court laureate. It is probable that he
+was nominally a Christian, like his patron Stilicho and Ausonius,
+although at heart attached to the old religion. The very decided
+statements of Orosius and Augustine as to his heathenism may be
+explained by the pagan style of Claudian&rsquo;s political poems. We
+have his own authority for his having been honoured by a bronze
+statue in the forum, and Pomponius Laetus discovered in the
+15th century an inscription (<i>C.I.L.</i> vi. 1710) on the pedestal,
+which, formerly considered spurious, is now generally regarded as
+genuine.</p>
+
+<p>The position of Claudian&mdash;the last of the Roman poets&mdash;is
+unique in literature. It is sufficiently remarkable that, after
+nearly three centuries of torpor, the Latin muse should have
+experienced any revival in the age of Honorius, nothing less than
+amazing that this revival should have been the work of a foreigner,
+most surprising of all that a just and enduring celebrity should
+have been gained by official panegyrics on the generally uninteresting
+transactions of an inglorious epoch. The first of these
+particulars bespeaks Claudian&rsquo;s taste, rising superior to the
+prevailing barbarism, the second his command of language, the
+third his rhetorical skill. As remarked by Gibbon, &ldquo;he was
+endowed with the rare and precious talent of raising the meanest,
+of adorning the most barren, and of diversifying the most
+similar topics.&rdquo; This gift is especially displayed in his poem on
+the downfall of Rufinus, where the punishment of a public malefactor
+is exalted to the dignity of an epical subject by the
+magnificence of diction and the ostentation of supernatural
+machinery. The noble exordium, in which the fate of Rufinus is
+propounded as the vindication of divine justice, places the subject
+at once on a dignified level; and the council of the infernal
+powers has afforded a hint to Tasso, and through him to Milton.
+The inevitable monotony of the panegyrics on Honorius is
+relieved by just and brilliant expatiation on the duties of a
+sovereign. In his celebration of Stilicho&rsquo;s victories Claudian
+found a subject more worthy of his powers, and some passages,
+such as the description of the flight of Alaric, and of Stilicho&rsquo;s
+arrival at Rome, and the felicitous parallel between his triumphs
+and those of Marius, rank among the brightest ornaments of
+Latin poetry. Claudian&rsquo;s panegyric, however lavish and
+regardless of veracity, is in general far less offensive than usual in
+his age, a circumstance attributable partly to his more refined
+taste and partly to the genuine merit of his patron Stilicho.
+He is a valuable authority for the history of his times, and is
+rarely to be convicted of serious inaccuracy in his facts, whatever
+may be thought of the colouring he chooses to impart to them.
+He was animated by true patriotic feeling, in the shape of a
+reverence for Rome as the source and symbol of law, order and
+civilization. Outside the sphere of actual life he is less successful;
+his <i>Rape of Proserpine</i>, though the beauties of detail are as
+great as usual, betrays his deficiency in the creative power
+requisite for dealing with a purely ideal subject. This denotes
+the rhetorician rather than the poet, and in general it may be said
+that his especial gifts of vivid natural description, and of copious
+illustration, derived from extensive but not cumbrous erudition,
+are fully as appropriate to eloquence as to poetry. In the
+general cast of his mind and character of his writings, and
+especially, in his faculty for bestowing enduring interest upon
+occasional themes, we may fitly compare him with Dryden,
+remembering that while Dryden exulted in the energy of a
+vigorous and fast-developing language, Claudian was cramped
+by an artificial diction, confined to the literary class.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The editio princeps of Claudian was printed at Vicenza in 1482;
+the editions of J.M. Gesner (1759) and P. Burmann (1760) are still
+valuable for their notes. The first critical edition was that of L.
+Jeep (1876-1879), now superseded by the exhaustive work of T.
+Birt, with bibliography, in <i>Monumenta Germaniae Historica</i> (x.,
+1892; smaller ed. founded on this by J. Koch, Teubner series, 1893).
+There is a separate edition with commentary and verse translation of
+<i>Il Ratto di</i> <span class="correction" title="amended from Prosperpina"><i>Proserpina</i></span>, by L. Garces de Diez (1889); the satire <i>In
+Eutropium</i> is discussed by T. Birt in <i>Zwei politische Satiren des alten
+Rom</i> (1888). There is a complete English verse translation of little
+merit by A. Hawkins (1817). See the articles by Ramsay in Smith&rsquo;s
+<i>Classical Dictionary</i> and Vollmer in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s <i>Realencyclopädie
+der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, iii. 2 (1899); also
+J.H.E. Crees, <i>Claudian as an Historian</i> (1908), the &ldquo;Cambridge
+Historical Essay&rdquo; for 1906 (No. 17); T. Hodgkin, <i>Claudian, the last
+of the Roman Poets</i> (1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIUS<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus</span>],
+Roman emperor <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 41-54, son of Drusus and Antonia, nephew
+of the emperor Tiberius, and grandson of Livia, the wife of
+Augustus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on the 1st of August
+10 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> During his boyhood he was treated with contempt,
+owing to his weak and timid character and his natural infirmities;
+the fact that he was regarded as little better than an imbecile
+saved him from death at the hands of Caligula. He chiefly devoted
+himself to literature, especially history, and until his accession
+he took no real part in public affairs, though Caligula honoured
+him with the dignity of consul. He was four times married:
+to Plautia Urgulanilla, whom he divorced because he suspected
+her of designs against his life; to Aelia Petina, also divorced;
+to the infamous Valeria Messallina (<i>q.v.</i>); and to his niece
+Agrippina.</p>
+
+<p>In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 41, on the murder of Caligula, Claudius was seized
+by the praetorians, and declared emperor. The senate, which
+had entertained the idea of restoring the republic, was obliged
+to acquiesce. One of Claudius&rsquo;s first acts was to proclaim an
+amnesty for all except Cassius Chaerea, the assassin of his predecessor,
+and one or two others. After the discovery of a
+conspiracy against his life in 42, he fell completely under the
+influence of Messallina and his favourite freedmen Pallas and
+Narcissus, who must be held responsible for acts of cruelty
+which have brought undeserved odium upon the emperor.
+There is no doubt that Claudius was a liberal-minded man of
+kindly nature, anxious for the welfare of his people. Humane
+regulations were made in regard to freedmen, slaves, widows
+and orphans; the police system was admirably organized;
+commerce was put on a sound footing; the provinces were
+governed in a spirit of liberality; the rights of citizens and
+admission to the senate were extended to communities outside
+Italy. The speech of Claudius delivered (in the year 48) in the
+senate in support of the petition of the Aeduans that their
+senators should have the <i>jus petendorum honorum</i> (claim of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span>
+admission to the senate and magistracies) at Rome has been
+partly preserved on the fragment of a bronze tablet found at
+Lyons in 1524; an imperial edict concerning the citizenship of
+the Anaunians (15th of March 46) was found in the southern
+Tirol in 1869 (<i>C.I.L.</i> v. 5050). Claudius was especially fond
+of building. He completed the great aqueduct (Aqua Claudia)
+begun by Caligula, drained the Lacus Fucinus, and built the
+harbour of Ostia. Nor were his military operations unsuccessful.
+Mauretania was made a Roman province; the conquest of
+Britain was begun; his distinguished general Domitius Corbulo
+(<i>q.v.</i>) gained considerable successes in Germany and the East.
+The intrigues of Narcissus caused Messallina to be put to death
+by order of Claudius, who took as his fourth wife his niece
+Agrippina, a woman as criminal as any of her predecessors.
+She prevailed upon him to set aside his own son Britannicus in
+favour of Nero, her son by a former marriage; and in 54, to
+make Nero&rsquo;s position secure, she put the emperor to death by
+poison. The apotheosis of Claudius was the subject of a lampoon
+by Seneca called <i>apokolokyntosis</i>, the &ldquo;pumpkinification&rdquo; of
+Claudius.</p>
+
+<p>Claudius was a prolific writer, chiefly on history, but his
+works are lost. He wrote (in Greek) a history of Carthage and
+a history of Etruria; (in Latin) a history of Rome from the
+death of Caesar, an autobiography, and an essay in defence of
+Cicero against the attacks of Asinius Gallus. He also introduced
+three new letters into the Latin alphabet: &#8498; for the consonantal
+V, &#8413; for BS and PS, &#747; for the intermediate sound between I
+and U.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;Ancient: the <i>Annals</i> of Tacitus, Suetonius and
+Dio Cassius. Modern: H. Lehmann, <i>Claudius und seine Zeit</i>, with
+introductory chapter on the ancient authorities (1858); Lucien
+Double, <i>L&rsquo;Empereur Claude</i> (1876); A. Ziegler, <i>Die politische Seite
+der Regierung des Kaisers Claudius</i> (1885); H.F. Pelham in <i>Quarterly
+Review</i> (April 1905), where certain administrative and political
+changes introduced by Claudius, for which he was attacked by his
+contemporaries, are discussed and defended; Merivale, <i>Hist. of
+the Romans under the Empire</i>, chs. 49, 50; H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte
+der römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, i., pt. 1; H. Furneaux&rsquo;s ed. of the <i>Annals</i>
+of Tacitus (introduction).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIUS<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span>, the name of a famous Roman gens. The by-form
+<i>Clodius</i>, in its origin a mere orthographical variant, was regularly
+used for certain Claudii in late republican times, but otherwise
+the two forms were used indifferently. The gens contained a
+patrician and a plebeian family; the chief representatives of
+the former were the Pulchri, of the latter the Marcelli (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marcellus</a></span>). The following members of the gens deserve
+particular mention.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Appius Saminus Inregillensis</span>, or <span class="sc">Regillensis, Claudius</span>,
+so called from Regillum (or Regilli) in Sabine territory, founder
+of the Claudian gens. His original name was Attus or Attius
+Clausus. About 504 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he settled in Rome, where he and his
+followers formed a tribe. In 495 he was consul, and his cruel
+enforcement of the laws of debtor and creditor, in opposition to
+his milder colleague, P. Servilius Priscus, was one of the chief
+causes of the &ldquo;secession&rdquo; of the plebs to the Sacred Mount. On
+several occasions he displayed his hatred of the people, although
+it is stated that he subsequently played the part of mediator.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Suetonius, <i>Tiberius</i>, i.; Livy ii. 16-29; Dion. Halic. v. 40, vi.
+23, 24.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Claudius, Appius</span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Crassus</span>, a Roman patrician,
+consul in 471 and 451 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and in the same and following year
+one of the decemvirs. At first he was conspicuous for his
+aristocratic pride and bitter hatred of the plebeians. Twice
+they refused to fight under him, and fled before their enemies.
+He retaliated by decimating the army. He was banished, but
+soon returned, and again became consul. In the same year
+(451) he was made one of the decemviri who had been appointed
+to draw up a code of written laws. When it was decided to elect
+decemvirs for another year, he who had formerly been looked
+upon as the champion of the aristocracy, suddenly came forward
+as the friend of the people, and was himself re-elected together
+with several plebeians. But no sooner was the new body in
+office, than it treated both patricians and plebeians with equal
+violence, and refused to resign at the end of the year. Matters
+were brought to a crisis by the affair of Virginia. Enamoured
+of the beautiful daughter of the plebeian centurion Virginius,
+Claudius attempted to seize her by an abuse of justice. One
+of his clients, Marcus Claudius, swore that she was the child of
+a slave belonging to him, and had been stolen by the childless
+wife of the centurion. Virginius was summoned from the army,
+and on the day of trial was present to expose the conspiracy.
+Nevertheless, judgment was given according to the evidence
+of Marcus, and Claudius commanded Virginia to be given up to
+him. In despair, her father seized a knife from a neighbouring
+stall and plunged it in her side. A general insurrection was the
+result; and the people seceded to the Sacred Mount. The
+decemvirs were finally compelled to resign and Appius Claudius
+died in prison, either by his own hand or by that of the executioner.
+For a discussion of the character of Appius Claudius,
+see Mommsen&rsquo;s appendix to vol. i. of his <i>History of Rome</i>. He
+holds that Claudius was never the leader of the patrician party,
+but a patrician demagogue who ended by becoming a tyrant
+to patricians as well as plebeians. The decemvirate, one of
+the triumphs of the plebs, could hardly have been abolished by
+that body, but would naturally have been overthrown by the
+patricians. The revolution which ruined Claudius was a return to
+the rule of the patricians represented by the Horatii and Valerii.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Livy iii. 32-58; Dion. Halic. x. 59, xi. 3.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Claudius, Appius</span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Caecus</span>, Roman patrician and
+author. In 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was elected censor without having passed
+through the office of consul. His censorship&mdash;which he retained
+for five years, in spite of the lex Aemilia which limited the
+tenure of that office to eighteen months&mdash;was remarkable for the
+actual or attempted achievement of several great constitutional
+changes. He filled vacancies in the senate with men of low birth,
+in some cases even the sons of freedmen (Diod. Sic. xx. 36;
+Livy ix. 30; Suetonius, <i>Claudius</i>, 24). His most important
+political innovation was the abolition of the old free birth,
+freehold basis of suffrage. He enrolled the freedmen and
+landless citizens both in the centuries and in the tribes,
+and, instead of assigning them to the four urban tribes,
+he distributed them through all the tribes and thus gave
+them practical control of the elections. In 304, however,
+Q. Fabius Rullianus limited the landless and poorer freedmen to
+the four urban tribes, thus annulling the effect of Claudius&rsquo;s
+arrangement. Appius Claudius transferred the charge of the
+public worship of Hercules in the Forum Boarium from the
+Potitian gens to a number of public slaves. He further invaded
+the exclusive rights of the patricians by directing his secretary
+Gnaeus Flavius (whom, though a freedman, he made a senator)
+to publish the <i>legis actiones</i> (methods of legal practice) and the
+list of <i>dies fasti</i> (or days on which legal business could be transacted).
+Lastly, he gained enduring fame by the construction of a
+road and an aqueduct, which&mdash;a thing unheard of before&mdash;he
+called by his own name (Livy ix. 29; Frontinus, <i>De Aquis</i>,
+115; Diod. Sic. xx. 36). In 307 he was elected consul for the
+first time. In 298 he was interrex; in 296, as consul, he led the
+army in Samnium, and although, with his colleague, he gained a
+victory over the Etruscans and Samnites, he does not seem to
+have specially distinguished himself as a soldier (Livy x. 19).
+Next year he was praetor, and he was once dictator. His
+character, like his namesake the decemvir&rsquo;s is not easy to define.
+In spite of his political reforms, he opposed the admission of the
+plebeians to the consulship and priestly offices; and, although
+these reforms might appear to be democratic in character and
+calculated to give preponderance to the lowest class of the people,
+his probable aim was to strengthen the power of the magistrates
+(and lessen that of the senate) by founding it on the popular will,
+which would find its expression in the urban inhabitants and
+could be most easily influenced by the magistrate. He was
+already blind and too feeble to walk, when Cineas, the minister of
+Pyrrhus, visited him, but so vigorously did he oppose every
+concession that all the eloquence of Cineas was in vain, and the
+Romans forgot past misfortunes in the inspiration of Claudius&rsquo;s
+patriotism (Livy x. 13; Justin xviii. 2; Plutarch, <i>Pyrrhus</i>, 19).
+The story of his blindness, however, may be merely a method of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span>
+accounting for his cognomen. Tradition regarded it as the
+punishment of his transference of the cult of Hercules from the
+Potitii.</p>
+
+<p>Appius Claudius Caecus is also remarkable as the first writer
+mentioned in Roman literature. His speech against peace with
+Pyrrhus was the first that was transmitted to writing, and thereby
+laid the foundation of prose composition. He was the author of a
+collection of aphorisms in verse mentioned by Cicero (of which a
+few fragments remain), and of a legal work entitled <i>De Usurpationibus</i>.
+It is very likely also that he was concerned in the
+drawing up of the <i>Legis Actiones</i> published by Flavius. The
+famous dictum &ldquo;Every man is the architect of his own fortune&rdquo;
+is attributed to him. He also interested himself in grammatical
+questions, distinguished the two sounds R and S in writing, and
+did away with the letter Z.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mommsen&rsquo;s appendix to his <i>Roman History</i> (vol. i.); treatises
+by W. Siebert (1863) and F.D. Gerlach (1872), dealing especially
+with the censorship of Claudius.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Claudius, Publius</span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Pulcher</span>, son of (3). He
+was the first of the gens who bore this surname. In 249 he was
+consul and appointed to the command of the fleet in the first
+Punic War. Instead of continuing the siege of Lilybaeum, he
+decided to attack the Carthaginians in the harbour of Drepanum,
+and was completely defeated. The disaster was commonly
+attributed to Claudius&rsquo;s treatment of the sacred chickens, which
+refused to eat before the battle. &ldquo;Let them drink then,&rdquo; said
+the consul, and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. Having
+been recalled and ordered to appoint a dictator, he gave another
+instance of his high-handedness by nominating a subordinate
+official, M. Claudius Glicia, but the nomination was at once overruled.
+Claudius himself was accused of high treason and heavily
+fined. He must have died before 246, in which year his sister
+Claudia was fined for publicly expressing a wish that her brother
+Publius could rise from the grave to lose a second fleet and
+thereby diminish the number of the people. It is supposed that
+he committed suicide.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Livy, <i>Epit.</i>, 19; Polybius i. 49; Cicero, <i>De Divinatione</i>, i. 16,
+ii. 8; Valerius Maximus i. 4, viii. I.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Claudius, Appius</span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Pulcher</span>, Roman statesman
+and author. He served under his brother-in-law Lucullus in Asia
+(72 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and was commissioned to deliver the ultimatum to
+Tigranes, which gave him the choice of war with Rome or the
+surrender of Mithradates. In 57 he was praetor, in 56 propraetor
+in Sardinia, and in 54 consul with L. Domitius Ahenobarbus.
+Through the intervention of Pompey, he became
+reconciled to Cicero, who had been greatly offended because
+Claudius had indirectly opposed his return from exile. In this
+and certain other transactions Claudius seems to have acted from
+avaricious motives,&mdash;a result of his early poverty. In 53 he
+entered upon the governorship of Cilicia, in which capacity
+he seems to have been rapacious and tyrannical. During this
+period he carried on a correspondence with Cicero, whose letters
+to him form the third book of the <i>Epistolae ad Familiares</i>.
+Claudius resented the appointment of Cicero as his successor,
+avoided meeting him, and even issued orders after his arrival
+in the province. On his return to Rome Claudius was impeached
+by P. Cornelius Dolabella on the ground of having violated the
+sovereign rights of the people. This led him to make advances to
+Cicero, since it was necessary to obtain witnesses in his favour
+from his old province. He was acquitted, and a charge of
+bribery against him also proved unsuccessful. In 50 he was
+censor, and expelled many of the members of the senate, amongst
+them the historian Sallust on the ground of immorality. His
+connexion with Pompey brought upon him the enmity of Caesar,
+at whose march on Rome he fled from Italy. Having been
+appointed by Pompey to the command in Greece, in obedience to
+an ambiguous oracle he crossed over to Euboea, where he died
+about 48, before the battle of Pharsalus. Claudius was of a
+distinctly religious turn of mind, as is shown by the interest he
+took in sacred buildings (the temple at Eleusis, the sanctuary of
+Amphiaraus at Oropus). He wrote a work on augury, the first
+book of which he dedicated to Cicero. He was also extremely
+superstitious, and believed in invocations of the dead. Cicero had
+a high opinion of his intellectual powers, and considered him a
+great orator (see Orelli, <i>Onomasticon Tullianum</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A full account of all the Claudii will be found in Pauly-Wissowa&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft</i>, iii. 2 (1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span>, surnamed <span class="sc">Gothicus</span>,
+Roman emperor <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 268-270, belonged to an obscure Illyrian
+family. On account of his military ability he was placed in
+command of an army by Decius; and Valerian appointed him
+general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of the provinces of the
+lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienus, he was called to
+Italy in order to crush Aureolus; and on the death of the
+emperor (268) he was chosen as his successor, in accordance,
+it was said, with his express desire. Shortly after his accession
+he routed the Alamanni on the Lacus Benacus (some doubt is
+thrown upon this); in 269 a great victory over the Goths at
+Naïssus in Moesia gained him the title of Gothicus. In the
+following year he died of the plague at Sirmium, in his fifty-sixth
+year. He enjoyed great popularity, and appears to have
+been a man of ability and character.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life was written by Trebellius Pollio, one of the <i>Scriptores
+Historiae Augusiae</i>; see also Zosimus i. 40-43, the histories of Th.
+Bernhardt and H. Schiller, and special dissertations by A. Duncker
+on the life of Claudius (1868) and the defeat of the Alamanni (<i>Annalen
+des Vereins für nassauische Altertumskunde</i>, 1879); Homo, <i>De
+Claudio Gothico</i> (1900); Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, ii.
+2458 ff. (Henze).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (1740-1815), German poet, otherwise
+known by the <i>nom de plume</i> of <span class="sc">Asmus</span>, was born on the 15th
+of August 1740 at Reinfeld, near Lübeck, and studied at Jena.
+He spent the greater part of his life in the little town of Wandsbeck,
+near Hamburg, where he earned his first literary reputation
+by editing from 1771 to 1775, a newspaper called the <i>Wandsbecker
+Bote</i> (<i>Wandsbeck Messenger</i>), in which he published a large
+number of prose essays and poems. They were written in pure
+and simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; in many
+there was a vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque,
+while others were full of quiet meditation and solemn sentiment.
+In his later days, perhaps through the influence of Klopstock,
+with whom he had formed an intimate acquaintance, Claudius
+became strongly pietistic, and the graver side of his nature
+showed itself. In 1814 he removed to Hamburg, to the house
+of his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph Perthes,
+where he died on the 21st of January 1815.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Claudius&rsquo;s collected works were published under the title of
+<i>Asmus omnia sua secum portans, oder Sämtliche Werke des Wandsbecker
+Boten</i> (8 vols., 1775-1812; 13th edition, by C. Redich, 2 vols.,
+1902). His biography has been written by Wilhelm Herbst (4th ed.,
+1878). See also M. Schneidereit, <i>M. Claudius, seine Weltanschauung
+und Lebensweisheit</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUSEL<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (more correctly <span class="sc">Clauzel</span>), <span class="bold">BERTRAND</span>, <span class="sc">Count</span>
+(1772-1842), marshal of France, was born at Mirepoix (Ariège)
+on the 12th of December 1772, and served in the first campaign
+of the French Revolutionary Wars as one of the volunteers of
+1791. In June 1795, having distinguished himself repeatedly
+in the war on the northern frontier (1792-1793) and the fighting
+in the eastern Pyrenees (1793-1794), Clausel was made a general
+of brigade. In this rank he served in Italy in 1798 and 1799,
+and in the disastrous campaign of the latter year he won great
+distinction at the battles of the Trebbia and of Novi. In 1802
+he served in the expedition to S. Domingo. He became a general
+of division in December 1802, and after his return to France he
+was in almost continuous military employment there until in
+1806 he was sent to the army of Naples. Soon after this Napoleon
+made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1808-1809
+he was with Marmont in Dalmatia, and at the close of 1809 he
+was appointed to a command in the army of Portugal under
+Masséna.</p>
+
+<p>Clausel took part in the Peninsular campaigns of 1810 and 1811,
+including the Torres Vedras campaign, and under Marmont he
+did excellent service in re-establishing the discipline, efficiency
+and mobility of the army, which had suffered severely in the
+retreat from Torres Vedras. In the Salamanca campaign (1812)
+the result of Clausel&rsquo;s work was shown in the marching powers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span>
+of the French, and at the battle of Salamanca, Clausel, who had
+succeeded to the command on Marmont being wounded, and had
+himself received a severe wound, drew off his army with the
+greatest skill, the retreat on Burgos being conducted by him in
+such a way that the pursuers failed to make the slightest impression,
+and had themselves in the end to retire from the siege of
+Burgos (1812). Early in 1813 Clausel was made commander
+of the Army of the North in Spain, but he was unable to avert
+the great disaster of Vittoria. Under the supreme command of
+Soult he served through the rest of the Peninsular War with
+unvarying distinction. On the first restoration in 1814 he
+submitted unwillingly to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon
+returned to France, he hastened to join him. During the
+Hundred Days he was in command of an army defending the
+Pyrenean frontier. Even after Waterloo he long refused to
+recognize the restored government, and he escaped to America,
+being condemned to death in absence. He took the first opportunity
+of returning to aid the Liberals in France (1820), sat in
+the chamber of deputies from 1827 to 1830, and after the revolution
+of 1830 was at once given a military command. At the head
+of the army of Algiers, Clausel made a successful campaign,
+but he was soon recalled by the home government, which desired
+to avoid complications in Algeria. At the same time he was
+made a marshal of France (February 1831). For some four
+years thereafter he urged his Algerian policy upon the chamber
+of deputies, and finally in 1835 was reappointed commander-in-chief.
+But after several victories, including the taking of
+Mascara in 1835, the marshal met with a severe repulse at
+Constantine in 1836. A change of government in France was
+primarily responsible for the failure, but public opinion attributed
+it to Clausel, who was recalled in February 1837. He thereupon
+retired from active service, and, after vigorously defending his
+conduct before the deputies, he ceased to take part in public
+affairs. He lived in complete retirement up to his death at
+Secourrieu (Garonne) on the 21st of April 1842.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUSEN, GEORGE<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1852-&emsp;&emsp;), English painter, was born
+in London, the son of a decorative artist. He attended the design
+classes at the South Kensington schools from 1867-1873 with
+great success. He then worked in the studio of Edwin Long,
+R.A., and subsequently in Paris under Bouguereau and Robert-Fleury.
+He became one of the foremost modern painters of
+landscape and of peasant life, influenced to a certain extent
+by the impressionists with whom he shared the view that light
+is the real subject of landscape art. His pictures excel in rendering
+the appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight,
+or in the shady shelter of a barn or stable. His &ldquo;Girl at the
+Gate&rdquo; was acquired for the nation by the Chantrey Trustees and
+is now at the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery).
+He was elected associate of the Royal Academy in 1895, and as
+professor of painting gave a memorable series of lectures to the
+students of the schools,&mdash;published as <i>Six Lectures on Painting</i>
+(1904) and <i>Aims and Ideals in Art</i> (1906).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1780-1831), Prussian general and
+military writer, was born at Burg, near Magdeburg, on the 1st of
+June 1780. His family, originally Polish, had settled in Germany
+at the end of the previous century. Entering the army in 1792,
+he first saw service in the Rhine campaigns of 1793-1794,
+receiving his commission at the siege of Mainz. On his return to
+garrison duty he set to work so zealously to remedy the defects
+in his education caused by his father&rsquo;s poverty, that in 1801 he
+was admitted to the Berlin Academy for young officers, then
+directed by Scharnhorst. Scharnhorst, attracted by his pupil&rsquo;s
+industry and force of character, paid special attention to his
+training, and profoundly influenced the development of his mind.
+In 1803, on Scharnhorst&rsquo;s recommendation, Clausewitz was made
+&ldquo;adjutant&rdquo; (aide-de-camp) to Prince August, and he served in
+this capacity in the campaign of Jena (1806), being captured
+along with the prince by the French at Prenzlau. A prisoner in
+France and Switzerland for the next two years, he returned
+to Prussia in 1809; and for the next three years, as a departmental
+chief in the ministry of war, as a teacher in the
+military school, and as military instructor to the crown prince,
+he assisted Scharnhorst in the famous reorganization of the
+Prussian army. In 1810 he married the countess Marie von
+Brühl.</p>
+
+<p>On the outbreak of the Russian war in 1812, Clausewitz, like
+many other Prussian officers, took service with his country&rsquo;s
+nominal enemy. This step he justified in a memorial, published
+for the first time in the <i>Leben Gneisenaus</i> by Pertz (Berlin, 1869).
+At first adjutant to General Phull, who had himself been a
+Prussian officer, he served later under Pahlen at Witepsk and
+Smolensk, and from the final Russian position at Kaluga he
+was sent to the army of Wittgenstein. It was Clausewitz who
+negotiated the convention of Tauroggen, which separated the
+cause of Yorck&rsquo;s Prussians from that of the French, and began
+the War of Liberation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Yorck Von Wartenburg</a></span>; also
+Blumenthal&rsquo;s <i>Die Konvention von Tauroggen</i>, Berlin, 1901). As a
+Russian officer he superintended the formation of the <i>Landwehr</i> of
+east Prussia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Stein, Baron Vom</a></span>), and in the campaign of
+1813 served as chief of staff to Count Wallmoden. He conducted
+the fight at Göhrde, and after the armistice, with Gneisenau&rsquo;s
+permission, published an account of the campaign (<i>Der Feldzug von
+1813 bis zum Waffenstillstand</i>, Leipzig, 1813). This work was
+long attributed to Gneisenau himself. After the peace of 1814
+Clausewitz re-entered the Prussian service, and in the Waterloo
+campaign was present at Ligny and Wavre as General Thielmann&rsquo;s
+chief of staff. This post he retained till 1818, when he was promoted
+major-general and appointed director of the <i>Allgemeine
+Kriegsschule</i>. Here he remained till in 1830 he was made chief of
+the 3rd Artillery Inspection at Breslau. Next year he became
+chief of staff to Field-marshal Gneisenau, who commanded an
+army of observation on the Polish frontier. After the dissolution
+of this army Clausewitz returned to his artillery duties; but on
+the 18th of November 1831 he died at Breslau of cholera, which
+had proved fatal to his chief also, and a little previously, to his
+old Russian commander Diebitsch on the other side of the
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p>His collected works were edited and published by his widow,
+who was aided by some officers, personal friends of the general, in
+her task. Of the ten volumes of <i>Hinterlassene Werke über Krieg
+und Kriegführung</i> (Berlin, 1832-1837, later edition called
+<i>Clausewitz&rsquo;s Gesammte Werke</i>, Berlin, 1874) the first three
+contain Clausewitz&rsquo;s masterpiece, <i>Vom Kriege</i>, an exposition
+of the philosophy of war which is absolutely unrivalled. He
+produced no &ldquo;system&rdquo; of strategy, and his critics styled his
+work &ldquo;negative&rdquo; and asked &ldquo;<i>Qu&rsquo;a-t-il fondé?</i>&rdquo; What he had
+&ldquo;founded&rdquo; was that modern strategy which, by its hold on the
+Prussian mind, carried the Prussian arms to victory in 1866 and
+1870 over the &ldquo;systematic&rdquo; strategists Krismánic and Bazaine,
+and his philosophy of war became, not only in Germany but in
+many other countries, the essential basis of all serious study of
+the art of war. The English and French translations (Graham,
+<i>On War</i>, London, 1873; Neuens, <i>La Guerre</i>, Paris, 1849-1852; or
+Vatry, <i>Théorie de la grande guerre</i>, Paris, 1899), with the German
+original, place the work at the disposal of students of most
+nationalities. The remaining volumes deal with military
+history: vol. 4, the Italian campaign of 1796-97; vols. 5 and 6,
+the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland and Italy; vol. 7, the wars
+of 1812, 1813 to the armistice, and 1814; vol. 8, the Waterloo
+Campaign; vols. 9 and 10, papers on the campaigns of Gustavus
+Adolphus, Turenne, Luxemburg, Münnich, John Sobieski,
+Frederick the Great, Ferdinand of Brunswick, &amp;c. He also wrote
+<i>Über das Leben und den Charakter von Scharnhorst</i> (printed in
+Ranke&rsquo;s <i>Historisch-politischer Zeitschrift</i>, 1832). A manuscript
+on the catastrophe of 1806 long remained unpublished. It was
+used by v. Höpfner in his history of that war, and eventually
+published by the Great General Staff in 1888 (French translation,
+1903). Letters from Clausewitz to his wife were published in
+<i>Zeitschrift für preussische Landeskunde</i> (1876). His name is borne
+by the 28th Field Artillery regiment of the German army.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Schwartz, <i>Leben des General von Clausewitz und der Frau
+Marie von Clausewitz</i> (2 vols., Berlin, 1877); von Meerheimb, <i>Karl
+von Clausewitz</i> (Berlin, 1875), also Memoir in <i>Allgemeine deutsche
+Biographie</i>; Bernhardi, <i>Leben des Generals von Clausewitz</i> (10th
+Supplement, <i>Militär. Wochenblatt</i>, 1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span></p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMMANUEL<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1822-1888),
+German physicist, was born on the 2nd of January 1822 at
+Köslin, in Pomerania. After attending the Gymnasium at
+Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844. In
+1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed
+professor of physics in the royal artillery and engineering school at
+Berlin. Late in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture
+as <i>Privatdocent</i> in the university. In 1855 he became an ordinary
+professor at Zürich Polytechnic, accepting at the same time
+a professorship in the university of Zürich In 1867 he moved
+to Würzburg as professor of physics, and two years later was
+appointed to the same chair at Bonn, where he died on the 24th of
+August 1888. During the Franco-German War he was at the
+head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and
+received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville
+and Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical
+rather than an experimental physicist, was concerned with many
+of the most abstruse problems of molecular physics. By his
+restatement of Carnot&rsquo;s principle he put the theory of heat on a
+truer and sounder basis, and he deserves the credit of having
+made thermodynamics a science; he enunciated the second law,
+in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the well-known
+form, &ldquo;Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter
+body.&rdquo; His results he applied to an exhaustive development of
+the theory of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the
+conception of entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to
+his labours, Clerk Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It
+was he who raised it, on the basis of the dynamical theory of heat,
+to the level of a theory, and he carried out many numerical
+determinations in connextion with it, <i>e.g.</i> of the mean free path of
+a molecule. To Clausius also was due an important advance in
+the theory of electrolysis, and he put forward the idea that
+molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms, the
+electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange.
+This view found little favour until 1887, when it was taken up by
+S.A. Arrhenius, who made it the basis of the theory of electrolytic
+dissociation. In addition to many scientific papers he wrote
+<i>Die Potentialfunktion und das Potential</i>, 1864, and <i>Abhandlungen
+über die mechanische Wärmetheorie</i>, 1864-1867.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAUSTHAL<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Klausthal</span>, a town of Germany, in the
+Prussian Harz, lying on a bleak plateau, 1860 ft. above sea-level,
+50. m. by rail W.S.W. of Halberstadt. Pop. (1905) 8565.
+Clausthal is the chief mining town of the Upper Harz Mountains,
+and practically forms one town with Zellerfeld, which is separated
+from it by a small stream, the Zellbach. The streets are broad,
+opportunity for improvement having been given by fires in 1844
+and 1854; the houses are mostly of wood. There are an
+Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, and a gymnasium.
+Clausthal has a famous mining college with a mineralogical
+museum, and a disused mint. Its chief mines are silver and lead,
+but it also smelts copper and a little gold. Four or five sanatoria
+are in the neighbourhood. The museum of the Upper Harz is at
+Zellerfeld.</p>
+
+<p>Clausthal was founded about the middle of the 12th century
+in consequence probably of the erection of a Benedictine monastery
+(closed in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellerfeld.
+At the beginning of the 16th century the dukes of Brunswick
+made a new settlement here, and under their directions the
+mining, which had been begun by the monks, was carried on
+more energetically. The first church was built at Clausthal in
+1570. In 1864 the control of the mines passed into the hands of
+the state.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAVECIN<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span>, the French for clavisymbal or harpsichord
+(Ger. <i>Clavicymbel</i> or <i>Dockenklavier</i>), an abbreviation of the
+Flemish <i>clavisinbal</i> and Ital. <i>clavicimbalo</i>, a keyboard musical
+instrument in which the strings were plucked by means of a
+plectrum consisting of a quill mounted upon a jack.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pianoforte</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Harpsichord</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAVICEMBALO<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Gravicembalo</span> (from Lat. <i>clavis</i>, key,
+and <i>cymbalum</i>, cymbal; Eng. clavicymbal, clavisymbal; Flemish,
+<i>clavisinbal</i>; Span. <i>clavisinbanos</i>), a keyboard musical instrument
+with strings plucked by means of small quill or leather
+plectra. &ldquo;Cymbal&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kumbalon">&#954;&#973;&#956;&#946;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="khumbê">&#954;&#973;&#956;&#946;&#951;</span>, a hollow
+vessel) was the old European term for the dulcimer, and hence
+its place in the formation of the word.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pianoforte</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spinet</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Virginal</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAVICHORD<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clarichord</span> (Fr. <i>manicorde</i>; Ger. <i>Clavichord</i>;
+Ital. <i>manicordo</i>; Span. <i>manicordio</i><a name="FnAnchor_1m" id="FnAnchor_1m" href="#Footnote_1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), a medieval stringed
+keyboard instrument, a forerunner of the pianoforte (<i>q.v.</i>), its
+strings being set in vibration by a blow from a brass tangent
+instead of a hammer as in the modern instrument. The clavichord,
+derived from the dulcimer by the addition of a keyboard,
+consisted of a rectangular case, with or without legs, often very
+elaborately ornamented with paintings and gilding. The earliest
+instruments were small and portable, being placed upon a table
+or stand. The strings, of finely drawn brass, steel or iron wire,
+were stretched almost parallel with the keyboard over the
+narrow belly or soundboard resting on the soundboard bridges,
+often three in number, and wound as in the piano round wrest
+or tuning pins set in a block at the right-hand side of the soundboard
+and attached at the other end to hitch pins. The bridges
+served to direct the course of the strings and to conduct the
+sound waves to the soundboard. The scaling, or division of
+the strings determining their vibrating length, was effected by the
+position of the tangents. These tangents, small wedge-shaped
+blades of brass, beaten out at the top, were inserted in the end
+of the arm of the keys. As the latter were depressed by the
+fingers the tangents rose to strike the strings and stop them
+at the proper length from the belly-bridge. Thus the string was
+set in vibration between the point of impact and the belly-bridge
+just as long as the key was pressed down. The key being
+released, the vibrations were instantly stopped by a list of cloth
+acting as damper and interwoven among the strings behind the
+line of the tangents.</p>
+
+<p>There were two kinds of clavichords&mdash;the fretted or <i>gebunden</i>
+and the fret-free or <i>bund-frei</i>. The term &ldquo;fretted&rdquo; was applied
+to those clavichords which, instead of being provided with a
+string or set of strings in unison for each note, had one set of
+strings acting for three or four notes, the arms of the keys being
+twisted in order to bring the contact of the tangent into the
+acoustically correct position under the string. The &ldquo;fret-free&rdquo;
+were chromatically-scaled instruments. The first <i>bund-frei</i>
+clavichord is attributed to Daniel Faber of Crailsheim in Saxony
+about 1720. This important change in construction increased
+the size of the instrument, each pair of unison strings requiring
+a key and tangent of its own, and led to the introduction of the
+system of tuning by equal temperament upheld by J.S. Bach.
+Clavichords were made with pedals.<a name="FnAnchor_2m" id="FnAnchor_2m" href="#Footnote_2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The tone of the clavichord, extremely sweet and delicate,
+was characterized by a tremulous hesitancy, which formed its
+great charm while rendering it suitable only for the private
+music room or study. Between 1883 and 1893 renewed attention
+was drawn to the instrument by A.J. Hipkins&rsquo;s lectures and
+recitals on keyboard instruments in London, Oxford and Cambridge;
+and Arnold Dolmetsch reintroduced the art of making
+clavichords in 1894.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1m" id="Footnote_1m" href="#FnAnchor_1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The words <i>clavicorde</i>, <i>clavicordo</i> and <i>clavicordio</i>, respectively
+French, Italian and Spanish, were applied to a different type of
+instrument, the spinet (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2m" id="Footnote_2m" href="#FnAnchor_2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Sebastian Virdung, <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel,
+1511) (facsimile reprint Berlin, 1882, edited by R. Eitner); J.
+Verschuere Reynvaan, <i>Musijkaal Kunst-Woordenboek</i> (Amsterdam,
+1795) (a very scarce book, of which the British Museum does not
+possess a copy); Jacob Adlung, <i>Musica Mechanica Organoedi</i>
+(Berlin, 1768), vol. ii. pp. 158-9; A.J. Hipkins, <i>The History of the
+Pianoforte</i> (London, 1896), pp. 61 and 62.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAVICYTHERIUM<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span>, a name usually applied to an upright
+spinet (<i>q.v.</i>), the soundboard and strings of which were vertical
+instead of horizontal, being thus perpendicular to the keyboard;
+but it would seem that the clavicytherium proper is distinct
+from the upright spinet in that its strings are placed horizontally.
+In the early clavicytherium there was, as in the spinet, only one
+string (of gut) to each key, set in vibration by means of a small
+quill or leather plectrum mounted on a jack which acted as in
+the spinet and harpsichord (<i>q.v.</i>). The clavicytherium or keyed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span>
+cythera or cetra, names which in the 14th and 15th centuries
+had been applied somewhat indiscriminately to instruments
+having strings stretched over a soundboard and plucked by
+fingers or plectrum, was probably of Italian<a name="FnAnchor_1n" id="FnAnchor_1n" href="#Footnote_1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> or possibly of south
+German origin. Sebastian Virdung,<a name="FnAnchor_2n" id="FnAnchor_2n" href="#Footnote_2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> writing early in the 16th
+century, describes the clavicytherium as a new invention, having
+gut strings, and gives an illustration of it. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pianoforte</a></span>.) A
+certain amount of uncertainty exists as to its exact construction,
+due to the extreme rarity of unrestored specimens extant, and to
+the almost total absence of trustworthy practical information.</p>
+
+<p>In a unique specimen with two keyboards dating from the 16th
+or 17th century, which is in the collection of Baron Alexandre
+Kraus,<a name="FnAnchor_3n" id="FnAnchor_3n" href="#Footnote_3n"><span class="sp">3</span></a> what appear to be vibrating strings stretched over a
+soundboard perpendicular to the keyboard are in reality the
+wires forming part of the mechanism of the action. The arrangement
+of this mechanism is the distinctive feature of the clavicytherium,
+for the wires, unlike the strings of the upright spinet,
+increase in length from <i>left to right</i>, so that the upright harp-shaped
+back has its higher side over the treble of the keyboard
+instead of over the bass. The vibrating strings of the clavicytherium
+in the Kraus Museum are stretched horizontally over
+two kinds of psalteries fixed one over the other. The first,
+serving for the lower register, is of the well-known trapezoid
+shape and lies over the keyboards; it has 30 wire strings in
+pairs of unisons corresponding to the 15 lowest keys. The
+second psaltery resembles the kanoun of the Arabs, and has
+36 strings in courses of 3 unisons corresponding to the next 12
+keys, and 88 very thin strings in courses of 4, completing the
+49 keys; the compass thus has a range of four octaves from
+C to C. The quills of the jacks belonging to the two keyboards
+are of different length and thickness. The jacks, which work
+as in the spinet, are attached to the perpendicular wires, disposed
+in two parallel rows, one for each keyboard.</p>
+
+<p>There is a very fine specimen of the so-called clavicytherium
+(upright spinet) in the Donaldson museum of the Royal College
+of Music, London, acquired from the Correr collection at Venice
+in 1885.<a name="FnAnchor_4n" id="FnAnchor_4n" href="#Footnote_4n"><span class="sp">4</span></a> The instrument is undated, but A.J. Hipkins<a name="FnAnchor_5n" id="FnAnchor_5n" href="#Footnote_5n"><span class="sp">5</span></a> placed
+it early in the 16th or even at the end of the 15th century. There
+is German writing on the inside of the back, referring to some
+agreement at Ulm. The case is of pine-wood, and the natural
+keys of box-wood. The jacks have the early steel springs, and in
+1885 traces were found in the instrument of original brass
+plectra, all of which point to a very early date.</p>
+
+<p>A learned Italian, Nicolo Vicentino,<a name="FnAnchor_6n" id="FnAnchor_6n" href="#Footnote_6n"><span class="sp">6</span></a> living in the 16th century,
+describes an <i>archicembalo</i> of his own invention, at which the performer
+had to stand, having four rows of keys designed to obtain
+a complete mesotonic pure third tuning. This was an attempt to
+reintroduce the ancient Greek musical system. This instrument
+was probably an upright harpsichord or clavicembalo.</p>
+
+<p>For the history of the clavicytherium considered as a forerunner
+of the pianoforte see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pianoforte</a></span>.</p>
+<div class="author">(K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1n" id="Footnote_1n" href="#FnAnchor_1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Mersenne, <i>Harmonie universelle</i> (Paris, 1636), p. 113, calls the
+clavicytherium &ldquo;une nouvelle forme d&rsquo;épinette dont on use en
+Italie,&rdquo; and states that the action of the jacks and levers is parallel
+from back to front.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2n" id="Footnote_2n" href="#FnAnchor_2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Musica getutscht und auszgezogen</i> (Basel, 1511).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3n" id="Footnote_3n" href="#FnAnchor_3n"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See &ldquo;Une Pièce unique du Musée Kraus de Florence&rdquo; in
+<i>Annales de l&rsquo;alliance scientifique universelle</i> (Paris, 1907).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4n" id="Footnote_4n" href="#FnAnchor_4n"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See illustration by William Gibb in A.J. Hipkins&rsquo;s <i>Musical
+Instruments, Historic, Rare and Unique</i> (1888).</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5n" id="Footnote_5n" href="#FnAnchor_5n"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>History of the Pianoforte</i>, Novello&rsquo;s Music Primers, No. 52 (1896),
+p. 75.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6n" id="Footnote_6n" href="#FnAnchor_6n"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>L&rsquo;Antica Musica ridotta moderna prattica</i> (Rome, 1555).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAVIE, BURNING THE<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span>, an ancient Scottish custom still
+observed at Burghead, a fishing village on the Moray Firth,
+near Forres. The &ldquo;clavie&rdquo; is a bonfire of casks split in two,
+lighted on the 12th of January, corresponding to the New Year
+of the old calendar. One of these casks is joined together again
+by a huge nail (Lat. <i>clavus</i>; hence the term). It is then filled
+with tar, lighted and carried flaming round the village and
+finally up to a headland upon which stands the ruins of a Roman
+altar, locally called &ldquo;the Douro.&rdquo; It here forms the nucleus
+of the bonfire, which is built up of split casks. When the burning
+tar-barrel falls in pieces, the people scramble to get a lighted
+piece with which to kindle the New Year&rsquo;s fire on their cottage
+hearth. The charcoal of the clavie is collected and is put in
+pieces up the cottage chimneys, to keep spirits and witches from
+coming down.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAVIÈRE, ÉTIENNE<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1735-1793), French financier and politician,
+was a native of Geneva. As one of the democratic leaders
+there he was obliged in 1782 to take refuge in England, upon
+the armed interference of France, Sardinia and Berne in favour
+of the aristocratic party. There he met other Swiss, among
+them Marat and Étienne Dumont, but their schemes for a new
+Geneva in Ireland&mdash;which the government favoured&mdash;were
+given up when Necker came to power in France, and Clavière,
+with most of his comrades, went to Paris. There in 1789 he and
+Dumont allied themselves with Mirabeau, secretly collaborating
+for him on the <i>Courrier de Provence</i> and also in preparing
+the speeches which Mirabeau delivered as his own. It was
+mainly by his use of Clavière that Mirabeau sustained his
+reputation as a financier. But Clavière also published some
+pamphlets under his own name, and through these and his
+friendship with J.P. Brissot, whom he had met in London, he
+became minister of finance in the Girondist ministry, from
+March to the 12th of June 1792. After the 10th of August he
+was again given charge of the finances in the provisional executive
+council, though with but indifferent success. He shared in the
+fall of the Girondists, was arrested on the 2nd of June 1793,
+but somehow was left in prison until the 8th of December, when,
+on receiving notice that he was to appear on the next day before
+the Revolutionary Tribunal, he committed suicide.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (d. 1412), Spanish traveller
+of the 15th century, whose narrative is the first important one
+of its kind contributed to Spanish literature, was a native of
+Madrid, and belonged to a family of some antiquity and position.
+On the return of the ambassadors Pelayo de Sotomayor and
+Hernan Sanchez de Palazuelos from the court of Timur, Henry
+III. of Castille determined to send another embassy to the new
+lord of Western Asia, and for this purpose he selected Clavijo,
+Gomez de Salazar (who died on the outward journey), and a
+master of theology named Fray Alonzo Paez de Santa Maria.
+They sailed from St Mary Port near Cadiz on the 22nd of May
+1403, touched at the Balearic Isles, Gaeta and Rhodes, spent
+some time at Constantinople, sailed along the southern coast of
+the Black Sea to Trebizond, and proceeded inland by Erzerum,
+the Ararat region, Tabriz, Sultanieh, Teheran and Meshed,
+to Samarkand, where they were well received by the conqueror.
+Their return was at last accomplished, in part after Timur&rsquo;s
+death, and with countless difficulties and dangers, and they
+landed in Spain on the 1st of March 1406. Clavijo proceeded
+at once to the court, at that time in Alcala de Henares, and
+served as chamberlain till the king&rsquo;s death (in the spring of
+1406-1407); he then returned to Madrid, and lived there in
+opulence till his own death on the 2nd of April 1412. He was
+buried in the chapel of the monastery of St Francis, which he
+had rebuilt at great expense.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are two leading MSS. of Clavijo&rsquo;s narrative&mdash;(a) London,
+British Museum, Additional MSS., 16,613 fols. I, n.-125, v.; (b)
+Madrid, National Library, 9218; and two old editions of the original
+Spanish&mdash;(1) by Gonçalo Argote de Molina (Seville, 1582), (2) by
+Antonio de Sancha (Madrid, 1782), both having the misleading titles,
+apparently invented by Molina, of <i>Historia del gran Tamorlan</i>, and
+<i>Vida y hazañas del gran Tamorlan</i> (the latter at the beginning of the
+text itself); a better sub-title is added, viz. <i>Itinerario y enarracion
+del viage y relacion de la embaxada que Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo
+le hizo</i>. Both editors, and especially Sancha, supply general explanatory
+dissertations. The Spanish text has also been published,
+with a Russian translation, in vol. xxviii. (pp. 1-455) of the <i>Publications
+of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences</i> (<i>Section of
+Russian Language</i>, &amp;c.), edited by I.I. Sreznevski (1881). An
+English version, by Sir Clements Markham, was issued by the Hakluyt
+Society in 1859 (<i>Narrative of the Embassy of R ... G ... de Clavijo
+to the Court of Timour</i>). The identification of a great number of
+the places mentioned by Clavijo is a matter of considerable difficulty,
+and has given rise to some discussion (see Khanikof&rsquo;s list in <i>Geographical
+Magazine</i> (1874), and Sreznevski&rsquo;s <i>Annotated Index</i> in
+the Russian edition of 1881). A short account ot Clavijo&rsquo;s life is
+given by Alvarez y Baena in the <i>Hijos de Madrid</i>, vol. ix. See also
+C.R. Beazley, <i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, iii. 332-56.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span></p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSÉ<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1730-1806), Spanish publicist,
+was born at Lanzarote (Canary Islands) in 1730. He settled
+in Madrid, became editor of <i>El Pensador</i>, and by his campaign
+against the public performance of <i>autos sacramentales</i> secured
+their prohibition in 1765. In 1770 he was appointed director
+of the royal theatres, a post which he resigned in order to take
+up the editorship of the <i>Mercurio histórico y politico de Madrid</i>:
+at the time of his death in 1806 he was secretary to the Cabinet
+of Natural History. He had in abundance the courage, perseverance
+and gift of pungent expression which form the equipment
+of the aggressive journalist, but his work would long since
+have been forgotten were it not that it put an end to a peculiarly
+national form of dramatic exposition, and that his love affair
+with one of Beaumarchais&rsquo; sisters suggested the theme of Goethe&rsquo;s
+first publication, <i>Clavigo</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1810-1903), American politician,
+was born in Madison county, Kentucky, on the 19th of
+October 1810. He was the son of Green Clay (1757-1826), a
+Kentucky soldier of the war of 1812 and a relative of Henry
+Clay. He was educated at Centre College, Danville, Kentucky,
+and at Yale, where he graduated in 1832. Influenced to some
+extent by William Lloyd Garrison, he became an advocate of the
+abolition of slavery, and on his return to his native state, at the
+risk of social and political ostracism, he gave utterance to his
+belief. He studied law, but instead of practising devoted
+himself to a political career. In 1835, 1837 and 1840 he was
+elected as a Whig to the Kentucky legislature, where he advocated
+a system of gradual emancipation, and secured the establishment
+of a public school system, and a much-needed reform in the jury
+system. In 1841 he was defeated on account of his abolition
+views. In 1844 he delivered campaign speeches for Henry Clay
+throughout the North. In 1845 he established, at Lexington,
+Kentucky, an anti-slavery publication known as <i>The True
+American</i>, but in the same year his office and press were wrecked
+by a mob, and he removed the publication office to Cincinnati,
+Ohio. During this and the earlier period of his career his zeal and
+hot temper involved him in numerous personal encounters and
+several duels, in all of which he bore himself with a reckless
+bravery. In the Mexican War he served as a captain of a
+Kentucky company of militia, and was taken prisoner, while
+reconnoitring, during General Scott&rsquo;s advance on the City of
+Mexico. He left the Whig party in 1850, and as an anti-slavery
+candidate for governor of Kentucky polled 5000 votes. In 1856
+he joined the Republican party, and wielded considerable
+influence as a Southern representative in its councils. In 1860
+he was a leading candidate for the vice-presidential nomination.
+In 1861 he was sent by President Lincoln as minister to Russia;
+in 1862 he returned to America to accept a commission as major-general
+of volunteers, but in March 1863 was reappointed to his
+former post at St Petersburg, where he remained until 1869.
+Disapproving of the Republican policy of reconstruction, he left
+the party, and in 1872 was one of the organizers of the Liberal-Republican
+revolt, and was largely instrumental in securing the
+nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the
+political campaigns of 1876 and 1880 he supported the Democratic
+candidate, but rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of
+1884. He died at Whitehall, Kentucky, on the 22nd of July
+1903.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his autobiography, <i>The Life, Memoirs, Writings, and Speeches
+of Cassius Marcellus Clay</i> (Cincinnati, 1896); and <i>The Writings of
+Cassius Marcellus Clay</i> (edited with a &ldquo;Memoir&rdquo; by Horace Greeley.
+New York, 1848).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAY, CHARLES<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> (1801-1893), English surgeon, was born at
+Bredbury, near Stockport, on the 27th of December 1801. He
+began his medical education as a pupil of Kinder Wood in
+Manchester (where he used to attend John Dalton&rsquo;s lectures on
+chemistry), and in 1821 went to Edinburgh to continue his
+studies there. Qualifying in 1823, he began a general practice in
+Ashton-under-Lyne, but in 1839 removed to Manchester to
+practise as an operative and consulting surgeon. It was there
+that, in 1842, he first performed the operation of ovariotomy
+with which his name is associated. On this occasion it was
+perfectly successful, and when in 1865 he published an analysis
+of 111 cases he was able to show a mortality only slightly above
+30%. Although his merits in this matter have sometimes been
+denied, his claim to the title &ldquo;Father of Ovariotomy&rdquo; is now
+generally conceded, and it is admittted that he deserves the
+credit not only of having shown how that operation could be
+made a success, but also of having played an important part in
+the advance of abdominal surgery for which the 19th century was
+conspicuous. In spite of the claims of a heavy practice, Clay
+found time for the pursuit of geology and archaeology. Among
+the books of which he was the author were a volume of <i>Geological
+Sketches of Manchester</i> (1839) and a <i>History of the Currency of the
+Isle of Man</i> (1849), and his collections included over a thousand
+editions of the Old and New Testaments and a remarkably
+complete series of the silver and copper coins of the United
+States. He died at Poulton-le-Fylde, near Preston, on the 19th
+of September 1893.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAY, FREDERIC<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> (1838-1889), English musical composer,
+the son of James Clay, M.P., who was celebrated as a player of
+whist and a writer on that subject, was born in Paris on the 3rd of
+August 1838. He studied music under W.B. Molique in Paris
+and Moritz Hauptmann at Leipzig. With the exception of a few
+songs and two cantatas, <i>The Knights of the Cross</i> (1866) and
+<i>Lalla Rookh</i> (1877),&mdash;the latter of which contained his well-known
+song &ldquo;I&rsquo;ll sing thee songs of Araby,&rdquo;&mdash;his compositions
+were all written for the stage. Clay&rsquo;s first public appearance was
+made with an opera entitled <i>Court and Cottage</i>, the libretto of
+which was written by Tom Taylor. This was produced at
+Covent Garden in 1862, and was followed by <i>Constance</i> (1865),
+<i>Ages Ago</i> (1869), and <i>Princess Toto</i> (1875), to name only three of
+many works which have long since been forgotten. The last two,
+which were written to libretti by W.S. Gilbert, are among Clay&rsquo;s
+most tuneful and most attractive works. He wrote part of the
+music for <i>Babil and Bijou</i> (1872) and <i>The Black Crook</i> (1873),
+both of which were produced at the Alhambra. He also furnished
+incidental music for a revival of <i>Twelfth Night</i> and for the
+production of James Albery&rsquo;s <i>Oriana</i>. His last works, <i>The
+Merry Duchess</i> (1883) and <i>The Golden Ring</i> (1883), the latter
+written for the reopening of the Alhambra, which had been burned
+to the ground the year before, showed an advance upon his
+previous work, and rendered all the more regrettable the stroke of
+paralysis which crippled his physical and mental energies during
+the last few years of his life. He died at Great Marlow on the
+24th of November 1889.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAY, HENRY<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (1777-1852), American statesman and orator,
+was born in Hanover county, Virginia, on the 12th of April 1777,
+and died in Washington on the 29th of June 1852. Few public
+characters in the United States have been the subject of more
+heated controversy. His enemies denounced him as a pretender,
+a selfish intriguer, and an abandoned profligate; his supporters
+placed him among the sages and sometimes even among the
+saints. He was an arranger of measures and leader of political
+forces, not an originator of ideas and systems. His public life
+covered nearly half a century, and his name and fame rest
+entirely upon his own merits. He achieved his success despite
+serious obstacles. He was tall, rawboned and awkward; his
+early instruction was scant; but he &ldquo;read books,&rdquo; talked well,
+and so, after his admission to the bar at Richmond, Virginia,
+in 1797, and his removal next year to Lexington, Kentucky, he
+quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative income from his
+law practice.</p>
+
+<p>Thereafter, until the end of life, and in a field where he met,
+as either friend or foe, John Quincy Adams, Gallatin, Madison,
+Monroe, Webster, Jackson, Calhoun, Randolph and Benton,
+his political activity was wellnigh ceaseless. At the age of
+twenty-two (1799), he was elected to a constitutional convention
+in Kentucky; at twenty-six, to the Kentucky legislature;
+at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of the United
+States constitution, he was appointed to an unexpired term
+(1806-1807) in the United States Senate, where, contrary to
+custom, he at once plunged into business, as though he had been
+there all his life. He again served in the Kentucky legislature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span>
+(1808-1809), was chosen speaker of its lower house, and achieved
+distinction by preventing an intense and widespread anti-British
+feeling from excluding the common law from the Kentucky code.
+A year later he was elected to another unexpired term in the
+United States Senate, serving in 1810-1811. At thirty-four
+(1811) he was elected to the United States House of Representatives
+and chosen speaker on the first day of the session. One of
+the chief sources of his popularity was his activity in Congress
+in promoting the war with Great Britain in 1812, while as one
+of the peace commissioners he reluctantly signed the treaty of
+Ghent on the 24th of December 1814. During the fourteen years
+following his first election, he was re-elected five times to the
+House and to the speakership; retiring for one term (1821-1823)
+to resume his law practice and retrieve his fortunes. He thus
+served as speaker in 1811-1814, in 1815-1820 and in 1823-1825.
+Once he was unanimously elected by his constituents, and once
+nearly defeated for having at the previous session voted to increase
+congressional salaries. He was a warm friend of the Spanish-American
+revolutionists (1818) and of the Greek insurgents
+(1824). From 1825 to 1829 he served as secretary of state in
+President John Quincy Adams&rsquo;s cabinet, and in 1831 he was
+elected to the United States Senate, where he served until 1842,
+and again from 1849 until his death.</p>
+
+<p>From the beginning of his career he was in favour of internal
+improvements as a means of opening up the fertile but inaccessible
+West, and was opposed to the abuse of official patronage
+known as &ldquo;the spoils system.&rdquo; The most important of the
+national questions with which Clay was associated, however,
+were the various phases of slavery politics and protection to
+home industries. The most prominent characteristics of his
+public life were his predisposition to &ldquo;compromises&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;pacifications&rdquo; which generally failed of their object, and his
+passionate patriotic devotion to the Union.</p>
+
+<p>His earliest championship of protection was a resolution
+introduced by him in the Kentucky legislature (1808) which
+favoured the wearing by its members of home-made
+clothes; and one in the United States Senate (April
+<span class="sidenote">His career as a Protectionist.</span>
+1810), on behalf of home-grown and home-made
+supplies for the United States navy, but only to the
+point of making the nation independent of foreign supply. In
+1816 he advocated the Dallas tariff, in which the duties ranged
+up to 35% on articles of home production, the supply of which
+could satisfy the home demand; the avowed purpose being to
+build up certain industries for safety in time of war. In 1824
+he advocated high duties to relieve the prevailing distress, which
+he pictured in a brilliant and effective speech. Although the
+distress was caused by the reactionary effect of a disordered
+currency and the inflated prices of the war of 1812, he ascribed
+it to the country&rsquo;s dependence on foreign supply and foreign
+markets. Great Britain, he said, was a shining example of the
+wisdom of a high tariff. No nation ever flourished without one.
+He closed his principal speech on the subject in the House of
+Representatives with a glowing appeal in behalf of what he
+called &ldquo;The American System.&rdquo; In spite of the opposition of
+Webster and other prominent statesmen, Clay succeeded in
+enacting a tariff which the people of the Southern states denounced
+as a &ldquo;tariff of abominations.&rdquo; As it overswelled the
+revenue, in 1832 he vigorously favoured reducing the tariff rates
+on all articles not competing with American products. His speech
+in behalf of the measure was for years a protection text-book;
+but the measure itself reduced the revenue so little and provoked
+such serious threats of nullification and secession in South
+Carolina, that, to prevent bloodshed and to forestall a free trade
+measure from the next Congress, Clay brought forward in 1833
+a compromise gradually reducing the tariff rates to an average
+of 20%. To the Protectionists this was &ldquo;like a crash of thunder
+in winter&rdquo;; but it was received with such favour by the country
+generally, that its author was hailed as &ldquo;The Great Pacificator,&rdquo;
+as he had been thirteen years before at the time of the Missouri
+Compromise (see below). As, however, the discontent with
+the tariff in the South was only a symptom of the real
+trouble there&mdash;the sensitiveness of the slave-power,&mdash;Clay
+subsequently confessed his serious doubts of the policy of his
+interference.</p>
+
+<p>He was only twenty-two, when, as an opponent of slavery,
+he vainly urged an emancipation clause for the new constitution
+of Kentucky, and he never ceased regretting that its failure put
+his state, in improvements and progress, behind its free neighbours.
+In 1820 he congratulated the new South American
+republics on having abolished slavery, but the same year the
+threats of the Southern states to destroy the Union led him to
+advocate the &ldquo;Missouri Compromise,&rdquo; which, while keeping
+slavery out of all the rest of the territory acquired by the
+&ldquo;Louisiana Purchase&rdquo; north of Missouri&rsquo;s southern boundary
+line, permitted it in that state. Then, greeted with the title
+of &ldquo;The Great Pacificator&rdquo; as a reward for his success, he
+retired temporarily to private life, with a larger stock of popularity
+than he had ever had before. Although at various times
+he had helped to strengthen the law for the recovery of fugitive
+slaves, declining as secretary of state to aid Great Britain in the
+further suppression of the slave trade, and demanding the
+return of fugitives from Canada, yet he heartily supported
+the colonizing of the slaves in Africa, because slavery was the
+&ldquo;deepest stain upon the character of the country,&rdquo; opposition
+to which could not be repressed except by &ldquo;blowing out the moral
+lights around,&rdquo; and &ldquo;eradicating from the human soul the light
+of reason and the law of liberty.&rdquo; When the slave power
+became more aggressive, in and after the year 1831, Clay defended
+the right of petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of
+Columbia, and opposed Calhoun&rsquo;s bill forbidding the use of the
+mails to &ldquo;abolition&rdquo; newspapers and documents. He was luke-warm
+toward recognizing the independence of Texas, lest it should
+aid the increase of slave territory, and generally favoured the
+freedom of speech and press as regards the question of slavery;
+yet his various concessions and compromises resulted, as he himself
+declared, in the abolitionists denouncing him as a slaveholder,
+and the slaveholders as an abolitionist. In 1839, only
+twelve months after opposing the pro-slavery demands, he prepared
+an elaborate speech, in order &ldquo;to set himself right with the
+South,&rdquo; which, before its delivery, received pro-slavery approval.
+While affirming that he was &ldquo;no friend of slavery&rdquo; he held
+abolition and the abolitionists responsible for the hatred, strife,
+disruption and carnage that menaced the nation. In response,
+Calhoun extended to him a most hearty welcome, and assigned
+him to a place on the bench of the penitents. Being a candidate
+for the presidency Clay had to take the insult without wincing.
+It was in reference to this speech that he made the oft-quoted
+remark that he &ldquo;would rather be right than be president.&rdquo;
+While a candidate for president in 1844, he opposed in the
+&ldquo;Raleigh letter&rdquo; the annexation of Texas on many grounds
+except that of its increasing the slave power, thus displeasing
+both the men of anti-slavery and those of pro-slavery sentiments.
+In 1847, after the conquest of Mexico, he made a speech against
+the annexation of that country or the acquiring of any foreign
+territory for the spread of slavery. Although in 1849 he again
+vainly proposed emancipation in Kentucky, he was unanimously
+elected to the United States Senate, where in 1850 he temporarily
+pacified both sections of the country by successfully offering,
+for the sake of the &ldquo;peace, concord and harmony of these
+states,&rdquo; a measure or series of measures that became known as
+the &ldquo;Compromise of 1850.&rdquo; It admitted California as a free state,
+organized Utah and New Mexico as Territories without reference
+to slavery, and enacted a more efficient fugitive slave law. In
+spite of great physical weakness he made several earnest speeches
+in behalf of these measures to save the Union.</p>
+
+<p>Another conspicuous feature of Clay&rsquo;s public career was his
+absorbing and rightful, but constantly ungratified, ambition to
+be president of the United States. His name in connexion
+therewith was mentioned comparatively early, and in 1824,
+with W.H. Crawford, Andrew Jackson, and John Quincy
+Adams, he was a candidate for that office. There being no choice
+by the people, and the House of Representatives having elected
+Adams, Clay was accused by Jackson and his friends of making
+a corrupt bargain whereby, in payment of his vote and influence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span>
+for Adams, he was appointed secretary of state. This made
+Jackson Clay&rsquo;s lifelong enemy, and ever after kept Clay busy
+explaining and denying the allegation. In 1832 Clay was unanimously
+nominated for the presidency by the National Republicans;
+Jackson, by the Democrats. The main issue was the policy
+of continuing the United States Bank, which in 1811 Clay had
+opposed, but in 1816 and always subsequently warmly favoured.
+A majority of the voters approved of Jackson&rsquo;s fight against
+what Clay had once denounced as a dangerous and unconstitutional
+monopoly. Clay made the mistake of supposing that he
+could arouse popular enthusiasm for a moneyed corporation in
+its contest with the great military &ldquo;hero of New Orleans.&rdquo;
+In 1839 he was a candidate for the Whig nomination, but by a
+secret ballot his enemies defeated him in the party convention,
+held in December of that year, and nominated William Henry
+Harrison. The result threw Clay into paroxysms of rage, and
+he violently complained that his friends always used him as
+their candidate when he was sure to be defeated, and betrayed
+him when he or any one could have been elected. In 1844 he
+was nominated by the Whigs against James K. Polk, the Democratic
+candidate. By an audacious fraud that represented him
+as an enemy, and Polk as a friend of protection, Clay lost the
+vote of Pennsylvania; and he lost the vote of New York by
+his own letter abating the force of his previous opposition to
+the annexation of Texas. Even his enemies felt that his defeat
+by Polk was almost a national calamity. In 1848, Zachary
+Taylor, a Mexican War hero, and hardly even a convert to the
+Whig party, defeated Clay for the nomination, Kentucky
+herself deserting her &ldquo;favourite son.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Clay&rsquo;s quick intelligence and sympathy, and his irreproachable
+conduct in youth, explain his precocious prominence in public
+affairs. In his persuasiveness as an orator and his charming
+personality lay the secret of his power. He had early trained
+himself in the art of speech-making, in the forest, the field and
+even the barn, with horse and ox for audience. By contemporaries
+his voice was declared to be the finest musical instrument
+that they ever heard. His eloquence was in turn majestic,
+fierce, playful, insinuating; his gesticulation natural, vivid,
+large, powerful. In public he was of magnificent bearing,
+possessing the true oratorical temperament, the nervous exaltation
+that makes the orator feel and appear a superior being,
+transfusing his thought, passion and will into the mind and
+heart of the listener; but his imagination frequently ran away
+with his understanding, while his imperious temper and ardent
+combativeness hurried him and his party into disadvantageous
+positions. The ease, too, with which he outshone men of vastly
+greater learning lured him from the task of intense and arduous
+study. His speeches were characterized by skill of statement,
+ingenious grouping of facts, fervent diction, and ardent patriotism;
+sometimes by biting sarcasm, but also by superficial
+research, half-knowledge and an unwillingness to reason a
+proposition to its logical results. In private, his never-failing
+courtesy, his agreeable manners and a noble and generous
+heart for all who needed protection against the powerful or the
+lawless, endeared him to hosts of friends. His popularity was
+as great and as inexhaustible among his neighbours as among
+his fellow-citizens generally. He pronounced upon himself a
+just judgment when he wrote: &ldquo;If any one desires to know the
+leading and paramount object of my public life, the preservation
+of this Union will furnish him the key.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Calvin Colton, <i>The Works of Henry Clay</i> (6 vols., New York,
+1857; new ed., 7 vols., New York, 1898), the first three volumes
+of which are an account of Clay&rsquo;s &ldquo;Life and Times&rdquo;; Carl Schurz,
+<i>Henry Clay</i> (2 vols., Boston, 1887), in the &ldquo;American Statesmen&rdquo;
+series; and the life by T. Hart Clay (1910).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAY<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (from O. Eng. <i>claeg</i>, a word common in various forms
+to Teutonic languages, cf. Ger. <i>Klei</i>), commonly defined as a
+fine-grained, almost impalpable substance, very soft, more or
+less coherent when dry, plastic and retentive of water when wet;
+it has an &ldquo;earthy&rdquo; odour when breathed upon or moistened,
+and consists essentially of hydrous aluminium silicate with
+various impurities. Of clay are formed a great number of rocks,
+which collectively are known as &ldquo;clay-rocks&rdquo; or &ldquo;pelitic rocks&rdquo;
+(from Gr. <span class="grk" title="pêlos">&#960;&#951;&#955;&#972;&#962;</span>, clay), <i>e.g.</i> mudstone, shale, slate: these exhibit
+in greater or less perfection the properties above described
+according to their freedom from impurities. In nature, clays are
+rarely free from foreign ingredients, many of which can be
+detected with the unaided eye, while others may be observed
+by means of the microscope. The commonest impurities are:&mdash;
+(1) organic matter, humus, &amp;c. (exemplified by clay-soils with
+an admixture of peat, oil shales, carbonaceous shales); (2)
+fossils (such as plants in the shales of the Lias and Coal Measures,
+shells in clays of all geological periods and in fresh water marls);
+(3) carbonate of lime (rarely altogether absent, but abundant
+in marls, cement-stones and argillaceous limestones); (4)
+sulphide of iron, as pyrite or marcasite (when finely diffused,
+giving the clay a dark grey-blue colour, which weathers to
+brown&mdash;<i>e.g.</i> London Clay; also as nodules and concretions,
+<i>e.g.</i> Gault); (5) oxides of iron (staining the clay bright red when
+ferric oxide, red ochre; yellow when hydrous, <i>e.g.</i> yellow
+ochre); (6) sand or detrital silica (forming loams, arenaceous
+clays, argillaceous sandstones, &amp;c.). Less frequently present
+are the following:&mdash;rock salt (Triassic clays, and marls of
+Cheshire, &amp;c.); gypsum (London Clay, Triassic clays); dolomite,
+phosphate of lime, vivianite (phosphate of iron), oxides of
+manganese, copper ores (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Kupferschiefer</i>), wavellite and
+amber. As the impurities increase in amount the clay rocks
+pass gradually into argillaceous sands and sandstones, argillaceous
+limestones and dolomites, shaly coals and clay
+ironstones.</p>
+
+<p>Natural clays, even when most pure, show a considerable
+range of composition, and hence cannot be regarded as consisting
+of a single mineral; clay is a <i>rock</i>, and has that variability which
+characterizes all rocks. Of the essential properties of clay some
+are merely physical, and depend on the minute size of the
+particles. If any rock be taken (even a piece of pure quartz) and
+crushed to a very fine powder, it will show some of the peculiarities
+of clays; for example, it will be plastic, retentive of
+moisture, impermeable to water, and will shrink to some extent if
+the moist mass be kneaded, and then allowed to dry. It happens,
+however, that many rocks are not disintegrated to this extreme
+degree by natural processes, and weathering invariably accompanies
+disintegration. Quartz, for example, has little or no
+cleavage, and is not attacked by the atmosphere. It breaks up
+into fragments, which become rounded by attrition, but after
+they reach a certain minuteness are borne along by currents of
+water or air in a state of suspension, and are not further reduced
+in size. Hence sands are more coarse grained than clays. A
+great number of rock-forming minerals, however, possess a good
+cleavage, so that when bruised they split into thin fragments;
+many of these minerals decompose somewhat readily, yielding
+secondary minerals, which are comparatively soft and have a
+scaly character, with eminently perfect cleavages, which facilitate
+splitting into exceedingly thin plates. The principal substances
+of this description are kaolin, muscovite and chlorite. Kaolin
+and muscovite are formed principally after felspar (and the
+felspars are the commonest minerals of all crystalline rocks);
+also from nepheline, leucite, scapolite and a variety of other
+rock-forming minerals. Chlorite arises from biotite, augite and
+hornblende. Serpentine, which may be fibrous or scaly, is a
+secondary product of olivine and certain pyroxenes. Clays
+consist essentially of the above ingredients (although serpentine
+is not known to take part in them to any extent, it is closely
+allied to chlorite). At the same time other substances are
+produced as decomposition goes on. They are principally finely
+divided quartz, epidote, zoisite, rutile, limonite, calcite, pyrites,
+and very small particles of these are rarely absent from
+natural clays. These fine-grained materials are at first mixed
+with broken and more or less weathered rock fragments
+and coarser mineral particles in the soil and subsoil, but by
+the action of wind and rain they are swept away and deposited
+in distant situations. &ldquo;Loess&rdquo; is a fine calcareous clay,
+which has been wind-borne, and subsequently laid down on the
+margins of dry steppes and deserts. Most clays are water-borne,
+having been carried from the surface of the land by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span>
+rain and transported by the brooks and rivers into lakes or
+the sea. In this state the fine particles are known as &ldquo;mud.&rdquo;
+They are deposited where the currents are checked and the water
+becomes very still. If temporarily laid down in other situations
+they are ultimately lifted again and removed. A little clay,
+stirred up with water in a glass vessel, takes hours to settle, and
+even after two or three days some remains in suspension; in fact,
+it has been suggested that in such cases the clay forms a sort of
+&ldquo;colloidal solution&rdquo; in the water. Traces of dissolved salts,
+such as common salt, gypsum or alum, greatly accelerate
+deposition. For these reasons the principal gathering places of
+fine pure clays are deep, still lakes, and the sea bottom at considerable
+distances from the shore. The coarser materials settle
+nearer the land, and the shallower portions of the sea floor are
+strewn with gravel and sand, except in occasional depressions
+and near the mouths of rivers where mud may gather. Farther
+out the great mud deposits begin, extending from 50 to 200 m.
+from the land, according to the amount of sediment brought in,
+and the rate at which the water deepens. A girdle of mud
+accumulations encircles all the continents. These sediments are
+fine and tenacious; their principal components, in addition to
+clay, being small grains of quartz, zircon, tourmaline, hornblende,
+felspar and iron compounds. Their typical colour is blackish-blue,
+owing to the abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; when
+fresh they have a sulphurous odour, when weathered they are
+brown, as their iron is present as hydrous oxides (limonite, &amp;c).
+These deposits are tenanted by numerous forms of marine life,
+and the sulphur they contain is derived from decomposing
+organic matter. Occasionally water-logged plant débris is
+mingled with the mud. In a few places a red colour prevails, the
+iron being mostly oxidized; elsewhere the muds are green
+owing to abundant glauconite. Traced landwards the muds
+become more sandy, while on their outer margins they grade into
+the abysmal deposits, such as the globigerina ooze (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ocean
+and Oceanography</a></span>). Near volcanoes they contain many
+volcanic minerals, and around coral islands they are often in
+large part calcareous.</p>
+
+<p>Microscopic sections of some of the more coherent clays and
+shales may be prepared by saturating them with Canada balsam
+by long boiling, and slicing the resultant mass in the same
+manner as one of the harder rocks. They show that clay rocks
+contain abundant very small grains of quartz (about 0.01 to
+0.05 mm. in diameter), with often felspar, tourmaline, zircon,
+epidote, rutile and more or less calcite. These may form more
+than one-third of an ordinary shale; the greater part, however,
+consists of still smaller scales of other minerals (0.01 mm. in
+diameter and less than this). Some of these are recognizable as
+pale yellowish and white mica; others seem to be chlorite, the
+remainder is perhaps kaolin, but, owing to the minute size of the
+flakes, they yield very indistinct reactions to polarized light.
+They are also often stained with iron oxide and organic substances,
+and in consequence their true nature is almost impossible to
+determine. It is certain, however, that the finer-grained rocks are
+richest in alumina, and in combined water; hence the inference
+is clear that kaolin or some other hydrous aluminium silicate is
+the dominating constituent. These results are confirmed by the
+mechanical analysis of clays. This process consists in finely
+pulverizing the soil or rock, and levigating it in vessels of water.
+A series of powders is obtained progressively finer according to the
+time required to settle to the bottom of the vessel. The clay is
+held to include those particles which have less than 0.005 mm. diameter,
+and contains a higher percentage of alumina than any
+of the other ingredients.</p>
+
+<p>As might be inferred from the differences they exhibit in other
+respects, clay rocks vary greatly in their chemical composition.
+Some of them contain much iron (yellow, blue and red clays);
+others contain abundant calcium carbonate (calcareous clays
+and marls). Pure clays, however, may be found almost quite
+free from these substances. Their silica ranges from about 60 to
+45%, varying in accordance with the amount of quartz and
+alkali-felspar present. It is almost always more than would be
+the case if the rock consisted of kaolin mixed with muscovite.
+Alumina is high in the finer clays (18 to 30%), and they are the
+most aluminous of all sediments, except bauxite. Magnesia is
+never absent, though its amount may be less than 1%; it is
+usually contained in minerals of the chlorite group, but partly
+also in dolomite. The alkalis are very interesting; often they
+form 5 or 10% of the whole rock; they indicate abundance of
+white micas or of undecomposed particles of felspar. Some clays,
+however, such as fireclays, contain very little potash or soda,
+while they are rich in alumina; and it is a fair inference that
+hydrated aluminous silicates, such as kaolin, are well represented
+in these rocks. There are, in fact, a few clays which contain
+about 45% of alumina, that is to say, more than in pure kaolin.
+It is probable that these are related to bauxite and certain kinds
+of laterite.</p>
+
+<p>A few of the most important clay rocks, such as china-clay,
+brick-clay, red-clay and shale, may be briefly described here.</p>
+
+<p><i>China-clay</i> is white, friable and earthy. It occurs in regions
+of granite, porphyry and syenite, and usually occupies funnel-shaped
+cavities of no great superficial area, but of considerable
+depth. It consists of very fine scaly kaolin, larger, shining plates
+of white mica, grains of quartz and particles of semi-decomposed
+felspar, tourmaline, zircon and other minerals, which originally
+formed part of the granite. These clays are produced by the
+decomposition of the granite by acid vapours, which are discharged
+after the igneous rock has solidified (&ldquo;fumarole or
+pneumatolytic action&rdquo;). Fluorine and its compounds are often
+supposed to have been among the agencies which produce this
+change, but more probably carbonic acid played the principal
+role. The felspar decomposes into kaolin and quartz; its
+alkalis are for the most part set free and removed in solution,
+but are partly retained in the white mica which is constantly
+found in crude china-clays. Semi-decomposed varieties of the
+granite are known as china-stone. The kaolin may be washed
+away from its original site, and deposited in hollows or lakes to
+form beds of white clay, such as pipe-clay; in this case it is
+always more or less impure. Yellow and pinkish varieties of
+china-clay and pipe-clay contain a small quantity of oxide of
+iron. The best known localities for china-clay are Cornwall,
+Limoges (France), Saxony, Bohemia and China; it is found also
+in Pennsylvania, N. Carolina and elsewhere in the United States.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fire-clays</i> include all those varieties of clay which are very
+refractory to heat. They must contain little alkalis, lime,
+magnesia and iron, but some of them are comparatively rich
+in silica. Many of the clays which pass under this designation
+belong to the Carboniferous period, and are found underlying
+seams of coal. Either by rapid growth of vegetation, or by
+subsequent percolation of organic solutions, most of the alkalis
+and the lime have been carried away.</p>
+
+<p>Any argillaceous material, which can be used for the manufacture
+of bricks, may be called a <i>brick-clay</i>. In England,
+Kimmeridge Clay, Lias clays, London Clay and pulverized
+shale and slate are all employed for this purpose. Each variety
+needs special treatment according to its properties. The true
+brick-clays, however, are superficial deposits of Pleistocene or
+Quaternary age, and occur in hollows, filled-up lakes and
+deserted stream channels. Many of them are derived from the
+glacial boulder-clays, or from the washing away of the finer
+materials contained in older clay formations. They are always
+very impure.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>red-clay</i> is an abysmal formation, occurring in the sea
+bottom in the deepest part of the oceans. It is estimated to
+cover over fifty millions of square miles, and is probably the most
+extensive deposit which is in course of accumulation at the
+present day. In addition to the reddish or brownish argillaceous
+matrix it contains fresh or decomposed crystals of volcanic
+minerals, such as felspar, augite, hornblende, olivine and
+pumiceous or palagonitic rocks. These must either have been
+ejected by submarine volcanoes or drifted by the wind from
+active vents, as the fine ash discharged by Krakatoa was wafted
+over the whole globe. Larger rounded lumps of pumice, found
+in the clay, have probably floated to their present situations,
+and sank when decomposed, all their cavities becoming filled
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span>
+with sea water. Crystals of zeolites (phillipsite) form in the
+red-clay as radiate, nodular groups. Lumps of manganese oxide,
+with a black, shining outer surface, are also characteristic of
+this deposit, and frequently encrust pieces of pumice or animal
+remains. The only fossils of the clay are radiolaria, sharks&rsquo;
+teeth and the ear-bones of whales, precisely those parts of the
+skeleton of marine creatures which are hardest and can longest
+survive exposure to sea-water. Their comparative abundance
+shows how slowly the clay gathers. Small rounded spherules
+of iron, believed by some to be meteoric dust, have also been
+obtained in some numbers. Among the rocks of the continents
+nothing exactly the same as this remarkable deposit is known
+to occur, though fine dark clays, with manganese nodules, are
+found in many localities, accompanied by other rocks which
+indicate deep-water conditions of deposit.</p>
+
+<p>Another type of red-clay is found in caves, and is known as
+<i>cave-earth</i> or <i>red-earth</i> (<i>terra rossa</i>). It is fine, tenacious and
+bright red, and represents the insoluble and thoroughly weathered
+impurities which are left behind when the calcareous matter is
+removed in solution by carbonated waters. Similar residual
+clays sometimes occur on the surface of areas of limestone in
+hollows and fissures formed by weathering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Boulder-clay</i> is a coarse unstratified deposit of fine clay, with
+more or less sand, and boulders of various sizes, the latter usually
+marked with glacial striations.</p>
+
+<p>Some clay rocks which have been laid down by water are
+very uniform through their whole thickness, and are called
+<i>mud-stones</i>. Others split readily into fine leaflets or laminae
+parallel to their bedding, and this structure is accentuated by
+the presence of films of other materials, such as sand or vegetable
+debris. Laminated clays of this sort are generally known as
+<i>shales</i>; they occur in many formations but are very common
+in the Carboniferous. Some of them contain much organic
+debris, and when distilled yield paraffin oil, wax, compounds
+of ammonia, &amp;c. In these oil-shales there are clear, globular,
+yellow bodies which seem to be resinous. It has been suggested
+that the admixture of large quantities of decomposed fresh-water
+algae among the original mud is the origin of the paraffins.
+In New South Wales, Scotland and several parts of America
+such oil-shales are worked on a commercial scale. Many shales
+contain great numbers of ovoid or rounded septarian nodules
+of clay ironstone. Others are rich in pyrites, which, on oxidation,
+produces sulphuric acid; this attacks the aluminous silicates
+of the clay and forms aluminium sulphate (<i>alum shales</i>). The
+lias shales of Whitby contain blocks of semi-mineralized wood,
+or jet, which is black with a resinous lustre, and a fibrous
+structure. The laminated structure of shales, though partly
+due to successive very thin sheets of deposit, is certainly dependent
+also on the vertical pressure exerted by masses of super-incumbent
+rock; it indicates a transition to the fissile character
+of clay slates.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAY CROSS<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span>, an urban district in the Chesterfield parliamentary
+division of Derbyshire, England, near the river Amber,
+on the Midland railway, 5 m. S. of Chesterfield. Pop. (1901)
+8358. The Clay Cross Colliery and Ironworks Company, whose
+mines were for a time leased by George Stephenson, employ a
+great number of hands.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAYMORE<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (from the Gaelic <i>claidheamh mòr</i>, &ldquo;great sword&rdquo;),
+the old two-edged broadsword with cross hilt, of which the
+guards were usually turned down, used by the Highlanders of
+Scotland. The name is also wrongly applied to the single-edged
+basket-hilted sword adopted in the 16th century and still worn
+as the full-dress sword in the Highland regiments of the British
+army.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAYS, PAUL JEAN<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1819-1900), Belgian artist, was born
+at Bruges in 1819, and died at Brussels in 1900. He was one of
+the most esteemed marine painters of his time, and early in his
+career he substituted a sincere study of nature for the extravagant
+and artificial conventionality of most of his predecessors. When
+he began to paint, the sea was considered by continental artists
+as worth representing only under its most tempestuous aspects.
+Artists cared only for the stirring drama of storm and wreck,
+and they clung still to the old-world tradition of the romantic
+school. Clays was the first to appreciate the beauty of calm
+waters reflecting the slow procession of clouds, the glories of
+sunset illuminating the sails of ships or gilding the tarred sides
+of heavy fishing-boats. He painted the peaceful life of rivers,
+the poetry of wide estuaries, the regulated stir of roadsteads and
+ports. And while he thus broke away from old traditions he
+also threw off the trammels imposed on him by his master,
+the marine painter Theodore Gudin (1802-1880). Endeavouring
+only to give truthful expression to the nature that delighted his
+eyes, he sought to render the limpid salt atmosphere, the weight
+of waters, the transparence of moist horizons, the gem-like
+sparkle of the sky. A Fleming in his feeling for colour, he set his
+palette with clean strong hues, and their powerful harmonies
+were in striking contrast with the rusty, smoky tones then in
+favour. If he was not a &ldquo;luminist&rdquo; in the modern use of the
+word, he deserves at any rate to be classed with the founders of
+the modern naturalistic school. This conscientious and healthy
+interpretation, to which the artist remained faithful, without any
+important change, to the end of an unusually long and laborious
+career, attracted those minds which aspired to be bold, and won
+over those which were moderate. Clays soon took his place
+among the most famous Belgian painters of his generation, and
+his pictures, sold at high prices, are to be seen in most public and
+private galleries. We may mention, among others, &ldquo;The Beach
+at Ault,&rdquo; &ldquo;Boats in a Dutch Port,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Dutch Boats in the
+Flushing Roads,&rdquo; the last in the National Gallery, London.
+In the Brussels gallery are &ldquo;The Port of Antwerp,&rdquo; &ldquo;Coast near
+Ostend,&rdquo; and a &ldquo;Calm on the Scheldt&rdquo;; in the Antwerp
+museum, &ldquo;The Meuse at Dordrecht&rdquo;; in the Pinakothek at
+Munich, &ldquo;The Open North Sea&rdquo;; in the Metropolitan Museum
+of Fine Arts, New York, &ldquo;The Festival of the Freedom of the
+Scheldt at Antwerp in 1863&rdquo;; in the palace of the king of the
+Belgians, &ldquo;Arrival of Queen Victoria at Ostend in 1857&rdquo;; in
+the Bruges academy, &ldquo;Port of Feirugudo, Portugal.&rdquo; Clays
+was a member of several Academies, Belgian and foreign, and
+of the Order of Leopold, the Legion of Honour, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Camille Lemonnier, <i>Histoire des Beaux-Arts</i> (Brussels, 1887).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(O. M.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1796-1856), American
+politician, was born in Dagsborough, Sussex county, Delaware, on
+the 24th of July 1796. He came of an old Quaker family long
+prominent in the political history of Delaware. He graduated
+at Yale in 1815, and in 1819 began to practise law at Dover,
+Delaware, where for a time he was associated with his cousin,
+Thomas Clayton (1778-1854), subsequently a United States
+senator and chief-justice of the state. He soon gained a large
+practice. He became a member of the state House of Representatives
+in 1824, and from December 1826 to October 1828 was
+secretary of state of Delaware. In 1829, by a combination of
+anti-Jackson forces in the state legislature, he was elected to the
+United States Senate. Here his great oratorical gifts gave him
+a high place as one of the ablest and most eloquent opponents
+of the administration. In 1831 he was a member of the Delaware
+constitutional convention, and in 1835 he was returned to the
+Senate as a Whig, but resigned in the following year. In 1837-1839
+he was chief justice of Delaware. In 1845 he again entered
+the Senate, where he opposed the annexation of Texas and the
+Mexican War, but advocated the active prosecution of the latter
+once it was begun. In March 1849 he became secretary of state
+in the cabinet of President Zachary Taylor, to whose nomination
+and election his influence had contributed. His brief tenure
+of the state portfolio, which terminated on the 22nd of July
+1850, soon after Taylor&rsquo;s death, was notable chiefly for the
+negotiation with the British minister, Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer,
+of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (<i>q.v.</i>). He was once more a member
+of the Senate from March 1853 until his death at Dover, Delaware,
+on the 9th of November 1856. By his contemporaries Clayton
+was considered one of the ablest debaters and orators in the
+Senate.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the memoir by Joseph P. Comegys in the <i>Papers</i> of the Historical
+Society of Delaware, No. 4 (Wilmington, 1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span></p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span>, a famous treaty between the
+United States and Great Britain, negotiated in 1850 by John M.
+Clayton and Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer (Lord Dalling), in consequence
+of the situation created by the project of an interoceanic
+canal across Nicaragua, each signatory being jealous of
+the activities of the other in Central America. Great Britain
+had large and indefinite territorial claims in three regions&mdash;Belize
+or British Honduras, the Mosquito Coast and the Bay
+Islands.<a name="FnAnchor_1o" id="FnAnchor_1o" href="#Footnote_1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> On the other hand, the United States, without territorial
+claims, held in reserve, ready for ratification, treaties with
+Nicaragua and Honduras, which gave her a certain diplomatic
+vantage with which to balance the <i>de facto</i> dominion of Great
+Britain. Agreement on these points being impossible and
+agreement on the canal question possible, the latter was put in
+the foreground. The resulting treaty had four essential points.
+It bound both parties not to &ldquo;obtain or maintain&rdquo; any exclusive
+control of the proposed canal, or unequal advantage in
+its use. It guaranteed the neutralization of such canal. It
+declared that, the intention of the signatories being not only the
+accomplishment of &ldquo;a particular object&rdquo;&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> that the canal,
+then supposedly near realization, should be neutral and equally
+free to the two contracting powers&mdash;&ldquo;but also to establish a
+general principle,&rdquo; they agreed &ldquo;to extend their protection by
+treaty stipulation to any other practicable communications,
+whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which connects
+North and South America.&rdquo; Finally, it stipulated that neither
+signatory would ever &ldquo;occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume
+or exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito
+Coast or any part of Central America,&rdquo; nor make use of
+any protectorate or alliance, present or future, to such ends.</p>
+
+<p>The treaty was signed on the 19th of April, and was ratified
+by both governments; but before the exchange of ratifications
+Lord Palmerston, on the 8th of June, directed Sir H. Bulwer
+to make a &ldquo;declaration&rdquo; that the British government did not
+understand the treaty &ldquo;as applying to Her Majesty&rsquo;s settlement
+at Honduras, or its dependencies.&rdquo; Mr Clayton made a counter-declaration,
+which recited that the United States did not regard
+the treaty as applying to &ldquo;the British settlement in Honduras
+commonly called British-Honduras ... nor the small islands
+in the neighbourhood of that settlement which may be known
+as its dependencies&rdquo;; that the treaty&rsquo;s engagements did apply
+to all the Central American states, &ldquo;with their just limits and
+proper dependencies&rdquo;; and that these declarations, not being
+submitted to the United States Senate, could of course not affect
+the legal import of the treaty. The interpretation of the declarations
+soon became a matter of contention. The phraseology
+reflects the effort made by the United States to render impossible
+a physical control of the canal by Great Britain through the
+territory held by her at its mouth&mdash;the United States losing
+the above-mentioned treaty advantages,&mdash;just as the explicit
+abnegations of the treaty rendered impossible such control
+politically by either power. But great Britain claimed that the
+excepted &ldquo;settlement&rdquo; at Honduras was the &ldquo;Belize&rdquo; covered
+by the extreme British claim; that the Bay Islands were a
+dependency of Belize; and that, as for the Mosquito Coast, the
+abnegatory clauses being wholly prospective in intent, she was
+not required to abandon her protectorate. The United States
+contended that the Bay Islands were not the &ldquo;dependencies&rdquo;
+of Belize, these being the small neighbouring islands mentioned
+in the same treaties; that the excepted &ldquo;settlement&rdquo; was the
+British-Honduras of definite extent and narrow purpose recognized
+in British treaties with Spain; that she had not confirmed
+by recognition the large, indefinite and offensive claims
+whose dangers the treaty was primarily designed to lessen; and
+that, as to the Mosquito Coast, the treaty was retrospective, and
+mutual in the rigour of its requirements, and as the United States
+had no <i>de facto</i> possessions, while Great Britain had, the clause
+binding both not to &ldquo;occupy&rdquo; any part of Central America
+or the Mosquito Coast necessitated the abandonment of such
+territory as Great Britain was already actually occupying or
+exercising dominion over; and the United States demanded the
+complete abandonment of the British protectorate over the
+Mosquito Indians. It seems to be a just conclusion that when
+in 1852 the Bay Islands were erected into a British &ldquo;colony&rdquo;
+this was a flagrant infraction of the treaty; that as regards
+Belize the American arguments were decidedly stronger, and
+more correct historically; and that as regards the Mosquito
+question, inasmuch as a protectorate seems certainly to have
+been recognized by the treaty, to demand its absolute abandonment
+was unwarranted, although to satisfy the treaty Great
+Britain was bound materially to weaken it.</p>
+
+<p>In 1859-1860, by British treaties with Central American
+states, the Bay Islands and Mosquito questions were settled
+nearly in accord with the American contentions.<a name="FnAnchor_2o" id="FnAnchor_2o" href="#Footnote_2o"><span class="sp">2</span></a> But by the
+same treaties Belize was accorded limits much greater than
+those contended for by the United States. This settlement
+the latter power accepted without cavil for many years.</p>
+
+<p>Until 1866 the policy of the United States was consistently
+for inter-oceanic canals open equally to all nations, and
+unequivocally neutralized; indeed, until 1880 there was practically
+no official divergence from this policy. But in 1880-1884 a
+variety of reasons were advanced why the United States might
+justly repudiate at will the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.<a name="FnAnchor_3o" id="FnAnchor_3o" href="#Footnote_3o"><span class="sp">3</span></a> The new
+policy was based on national self-interest. The arguments
+advanced on its behalf were quite indefensible in law and history,
+and although the position of the United States in 1850-1860
+was in general the stronger in history, law and political ethics,
+that of Great Britain was even more conspicuously the stronger
+in the years 1880-1884. In 1885 the former government reverted
+to its traditional policy, and the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty
+of 1902, which replaced the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, adopted
+the rule of neutralization for the Panama Canal.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the collected diplomatic correspondence in I.D. Travis,
+<i>History of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty</i> (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1899);
+J.H. Latané, <i>Diplomatic Relations of the United States and Spanish
+America</i> (Baltimore, 1900); T.J. Lawrence, <i>Disputed Questions
+of Modern International Law</i> (2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1885);
+Sir E.L. Bulwer in 99 <i>Quarterly Rev.</i> 235-286, and Sir H. Bulwer in
+104 <i>Edinburgh Rev.</i> 280-298.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1o" id="Footnote_1o" href="#FnAnchor_1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The claims to a part of the first two were very old in origin, but
+all were heavily clouded by interruptions of possession, contested
+interpretations of Spanish-British treaties, and active controversy
+with the Central American States. The claim to some of the territory
+was new and still more contestable. See particularly on these
+claims Travis&rsquo;e book cited below.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2o" id="Footnote_2o" href="#FnAnchor_2o"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The islands were ceded to Honduras. The Mosquito Coast was
+recognized as under Nicaraguan rule limited by an attenuated
+British protectorate over the Indians, who were given a reservation
+and certain peculiar rights. They were left free to accept full
+Nicaraguan rule at will. This they did in 1894.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3o" id="Footnote_3o" href="#FnAnchor_3o"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It was argued, <i>e.g.</i>, that the &ldquo;general principle&rdquo; of that engagement
+was contingent on the prior realization of its &ldquo;particular
+object,&rdquo; which had failed, and the treaty had determined as a special
+contract; moreover, none of the additional treaties to embody the
+&ldquo;general principle&rdquo; had been negotiated, and Great Britain had not
+even offered co-operation in the protection and neutrality-guarantee
+of the Panama railway built in 1850-1855, so that her
+rights had lapsed; certain engagements of the treaty she had
+violated, and therefore the whole treaty was voidable, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAY-WITH-FLINTS<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span>, in geology, the name given by W. Whitaker
+in 1861 to a peculiar deposit of stiff red, brown or
+yellow clay containing unworn whole flints as well as angular
+shattered fragments, also with a variable admixture of rounded
+flint, quartz, quartzite and other pebbles. It occurs &ldquo;in sheets or
+patches of various sizes over a large area in the south of England,
+from Hertfordshire on the north to Sussex on the south, and
+from Kent on the east to Devon on the west. It almost always
+lies on the surface of the Upper Chalk, but in Dorset it passes
+on to the Middle and Lower Chalk, and in Devon it is found on
+the Chert-Beds of the Selbornian group&rdquo; (A.J. Jukes-Browne,
+&ldquo;The Clay-with-Flints, its Origin and Distribution,&rdquo; <i>Q.J.G.S.</i>,
+vol. lxii., 1906, p. 132). Many geologists have supposed, and
+some still hold, that the Clay-with-Flints is the residue left by
+the slow solution and disintegration of the Chalk by the processes
+of weathering; on the other hand, it has long been known that
+the deposit very frequently contains materials foreign to the
+Chalk, derived either from the Tertiary rocks or from overlying
+drift. In the paper quoted above, Jukes-Browne ably summarizes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span>
+the evidence against the view that the deposit is mainly a
+Chalk residue, and brings forward a good deal of evidence to
+show that many patches of the Clay-with-Flints lie upon the
+same plane and may be directly associated with Reading Beds.
+He concludes &ldquo;that the material of the Clay-with-Flints has been
+chiefly and almost entirely derived from Eocene clay, with
+addition of some flints from the Chalk; that its presence is an
+indication of the previous existence of Lower Eocene Beds on
+the same site and nearly at the same relative level, and, consequently,
+that comparatively little Chalk has been removed
+from beneath it. Finally, I think that the tracts of Clay-with-Flints
+have been much more extensive than they are now&rdquo;
+(loc. cit. p. 159).</p>
+
+<p>It is noteworthy that the Clay-with-Flints is developed over
+an area which is just beyond the limits of the ice sheets of the
+Glacial epoch, and the peculiar conditions of late Pliocene and
+Pleistocene times; involving heavy rains, snow and frost, may
+have had much to do with the mingling of the Tertiary and
+Chalky material. Besides the occurrence in surface patches,
+Clay-with-Flints is very commonly to be observed descending
+in &ldquo;pipes&rdquo; often to a considerable depth into the Chalk; here,
+if anywhere, the residual chalk portion of the deposit should
+be found, and it is surmised that a thin layer of very dark clay
+with darkly stained flints, which appears in contact with
+the sides and bottom of the pipe, may represent all there is of
+insoluble residue.</p>
+
+<p>A somewhat similar deposit, a &ldquo;<i>conglomérat de silex</i>&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;<i>argue à silex</i>,&rdquo; occurs at the base of the Eocene on the southern
+and western borders of the Paris basin, in the neighbourhood
+of Chartres, Thimerais and Sancerrois.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. A. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLAZOMENAE<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (mod. <i>Kelisman</i>), an ancient town of Ionia
+and a member of the Ionian Dodecapolis (Confederation of
+Twelve Cities), on the Gulf of Smyrna, about 20 m. W. of that
+city. Though not in existence before the arrival of the Ionians
+in Asia, its original founders were largely settlers from Phlius
+and Cleonae. It stood originally on the isthmus connecting
+the mainland with the peninsula on which Erythrae stood;
+but the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the
+Persians, removed to one of the small islands of the bay, and
+there established their city. This island was connected with
+the mainland by Alexander the Great by means of a pier, the
+remains of which are still visible. During the 5th century it
+was for some time subject to the Athenians, but about the
+middle of the Peloponnesian war (412 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) it revolted. After
+a brief resistance, however, it again acknowledged the Athenian
+supremacy, and repelled a Lacedaemonian attack. Under the
+Romans Clazomenae was included in the province of Asia, and
+enjoyed an immunity from taxation. The site can still be made
+out, in the neighbourhood of Vourla, but nearly every portion
+of its ruins has been removed. It was the birthplace of the
+philosopher Anaxagoras. It is famous for its painted terra-cotta
+sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of Ionian painting
+in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+<div class="author">(E. GR.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEANTHES<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (c. 301-232 or 252 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Stoic philosopher,
+born at Assos in the Troad, was originally a boxer. With but
+four drachmae in his possession he came to Athens, where he
+listened first to the lectures of Crates the Cynic, and then to
+those of Zeno, the Stoic, supporting himself meanwhile by
+working all night as water-carrier to a gardener (hence his
+nickname <span class="grk" title="phrehantlês">&#934;&#961;&#949;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#955;&#951;&#962;</span>). His power of patient endurance, or
+perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of &ldquo;the Ass&rdquo;; but
+such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that,
+on the death of Zeno in 263, he became the leader of the school.
+He continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his
+own hands. Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus,
+and Antigonus, king of Macedon, from whom he accepted
+2000 minae. The manner of his death was characteristic. A
+dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time. Subsequently
+he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was
+already half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble
+to retrace his steps.</p>
+
+<p>Cleanthes produced very little that was original, though he
+wrote some fifty works, of which fragments have come down
+to us. The principal is the large portion of the <i>Hymn to Zeus</i>
+which has been preserved in Stobaeus. He regarded the sun
+as the abode of God, the intelligent providence, or (in accordance
+with Stoical materialism) the vivifying fire or aether of the
+universe. Virtue, he taught, is life according to nature; but
+pleasure is not according to nature. He originated a new theory
+as to the individual existence of the human soul; he held that
+the degree of its vitality after death depends upon the degree
+of its vitality in this life. The principal fragments of Cleanthes&rsquo;s
+works are contained in Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus; some
+may be found in Cicero and Seneca.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G.C. Mohinke, <i>Kleanthes der Stoiker</i> (Greifswald, 1814); C.
+Wachsmuth, <i>Commentationes de Zenone Citiensi et Cleanthe Assio</i>
+(Göttingen, 1874-1875); A.C. Pearson, <i>Fragments of Zeno and
+Cleanthes</i> (Camb., 1891); article by E. Wellmann in Ersch and
+Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyklopädie</i>; R. Hirzel, <i>Untersuchungen zu
+Ciceros philosophischen Schriften</i>, ii. (1882), containing a vindication
+of the originality of Cleanthes; A.B. Krische, <i>Forschungen auf
+dem Gebiete der alten Philosophie</i> (1840); also works quoted under
+STOICS.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEARCHUS<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span>, the son of Rhamphias, a Spartan general and
+condottiere. Born about the middle of the 5th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+Clearchus was sent with a fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and
+became governor (<span class="grk" title="harmostês">&#7937;&#961;&#956;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#942;&#962;</span>) of Byzantium, of which town he was
+<i>proxenus</i>. His severity, however, made him unpopular, and in
+his absence the gates were opened to the Athenian besieging army
+under Alcibiades (409). Subsequently appointed by the ephors
+to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium and to
+protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from
+Thracian attacks, he made himself tyrant of Byzantium, and,
+when declared an outlaw and driven thence by a Spartan force,
+he fled to Cyrus. In the &ldquo;expedition of the ten thousand&rdquo;
+undertaken by Cyrus to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes
+Mnemon, Clearchus led the Peloponnesians, who formed the
+right wing of Cyrus&rsquo;s army at the battle of Cunaxa (401). On
+Cyrus&rsquo;s death Clearchus assumed the chief command and
+conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his
+fellow-generals by Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes
+and executed (Thuc. viii. 8. 39, 80; Xen. <i>Hellenica</i>, i. 3. 15-19;
+<i>Anabasis</i>, i. ii.; Diodorus xiv. 12. 19-26). In character he was a
+typical product of the Spartan educational system. He was a
+warrior to the finger-tips (<span class="grk" title="polemikos kai philopolemos eschatôs">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#949;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962;
+&#954;&#945;&#8054; &#966;&#953;&#955;&#959;&#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#956;&#959;&#962; &#7952;&#963;&#967;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#962;</span>.
+Xen. <i>Anab.</i> ii. 6. 1), and his tireless energy, unfaltering courage
+and strategic ability made him an officer of no mean order. But
+he seems to have had no redeeming touch of refinement or
+humanity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEARFIELD<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span>, a borough and the county-seat of Clearfield
+county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. branch of the Susquehanna
+river, in the W. central part of the state. Pop. (1890)
+2248; (1900) 5081 (310 foreign-born); (1910) 6851. It is served
+by the New York Central &amp; Hudson River, the Pennsylvania,
+and the Buffalo, Rochester &amp; Pittsburg railways. The borough is
+about 1105 ft. above sea-level, in a rather limited space between
+the hills, which command picturesque views of the narrow valley.
+The river runs through the borough. Coal and fireclay abound in
+the vicinity, and these, with leather, iron, timber and the products
+of the fertile soil, are the bases of its leading industries.
+Before the arrival of the whites the place had been cleared of
+timber (whence its name), and in 1805 it was chosen as a site for
+the county-seat of the newly erected county and laid out as a
+town; in 1840 it was incorporated as a borough.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEARING-HOUSE<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span>, the general term for a central institution
+employed in connexion with large and interrelated businesses for
+the purpose of facilitating the settlement of accounts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Banking.</i>&mdash;The London Clearing-House was established
+between 1750 and 1770 as a place where the clerks of the bankers
+of the city of London could assemble daily to exchange with one
+another the cheques drawn upon and bills payable at their
+respective houses. Before the clearing-house existed, each
+banker had to send a clerk to the places of business of all
+the other bankers in London to collect the sums payable by
+them in respect of cheques and bills; and it is obvious that much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span>
+time was consumed by this process, which involved the use of an
+unnecessary quantity of money and corresponding risks of safe
+carriage. In 1775 a room in Change Alley was settled upon as a
+common centre of exchange; this was afterwards removed to
+Post Office Court, Lombard Street. This clearing centre was at
+first confined to the bankers&mdash;at that time and long afterwards
+exclusively private bankers&mdash;doing business within the city, and
+the bankers in the west end of the metropolis used some one or
+other of the city banks as their agent in clearing. When the
+joint-stock banks were first established, the jealousy of the
+existing banks was powerful enough to exclude them altogether
+from the use of the Clearing-House; and it was not until 1854
+that this feeling was removed so as to allow them to be admitted.</p>
+
+<p>At first the Clearing-House was simply a place of meeting, but
+it came to be perceived that the sorting and distribution of
+cheques, bills, &amp;c, could be more expeditiously conducted by the
+appointment of two or three common clerks to whom each
+banker&rsquo;s clerk could give all the instruments of exchange he
+wished to collect, and from whom he could receive all those
+payable at his own house. The payment of the balance settled
+the transaction, but the arrangements were afterwards so
+perfected that the balance is now settled by means of transfers
+made at the Bank of England between the Clearing-House
+account and those of the various banks, the Clearing-House, as
+well as each banker using it, having an account at the Bank of
+England. The use of the Clearing-House was still further
+extended in 1858, so as to include the settlement of exchanges
+between the country bankers of England. Before that time each
+country banker receiving cheques on other country bankers sent
+them to those other bankers by post (supposing they were not
+carrying on business in the same place), and requested that the
+amount should be paid by the London agent of the banker on
+whom the cheques were drawn to the London agent of the banker
+remitting them. Cheques were thus collected by correspondence,
+and each remittance involved a separate payment in London.
+Since 1858, accordingly, a country banker sends cheques on other
+country banks to his London correspondent, who exchanges them
+at the Clearing-House with the correspondents of the bankers on
+whom they are drawn.</p>
+
+<p>The Clearing-House consists of one long room, lighted from the
+roof. Around the walls and down the centre are placed desks,
+allotted to the various banks, according to the amount of their
+business. The desks are arranged alphabetically, so that the
+clerks may lose no time in passing round the room and delivering
+their &ldquo;charges&rdquo; or batches of cheques to the representatives of
+the various banks. There are three clearings in London each day.
+The first is at 10.30 A.M., the second at noon, and the third at
+2.30 P.M. It is the busiest of all, and continues until five minutes
+past four, when the last delivery must be made. The three
+clearings were, in 1907, divided into town, metropolitan and
+country clearings, each with a definite area. All the clearing
+banks have their cheques marked with the letters &ldquo;T,&rdquo; &ldquo;M&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;C,&rdquo; according to the district in which the issuing bank is
+situated. Every cheque issued by the clearing banks, even
+though drawn in the head office of a bank, goes through the
+Clearing-House.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of business transacted at the Clearing-House
+varies very much with the seasons of the year, the busiest time
+being when dividends are paid and stock exchange settlements
+are made, but the volume of transactions averages roughly from
+200 to 300 millions sterling a week, and the yearly clearances
+amount to something like £12,000,000,000. There are provincial
+clearing-houses at Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
+Leeds, Sheffield, Leicester and Bristol. There are
+also clearing-houses in most of the large towns of Scotland and
+Ireland. In New York and the other large cities of the United
+States there are clearing-houses providing accommodation for
+the various banking institutions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Banks and Banking</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The progress of banking on the continent of Europe has been
+slow in comparison with that of the United Kingdom, and the
+use of cheques is not so general, consequently the need for
+clearing-houses is not so great. In France, too, the greater
+proportion of the banking business is carried on through three
+banks only, the Banque de France, the Société Générale and the
+Crédit Lyonnais, and a great part of their transactions are settled
+at their own head offices. But at the same time large sums
+pass through the Paris Chambre de Compensation (the clearing-house),
+established in 1872.</p>
+
+<p>There are clearing-houses also in Berlin, Hamburg and many
+other European cities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railways.</i>&mdash;The British Railway Clearing-House was established
+in 1842, its purpose, as defined by the Railway Clearing-House
+Act of 1850, being &ldquo;to settle and adjust the receipts
+arising from railway traffic within, or partly within, the United
+Kingdom, and passing over more than one railway within the
+United Kingdom, booked or invoiced at throughout rates or
+fares.&rdquo; It is an independent body, governed by a committee
+which is composed of delegates (usually the chairman or one of
+the directors) from each of the railways that belong to it. Any
+railway company may be admitted a party to the clearing-system
+with the assent of the committee, may cease to be a member at a
+month&rsquo;s notice, and may be expelled if such expulsion be voted
+for by two-thirds of the delegates present at a specially convened
+meeting. The cost of maintaining it is defrayed by contributions
+from the companies proportional to the volume of business passed
+through it by each. It has two main functions. (1) When
+passengers or goods are booked through between stations
+belonging to different railway companies at an inclusive charge
+for the whole journey, it distributes the money received in due
+proportions between the companies concerned in rendering the
+service. To this end it receives, in the case of passenger traffic, a
+monthly return of the tickets issued at each station to stations on
+other lines, and, in the case of goods traffic, it is supplied by both
+the sending and receiving stations (when these are on different
+companies&rsquo; systems) with abstracts showing the character, weight,
+&amp;c., of the goods that have travelled between them. By the aid
+of these particulars it allocates the proper share of the receipts
+to each company, having due regard to the distance over which
+the traffic has been carried on each line, to the terminal services
+rendered by each company, to any incidental expenses to which
+it may have been put, and to the existence of any special agreements
+for the division of traffic. (2) To avoid the inconvenience
+of a change of train at points where the lines of different companies
+meet, passengers are often, and goods and minerals
+generally, carried in through vehicles from their starting-point
+to their destination. In consequence, vehicles belonging to one
+company are constantly forming part of trains that belong to,
+and run over the lines of, other companies, which thus have the
+temporary use of rolling stock that does not belong to them.
+By the aid of a large staff of &ldquo;number takers&rdquo; who are stationed
+at junctions all over the country, and whose business is to
+record particulars of the vehicles which pass through those
+junctions, the Clearing-House follows the movements of vehicles
+which have left their owners&rsquo; line, ascertains how far they have
+run on the lines of other companies, and debits each of the latter
+with the amount it has to pay for their use. This charge is
+known as &ldquo;mileage&rdquo;; another charge which is also determined
+by the Clearing-House is &ldquo;demurrage,&rdquo; that is, the amount
+exacted from the detaining company if a vehicle is not returned
+to its owners within a prescribed time. By the exercise of these
+functions the Clearing-House accumulates a long series of credits
+to, and debits against, each company; these are periodically
+added up and set against each other, with the result that the
+accounts between it and the companies are finally settled by the
+transfer of comparatively small balances. It also distributes the
+money paid by the post-office to the railways on account of the
+conveyance of parcel-post traffic, and through its lost luggage
+department many thousands of articles left in railway carriages
+are every year returned to their owners. Its situation in London
+further renders it a convenient meeting-place for several &ldquo;Clearing-House
+Conferences&rdquo; of railway officials, as of the general
+managers, the goods managers, and the superintendents of the
+line, held four times a year for the consideration of questions
+in which all the companies are interested. The Irish Railway
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span>
+Clearing-House, established in 1848, has its headquarters in
+Dublin, and was incorporated by act of parliament in 1860.</p>
+
+<p><i>General</i>.&mdash;The principle of clearing adopted by banks and
+railways has been applied with considerable success in other
+businesses.</p>
+
+<p>In 1874 the London Stock Exchange Clearing-House was
+established for the purpose of settling transactions in stock, the
+clearing being effected by balance-sheets and tickets; the balance
+of stock to be received or delivered is shown on a balance-sheet
+sent in by each member, and the items are then cancelled against
+one another and tickets issued for the balances outstanding.
+The New York Stock Exchange Clearing-House was established in
+1892. The settlements on the Paris Bourse are cleared within the
+Bourse itself, through the Compagnie des Agents de Change de
+Paris.</p>
+
+<p>In 1888 a society was formed in London called the Beetroot
+Sugar Association for clearing bargains in beetroot sugar. For
+every 500 bags of sugar of a definite weight which a broker sells,
+he issues a <i>filière</i> (a form something like a dock-warrant), giving
+particulars as to the ship, the warehouse, trade-marks, &amp;c. The
+filière contains also a series of transfer forms which are filled up
+and signed by each successive holder, so transferring the property
+to a new purchaser. The new purchaser also fills up a coupon
+attached to the transfer, quoting the date and hour of sale. This
+coupon is detached by the seller and retained by him as evidence
+to determine any liability through subsequent delay in the
+delivery of the sugar. Any purchaser requiring delivery of the
+sugar forwards the filière to the clearing-house, and the officials
+then send on his name to the first seller who tenders him the
+warrant direct. These filières pass from hand to hand within a
+limit of six days, a stamp being affixed on each transfer as a
+clearing-house fee. The difference between each of the successive
+transactions is adjusted by the clearing-house to the profit or loss
+of the seller.</p>
+
+<p>The London Produce Clearing-House was established in 1888
+for regulating and adjusting bargains in foreign and colonial
+produce. The object of the association is to guarantee both to
+the buyer and the seller the fulfilment of bargains for future
+delivery. The transactions on either side are allowed to accumulate
+during a month and an adjustment made at the end by a
+settlement of the final balance owing. On the same lines are the
+Caisse de Liquidation at Havre and the Waaren Liquidations
+Casse at Hamburg. The Cotton Association also has a clearing-house
+at Liverpool for clearing the transactions which arise from
+dealings in cotton.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;W. Howarth, <i>Our Clearing System and Clearing
+Houses</i> (1897), <i>The Banks in the Clearing House</i> (1905); J.G. Cannon,
+<i>Clearing-houses, their History, Methods and Administration</i> (1901);
+H.T. Easton, <i>Money, Exchange and Banking</i> (1905); and the various
+volumes of the <i>Journal of the Institute of Bankers</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEAT<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> (a word common in various forms to many Teutonic
+languages, in the sense of a wedge or lump, cf. &ldquo;clod&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;clot&rdquo;), a wedge-shaped piece of wood fastened to ships&rsquo;
+masts and elsewhere to prevent a rope, collar or the like from
+slipping, or to act as a step; more particularly a piece of wood
+or metal with double or single horns used for belaying ropes.
+A &ldquo;cleat&rdquo; is also a wedge fastened to a ship&rsquo;s side to catch the
+shores in a launching cradle or dry dock. &ldquo;Cleat&rdquo; is also used
+in mining for the vertical cleavage-planes of coal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEATOR MOOR<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span>, an urban district in the Egremont parliamentary
+division of Cumberland, England, 4 m. S.E. of White-haven,
+served by the Furness, London &amp; North-Western and
+Cleator &amp; Workington Junction railways. Pop. (1901) 8120.
+The town lies between the valleys of the Ehen and its tributary
+the Dub Beck, in a district rich in coal and iron ore. The mining
+of these, together with blast furnaces and engineering works,
+occupies the large industrial population.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEAVERS<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Goose-grass</span>, <i>Galium Aparine</i> (natural order
+Rubiaceae), a common plant in hedges and waste places, with
+a long, weak, straggling, four-sided, green stem, bearing whorls
+of 6 to 8 narrow leaves, ½ to 2 in. long, and, like the angles of the
+stem, rough from the presence of short, stiff, downwardly-pointing,
+hooked hairs. The small, white, regular flowers are borne, a few
+together, in axillary clusters, and are followed by the large, hispid,
+two-celled fruit, which, like the rest of the plant, readily clings
+to a rough surface, whence the common name. The plant has a
+wide distribution throughout the north temperate zone, and is also
+found in temperate South America.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEBURNE<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span>, a town and the county-seat of Johnson county,
+Texas, U.S.A., 25 m. S. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1890) 3278;
+(1900) 7493, including 611 negroes; (1910) 10,364. It is served by
+the Gulf, Colorado &amp; Santa Fé, the Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas,
+and the Trinity &amp; Brazos Valley railways. It is the centre of a
+prosperous farming, fruit and stock-raising region, has large
+railway repair shops, flour-mills, cotton gins and foundries, a
+canning factory and machine shops. It has a Carnegie library,
+and St Joseph&rsquo;s Academy (Roman Catholic; for girls). The
+town was named in honour of Patrick Ronayne Cleburne (1828-1864),
+a major-general of the Confederate army, who was of
+Irish birth, practised law in Helena, Arkansas, served at Shiloh,
+Perryville, Stone River, Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Ring-gold
+Gap, Jonesboro and Franklin, and was killed in the last-named
+battle; he was called the &ldquo;Stonewall of the West.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLECKHEATON<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span>, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary
+division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England,
+5½ m. S. by E. of Bradford, on the Lancashire &amp; Yorkshire,
+Great Northern and London &amp; North-Western railways. Pop.
+(1901) 12,524. A chamber of commerce has held meetings here
+since 1878. The industries comprise the manufacture of woollens,
+blankets, flannel, wire-card and machinery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEETHORPES<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span>, a watering-place of Lincolnshire, England;
+within the parliamentary borough of Great Grimsby, 3 m. S.E.
+of that town by a branch of the Great Central railway. Pop.
+of urban district of Cleethorpe with Thrunscoe (1901) 12,578.
+Cleethorpes faces eastward to the North Sea, but its shore of
+fine sand, affording good bathing, actually belongs to the estuary
+of the Humber. There is a pier, and the sea-wall extends for
+about a mile, forming a pleasant promenade. The suburb of
+New Clee connects Cleethorpes with Grimsby. The church of
+the Holy Trinity and St Mary is principally Norman of various
+dates, but work of a date apparently previous to the Conquest
+appears in the tower. Cleethorpes is greatly favoured by
+visitors from the midland counties, Lancashire and Yorkshire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEFT PALATE<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> and <span class="bold">HARE-LIP</span>, in surgery. <i>Cleft Palate</i>
+is a congenital cleavage, or incomplete development in the roof
+of the mouth, and is frequently associated with hare-lip. The
+infant is prevented from sucking, and an operation is necessary.
+Cleft-palate is often a hereditary defect. The most favourable
+time for operating is between the age of two weeks and three
+months, and if the cleft is closed at this early date, not only are
+the nutrition and general development of the child greatly
+improved, but the voice is probably saved from much of the
+unpleasant tone which is usually associated with a defective
+roof to the mouth and is apt to persist even if a cleft has been
+successfully operated on later in childhood. The greatest advance
+which has been made in the operative treatment of cleft palate
+is due to the teaching of Dr Truman W. Brophy, who adopted
+the ingenious plan of thrusting together to the middle line of
+the mouth the halves of the palate which nature had unfortunately
+left apart. But, as noted above, this operation must, to
+give the best results, be undertaken in the earliest months of
+infancy. After the cleft in the palate has been effectually dealt
+with, the hare-lip can be repaired with ease and success.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hare-lip</i>.&mdash;In the hare the splitting of the lip is in the middle
+line, but in the human subject it is on one side, or on both sides
+of the middle line. This is accounted for on developmental
+grounds: a cleft in the exact middle line is of extremely rare
+occurrence. Hare-lip is often associated with cleft palate.
+Though we are at present unable to explain why development
+should so frequently miss the mark in connexion with the formation
+of the lip and palate, it is unlikely that maternal impressions
+have anything to do with it. As a rule, the supposed &ldquo;fright&rdquo;
+comes long after the lips are developed. They are completely
+formed by the ninth week. Heredity has a powerful influence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span>
+in many cases. The best time for operating on a hare-lip depends
+upon various circumstances. Thus, if it is associated with cleft
+palate, the palatine cleft has first to be closed, in which case the
+child will probably be several months old before the lip is operated
+on. If the infant is in so poor a state of nutrition that it appears
+unsuitable for surgical treatment, the operation must be postponed
+until his condition is sufficiently improved. But, assuming
+that the infant is in fair health, that he is taking his food well and
+thriving on it, that he is not troubled by vomiting or diarrhoea,
+and that the hare-lip is not associated with a defective palate,
+the sooner it is operated on the better. It may be successfully
+done even within a few hours of birth. When a hare-lip is
+unassociated with cleft palate, the infant may possibly be enabled
+to take the breast within a short time of the gap being closed.
+In such a case the operation may be advisably undertaken
+within the first few days of birth. The case being suitable, the
+operation may be conveniently undertaken at any time after
+the tenth day.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEISTHENES<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span>, the name of two Greek statesmen, (1) of
+Athens, (2) of Sicyon, of whom the first is far the more important.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2">1. <span class="sc">Cleisthenes</span>, the Athenian statesman, was the son of
+Megacles and Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He
+thus belonged, through his father, to the noble family of the
+Alcmaeonidae (<i>q.v.</i>), who bore upon them the curse of the Cylonian
+massacre, and had been in exile during the rule of the Peisistratids.
+In the hope of washing out the stigma, which damaged
+their prestige, they spent the latter part of their exile in carrying
+out with great splendour the contract given out by the Amphictyons
+for the rebuilding of the temple at Delphi (destroyed
+by fire in 548 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). By building the pronaos of Parian marble
+instead of limestone as specified in the contract, they acquired
+a high reputation for piety; the curse was consigned to oblivion,
+and their reinstatement was imposed by the oracle itself upon
+the Spartan king, Cleomenes (<i>q.v.</i>). Cleisthenes, to whom this
+far-seeing atonement must probably be attributed, had also on
+his side (1) the malcontents in Athens who were disgusted with
+the growing severity of Hippias, and (2) the oligarchs of Sparta,
+partly on religious grounds, and partly owing to their hatred
+of tyranny. Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, however, treats
+the alliance of the Peisistratids with Argos, the rival of Sparta
+in the Peloponnese, as the chief ground for the action of Sparta
+(<i>c.</i> 19). In <i>c.</i> 513 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Cleisthenes invaded Attica, but was
+defeated by the tyrant&rsquo;s mercenaries at Leipsydrium (S. of Mt.
+Parnes). Sparta then, in tardy obedience to the oracle, threw
+off her alliance with the Peisistratids, and, after one failure,
+expelled Hippias in 511-510 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, leaving Athens once again at
+the mercy of the powerful families.</p>
+
+<p>Cleisthenes, on his return, was in a difficulty; he realized
+that Athens would not tolerate a new tyranny, nor were the
+other nobles willing to accept him as leader of a
+constitutional oligarchy. It was left for him to &ldquo;take
+<span class="sidenote">Home and foreign policy.</span>
+the people into partnership&rdquo; as Peisistratus had in a
+different way done before him. Solon&rsquo;s reforms had
+failed, primarily because they left unimpaired the power of the
+great landed nobles, who, in their several districts, doubled the
+rôles of landlord, priest and patriarch. This evil of local influence
+Peisistratus had concealed by satisfying the nominally sovereign
+people that in him they had a sufficient representative. It was
+left to Cleisthenes to adopt the remaining remedy of giving
+substance to the form of the Solonian constitution. His first
+attempts roused the aristocrats to a last effort; Isagoras
+appealed to the Spartans (who, though they disliked tyranny,
+had no love for democracy) to come to his aid. Cleisthenes
+retired on the arrival of a herald from Cleomenes, reviving the
+old question of the curse; Isagoras thus became all-powerful<a name="FnAnchor_1p" id="FnAnchor_1p" href="#Footnote_1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+and expelled seven hundred families. The democrats, however,
+rose, and after besieging Cleomenes and Isagoras in the Acropolis,
+let them go under a safe-conduct, and brought back the exiles.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the reforms which Cleisthenes was now able to
+establish, the period of his ascendancy is a blank, nor are we
+told when and how it came to an end. It is clear, however&mdash;and
+it is impossible in connexion with the Pan-hellenic patriotism
+to which Athens laid claim, to overrate the importance of the
+fact&mdash;that Cleisthenes, hard pressed in the war with Boeotia,
+Euboea and Sparta (Herod, v. 73 and foll.), sent ambassadors
+to ask the help of Persia. The story, as told by Herodotus, that
+the ambassadors of their own accord agreed to give &ldquo;earth and
+water&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> submission) in return for Persian assistance, and
+that the Ecclesia subsequently disavowed their action as unauthorized,
+is scarcely credible. Cleisthenes (1) was in full
+control and must have instructed the ambassadors; (2) he
+knew that any help from Persia meant submission. It is practically
+certain, therefore, that he (cf. the Alcmaeonids and the
+story of the shield at Marathon) was the first to &ldquo;medize&rdquo;
+(see Curtius, <i>History of Greece</i>). Probably he had hoped to
+persuade the Ecclesia that the agreement was a mere form.
+Aelian says that he himself was a victim to his own device of
+ostracism (<i>q.v.</i>); this, though apparently inconsistent with the
+<i>Constitution of Athens</i> (<i>c.</i> 22), may perhaps indicate that his
+political career ended in disgrace, a hypothesis which is explicable
+on the ground of this act of treachery in respect of the attempted
+Persian alliance. Whether to Cleisthenes are due the final
+success over Boeotia and Euboea, the planting of the 4000
+cleruchs on the Lelantine Plain, and the policy of the Aeginetan
+War (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegina</a></span>), in which Athens borrowed ships from Corinth,
+it is impossible to determine. The eclipse of Cleisthenes in all
+records is one of the most curious facts in Greek history. It is
+also curious that we do not know in what official capacity
+Cleisthenes carried his reforms. Perhaps he was given extraordinary
+<i>ad hoc</i> powers for a specified time; conceivably he
+used the ordinary mechanism. It seems clear that he had fully
+considered his scheme in advance, that he broached it before
+the last attack of Isagoras, and that it was only after the final
+expulsion of Isagoras and his Spartan allies that it became
+possible for him to put it into execution.</p>
+
+<p>Cleisthenes aimed at being the leader of a self-governing
+people; in other words he aimed at making the democracy
+actual. He realized that the dead-weight which
+held the democracy down was the influence on politics
+<span class="sidenote">Analysis of his reforms</span>
+of the local religious unit. Therefore his prime object
+was to dissociate the clans and the phratries from
+politics, and to give the democracy a totally new electoral basis
+in which old associations and vested interests would be split
+up and become ineffective. It was necessary that no man
+should govern a pocket-constituency merely by virtue of his
+religious, financial or ancestral prestige, and that there should
+be created a new local unit with administrative powers of a
+democratic character which would galvanize the lethargic voters
+into a new sense of responsibility and independence. His first
+step was to abolish the four Solonian tribes and create ten new
+ones.<a name="FnAnchor_2p" id="FnAnchor_2p" href="#Footnote_2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Each of the new tribes was subdivided into &ldquo;demes&rsquo;&rdquo;
+<span class="sidenote">The ten tribes</span>
+(roughly &ldquo;townships&rdquo;); this organization did not,
+except politically, supersede the system of clans and
+phratries whose old religious signification remained
+untouched. The new tribes, however, though geographically
+arranged, did not represent local interests. Further, the tribe
+names were taken from legendary heroes (Cecropis, Pandionis,
+Aegeis recalled the storied kings of Attica), and, therefore,
+contributed to the idea of a national unity; even Ajax, the
+eponym of the tribe Aeantis, though not Attic, was famous
+as an ally (Herod, v. 66) and ranked as a national hero. Each
+tribe had its shrine and its particular hero-cult, which, however,
+was free from local association and the dominance of particular
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span>
+families. This national idea Cleisthenes further emphasized by
+setting up in the market-place at Athens a statue of each tribal
+hero.</p>
+
+<p>The next step was the organization of the deme. Within
+each tribe he grouped ten demes (see below), each of which had
+(1) its hero and its chapel, and (2) its census-list kept
+by the demarch. The demarch (local governor), who
+<span class="sidenote">Demes.</span>
+was elected popularly and held office for one year, presided over
+meetings affecting local administration and the provision of
+crews for the state-navy, and was probably under a system of
+scrutiny like the <i>dokimasia</i> of the state-magistrates. According
+to the Aristotelian <i>Constitution of Athens</i>, Cleisthenes further
+divided Attica into three districts, Urban and Suburban, Inland
+(<i>Mesogaios</i>), and Maritime (<i>Paralia</i>), each of which was subdivided
+into ten <i>trittyes</i>; each tribe had three trittyes in each
+of these districts. The problem of establishing this decimal
+system in connexion with the demes and trittyes is insoluble.
+Herodotus says that there were ten<a name="FnAnchor_3p" id="FnAnchor_3p" href="#Footnote_3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a> demes to each tribe
+(<span class="grk" title="deka eis tas phylas">&#948;&#941;&#954;&#945; &#949;&#7984;&#962; &#964;&#8048;&#962; &#966;&#965;&#955;&#940;&#962;</span>); but each tribe was composed of three trittyes,
+one in each of the three districts. Since the deme was, as will
+be seen, the electoral unit, it is clear that in tribal voting the
+object of ending the old threefold schism of the Plain, the Hill
+and the Shore was attained, but the relation of deme and trittys
+is obviously of an unsymmetrical kind. The <i>Constitution of
+Athens</i> says nothing of the ten-deme-to-each-tribe arrangement,
+and there is no sufficient reason for supposing that the demes
+originally were exactly a hundred in number. We know the
+names of 168 demes, and Polemon (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) enumerated
+173. It has been suggested that the demes did originally number
+exactly a hundred, and that new demes were added as the population
+increased. This theory, however, presupposes that the
+demes were originally equal in numbers. In the 5th and 4th
+centuries this was certainly not the case; the number of demesmen
+in some cases was only one hundred or two hundred,
+whereas the deme Acharnae is referred to as a &ldquo;great part&rdquo; of
+the whole state, and is known to have furnished three thousand
+hoplites. The theory is fundamentally at fault, inasmuch as
+it regards the deme as consisting of all those <i>resident within
+its borders</i>. In point of fact membership was hereditary, not
+residential; Demosthenes &ldquo;of the Paeanian deme&rdquo; might live
+where he would without severing his deme connexion. Thus
+the increase of population could be no reason for creating new
+demes. This distinction in a deme between demesmen and
+residents belonging to another deme (the <span class="grk" title="egkektêmenoi">&#7952;&#947;&#954;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#951;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#953;</span>), who
+paid a deme-tax for their privilege, is an important one. It
+should further be noted that the demes belonging to a particular
+tribe do not, as a fact, appear always in three separate groups;
+the tribe Aeantis consisted of Phalerum and eleven demes in
+the district of Marathon; other tribes had demes in five or six
+groups. It must, therefore, be admitted that the problem is
+insoluble for want of data. Nor are we better equipped to settle
+the relation between the Cleisthenean division into Urban,
+Maritime and Inland, and the old divisions of the Plain, the
+Shore and the Upland or Hill. The &ldquo;Maritime&rdquo; of Cleisthenes
+and the old &ldquo;Shore&rdquo; are certainly not coincident, nor is the
+&ldquo;Inland&rdquo; identical with the &ldquo;Upland.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, it has been asked whether we are to believe that
+Cleisthenes invented the demes. To this the answer is in the
+negative. The demes were undoubtedly primitive divisions of
+Attica; Herodotus (ix. 73) speaks of the Dioscuri as ravaging
+the demes of Decelea (see R.W. Macan <i>ad loc.</i>) and we hear of
+opposition between the city and the demes. The most logical
+conclusion perhaps is that Cleisthenes, while he <i>did</i> create the
+demes which Athens itself comprised, did not create the country
+demes, but merely gave them definition as political divisions.
+Thus the city itself had six demes in five different tribes, and the
+other five tribes were represented in the suburbs and the Peiraeus.
+It is clear that in the Cleisthenean system there was one great
+source of danger, namely that the residents in and about Athens
+must always have had more weight in elections than those in
+distant demes. There can be little doubt that the preponderating
+influence of the city was responsible for the unwisdom of
+the later imperial policy and the Peloponnesian war.</p>
+
+<p>A second problem is the franchise reform of Cleisthenes.
+Aristotle in the <i>Politics</i> (iii. 2. 3 = 1275 b) says that Cleisthenes
+created new citizens by enrolling in the tribes &ldquo;many resident
+aliens and emancipated slaves.&rdquo;<a name="FnAnchor_4p" id="FnAnchor_4p" href="#Footnote_4p"><span class="sp">4</span></a> But the Aristotelian <i>Constitution
+of Athens</i> asserts that he gave &ldquo;citizenship to the
+masses.&rdquo; These two statements are not compatible. It is
+<span class="sidenote">The diapsephismus.</span>
+perfectly clear that Cleisthenes is to be regarded as a
+democrat, and it would have been no bribe to the
+people merely to confer a boon on aliens and slaves.
+Moreover, a revision of the citizen-roll (<i>diapsephismus</i>) had
+recently taken place (after the end of the tyranny) and a
+great many citizens had been struck off the roll as being of
+impure descent (<span class="grk" title="oi tô genei mê katharoi">
+&#959;&#7985; &#964;&#8183; &#947;&#941;&#957;&#949;&#953; &#956;&#8052; &#954;&#945;&#952;&#945;&#961;&#959;&#943;</span>). This class had existed
+from the time of Solon, and, through fear of political extinction
+by the oligarchs, had been favourable to Peisistratus. Cleisthenes
+may have enfranchised aliens and slaves, but it seems
+certain that he must have dealt with these free Athenians who
+had lost their rights. Now Isagoras presumably did not carry
+out this revision of the roll (<i>diapsephismus</i>); as &ldquo;the friend of
+the tyrants&rdquo; (so <i>Ath. Pol.</i> 20; by Meyer, Busolt and others
+contest this) he would not have struck a blow at a class which
+favoured his own views. A reasonable hypothesis is that
+Cleisthenes was the originator of the measure of expulsion, and
+that he now changed his policy, and strengthened his hold on
+the democracy by reinstating the disfranchised in much larger
+numbers. The new citizens, whoever they were, must, of course,
+have been enrolled also in the (hitherto exclusive) phratry lists
+and the deme-rolls.</p>
+
+<p>The Boul&#275; (<i>q.v.</i>) was reorganized to suit the new tribal arrangement,
+and was known henceforward as the Council of the Five
+Hundred, fifty from each tribe. Its exact constitution
+is unknown, but it was certainly more democratic
+<span class="sidenote">The council and boards of ten.</span>
+than the Solonian Four Hundred. Further, the
+system of ten tribes led in course of time to the construction
+of boards of ten to deal with military and civil affairs,
+<i>e.g.</i> the Strategi (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strategus</a></span>), the Apodectae, and others.
+Of these the former cannot be attributed to Cleisthenes, but on
+the evidence of Androtion it is certain that it was Cleisthenes
+who replaced the Colacretae<a name="FnAnchor_5p" id="FnAnchor_5p" href="#Footnote_5p"><span class="sp">5</span></a> by the Apodectae (&ldquo;receivers&rdquo;),
+who were controllers and auditors of the finance department,
+and, before the council in the council-chamber, received the
+revenues. The Colacretae, who had done this work before,
+remained in authority over the internal expenses of the Prytaneum.
+A further change which followed from the new tribal
+system was the reconstitution of the army; this, however,
+probably took place about 501 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and cannot be attributed
+directly to Cleisthenes. It has been said that the deme became
+the local political unit, replacing the naucrary (<i>q.v.</i>). But the
+naucraries still supplied the fleet, and were increased in number
+from forty-eight to fifty; if each naucrary still supplied a ship
+and two mounted soldiers as before, it is interesting to learn
+that, only seventy years before the Peloponnesian War, Athens
+had but fifty ships and a hundred horse.<a name="FnAnchor_6p" id="FnAnchor_6p" href="#Footnote_6p"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The device of ostracism is the final stone in the Cleisthenean
+structure. An admirable scheme in theory, and, at first, in
+practice, it deteriorated in the 5th century into a mere party
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span>
+weapon, and in the case of Hyperbolus (417) became an
+absurdity.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion it should be noticed that Cleisthenes was
+the founder of the Athens which we know. To him was due
+the spirit of nationality, the principle of liberty duly
+apportioned and controlled by centralized and decentralized
+<span class="sidenote">Summary.</span>
+administration, which prepared the ground for the
+rich developments of the Golden Age with its triumphs of art
+and literature, politics and philosophy. It was Cleisthenes who
+organized the structure which, for a long time, bore the heavy
+burden of the Empire against impossible odds, the structure
+which the very different genius of Pericles was able to beautify.
+He was the first to appreciate the unique power in politics,
+literature and society of an organized public opinion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Ancient:</i> Aristotle, <i>Constitution of Athens</i> (ed.
+J.E. Sandys), cc. 20-22, 41; Herodotus v, 63-73, vi. 131; Aristotle,
+<i>Politics</i>, iii. 2, 3 (= 1275 b, for franchise reforms). <i>Modern:</i> Histories
+of Greece in general, especially those of Grote and Curtius (which,
+of course, lack the information contained in the <i>Constitution of
+Athens</i>), and J.B. Bury. See also E. Meyer, <i>Geschichte des Altertums</i>
+(vol. ii.); G. Busolt, <i>Griech. Gesch.</i> (2nd ed., 1893 foll.); Milchhöfer,
+&ldquo;Über die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes&rdquo; in appendix to <i>Abhandlung
+d. Berl. Akad.</i> (1892); R. Loeper in <i>Athen. Mitteil.</i> (1892),
+pp. 319-433; A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional
+History</i> (1896); Gilbert, <i>Greek Constitutional Antiquities</i> (Eng.
+trans., 1895); R.W. Macan, <i>Herodotus iv.-vi.</i>, vol. ii. (1895), pp. 127-148;
+U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, <i>Arist. und Athen.</i> See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boll&#275;</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ecclesia</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ostracism</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naucrary</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Solon</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2">2. <span class="sc">Cleisthenes of Sicyon</span> (c. 600-570), grandfather of the
+above, became tyrant of Sicyon as the representative of the
+conquered Ionian section of the inhabitants. He emphasized
+the destruction of Dorian predominance by giving ridiculous
+epithets to their tribal units, which from Hylleis, Dymanes and
+Pamphyli become Hyatae (&ldquo;Swine-men&rdquo;), Choireatae (&ldquo;Pig-men&rdquo;)
+and Oneatae (&ldquo;Ass-men&rdquo;). He also attacked Dorian
+Argos, and suppressed the Homeric &ldquo;rhapsodists&rdquo; who sang
+the exploits of Dorian heroes. He championed the cause of the
+Delphic oracle against the town of Crisa (Cirrha) in the Sacred
+War (c. 590). Crisa was destroyed, and Delphi became one of the
+meeting-places of the old amphictyony of Anthela, henceforward
+often called the Delphic amphictyony. The Pythian games,
+largely on the initiative of Cleisthenes, were re-established with
+new magnificence, and Cleisthenes won the first chariot race in
+582. He founded Pythian games at Sicyon, and possibly built
+a new Sicyonian treasury at Delphi. His power was so great
+that when he offered his daughter Agariste in marriage, some
+of the most prominent Greeks sought the honour, which fell upon
+Megacles, the Alcmaeonid. The story of the rival wooers with
+the famous retort, &ldquo;Hippocleides don&rsquo;t care,&rdquo; is told in Herod.
+vi. 125; see also Herod, v. 67 and Thuc. i. 18.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Cleisthenes</span> is also the name of an Athenian, pilloried by Aristophanes
+(<i>Clouds</i>, 354; <i>Thesm.</i> 574) as a fop and a profligate.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. M. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1p" id="Footnote_1p" href="#FnAnchor_1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The archonship of Isagoras in 508 is important as showing that
+Cleisthenes, three years after his return, had so far failed to secure
+the support of a majority in Athens. There is no sufficient reason
+for supposing that the election of Isagoras was procured by Cleomenes;
+all the evidence points to its having been brought about in
+the ordinary way. Probably, therefore, Cleisthenes did not take the
+people thoroughly into partnership till after the spring of 508.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2p" id="Footnote_2p" href="#FnAnchor_2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The explanation given for this step by Herodotus (v. 67) is
+an amusing example of his incapacity as a critical historian. To
+compare Cleisthenes of Sicyon (see below), bent on humiliating the
+Dorians of Sicyon by giving opprobrious names to the Dorian tribes,
+with his grandson, whose endeavour was to elevate the very persons
+whose tribal organization he replaced, is clearly absurd.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3p" id="Footnote_3p" href="#FnAnchor_3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (<i>Arist. und Athen</i>, pp. 149-150) suggests
+<span class="grk" title="dekacha">&#948;&#949;&#954;&#945;&#967;&#940;</span>, &ldquo;in ten batches,&rdquo; instead of <span class="grk" title="deka">&#948;&#941;&#954;&#945;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4p" id="Footnote_4p" href="#FnAnchor_4p"><span class="fn">4</span></a> It should be observed that there are other translations of the
+difficult phrase <span class="grk" title="xenous kai doulous metoikous">
+&#958;&#941;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#948;&#959;&#973;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#956;&#949;&#964;&#959;&#943;&#954;&#959;&#965;&#962;</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5p" id="Footnote_5p" href="#FnAnchor_5p"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Colacretae</i> were very ancient Athenian magistrates; either
+(1) those who &ldquo;cut up the joints&rdquo; in the Prytaneum <span class="grk" title="kôla, keirô">
+(&#954;&#8182;&#955;&#945;, &#954;&#949;&#943;&#961;&#969;</span>),
+or (2) those who &ldquo;collected the joints&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="kôla, ageirô">
+(&#954;&#8182;&#955;&#945;, &#7936;&#947;&#949;&#943;&#961;&#969;</span>) which were
+left over from public sacrifices, and consumed in the Prytaneum.
+These officials were again important in the time of Aristophanes
+(<i>Wasps</i>, 693, 724; <i>Birds</i>, 1541), and they presided over the payment
+of the dicasts instituted by Pericles. They are not mentioned,
+though they may have existed, after 403 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At Sicyon also
+magistrates of this name are found.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_6p" id="Footnote_6p" href="#FnAnchor_6p"><span class="fn">6</span></a> It is, however, more probable that the right reading of the
+passage is <span class="grk" title="deka ippeis">&#948;&#941;&#954;&#945; &#7985;&#960;&#960;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span> instead of <span class="grk" title="duo">
+&#948;&#973;&#959;</span>, which would give a cavalry force
+in early Athens of 480, a reasonable number in proportion to the
+total fighting strength.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEITARCHUS<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span>, one of the historians of Alexander the Great,
+son of Deinon, also an historian, was possibly a native of Egypt,
+or at least spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy
+Lagus. Quintilian (<i>Instit.</i> x. i. 74) credits him with more
+ability than trustworthiness, and Cicero (<i>Brutus</i>, 11) accuses
+him of giving a fictitious account of the death of Themistocles.
+But there is no doubt that his history was very popular, and
+much used by Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius, Justin and
+Plutarch, and the authors of the Alexander romances. His
+unnatural and exaggerated style became proverbial.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fragments, some thirty in number, chiefly preserved in Aelian
+and Strabo, will be found in C. Müller&rsquo;s <i>Scriptores Rerum Alexandri
+Magni</i> (in the Didot <i>Arrian</i>, 1846); monographs by C. Raun, <i>De
+Clitarcho Diodori, Curtii, Justini auctore</i> (1868), and F. Reuss,
+&ldquo;Hellenistische Beiträge&rdquo; in <i>Rhein. Mus.</i> lxiii. (1908), pp. 58-78.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEITHRAL<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="kleithron">&#954;&#955;&#949;&#8150;&#952;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>, an enclosed or shut-up place),
+an architectural term applied to a covered Greek temple, in
+contradistinction to <i>hypaethral</i>, which designates one that is
+uncovered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEITOR<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clitor</span>, a town of ancient Greece, in that part of
+Arcadia which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta
+in the nomos of Elis and Achaea. It stood in a fertile plain to
+the south of Mt Chelmos, the highest peak of the Aroanian
+Mountains, and not far from a stream of its own name, which
+joined the Aroanius, or Katzana. In the neighbourhood was
+a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive those who
+drank them of the taste for wine. The town was a place of considerable
+importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants were noted
+for their love of liberty. It extended its territory over several
+neighbouring towns, and in the Theban war fought against
+Orchomenus. It joined the other Arcadian cities in the foundation
+of Megalopolis. As a member of the Achaean league it
+was besieged by the Aetolians in 220 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and was on several
+occasions the seat of the federal assemblies. It coined money
+up to the time of Septimius Severus. The ruins, which bear
+the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen
+about 3 m. from a village that preserves the ancient designation.
+The greater part of the walls which enclose an area of about a
+mile and several of the semi-circular towers with which they
+were strengthened can be clearly made out; and there are also
+remains of three Doric temples and a small theatre.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLELAND, WILLIAM<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (1661?-1689), Scottish poet and
+soldier, son of Thomas Cleland, gamekeeper to the marquis of
+Douglas, was born about 1661. He was probably brought up
+on the marquess of Douglas&rsquo;s estate in Lanarkshire, and was
+educated at St Andrews University. Immediately on leaving
+college he joined the army of the Covenanters, and was present
+at Drumclog, where, says Robert Wodrow, some attributed to
+Cleland the man&oelig;uvre which led to the victory. He also fought
+at Bothwell Bridge. He and his brother James were described
+in a royal proclamation of the 16th of June 1679 among the
+leaders of the insurgents. He escaped to Holland, but in 1685
+was again in Scotland in connexion with the abortive invasion
+of the earl of Argyll. He escaped once more, to return in 1688
+as agent for William of Orange. He was appointed lieutenant-colonel
+of the Cameronian regiment raised from the minority
+of the western Covenanters who consented to serve under William
+III. The Cameronians were entrusted with the defence of Dunkeld,
+which they held against the fierce assault of the Highlanders
+on the 26th of August. The repulse of the Highlanders before
+Dunkeld ended the Jacobite rising, but Cleland fell in the struggle.
+He wrote <i>A Collection of several Poems and Verses</i> composed
+upon various occasions (published posthumously, 1697). Of
+&ldquo;Hullo, my fancie, whither wilt thou go?&rdquo; only the last nine
+stanzas are by Cleland. His poems have small literary merit,
+and are written, not in pure Lowland Scots, but in English with
+a large admixture of Scottish words. The longest and most
+important of them are the &ldquo;mock poems&rdquo; &ldquo;On the Expedition
+of the Highland Host who came to destroy the western shires
+in winter 1678&rdquo; and &ldquo;On the clergie when they met to consult
+about taking the Test in the year 1681.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>An Exact Narrative of the <i>Conflict of Dunkeld ... collected from
+several officers of the regiment ...</i> appeared in 1689.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEMATIS<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span>, in botany, a genus of the natural order Ranunculaceae,
+containing nearly two hundred species, and widely
+distributed. It is represented in England by <i>Clematis Vitalba</i>,
+&ldquo;old man&rsquo;s beard&rdquo; or &ldquo;traveller&rsquo;s joy,&rdquo; a common plant on
+chalky or light soil. The plants are shrubby climbers with generally
+compound opposite leaves, the stalk of which is sensitive
+to contact like a tendril, becoming twisted round suitable objects
+and thereby giving support to the plant. The flowers are arranged
+in axillary or terminal clusters; they have no petals, but white
+or coloured, often very large sepals, and an indefinite number
+of stamens and carpels. They contain no honey, and are visited
+by insects for the sake of the pollen, which is plentiful. The fruit
+is a head of achenes, each bearing the long-bearded persistent
+style, suggesting the popular name. This feathery style is an
+important agent in the distribution of the seed by means of the
+wind. Several of the species, especially the large-flowered ones,
+are favourite garden plants, well adapted for covering trellises
+or walls, or trailing over the ground. Many garden forms have
+been produced by hybridization; among the best known is
+<i>C. Jackmanni</i>, due to Mr George Jackman of Woking.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Further information may be obtained from <i>The Clematis as a
+Garden Flower</i>, by Thos. Moore and George Jackman. See also
+G. Nicholson, <i>Dictionary of Gardening</i>, i. (1885) and <i>Supplements</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span></p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1841-&emsp;&emsp;), French statesman,
+was born at Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vendée, on the 28th of
+September 1841. Having adopted medicine as his profession,
+he settled in 1869 in Montmartre; and after the revolution of
+1870 he had become sufficiently well known to be nominated
+mayor of the 18th arrondissement of Paris (Montmartre)&mdash;an
+unruly district over which it was a difficult task to preside.
+On the 8th of February 1871 he was elected as a Radical to the
+National Assembly for the department of the Seine, and voted
+against the peace preliminaries. The execution, or rather
+murder, of Generals Lecomte and Clément Thomas by the
+communists on 18th March, which he vainly tried to prevent,
+brought him into collision with the central committee sitting
+at the hôtel de ville, and they ordered his arrest, but he escaped;
+he was accused, however, by various witnesses, at the subsequent
+trial of the murderers (November 29th), of not having intervened
+when he might have done, and though he was cleared of this
+charge it led to a duel, for his share in which he was prosecuted
+and sentenced to a fine and a fortnight&rsquo;s imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile, on the 20th of March 1871, he had introduced
+in the National Assembly at Versailles, on behalf of his Radical
+colleagues, the bill establishing a Paris municipal council of
+eighty members; but he was not returned himself at the elections
+of the 26th of March. He tried with the other Paris mayors to
+mediate between Versailles and the hôtel de ville, but failed,
+and accordingly resigned his mayoralty and his seat in the
+Assembly, and temporarily gave up politics; but he was elected
+to the Paris municipal council on the 23rd of July 1871 for the
+Clignancourt <i>quartier</i>, and retained his seat till 1876, passing
+through the offices of secretary and vice-president, and becoming
+president in 1875. In 1876 he stood again for the Chamber of
+Deputies, and was elected for the 18th arrondissement. He joined
+the Extreme Left, and his energy and mordant eloquence
+speedily made him the leader of the Radical section. In 1877,
+after the <i>Seize Mai</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>), he was one of the
+republican majority who denounced the Broglie ministry, and
+he took a leading part in resisting the anti-republican policy
+of which the <i>Seize Mai</i> incident was a symptom, his demand
+in 1879 for the indictment of the Broglie ministry bringing him
+into particular prominence. In 1880 he started his newspaper,
+<i>La Justice</i>, which became the principal organ of Parisian Radicalism;
+and from this time onwards throughout M. Grévy&rsquo;s
+presidency his reputation as a political critic, and as a destroyer
+of ministries who yet would not take office himself, rapidly grew.
+He led the Extreme Left in the Chamber. He was an active
+opponent of M. Jules Ferry&rsquo;s colonial policy and of the Opportunist
+party, and in 1885 it was his use of the Tongking disaster
+which principally determined the fall of the Ferry cabinet.
+At the elections of 1885 he advocated a strong Radical programme,
+and was returned both for his old seat in Paris and for
+the Var, selecting the latter. Refusing to form a ministry to
+replace the one he had overthrown, he supported the Right in
+keeping M. Freycinet in power in 1886, and was responsible
+for the inclusion of General Boulanger in the Freycinet cabinet
+as war minister. When Boulanger (<i>q.v.</i>) showed himself as an
+ambitious pretender, Clemenceau withdrew his support and
+became a vigorous combatant against the Boulangist movement,
+though the Radical press and a section of the party continued
+to patronize the general.</p>
+
+<p>By his exposure of the Wilson scandal, and by his personal
+plain speaking, M. Clemenceau contributed largely to M. Grévy&rsquo;s
+resignation of the presidency in 1887, having himself declined
+Grévy&rsquo;s request to form a cabinet on the downfall of that of
+M. Rouvier; and he was primarily responsible, by advising
+his followers to vote neither for Floquet, Ferry nor Freycinet,
+for the election of an &ldquo;outsider&rdquo; as president in M. Carnot.
+He had arrived, however, at the height of his influence, and
+several factors now contributed to his decline. The split in the
+Radical party over Boulangism weakened his hands, and its
+collapse made his help unnecessary to the moderate republicans.
+A further misfortune occurred in the Panama affair, Clemenceau&rsquo;s
+relations with Cornelius Herz leading to his being involved
+in the general suspicion; and, though he remained the leading
+spokesman of French Radicalism, his hostility to the Russian
+alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the election for
+1893 he was defeated for the Chamber, after having sat in it
+continuously since 1876. After his defeat for the Chamber,
+M. Clemenceau confined his political activities to journalism,
+his career being further overclouded&mdash;so far as any immediate
+possibility of regaining his old ascendancy was concerned&mdash;by
+the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which he took an active
+and honourable part as a supporter of M. Zola and an opponent
+of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaign. In 1900 he
+withdrew from <i>La Justice</i> to found a weekly review, <i>Le Bloc</i>,
+which lasted until March 1902. On the 6th of April 1902 he
+was elected senator for the Var, although he had previously
+continually demanded the suppression of the Senate. He sat
+with the Socialist Radicals, and vigorously supported the
+Combes ministry. In June 1903 he undertook the direction of
+the journal <i>L&rsquo;Aurore</i>, which he had founded. In it he led the
+campaign for the revision of the Dreyfus affair, and for the
+separation of Church and State.</p>
+
+<p>In March 1906 the fall of the Rouvier ministry, owing to the
+riots provoked by the inventories of church property, at last
+brought Clemenceau to power as minister of the interior in the
+Sarrien cabinet. The strike of miners in the Pas de Calais
+after the disaster at Courrières, leading to the threat of disorder
+on the 1st of May 1906, obliged him to employ the military;
+and his attitude in the matter alienated the Socialist party,
+from which he definitely broke in his notable reply in the Chamber
+to Jean Jaurès in June 1906. This speech marked him out as
+the strong man of the day in French politics; and when the
+Sarrien ministry resigned in October, he became premier. During
+1907 and 1908 his premiership was notable for the way in which
+the new <i>entente</i> with England was cemented, and for the successful
+part which France played in European politics, in spite of difficulties
+with Germany and attacks by the Socialist party in
+connexion with Morocco (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">France</a></span>: <i>History</i>). But on July
+20th, 1909, he was defeated in a discussion in the Chamber on
+the state of the navy, in which bitter words were exchanged
+between him and Delcassé; and he at once resigned, being
+succeeded as premier by M. Briand, with a reconstructed
+cabinet.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEMENCÍN, DIEGO<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1765-1834), Spanish scholar and
+politician, was born on the 27th of September 1765, at Murcia,
+and was educated there at the Colegio de San Fulgencio.
+Abandoning his intention of taking orders, he found employment
+at Madrid in 1788 as tutor to the sons of the countess-duchess
+de Benavente, and devoted himself to the study of archaeology.
+In 1807 he became editor of the <i>Gaceta de Madrid</i>, and in the
+following year was condemned to death by Murat for publishing
+a patriotic article; he fled to Cadiz, and under the Junta Central
+held various posts from which he was dismissed by the reactionary
+government of 1814. During the liberal régime of
+1820-1823 Clemencín took office as colonial minister, was exiled
+till 1827, and in 1833 published the first volume of his edition
+(1833-1839) of <i>Don Quixote</i>. Its merits were recognized by his
+appointment as royal librarian, but he did not long enjoy his
+triumph: he died on the 30th of July 1834. His commentary
+on <i>Don Quixote</i> owes something to John Bowle, and is disfigured
+by a patronizing, carping spirit; nevertheless it is the most
+valuable work of its kind, and is still unsuperseded. Clemencín
+is also the author of an interesting <i>Elogio de la reina Isabel la
+Católica</i>, published as the sixth volume of the <i>Memorias</i> of the
+Spanish Academy of History, to which body he was elected
+on the 12th of September 1800.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEMENT<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Clemens</i>, <i>i.e.</i> merciful; Gr. <span class="grk" title="Klêmes">&#922;&#955;&#942;&#956;&#951;&#962;</span>), the
+name of fourteen popes and two anti-popes.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> I., generally known as Clement of Rome, or <span class="sc">Clemens
+Romanus</span> (flor. c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 96), was one of the &ldquo;Apostolic Fathers,&rdquo;
+and in the lists of bishops of Rome is given the third or fourth
+place&mdash;Peter, Linus, (Anencletus), Clement. There is no ground
+for identifying him with the Clement of Phil. iv. 3. He may
+have been a freedman of T. Flavius Clemens, who was consul
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span>
+with his cousin, the Emperor Domitian, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 95. A 9th-
+century tradition says he was martyred in the Crimea in 102;
+earlier authorities say he died a natural death; he is commemorated
+on the 23rd of November.</p>
+
+<p>In <i>The Shepherd of Hermas</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) (Vis. 11. iv. 3) mention is
+made of one Clement whose office it is to communicate with other
+churches, and this function agrees well with what we find in
+the letter to the church at Corinth by which Clement is best
+known. Whilst being on our guard against reading later ideas
+into the title &ldquo;bishop&rdquo; as applied to Clement, there is no reason
+to doubt that he was one of the chief personalities in the Christian
+community at Rome, where since the time of Paul the separate
+house congregations (Rom. xvi.) had been united into one
+church officered by presbyters and deacons (Clem. 40-42).
+The letter in question was occasioned by a dispute in the church
+of Corinth, which had led to the ejection of several presbyters
+from their office. It does not contain Clement&rsquo;s name, but is
+addressed by &ldquo;the Church of God which sojourneth in Rome to
+the Church of God which sojourneth in Corinth.&rdquo; But there is
+no reason for doubting the universal tradition which ascribes
+it to Clement, or the generally accepted date, c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 96. No
+claim is made by the Roman Church to interfere on any ground
+of superior rank; yet it is noteworthy that in the earliest
+document outside the canon which we can securely date, the
+church in the imperial city comes forward as a peacemaker to
+compose the troubles of a church in Greece. Nothing is known
+of the cause of the discontent; no moral offence is charged
+against the presbyters, and their dismissal is regarded by
+Clement as high-handed and unjustifiable, and as a revolt of
+the younger members of the community against the elder.
+After a laudatory account of the past conduct of the Corinthian
+Church, he enters upon a denunciation of vices and a praise of
+virtues, and illustrates his various topics by copious citations
+from the Old Testament scriptures. Thus he paves the way
+for his tardy rebuke of present disorders, which he reserves until
+two-thirds of his epistle is completed. Clement is exceedingly
+discursive, and his letter reaches twice the length of the Epistle
+to the Hebrews. Many of his general exhortations are but very
+indirectly connected with the practical issue to which the epistle
+is directed, and it is very probable that he was drawing largely
+upon the homiletical material with which he was accustomed to
+edify his fellow-Christians at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>This view receives some support from the long liturgical
+prayer at the close, which almost certainly represents the
+intercession used in the Roman eucharists. But we must not
+allow such a theory to blind us to the true wisdom with which
+the writer defers his censure. He knows that the roots of the
+quarrel lie in a wrong condition of the church&rsquo;s life. His general
+exhortations, courteously expressed in the first person plural,
+are directed towards a wide reformation of manners. If the
+wrong spirit can be exorcised, there is hope that the quarrel will
+end in a general desire for reconciliation. The most permanent
+interest of the epistle lies in the conception of the grounds on
+which the Christian ministry rests according to the view of a
+prominent teacher before the 1st century has closed. The
+orderliness of nature is appealed to as expressing the mind of its
+Creator. The orderliness of Old Testament worship bears a like
+witness; everything is duly fixed by God; high priests, priests
+and Levites, and the people in the people&rsquo;s place. Similarly
+in the Christian dispensation all is in order due. &ldquo;The apostles
+preached the gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus
+Christ was sent from God. Christ then is from God, and the
+apostles from Christ. . . . They appointed their first-fruits,
+having tested them by the Spirit, as bishops and deacons of those
+who should believe. . . . Our apostles knew through our Lord
+Jesus Christ that there would be strife about the name of the
+bishop&rsquo;s office. For this cause therefore, having received
+perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid, and afterwards
+gave a further injunction (<span class="grk" title="heptnomên">&#7952;&#960;&#953;&#957;&#959;&#956;&#942;&#957;</span>] has now the further
+evidence of the Latin <i>legem</i>) that, if these should fall asleep,
+other approved men should succeed to their ministry. . . .
+It will be no small sin in us if we eject from the bishop&rsquo;s
+office those who have offered the gifts blamelessly and holily&rdquo;
+(cc. xlii. xliv.).</p>
+
+<p>Clement&rsquo;s familiarity with the Old Testament points to his
+being a Christian of long standing rather than a recent convert.
+We learn from his letter (i. 7) that the church at Rome, though
+suffering persecution, was firmly held together by faith and love,
+and was exhibiting its unity in an orderly worship. The epistle
+was publicly read from time to time at Corinth, and by the 4th
+century this usage had spread to other churches. We even find
+it attached to the famous Alexandrian MS. (Codex A) of the New
+Testament, but this does not imply that it ever reached canonical
+rank. For the mass of early Christian literature that was gradually
+attached to his name see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clementine Literature</a></span>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The epistle was published in 1633 by Patrick Young from Cod.
+Alexandrinus, in which a leaf near the end was missing, so that
+the great prayer (cc. lv.-lxiv.) remained unknown. In 1875 (six
+years after J.B. Lightfoot&rsquo;s first edition) Bryennius (<i>q.v.</i>) published
+a complete text from the MS. in Constantinople (dated 1055), from
+which in 1883 he gave us the <i>Didaché</i>. In 1876 R.L. Bensly found a
+complete Syriac text in a MS. recently obtained by the University
+library at Cambridge. Lightfoot made use of these new materials
+in an Appendix (1877); his second edition, on which he had been
+at work at the time of his death, came out in 1890. This must
+remain the standard edition, notwithstanding Dom Morin&rsquo;s most
+interesting discovery of a Latin version (1894), which was probably
+made in the 3rd century, and is a valuable addition to the
+authorities for the text. Its evidence is used in a small edition of
+the epistle by R. Knopf (Leipzig, 1899). See also W. Wrede, <i>Untersuchungen zum ersten
+Clemensbrief</i> (1891), and the other literature cited
+in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. iv.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. J. G.; J. A. R.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> II. (Suidger) became pope on the 25th of December
+1046. He belonged to a noble Saxon family, was bishop of Bamberg,
+and chancellor to the emperor Henry III., to whom he was
+indebted for his elevation to the papacy upon the abdication
+of Gregory VI. He was the first pope placed on the throne by
+the power of the German emperors, but his short pontificate was
+only signalized by the convocation of a council in which decrees
+were enacted against simony. He died on the 9th of October
+1047, and was buried at Bamberg.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> III. (Paolo Scolari), pope from 1187 to 1191, a
+Roman, was made cardinal bishop of Palestrina by Alexander III.
+in 1180 or 1181. On the 19th of December 1187 he was chosen
+at Pisa to succeed Gregory VIII. On the 31st of May 1188 he
+concluded a treaty with the Romans which removed difficulties
+of long standing, and in April 1189 he made peace with the emperor
+Frederick I. Barbarossa. He settled a controversy with William
+of Scotland concerning the choice of the archbishop of St Andrews,
+and on the 13th of March 1188 removed the Scottish church from
+under the legatine jurisdiction of the archbishop of York, thus
+making it independent of all save Rome. In spite of his conciliatory
+policy, Clement angered Henry VI. of Germany by
+bestowing Sicily on Tancred. The crisis was acute when the
+pope died, probably in the latter part of March 1191.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Epistolae et Privilegia,&rdquo; in J.P. Migne, <i>Patrologiae cursus
+completes</i>, tom. 204 (Paris, 1853), 1253 ff.; additional material in
+<i>Neues Archiv für die ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde</i>, 2. 219; 6. 293;
+14. 178-182; P. Jaffé, <i>Regesta Pontificum Romanorum</i>, tom. 2
+(2nd edition, Leipzig, 1888), 535 ff.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> IV. (Gui Foulques), pope from 1265 to 1268, son of
+a successful lawyer and judge, was born at St Gilles-sur-Rhône.
+He studied law, and became a valued adviser of Louis IX. of
+France. He married, and was the father of two daughters, but
+after the death of his wife took orders. In 1257 he became
+bishop of Le Puy; in 1259 he was elected archbishop of Narbonne;
+and on the 24th of December 1261 Urban IV. created
+him cardinal bishop of Sabina. He was appointed legate in
+England on the 22nd of November 1263, and before his return
+was elected pope at Perugia on the 5th of February 1265. On
+the 26th of February he invested Charles of Anjou with the
+kingdom of Sicily; but subsequently he came into conflict with
+Charles, especially after the death of Manfred in February 1266.
+To the cruelty and avarice of Charles he opposed a generous
+humanity. When Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen,
+appeared in Italy the pope excommunicated him and his supporters,
+but it is improbable that he was in the remotest degree
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span>
+responsible for his execution. At Viterbo, where he spent most
+of his pontificate, Clement died on the 29th of November 1268,
+leaving a name unsullied by nepotism. As the benefactor and
+protector of Roger Bacon he has a special title to the gratitude
+of posterity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Potthast, <i>Regesta Pontificum Romanorum</i>, vol. ii. (Berlin,
+l875). 1542 ff.; E. Jordan, <i>Les Régistres de Clement IV</i> (Paris, 1893
+ff.); Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (3rd ed., vol. iv., Leipzig, 1898),
+144 f.; J. Heidemann, <i>Papst Clemens IV., I. Teil: Das Vorleben
+des Papstes und sein Legationsregister = Kirchengeschichtliche Studien,
+herausgegeben von Knöpfler</i>, &amp;c., 6. Band, 4. Heft (Münster, 1903),
+reprints <i>Processus legationis in Angliam</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> V. (Bertrand de Gouth), pope from 1305 to 1314, was
+born of a noble Gascon family about 1264. After studying the
+arts at Toulouse and law at Orleans and Bologna, he became
+a canon at Bordeaux and then vicar-general to his brother the
+archbishop of Lyons, who in 1294 was created cardinal bishop
+of Albano. Bertrand was made a chaplain to Boniface VIII.,
+who in 1295 nominated him bishop of Cominges (Haute Garonne),
+and in 1299 translated him to the archbishopric of Bordeaux.
+Because he attended the synod at Rome in 1302 in the controversy
+between France and the Pope, he was considered a
+supporter of Boniface VIII., yet was by no means unfavourably
+regarded at the French court. At Perugia on the 5th of June
+1305 he was chosen to succeed Benedict XI; the cardinals
+by a vote of ten to five electing one neither an Italian nor a
+cardinal, in order to end a conclave which had lasted eleven
+months. The chronicler Villani relates that Bertrand owed his
+election to a secret agreement with Philip IV., made at St Jean
+d&rsquo;Angély in Saintonge; this may be dismissed as gossip, but
+it is probable that the future pope had to accept certain conditions
+laid down by the cardinals. At Bordeaux Bertrand was
+formally notified of his election and urged to come to Italy;
+but he caused his coronation to take place at Lyons on the 14th
+of November 1305. From the beginning Clement V. was subservient
+to French interests. Among his first acts was the
+creation of nine French cardinals. Early in 1306 he modified
+or explained away those features of the bulls <i>Clericis Laicos</i>
+and <i>Unam sanctam</i> which were particularly offensive to the
+king. Most of the year 1306 he spent at Bordeaux because of
+ill-health; subsequently he resided at Poitiers and elsewhere,
+and in March 1309 the entire papal court settled at Avignon,
+an imperial fief held by the king of Sicily. Thus began the
+seventy years &ldquo;Babylonian captivity of the Church.&rdquo; On the
+13th of October 1307 came the arrest of all the Knights Templar
+in France, the breaking of a storm conjured up by royal jealousy
+and greed. From the very day of Clement&rsquo;s coronation the
+king had charged the Templars with heresy, immorality and
+abuses, and the scruples of the weak pope were at length overcome
+by apprehension lest the State should not wait for the
+Church, but should proceed independently against the alleged
+heretics, as well as by the royal threats of pressing the accusation
+of heresy against the late Boniface VIII. In pursuance of the
+king&rsquo;s wishes Clement summoned the council of Vienne (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vienne, Council of</a></span>), which was unable to conclude that the
+Templars were guilty of heresy. The pope abolished the order,
+however, as it seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived its
+usefulness. Its French estates were granted to the Hospitallers,
+but actually Philip IV. held them until his death.</p>
+
+<p>In his relations to the Empire Clement was an opportunist.
+He refused to use his full influence in favour of the candidacy
+of Charles of Valois, brother of Philip IV., lest France became
+too powerful; and recognized Henry of Luxemburg, whom
+his representatives crowned emperor at the Lateran in 1312.
+When Henry, however, came into conflict with Robert of Naples,
+Clement supported Robert and threatened the emperor with
+ban and interdict. But the crisis passed with the unexpected
+death of Henry, soon followed by that of the pope on the 20th
+of April 1314 at Roquemaure-sur-Rhône. Though the sale of
+offices and oppressive taxation which disgraced his pontificate
+may in part be explained by the desperate condition of the papal
+finances and by his saving up gold for a crusade, nevertheless
+he indulged in unbecoming pomp. Showing favouritism toward
+his family and his nation, he brought untold disaster on the
+Church.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>&mdash;See &ldquo;Clementis V. . . . et aliorum epistolae,&rdquo;
+in S. Baluzius, <i>Vitae Paparum Avenionensium</i>, tom. ii. (Paris, 1693),
+55 ff.; &ldquo;Tractatus cum Henrico VII. imp. Germ. anno 1309,&rdquo; in
+Pertz, <i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, legum ii. I. 492-496; J.F.
+Rabanis, <i>Clément V et Philippe le Bel. Suivie du journal de la visite
+pastorale de Bertrand de Got dans la province ecclésiastique de Bordeaux
+en 1304 et 1305</i> (Paris, 1858); &ldquo;Clementis Papae V. Constitutiones,&rdquo;
+in <i>Corpus Iuris Canonici</i>, ed. Aemilius Friedberg, vol. ii. (Leipzig,
+1881), 1125-1200; P.B. Gams, <i>Series Episcoporum Ecclesiae
+Catholicae</i> (Regensburg, 1873); Wetzer und Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>,
+vol. iii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1884), 462-473; <i>Regestum Clementis
+Papae V. ex Vaticanis archetypis cura et studio monachorum ord. Ben.</i>
+(Rome, 1885-1892), 9 vols. and appendix; J. Gmelin, <i>Schuld oder
+Unschuld des Templerordens</i> (Stuttgart, 1893); Gachon, <i>Pièces relatifs
+au débat du pape Clément V avec l&rsquo;empéreur Henri VII</i> (Montpellier
+1894); Lacoste, <i>Nouvelles Études sur Clément V</i> (1896); Herzog-Hauck,
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, vol. iv. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1898), 144 f.; J. Loserth,
+<i>Geschichte des späteren Mittelalters</i> (Munich, 1903); and A. Eitel, <i>Der
+Kirchenstaat unter Klemens V.</i> (Berlin, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VI. (Pierre Roger), pope from the 7th of May 1342
+to the 6th of December 1352, was born at Maumont in Limousin
+in 1291, the son of the wealthy lord of Rosières, entered the
+Benedictine order as a boy, studied at Paris, and became successively
+prior of St Baudil, abbot of Fécamp, bishop of Arras,
+chancellor of France, archbishop of Sens and archbishop of
+Rouen. He was made cardinal-priest of Sti Nereo ed Achilleo
+and administrator of the bishopric of Avignon by Benedict XII.
+in 1338, and four years later succeeded him as pope. He continued
+to reside at Avignon despite the arguments of envoys
+and the verses of Petrarch, but threw a sop to the Romans by
+reducing the Jubilee term from one hundred years to fifty. He
+appointed Cola di Rienzo to a civil position at Rome, and,
+although at first approving the establishment of the tribunate,
+he later sent a legate who excommunicated Rienzo and, with
+the help of the aristocratic faction, drove him from the city
+(December 1347). Clement continued the struggle of his predecessors
+with the emperor Louis the Bavarian, excommunicating
+him after protracted negotiations on the 13th of April 1346,
+and directing the election of Charles of Moravia, who received
+general recognition after the death of Louis in October 1347,
+and put an end to the schism which had long divided Germany.
+Clement proclaimed a crusade in 1343, but nothing was accomplished
+beyond a naval attack on Smyrna (29th of October 1344).
+He also carried on fruitless negotiations for church unity with
+the Armenians and with the Greek emperor, John Cantacuzenus.
+He tried to end the Hundred Years&rsquo; War between England and
+France, but secured only a temporary truce. He excommunicated
+Casimir of Poland for marital infidelity and forced him to
+do penance. He successfully resisted encroachments on ecclesiastical
+jurisdiction by the kings of England, Castile and Aragon.
+He made Prague an archbishopric in 1344, and three years later
+founded the university there. During the disastrous plague of
+1347-1348 Clement did all he could to alleviate the distress,
+and condemned the Flagellants and Jew-baiters. He tried
+Queen Joanna of Naples for the murder of her husband and
+acquitted her. He secured full ownership of the county of
+Avignon through purchase from Queen Joanna (9th of June 1348)
+and renunciation of feudal claims by Charles IV. of France, and
+considerably enlarged the papal palace in that city. To supply
+money for his many undertakings Clement revived the practice
+of selling reservations and expectancies, which had been abolished
+by his predecessor. Oppressive taxation and unblushing
+nepotism were Clement&rsquo;s great faults. On the other hand, he
+was famed for his engaging manners, eloquence and theological
+learning. He died on the 6th of December 1352, and was buried
+in the Benedictine abbey at Auvergne, but his tomb was destroyed
+by Calvinists in 1562.    His successor was Innocent VI.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief sources for the life of Clement VI. are in Baluzius, <i>Vitae
+Pap. Avenion.</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1693); E. Werunsky, <i>Excerpta ex
+registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI.</i> (Innsbruck, 1885); and
+F. Cerasoli, <i>Clemente VI. e Giovanni I. di Napoli&mdash;Documenti
+inedite dell&rsquo; Archivio Vaticano</i> (1896, &amp;c).</p>
+
+<p>See L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. i., trans, by F.I. Antrobus
+(London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, <i>Rome in the Middle Ages</i>, vol. vi.
+trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J.B. Christophe,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span>
+<i>Histoire de la papauté pendant le XIVe siècle</i>, vol. ii. (Paris, 1853); also
+article by L. Küpper in the <i>Kirchenlexikon</i> (2nd ed.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. HA.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VII. (Robert of Geneva), (d. 1394), antipope, brother
+of Peter, count of Genevois, was connected by blood or marriage
+with most of the sovereigns of Europe. After occupying the
+episcopal sees of Thérouanne and Cambrai, he attained to the
+cardinalate at an early age. In 1377, as legate of Pope Gregory
+XI. in the Romagna, he directed, or rather assisted in, the
+savage suppression of the revolt of the inhabitants of Cesena
+against the papal authority. In the following year he took part
+in the election of Pope Urban VI. at Rome, and was perhaps
+the first to express doubts as to the validity of that tumultuous
+election. After withdrawing to Fondi to reconsider the election,
+the cardinals finally resolved to regard Urban as an intruder
+and the Holy See as still vacant, and an almost unanimous vote
+was given in favour of Robert of Geneva (20th of September
+1378), who took the name of Clement VII. Thus originated the
+Great Schism of the West.</p>
+
+<p>To his high connexions and his adroitness, as well as to the
+gross mistakes of his rival, Clement owed the immediate support
+of Queen Joanna of Naples and of several of the Italian barons;
+and the king of France, Charles V., who seems to have been
+sounded beforehand on the choice of the Roman pontiff, soon
+became his warmest protector. Clement eventually succeeded
+in winning to his cause Scotland, Castile, Aragon, Navarre, a
+great part of the Latin East, and Flanders. He had adherents,
+besides, scattered through Germany, while Portugal on two
+occasions acknowledged him, but afterwards forsook him.
+From Avignon, however, where he had immediately fixed his
+residence, his eyes were always turned towards Italy, his purpose
+being to wrest Rome from his rival. To attain this end he
+lavished his gold&mdash;or rather the gold provided by the clergy in
+his obedience&mdash;without stint, and conceived a succession of the
+most adventurous projects, of which one at least was to leave a
+lasting mark on history.</p>
+
+<p>By the bait of a kingdom to be carved expressly out of the
+States of the Church and to be called the kingdom of Adria,
+coupled with the expectation of succeeding to Queen Joanna,
+Clement incited Louis, duke of Anjou, the eldest of the brothers
+of Charles V., to take arms in his favour. These tempting offers
+gave rise to a series of expeditions into Italy carried out almost
+exclusively at Clement&rsquo;s expense, in the first of which Louis
+lost his life. These enterprises on several occasions planted
+Angevin domination in the south of the Italian peninsula, and
+their most decisive result was the assuring of Provence to the
+dukes of Anjou and afterwards to the kings of France. After
+the death of Louis, Clement hoped to find equally brave and
+interested champions in Louis&rsquo; son and namesake; in Louis of
+Orleans, the brother of Charles VI.; in Charles VI. himself;
+and in John III., count of Armagnac. The prospect of his
+briliant progress to Rome was ever before his eyes; and in his
+thoughts force of arms, of French arms, was to be the instrument
+of his glorious triumph over his competitor.</p>
+
+<p>There came a time, however, when Clement and more particularly
+his following had to acknowledge the vanity of these
+illusive dreams; and before his death, which took place on the
+16th of September 1394, he realized the impossibility of overcoming
+by brute force an opposition which was founded on the
+convictions of the greater part of Catholic Europe, and discerned
+among his adherents the germs of disaffection. By his vast
+expenditure, ascribable not only to his wars in Italy, his incessant
+embassies, and the necessity of defending himself in the Comtat
+Venaissin against the incursions of the adventurous Raymond
+of Turenne, but also to his luxurious tastes and princely habits,
+as well as by his persistent refusal to refer the question of the
+schism to a council, he incurred general reproach. Unity was
+the crying need; and men began to fasten upon him the responsibility
+of the hateful schism, not on the score of insincerity&mdash;which
+would have been very unjust,&mdash;but by reason of his
+obstinate persistence in the course he had chosen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See N. Valois, <i>La France el le grand schisme d&rsquo;occident</i> (Paris,
+1896).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(N. V.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VII. (Giulio de&rsquo; Medici), pope from 1523 to 1534,
+was the son of Giuliano de&rsquo; Medici, assassinated in the conspiracy
+of the Pazzi at Florence, and of a certain Fioretta, daughter of
+Antonia. Being left an orphan he was taken into his own house
+by Lorenzo the Magnificent and educated with his sons. In 1494
+Giulio went with them into exile; but, on Giovanni&rsquo;s restoration
+to power, returned to Florence, of which he was made
+archbishop by his cousin Pope Leo X., a special dispensation
+being granted on account of his illegitimate birth, followed by
+a formal declaration of the fact that his parents had been secretly
+married and that he was therefore legitimate. On the 23rd of
+September 1513 the pope conferred on him the title of cardinal
+and made him legate at Bologna. During the reign of the
+pleasure-loving Leo, Cardinal Giulio had practically the whole
+papal government in his hands and displayed all the qualities
+of a good administrator; and when, on the death of Adrian VI.&mdash;whose
+election he had done most to secure&mdash;he was chosen
+pope (Nov. 18, 1523), his accession was hailed as the dawn of a
+happier era. It soon became clear, however, that the qualities
+which had made Clement an excellent second in command were
+not equal to the exigencies of supreme power at a time of peculiar
+peril and difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>Though free from the grosser vices of his predecessors, a
+man of taste, and economical without being avaricious, Clement
+VII. was essentially a man of narrow outlook and interests.
+He failed to understand the great spiritual movement which
+was convulsing the Church; and instead of bending his mind
+to the problem of the Reformation, he from the first subordinated
+the cause of Catholicism and of the world to his interests as an
+Italian prince and a Medici. Even in these purely secular affairs,
+moreover, his timidity and indecision prevented him from
+pursuing a consistent policy; and his ill fortune, or his lack of
+judgment, placed him, as long as he had the power of choice,
+ever on the losing side.</p>
+
+<p>Clement&rsquo;s accession at once brought about a political change
+in favour of France; yet he was unable to take a strong line,
+and wavered between the emperor and Francis I., concluding
+a treaty of alliance with the French king, and then, when the
+crushing defeat of Pavia had shown him his mistake, making
+his peace with Charles (April 1, 1525), only to break it again
+by countenancing Girolamo Morone&rsquo;s League of Freedom, of
+which the aim was to assert the independence of Italy from
+foreign powers. On the betrayal of this conspiracy Clement
+made a fresh submission to the emperor, only to follow this, a
+year later, by the Holy League of Cognac with Francis I. (May
+22, 1526). Then followed the imperial invasion of Italy and
+Bourbon&rsquo;s sack of Rome (May 1527) which ended the Augustan
+age of the papal city in a horror of fire and blood. The pope
+himself was besieged in the castle of St Angelo, compelled on the
+6th of June to ransom himself with a payment of 400,000 scudi,
+and kept in confinement until, on the 26th of November, he
+accepted the emperor&rsquo;s terms, which besides money payments
+included the promise to convene a general council to deal with
+Lutheranism. On the 6th of December Clement escaped, before
+the day fixed for his liberation, to Orvieto, and at once set to
+work to establish peace. After the signature of the treaty of
+Cambrai on the 3rd of August 1529 Charles met Clement at
+Bologna and received from him the imperial crown and the iron
+crown of Lombardy. The pope was now restored to the greater
+part of his temporal power; but for some years it was exercised
+in subservience to the emperor. During this period Clement was
+mainly occupied in urging Charles to arrest the progress of the
+Reformation in Germany and in efforts to elude the emperor&rsquo;s
+demand for a general council, which Clement feared lest the
+question of the mode of his election and his legitimacy should
+be raised. It was due to his dependence on Charles V., rather
+than to any conscientious scruples, that Clement evaded Henry
+VIII.&rsquo;s demand for the nullification of his marriage with Catherine
+of Aragon, and so brought about the breach between England
+and Rome. Some time before his death, however, the dynastic
+interests of his family led him once more to a rapprochement
+with France. On the 9th of June 1531 an agreement was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span>
+signed for the marriage of Henry of Orleans with Catherine
+de&rsquo; Medici; but it was not till October 1533 that Clement met
+Francis at Marseilles, the wedding being celebrated on the 27th.
+Before, however, the new political alliance, thus cemented, could
+take effect, Clement died, on the 25th of September 1534.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Casanova, <i>Lettere di Carlo V. a Clemente VII.</i> (Florence,
+1893); Hugo Lämmer, <i>Monumenta Vaticana</i>, &amp;c (Freiburg, 1861);
+P. Balan, <i>Monumenta saeculi XVI. hist. illustr.</i> (Innsbruck, 1885);
+ib. <i>Mon. Reform. Luther</i> (Regensburg, 1884); Stefan Ehses, <i>Röm.
+Dokum. z. Gesch. der Ehescheidung Heinrichs VIII.</i> (Paderborn,
+1893); <i>Calendar of State Papers</i> (London, 1869, &amp;c.); J.J.I. von
+Döllinger, <i>Beiträge zur politischen, kirchlichen und Kulturgeschichte</i>
+(3 vols., Vienna, 1882); F. Guicciardini, <i>Istoria d&rsquo;Italia</i>; L. von
+Ranke, <i>Die römischen Päpste in den letzten vier Jahrhunderten</i>,
+and <i>Deutsche Gesch. im Zeitalter der Reformation</i>; W. Hellwig, <i>Die
+politischen Beziehungen Clements VII. zu Karl V., 1526</i> (Leipzig,
+1889); H. Baumgarten, <i>Gesch. Karls V.</i> (Stuttgart, 1888); F.
+Gregorovius, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i>, vol. viii. p. 414. (2nd ed.,
+1874); P. Balan, <i>Clemente VII. e l&rsquo; Italia de&rsquo; suoi tempi</i> (Milan, 1887);
+E. Armstrong, <i>Charles the Fifth</i> (2 vols., London, 1902); M.
+Creighton, <i>Hist. of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation</i>
+(London, 1882); and H.M. Vaughan, <i>The Medici Popes</i> (1908).
+Further references will be found in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyklopädie,
+s. Clemens VII</i>. See also <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>, vol. ii. chap. i.
+and bibliography.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VIII. (Aegidius Muñoz), antipope from 1425 to the
+26th of July 1429, was a canon at Barcelona until elected at
+Peñiscola by three cardinals whom the stubborn antipope
+Benedict XIII. had named on his death-bed. Clement was
+immediately recognized by Alphonso V. of Aragon, who was
+hostile to Pope Martin V. on account of the latter&rsquo;s opposition to
+his claims to the kingdom of Naples, but abdicated as soon as an
+agreement was reached between Alphonso and Martin through
+the exertions of Cardinal Pierre de Foix, an able diplomat and
+relation of the king&rsquo;s. Clement spent his last years as bishop of
+Majorca, and died on the 28th of December 1446.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See. L. Pastor, <i>History of the Popes</i>, vol. i. trans, by F.I. Antrobus
+(London, 1899); M. Creighton, <i>History of the Papacy</i>, vol. ii. (London,
+1899); and consult bibliography on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Martin V</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. HA.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope from 1592 to
+1605, was born at Fano, in 1535. He became a jurist and filled
+several important offices. In 1585 he was made a cardinal, and
+subsequently discharged a delicate mission to Poland with skill.
+His moderation and experience commended him to his fellow
+cardinals, and on the 30th of January 1592 he was elected pope, to
+succeed Innocent IX. While not hostile to Philip II., Clement
+desired to emancipate the papacy from undue Spanish influence,
+and to that end cultivated closer relations with France. In 1595
+he granted absolution to Henry IV., and so removed the last
+objection to the acknowledgment of his legitimacy. The peace of
+Vervins (1598), which marked the end of Philip&rsquo;s opposition to
+Henry, was mainly the work of the pope. Clement also entertained
+hopes of recovering England. He corresponded with
+James I. and with his queen, Anne of Denmark, a convert to
+Catholicism. But James was only half in earnest, and, besides,
+dared not risk a breach with his subjects. Upon the failure of
+the line of Este, Clement claimed the reversion of Ferrara and
+reincorporated it into the States of the Church (1598). He
+remonstrated against the exclusion of the Jesuits from France,
+and obtained their readmission. But in their doctrinal controversy
+with the Dominicans (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Molina, Luis</a></span>) he refrained from
+a decision, being unwilling to offend either party. Under Clement
+the publication of the revised edition of the Vulgate, begun by
+Sixtus V., was finished; the Breviary, Missal and Pontifical
+received certain corrections; the Index was expanded; the
+Vatican library enlarged; and the Collegium Clementinum
+founded. Clement was an unblushing nepotist; three of his
+nephews he made cardinals, and to one of them gradually
+surrendered the control of affairs. But on the other hand among
+those whom he promoted to the cardinalate were such men
+as Baronius, Bellarmine and Toledo. During this pontificate
+occurred the burning of Giordano Bruno for heresy; and the
+tragedy of the Cenci (see the respective articles). Clement died
+on the 5th of March 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XI.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the contemporary life by Ciaconius, <i>Vitae et res gestae summorum
+Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, 1601-1602); Francolini, <i>Ippolito
+Aldobrandini, che fu Clemente VIII.</i> (Perugia, 1867); Ranke&rsquo;s
+excellent sketch, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans. Austin), ii. 234 seq.; v. Reumont,
+<i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom</i>, iii. 2, 599 seq.; Brosch, <i>Gesch. des Kirchenstaates</i>
+(1880), i. 301 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi) was born in 1600, became
+successively auditor of the Rota, archbishop of Tarsus <i>in partibus</i>,
+and cardinal, and was elected pope on the 20th of June 1667.
+He effected a temporary adjustment of the Jansenist controversy;
+was instrumental in concluding the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle
+(1668); healed a long-standing breach between the
+Holy See and Portugal; aided Venice against the Turks, and
+laboured unceasingly for the relief of Crete, the fall of which
+hastened his death on the 9th of October 1669.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Oldoin, continuator of Ciaconius, <i>Vitae et res gestae summorum
+Pontiff. Rom.</i>; Palazzi, <i>Gesta Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Venice, 1687-1688),
+iv. 621 seq. (both contemporary); Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans.
+Austin), iii. 59 seq.; and v. Reumont, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom</i>, iii. 2,
+634 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> X. (Emilio Altieri) was born in Rome, on the 13th of
+July 1590. Before becoming pope, on the 29th of April 1670 he
+had been auditor in Poland, governor of Ancona, and nuncio in
+Naples. His advanced age induced him to resign the control of
+affairs to his adopted nephew, Cardinal Paluzzi, who embroiled
+the papacy in disputes with the resident ambassadors, and
+incurred the enmity of Louis XIV., thus provoking the long
+controversy over the regalia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Innocent XI</a></span>.). Clement died
+on the 22nd of July 1676.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Guarnacci, <i>Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, 1751),
+(contin. of Ciaconius), i. 1 seq.; Palazzi, <i>Gesta Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Venice,
+1687-1688), iv. 655 seq.; and Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng. trans. Austin),
+iii. 172 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> XI (Giovanni Francesco Albani), pope from 1700 to
+1721, was born in Urbino, on the 22nd of July 1649, received
+an extraordinary education in letters, theology and law, filled
+various important offices in the Curia, and finally, on the 23rd of
+November 1700, succeeded Innocent XII. as pope. His private
+life and his administration were blameless, but it was his misfortune
+to reign in troublous times. In the war of the Spanish
+Succession he would willingly have remained neutral, but found
+himself between two fires, forced first to recognize Philip V., then
+driven by the emperor to recognize the Archduke Charles. In
+the peace of Utrecht he was ignored; Sardinia and Sicily, Parma
+and Piacenza, were disposed of without regard to papal claims.
+When he quarrelled with the duke of Savoy, and revoked his
+investiture rights in Sicily (1715), his interdict was treated with
+contempt. The prestige of the papacy had hardly been lower
+within two centuries. About 1702 the Jansenist controversy
+broke out afresh. Clement reaffirmed the infallibility of the pope,
+in matters of <i>fact</i> (1705), and, in 1713, issued the bull <i>Unigenitus</i>,
+condemning 101 Jansenistic propositions extracted from the
+<i>Moral Reflections</i> of Pasquier Quesnel. The rejection of this bull
+by certain bishops led to a new party division and a further
+prolonging of the controversy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jansenism</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Quesnel,
+Pasquier</a></span>). Clement also forbade the practice of the Jesuit
+missionaries in China of &ldquo;accommodating&rdquo; their teachings to
+pagan notions or customs, in order to win converts. Clement was
+a polished writer, and a generous patron of art and letters. He
+died on the 19th of March 1721.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For contemporary lives see Elci, <i>The Present State of the Court of
+Rome</i>, trans, from the Ital. (London, 1706); Polidoro, <i>De Vita et
+Reb. Gest. Clem. XI.</i> (Urbino, 1727); Reboulet, <i>Hist. de Clem. XI.
+Pape</i> (Avignon, 1752); Guarnacci, <i>Vitae et res gest. Pontiff. Rom.</i>
+(Rome, 1751); Sandini, <i>Vitae Pontiff Rom.</i> (Padua, 1739); Buder,
+<i>Leben u. Thaten Clementis XI.</i> (Frankfort, 1720-1721). See also
+<i>Clementis XI. Opera Omnia</i> (Frankfort, 1729); the detailed
+&ldquo;Studii sul pontificato di Clem. XI.,&rdquo; by Pometti in the <i>Archivio
+della R. Soc. romana di storia patria</i>, vols. 21, 22, 23 (1898-1900),
+and the extended bibliography in Hergenröther, <i>Allg. Kirchengesch.</i>
+(1880), iii. 506.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> XII. (Lorenzo Corsini), pope from 1730 to 1740,
+succeeded Benedict XIII. on the 12th of July 1730, at the age of
+seventy-eight. The rascally Cardinal Coscia, who had deluded
+Benedict, was at once brought to justice and forced to disgorge
+his dishonest gains. Politically the papacy had sunk to the
+level of pitiful helplessness, unable to resist the aggressions of
+the Powers, who ignored or coerced it at will. Yet Clement
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span>
+entertained high hopes for Catholicism; he laboured for a union
+with the Greek Church, and was ready to facilitate the return of
+the Protestants of Saxony. He deserves well of posterity for his
+services to learning and art; the restoration of the Arch of
+Constantine; the enrichment of the Capitoline museum with
+antique marbles and inscriptions, and of the Vatican library With
+oriental manuscripts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assemani</a></span>); and the embellishment of
+the city with many buildings. He died on the 6th of February
+1740, and was succeeded by Benedict XIV.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Guarnacci, <i>Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Rome, 1751);
+Sandini, <i>Vitae Pontiff. Rom.</i> (Padua, 1739); Fabroni, <i>De Vita
+et Reb. Gest. Clementis XII</i>. (Rome, 1760); Ranke, <i>Popes</i> (Eng.
+trans. Austin), iii. 191 seq.; v. Reumont, <i>Gesch. der Stadt Rom</i>, iii.
+2, 653 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> XIII. (Carlo della Torre Rezzonico), pope from
+1758 to 1769, was born in Venice, on the 7th of March 1693,
+filled various important posts in the Curia, became cardinal in
+1737, bishop of Padua in 1743, and succeeded Benedict XIV.
+as pope on the 6th of July 1758. He was a man of upright,
+moderate and pacific intentions, but his pontificate of eleven
+years was anything but tranquil. The Jesuits had fallen upon
+evil days; in 1758 Pombal expelled them from Portugal; his
+example was followed by the Bourbon countries&mdash;France, Spain,
+the Two Sicilies and Parma (1764-1768). The order turned
+to the pope as its natural protector; but his protests (cf. the
+bull <i>Apostolicum pascendi munus</i>, 7th of January 1765) were
+unheeded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jesuits</a></span>). A clash with Parma occurred to aggravate
+his troubles. The Bourbon kings espoused their relative&rsquo;s
+quarrel, seized Avignon, Benevento and Ponte Corvo, and
+united in a peremptory demand for the suppression of the
+Jesuits (January 1769). Driven to extremities, Clement consented
+to call a Consistory to consider the step, but on the very
+eve of the day set for its meeting he died (2nd of February 1769),
+not without suspicion of poison, of which, however, there appears
+to be no conclusive evidence.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A contemporary account of Clement was written by Augustin de
+Andrès y Sobiñas, ... <i>el nacimiento, estudios y empleos de ... Clem.
+XIII</i>. (Madrid, 1759). Ravignan&rsquo;s <i>Clement XIII. e Clement XIV.</i>
+(Paris, 1854) is partisan but free from rancour; and appends many
+interesting documents. See also the bibliographical note under
+Clement XIV. <i>infra</i>.; and the extended bibliography in Hergenröther,
+<i>Allg. Kirchengesch.</i> (1880), iii. 509.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Clement</span> XIV. (Lorenzo Ganganelli), pope from 1769 to 1774,
+son of a physician of St Arcangelo, near Rimini, was born on
+the 31st of October 1705, entered the Franciscan order at the
+age of seventeen, and became a teacher of theology and philosophy.
+As regent of the college of S. Bonaventura, Rome, he
+came under the notice of Benedict XIV., who conceived a
+high opinion of his talents and made him consulter of the Inquisition.
+Upon the recommendation of Ricci, general of the Jesuits,
+Clement XIII. made him a cardinal; but, owing to his disapproval
+of the pope&rsquo;s policy, he found himself out of favour
+and without influence. The conclave following the death of
+Clement XIII. was the most momentous of at least two centuries.
+The fate of the Jesuits hung in the balance; and the Bourbon
+princes were determined to have a pope subservient to their
+hostile designs. The struggle was prolonged three months.
+At length, on the 19th of May 1769, Ganganelli was chosen, not
+as a declared enemy of the Jesuits, but as being least objectionable
+to each of the contending factions. The charge of simony
+was inspired by Jesuit hatred; there is absolutely no evidence
+that Ganganelli pledged himself to suppress the order.</p>
+
+<p>The outlook for the papacy was dark; Portugal was talking
+of a patriarchate; France held Avignon; Naples held Ponte
+Corvo and Benevento; Spain was ill-affected; Parma, defiant;
+Venice, aggressive; Poland meditating a restriction of the
+rights of the nuncio. Clement realized the imperative necessity
+of conciliating the powers. He suspended the public reading
+of the bull <i>In Coena Domini</i>, so obnoxious to civil authority;
+resumed relations with Portugal; revoked the <i>monitorium</i> of
+his predecessor against Parma. But the powers were bent upon
+the destruction of the Jesuits, and they had the pope at their
+mercy. Clement looked abroad for help, but found none. Even
+Maria Theresa, his last hope, suppressed the order in Austria.
+Temporizing and partial concessions were of no avail. At last,
+convinced that the peace of the Church demanded the sacrifice,
+Clement signed the brief <i>Dominus ac Redemptor</i>, dissolving the
+order, on the 21st of July 1773. The powers at once gave
+substantial proof of their satisfaction; Benevento, Ponte Corvo,
+Avignon and the Venaissin were restored to the Holy See.
+But it would be unfair to accept this as evidence of a bargain.
+Clement had formerly indignantly rejected the suggestion of
+such an exchange of favours.</p>
+
+<p>There is no question of the legality of the pope&rsquo;s act; whether
+he was morally culpable, however, continues to be a matter of
+bitter controversy. On the one hand, the suppression is denounced
+as a base surrender to the forces of tyranny and irreligion,
+an act of treason to conscience, which reaped its just punishment
+of remorse; on the other hand, it is as ardently maintained
+that Clement acted in full accord with his conscience, and that
+the order merited its fate by its own mischievous activities
+which made it an offence to religion and authority alike. But
+whatever the guilt or innocence of the Jesuits, and whether their
+suppression were ill-advised or not, there appears to be no
+ground for impeaching the motives of Clement, or of doubting
+that he had the approval of his conscience. The stories of his
+having swooned after signing the brief, and of having lost hope
+and even reason, are too absurd to be entertained. The decline
+in health, which set in shortly after the suppression, and his
+death (on the 22nd of September 1774) proceeded from wholly
+natural causes. The testimony of his physician and of his
+confessor ought to be sufficient to discredit the oft-repeated
+story of slow poisoning (see Duhr, <i>Jesuiten Fabeln</i>, 4th ed.,
+1904, pp. 69 seq.).</p>
+
+<p>The suppression of the Jesuits bulks so large in the pontificate
+of Clement that he has scarcely been given due credit for his
+praiseworthy attempt to reduce the burdens of taxation and to
+reform the financial administration, nor for his liberal encouragement
+of art and learning, of which the museum Pio-Clementino
+is a lasting monument.</p>
+
+<p>No pope has been the subject of more diverse judgments than
+Clement XIV. Zealous defenders credit him with all virtues,
+and bless him as the instrument divinely ordained to restore the
+peace of the Church; virulent detractors charge him with
+ingratitude, cowardice and double-dealing. The truth is at neither
+extreme. Clement&rsquo;s was a deeply religious and poetical nature,
+animated by a lofty and refined spirit. Gentleness, equanimity
+and benevolence were native to him. He cherished high purposes
+and obeyed a lively conscience. But he instinctively shrank
+from conflict; he lacked the resoluteness and the sterner sort
+of courage that grapples with a crisis.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Caraccioli&rsquo;s <i>Vie de Clément XIV</i> (Paris, 1775) (freq. translated),
+is incomplete, uncritical and too laudatory. The middle of the
+19th century saw quite a spirited controversy over Clement XIV.;
+St Priest, in his <i>Hist. de la chute des Jésuites</i> (Paris, 1846),
+represented Clement as lamentably, almost culpably, weak; Cretineau-Joly,
+in his <i>Hist. ... de la Comp. de Jésus</i> (Paris, 1844-1845), and his
+<i>Clément XIV et les Jésuites</i> (Paris, 1847), was outspoken and bitter
+in his condemnation; this provoked Theiner&rsquo;s <i>Gesch. des Pontificats
+Clemens&rsquo; XIV.</i> (Leipzig and Paris, 1852), a vigorous defence based
+upon original documents to which, as custodian of the Vatican
+archives, the author had freest access; Cretineau-Joly replied with
+<i>Le Pape Clément XIV; Lettres au P. Theiner</i> (Paris, 1852).
+Ravignan&rsquo;s <i>Clem. XIII. e Clem. XIV.</i> (Paris, 1854) is a weak,
+half-hearted apology for Clement XIV. See also v. Reumont, <i>Ganganelli,
+Papst Clemens XIV.</i> (Berlin, 1847); and Reinerding, <i>Clemens XIV.
+u. d. Aufhebung der Gesellschaft Jesu</i> (Augsburg, 1854). The letters
+of Clement have frequently been printed; the genuineness of
+Caraccioli&rsquo;s collection (Paris, 1776; freq. translated) has been
+questioned, but most of the letters are now generally accepted
+as genuine; see also <i>Clementis XIV. Epp. ac Brevia</i>, ed. Theiner
+(Paris, 1852). An extended bibliography is to be found in Hergenröther,
+<i>Allg. Kirchengesch.</i> (1880), iii. 510 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. F. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (<i>Clemens Alexandrinus</i>), Greek
+Father of the Church. The little we know of him is mainly
+derived from his own works. He was probably born about <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+150 of heathen parents in Athens. The earliest writer after
+himself who gives us any information with regard to him is
+Eusebius. The only points on which his works now extant
+inform us are his date and his instructors. In the <i>Stromateis</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span>
+while attempting to show that the Jewish Scriptures were older
+than any writings of the Greeks, he invariably brings down his
+dates to the death of Commodus, a circumstance which at once
+suggests that he wrote in the reign of the emperor Severus, from
+193 to 211 <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (see <i>Strom.</i> lib. i. cap. xxi. 140, p. 403, Potter&rsquo;s
+edition). The passage in regard to his teachers is corrupt, and
+the sense is therefore doubtful (<i>Strom.</i> lib. i. cap. i. 11, p. 322, P.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;This treatise,&rdquo; he says, speaking of the <i>Stromateis</i>, &ldquo;has not
+been contrived for mere display, but memoranda are treasured up
+in it for my old age to be a remedy for forgetfulness,&mdash;an image, truly,
+and an outline of those clear and living discourses, and those men
+truly blessed and noteworthy I was privileged to hear. One of these
+was in Greece, the Ionian, the other was in Magna Graecia; the one
+of them was from Coele Syria, the other from Egypt; but there were
+others in the East, one of whom belonged to the Assyrians, but
+the other was in Palestine, originally a Jew. The last of those
+whom I met was first in power. On falling in with him I found
+rest, having tracked him while he lay concealed in Egypt. He
+was in truth the Sicilian bee, and, plucking the flowers of the
+prophetic and apostolic meadow, he produced a wonderfully pure
+knowledge in the souls of the listeners.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Some have supposed that in this passage seven teachers are
+named, others that there are only five, and various conjectures
+have been hazarded as to what persons were meant. The only
+one about whom conjecture has any basis for speculating is the
+last, for Eusebius states (<i>H.E.</i> v. 11) that Clement made mention
+of Pantaenus as his teacher in the <i>Hypotyposes</i>. The reference
+in this passage is plainly to one whom he might well designate as
+his teacher.</p>
+
+<p>To the information which Clement here supplies subsequent
+writers add little. By Eusebius and Photius he is called Titus
+Flavius Clemens, and &ldquo;the Alexandrian&rdquo; is added to his name.
+Epiphanius tells us that some said Clement was an Alexandrian,
+others that he was an Athenian (<i>Haer.</i> xxxii. 6), and a modern
+writer imagined that he reconciled this discordance by the
+supposition that he was born at Athens, but lived at Alexandria.
+We know nothing of his conversion except that he passed from
+heathenism to Christianity. This is expressly stated by Eusebius
+(<i>Praep. Evangel.</i> lib. ii. cap. 2), though it is likely that Eusebius
+had no other authority than the works of Clement. These works,
+however, warrant the inference. They show a singularly minute
+acquaintance with the ceremonies of pagan religion, and there
+are indications that Clement himself had been initiated in some
+of the mysteries (<i>Protrept.</i> cap. ii. sec. 14, p. 13, P.). There is
+no means of determining the date of his conversion. He attained
+the position of presbyter in the church of Alexandria (Eus.
+<i>H.E.</i> vi. 11, and Jerome, <i>De Vir. Ill.</i> 38), and became perhaps
+the assistant, and certainly the successor of Pantaenus in the
+catechetical school of that place. Among his pupils were Origen
+(Eus. <i>H.E.</i> vi. 7) and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem (Eus. <i>H.E.</i>
+vi. 14.). How long he continued in Alexandria, and when and
+where he died, are all matters of pure conjecture. The only
+further notice of Clement that we have in history is in a letter
+written in 211 by Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem, to the
+Antiochians, and preserved by Eusebius (<i>H.E.</i> vi. 11). The
+words are as follows:&mdash;&ldquo;This letter I sent through Clement
+the blessed presbyter, a man virtuous and tried, whom ye know
+and will come to know completely, who being here by the
+providence and guidance of the Ruler of all strengthened and
+increased the church of the Lord.&rdquo; A statement of Eusebius in
+regard to the persecution of Severus in 202 (<i>H.E.</i> vi. 3) would
+render it likely that Clement left Alexandria on that occasion.
+It is conjectured that he went to his old pupil Alexander, who was
+at that time bishop of Flaviada in Cappadocia, and that when his
+pupil was raised to the see of Jerusalem Clement followed him
+there. The letter implies that he was known to the Antiochians,
+and that it was likely he would be still better known. Some
+have conjectured that he returned to Alexandria, but there is not
+the shadow of evidence for such conjecture. Alexander, writing
+to Origen (c. 216), mentions Clement as dead (Eus. <i>H.E.</i> vi. 14, 9).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Eusebius and Jerome give us lists of the works which Clement
+left behind him. Photius has also described some of them. They
+are as follows:&mdash;(1) <span class="grk" title="Pros Hellênas logos o protreptikos">
+&#928;&#961;&#8056;&#962; &#904;&#955;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#945;&#962; &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962; &#8001; &#960;&#961;&#959;&#964;&#961;&#949;&#960;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#962;</span>, <i>A Hortatory
+Address to the Greeks</i>. (2) <span class="grk" title="O Paidagogos">
+&#908; &#928;&#945;&#953;&#948;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#972;&#962;</span>, <i>The Tutor</i>, in three books.
+(3) <span class="grk" title="Stromateis">&#931;&#964;&#961;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span>, or <i>Patch-work</i>, in eight books. (4) <span class="grk" title="Tis o sozomenos plousios">
+&#932;&#7984;&#962; &#8056; &#963;&#969;&#958;&#8000;&#956;&#949;&#957;&#959;&#962; &#960;&#955;&#959;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span>; <i>Who is the Rich Man that is Saved?</i> (5) Eight books of
+<span class="grk" title="Hypotyposeis">&#910;&#960;&#959;&#964;&#965;&#960;&#974;&#963;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span>, <i>Adumbrations or Outlines.</i> (6) <i>On the Passover.</i> (7) <i>Discourses
+on Fasting.</i> (8) <i>On Slander.</i> (9) <i>Exhortation to Patience, or
+to the Newly Baptized.</i> (10) The <span class="grk" title="Kanon ekklêsiastikos">&#922;&#945;&#957;&#8060;&#957; &#7952;&#954;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, the <i>Rule of
+the Church, or to those who Judaize</i>, a work dedicated to Alexander,
+bishop of Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>Of these, the first four have come down to us complete, or nearly
+complete. The first three form together a progressive introduction
+to Christianity corresponding to the stages through which the
+<span class="grk" title="mystês">&#956;&#8016;&#963;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span> passed at Eleusis&mdash;purification, initiation, revelation. The
+<i>Hortatory Address to the Greeks</i> is an appeal to them to give up the
+worship of their gods, and to devote themselves to the worship of the
+one living and true God. Clement exhibits the absurdity and immorality
+of the stories told with regard to the pagan deities, the cruelties
+perpetrated in their worship, and the utter uselessness of bowing
+down before images made by hands. He at the same time shows
+the Greeks that their own greatest philosophers and poets recognized
+the unity of the divine Being, and had caught glimpses of the true
+nature of God, but that fuller light had been thrown on this subject
+by the Hebrew prophets. He replies to the objection that it was
+not right to abandon the customs of their forefathers, and points
+them to Christ as their only safe guide to God.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Paedagogue</i> is divided into three books. In the first Clement
+discusses the necessity for and the true nature of the Paedagogus,
+and shows how Christ as the Logos acted as Paedagogus, and still
+acts. In the second and third books Clement enters into particulars,
+and explains how the Christian following the Logos or Reason ought
+to behave in the various circumstances of life&mdash;in eating, drinking,
+furnishing a house, in dress, in the relations of social life, in the care
+of the body, and similar concerns, and concludes with a general
+description of the life of a Christian. Appended to the <i>Paedagogue</i>
+are two hymns, which are, in all probability, the production of
+Clement, though some have conjectured that they were portions
+of the church service of that time. <span class="grk" title="stromateis">&#963;&#964;&#961;&#969;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span> were bags in which
+bedclothes (<span class="grk" title="stromata">&#963;&#964;&#961;&#974;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>) were kept. The phrase was used as a book-title
+by Origen and others, and is equivalent to our &ldquo;miscellanies.&rdquo;
+It is difficult to give a brief account of the varied contents of the
+book. Sometimes Clement discusses chronology, sometimes philosophy,
+sometimes poetry, entering into the most minute critical
+and chronological details; but one object runs through all, and
+this is to show what the true Christian Gnostic is, and what is his
+relation to philosophy. The work was in eight books. The first
+seven are complete. The eighth now extant is really an incomplete
+treatise on logic. Some critics have rejected this book as spurious,
+since its matter is so different from that of the rest. Others, however,
+have held to its genuineness, because in a Patch-work or Book of
+Miscellanies the difference of subject is no sound objection, and
+because Photius seems to have regarded our present eighth book as
+genuine (Phot. cod. iii. p. 89b, Bekker).</p>
+
+<p>The treatise <i>Who is the Rich Man that is Saved?</i> is an admirable
+exposition of the narrative contained in St Mark&rsquo;s Gospel x. 17-31.
+Here Clement argues that wealth, if rightly used, is not unchristian.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Hypotyposes</i><a name="FnAnchor_1q" id="FnAnchor_1q" href="#Footnote_1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in eight books, have not come down to us.
+Cassiodorus translated them into Latin, freely altering to suit his
+own ideas of orthodoxy. Both Eusebius and Photius describe the
+work. It was a short commentary on all the books of Scripture,
+including some of the apocryphal works, such as the Epistle of
+Barnabas and the Revelation of Peter. Photius speaks in strong
+language of the impiety of some opinions in the book (<i>Bibl.</i> cod. 109,
+p. 89 a Bekker), but his statements are such as to prove conclusively
+that he must have had a corrupt copy, or read very carelessly, or
+grossly misunderstood Clement. Notes in Latin on the first epistle
+of Peter, the epistle of Jude, and the first two of John have come
+down to us; but whether they are the translation of Cassiodorus,
+or indeed a translation of Clement&rsquo;s work at all, is a matter of
+dispute.</p>
+
+<p>The treatise on the Passover was occasioned by a work of Melito
+on the same subject. Two fragments of this treatise were given by
+Petavius, and are contained in the modern editions.</p>
+
+<p>We know nothing of the work called <i>The Ecclesiastical Canon</i>
+from any external testimony. Clement himself often mentions the
+<span class="grk" title="ekklêsiastikos kanon">&#7952;&#954;&#954;&#955;&#951;&#963;&#953;&#945;&#963;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>, and defines it as the agreement and harmony
+of the law and the prophets with the covenant delivered at the
+appearance of Christ (<i>Strom.</i> vi. cap. xv. 125, p. 803, P.). No doubt
+this was the subject of the treatise. Jerome and Photius call the
+work <i>Ecclesiastical Canons</i>, but this seems to be a mistake.</p>
+
+<p>Of the other treatises mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome nothing
+is known. A fragment of Clement, quoted by Antonius Melissa, is
+most probably taken from the treatise on slander.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the treatises mentioned by Eusebius, fragments of treatises
+on Providence and the Soul have been preserved. Mention is also
+made of a work by Clement on the Prophet Amos, and another on
+Definitions.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to these Clement often speaks of his intention to
+write on certain subjects, but it may well be doubted whether in
+most cases, if not all, he intended to devote separate treatises to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span>
+them. Some have found an allusion to the treatise on the Soul
+already mentioned. The other subjects are Marriage (<span class="grk" title="gamikos logos">&#947;&#945;&#956;&#953;&#954;&#8056;&#962; &#955;&#972;&#947;&#959;&#962;</span>),
+Continence, the Duties of Bishops, Presbyters, Deacons and Widows,
+Prophecy, the Soul, the Transmigration of the Soul and the Devil,
+Angels, the Origin of the World, First Principles and the Divinity of
+the Logos, Allegorical Interpretations of Statements made with
+regard to God&rsquo;s anger and similar affections, the Unity of the Church,
+and the Resurrection.</p>
+
+<p>Two works are incorporated in the editions of Clement which
+are not mentioned by himself or any ancient writer. They are
+<span class="grk" title="Ek tôn Theodoton kai tês anatolikês kaloumenês didaskalias kata tous Oualentinou chronous epitomai">
+&#904;&#954; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#920;&#949;&#959;&#948;&#972;&#964;&#959;&#965; &#954;&#945;&#8055; &#964;&#7974;&#962;
+&#7936;&#957;&#945;&#964;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#954;&#7974;&#962; &#954;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#965;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#962; &#948;&#953;&#948;&#945;&#963;&#954;&#945;&#955;&#943;&#945;&#962;
+&#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#964;&#959;&#8058;&#962;
+&#927;&#8016;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#957;&#964;&#943;&#957;&#959;&#965; &#967;&#961;&#972;&#957;&#959;&#965;&#962; &#7952;&#960;&#953;&#964;&#959;&#956;&#945;&#943;</span>, and <span class="grk" title="Ek tôn prophêtikôn eklogai">
+&#904;&#954; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#960;&#961;&#959;&#966;&#951;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#8182;&#957; &#7952;&#954;&#955;&#959;&#947;&#945;&#7984;</span>. The
+first, if it is the work of Clement, must be a book merely of
+excerpts, for it contains many opinions which Clement opposed.
+Mention is made of Pantaenus in the second, and some have thought
+it more worthy of him than the first. Others have regarded it as
+a work similar to the first, and derived from Theodorus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Clement occupies a profoundly interesting position in the
+history of Christianity. He is the first to bring all the culture
+of the Greeks and all the speculations of the Christian heretics
+to bear on the exposition of Christian truth. He does not attain
+to a systematic exhibition of Christian doctrine, but he paves the
+way for it, and lays the first stones of the foundation. In some
+respects Justin anticipated him. He also was well acquainted
+with Greek philosophy, and took a genial view of it; but he was
+not nearly so widely read as Clement. The list of Greek authors
+whom Clement has quoted occupies upwards of fourteen of the
+quarto pages in Fabricius&rsquo;s <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i>. He is at home
+alike in the epic and the lyric, the tragic and the comic poets, and
+his knowledge of the prose writers is very extensive. Some,
+however, of the classic poets he appears to have known only
+from anthologies; hence he was misled into quoting as from
+Euripides and others verses which were written by Jewish
+forgers. He made a special study of the philosophers. Equally
+minute is his knowledge of the systems of the Christian heretics.
+And in all cases it is plain that he not merely read but thought
+deeply on the questions which the civilization of the Greeks and
+the various writings of poets, philosophers and heretics raised.
+But it was in the Scriptures that he found his greatest delight.
+He believed them to contain the revelation of God&rsquo;s wisdom to
+men. He quotes all the books of the Old Testament except
+Ruth and the Song of Solomon, and amongst the sacred writings
+of the Old Testament he evidently included the book of Tobit,
+the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus. He is equally full
+in his quotations from the New Testament, for he quotes from all
+the books except the epistle to Philemon, the second epistle
+of St Peter, and the epistle of St James, and he quotes from
+<i>The Shepherd of Hermas</i>, and the epistles of Clemens Romanus
+and of Barnabas, as inspired. He appeals also to many of the
+lost gospels, such as those of the Hebrews, of the Egyptians and
+of Matthias.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding this adequate knowledge of Scripture, the
+modern theologian is disappointed to find very little of what he
+deems characteristically Christian. In fact Clement regarded
+Christianity as a philosophy. The ancient philosophers sought
+through their philosophy to attain to a nobler and holier life,
+and this also was the aim of Christianity. The difference between
+the two, in Clement&rsquo;s judgment, was that the Greek philosophers
+had only glimpses of the truth, that they attained only to
+fragments of the truth, while Christianity revealed in Christ
+the absolute and perfect truth. All the stages of the world&rsquo;s
+history were therefore preparations leading up to this full
+revelation, and God&rsquo;s care was not confined to the Hebrews
+alone. The worship of the heavenly bodies, for instance, was
+given to man at an early stage that he might rise from a
+contemplation of these sublime objects to the worship of the Creator.
+Greek philosophy in particular was the preparation of the Greeks
+for Christ. It was the schoolmaster or paedagogue to lead them
+to Christ. Plato was Moses atticizing. Clement varies in his
+statement how Plato got his wisdom or his fragments of the
+Reason. Sometimes he thinks that they came direct from God,
+like all good things, but he is also fond of maintaining that
+many of Plato&rsquo;s best thoughts were borrowed from the Hebrew
+prophets; and he makes the same statement in regard to the
+wisdom of the other philosophers. But however this may be,
+Christ was the end to which all that was true in philosophies
+pointed. Christ himself was the Logos, the Reason. God the
+Father was ineffable. The Son alone can manifest Him fully.
+He is the Reason that pervades the universe, that brings out all
+goodness, that guides all good men. It was through possessing
+somewhat of this Reason that the philosophers attained to any
+truth and goodness; but in Christians he dwells more fully and
+guides them through all the perplexities of life. Photius, probably
+on a careless reading of Clement, argued that he could not
+have believed in a real incarnation. But the words of Clement
+are quite precise and their meaning indisputable. The real
+difficulty attaches not to the Second Person, but to the First.
+The Father in Clement&rsquo;s mind becomes the Absolute of the
+philosophers, that is to say, not the Father at all, but the Monad,
+a mere point devoid of all attributes. He believed in a personal
+Son of God who was the Reason and Wisdom of God; and he
+believed that this Son of God really became incarnate though he
+speaks of him almost invariably as the Word, and attaches
+little value to his human nature. The object of his incarnation
+and death was to free man from his sins, to lead him into the path
+of wisdom, and thus in the end elevate him to the position of a
+god. But man&rsquo;s salvation was to be gradual. It began with
+faith, passed from that to love, and ended in full and complete
+knowledge. There could be no faith without knowledge. But
+the knowledge is imperfect, and the Christian was to do many
+things in simple obedience without knowing the reason. But
+he has to move upwards continually until he at length does
+nothing that is evil, and he knows fully the reason and object
+of what he does. He thus becomes the true Gnostic, but he can
+become the true Gnostic only by contemplation and by the
+practice of what is right. He has to free himself from the power
+of passion. He has to give up all thoughts of pleasure. He must
+prefer goodness in the midst of torture to evil with unlimited
+pleasure. He has to resist the temptations of the body, keeping
+it under strict control, and with the eye of the soul undimmed by
+corporeal wants and impulses, contemplate God the supreme
+good, and live a life according to reason. In other words, he
+must strive after likeness to God as he reveals himself in his
+Reason or in Christ. Clement thus looks entirely at the enlightened
+moral elevation to which Christianity raises man. He
+believed that Christ instructed men before he came into the
+world, and he therefore viewed heathenism with kindly eye.
+He was also favourable to the pursuit of all kinds of knowledge.
+All enlightenment tended to lead up to the truths of Christianity,
+and hence knowledge of every kind not evil was its handmaid.
+Clement had at the same time a strong belief in evolution or
+development. The world went through various stages in preparation
+for Christianity. The man goes through various stages
+before he can reach Christian perfection. And Clement conceived
+that this development took place not merely in this life, but in
+the future through successive grades. The Jew and the heathen
+had the gospel preached to them in the world below by Christ
+and his apostles, and Christians will have to pass through processes
+of purification and trial after death before they reach
+knowledge and perfect bliss.</p>
+
+<p>The beliefs of Clement have caused considerable difference
+of opinion among modern scholars. He sought the truth from
+whatever quarter he could get it, believing that all that is good
+comes from God, wherever it be found. He belongs therefore
+to no school of philosophers. He calls himself an Eclectic.
+He was in the main a Neoplatonist, drawing from that school
+his doctrines of the Monad and his strong tendency towards
+mysticism. For his moral doctrine he borrowed freely from
+Stoicism. Aristotelian features may be found but are quite
+subordinate. But Clement always regards the articles of the
+Christian creed as the axioms of a new philosophy. Daehne
+had tried to show that he was Neoplatonic, and Reinkens has
+maintained that he was essentially Aristotelian. His mode of
+viewing Christianity does not fit into any classification. It
+is the result of the period in which he lived, of his wide culture
+and the simplicity and noble purity of his character.</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to say that his books well deserve study; but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span>
+the study is not smoothed by simplicity of style. Clement
+professed to despise rhetoric, but was himself a rhetorician, and
+his style is turgid, involved and difficult. He is singularly
+simple in his character. In discussing marriage he refuses to
+use any but the plainest language. A euphemism is with him
+a falsehood. But he is temperate in his opinions; and the
+practical advices in the second and third books of the <i>Paedagogue</i>
+are remarkably sound and moderate. He is not always very
+critical, and he is passionately fond of allegorical interpretations,
+but these were the faults of his age.</p>
+
+<p>All early writers speak of Clement in the highest terms of
+laudation, and he certainly ought to have been a saint in any
+Church that reveres saints. But Clement is not a saint in the
+Roman Church. He was a saint up till the time of Benedict
+XIV., who read Photius on Clement, believed him, and struck
+the Alexandrian&rsquo;s name out of the calendar. But many Roman
+Catholic writers, though they yield a practical obedience to the
+papal decision, have adduced good reason why it should be
+reversed (Cognat, p. 451).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Editions</span>.&mdash;The standard edition of the collected works will be
+that of O. Stählin (first vol. containing <i>Protrepticus</i> and <i>Paedagogus</i>,
+Leipzig, 1905). Separate editions of <i>Strom</i>. vii., Hort and Major
+(1902); <i>Q.D.S.</i>, Barnard in <i>Texts and Studies</i>, v. 2 (1897); W.
+Dindorf&rsquo;s edition in 4 vols. (Oxford, 1869) is little more than a
+reprint of the text of Bishop Potter, 1715. For the <i>Fragments</i>
+see Zahn, <i>Forschungen zur Gesch. des neut. Kanons</i>, part iii., or
+Harnack and Preuschen, <i>Gesch. der altch. Litt.</i>, vol. i.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;A copious bibliography will be found in Harnack,
+<i>Chronologie</i>, vol. ii., or in Bardenhewer, <i>Gesch. der altk. Lit.</i> Either
+of these will supply the names of works upon Clement&rsquo;s biblical text,
+his use of Stoic writers, his quotations from heathen writers, and his
+relation to heathen philosophy. A valuable book is de Faye, <i>Clém.
+d&rsquo;Alex</i>. (1898). For his theological position see Harnack, <i>Dogmengeschichte</i>;
+Hort, <i>Six Lectures on the Ante-Nicene Fathers</i>; Westcott,
+&ldquo;Clem, of Alex.&rdquo; in <i>Dict. Christ. Biog.</i>; Bigg, <i>Christian Platonists
+of Alex.</i> (1886). A book on Clement&rsquo;s relation to Mysticism is
+wanted.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. Bi.; J. D.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1q" id="Footnote_1q" href="#FnAnchor_1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Zahn thinks we have part of them in the <i>Adumbrationes Clem.
+Alex. in epistolas canonicas</i> (Codex Lindum, 96, sec. ix.). They were
+perhaps intended as a completion of the preceding course.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLÉMENT, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span> (1714-1793), French historian, was
+born at Bèze, near Dijon, and was educated at the Jesuit College
+at Dijon. At the age of seventeen he entered the society of the
+Benedictines of Saint Maur, and worked with such intense
+application that at the age of twenty-five he was obliged to take
+a protracted rest. He now resided in Paris, where he wrote the
+11th and 12th vols. of the <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i>, and
+edited (with Dom Brial) the 12th and 13th vols. of the <i>Recueil
+des historiens des Gauls et de la France</i>. The king appointed
+him on the committee which was engaged in publishing charters,
+diplomas and other documents connected with French history (see
+Xavier Charmes, <i>Le Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques</i>,
+vol. i., 1886, passim); and the Academy of Inscriptions chose
+him as a member (1785). Dom Clément also revised the <i>Art de
+vérifier les dates</i>, edited in 1750 by Dom Clémencet. Three
+volumes with the Indexes appeared from 1783 to 1792. He
+was engaged in preparing another volume including the period
+before the Christian era, when he died suddenly of apoplexy, at
+the age of sixty-nine. The work was afterwards brought down
+from 1770 to 1827 by Julien de Courcelles and Fortia d&rsquo;Urban.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLÉMENT, JACQUES<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (1567-1589), murderer of the French
+king Henry III., was born at Sorbon in the Ardennes, and
+became a Dominican friar. Civil war was raging in France,
+and Clément became an ardent partisan of the League; his
+mind appears to have become unhinged by religious fanaticism,
+and he talked of exterminating the heretics, and formed a plan
+to kill Henry III. His project was encouraged by some of the
+heads of the League; he was assured of temporal rewards if he
+succeeded, and of eternal bliss if he failed. Having obtained
+letters for the king, he left Paris on the 31st of July 1589, and
+reached St Cloud, the headquarters of Henry, who was besieging
+Paris. On the following day he was admitted to the royal
+presence, and presenting his letters he told the king that he had
+an important and confidential message to deliver. The attendants
+then withdrew, and while Henry was reading the letters
+Clément mortally wounded him with a dagger which had been
+concealed beneath his cloak. The assassin was at once killed
+by the attendants who rushed in, and Henry died early on the
+following day. Clément&rsquo;s body was afterwards quartered and
+burned. This deed, however, was viewed with far different
+feelings in Paris and by the partisans of the League, the murderer
+being regarded as a martyr and extolled by Pope Sixtus V.,
+while even his canonization was discussed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E. Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, tome vi. (Paris, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEMENTI, MUZIO<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> (c. 1751-1832), Italian pianist and composer,
+was born at Rome between 1750 and 1752. His father,
+a jeweller, encouraged his son&rsquo;s early musical talent. Buroni
+and Cordicelli were his first masters, and at the age of nine
+Clementi&rsquo;s theoretical and practical studies had advanced to
+such a degree that he was able to win the position of organist
+at a church. He continued his studies under Santarelli and
+Carpani, and at the age of fourteen wrote a mass which was
+performed in public. About 1766 Beckford, the author of
+<i>Vathek</i>, persuaded Clementi to follow him to England, where
+the young composer lived in retirement at one of the country
+seats of his protector in Dorsetshire until 1770. In that year
+he first appeared in London, where his success both as composer
+and pianist was rapid and brilliant. In 1777 he was for some
+time employed as conductor of the Italian opera, but he soon
+afterwards left London for Paris. Here also his concerts were
+crowded by enthusiastic audiences, and the same success accompanied
+Clementi on a tour about the year 1780 to southern
+Germany and Austria. At Vienna, which he visited between
+1781 and 1782, he was received with high honour by the emperor
+Joseph II., in whose presence he met Mozart, and fought a kind
+of musical duel with him. His technical skill proved to be
+equal if not superior to that of his rival, who on the other hand
+infinitely surpassed him by the passionate beauty of his interpretation.
+It is worth noting that one of the finest of Clementi&rsquo;s
+sonatas, that in B flat, shows an exactly identical opening theme
+with Mozart&rsquo;s overture to the <i>Flauto Magico</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1782 Clementi returned to London, where for the next
+twelve years he continued his lucrative occupations of fashionable
+teacher and performer at the concerts of the aristocracy. He
+took shares in the pianoforte business of a firm which went
+bankrupt in 1800. He then established a pianoforte and music
+business of his own, under the name of Clementi &amp; Co. Other
+members were added to the firm, including Collard and Davis,
+and the firm was ultimately taken over by Messrs Collard
+alone. Amongst his pupils on the pianoforte during this period
+may be mentioned John Field, the composer of the celebrated
+<i>Nocturnes</i>. In his company Clementi paid, in 1804, a visit to
+Paris, Vienna, St Petersburg, Berlin and other cities. While
+he was in Berlin, Meyerbeer became one of his pupils. He also
+revisited his own country after an absence of more than thirty
+years. In 1810 Clementi returned to London, but refused to
+play again in public, devoting the remainder of his life to composition.
+Several symphonies belong to this time, and were
+played with much success at contemporary concerts, but none
+of them seem to have been published. His intellectual and
+musical faculties remained unimpaired until his death, on the
+9th of March 1832, at Evesham, Worcester.</p>
+
+<p>Of Clementi&rsquo;s playing in his youth, Moscheles wrote that it
+was &ldquo;marked by a most beautiful <i>legato</i>, a supple touch in lively
+passages, and a most unfailing <i>technique</i>.&rdquo; Mozart may be said
+to have closed the old and Clementi to have founded the newer
+school of <i>technique</i> on the piano. Amongst Clementi&rsquo;s compositions
+the most remarkable are sixty sonatas for pianoforte, and
+the great collection of <i>Études</i> called <i>Gradus ad Parnassum</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEMENTINE LITERATURE<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span>, the name generally given to the
+writings which at one time or another were fathered upon Pope
+Clement I. (<i>q.v.</i>), commonly called Clemens Romanus, who was
+early regarded as a disciple of St Peter. Thus they are for the
+most part a species of the larger pseudo-Petrine genus. Chief
+among them are: (1) The so-called Second Epistle; (2) two
+Epistles on Virginity; (3) the <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>; (4)
+the <i>Apostolical Constitutions</i> (<i>q.v.</i>); and (5) five epistles forming
+part of the Forged Decretals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Decretals</a></span>). The present
+article deals mainly with the third group, to which the title
+&ldquo;Clementine literature&rdquo; is usually confined, owing to the stress
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span>
+laid upon it in the famous Tübingen reconstruction of primitive
+Christianity, in which it played a leading part; but later criticism
+has lowered its importance as its true date and historical
+relations have been progressively ascertained. (1) and (2)
+became &ldquo;Clementine&rdquo; only by chance, but (3) was so originally
+by literary device or fiction, the cause at work also in (4) and (5).
+But while in all cases the suggestion of Clement&rsquo;s authorship
+came ultimately from his prestige as writer of the genuine
+Epistle of Clement (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clement i.</a></span>), both (3) and (4) were due to
+this idea as operative on Syrian soil; (5) is a secondary formation
+based on (3) as known to the West.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>The &ldquo;Second Epistle of Clement.&rdquo;</i>&mdash;This is really the
+earliest extant Christian homily (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apostolic Fathers</a></span>). Its
+theme is the duty of Christian repentance, with a view to
+obedience to Christ&rsquo;s precepts as the true confession and homage
+which He requires. Its special charge is &ldquo;Preserve the flesh pure
+and the seal (<i>i.e.</i> baptism) unstained&rdquo; (viii. 6). But the peculiar
+way in which it enforces its morals in terms of the Platonic
+contrast between the spiritual and sensuous worlds, as archetype
+and temporal manifestation, suggests a special local type of
+theology which must be taken into account in fixing its <i>provenance</i>.
+This theology, the fact that the preacher seems to quote the
+<i>Gospel according to the Egyptians</i> (in ch. xii. and possibly elsewhere)
+as if familiar to his hearers, and indeed its literary
+affinities generally, all point to Alexandria as the original home of
+the homily, at a date about 120-140 (see <i>Zeit. f. N. T. Wissenschaft</i>,
+vii. 123 ff). Neither Corinth (as Lightfoot) nor Rome (as Harnack,
+who assigns it to Bishop Soter, c. 166-174) satisfies all the internal
+conditions, while the Eastern nature of the external evidence and
+the homily&rsquo;s quasi-canonical status in the Codex-Alexandrinus
+strongly favour an Alexandrine origin.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>The Two Epistles to Virgins</i>, <i>i.e.</i> to Christian celibates of
+both sexes. These are known in their entirety only in Syriac,
+and were first published by Wetstein (1752), who held them
+genuine. This view is now generally discredited, even by Roman
+Catholics like Funk, their best recent editor (<i>Patres Apost.</i>, vol.
+ii.). External evidence begins with Epiphanius (<i>Haer.</i> xxx. 15)
+and Jerome (<i>Ad Jovin.</i> i. 12);  and the silence of Eusebius tells
+heavily against their existence before the 4th century, at any
+rate as writings of Clement. The Monophysite Timothy of
+Alexandria (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 457) cites one of them as Clement&rsquo;s, while
+Antiochus of St Saba (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 620) makes copious but unacknowledged
+extracts from both in the original Greek. There is no
+trace of their use in the West. Thus their Syrian origin is
+manifest, the more so that in the Syriac MS. they are appended to
+the New Testament, like the better-known epistles of Clement in
+the Codex Alexandrinus. Indeed, judging from another Syriac
+MS. of earlier date, which includes the latter writings in its
+canon, it seems that the Epistles on Virginity gradually replaced
+the earlier pair in certain Syrian churches&mdash;even should Lightfoot
+be right in doubting if this had really occurred by Epiphanius&rsquo;s
+day (<i>S. Clement of Rome</i>, i. 412).</p>
+
+<p>Probably these epistles did not originally bear Clement&rsquo;s name
+at all, but formed a single epistle addressed to ascetics among an
+actual circle of churches. In that case they, or rather it, may
+date from the 3rd century in spite of Eusebius&rsquo;s silence, and
+are not pseudo-Clementine in any real sense. It matters little
+whether or not the false ascription was made before the division
+into two implied already by Epiphanius (c. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 375). Special
+occasion for such a hortatory letter may be discerned in its
+polemic against intimate relations between ascetics of opposite
+sex, implied to exist among its readers, in contrast to usage in
+the writer&rsquo;s own locality. Now we know that spiritual unions,
+prompted originally by highstrung Christian idealism as to a
+religious fellowship transcending the law of nature in relation to
+sex, did exist between persons living under vows of celibacy
+during the 3rd century in particular, and not least in Syria (cf.
+the case of Paul of Samosata, c. 265, and the Synod of Ancyra
+in Galatia, c. 314). It is natural, then, to see in the original
+epistle a protest against the dangers of such spiritual boldness
+(cf. &ldquo;Subintroductae&rdquo; in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>),
+prior perhaps to the famous case at Antioch just noted.
+Possibly it is the feeling of south Syria or Palestine that here
+expresses itself in remonstrance against usages prevalent in north
+Syria. Such a view finds support also in the New Testament
+canon implied in these epistles.</p>
+
+<p>(3)[a] <i>The Epistle of Clement to James</i> (the Lord&rsquo;s brother).
+This was originally part of (3)[b], in connexion with which its
+origin and date are discussed. But as known to the West through
+Rufinus&rsquo;s Latin version, it was quoted as genuine by the synod of
+Vaison (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 442) and throughout the middle ages. It became
+&ldquo;the starting point of the most momentous and gigantic of
+medieval forgeries, the Isidorian Decretals,&rdquo; &ldquo;where it stands at
+the head of the pontifical letters, extended to more than twice its
+original length.&rdquo; This extension perhaps occurred during the 5th
+century. At any rate the letter in this form, along with a
+&ldquo;second epistle to James&rdquo; (on the Eucharist, church furniture,
+&amp;c.), dating from the early 6th century, had separate currency
+long before the 9th century, when they were incorporated in the
+<i>Decretals</i> by the forger who raised the Clementine epistles to five
+(see Lightfoot, <i>Clement</i>, i. 414 ff.).</p>
+
+<p>(3)[b] <i>The &ldquo;Homilies&rdquo; and &ldquo;Recognitions</i>&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;The two
+chief extant Clementine writings, differing considerably in some
+respects in doctrine, are both evidently the outcome of a peculiar
+speculative type of Judaistic Christianity, for which the most
+characteristic name of Christ was &lsquo;the true Prophet.&rsquo; The framework
+of both is a narrative purporting to be written by Clement
+(of Rome) to St James, the Lord&rsquo;s brother, describing at the
+beginning his own conversion and the circumstances of his first
+acquaintance with St Peter, and then a long succession of
+incidents accompanying St Peter&rsquo;s discourses and disputations,
+leading up to a romantic recognition of Clement&rsquo;s father, mother
+and two brothers, from whom he had been separated since childhood.
+The problems discussed under this fictitious guise are
+with rare exceptions fundamental problems for every age; and,
+whatever may be thought of the positions maintained, the
+discussions are hardly ever feeble or trivial. Regarded simply as
+mirroring the past, few, if any, remains of Christian antiquity
+present us with so vivid a picture of the working of men&rsquo;s minds
+under the influence of the new leaven which had entered into the
+world&rdquo; (Hort, <i>Clem. Recog.</i>, p. xiv.).</p>
+
+<p>The indispensable preliminary to a really historic view of these
+writings is some solution of the problem of their mutual relations.
+The older criticism assumed a dependence of one upon the other,
+and assigned one or both to the latter part of the 2nd century.
+Recent criticism, however, builds on the principle, which emerges
+alike from the external and internal evidence (see Salmon in
+the <i>Dict. of Christian Biography</i>), that both used a common
+basis. Our main task, then, is to define the nature, origin and
+date of the parent document, and if possible its own literary
+antecedents. Towards the solution of this problem two contributions
+of prime importance have recently been made. The
+earlier of these is by F.J.A. Hort, and was delivered in the form
+of lectures as far back as 1884, though issued posthumously only
+in 1901; the other is the elaborate monograph of Dr Hans
+Waitz (1904).</p>
+
+<p><i>Criticism.</i>&mdash;(i.) <i>External Evidence as to the Clementine Romance.</i>
+The evidence of ancient writers really begins, not with Origen,<a name="FnAnchor_1r" id="FnAnchor_1r" href="#Footnote_1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+but with Eusebius of Caesarea, who in his <i>Eccl. Hist.</i> iii. 38,
+writes as follows: &ldquo;Certain men have quite lately brought
+forward as written by him (Clement) other verbose and lengthy
+writings, containing dialogues of Peter, forsooth, and Apion,
+whereof not the slightest mention is to be found among the
+ancients, for they do not even preserve in purity the stamp of
+the Apostolic orthodoxy.&rdquo; Apion, the Alexandrine grammarian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span>
+and foe of Judaism, whose criticism was answered by Josephus,
+appears in this character both in <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>,
+though mainly in the former (iv. 6-vii. 5). Thus Eusebius
+implies (1) a spurious Clementine work containing matter found
+also in our <i>Homilies</i> at any rate; and (2) its quite recent origin.
+Next we note that an extract in the <i>Philocalia</i> is introduced
+as follows: &ldquo;Yea, and Clement the Roman, a disciple of Peter
+the Apostle, after using words in harmony with these on the
+present problem, in conversation with his father at Laodicea
+in the <i>Circuits</i>, speaks a very necessary word for the end of
+arguments touching this matter, viz. those things which seem
+to have proceeded from <i>genesis</i> (= astrological destiny), in the
+fourteenth book.&rdquo; The extract answers to <i>Recognitions</i>, x. 10-13,
+but it is absent from our <i>Homilies</i>. Here we observe that (1) the
+extract agrees this time with <i>Recognitions</i>, not with <i>Homilies</i>;
+(2) its framework is that of the Clementine romance found in
+both; (3) the tenth and last book of <i>Recognitions</i> is here parallel
+to book xiv. of a work called <i>Circuits</i> (<i>Periodoi</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This last point leads on naturally to the witness of Epiphanius
+(c. 375), who, speaking of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians of
+various sorts, and particularly the Essene type, says (<i>Haer.</i>
+xxx. 15) that &ldquo;they use certain other books likewise, to wit,
+the so-called <i>Circuits</i> of Peter, which were written by the hand
+of Clement, falsifying their contents, though leaving a few
+genuine things.&rdquo; Here Ephiphanius simply assumes that the
+Ebionite <i>Circuits of Peter</i> was based on a genuine work of the
+same scope, and goes on to say that the spurious elements are
+proved such by contrast with the tenor of Clement&rsquo;s &ldquo;encyclic
+epistles&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> those to virgins, (2) above); for these enjoin
+virginity (celibacy), and praise Elijah, David, Samson, and all
+the prophets, whereas the Ebionite <i>Circuits</i> favour marriage
+(even in Apostles) and depreciate the prophets between Moses
+and Christ, &ldquo;the true Prophet.&rdquo; &ldquo;In the <i>Circuits</i>, then, they
+adapted the whole to their own views, representing Peter falsely
+in many ways, as that he was daily baptized for the sake of
+purification, as these also do; and they say that he likewise
+abstained from animal food and meat, as they themselves also
+do.&rdquo; Now all the points here noted in the <i>Circuits</i> can be traced
+in our <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>, though toned down in different
+degrees.</p>
+
+<p>The witness of the Arianizing <i>Opus Imperfectum in Matthaeum</i>
+(c. 400) is in general similar. Its usual form of citation is &ldquo;Peter
+in Clement&rdquo; (<i>apud Clementem</i>). This points to &ldquo;Clement&rdquo;
+as a brief title for the Clementine <i>Periodoi</i>, a title actually found
+in a Syriac MS. of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 411 which contains large parts of <i>Recognitions</i>
+and <i>Homilies</i>, and twice used by Rufinus, <i>e.g.</i> when he
+proposes to inscribe his version of the <i>Recognitions</i> &ldquo;Rufinus
+<i>Clemens</i>.&rdquo; Rufinus in his preface to this work&mdash;in which for
+the first time we meet the title <i>Recognition(s)</i>&mdash;observes that
+there are two editions to which the name applies, two collections
+of books differing in some points but in many respects containing
+the same narrative. This he remarks in explanation of the order
+of his version in some places, which he feels may strike his friend
+Gaudentius as unusual, the inference being that the other
+edition was the better-known one, although it lacked &ldquo;the
+transformation of Simon&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> of Clement&rsquo;s father into Simon&rsquo;s
+likeness), which is common to the close both of our <i>Recognitions</i>
+and <i>Homilies</i>, and so probably belonged to the <i>Circuits</i>. We
+may assume, too (<i>e.g.</i> on the basis of our Syriac MS.), that the
+Greek edition of the <i>Recognition(s)</i> actually used by Rufinus
+was much nearer the text of the <i>Periodoi</i> of which we have found
+traces than we should imagine from its Latin form.</p>
+
+<p>So far we have no sure trace of our <i>Homilies</i> at all, apart from
+the Syriac version. Even four centuries later, Photius, in referring
+to a collection of books called both <i>Acts of Peter</i> and the
+<i>Recognition of Clement</i>, does not make clear whether he means
+<i>Homilies</i> or <i>Recognitions</i> or either. &ldquo;In all the copies which
+we have seen (and they are not a few) after those different
+epistles (viz. &lsquo;Peter to James&rsquo; and &lsquo;Clement to James,&rsquo; prefixed,
+the one in some MSS. the other in others) and titles, we found
+without variation the same treatise, beginning, I, Clement, &amp;c.&rdquo;
+But it is not clear that he had read more than the opening of
+these MSS. The fact that different epistles are prefixed to the
+same work leads him to conjecture &ldquo;that there were two editions
+made of the <i>Acts of Peter</i> (his usual title for the collection), but
+in course of time the one perished and that of Clement prevailed.&rdquo;
+This is interesting as anticipating a result of modern criticism,
+as will appear below. The earliest probable reference to our
+<i>Homilies</i> occurs in a work of doubtful date, the pseudo-Athanasian
+<i>Synopsis</i>, which mentions &ldquo;Clementines, whence
+came by selection and rewriting the true and inspired form.&rdquo;
+Here too we have the first sure trace of an expurgated recension,
+made with the idea of recovering the genuine form assumed, as
+earlier by Epiphanius, to lie behind an unorthodox recension
+of Clement&rsquo;s narrative. As, moreover, the extant <i>Epitome</i> is
+based on our <i>Homilies</i>, it is natural to suppose it was also the
+basis of earlier orthodox recensions, one or more of which
+may be used in certain Florilegia of the 7th century and later.
+Nowhere do we find the title <i>Homilies</i> given to any form of
+the Clementine collection in antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) <i>The Genesis of the Clementine Literature.</i> It has been needful
+to cite so much of the evidence proving that our <i>Homilies</i> and
+<i>Recognitions</i> are both recensions of a common basis, at first known
+as the <i>Circuits of Peter</i> and later by titles connecting it rather
+with Clement, its ostensible author, because it affords data also
+for the historical problems touching (a) the contents and origin
+of the primary Clementine work, and (b) the conditions under
+which our extant recensions of it arose.</p>
+
+<p>(a) <i>The Circuits of Peter</i>, as defined on the one hand by the
+epistle of Clement to James originally prefixed to it and by
+patristic evidence, and on the other by the common element in
+our <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>, may be conceived as follows.
+It contained accounts of Peter&rsquo;s teachings and discussions at
+various points on a route beginning at Caesarea, and extending
+northwards along the coast-lands of Syria as far as Antioch.
+During this tour he meets with persons of typically erroneous
+views, which it was presumably the aim of the work to refute
+in the interests of true Christianity, conceived as the final form
+of divine revelation&mdash;a revelation given through true prophecy
+embodied in a succession of persons, the chief of whom were
+Moses and the prophet whom Moses foretold, Jesus the Christ.
+The prime exponent of the spurious religion is Simon Magus.
+A second protagonist of error, this time of Gentile philosophic
+criticism directed against fundamental Judaism, is Apion, the
+notorious anti-Jewish Alexandrine grammarian of Peter&rsquo;s day;
+while the rôle of upholder of astrological fatalism (<i>Genesis</i>) is
+played by Faustus, father of Clement, with whom Peter and
+Clement debate at Laodicea. Finally, all this is already embedded
+in a setting determined by the romance of Clement and his lost
+relatives, &ldquo;recognition&rdquo; of whom forms the <i>dénouement</i> of
+the story.</p>
+
+<p>There is no reason to doubt that such, roughly speaking, were
+the contents of the Clementine work to which Eusebius alludes
+slightingly, in connexion with that section of it which had to his
+eye least verisimilitude, viz. the dialogues between Peter and
+Apion. Now Eusebius believed the work to have been of quite
+recent and suspicious origin. This points to a date about the
+last quarter of the 3rd century; and the prevailing doctrinal
+tone of the contents, as known to us, leads to the same result.
+The standpoint is that of the peculiar Judaizing or Ebonite
+Christianity due to persistence among Christians of the tendencies
+known among pre-Christian Jews as Essene. The Essenes,
+while clinging to what they held to be original Mosaism, yet
+conceived and practised their ancestral faith in ways which
+showed distinct traces of syncretism, or the operation of influences
+foreign to Judaism proper. They thus occupied an ambiguous
+position on the borders of Judaism. Similarly Christian Essenism
+was syncretist in spirit, as we see from its best-known
+representatives, the Elchasaites, of whom we first hear about
+220, when a certain Alcibiades of Apamea in Syria (some 60 m.
+south of Antioch) brought to Rome the <i>Book of Helxai</i>&mdash;the
+manifesto of their distinctive message (Hippol., <i>Philos.</i> ix. 13)&mdash;and
+again some twenty years later, when Origen refers to one of
+their leaders as having lately arrived at Caesarea (Euseb. vi. 38).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span>
+The first half of the 3rd century was marked, especially in Syria,
+by a strong tendency to syncretism, which may well have
+stirred certain Christian Essenes to fresh propaganda. Other
+writings than the <i>Book of Helxai</i>, representing also other species
+of the same genus, would take shape. Such may have been some
+of the pseudo-apostolic <i>Acts</i> to which Epiphanius alludes as in
+use among the Ebionites of his own day: and such was probably
+the nucleus of our Clementine writings, the <i>Periodoi</i> of Peter.</p>
+
+<p>Harnack (<i>Chronologie</i>, ii. 522 f.), indeed, while admitting
+that much (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Homilies</i>, viii. 5-7) points the other way,
+prefers the view that even the <i>Circuits</i> were of Catholic origin
+(Chapman, as above, says Arian, soon after 325), regarding
+the syncretistic Jewish-Christian features in it as due either to
+its earlier basis or to an instinct to preserve continuity of manner
+(<i>e.g.</i> absence of explicit reference to Paul). Hort, on the contrary,
+assumes as author &ldquo;an ingenious Helxaite ... perhaps
+stimulated by the example of the many Encratite <i>Periodoi</i>&rdquo;
+(p. 131), and writing about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 200.</p>
+
+<p>Only it must not be thought of as properly Elchasaite, since
+it knew no baptism distinct from the ordinary Christian one.
+It seems rather to represent a later and modified Essene Christianity,
+already half-Catholic, such as would suit a date after
+250, in keeping with Eusebius&rsquo;s evidence. Confirmation of such
+a date is afforded by the silence of the Syrian <i>Didascalia</i>, itself
+perhaps dating from about 250, as to any visit of Simon Magus
+to Caesarea, in contrast to the reference in its later form, the
+<i>Apostolical Constitutions</i> (c. 350-400), which is plainly coloured
+(vi. 9) by the Clementine story. On the other hand, the <i>Didascalia</i>
+seems to have been evoked partly by Judaizing propaganda
+in north Syria. If, then, it helps to date the <i>Periodoi</i> as after
+250, it may also suggest as place of origin one of the large cities
+lying south of Antioch, say Laodicea (itself on the coast about
+30 m. from Apamea), where the Clementine story reaches its
+climax. The intimacy of local knowledge touching this region
+implied in the narrative common to <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>
+is notable, and tells against an origin for the <i>Periodoi</i> outside
+Syria (<i>e.g.</i> in Rome, as Waitz and Harnack hold, but Lightfoot
+disproves, <i>Clem.</i> i. 55 f., 64,100, cf. Hort, p. 131). Further,
+though the curtain even in it fell on Peter at Antioch itself (our
+one complete MS. of the <i>Homilies</i> is proved by the <i>Epitome</i>,
+based on the <i>Homilies</i>, to be here abridged), the interest of the
+story culminates at Laodicea.</p>
+
+<p>If we assume, then, that the common source of our extant
+Clementines arose in Syria, perhaps c. 265,<a name="FnAnchor_2r" id="FnAnchor_2r" href="#Footnote_2r"><span class="sp">2</span></a> had it also a written
+source or sources which we can trace? Though Hort doubts it,
+most recent scholars (<i>e.g.</i> Waitz, Harnack) infer the existence
+of at least one source, &ldquo;Preachings (<i>Kerygmata</i>) of Peter,&rdquo;
+containing no reference at all to Clement. Such a work seems
+implied by the epistle of Peter to James and its appended
+adjuration, prefixed in our MSS. to the <i>Homilies</i> along with the
+epistle of Clement to James. Thus the later work aimed at
+superseding the earlier, much as Photius suggests (see above).
+It was, then, to these &ldquo;Preachings of Peter&rdquo; that the most
+Ebionite features, and especially the anti-Pauline allusions
+under the guise of Simon still inhering in the <i>Periodoi</i> (as implied
+by <i>Homilies</i> in particular), originally belonged. The fact,
+however, that these were not more completely suppressed in
+the later work, proves that it, too, arose in circles of kindred,
+though largely modified, Judaeo-Christian sentiment (cf.
+<i>Homilies</i>, vii., <i>e.g.</i> ch. 8). The differences of standpoint may be
+due not only to lapse of time, and the emergence of new problems
+on the horizon of Syrian Christianity generally, but also to change
+in locality and in the degree of Greek culture represented by the
+two works. A probable date for the &ldquo;Preachings&rdquo; used in the
+<i>Periodoi</i> is c. 200.<a name="FnAnchor_3r" id="FnAnchor_3r" href="#Footnote_3r"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>If the home of the <i>Periodoi</i> was the region of the Syrian
+Laodicea, we can readily explain most of its characteristics.
+Photius refers to the &ldquo;excellences of its language and its learning&rdquo;;
+while Waitz describes the aim and spirit of its contents
+as those of an apology for Christianity against heresy and
+paganism, in the widest sense of the word, written in order to
+win over both Jews (cf. <i>Recognitions</i>, i. 53-70) and pagans, but
+mainly the latter. In particular it had in view persons of
+culture, as most apt to be swayed by the philosophical tendencies
+in the sphere of religion prevalent in that age, the age of neo-Platonism.
+It was in fact designed for propaganda among
+religious seekers in a time of singular religious restlessness and
+varied inquiry, and, above all, for use by catechumens (cf. <i>Ep.
+Clem.</i> 2, 13) in the earlier stages of their preparation for Christian
+baptism. To such its romantic setting would be specially
+adapted, as falling in with the literary habits and tastes of the
+period; while its doctrinal peculiarities would least give offence
+in a work of the aim and character just described.</p>
+
+<p>As regards the sources to the narrative part of the <i>Periodoi</i>,
+it is possible that the &ldquo;recognition&rdquo; <i>motif</i> was a literary commonplace.
+The account of Peter&rsquo;s journeyings was no doubt based
+largely on local Syrian tradition, perhaps as already embodied
+in written <i>Acts of Peter</i> (so Waitz and Harnack), but differing
+from the Western type, <i>e.g.</i> in bringing Peter to Rome long
+before Nero&rsquo;s reign. As for the allusions, more or less indirect,
+to St Paul behind the figure of Simon, as the arch-enemy of the
+truth&mdash;allusions which first directed attention to the Clementines
+in the last century&mdash;there can be no doubt as to their presence,
+but only as to their origin and the degree to which they are so
+meant in <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i>. There is certainly &ldquo;an
+application to Simon of words used by or of St Paul, or of claims
+made by or in behalf of St Paul&rdquo; (Hort), especially in <i>Homilies</i>
+(ii. 17 f., xi. 35, xvii. 19), where a consciousness also of the
+double reference must still be present, though this does not seem
+to be the case in <i>Recognitions</i> (in Rufinus&rsquo;s Latin.) Such covert
+reference to Paul must designedly have formed part of the
+<i>Periodoi</i>, yet as adopted from its more bitterly anti-Pauline
+basis, the &ldquo;Preachings of Peter&rdquo; (cf. <i>Homilies</i>, ii. 17 f. with <i>Ep.
+Pet. ad Jac. 2</i>), which probably shared most of the features of
+Ebionite Essenism as described by Epiphanius xxx. 15 f. (including
+the qualified dualism of the two kingdoms&mdash;the present
+one of the devil, and the future one of the angelic Christ&mdash;which
+appears also in the <i>Periodoi</i>, cf. <i>Ep. Clem. ad Jac. 1 fin.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(b) That the <i>Periodoi</i> was a longer work than either our
+<i>Homilies</i> or <i>Recognitions</i> is practically certain; and its mere
+bulk may well, as Hort suggests (p. 88), have been a chief cause
+of the changes of form. Yet <i>Homilies</i> and <i>Recognitions</i> are
+abridgments made on different principles and convey rather
+different impressions to their readers. &ldquo;The <i>Homilies</i> care most
+for doctrine,&rdquo; especially philosophical doctrine, &ldquo;and seem to
+transpose very freely for doctrinal purposes&rdquo; (<i>e.g.</i> matter in
+xvi.-xix. is placed at the end for effect, while xx. 1-10 gives
+additional emphasis to the <i>Homilies</i>&rsquo; theory of evil, perhaps over
+against Manichaeism). &ldquo;The <i>Recognitions</i> care most for the
+story,&rdquo; as a means of religious edification, &ldquo;and have preserved
+the general framework much more nearly.&rdquo; They arose in
+different circles: indeed, save the compiler of the text represented
+by the Syriac MS. of 411 <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, &ldquo;not a single ancient
+writer shows a knowledge of both books in any form.&rdquo; But Hort
+is hardly right in suggesting that, while <i>Homilies</i> arose in Syria,
+<i>Recognitions</i> took shape in Rome. Both probably arose in
+Syria (so Lightfoot), but in circles varying a good deal in religious
+standpoint.<a name="FnAnchor_4r" id="FnAnchor_4r" href="#Footnote_4r"><span class="sp">4</span></a> <i>Homilies</i> was a sort of second edition, made largely
+in the spirit of its original and perhaps in much the same locality,
+with a view to maintaining and propagating the doctrines of a
+semi-Judaic Christianity (cf. bk. vii.), as it existed a generation
+or two after the <i>Periodoi</i> appeared. The <i>Recognitions</i>, in both
+recensions, as is shown by the fact that it was read in the original
+with general admiration not only by Rufinus but also by others
+in the West, was more Catholic in tone and aimed chiefly at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span>
+commending the Christian religion over against all non-Christian
+rivals or gnostic perversions. That is, more than one effort of
+this sort had been made to adapt the story of Clement&rsquo;s <i>Recognitions</i>
+to general Christian use. Later the <i>Homilies</i> underwent
+further adaptation to Catholic feeling even before the <i>Epitome</i>,
+in its two extant forms, was made by more drastic methods of
+expurgation. One kind of adaptation at least is proved to have
+existed before the end of the 4th century, namely a selection of
+certain discourses from the <i>Homilies</i> under special headings,
+following on <i>Recognitions</i>, i.-iii., as seen in a Syriac MS.  of <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 411.
+As this MS. contains transcriptional errors, and as its archetype
+had perhaps a Greek basis, the <i>Recognitions</i> may be dated
+c. 350-375<a name="FnAnchor_5r" id="FnAnchor_5r" href="#Footnote_5r"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (its Christology suggested to Rufinus an Arianism
+like that of Eunomius of Cyzicus, c. 362), and the <i>Homilies</i> prior
+even to 350. But the different circles represented by the two
+make relative dating precarious.</p>
+
+<p><i>Summary.</i>&mdash;The Clementine literature throws light upon a
+very obscure phase of Christian development, that of
+Judaeo-Christianity, and proves that it embraced more intermediate
+types, between Ebionism proper and Catholicism, than has
+generally been realized. Incidentally, too, its successive forms
+illustrate many matters of belief and usage among Syrian
+Christians generally in the 3rd and 4th centuries, notably their
+apologetic and catechetical needs and methods. Further, it
+discusses, as Hort observes, certain indestructible problems which
+much early Christian theology passes by or deals with rather
+perfunctorily; and it does so with a freshness and reality which,
+as we compare the original 3rd-century basis with the conventional
+manner of the <i>Epitome</i>, we see to be not unconnected with
+origin in an age as yet free from the trammels of formal orthodoxy.
+Again it is a notable specimen of early Christian pseudepigraphy,
+and one which had manifold and far-reaching results.
+Finally the romance to which it owed much of its popular appeal,
+became, through the medium of Rufinus&rsquo;s Latin, the parent
+of the late medieval legend of Faust, and so the ancestor of a
+famous type in modern literature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;For a full list of this down to 1904 see Hans Waitz,
+&ldquo;Die Pseudoklementinen&rdquo; (<i>Texte u. Untersuchungen zur Gesch.
+der altchr. Literatur, neue Folge</i>, Bd. x. Heft 4), and A. Harnack,
+<i>Chronologie der altchr. Litteratur</i> (1904), ii. 518 f. In English, besides
+Hort&rsquo;s work, there are articles by G. Salmon, in <i>Dict. of Christ.  Biog.</i>,
+C. Bigg, <i>Studia Biblica</i>, ii., A.C. Headlam, <i>Journal of Theol.
+Studies</i>, iii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. V. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1r" id="Footnote_1r" href="#FnAnchor_1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Dr Armitage Robinson, in his edition of the <i>Philocalia</i> (extracts
+made c. 358 by Basil and Gregory from Origen&rsquo;s writings), proved
+that the passage cited below is simply introduced as a parallel to an
+extract of Origen&rsquo;s; while Dom Chapman, in the <i>Journal of Theol.
+Studies</i>, iii. 436 ff., made it probable that the passages in Origen&rsquo;s
+<i>Comm. on Matthew</i> akin to those in the <i>Opus Imperf. in Matth.</i> are
+insertions in the former, which is extant only in a Latin version.
+Subsequently he suggested (<i>Zeitsch. f. N.T. Wissenschaft</i>, ix. 33 f.)
+that the passage in the <i>Philocalia</i> is due not to its authors but to an
+early editor, since it is the only citation not referred to Origen.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_2r" id="Footnote_2r" href="#FnAnchor_2r"><span class="fn">2</span></a> While Hort and Waitz say c. 200, Harnack says c. 260. The
+reign of Gallienus (260-268) would suit the tone of its references to
+the Roman emperor (Waitz, p. 74), and also any polemic against
+the Neoplatonic philosophy of revelation by visions and dreams
+which it may contain.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_3r" id="Footnote_3r" href="#FnAnchor_3r"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Even Waitz agrees to this, though he argues back to a yet earlier
+anti-Pauline (rather than anti-Marcionite) form, composed in
+Caesarea, c. 135.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_4r" id="Footnote_4r" href="#FnAnchor_4r"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Dom Chapman maintains that the <i>Recognitions</i> (c. 370-390,) even
+attack the doctrine of God in the <i>Homilies</i> or their archetype.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_5r" id="Footnote_5r" href="#FnAnchor_5r"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Dom Chapman (ut supra, p. 158) says during the Neoplatonist
+reaction under Julian 361-363, to which period he also assigns the
+<i>Homilies</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEOBULUS<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span>, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, a native and
+tyrant of Lindus in Rhodes. He was distinguished for his strength
+and his handsome person, for the wisdom of his sayings, the
+acuteness of his riddles and the beauty of his lyric poetry.
+Diogenes Laërtius quotes a letter in which Cleobulus invites
+Solon to take refuge with him against Peisistratus; and this
+would imply that he was alive in 560 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He is said to have held
+advanced views as to female education, and he was the father
+of the wise Cleobuline, whose riddles were not less famous than
+his own (Diogenes Laërtius i. 89-93).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F.G. Mullach, <i>Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum</i>, i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEOMENES<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="Kleomenês">&#922;&#955;&#949;&#959;&#956;&#941;&#957;&#951;&#962;</span>), the name of three Spartan kings
+of the Agiad line.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Cleomenes</span> I. was the son of Anaxandridas, whom he succeeded
+about 520 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> His chief exploit was his crushing victory
+near Tiryns over the Argives, some 6000 of whom he burned
+to death in a sacred grove to which they had fled for refuge
+(Herodotus vi. 76-82). This secured for Sparta the undisputed
+hegemony of the Peloponnese. Cleomenes&rsquo; interposition in
+the politics of central Greece was less successful. In 510 he
+marched to Athens with a Spartan force to aid in expelling the
+Peisistratidae, and subsequently returned to support the oligarchical
+party, led by Isagoras, against Cleisthenes (<i>q.v.</i>). He
+expelled seven hundred families and transferred the government
+from the council to three hundred of the oligarchs, but being
+blockaded in the Acropolis he was forced to capitulate. On his
+return home he collected a large force with the intention of
+making Isagoras despot of Athens, but the opposition of the
+Corinthian allies and of his colleague Demaratus caused the
+expedition to break up after reaching Eleusis (Herod. v. 64-76;
+Aristotle, <i>Ath. Pol.</i> 19, 20). In 491 he went to Aegina to punish
+the island for its submission to Darius, but the intrigues of his
+colleague once again rendered his mission abortive. In revenge
+Cleomenes accused Demaratus of illegitimacy and secured his
+deposition in favour of Leotychides (Herod. vi. 50-73). But when
+it was discovered that he had bribed the Delphian priestess to
+substantiate his charge he was himself obliged to flee; he went
+first to Thessaly and then to Arcadia, where he attempted to
+foment an anti-Spartan rising. About 488 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was recalled,
+but shortly afterwards, in a fit of madness, he committed suicide
+(Herod. vi. 74, 75). Cleomenes seems to have received scant
+justice at the hands of Herodotus or his informants, and Pausanias
+(iii. 3, 4) does little more than condense Herodotus&rsquo;s narrative.
+In spite of some failures, largely due to Demaratus&rsquo;s jealousy,
+Cleomenes strengthened Sparta in the position, won during his
+father&rsquo;s reign, of champion and leader of the Hellenic race; it
+was to him, for example, that the Ionian cities of Asia Minor first
+applied for aid in their revolt against Persia (Herod. v. 49-51).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the chronology see J. Wells, <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i> (1905),
+p. 193 ff., who assigns the Argive expedition to the outset of the
+reign, whereas nearly all historians have dated it in or about 495 <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Cleomenes</span> II. was the son of Cleombrotus I., brother and
+successor of Agesipolis II. Nothing is recorded of his reign save
+the fact that it lasted for nearly sixty-one years (370-309 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).</p>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Cleomenes</span> III., the son and successor of Leonidas II., reigned
+about 235-219 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He made a determined attempt to reform
+the social condition of Sparta along the lines laid down by Agis
+IV., whose widow Agiatis he married; at the same time he
+aimed at restoring Sparta&rsquo;s hegemony in the Peloponnese.
+After twice defeating the forces of the Achaean League in Arcadia,
+near Mount Lycaeum and at Leuctra, he strengthened his position
+by assassinating four of the ephors, abolishing the ephorate,
+which had usurped the supreme power, and banishing some
+eighty of the leading oligarchs. The authority of the council
+was also curtailed, and a new board of magistrates, the <i>patronomi</i>,
+became the chief officers of state. He appointed his own brother
+Eucleidas as his colleague in succession to the Eurypontid
+Archidamus, who had been murdered. His social reforms
+included a redistribution of land, the remission of debts, the
+restoration of the old system of training (<span class="grk" title="agôgê">&#7936;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#942;</span>) and the admission
+of picked perioeci into the citizen body. As a general Cleomenes
+did much to revive Sparta&rsquo;s old prestige. He defeated the
+Achaeans at Dyme, made himself master of Argos, and was
+eventually joined by Corinth, Phlius, Epidaurus and other
+cities. But Aratus, whose jealousy could not brook to see a
+Spartan at the head of the Achaean league called in Antigonus
+Doson of Macedonia, and Cleomenes, after conducting successful
+expeditions to Megalopolis and Argos, was finally defeated at
+Sellasia, to the north of Sparta, in 222 or 221 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He took
+refuge at Alexandria with Ptolemy Euergetes, but was arrested
+by his successor, Ptolemy Philopator, on a charge of conspiracy.
+Escaping from prison he tried to raise a revolt, but the attempt
+failed and to avoid capture he put an end to his life. Both as
+general and as politician Cleomenes was one of Sparta&rsquo;s greatest
+men, and with him perished her last hope of recovering her
+ancient supremacy in Greece.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Polybius ii. 45-70, v. 35-39, viii. 1; Plutarch, <i>Cleomenes;
+Aratus</i>, 35-46; <i>Philopoemen</i>, 5, 6; Pausanias ii. 9; Gehlert, <i>De
+Cleomene</i> (Leipzig, 1883); Holm, <i>History of Greece</i>, iv. cc. 10, 15.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(M. N. T.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEON<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (d. 422 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Athenian politician during the Peloponnesian
+War, was the son of Cleaenetus, from whom he inherited a
+lucrative tannery business. He was the first prominent representative
+of the commercial class in Athenian politics. He came
+into notice first as an opponent of Pericles, to whom his advanced
+ideas were naturally unacceptable, and in his opposition
+somewhat curiously found himself acting in concert with the
+aristocrats, who equally hated and feared Pericles. During the
+dark days of 430, after the unsuccessful expedition of Pericles to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span>
+Peloponnesus, and when the city was devastated by the plague,
+Cleon headed the opposition to the Periclean régime. Pericles
+was accused by Cleon of maladministration of public money, with
+the result that he was actually found guilty (see Grote&rsquo;s <i>Hist. of
+Greece</i>, abridged ed., 1907, p. 406, note 1). A revulsion of feeling,
+however, soon took place. Pericles was reinstated, and Cleon now
+for a time fell into the background. The death of Pericles (429)
+left the field clear for him. Hitherto he had only been a vigorous
+opposition speaker, a trenchant critic and accuser of state
+officials. He now came forward as the professed champion and
+leader of the democracy, and, owing to the moderate abilities of
+his rivals and opponents, he was for some years undoubtedly the
+foremost man in Athens. Although rough and unpolished, he was
+gifted with natural eloquence and a powerful voice, and knew
+exactly how to work upon the feelings of the people. He
+strengthened his hold on the poorer classes by his measure for
+trebling the pay of the jurymen, which provided the poorer
+Athenians with an easy means of livelihood. The notorious
+fondness of the Athenians for litigation increased his power; and
+the practice of &ldquo;sycophancy&rdquo; (raking up material for false
+charges; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sycophant</a></span>), enabled him to remove those who were
+likely to endanger his ascendancy. Having no further use for his
+former aristocratic associates, he broke off all connexion with
+them, and thus felt at liberty to attack the secret combinations
+for political purposes, the oligarchical clubs to which they mostly
+belonged. Whether he also introduced a property-tax for
+military purposes, and even held a high position in connexion
+with the treasury, is uncertain. His ruling principles were an
+inveterate hatred of the nobility, and an equal hatred of Sparta.
+It was mainly through him that the opportunity of concluding an
+honourable peace (in 425) was lost, and in his determination to see
+Sparta humbled he misled the people as to the extent of the
+resources of the state, and dazzled them by promises of future
+benefits.</p>
+
+<p>In 427 Cleon gained an evil notoriety by his proposal to put to
+death indiscriminately all the inhabitants of Mytilene, which had
+put itself at the head of a revolt. His proposal, though accepted,
+was, fortunately for the credit of Athens, rescinded, although, as it
+was, the chief leaders and prominent men, numbering about 1000,
+fell victims. In 425, he reached the summit of his fame by
+capturing and transporting to Athens the Spartans who had been
+blockaded in Sphacteria (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pylos</a></span>). Much of the credit was
+probably due to the military skill of his colleague Demosthenes;
+but it must be admitted that it was due to Cleon&rsquo;s determination
+that the Ecclesia sent out the additional force which was needed.
+It was almost certainly due to Cleon that the tribute of the
+&ldquo;allies&rdquo; was doubled in 425 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Delian League</a></span>). In 422 he
+was sent to recapture Amphipolis, but was outgeneralled by
+Brasidas and killed. His death removed the chief obstacle to an
+arrangement with Sparta, and in 421 the peace of Nicias was
+concluded (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peloponnesian War</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>The character of Cleon is represented by Aristophanes and
+Thucydides in an extremely unfavourable light. But neither can
+be considered an unprejudiced witness. The poet had a grudge
+against Cleon, who had accused him before the senate of having
+ridiculed (in his <i>Babylonians</i>) the policy and institutions of his
+country in the presence of foreigners and at the time of a great
+national war. Thucydides, a man of strong oligarchical prejudices,
+had also been prosecuted for military incapacity and
+exiled by a decree proposed by Cleon. It is therefore likely that
+Cleon has had less than justice done to him in the portraits
+handed down by these two writers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.&mdash;For the literature on Cleon see C.F. Hermann,
+<i>Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten</i>, i. pt. 2 (6th ed. by V. Thumser,
+1892), p. 709, and G. Busolt, <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, iii. pt. 2 (1904),
+p. 988, note 3. The following are the chief authorities:&mdash;(a)
+<i>Favourable to Cleon</i>.&mdash;C.F. Ranke, <i>Commentatio de Vita Aristophanis</i>
+(Leipzig, 1845); J.G. Droysen, <i>Aristophanes</i>, ii., introd. to
+the <i>Knights</i> (Berlin, 1837); G. Grote, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, chs. 50, 54;
+W. Oncken, <i>Athen und Hellas</i>, ii. p. 204 (Leipzig, 1866); H. Müller-Strübing,
+<i>Aristophanes und die historische Kritik</i> (Leipzig, 1873);
+J.B. Bury, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>, i. (1902). (b) <i>Unfavourable</i>.&mdash;J.F. Kortüm,
+<i>Geschichtliche Forschungen</i> (Leipzig, 1863), and <i>Zur Geschichte
+hellenischen Staatsverfassungen</i> (Heidelberg, 1821); F. Passow,
+<i>Vermischte Schriften</i> (Leipzig, 1843); C. Thirlwall, <i>Hist. of Greece</i>,
+ch. 21; E. Curtius, <i>Hist. of Greece</i> (Eng. tr.) iii. p. 112; J. Schvarcz,
+<i>Die Demokratie</i> (Leipzig, 1882); H. Delbrück, <i>Die Strategie des
+Perikles</i> (Berlin, 1890); E. Meyer, <i>Forschungen zur alten Geschichte</i>,
+ii. p. 333 (Halle, 1899). The balance between the two extreme views
+is fairly held by J. Beloch, <i>Die attische Politik seit Perikles</i> (Leipzig,
+1884), and <i>Griechische Geschichte</i>, i. p. 537; and by A. Holm, <i>Hist.
+of Greece</i>, ii. (Eng. tr.), ch. 23, with the notes.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEOPATRA<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span>, the regular name of the queens of Egypt in the
+Ptolemaic dynasty after Cleopatra, daughter of the Seleucid
+Antiochus the Great, wife of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. The best
+known was the daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, born 69 (or
+68) <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At the age of seventeen she became queen of Egypt
+jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy Dionysus, whose wife,
+in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few
+years afterwards, deprived of all royal authority, she withdrew
+into Syria, and made preparation to recover her rights by force of
+arms. At this juncture Julius Caesar followed Pompey into
+Egypt. The personal fascinations of Cleopatra induced him to
+undertake a war on her behalf, in which Ptolemy lost his life, and
+she was replaced on the throne in conjunction with a younger
+brother, of whom, however, she soon rid herself by poison. In
+Rome she lived openly with Caesar as his mistress until his
+assassination, when, aware of her unpopularity, she returned at
+once to Egypt. Subsequently she became the ally and mistress of
+Mark Antony (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antonius</a></span>). Their connexion was highly
+unpopular at Rome, and Octavian (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Augustus</a></span>) declared war
+upon them and defeated them at Actium (31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Cleopatra
+took to flight, and escaped to Alexandria, where Antony joined
+her. Having no prospect of ultimate success, she accepted the
+proposal of Octavian that she should assassinate Antony, and
+enticed him to join her in a mausoleum which she had built in
+order that &ldquo;they might die together.&rdquo; Antony committed
+suicide, in the mistaken belief that she had already done so, but
+Octavian refused to yield to the charms of Cleopatra who put an
+end to her life, by applying an asp to her bosom, according to the
+common tradition, in the thirty-ninth year of her age (29th of
+August, 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). With her ended the dynasty of the Ptolemies,
+and Egypt was made a Roman province. Cleopatra had three
+children by Antony, and by Julius Caesar, as some say, a son,
+called Caesarion, who was put to death by Octavian. In her the
+type of queen characteristic of the Macedonian dynasties stands
+in the most brilliant light. Imperious will, masculine boldness,
+relentless ambition like hers had been exhibited by queens of her
+race since the old Macedonian days before Philip and Alexander.
+But the last Cleopatra had perhaps some special intellectual
+endowment. She surprised her generation by being able to
+speak the many tongues of her subjects. There may have been
+an individual quality in her luxurious profligacy, but then her
+predecessors had not had the Roman lords of the world for
+wooers.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the history of Cleopatra see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Antonius, Marcus</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caesar,
+Gaius Julius</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemies</a></span>. The life of Antony by Plutarch is our
+main authority; it is upon this that Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Antony and
+Cleopatra</i> is based. Her life is the subject of monographs by Stahr
+(1879, an <i>apologia</i>), and Houssaye, <i>Aspasie, Cléopâtre</i>, &amp;c. (1879).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLEPSYDRA<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="klheptein">&#954;&#955;&#7952;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to steal, and <span class="grk" title="hudôr">&#8021;&#948;&#969;&#961;</span>, water),
+the chronometer of the Greeks and Romans, which measured time
+by the flow of water. In its simplest form it was a short-necked
+earthenware globe of known capacity, pierced at the bottom with
+several small holes, through which the water escaped or &ldquo;stole
+away.&rdquo; The instrument was employed to set a limit to the
+speeches in courts of justice, hence the phrases <i>aquam dare</i>, to give
+the advocate speaking time, and <i>aquam perdere</i>, to waste time.
+Smaller clepsydrae of glass were very early used in place of the
+sun-dial, to mark the hours. But as the length of the hour varied
+according to the season of the year, various arrangements, of
+which we have no clear account, were necessary to obviate this
+and other defects. For instance, the flow of water varied with the
+temperature and pressure of the air, and secondly, the rate of flow
+became less as the vessel emptied itself. The latter defect was
+remedied by keeping the level of the water in the clepsydra
+uniform, the volume of that discharged being noted. Plato is
+said to have invented a complicated clepsydra to indicate the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span>
+hours of the night as well as of the day. In the clepsydra or
+hydraulic clock of Ctesibius of Alexandria, made about 135 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+the movement of water-wheels caused the gradual rise of a little
+figure, which pointed out the hours with a little stick on an index
+attached to the machine. The clepsydra is said to have been
+known to the Egyptians. There was one in the Tower of the
+Winds at Athens; and the turret on the south side of the tower is
+supposed to have contained the cistern which supplied the water.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Marquardt, <i>Das Privatleben der Römer</i>, i. (2nd ed., 1886),
+p. 792; G. Bilfinger, <i>Die Zeitmesser der antiken Völker</i> (1886), and
+<i>Die antiken Stundenangaben</i> (1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERESTORY<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clearstory</span> (Ital. <i>chiaro piano</i>, Fr. <i>clairevoie</i>,
+<i>claire étage</i>, Ger. <i>Lichtgaden</i>), in architecture, the upper
+storey of the nave of a church, the walls of which rise above the
+aisles and are pierced with windows (&ldquo;clere&rdquo; being simply
+&ldquo;clear,&rdquo; in the sense of &ldquo;lighted&rdquo;). Sometimes these windows
+are very small, being mere quatrefoils or spherical triangles.
+In large buildings, however, they are important objects, both
+for beauty and utility. The windows of the clerestories
+of Norman work, even in large churches, are of less importance
+than in the later styles. In Early English they became
+larger; and in the Decorated they are more important still,
+being lengthened as the triforium diminishes. In Perpendicular
+work the latter often disappears altogether, and in many
+later churches, as at Taunton, and many churches in Norfolk
+and Suffolk, the clerestories are close ranges of windows. The
+term is equally applicable to the Egyptian temples, where
+the lighting of the hall of columns was obtained over the stone
+roofs of the adjoining aisles, through slits pierced in vertical
+slabs of stone. The Romans also in their baths and palaces
+employed the same method, and probably derived it from the
+Greeks; in the palaces at Crete, however, light-wells would
+seem to have been employed.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERFAYT<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Clairfayt</span>), <span class="bold">FRANÇOIS SEBASTIEN CHARLES
+JOSEPH DE CROIX</span>, <span class="sc">Count of</span> (1733-1798), Austrian field
+marshal, entered the Austrian army in 1753. In the Seven
+Years&rsquo; War he greatly distinguished himself, earning rapid
+promotion, and receiving the decoration of the order of Maria
+Theresa. At the conclusion of the peace, though still under
+thirty, he was already a colonel. During the outbreak of the
+Netherlands in 1787, he was, as a Walloon by birth, subjected
+to great pressure to induce him to abandon Joseph II., but he
+resisted all overtures, and in the following year went to the
+Turkish war in the rank of lieutenant field marshal. In an
+independent command Clerfayt achieved great success, defeating
+the Turks at Mehadia and Calafat. In 1792, as one of the most
+distinguished of the emperor&rsquo;s generals, he received the command
+of the Austrian contingent in the duke of Brunswick&rsquo;s army,
+and at Croix-sous-Bois his corps inflicted a reverse on the troops
+of the French revolution. In the Netherlands, to which quarter
+he was transferred after Jemappes, he opened the campaign
+of 1793 with the victory of Aldenhoven and the relief of Maestricht,
+and on March 18th mainly brought about the complete
+defeat of Dumouriez at Neerwinden. Later in the year, however,
+his victorious career was checked by the reverse at Wattignies,
+and in 1794 he was unsuccessful in West Flanders against
+Pichegru. In the course of the campaign Clerfayt succeeded
+the duke of Saxe-Coburg in the supreme command, but was
+quite unable to make head against the French, and had to recross
+the Rhine. In 1795, now field marshal, he commanded on the
+middle Rhine against Jourdan, and this time the fortune of war
+changed. Jourdan was beaten at Höchst and Mainz brilliantly
+relieved. But the field marshal&rsquo;s action in concluding an
+armistice with the French not being approved by Thugut, he
+resigned the command, and became a member of the Aulic
+Council in Vienna. He died in 1798. A brave and skilful
+soldier, Clerfayt perhaps achieved more than any other Austrian
+commander (except the archduke Charles) in the hopeless
+struggle of small dynastic armies against a &ldquo;nation in arms.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See von Vivenot, <i>Thugut, Clerfayt, und Würmser</i> (Vienna, 1869).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERGY<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> (M.E. <i>clergie</i>, O. Fr. <i>clergie</i>, from Low Lat. form
+<i>clericia</i> [Skeat], by assimilation with O. Fr. <i>clergié</i>, Fr. <i>clergé</i>,
+from Low Lat. <i>clericatus</i>), a collective term signifying in English
+strictly the body of &ldquo;clerks,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> men in holy orders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Clerk</a></span>).
+The word has, however, undergone sundry modifications of
+meaning. Its M.E. senses of &ldquo;clerkship&rdquo; and &ldquo;learning&rdquo;
+have long since fallen obsolete. On the other hand, in modern
+times there has been an increasing tendency to depart from its
+strict application to technical &ldquo;clerks,&rdquo; and to widen it out so as
+to embrace all varieties of ordained Christian ministers. While,
+however, it is now not unusual to speak of &ldquo;the Nonconformist
+clergy,&rdquo; the word &ldquo;clergyman&rdquo; is still, at least in the United
+Kingdom, used of the clergy of the Established Church in contradistinction
+to &ldquo;minister.&rdquo; As applied to the Roman Catholic
+Church the word embraces the whole hierarchy, whether its
+<i>clerici</i> be in holy orders or merely in minor orders. The term
+has also been sometimes loosely used to include the members of
+the regular orders; but this use is improper, since monks and
+friars, as such, have at no time been <i>clerici</i>. The use of the word
+&ldquo;clergy&rdquo; as a plural, though the <i>New English Dictionary</i> quotes
+the high authority of Cardinal Newman for it, is less rare than
+wrong; in the case cited &ldquo;Some hundred Clergy&rdquo; should have
+been &ldquo;Some hundred of the Clergy.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In distinction to the &ldquo;clergy&rdquo; we find the &ldquo;laity&rdquo; (Gr. <span class="grk" title="laos">&#955;&#940;&#959;&#962;</span>,
+people), the great body of &ldquo;faithful people&rdquo; which, in nearly
+every various conception of the Christian Church, stands in
+relation to the clergy as a flock of sheep to its pastor. This
+distinction was of early growth, and developed, with the increasing
+power of the hierarchy, during the middle ages into a very
+lively opposition (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Order, Holy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Church History</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Papacy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Investitures</a></span>). The extreme claim of the great
+medieval popes, that the priest, as &ldquo;ruler over spiritual things,&rdquo;
+was as much superior to temporal rulers as the soul is to the
+body (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Innocent III.</a></span>), led logically to the vast privileges
+and immunities enjoyed by the clergy during the middle ages.
+In those countries where the Reformation triumphed, this
+triumph represented the victory of the civil over the clerical
+powers in the long contest. The victory was, however, by no
+means complete. The Presbyterian model was, for instance,
+as sacerdotal in its essence as the Catholic; Milton complained
+with justice that &ldquo;new presbyter is but old priest writ large,&rdquo;
+and declared that &ldquo;the Title of Clergy St Peter gave to all God&rsquo;s
+people,&rdquo; its later restriction being a papal and prelatical usurpation
+(<i>i.e.</i> i Peter v. 3, for <span class="grk" title="klêros">&#954;&#955;&#8134;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="klêron">&#954;&#955;&#942;&#961;&#969;&#957;</span>).</p>
+
+<p>Clerical immunities, of course, differed largely at different
+times and in different countries, the extent of them having been
+gradually curtailed from a period a little earlier than the close
+of the middle ages. They consisted mainly in exemption from
+public burdens, both as regarded person and pocket, and in
+immunity from lay jurisdiction. This last enormous privilege,
+which became one of the main and most efficient instruments
+of the subjection of Europe to clerical tyranny, extended to
+matters both civil and criminal; though, as Bingham shows,
+it did not (always and everywhere) prevail in cases of heinous
+crime (<i>Origines Eccles.</i> bk. v.).</p>
+
+<p>This diversity of jurisdiction, and subjection of the clergy
+only to the sentences of judges bribed by their <i>esprit de corps</i>
+to judge leniently, led to the adoption of a scale of punishments
+for the offences of clerks avowedly much lighter than that which
+was inflicted for the same crimes on laymen; and this in turn
+led to the survival in England, long after the Reformation, of
+the curious legal fiction of benefit of clergy (see below), used to
+mitigate the extreme harshness of the criminal law.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERGY, BENEFIT OF<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span>, an obsolete but once very important
+feature in English criminal law. Benefit of clergy began with
+the claim on the part of the ecclesiastical authorities in the
+12th century that every <i>clericus</i> should be exempt from the
+jurisdiction of the temporal courts and be subject to the spiritual
+courts alone. The issue of the conflict was that the common
+law courts abandoned the extreme punishment of death assigned
+to some offences when the person convicted was a <i>clericus</i>, and
+the church was obliged to accept the compromise and let a
+secondary punishment be inflicted. The term &ldquo;clerk&rdquo; or
+<i>clericus</i> always included a large number of persons in what
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span>
+were called minor orders, and in 1350 the privilege was extended
+to secular as well as to religious clerks; and, finally, the test
+of being a clerk was the ability to read the opening words of
+verse 1 of Psalm li., hence generally known as the &ldquo;neck-verse.&rdquo;
+Even this requirement was abolished in 1705. In 1487 it
+was enacted that every layman, when convicted of a clergyable
+felony, should be branded on the thumb, and disabled from
+claiming the benefit a second time. The privilege was extended
+to peers, even if they could not read, in 1547, and to women,
+partially in 1622 and fully in 1692. The partial exemption
+claimed by the Church did not apply to the more atrocious
+crimes, and hence offences came to be divided into clergyable
+and unclergyable. According to the common practice in England
+of working out modern improvements through antiquated
+forms, this exemption was made the means of modifying the
+severity of the criminal law. It became the practice to claim
+and be allowed the benefit of clergy; and when it was the
+intention by statute to make a crime really punishable with
+death, it was awarded &ldquo;without benefit of clergy.&rdquo; The benefit
+of clergy was abolished by a statute of 1827, but as this statute
+did not repeal that of 1547, under which peers were given the
+privilege, a further statute was passed in 1841 putting peers on
+the same footing as commons and clergy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a full account of benefit of clergy see Pollock and Maitland,
+<i>History of English Law</i>, vol. i. 424-440; also Stephen, <i>History of the
+Criminal Law of England</i>, vol. i.; E. Friedberg, <i>Corpus juris canonici</i>
+(Leipzig, 1879-1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERGY RESERVES<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span>, in Canada. By the act of 1791,
+establishing the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, the
+British government set apart one-eighth of all the crown lands
+for the support of &ldquo;a Protestant clergy.&rdquo; These reservations,
+after being for many years a stumbling-block to the economic
+development of the province, and the cause of much bitter
+political and ecclesiastical controversy, were secularized by the
+Canadian parliament in 1854, and the proceeds applied to other
+purposes, chiefly educational. Owing to the wording of the
+imperial act, the amount set apart is often stated as one-seventh,
+and was sometimes claimed as such by the clergy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERK<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span><a name="FnAnchor_1s" id="FnAnchor_1s" href="#Footnote_1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (from A.S. <i>cleric</i> or <i>clerc</i>, which, with the similar
+Fr. form, comes direct from the Lat. <i>clericus</i>), in its original
+sense, as used in the civil law, one who had taken religious
+orders of whatever rank, whether &ldquo;holy&rdquo; or &ldquo;minor.&rdquo; The
+word <i>clericus</i> is derived from the Greek <span class="grk" title="klêrikos">&#954;&#955;&#951;&#961;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;of or pertaining
+to an inheritance,&rdquo; from <span class="grk" title="koêros">&#954;&#955;&#8134;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, &ldquo;lot,&rdquo; &ldquo;allotment,&rdquo; &ldquo;estate,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;inheritance&rdquo;; but the authorities are by no means agreed
+in which sense the root is connected with the sense of the derivative,
+some conceiving that the original idea was that the clergy
+received the service of God as their lot or portion; others that
+they were the portion of the Lord; while others again, with
+more reason as Bingham (<i>Orig. Eccl.</i> lib. i. cap. 5, sec. 9) seems
+to think, maintain that the word has reference to the choosing
+by lot, as in early ages was the case of those to whom public
+offices were to be entrusted.</p>
+
+<p>In the primitive times of the church the term canon was
+used as synonymous with clerk, from the names of all the persons
+in the service of any church having been inscribed on a roll, or
+<span class="grk" title="kanon">&#954;&#945;&#957;&#974;&#957;</span>, whence they were termed <i>canonici</i>, a fact which shows
+that the practice of the Roman Catholic Church of including
+all persons of all ranks in the service of the church, ordained
+or unordained, in the term clerks, or clergy, is at least in conformity
+with the practice of antiquity. Thus, too, in English
+ecclesiastical law, a clerk was any one who had been admitted
+to the ecclesiastical state, and had taken the tonsure. The
+application of the word in this sense gradually underwent a
+change, and &ldquo;clerk&rdquo; became more especially the term applied
+to those in minor orders, while those in &ldquo;major&rdquo; or &ldquo;holy&rdquo;
+orders were designated in full &ldquo;clerks in holy orders,&rdquo; which in
+English law still remains the designation of clergymen of the
+Established Church. After the Reformation the word &ldquo;clerk&rdquo;
+was still further extended to include laymen who performed
+duties in cathedrals, churches, &amp;c., <i>e.g.</i> the choirmen, who were
+designated &ldquo;lay clerks.&rdquo; Of these lay clerks or choirmen
+there was always one whose duty it was to be constantly present
+at every service, to sing or say the responses as the leader or
+representative of the laity. His duties were gradually enlarged
+to include the care of the church and precincts, assisting at
+baptisms, marriages, &amp;c., and he thus became the precursor of
+the later <i>parish clerk</i>. In a somewhat similar sense we find
+<i>bible clerk, singing clerk</i>, &amp;c. The use of the word &ldquo;clerk&rdquo;
+to denote a person ordained to the ministry is now mainly
+legal or formal.</p>
+
+<p>The word also developed in a different sense. In medieval
+times the pursuit of letters and general learning was confined
+to the clergy, and as they were practically the only persons who
+could read and write all notarial and secretarial work was
+discharged by them, so that in time the word was used with
+special reference to secretaries, notaries, accountants or even
+mere penmen. This special meaning developed into what is
+now one of the ordinary senses of the word. We find, accordingly,
+the term applied to those officers of courts, corporations, &amp;c.,
+whose duty consists in keeping records, correspondence, and
+generally managing business, as <i>clerk of the market, clerk of the
+petty bag, clerk of the peace, town clerk</i>, &amp;c. Similarly, a clerk
+also means any one who in a subordinate position is engaged
+in writing, making entries, ordinary correspondence, or similar
+&ldquo;clerkly&rdquo; work. In the United States the word means also
+an assistant in a commercial house, a retail salesman.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1s" id="Footnote_1s" href="#FnAnchor_1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The accepted English pronunciation, &ldquo;clark,&rdquo; is found in
+southern English as early as the 15th century; but northern dialects
+still preserve the e sound (&ldquo;clurk&rdquo;), which is the common pronunciation
+in America.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERKE, AGNES MARY<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span> (1842-1907), English astronomer
+and scientific writer, was born on the 10th of February 1842,
+and died in London on the 20th of January 1907. She wrote
+extensively on various scientific subjects, but devoted herself
+more especially to astronomy. Though not a practical astronomer
+in the ordinary sense, she possessed remarkable skill in
+collating, interpreting and summarizing the results of astronomical
+research, and as a historian her work has an important
+place in scientific literature. Her chief works were <i>A Popular
+History of Astronomy during the 19th Century</i>, first edition 1885,
+fourth 1902; <i>The System of the Stars</i>, first edition 1890, second
+1905; and <i>Problems in Astrophysics</i>, 1903. In addition she
+wrote <i>Familiar Studies in Homer</i> (1892), <i>The Herschels and
+Modern Astronomy</i> (1895), <i>Modern Cosmogonies</i> (1906), and
+many valuable articles, such as her contributions to the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i>. In 1903 she was elected an honorary
+member of the Royal Astronomical Society.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERKENWELL<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span>, a district on the north side of the city of
+London, England, within the metropolitan borough of Finsbury
+(<i>q.v.</i>). It is so called from one of several wells or springs in this
+district, near which miracle plays were performed by the parish
+clerks of London. This well existed until the middle of the 19th
+century. Here was situated a priory, founded in 1100, which
+grew to great wealth and fame as the principal institution in
+England of the Knights Hospitallers of the Order of St John of
+Jerusalem. Its gateway, erected in 1504, and remaining in St
+John&rsquo;s Square, served various purposes after the suppression of
+the monasteries, being, for example, the birthplace of the
+<i>Gentleman&rsquo;s Magazine</i> in 1731, and the scene of Dr Johnson&rsquo;s
+work in connexion with that journal. In modern times the
+gatehouse again became associated with the Order, and is the
+headquarters of the St John&rsquo;s Ambulance Association. An Early
+English crypt remains beneath the neighbouring parish church of
+St John, where the notorious deception of the &ldquo;Cock Lane
+Ghost,&rdquo; in which Johnson took great interest, was exposed.
+Adjoining the priory was St Mary&rsquo;s Benedictine nunnery, St
+James&rsquo;s church (1792) marking the site, and preserving in its
+vaults some of the ancient monuments. In the 17th century
+Clerkenwell became a fashionable place of residence. A prison
+erected here at this period gave place later to the House of
+Detention, notorious as the scene of a Fenian outrage in 1867,
+when it was sought to release certain prisoners by blowing up part
+of the building. Clerkenwell is a centre of the watch-making and
+jeweller&rsquo;s industries, long established here; and the Northampton
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span>
+Polytechnic Institute, Northampton Square, a branch of the City
+Polytechnic, has a department devoted to instruction in these
+trades.</p>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clermont-de-l&rsquo;Oise</span>, a
+town of northern France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Oise, on the right bank of the Brèche, 41 m. N. of
+Paris on the Northern railway to Amiens. Pop. (1906) 4014.
+The hill on which the town is built is surmounted by a keep of the
+14th century, the relic of a fortress the site of which is partly
+occupied by a large penitentiary for women. The church dates
+from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The hôtel-de-ville, built by
+King Charles IV., who was born at Clermont in 1294, is the oldest
+in the north of France. The most attractive feature of the town is
+the Promenade du Châtellier on the site of the old ramparts.
+Clermont is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first
+instance, a communal college and a large lunatic asylum. It
+manufactures felt and corsets, and carries on a trade in horses,
+cattle and grain.</p>
+
+<p>The town was probably founded during the time of the Norman
+invasions, and was an important military post, during the middle
+ages. It was several times taken and retaken by the contending
+parties during the Hundred Years&rsquo; War, and the Wars of
+Religion, and in 1615 Henry II., prince of Condé, was besieged
+and captured there by the marshal d&rsquo;Ancre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Counts of Clermont</span>. Clermont was at one time the seat of a
+countship, the lords of which were already powerful in the 11th
+century. Raoul de Clermont, constable of France, died at Acre
+in 1191, leaving a daughter who brought Clermont to her husband,
+Louis, count of Blois and Chartres. Theobald, count of Blois and
+Clermont, died in 1218 without issue, and King Philip Augustus,
+having received the countship of Clermont from the collateral
+heirs of this lord, gave it to his son Philip Hurepel, whose daughter
+Jeanne, and his widow, Mahaut, countess of Dammartin, next
+held the countship. It was united by Saint Louis to the crown,
+and afterwards given by him (1269) to his son Robert, from whom
+sprang the house of Bourbon. In 1524 the countship of Clermont
+was confiscated from the constable de Bourbon, and later (1540)
+given to the duke of Orleans, to Catherine de&rsquo; Medici (1562), to
+Eric, duke of Brunswick (1569), from whom it passed to his
+brother-in-law Charles of Lorraine (1596), and finally to Henry II.,
+prince of Condé (1611). In 1641 it was again confiscated from
+Louis de Bourbon, count of Soissons, then in 1696 sold to Louis
+Thomas Amadeus of Savoy, count of Soissons, in 1702 to Françoise
+de Brancas, princesse d&rsquo;Harcourt, and in 1719 to Louis-Henry,
+prince of Condé. From a branch of the old lords of Clermont
+were descended the lords of Nesle and Chantilly.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-FERRAND<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span>, a city of central France, capital of
+the department of Puy-de-Dôme, 113 m. W. of Lyons on the
+Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 44,113; commune,
+58,363. Clermont-Ferrand is situated on an eminence on the
+western border of the fertile plain of Limagne. On the north, west
+and south it is surrounded by hills, with a background of
+mountains amongst which the Puy-de-Dôme stands out
+prominently. A small river, the Tiretaine, borders the town on
+the north. Since 1731 it has been composed of the two towns of
+Clermont and Montferrand, now connected by a fine avenue of
+walnut trees and willows, 2 m. in length, bordered on one side by
+barracks. The watering-place of Royat lies a little more than
+a mile to the west. Clermont has several handsome squares
+ornamented with fountains, the chief of which is a graceful
+structure erected by Bishop Jacques d&rsquo;Amboise in 1515. The
+streets of the older and busier quarter of Clermont in the
+neighbourhood of the cathedral and the Place de Jaude, the
+principal square, are for the most part narrow, sombre and
+bordered by old houses built of lava; boulevards divide this part
+from more modern and spacious quarters, which adjoin it. To
+the south lies the fine promenade known as the Jardin Lecoq.</p>
+
+<p>The principal building is the cathedral, a Gothic edifice begun
+in the 13th century. It was not completed, however, till the
+19th century, when the west portal and towers and two bays
+of the nave were added, according to the plans of Viollet-le-Duc.
+The fine stained glass of the windows dates from the
+13th to the 15th centuries. A monument of the Crusades with a
+statue of Pope Urban II. stands in the Cathedral square. The
+church of Notre-Dame du Port is a typical example of the
+Romanesque style of Auvergne, dating chiefly from the 11th and
+12th centuries. The exterior of the choir, with its four radiating
+chapels, its jutting cornices supported by modillions and columns
+with carved capitals, and its mosaic decoration of black and white
+stones, is the most interesting part of the exterior. The rest of
+the church comprises a narthex surmounted by a tower, three
+naves and a transept, over which rises another tower. There are
+several churches of minor importance in the town. Among the
+old houses one, dating from the 16th century, was the birthplace
+of Blaise Pascal, whose statue stands in a neighbouring square.
+There is a statue of General Louis Charles Desaix de Veygoux in
+the Place de Jaude. Montferrand has several interesting houses
+of the 15th and 16th centuries, and a church of the 13th, 14th and
+15th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Clermont-Ferrand is the seat of a bishopric and a prefecture
+and headquarters of the XIII. army corps; it has tribunals
+of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
+a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a branch of the Bank
+of France. The town is the centre of an educational division
+(<i>académie</i>), and has faculties of science and of literature. It also
+has lycées and training colleges for both sexes, ecclesiastical
+seminaries, a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy,
+schools of architecture, music, commerce and industry, museums
+of art and antiquities and natural history and a library. A
+great variety of industries is carried on, the chief being the
+manufacture of semolina and other farinaceous foods, confectionery,
+preserved fruit and jams, chemicals and rubber goods.
+Liqueurs, chicory, chocolate, candles, hats, boots and shoes,
+and woollen and linen goods are also made, and tanning is
+practised. Clermont is the chief market for the grain and other
+agricultural produce of Auvergne and Velay. Its waters are in
+local repute. On the bank of the Tiretaine there is a remarkable
+calcareous spring, the fountain of St Allyre, the copious deposits
+of which have formed a curious natural bridge over the stream.</p>
+
+<p>Clermont is identified with the ancient <i>Augustonemetum</i>, the
+chief town of the Arverni, and it still preserves some remains of
+the Roman period. The present name, derived from Clarus
+Mons and originally applied only to the citadel, was used of the
+town as early as the 9th century. During the disintegration of
+the Roman empire Clermont suffered as much perhaps from
+capture and pillage as any city in the country; its history during
+the middle ages chiefly records the struggles between its bishops
+and the counts of Auvergne, and between the citizens and their
+overlord the bishop. It was the seat of seven ecclesiastical
+councils, held in the years 535, 549, 587, 1095, 1110, 1124 and
+1130; and of these the council of 1095 is for ever memorable as
+that in which Pope Urban II. proclaimed the first crusade.
+In the wars against the English in the 14th and 15th centuries
+and the religious wars of the 16th century the town had its
+full participation; and in 1665 it acquired a terrible notoriety
+by the trial and execution of many members of the nobility
+of Auvergne who had tyrannized over the neighbouring districts.
+The proceedings lasted six months, and the episode is known
+as <i>les Grands Jours de Clermont</i>. Before the Revolution the
+town possessed several monastic establishments, of which the
+most important were the abbey of Saint Allyre, founded, it is
+said, in the 3rd century by St Austremonius (St Stremoine), the
+apostle of Auvergne and first bishop of Clermont, and the abbey
+of St André, where the counts of Clermont were interred.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1846-&emsp;&emsp;),
+French Orientalist, the son of a sculptor of some repute, was born
+in Paris on the 19th of February 1846. After an education
+at the École des Langues Orientales, he entered the diplomatic
+service as dragoman to the consulate at Jerusalem, and
+afterwards at Constantinople. He laid the foundation of his
+reputation by his discovery (in 1870) of the &ldquo;stele&rdquo; of Mesha
+(Moabite Stone), which bears the oldest Semitic inscription
+known. In 1874 he was employed by the British government to
+take charge of an archaeological expedition to Palestine, and was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span>
+subsequently entrusted by his own government with similar
+missions to Syria and the Red Sea. He was made chevalier of
+the Legion of Honour in 1875. After serving as vice-consul at
+Jaffa from 1880 to 1882, he returned to Paris as &ldquo;secrétaire-interprète&rdquo;
+for oriental languages, and in 1886 was appointed
+consul of the first class. He subsequently accepted the post of
+director of the École des Langues Orientales and professor at
+the Collège de France. In 1889 he was elected a member of the
+Académie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, of which he had
+been a correspondent since 1880. In 1896 he was promoted
+to be consul-general, and was minister plenipotentiary in 1906.
+He was the first in England to expose the famous forgeries of
+Hebrew texts offered to the British Museum by M.W. Shapira (<i>q.v.</i>)
+in 1883, and in 1903 he took a prominent part in the investigation
+of the so-called &ldquo;tiara of Saïtapharnes.&rdquo; This tiara had been
+purchased by the Louvre for 400,000 francs, and exhibited as
+a genuine antique. Much discussion arose as to the perpetrators
+of the fraud, some believing that it came from southern Russia.
+It was agreed, however, that the whole object, except perhaps the
+band round the tiara, was of modern manufacture.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to
+journals, are:&mdash;<i>Palestine inconnue</i> (1886), <i>Études d&rsquo;archéologie
+orientale</i> (1880, &amp;c.), <i>Les Fraudes archéologiques</i> (1885), <i>Recueil
+d&rsquo;archéologie orientale</i> (1885, &amp;c.), <i>Album d&rsquo;antiquités orientales</i>
+(1897, &amp;c.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-L&rsquo;HERAULT<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span>, or <span class="sc">Clermont de Lodève</span>, a town
+of southern France in the department of Hérault, 10 m. S.S.E.
+by rail of Lodève. Pop. (1906) 4731. The town is built on the
+slope of a hill which is crowned by an ancient castle and skirted
+by the Rhonel, a tributary of the Lergue. It has an interesting
+church of the 13th and 14th centuries. The chief manufacture
+is that of cloth for military clothing, and woollen goods, an
+industry which dates from the latter half of the 17th century.
+Tanning and leather-dressing are also carried on, and there is
+trade in wine, wool and grain. Among the public institutions
+are a tribunal of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures,
+a board of trade-arbitration and a communal college. The town
+was several times taken and retaken in the religious wars of
+the 16th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-TONNERRE<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span>, the name of a French family,
+members of which played some part in the history of France,
+especially in Dauphiné, from about 1100 to the Revolution.
+Sibaud, lord of Clermont in Viennois, who first appears in 1080,
+was the founder of the family. His descendant, another Sibaud,
+commanded some troops which aided Pope Calixtus II. in his
+struggle with the anti-pope Gregory VIII.; and in return for this
+service it is said that the pope allowed him to add certain emblems&mdash;two
+keys and a tiara&mdash;to the arms of his family. A
+direct descendant, Ainard (d. 1349), called vicomte de Clermont,
+was granted the dignity of captain-general and first baron of
+Dauphiné by his suzerain Humbert, dauphin of Viennois, in
+1340; and in 1547 Clermont was made a county for Antoine
+(d. 1578), who was governor of Dauphiné and the French king&rsquo;s
+lieutenant in Savoy. In 1572 Antoine&rsquo;s son Henri was created
+a duke, but as this was only a &ldquo;brevet&rdquo; title it did not descend
+to his son. Henri was killed before La Rochelle in 1573. In 1596
+Henri&rsquo;s son, Charles Henri, count of Clermont (d. 1640), added
+Tonnerre to his heritage; but in 1648 this county was sold by
+his son and successor, François (d. 1679).</p>
+
+<p>A member of a younger branch of Charles Henri&rsquo;s descendants
+was Gaspard de Clermont-Tonnerre (1688-1781). This soldier
+served his country during a long period, fighting in Bohemia
+and Alsace, and then distinguishing himself greatly at the battles
+of Fontenoy and Lawfeldt. In 1775 he was created duke of
+Clermont-Tonnerre, and made a peer of France; as the senior
+marshal (cr. 1747) of France he assisted as constable at the coronation
+of Louis XVI. in 1774. His son and successor, Charles
+Henri Jules, governor of Dauphiné, was guillotined in July 1794,
+a fate which his grandson, Gaspard Charles, had suffered at Lyons
+in the previous year. A later duke, Aimé Marie Gaspard (1779-1865),
+served for some years as a soldier, afterwards becoming
+minister of marine and then minister of war under Charles X.,
+and retiring into private life after the revolution of 1830. Aimé&rsquo;s
+grandson, Roger, duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, was born in 1842.</p>
+
+<p>Among other distinguished members of this family was
+Catherine (c. 1545-1603), only daughter of Claude de Clermont-Tonnerre.
+This lady, <i>dame d&rsquo;honneur</i> to Henry II.&rsquo;s queen,
+Catherine de&rsquo; Medici, and afterwards wife of Albert de Gondi,
+due de Retz, won a great reputation by her intellectual attainments,
+being referred to as the &ldquo;tenth muse&rdquo; and the &ldquo;fourth
+grace.&rdquo; One of her grandsons was the famous cardinal de Retz.
+Other noteworthy members of collateral branches of the family
+were: François (1629-1701), bishop of Noyon from 1661 until
+his death, a member of the French Academy, notorious for his
+inordinate vanity; Stanislas M. A., comte de Clermont-Tonnerre
+(<i>q.v.</i>); and Anne Antoine Jules (1740-1830), cardinal and bishop
+of Châlons, who was a member of the states-general in 1789,
+afterwards retiring into Germany, and after the return of the
+Bourbons to France became archbishop of Toulouse.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS MARIE ADELAIDE<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span>,
+<span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1757-1792), French politican, was born at Pont-à-Mousson
+on the 10th of October 1757. At the beginning of the
+Revolution he was a colonel, with some reputation as a freemason
+and a Liberal. He was elected to the states-general of
+1789 by the noblesse of Paris, and was the spokesman of the
+minority of Liberal nobles who joined the Third Estate on the
+25th of June. He desired to model the new constitution of
+France on that of England. He was elected president of the
+Constituent Assembly on the 17th of August 1789; but on the
+rejection by the Assembly of the scheme elaborated by the first
+constitutional committee, he attached himself to the party of
+moderate royalists, known as <i>monarchiens</i>, led by P.V. Malouet.
+His speech in favour of reserving to the crown the right of
+absolute veto under the new constitution drew down upon him
+the wrath of the advanced politicians of the Palais Royal;
+but in spite of threats and abuse he continued to advocate a
+moderate liberal policy, especially in the matter of removing
+the political disabilities of Jews and Protestants and of extending
+the system of trial by jury. In January 1790 he collaborated
+with Malouet in founding the Club des Impartiaux and the
+<i>Journal des Impartiaux</i>, the names of which were changed in
+November to the Société des Amis de la Constitution Monarchique
+and <i>Journal de la Société, &amp;c.</i>. in order to emphasize their opposition
+to the Jacobins (Société des Amis de la Constitution). This
+club was denounced by Barnave in the Assembly (January 21st,
+1791), and on the 28th of March it was attacked by a mob,
+whereupon it was closed by order of the Assembly. Clermont-Tonnerre
+was murdered by the populace during the rising of the
+9th and 10th of August 1792. He was an excellent orator,
+having acquired practice in speaking, before the Revolution, in
+the masonic lodges. He is a good representative of the type of
+the <i>grands seigneurs</i> holding advanced and liberal ideas, who
+helped to bring about the movement of 1789, and then tried
+in vain to arrest its course.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Recueil des opinions de Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre</i> (4 vols.,
+Paris, 1791), the text of his speeches as published by himself;
+A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Constituante</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">CLERUCHY<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span>
+(Gr. <span class="grk" title="klêrouchia">&#954;&#955;&#951;&#961;&#959;&#965;&#967;&#943;&#945;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="klêros">&#954;&#955;&#8134;&#961;&#959;&#962;</span>, a lot, <span class="grk" title="echein">&#7956;&#967;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to have),
+in ancient Greek history a kind of colony composed of Athenian<a name="FnAnchor_1t" id="FnAnchor_1t" href="#Footnote_1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+citizens planted, practically as a garrison, in a conquered country.
+Strictly, the settlers (cleruchs) were not colonists, inasmuch
+as they retained their status as citizens of Athens (<i>e.g.</i> <span class="grk" title="ho dêmos ho en Hphaistia">
+&#8001; &#948;&#8134;&#956;&#959;&#962; &#8001; &#7952;&#957; &#905;&#966;&#945;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#943;&#8115;</span>), and their allotments were politically part of
+Attic soil. These settlements were of three kinds: (1) where
+the earlier inhabitants were extirpated or expatriated, and the
+settlers occupied the whole territory; (2) where the settlers
+occupied allotments in the midst of a conquered people; and
+(3) where the inhabitants gave up portions of land to settlers
+in return for certain pecuniary concessions. The primary
+object (cf. the 4000 cleruchs settled in 506 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> upon the lands of
+the conquered oligarchs of Euboea, known as the Hippobotae)
+was unquestionably military, and in the later days of the Delian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span>
+League the system was the simplest precaution against disaffection
+on the part of the allies, the strength of whose resentment
+may be gathered from an inscription (Hicks and Hill, 101
+[81]), which, in setting forth the terms of the second Delian
+Confederacy, expressly forbids the holding of land by Athenians
+in allied territory.</p>
+
+<p>A secondary object of the cleruchies was social or agrarian,
+to provide a source of livelihood to the poorer Athenians.
+Plutarch (<i>Pericles</i>, 11) suggests that Pericles by this means rid
+the city of the idle and mischievous loafers; but it would
+appear that the cleruchs were selected by lot, and in any case
+a wise policy would not deliberately entrust important military
+duties to recognized wastrels. When we remember that in 50
+years of the 5th century some 10,000 cleruchs went out, it is
+clear that the drain on the citizen population was considerable.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible to decide precisely how far the state retained
+control over the cleruchs. Certainly they were liable to military
+service and presumably to that taxation which fell upon Athenians
+at home. That they were not liable for the tribute which
+members of the Delian League paid is clear from the fact that
+the assessments of places where cleruchs were settled immediately
+went down considerably (cf. the Periclean cleruchies,
+450-445); indeed, this follows from their status as Athenian
+citizens, which is emphasized by the fact that they retained
+their membership of deme and tribe. In internal government
+the cleruchs adopted the Boul&#275; and Assembly system of Athens
+itself; so we read of Polemarchs, Archons Eponymi, Agoranomi,
+Strategi, in various places. With a measure of local self-government
+there was also combined a certain central authority (<i>e.g.</i>
+in the matter of jurisdiction, some case being tried by the
+Nautodicae at Athens); in fact we may assume that the more
+important cases, particularly those between a cleruch and a
+citizen at home, were tried before the Athenian dicasts. In a
+few cases, the cleruchs, <i>e.g.</i> in the case of Lesbos (427), were
+apparently allowed to remain in Athens receiving rent for their
+allotments from the original Lesbian owners (Thuc. iii. 50);
+but this represents the perversion of the original idea of the
+cleruchy to a system of reward and punishment.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Gilbert, <i>Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta</i>
+(Eng. trans., London, 1895), but note that Brea, wrongly quoted
+as an example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41
+[29]); A.H.J. Greenidge, <i>Handbook of Greek Constitutional
+Antiquities</i> (London, 1896); for the Periclean cleruchs see <a>Pericles</a>;
+<a>Delian League</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" />
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1t" id="Footnote_1t" href="#FnAnchor_1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It seems (Strabo, p. 635) that similar colonies were sent out by
+the Milesians, <i>e.g.</i> to Leros.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various
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+</body>
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+
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@@ -0,0 +1,19403 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4
+       "Cincinnatus" to "Cleruchy"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: March 14, 2010 [EBook #31641]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 6, SL 4 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland and
+the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript.
+
+(2) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(3) Letters topped by Macron are represented as [=x].
+
+(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article CISTERCIANS: "and tried to reproduce the life exactly as it
+      had been in St Benedict's time." 'life' amended from 'lire'.
+
+    Article CITHARA: "This characteristic box sound-chest (fig. 1)
+      consisted of two resonating tables, either flat or delicately
+      arched." 'characteristic' amended from 'characteristc'.
+
+    Article CIUDAD REAL: "and the trade of the town consists chiefly in
+      the weekly sales of agricultrural produce and live-stock."
+      'agricultrural' amended from 'agricultrual'.
+
+    Article CIVIL SERVICE: "The chief, if not the only, test of fitness
+      for office in many cases has been party loyalty, honesty and
+      capacity being seldom more than secondary considerations." 'party'
+      amended from 'partly'.
+
+    Article CLAIRON: "Hainaut, on the 25th of January 1723, the natural
+      daughter of an army sergeant." 'an' amended from 'any'.
+
+    Article CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE: "Cape Corso and other Dutch
+      possessions on the coast of Africa, and New Amsterdam in America."
+      'coast' amended from 'cost'.
+
+    Article CLARETIE, JULES ARSENE ARNAUD: "He was elected a member of
+      the Academy in 1888, and took his seat in February 1889, being
+      received by Ernest Renan." 'February' amended from 'Feburary'.
+
+    Article CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS: "verse translation of Il Ratto di
+      Proserpina , by L. Garces de Diez (1889)." 'Proserpina' amended
+      from 'Prosperpina'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME VI, SLICE IV
+
+           Cincinnatus to Cleruchy
+
+
+
+
+Articles in This Slice:
+
+
+  CINCINNATUS LUCIUS QUINCTIUS        CLARINA
+  CINDERELLA                          CLARINET
+  CINEAS                              CLARK, SIR ANDREW
+  CINEMATOGRAPH                       CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD
+  CINERARIA                           CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS
+  CINGOLI                             CLARK, SIR JAMES
+  CINNA (Roman family)                CLARK, JOHN BATES
+  CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS                CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER
+  CINNABAR                            CLARK, THOMAS
+  CINNAMIC ACID                       CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE
+  CINNAMON                            CLARKE, ADAM
+  CINNAMON-STONE                      CLARKE, SIR ANDREW
+  CINNAMUS                            CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN
+  CINNOLIN                            CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL
+  CINO DA PISTOIA                     CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE
+  CINQ-MARS, D'EFFIAT                 CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN
+  CINQUE CENTO                        CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER
+  CINQUE PORTS                        CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP
+  CINTRA                              CLARKE, MARY ANNE
+  CIPHER                              CLARKE, SAMUEL
+  CIPPUS                              CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS
+  CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA         CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE
+  CIRCAR                              CLARKSON, THOMAS
+  CIRCASSIA                           CLARKSVILLE
+  CIRCE                               CLASSICS
+  CIRCEIUS MONS                       CLASSIFICATION
+  CIRCLE                              CLASTIDIUM
+  CIRCLEVILLE                         CLAUBERG, JOHANN
+  CIRCUIT                             CLAUDE, JEAN
+  CIRCULAR NOTE                       CLAUDE OF LORRAINE
+  CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO                CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN
+  CIRCUMCISION                        CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS
+  CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF           CLAUDIUS (Nero Germanicus)
+  CIRCUS                              CLAUDIUS (famous Roman gens.)
+  CIRENCESTER                         CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS
+  CIRILLO, DOMENICO                   CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS
+  CIRQUE                              CLAUSEL
+  CIRTA                               CLAUSEN, GEORGE
+  CISSEY, ERNEST COURTOT DE           CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON
+  CISSOID                             CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF EMMANUEL
+  CIS-SUTLEJ STATES                   CLAUSTHAL
+  CIST                                CLAVECIN
+  CISTERCIANS                         CLAVICEMBALO
+  CITATION                            CLAVICHORD
+  CITEAUX                             CLAVICYTHERIUM
+  CITHAERON                           CLAVIE, BURNING THE
+  CITHARA                             CLAVIERE, ETIENNE
+  CITIUM                              CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE
+  CITIZEN                             CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSE
+  CITOLE                              CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS
+  CITRIC ACID                         CLAY, CHARLES
+  CITRON                              CLAY, FREDERIC
+  CITTADELLA                          CLAY, HENRY
+  CITTA DELLA PIEVE                   CLAY (substance)
+  CITTA DI CASTELLO                   CLAY CROSS
+  CITTA VECCHIA                       CLAYMORE
+  CITTERN                             CLAYS, PAUL JEAN
+  CITY                                CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON
+  CIUDAD BOLIVAR                      CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY
+  CIUDAD DE CURA                      CLAY-WITH-FLINTS
+  CIUDAD JUAREZ                       CLAZOMENAE
+  CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ                CLEANTHES
+  CIUDAD REAL (province of Spain)     CLEARCHUS
+  CIUDAD REAL (city in Spain)         CLEARFIELD
+  CIUDAD RODRIGO                      CLEARING-HOUSE
+  CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO                 CLEAT
+  CIVET                               CLEATOR MOOR
+  CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI                 CLEAVERS
+  CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS                   CLEBURNE
+  CIVILIZATION                        CLECKHEATON
+  CIVIL LAW                           CLEETHORPES
+  CIVIL LIST                          CLEFT PALATE
+  CIVIL SERVICE                       CLEISTHENES
+  CIVITA CASTELLANA                   CLEITARCHUS
+  CIVITA VECCHIA                      CLEITHRAL
+  CLACKMANNAN                         CLEITOR
+  CLACKMANNANSHIRE                    CLELAND, WILLIAM
+  CLACTON-ON-SEA                      CLEMATIS
+  CLADEL, LEON                        CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES
+  CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM             CLEMENCIN, DIEGO
+  CLAIRAULT                           CLEMENT (popes)
+  CLAIRON, LA                         CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA
+  CLAIRVAUX                           CLEMENT, FRANCOIS
+  CLAIRVOYANCE                        CLEMENT, JACQUES
+  CLAMECY                             CLEMENTI, MUZIO
+  CLAN                                CLEMENTINE LITERATURE
+  CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH (Earl)        CLEOBULUS
+  CLANRICARDE, DE BURGH (Marquess)    CLEOMENES
+  CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS                CLEON
+  CLAPAREDE, JEAN LOUIS               CLEOPATRA
+  CLAPPERTON, HUGH                    CLEPSYDRA
+  CLAQUE                              CLERESTORY
+  CLARA, SAINT                        CLERFAYT
+  CLARE (English family)              CLERGY
+  CLARE, JOHN (English poet)          CLERGY, BENEFIT OF
+  CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON              CLERGY RESERVES
+  CLARE (county in Ireland)           CLERK
+  CLAREMONT                           CLERKE, AGNES MARY
+  CLARENCE, DUKES OF                  CLERKENWELL
+  CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE              CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS
+  CLARENDON, GEORGE VILLIERS          CLERMONT-FERRAND
+  CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE               CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON
+  CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF         CLERMONT-L'HERAULT
+  CLARES, POOR                        CLERMONT-TONNERRE (French family)
+  CLARET                              CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS
+  CLARETIE, JULES ARNAUD              CLERUCHY
+  CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA
+
+
+
+
+CINCINNATUS,[1] LUCIUS QUINCTIUS (b. c. 519 B.C.), one of the heroes of
+early Rome, a model of old Roman virtue and simplicity. A persistent
+opponent of the plebeians, he resisted the proposal of Terentilius Arsa
+(or Harsa) to draw up a code of written laws applicable equally to
+patricians and plebeians. He was in humble circumstances, and lived and
+worked on his own small farm. The story that he became impoverished by
+paying a fine incurred by his son Caeso is an attempt to explain the
+needy position of so distinguished a man. Twice he was called from the
+plough to the dictatorship of Rome in 458 and 439. In 458 he defeated
+the Aequians in a single day, and after entering Rome in triumph with
+large spoils returned to his farm. The story of his success, related
+five times under five different years, possibly rests on an historical
+basis, but the account given in Livy of the achievements of the Roman
+army is obviously incredible.
+
+  See Livy iii. 26-29; Dion. Halic. x. 23-25; Florus i. 11. For a
+  critical examination of the story see Schwegler, _Roemische
+  Geschichte_, bk. xxviii. 12; Sir G. Cornewall Lewis, _Credibility of
+  early Roman History_, ch. xii. 40; W. Ihne, _History of Rome_, i.; E.
+  Pais, _Storia di Roma_, i. ch. 4 (1898).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] I.e. the "curly-haired."
+
+
+
+
+CINDERELLA (i.e. little cinder girl), the heroine of an almost universal
+fairy-tale. Its essential features are (1) the persecuted maiden whose
+youth and beauty bring upon her the jealousy of her step-mother and
+sisters, (2) the intervention of a fairy or other supernatural
+instrument on her behalf, (3) the prince who falls in love with and
+marries her. In the English version, a translation of Perrault's
+_Cendrillon_, the _glass_ slipper which she drops on the palace stairs
+is due to a mistranslation of _pantoufle en vair_ (a _fur_ slipper),
+mistaken for _en verre_. It has been suggested that the story originated
+in a nature-myth, Cinderella being the dawn, oppressed by the
+night-clouds (cruel relatives) and finally rescued by the sun (prince).
+
+  See Marian Rolfe Cox, _Cinderella; Three Hundred and Forty-five
+  Variants_ (1893); A Lang, _Perrault's Popular Tales_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+CINEAS, a Thessalian, the chief adviser of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. He
+studied oratory in Athens, and was regarded as the most eloquent man of
+his age. He tried to dissuade Pyrrhus from invading Italy, and after the
+defeat of the Romans at Heraclea (280 B.C.) was sent to Rome to discuss
+terms of peace. These terms, which are said by Appian (_De Rebus
+Samniticis_, 10, 11) to have included the freedom of the Greeks in Italy
+and the restoration to the Bruttians, Apulians and Samnites of all that
+had been taken from them, were rejected chiefly through the vehement and
+patriotic speech of the aged Appius Claudius Caecus the censor. The
+withdrawal of Pyrrhus from Italy was demanded, and Cineas returned to
+his master with the report that Rome was a temple and its senate an
+assembly of kings. Two years later Cineas was sent to renew negotiations
+with Rome on easier terms. The result was a cessation of hostilities,
+and Cineas crossed over to Sicily, to prepare the ground for Pyrrhus's
+campaign. Nothing more is heard of him. He is said to have made an
+epitome of the _Tactica_ of Aeneas, probably referred to by Cicero, who
+speaks of a Cineas as the author of a treatise _De Re Militari_.
+
+  See Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 11-21; Justin xviii. 2; Eutropius ii. 12;
+  Cicero, _Ad Fam._ ix. 25.
+
+
+
+
+CINEMATOGRAPH, or KINEMATOGRAPH (from [Greek: khinema], motion, and
+[Greek: graphein], to depict), an apparatus in which a series of views
+representing closely successive phases of a moving object are exhibited
+in rapid sequence, giving a picture which, owing to persistence of
+vision, appears to the observer to be in continuous motion. It is a
+development of the zoetrope or "wheel of life," described by W.G. Horner
+about 1833, which consists of a hollow cylinder turning on a vertical
+axis and having its surface pierced with a number of slots. Round the
+interior is arranged a series of pictures representing successive stages
+of such a subject as a galloping horse, and when the cylinder is rotated
+an observer looking through one of the slots sees the horse apparently
+in motion. The pictures were at first drawn by hand, but photography was
+afterwards applied to their production. E. Muybridge about 1877 obtained
+successive pictures of a running horse by employing a row of cameras,
+the shutters of which were opened and closed electrically by the passage
+of the horse in front of them, and in 1883 E.J. Marey of Paris
+established a studio for investigating the motion of animals by similar
+photographic methods.
+
+The modern cinematograph was rendered possible by the invention of the
+celluloid roll film (employed by Marey in 1890), on which the serial
+pictures are impressed by instantaneous photography, a long sensitized
+film being moved across the focal plane of a camera and exposed
+intermittently. In one apparatus for making the exposures a cam jerks
+the film across the field once for each picture, the slack being
+gathered in on a drum at a constant rate. In another four lenses are
+rotated so as to give four images for each rotation, the film travelling
+so as to present a new portion in the field as each lens comes in place.
+Sixteen to fifty pictures may be taken per second. The films are
+developed on large drums, within which a ruby electric light may be
+fixed to enable the process to be watched. A positive is made from the
+negative thus obtained, and is passed through an optical lantern, the
+images being thus successively projected through an objective lens upon
+a distant screen. For an hour's exhibition 50,000 to 165,000 pictures
+are needed. To regulate the feed in the lantern a hole is punched in the
+film for each picture. These holes must be extremely accurate in
+position; when they wear the feed becomes irregular, and the picture
+dances or vibrates in an unpleasant manner. Another method of exhibiting
+cinematographic effects is to bind the pictures together in book form by
+one edge, and then release them from the other in rapid succession by
+means of the thumb or some mechanical device as the book is bent
+backwards. In this case the subject is viewed, not by projection, but
+directly, either with the unaided eye or through a magnifying glass.
+
+Cinematograph films produced by ordinary photographic processes, being
+in black and white only, fail to reproduce the colouring of the subjects
+they represent. To some extent this defect has been remedied by painting
+them by hand, but this method is too expensive for general adoption, and
+moreover does not yield very satisfactory results. Attempts to adapt
+three-colour photography, by using simultaneously three films, each with
+a source of light of appropriate colour, and combining the three images
+on the screen, have to overcome great difficulties in regard to
+maintenance of register, because very minute errors of adjustment
+between the pictures on the films are magnified to an intolerable extent
+by projection. In a process devised by G.A. Smith, the results of which
+were exhibited at the Society of Arts, London, in December 1908, the
+number of colour records was reduced to two. The films were specially
+treated to increase their sensitiveness to red. The photographs were
+taken through two colour filters alternately interposed in front of the
+film; both admitted white and yellow, but one, of red, was in addition
+specially concerned with the orange and red of the subject, and the
+other, of blue-green, with the green, blue-green, blue and violet. The
+camera was arranged to take not less than 16 pictures a second through
+each filter, or 32 a second in all. The positive transparency made from
+the negative thus obtained was used in a lantern so arranged that beams
+of red (composed of crimson and yellow) and of green (composed of yellow
+and blue) issued from the lens alternately, the mechanism presenting the
+pictures made with the red filter to the red beam, and those made with
+the green filter to the green beam. A supplementary shutter was provided
+to introduce violet and blue, to compensate for the deficiency in those
+colours caused by the necessity of cutting them out in the camera owing
+to the over-sensitiveness of the film to them, and the result was that
+the successive pictures, blending on the screen by persistence of
+vision, gave a reproduction of the scene photographed in colours which
+were sensibly the same as those of the original.
+
+The cinematograph enables "living" or "animated pictures" of such
+subjects as an army on the march, or an express train at full speed, to
+be presented with marvellous distinctness and completeness of detail.
+Machines of this kind have been devised in enormous numbers and used for
+purposes of amusement under names (bioscope, biograph, kinetoscope,
+mutograph, &c.) formed chiefly from combinations of Greek and Latin
+words for life, movement, change, &c., with suffixes taken from such
+words as [Greek: skopein], to see, [Greek: graphein], to depict; they
+have also been combined with phonographic apparatus, so that, for
+example, the music of a dance and the motions of the dancer are
+simultaneously reproduced to ear and eye. But when they are used in
+public places of entertainment, owing to the extreme inflammability of
+the celluloid film and its employment in close proximity to a powerful
+source of light and heat, such as is required if the pictures are to
+show brightly on the screen, precautions must be taken to prevent, as
+far as possible, the heat rays from reaching it, and effective means
+must be provided to extinguish it should it take fire. The production of
+films composed of non-inflammable material has also engaged the
+attention of inventors.
+
+  See H.V. Hopwood, _Living Pictures_ (London, 1899), containing a
+  bibliography and a digest of the British patents, which is
+  supplemented in the _Optician_, vol. xviii. p. 85; Eugene Trutat, _La
+  Photographie animee_ (1899), which contains a list of the French
+  patents. For the camera see also PHOTOGRAPHY: _Apparatus_.
+
+
+
+
+CINERARIA. The garden plants of this name have originated from a species
+of _Senecio_, _S. cruentus_ (nat. ord. Compositae), a native of the
+Canary Isles, introduced to the royal gardens at Kew in 1777. It was
+known originally as _Cineraria cruenta_, but the genus _Cineraria_ is
+now restricted to a group of South African species, and the Canary
+Island species has been transferred to the large and widespread genus
+_Senecio_. Cinerarias can be raised freely from seeds. For spring
+flowering in England the seeds are sown in April or May in well-drained
+pots or pans, in soil of three parts loam to two parts leaf-mould, with
+one-sixth sand; cover the seed thinly with fine soil, and press the
+surface firm. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick them
+out in pans or pots of similar soil, and when more advanced pot them
+singly in 4-in. pots, using soil a trifle less sandy. They should be
+grown in shallow frames facing the north, and, if so situated that the
+sun shines upon the plants in the middle of the day, they must be
+slightly shaded; give plenty of air, and never allow them to get dry.
+When well established with roots, shift them into 6-in. pots, which
+should be liberally supplied with manure water as they get filled with
+roots. In winter remove to a pit or house, where a little heat can be
+supplied whenever there is a risk of their getting frozen. They should
+stand on a moist bottom, but must not be subjected to cold draughts.
+When the flowering stems appear, give manure water at every alternate
+watering. Seeds sown in March, and grown on in this way, will be in
+bloom by Christmas if kept in a temperature of from 40 deg. to 45 deg.
+at night, with a little more warmth in the day; and those sown in April
+and May will succeed them during the early spring months, the latter set
+of plants being subjected to a temperature of 38 deg. or 40 deg. during
+the night. If grown much warmer than this, the Cineraria maggot will make
+its appearance in the leaves, tunnelling its way between the upper and
+lower surfaces and making whitish irregular markings all over. Such
+affected leaves must be picked off and burned. Green fly is a great pest
+on young plants, and can only be kept down by fumigating or vaporizing
+the houses, and syringing with a solution of quassia chips, soft soap and
+tobacco.
+
+
+
+
+CINGOLI (anc. _Cingulum_), a town of the Marches, Italy, in the province
+of Macerata, about 14 m. N.W. direct, and 17 m. by road, from the town
+of Macerata. Pop. (1901) 13,357. The Gothic church of S. Esuperanzio
+contains interesting works of art. The town occupies the site of the
+ancient Cingulum, a town of Picenum, founded and strongly fortified by
+Caesar's lieutenant T. Labienus (probably on the site of an earlier
+village) in 63 B.C. at his own expense. Its lofty position (2300 ft.)
+made it of some importance in the civil wars, but otherwise little is
+heard of it. Under the empire it was a _municipium_.
+
+
+
+
+CINNA, a Roman patrician family of the gens Cornelia. The most prominent
+member was Lucius CORNELIUS CINNA, a supporter of Marius in his contest
+with Sulla. After serving in the war with the Marsi as praetorian
+legate, he was elected consul in 87 B.C. Breaking the oath he had sworn
+to Sulla that he would not attempt any revolution in the state, Cinna
+allied himself with Marius, raised an army of Italians, and took
+possession of the city. Soon after his triumphant entry and the massacre
+of the friends of Sulla, by which he had satisfied his vengeance, Marius
+died. L. Valerius Flaccus became Cinna's colleague, and on the murder of
+Flaccus, Cn. Papirius Carbo. In 84, however, Cinna, who was still
+consul, was forced to advance against Sulla; but while embarking his
+troops to meet him in Thessaly, he was killed in a mutiny. His daughter
+Cornelia was the wife of Julius Caesar, the dictator; but his son, L.
+CORNELIUS CINNA, praetor in 44 B.C., nevertheless sided with the
+murderers of Caesar and publicly extolled their action.
+
+The hero of Corneille's tragedy _Cinna_ (1640) was Cn. Cornelius Cinna,
+surnamed _Magnus_ (after his maternal grandfather Pompey), who was
+magnanimously pardoned by Augustus for conspiring against him.
+
+
+
+
+CINNA, GAIUS HELVIUS, Roman poet of the later Ciceronian age.
+Practically nothing is known of his life except that he was the friend
+of Catullus, whom he accompanied to Bithynia in the suite of the praetor
+Memmius. The circumstances of his death have given rise to some
+discussion. Suetonius, Valerius Maximus, Appian and Dio Cassius all
+state that, at Caesar's funeral, a certain Helvius Cinna was killed by
+mistake for Cornelius Cinna, the conspirator. The last three writers
+mentioned above add that he was a tribune of the people, while Plutarch,
+referring to the affair, gives the further information that the Cinna
+who was killed by the mob was a poet. This points to the identity of
+Helvius Cinna the tribune with Helvius Cinna the poet. The chief
+objection to this view is based upon two lines in the 9th eclogue of
+Virgil, supposed to have been written 41 or 40 B.C. Here reference is
+made to a certain Cinna, a poet of such importance that Virgil
+deprecates comparison with him; it is argued that the manner in which
+this Cinna, who could hardly have been any one but Helvius Cinna, is
+spoken of implies that he was then alive; if so, he could not have been
+killed in 44. But such an interpretation of the Virgilian passage is by
+no means absolutely necessary; the terms used do not preclude a
+reference to a contemporary no longer alive. It has been suggested that
+it was really Cornelius, not Helvius Cinna, who was slain at Caesar's
+funeral, but this is not borne out by the authorities. Cinna's chief
+work was a mythological epic poem called _Smyrna_, the subject of which
+was the incestuous love of Smyrna (or Myrrha) for her father Cinyras,
+treated after the manner of the Alexandrian poets. It is said to have
+taken nine years to finish. A _Propempticon Pollionis_, a send-off to
+[Asinius] Pollio, is also attributed to him. In both these poems, the
+language of which was so obscure that they required special
+commentaries, his model appears to have been Parthenius of Nicaea.
+
+  See A. Weichert, _Poetarum Latinorum Vitae_ (1830); L. Mueller's
+  edition of Catullus (1870), where the remains of Cinna's poems are
+  printed; A. Kiessling, "De C. Helvio Cinna Poeta" in _Commentationes
+  Philologicae in honorem T. Mommsen_ (1878); O. Ribbeck, _Geschichte
+  der roemischen Dichtung_, i. (1887); Teuffel-Schwabe, _Hist. of Roman
+  Lit._ (Eng. tr. 213, 2-5); Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+CINNABAR (Ger. _Zinnober_), sometimes written cinnabarite, a name
+applied to red mercuric sulphide (HgS), or native vermilion, the common
+ore of mercury. The name comes from the Greek [Greek: kinnabari], used
+by Theophrastus, and probably applied to several distinct substances.
+Cinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form, of
+bright red colour, but it occasionally occurs in crystals, with a
+metallic adamantine lustre. The crystals belong to the hexagonal system,
+and are generally of rhombohedral habit, sometimes twinned. Cinnabar
+presents remarkable resemblance to quartz in its symmetry and optical
+characters. Like quartz it exhibits circular polarization, and A. Des
+Cloizeaux showed that it possessed fifteen times the rotatory power of
+quartz (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT). Cinnabar has higher refractive power
+than any other known mineral, its mean index for sodium light being
+3.02, whilst the index for diamond--a substance of remarkable
+refraction--is only 2.42 (see REFRACTION). The hardness of cinnabar is
+3, and its specific gravity 8.998.
+
+Cinnabar is found in all localities which yield quicksilver, notably
+Almaden (Spain), New Almaden (California), Idria (Austria), Landsberg,
+near Ober-Moschel in the Palatinate, Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps
+(Tuscany), the mountain Avala (Servia), Huancavelica (Peru), and the
+province of Kweichow in China, whence very fine crystals have been
+obtained. Cinnabar is in course of deposition at the present day from
+the hot waters of Sulphur Bank, in California, and Steamboat Springs,
+Nevada.
+
+Hepatic cinnabar is an impure variety from Idria in Carniola, in which
+the cinnabar is mixed with bituminous and earthy matter.
+
+Metacinnabarite is a cubic form of mercuric sulphide, this compound
+being dimorphous.
+
+  For a general description of cinnabar, see G.F. Becker's _Geology of
+  the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope_, U.S. Geol. Surv.
+  Monographs, No. xiii. (1888).    (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+CINNAMIC ACID, or PHENYLACRYLIC ACID, C9H8O2 or C6H6.CH:CH.COOH, an acid
+found in the form of its benzyl ester in Peru and Tolu balsams, in
+storax and in some gum-benzoins. It can be prepared by the reduction of
+phenyl propiolic acid with zinc and acetic acid, by heating benzal
+malonic acid, by the condensation of ethyl acetate with benzaldehyde in
+the presence of sodium ethylate or by the so-called "Perkin reaction";
+the latter being the method commonly employed. In making the acid by
+this process benzaldehyde, acetic anhydride and anhydrous sodium acetate
+are heated for some hours to about 1800 C, the resulting product is made
+alkaline with sodium carbonate, and any excess of benzaldehyde removed
+by a current of steam. The residual liquor is filtered and acidified
+with hydrochloric acid, when cinnamic acid is precipitated,
+C6H5CHO+CH3COONa = C6H5CH:CH.COONa+H2O. It may be purified by
+recrystallization from hot water. Considerable controversy has taken
+place as to the course pursued by this reaction, but the matter has been
+definitely settled by the work of R. Fittig and his pupils (_Annalen_,
+1883, 216, pp. 100, 115; 1885, 227, pp. 55, 119), in which it was shown
+that the aldehyde forms an addition compound with the sodium salt of the
+fatty acid, and that the acetic anhydride plays the part of a
+dehydrating agent. Cinnamic acid crystallizes in needles or prisms,
+melting at 133 deg. C; on reduction it gives _phenyl propionic acid_,
+C6H5.CH2.CH2.COOH. Nitric acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid and acetic
+acid. Potash fusion decomposes it into benzoic and acetic acids. Being
+an unsaturated acid it combines directly with hydrochloric acid,
+hydrobromic acid, bromine, &c. On nitration it gives a mixture of ortho
+and para nitrocinnamic acids, the former of which is of historical
+importance, as by converting it into orthonitrophenyl propiolic acid A.
+Baeyer was enabled to carry out the complete synthesis of indigo
+(_q.v._). Reduction of orthonitrocinnamic acid gives orthoaminocinnamic
+acid, C6H4(NH2)CH:CH.COOH, which is of theoretical importance, as it
+readily gives a quinoline derivative. An isomer of cinnamic acid known
+as _allo-cinnamic acid_ is also known.
+
+  For the oxy-cinnamic adds see COUMARIN.
+
+
+
+
+CINNAMON, the inner bark of _Cinnamomum zeylanicum_, a small evergreen
+tree belonging to the natural order Lauraceae, native to Ceylon. The
+leaves are large, ovate-oblong in shape, and the flowers, which are
+arranged in panicles, have a greenish colour and a rather disagreeable
+odour. Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity, and it was so
+highly prized among ancient nations that it was regarded as a present
+fit for monarchs and other great potentates. It is mentioned in Exod.
+xxx. 23, where Moses is commanded to use both sweet cinnamon
+(_Kinnamon_) and cassia, and it is alluded to by Herodotus under the
+name [Greek: Kinnamomon], and by other classical writers. The tree is
+grown at Tellicherry, in Java, the West Indies, Brazil and Egypt, but
+the produce of none of these places approaches in quality that grown in
+Ceylon. Ceylon cinnamon of fine quality is a very thin smooth bark, with
+a light-yellowish brown colour, a highly fragrant odour, and a
+peculiarly sweet, warm and pleasing aromatic taste. Its flavour is due
+to an aromatic oil which it contains to the extent of from 0.5 to 1%.
+This essential oil, as an article of commerce, is prepared by roughly
+pounding the bark, macerating it in sea-water, and then quickly
+distilling the whole. It is of a golden-yellow colour, with the peculiar
+odour of cinnamon and a very hot aromatic taste. It consists essentially
+of cinnamic aldehyde, and by the absorption of oxygen as it becomes old
+it darkens in colour and develops resinous compounds. Cinnamon is
+principally employed in cookery as a condiment and flavouring material,
+being largely used in the preparation of some kinds of chocolate and
+liqueurs. In medicine it acts like other volatile oils and has a
+reputation as a cure for colds. Being a much more costly spice than
+cassia, that comparatively harsh-flavoured substance is frequently
+substituted for or added to it. The two barks when whole are easily
+enough distinguished, and their microscopical characters are also quite
+distinct. When powdered bark is treated with tincture of iodine, little
+effect is visible in the case of pure cinnamon of good quality, but when
+cassia is present a deep-blue tint is produced, the intensity of the
+coloration depending on the proportion of the cassia.
+
+
+
+
+CINNAMON-STONE, a variety of garnet, belonging to the lime-alumina type,
+known also as essonite or hessonite, from the Gr. [Greek: esson],
+"inferior," in allusion to its being less hard and less dense than most
+other garnet. It has a characteristic red colour, inclining to orange,
+much like that of hyacinth or jacinth. Indeed it was shown many years
+ago, by Sir A.H. Church, that many gems, especially engraved stones,
+commonly regarded as hyacinth, were really cinnamon-stone. The
+difference is readily detected by the specific gravity, that of
+hessonite being 3.64 to 3.69, whilst that of hyacinth (zircon) is about
+4.6. Hessonite is rather a soft stone, its hardness being about that of
+quartz or 7, whilst the hardness of most garnet reaches 7.5.
+Cinnamon-stone comes chiefly from Ceylon, where it is found generally as
+pebbles, though its occurrence in its native matrix is not unknown.
+
+
+
+
+CINNAMUS [KINNAMOS], JOHN, Byzantine historian, flourished in the second
+half of the 12th century. He was imperial secretary (probably in this
+case a post connected with the military administration) to Manuel I.
+Comnenus (1143-1180), whom he accompanied on his campaigns in Europe and
+Asia Minor. He appears to have outlived Andronicus I., who died in 1185.
+Cinnamus was the author of a history of the period 1118-1176, which thus
+continues the _Alexiad_ of Anna Comnena, and embraces the reigns of John
+II. and Manuel I., down to the unsuccessful campaign of the latter
+against the Turks, which ended with the disastrous battle of
+Myriokephalon and the rout of the Byzantine army. Cinnamus was probably
+an eye-witness of the events of the last ten years which he describes.
+The work breaks off abruptly; originally it no doubt went down to the
+death of Manuel, and there are indications that, even in its present
+form, it is an abridgment. The text is in a very corrupt state. The
+author's hero is Manuel; he is strongly impressed with the superiority
+of the East to the West, and is a determined opponent of the pretensions
+of the papacy. But he cannot be reproached with undue bias; he writes
+with the straightforwardness of a soldier, and is not ashamed on
+occasion to confess his ignorance. The matter is well arranged, the
+style (modelled on that of Xenophon) simple, and on the whole free from
+the usual florid bombast of the Byzantine writers.
+
+  _Editio princeps_, C. Tollius (1652); in Bonn, _Corpus Scriptorum
+  Hist. Byz._, by A. Meineke (1836), with Du Cange's valuable notes;
+  Migne, _Patrologia Graeca_, cxxxiii.; see also C. Neumann,
+  _Griechische Geschichtsschreiber im 12. Jahrhundert_ (1888); H. von
+  Kap-Herr, _Die abendlaendische Politik Kaiser Manuels_ (1881); C.
+  Krumbacher, _Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+CINNOLIN, C8H6N2, a compound isomeric with phthalazine, prepared by
+boiling dihydrocinnolin dissolved in benzene with freshly precipitated
+mercuric oxide. The solution is filtered and the hydrochloride of the
+base precipitated by alcoholic hydrochloric acid; the free base is
+obtained as an oil by adding caustic soda. It may be obtained in white
+silky needles, melting at 24-25 deg. C. and containing a molecule of
+ether of crystallization by cooling the oil dissolved in ether. The free
+base melts at 39 deg. C. It is a strong base, forming stable salts with
+mineral acids, and is easily soluble in water and in the ordinary organic
+solvents. It has a taste resembling that of chloral hydrate, and leaves
+a sharp irritation for some time on the tongue; it is also very
+poisonous (M. Busch and A. Rast, _Berichte_, 1897, 30, p. 521). Cinnolin
+derivatives are obtained from oxycinnolin carboxylic acid, which is
+formed by digesting orthophenyl propiolic acid diazo chloride with
+water. Oxycinnolin carboxylic acid on heating gives oxycinnolin, melting
+at 225 deg., which with phosphorus pentachloride gives chlorcinnolin.
+This substance is reduced by iron filings and sulphuric acid to
+dihydrocinnolin.
+
+The relations of these compounds are here shown:--
+
+                              C-OH                C-OH                CH
+     ^                 ^     ^             ^     ^             ^     ^
+   /   \_C:C.COOH    /   \ /  \\         /   \ /  \\         /   \ /  \\
+  |     |           |     |     C.COOH  |     |     CH      |     |     CH
+  |     |    --->   |     |     |  ---> |     |     |  ---> |     |     |
+  |     |_          |     |     N       |     |     N       |     |     N
+   \   /  N:N.OH     \   / \  //         \   / \  //         \   / \  //
+     v                 v     N             v     N             v     N
+
+  O-phenyl propiolic     Oxycinnolin       Oxycinnolin         Cinnolin
+  acid diazo hydroxide  carboxylic acid
+
+
+
+
+CINO DA PISTOIA (1270-1336), Italian poet and jurist, whose full name
+was GUITTONCINO DE' SINIBALDI, was born in Pistoia, of a noble family.
+He studied law at Bologna under Dinus Muggelanus (Dino de Rossonis: d.
+1303) and Franciscus Accursius, and in 1307 is understood to have been
+assessor of civil causes in his native city. In that year, however,
+Pistoia was disturbed by the Guelph and Ghibelline feud. The
+Ghibellines, who had for some time been the stronger party, being
+worsted by the Guelphs, Cino, a prominent member of the former faction,
+had to quit his office and the city of his birth. Pitecchio, a
+stronghold on the frontiers of Lombardy, was yet in the hands of Filippo
+Vergiolesi, chief of the Pistoian Ghibellines; Selvaggia, his daughter,
+was beloved by Cino (who was probably already the husband of Margherita
+degli Unghi); and to Pitecchio did the lawyer-poet betake himself. It is
+uncertain how long he remained at the fortress; it is certain, however,
+that he was not with the Vergiolesi at the time of Selvaggia's death,
+which happened three years afterwards (1310), at the Monte della
+Sambuca, in the Apennines, whither the Ghibellines had been compelled to
+shift their camp. He visited his mistress's grave on his way to Rome,
+after some time spent in travel in France and elsewhere, and to this
+visit is owing his finest sonnet. At Rome Cino held office under Louis
+of Savoy, sent thither by the Ghibelline leader Henry of Luxemburg, who
+was crowned emperor of the Romans in 1312. In 1313, however, the emperor
+died, and the Ghibellines lost their last hope. Cino appears to have
+thrown up his party, and to have returned to Pistoia. Thereafter he
+devoted himself to law and letters. After filling several high judicial
+offices, a doctor of civil law of Bologna in his forty-fourth year, he
+lectured and taught from the professor's chair at the universities of
+Treviso, Siena, Florence and Perugia in succession; his reputation and
+success were great, his judicial experience enabling him to travel out
+of the routine of the schools. In literature he continued in some sort
+the tradition of Dante during the interval dividing that great poet from
+his successor Petrarch. The latter, besides celebrating Cino in an
+obituary sonnet, has coupled him and his Selvaggia with Dante and
+Beatrice in the fourth _capitolo_ of his _Trionfi d' Amore_.
+
+Cino, the master of Bartolus, and of Joannes Andreae the celebrated
+canonist, was long famed as a jurist. His commentary on the statutes of
+Pistoia, written within two years, is said to have great merit; while
+that on the code (_Lectura Cino Pistoia super codice_, Pavia, 1483;
+Lyons, 1526) is considered by Savigny to exhibit more practical
+intelligence and more originality of thought than are found in any
+commentary on Roman law since the time of Accursius. As a poet he also
+distinguished himself greatly. He was the friend and correspondent of
+Dante's later years, and possibly of his earlier also, and was
+certainly, with Guido Cavalcanti and Durante da Maiano, one of those who
+replied to the famous sonnet _A ciascun' alma presa e gentil core_ of
+the _Vita Nuova_. In the treatise _De Vulgari Eloquio_ Dante refers to
+him as one of "those who have most sweetly and subtly written poems in
+modern Italian," but his works, printed at Rome in 1559, do not
+altogether justify the praise. Strained and rhetorical as many of his
+outcries are, however, Cino is not without moments of true passion and
+fine natural eloquence. Of these qualities the sonnet in memory of
+Selvaggia, _Io fui in sull' alto e in sul beato monte_, and the canzone
+to Dante, _Avegnache di omaggio piu per tempo_, are interesting
+examples.
+
+  The text-book for English readers is D.G. Rossetti's _Early Italian
+  Poets_, wherein will be found not only a memoir of Cino da Pistoia,
+  but also some admirably translated specimens of his verse--the whole
+  wrought into significant connexion with that friendship of Cino's
+  which is perhaps the most interesting fact about him. See also Ciampi,
+  _Vita e poesie di messer Cino da Pistoia_ (Pisa, 1813).
+
+
+
+
+CINQ-MARS, HENRI COIFFIER RUZE D'EFFIAT, MARQUIS DE (1620-1642), French
+courtier, was the second son of Antoine Coiffier Ruze, marquis d'Effiat,
+marshal of France (1581-1632), and was introduced to the court of Louis
+XIII. by Richelieu, who had been a friend of his father and who hoped he
+would counteract the influence of the queen's favourite Mlle. de
+Hautefort. Owing to his handsome appearance and agreeable manners he
+soon became a favourite of the king, and was made successively master of
+the wardrobe and master of the horse. After distinguishing himself at
+the siege of Arras in 1640, Cinq-Mars wished for a high military
+command, but Richelieu opposed his pretensions and the favourite talked
+rashly about overthrowing the minister. He was probably connected with
+the abortive rising of the count of Soissons in 1641; however that may
+be, in the following year he formed a conspiracy with the duke of
+Bouillon and others to overthrow Richelieu. This plot was under the
+nominal leadership of the king's brother Gaston of Orleans. The plans of
+the conspirators were aided by the illness of Richelieu and his absence
+from the king, and at the siege of Narbonne Cinq-Mars almost induced
+Louis to agree to banish his minister. Richelieu, however, recovered,
+became acquainted with the attempt of Cinq-Mars to obtain assistance
+from Spain, and laid the proofs of his treason before the king, who
+ordered his arrest. Cinq-Mars was brought to trial, admitted his guilt,
+and was condemned to death. He was executed at Lyons on the 12th of
+September 1642. It is possible that Cinq-Mars was urged to engage in
+this conspiracy by his affection for Louise Marie de Gonzaga
+(1612-1667), afterwards queen of Poland, who was a prominent figure at
+the court of Louis XIII.; and this tradition forms part of the plot of
+Alfred de Vigny's novel _Cinq-Mars_.
+
+  See Le P. Griffet, _Histoire de Louis XIII_; A. Bazin, _Histoire de
+  Louis XIII_ (1846); L. D'Astarac de Frontrailles, _Relations des
+  choses particulieres de la cour pendant la faveur de M. de Cinq-Mars_.
+
+
+
+
+CINQUE CENTO (Italian for five hundred; short for 1500), in
+architecture, the style which became prevalent in Italy in the century
+following 1500, now usually called "16th-century work." It was the
+result of the revival of classic architecture known as Renaissance, but
+the change had commenced already a century earlier, in the works of
+Ghiberti and Donatello in sculpture, and of Brunelleschi and Alberti in
+architecture.
+
+
+
+
+CINQUE PORTS, the name of an ancient jurisdiction in the south of
+England, which is still maintained with considerable modifications and
+diminished authority. As the name implies, the ports originally
+constituting the body were only five in number--Hastings, Romney, Hythe,
+Dover and Sandwich; but to these were afterwards added the "ancient
+towns" of Winchelsea and Rye with the same privileges, and a good many
+other places, both corporate and non-corporate, which, with the title of
+limb or member, held a subordinate position. To Hastings were attached
+the corporate members of Pevensey and Seaford, and the non-corporate
+members of Bulvarhythe, Petit Iham (Yham or Higham), Hydney, Bekesbourn,
+Northeye and Grenche or Grange; to Romney, Lydd, and Old Romney,
+Dengemarsh, Orwaldstone, and Bromehill or Promehill; to Dover,
+Folkestone and Faversham, and Margate, St John's, Goresend (now
+Birchington), Birchington Wood (now Woodchurch), St Peter's, Kingsdown
+and Ringwould; to Sandwich, Fordwich and Deal, and Walmer, Ramsgate,
+Reculver, Stonor (Estanor), Sarre (or Serre) and Brightlingsea (in
+Essex). To Rye was attached the corporate member of Tenterden, and to a
+Hythe the non-corporate member of West Hythe. The jurisdiction thus
+extends along the coast from Seaford in Sussex to Birchington near
+Margate in Kent; and it also includes a number of inland districts, at a
+considerable distance from the ports with which they are connected. The
+non-incorporated members are within the municipal jurisdiction of the
+ports to which they are attached; but the corporate members are as free
+within their own liberties as the individual ports themselves.
+
+The incorporation of the Cinque Ports had its origin in the necessity
+for some means of defence along the southern seaboard of England, and in
+the lack of any regular navy. Up to the reign of Henry VII. they had to
+furnish the crown with nearly all the ships and men that were needful
+for the state; and for a long time after they were required to give
+large assistance to the permanent fleet. The oldest charter now on
+record is one belonging to the 6th year of Edward I.; and it refers to
+previous documents of the time of Edward the Confessor and William the
+Conqueror. In return for their services the ports enjoyed extensive
+privileges. From the Conquest or even earlier they had, besides various
+lesser rights--(1) exemption from tax and tallage; (2) soc and sac, or
+full cognizance of all criminal and civil cases within their liberties;
+(3) tol and team, or the right of receiving toll and the right of
+compelling the person in whose hands stolen property was found to name
+the person from whom he received it; (4) blodwit and fledwit, or the
+right to punish shedders of blood and those who were seized in an
+attempt to escape from justice; (5) pillory and tumbrel; (6)
+infangentheof and outfangentheof, or power to imprison and execute
+felons; (7) mundbryce (the breaking into or violation of a man's _mund_
+or property in order to erect banks or dikes as a defence against the
+sea); (8) waives and strays, or the right to appropriate lost property
+or cattle not claimed within a year and a day; (9) the right to seize
+all flotsam, jetsam, or ligan, or, in other words, whatever of value was
+cast ashore by the sea; (10) the privilege of being a gild with power to
+impose taxes for the common weal; and (11) the right of assembling in
+portmote or parliament at Shepway or Shepway Cross, a few miles west of
+Hythe (but afterwards at Dover), the parliament being empowered to make
+by-laws for the Cinque Ports, to regulate the Yarmouth fishery, to hear
+appeals from the local courts, and to give decision in all cases of
+treason, sedition, illegal coining or concealment of treasure trove. The
+ordinary business of the ports was conducted in two courts known
+respectively as the court of brotherhood and the court of brotherhood
+and guestling,--the former being composed of the mayors of the seven
+principal towns and a number of jurats and freemen from each, and the
+latter including in addition the mayors, bailiffs and other
+representatives of the corporate members. The court of brotherhood was
+formerly called the brotheryeeld, brodall or brodhull; and the name
+guestling seems to owe its origin to the fact that the officials of the
+"members" were at first in the position of invited guests.
+
+The highest office in connexion with the Cinque Ports is that of the
+lord warden, who also acts as governor of Dover Castle, and has a
+maritime jurisdiction (_vide infra_) as admiral of the ports. His power
+was formerly of great extent, but he has now practically no important
+duty to exercise except that of chairman of the Dover harbour board. The
+emoluments of the office are confined to certain insignificant admiralty
+droits. The patronage attached to the office consists of the right to
+appoint the judge of the Cinque Ports admiralty court, the registrar of
+the Cinque Ports and the marshal of the court; the right of appointing
+salvage commissioners at each Cinque Port and the appointment of a
+deputy to act as chairman of the Dover harbour board in the absence of
+the lord warden. Walmer Castle was for long the official residence of
+the lord warden, but has, since the resignation of Lord Curzon in 1903,
+ceased to be so used, and those portions of it which are of historic
+interest are now open to the public. George, prince of Wales (lord
+warden, 1903-1907), was the first lord warden of royal blood since the
+office was held by George, prince of Denmark, consort of Queen Anne.
+
+_Admiralty Jurisdiction._--The court of admiralty for the Cinque Ports
+exercises a co-ordinate but not exclusive admiralty jurisdiction over
+persons and things found within the territory of the Cinque Ports. The
+limits of its jurisdiction were declared at an inquisition taken at the
+court of admiralty, held by the seaside at Dover in 1682, to extend from
+Shore Beacon in Essex to Redcliff, near Seaford, in Sussex; and with
+regard to salvage, they comprise all the sea between Seaford in Sussex
+to a point five miles off Cape Grisnez on the coast of France, and the
+coast of Essex. An older inquisition of 1526 is given by R.G. Marsden in
+his _Select Pleas of the Court of Admiralty_, II. xxx. The court is an
+ancient one. The judge sits as the official and commissary of the lord
+warden, just as the judge of the high court of admiralty sat as the
+official and commissary of the lord high admiral. And, as the office of
+lord warden is more ancient than the office of lord high admiral (_The
+Lord Warden_ v. _King in his office of Admiralty_, 1831, 2 Hagg. Admy.
+Rep. 438), it is probable that the Cinque Ports court is the more
+ancient of the two.
+
+The jurisdiction of the court has been, except in one matter of mere
+antiquarian curiosity, unaffected by statute. It exercises only,
+therefore, such jurisdiction as the high court of admiralty exercised,
+apart from restraining statutes of 1389 and 1391 and enabling statutes
+of 1840 and 1861. Cases of collision have been tried in it (the "Vivid,"
+1 _Asp. Maritime Law Cases_, 601). But salvage cases (the "Clarisse,"
+_Swabey_, 129; the "Marie," _Law. Rep. 7 P.D._ 203) are the principal
+cases now tried. It has no prize jurisdiction. The one case in which
+jurisdiction has been given to it by statute is to enforce forfeitures
+under the statute of 1538.
+
+Dr (afterwards the Right Hon. Robert Joseph) Phillimore succeeded his
+father as judge of the court from 1855 to 1875, being succeeded by Mr
+Arthur Cohen, K.C. As Sir R. Phillimore was also the last judge of the
+high court of admiralty, from 1867 (the date of his appointment to the
+high court) to 1875, the two offices were, probably for the first time
+in history, held by the same person. Dr Phillimore's patent had a grant
+of the "place or office of judge official and commissary of the court of
+admiralty of the Cinque Ports, and their members and appurtenances, and
+to be assistant to my lieutenant of Dover castle in all such affairs and
+business concerning the said court of admiralty wherein yourself and
+assistance shall be requisite and necessary." Of old the court sat
+sometimes at Sandwich, sometimes at other ports. But the regular place
+for the sitting of the court has for a long time been, and still is, the
+aisle of St James's church, Dover. For convenience the judge often sits
+at the royal courts of justice. The office of marshal in the high court
+is represented in this court by a serjeant, who also bears a silver oar.
+There is a registrar, as in the high court. The appeal is to the king in
+council, and is heard by the judicial committee of the privy council.
+The court can hear appeals from the Cinque Ports salvage commissioners,
+such appeals being final (Cinque Ports Act 1821). Actions may be
+transferred to it, and appeals made to it, from the county courts in all
+cases, arising within the jurisdiction of the Cinque Ports as defined by
+that act. At the solemn installation of the lord warden the judge as the
+next principal officer installs him.
+
+The Cinque Ports from the earliest times claimed to be exempt from the
+jurisdiction of the admiral of England. Their early charters do not,
+like those of Bristol and other seaports, express this exemption in
+terms. It seems to have been derived from the general words of the
+charters which preserve their liberties and privileges.
+
+The lord warden's claim to prize was raised in, but not finally decided
+by, the high court of admiralty in the "Ooster Ems," 1 _C. Rob._ 284,
+1783.
+
+  See S. Jeake, _Charters of the Cinque Ports_ (1728); Boys, _Sandwich
+  and Cinque Ports_; Knocker, _Grand Court of Shepway_ (1862); M,
+  Burrows, _Cinque Ports_ (1895); F.M. Hueffer, _Cinque Ports_ (1900);
+  _Indices of the Great White and Black Books of the Cinque Ports_
+  (1905).
+
+
+
+
+CINTRA, a town of central Portugal, in the district of Lisbon, formerly
+included in the province of Estramadura; 17 m. W.N.W. of Lisbon by the
+Lisbon-Cacem-Cintra railway, and 6 m. N. by E. of Cape da Roca, the
+westernmost promontory of the European mainland. Pop. (1900) 5914.
+Cintra is magnificently situated on the northern slope of the Serra da
+Cintra, a rugged mountain mass, largely overgrown with pines,
+eucalyptus, cork and other forest trees, above which the principal
+summits rise in a succession of bare and jagged grey peaks; the highest
+being Cruz Alta (1772 ft.), marked by an ancient stone cross, and
+commanding a wonderful view southward over Lisbon and the Tagus estuary,
+and north-westward over the Atlantic and the plateau of Mafra. Few
+European towns possess equal advantages of position and climate; and
+every educated Portuguese is familiar with the verses in which the
+beauty of Cintra is celebrated by Byron in _Childe Harold_ (1812), and
+by Camoens in the national epic _Os Lusiadas_ (1572). One of the highest
+points of the Serra is surmounted by the Palacio da Pena, a fantastic
+imitation of a medieval fortress, built on the site of a Hieronymite
+convent by the prince consort Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg (d. 1885); while
+an adjacent part of the range is occupied by the Castello des Mouros, an
+extensive Moorish fortification, containing a small ruined mosque and a
+very curious set of ancient cisterns. The lower slopes of the Serra are
+covered with the gardens and villas of the wealthier inhabitants of
+Lisbon, who migrate hither in spring and stay until late autumn.
+
+In the town itself the most conspicuous building is a 14th-15th-century
+royal palace, partly Moorish, partly debased Gothic in style, and
+remarkable for the two immense conical chimneys which rise like towers
+in the midst. The 18th-century Palacio de Seteaes, built in the French
+style then popular in Portugal, is said to derive its name ("Seven
+_Ahs_") from a sevenfold echo; here, on the 22nd of August 1808, was
+signed the convention of Cintra, by which the British and Portuguese
+allowed the French army to evacuate the kingdom without molestation.
+Beside the road which leads for 31/2 m. W. to the village of Collares,
+celebrated for its wine, is the Penha Verde, an interesting country
+house and chapel, founded by Joao de Castro (1500-1548), fourth viceroy
+of the Indies. De Castro also founded the convent of Santa Cruz, better
+known as the Convento de Cortica or Cork convent, which stands at the
+western extremity of the Serra, and owes its name to the cork panels
+which formerly lined its walls. Beyond the Penha Verde, on the Collares
+road, are the palace and park of Montserrate. The palace was originally
+built by William Beckford, the novelist and traveller (1761-1844), and
+was purchased in 1856 by Sir Francis Cook, an Englishman who afterwards
+obtained the Portuguese title viscount of Montserrate. The palace, which
+contains a valuable library, is built of pure white stone, in Moorish
+style; its walls are elaborately sculptured. The park, with its tropical
+luxuriance of vegetation and its variety of lake, forest and mountain
+scenery, is by far the finest example of landscape gardening in the
+Iberian Peninsula, and probably among the finest in the world. Its
+high-lying lawns, which overlook the Atlantic, are as perfect as any in
+England, and there is one ravine containing a whole wood of giant
+tree-ferns from New Zealand. Other rare plants have been systematically
+collected and brought to Montserrate from all parts of the world by Sir
+Francis Cook, and afterwards by his successor, Sir Frederick Cook, the
+second viscount. The Praia das Macas, or "beach of apples," in the
+centre of a rich fruit-bearing valley, is a favourite sea-bathing
+station, connected with Cintra by an extension of the electric tramway
+which runs through the town.
+
+
+
+
+CIPHER, or CYPHER (from Arab, _[.s]ifr_, void), the symbol 0, nought, or
+zero; and so a name for symbolic or secret writing (see CRYPTOGRAPHY),
+or even for shorthand (q.v.), and also in elementary education for doing
+simple sums ("ciphering").
+
+
+
+
+CIPPUS (Lat. for a "post" or "stake"), in architecture, a low pedestal,
+either round or rectangular, set up by the Romans for various purposes
+such as military or mile stones, boundary posts, &c. The inscriptions on
+some in the British Museum show that they were occasionally funeral
+memorials.
+
+
+
+
+CIPRIANI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1727-1785), Italian painter and engraver,
+Pistoiese by descent, was born in Florence in 1727. His first lessons
+were given him by an Englishman, Ignatius Heckford or Hugford, and under
+his second master, Antonio Domenico Gabbiani, he became a very clever
+draughtsman. He was in Rome from 1750 to 1753, where he became
+acquainted with Sir William Chambers, the architect, and Joseph Wilton,
+the sculptor, whom he accompanied to England in August 1755. He had
+already painted two pictures for the abbey of San Michele in Pelago,
+Pistoia, which had brought him reputation, and on his arrival in England
+he was patronized by Lord Tilney, the duke of Richmond and other
+noblemen. His acquaintance with Sir William Chambers no doubt helped him
+on, for when Chambers designed the Albany in London for Lord Holland,
+Cipriani painted a ceiling for him. He also painted part of a ceiling in
+Buckingham Palace, and a room with poetical subjects at Standlynch in
+Wiltshire. Some of his best and most permanent work was, however, done
+at Somerset House, built by his friend Chambers, upon which he lavished
+infinite pains. He not only prepared the decorations for the interior of
+the north block, but, says Joseph Baretti in his _Guide through the
+Royal Academy_ (1780), "the whole of the carvings in the various fronts
+of Somerset Place--excepting Bacon's bronze figures--were carved from
+finished drawings made by Cipriani." These designs include the five
+masks forming the keystones to the arches on the courtyard side of the
+vestibule, and the two above the doors leading into the wings of the
+north block, all of which are believed to have been carved by Nollekens.
+The grotesque groups flanking the main doorways on three sides of the
+quadrangle and the central doorway on the terrace appear also to have
+been designed by Cipriani. The apartments in Sir William Chambers's
+stately palace that were assigned to the Royal Academy, into which it
+moved in 1780, owed much to Cipriani's graceful, if mannered, pencil.
+The central panel of the library ceiling was painted by Sir Joshua
+Reynolds, but the four compartments in the coves, representing Allegory,
+Fable, Nature and History, were Cipriani's. These paintings still remain
+at Somerset House, together with the emblematic painted ceiling, also
+his work, of what was once the library of the Royal Society. It was
+natural that Cipriani should thus devote himself to adorning the
+apartments of the academy, since he was an original member (1768) of
+that body, for which he designed the diploma so well engraved by
+Bartolozzi. In recognition of his services in this respect the members
+presented him in 1769 with a silver cup with a commemorative
+inscription. He was much employed by the publishers, for whom he made
+drawings in pen and ink, sometimes coloured. His friend Bartolozzi
+engraved most of them. Drawings by him are in both the British Museum
+and Victoria and Albert Museum. His best autograph engravings are "The
+Death of Cleopatra," after Benvenuto Cellini; "The Descent of the Holy
+Ghost," after Gabbiani; and portraits for Hollis's memoirs, 1780. He
+painted allegorical designs for George III.'s state coach--which is
+still in use--in 1782, and repaired Verrio's paintings at Windsor and
+Rubens's ceiling in the Banqueting House at Whitehall. If his pictures
+were often weak, his decorative treatment of children was usually
+exceedingly happy. Some of his most pleasing work was that which,
+directly or indirectly, he executed for the decoration of furniture. He
+designed many groups of nymphs and _amorini_ and medallion subjects to
+form the centre of Pergolesi's bands of ornament, and they were
+continually reproduced upon the elegant satin-wood furniture which was
+growing popular in his later days and by the end of the 18th century
+became a rage. Sometimes these designs were inlaid in marqueterie, but
+most frequently they were painted upon the satin-wood by other hands
+with delightful effect, since in the whole range of English furniture
+there is nothing more enchanting than really good finished satin-wood
+pieces. There can be little doubt that some of the beautiful furniture
+designed by the Adams was actually painted by Cipriani himself. He also
+occasionally designed handles for drawers and doors. Cipriani died at
+Hammersmith in 1785 and was buried at Chelsea, where Bartolozzi erected
+a monument to his memory. He had married an English lady, by whom he had
+two sons.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCAR, an Indian term applied to the component parts of a _subah_ or
+province, each of which is administered by a deputy-governor. In English
+it is principally employed in the name of the NORTHERN CIRCARS, used to
+designate a now obsolete division of the Madras presidency, which
+consisted of a narrow slip of territory lying along the western side of
+the Bay of Bengal from 15 deg. 40' to 20 deg. 17' N. lat. These Northern
+Circars were five in number, Chicacole, Rajahmundry, Ellore, Kondapalli
+and Guntur, and their total area was about 30,000 sq. m.
+
+The district corresponds in the main to the modern districts of Kistna,
+Godavari, Vizagapatam, Ganjam and a part of Nellore. It was first
+invaded by the Mahommedans in 1471; in 1541 they conquered Kondapalli,
+and nine years later they extended their conquests over all Guntur and
+the districts of Masulipatam. But the invaders appear to have acquired
+only an imperfect possession of the country, as it was again wrested
+from the Hindu princes of Orissa about the year 1571, during the reign
+of Ibrahim, of the Kutb Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad or Golconda. In 1687
+the Circars were added, along with the empire of Hyderabad, to the
+extensive empire of Aurangzeb. Salabat Jang, the son of the nizam ul
+mulk Asaf Jah, who was indebted for his elevation to the throne to the
+French East India Company, granted them in return for their services the
+district of Kondavid or Guntur, and soon afterwards the other Circars.
+In 1759, by the conquest of the fortress of Masulipatam, the dominion of
+the maritime provinces on both sides, from the river Gundlakamma to the
+Chilka lake, was necessarily transferred from the French to the British.
+But the latter left them under the administration of the nizam, with the
+exception of the town and fortress of Masulipatam, which were retained
+by the English East India Company. In 1765 Lord Clive obtained from the
+Mogul emperor Shah Alam a grant of the five Circars. Hereupon the fort
+of Kondapalli was seized by the British, and on the 12th of November
+1766 a treaty of alliance was signed with Nizam Ali by which the
+Company, in return for the grant of the Circars, undertook to maintain
+troops for the nizam's assistance. By a second treaty, signed on the 1st
+of March 1768, the nizam acknowledged the validity of Shah Alam's grant
+and resigned the Circars to the Company, receiving as a mark of
+friendship an annuity of L50,000. Guntur, as the personal estate of the
+nizam's brother Basalat Jang, was excepted during his lifetime under
+both treaties. He died in 1782, but it was not till 1788 that Guntur
+came under British administration. Finally, in 1823, the claims of the
+nizam over the Northern Circars were bought outright by the Company, and
+they became a British possession.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCASSIA, a name formerly given to the north-western portion of the
+Caucasus, including the district between the mountain range and the
+Black Sea, and extending to the north of the central range as far as the
+river Kuban. Its physical features are described in the article on the
+Russian province of KUBAN, with which it approximately coincides. The
+present article is confined to a consideration of the ethnographical
+relations and characteristics of the people, their history being treated
+under CAUCASIA.
+
+The Cherkesses or Circassians, who gave their name to this region, of
+which they were until lately the sole inhabitants, are a peculiar race,
+differing from the other tribes of the Caucasus in origin and language.
+They designate themselves by the name of Adigheb, that of Cherkesses
+being a term of Russian origin. By their long-continued struggles with
+the power of Russia, during a period of nearly forty years, they
+attracted the attention of the other nations of Europe in a high degree,
+and were at the same time an object of interest to the student of the
+history of civilization, from the strange mixture which their customs
+exhibited of chivalrous sentiment with savage customs. For this reason
+it may be still worth while to give a brief summary of their national
+characteristics and manners, though these must now be regarded as in
+great measure things of the past.
+
+In the patriarchal simplicity of their manners, the mental qualities
+with which they were endowed, the beauty of form and regularity of
+feature by which they were distinguished, they surpassed most of the
+other tribes of the Caucasus. At the same time they were remarkable for
+their warlike and intrepid character, their independence, their
+hospitality to strangers, and that love of country which they manifested
+in their determined resistance to an almost overwhelming power during
+the period of a long and desolating war. The government under which they
+lived was a peculiar form of the feudal system. The free Circassians
+were divided into three distinct ranks, the princes or _pshi_, the
+nobles or _uork_ (Tatar _usden_), and the peasants or _hokotl_. Like the
+inhabitants of the other regions of the Caucasus, they were also divided
+into numerous families, tribes or clans, some of which were very
+powerful, and carried on war against each other with great animosity.
+The slaves, of whom a large proportion were prisoners of war, were
+generally employed in the cultivation of the soil, or in the domestic
+service of some of the principal chiefs.
+
+The will of the people was acknowledged as the supreme source of
+authority; and every free Circassian had a right to express his opinion
+in those assemblies of his tribe in which the questions of peace and
+war, almost the only subjects which engaged their attention, were
+brought under deliberation. The princes and nobles, the leaders of the
+people in war and their rulers in peace, were only the administrators of
+a power which was delegated to them. As they had no written laws, the
+administration of justice was regulated solely by custom and tradition,
+and in those tribes professing Mahommedanism by the precepts of the
+Koran. The most aged and respected inhabitants of the various _auls_ or
+villages frequently sat in judgment, and their decisions were received
+without a murmur by the contending parties. The Circassian princes and
+nobles were professedly Mahommedans; but in their religious services
+many of the ceremonies of their former heathen and Christian worship
+were still preserved. A great part of the people had remained faithful
+to the worship of their ancient gods--Shible, the god of thunder, of war
+and of justice; Tleps, the god of fire; and Seosseres, the god of water
+and of winds. Although the Circassians are said to have possessed minds
+capable of the highest cultivation, the arts and sciences, with the
+exception of poetry and music, were completely neglected. They possessed
+no written language. The wisdom of their sages, the knowledge they had
+acquired, and the memory of their warlike deeds were preserved in
+verses, which were repeated from mouth to mouth and descended from
+father to son.
+
+The education of the young Circassian was confined to riding, fencing,
+shooting, hunting, and such exercises as were calculated to strengthen
+his frame and prepare him for a life of active warfare. The only
+intellectual duty of the _atalik_ or instructor, with whom the young men
+lived until they had completed their education, was that of teaching
+them to express their thoughts shortly, quickly and appropriately. One
+of their marriage ceremonies was very strange. The young man who had
+been approved by the parents, and had paid the stipulated price in
+money, horses, oxen, or sheep for his bride, was expected to come with
+his friends fully armed, and to carry her off by force from her father's
+house. Every free Circassian had unlimited right over the lives of his
+wife and children. Although polygamy was allowed by the laws of the
+Koran, the custom of the country forbade it, and the Circassians were
+generally faithful to the marriage bond. The respect for superior age
+was carried to such an extent that the young brother used to rise from
+his seat when the elder entered an apartment, and was silent when he
+spoke. Like all the other inhabitants of the Caucasus, the Circassians
+were distinguished for two very opposite qualities--the most generous
+hospitality and implacable vindictiveness. Hospitality to the stranger
+was considered one of the most sacred duties. Whatever were his rank in
+life, all the members of the family rose to receive him on his entrance,
+and conduct him to the principal seat in the apartment. The host was
+considered responsible with his own life for the security of his guest,
+upon whom, even although his deadliest enemy, he would inflict no injury
+while under the protection of his roof. The chief who had received a
+stranger was also bound to grant him an escort of horse to conduct him
+in safety on his journey, and confide him to the protection of those
+nobles with whom he might be on friendly terms. The law of vengeance was
+no less binding on the Circassian. The individual who had slain any
+member of a family was pursued with implacable vengeance by the
+relatives, until his crime was expiated by death. The murderer might,
+indeed, secure his safety by the payment of a certain sum of money, or
+by carrying off from the house of his enemy a newly-born child, bringing
+it up as his own, and restoring it when its education was finished. In
+either case, the family of the slain individual might discontinue the
+pursuit of vengeance without any stain upon its honour. The man closely
+followed by his enemy, who, on reaching the dwelling of a woman, had
+merely touched her hand, was safe from all other pursuit so long as he
+remained under the protection of her roof. The opinions of the
+Circassians regarding theft resembled those of the ancient Spartans. The
+commission of the crime was not considered so disgraceful as its
+discovery; and the punishment of being compelled publicly to restore the
+stolen property to its original possessor, amid the derision of his
+tribe, was much dreaded by the Circassian who would glory in a
+successful theft. The greatest stain upon the Circassian character was
+the custom of selling their children, the Circassian father being always
+willing to part with his daughters, many of whom were bought by Turkish
+merchants for the harems of Eastern monarchs. But no degradation was
+implied in this transaction, and the young women themselves were
+generally willing partners in it. Herds of cattle and sheep constituted
+the chief riches of the inhabitants. The princes and nobles, from whom
+the members of the various tribes held the land which they cultivated,
+were the proprietors of the soil. The Circassians carried on little or
+no commerce, and the state of perpetual warfare in which they lived
+prevented them from cultivating any of the arts of peace.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCE (Gr. [Greek: Kirke]), in Greek legend, a famous sorceress, the
+daughter of Helios and the ocean nymph Perse. Having murdered her
+husband, the prince of Colchis, she was expelled by her subjects and
+placed by her father on the solitary island of Aeaea on the coast of
+Italy. She was able by means of drugs and incantations to change human
+beings into the forms of wolves or lions, and with these beings her
+palace was surrounded. Here she was found by Odysseus and his
+companions; the latter she changed into swine, but the hero, protected
+by the herb _moly_ (q.v.), which he had received from Hermes, not only
+forced her to restore them to their original shape, but also gained her
+love. For a year he relinquished himself to her endearments, and when he
+determined to leave, she instructed him how to sail to the land of
+shades which lay on the verge of the ocean stream, in order to learn his
+fate from the prophet Teiresias. Upon his return she also gave him
+directions for avoiding the dangers of the journey home (Homer,
+_Odyssey_, x.-xii.; Hyginus, _Fab._ 125). The Roman poets associated her
+with the most ancient traditions of Latium, and assigned her a home on
+the promontory of Circei (Virgil, _Aeneid_, vii. 10). The metamorphoses
+of Scylla and of Picus, king of the Ausonians, by Circe, are narrated in
+Ovid (_Metamorphoses_, xiv.).
+
+  _The Myth of Kirke_, by R. Brown (1883), in which Circe is explained
+  as a moon-goddess of Babylonian origin, contains an exhaustive summary
+  of facts, although many of the author's speculations may be proved
+  untenable (review by H. Bradley in _Academy_, January 19, 1884); see
+  also J.E. Harrison, _Myths of the Odyssey_ (1882); C. Seeliger in W.H.
+  Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCEIUS MONS (mod. _Monte Circeo_), an isolated promontory on the S.W.
+coast of Italy, about 80 m. S.E. of Rome. It is a ridge of limestone
+about 31/2 m. long by 1 m. wide at the base, running from E. to W. and
+surrounded by the sea on all sides except the N. The land to the N. of
+it is 53 ft. above sea-level, while the summit of the promontory is 1775
+ft. The origin of the name is uncertain: it has naturally been connected
+with the legend of Circe, and Victor Berard (in _Les Pheniciens et
+l'Odyssee_, ii. 261 seq.) maintains in support of the identification
+that [Greek: Ahiaie], the Greek name for the island of Circe, is a
+faithful transliteration of a Semitic name, meaning "island of the
+hawk," of which [Greek: nesos Kirkes] is the translation. The difficulty
+has been raised, especially by geologists, that the promontory ceased to
+be an island at a period considerably before the time of Homer; but
+Procopius very truly remarked that the promontory has all the appearance
+of an island until one is actually upon it. Upon the E. end of the ridge
+of the promontory are the remains of an enceinte, forming roughly a
+rectangle of about 200 by 100 yds. of very fine polygonal work, on the
+outside, the blocks being very carefully cut and jointed and right
+angles being intentionally avoided. The wall stands almost entirely
+free, as at Arpinum--polygonal walls in Italy are as a rule embanking
+walls--and increases considerably in thickness as it descends. The
+blocks of the inner face are much less carefully worked both here and at
+Arpinum. It seems to have been an acropolis, and contains no traces of
+buildings, except for a subterranean cistern, circular, with a beehive
+roof of converging blocks. The modern village of S. Felice Circeo seems
+to occupy the site of the ancient town, the citadel of which stood on
+the mountain top, for its medieval walls rest upon ancient walls of
+Cyclopean work of less careful construction than those of the citadel,
+and enclosing an area of 200 by 150 yds.
+
+Circei was founded as a Roman colony at an early date--according to some
+authorities in the time of Tarquinius Superbus, but more probably about
+390 B.C. The existence of a previous population, however, is very likely
+indicated by the revolt of Circei in the middle of the 4th century B.C.,
+so that it is doubtful whether the walls described are to be attributed
+to the Romans or the earlier Volscian inhabitants. At the end of the
+republic, however, or at latest at the beginning of the imperial period,
+the city of Circei was no longer at the E. end of the promontory, but on
+the E. shores of the Lago di Paola (a lagoon--now a considerable
+fishery--separated from the sea by a line of sandhills and connected
+with it by a channel of Roman date: Strabo speaks of it as a small
+harbour) one mile N. of the W. end of the promontory. Here are the
+remains of a Roman town, belonging to the 1st and 2nd centuries,
+extending over an area of some 600 by 500 yards, and consisting of fine
+buildings along the lagoons, including a large open _piscina_ or basin,
+surrounded by a double portico, while farther inland are several very
+large and well-preserved water-reservoirs, supplied by an aqueduct of
+which traces may still be seen. An inscription speaks of an
+amphitheatre, of which no remains are visible. The transference of the
+city did not, however, mean the abandonment of the E. end of the
+promontory, on which stand the remains of several very large villas. An
+inscription, indeed, cut in the rock near S. Felice, speaks of this part
+of the _promunturium Veneris_ (the only case of the use of this name) as
+belonging to the city of Circei. On the S. and N. sides of the
+promontory there are comparatively few buildings, while, at the W. end
+there is a sheer precipice to the sea. The town only acquired municipal
+rights after the Social War, and was a place of little importance,
+except as a seaside resort. For its villas Cicero compares it with
+Antium, and probably both Tiberius and Domitian possessed residences
+there. The beetroot and oysters of Circei had a certain reputation. The
+view from the highest summit of the promontory (which is occupied by
+ruins of a platform attributed with great probability to a temple of
+Venus or Circe) is of remarkable beauty; the whole mountain is covered
+with fragrant shrubs. From any point in the Pomptine Marshes or on the
+coast-line of Latium the Circeian promontory dominates the landscape in
+the most remarkable way.
+
+  See T. Ashby, "Monte Circeo," in _Melanges de l'ecole francaise de
+  Rome_, XXV. (1905) 157 seq.    (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+CIRCLE (from the Lat. _circulus_, the diminutive of _circus_, a ring;
+the cognate Gr. word is [Greek: kirkos], generally used in the form
+[Greek: krikos]), a plane curve definable as the locus of a point which
+moves so that its distance from a fixed point is constant.
+
+The form of a circle is familiar to all; and we proceed to define
+certain lines, points, &c., which constantly occur in studying its
+geometry. The fixed point in the preceding definition is termed the
+"centre" (C in fig. 1); the constant distance, e.g. CG, the "radius."
+The curve itself is sometimes termed the "circumference." Any line
+through the centre and terminated at both extremities by the curve, e.g.
+AB, is a "diameter"; any other line similarly terminated, e.g. EF, a
+"chord." Any line drawn from an external point to cut the circle in two
+points, e.g. DEF, is termed a "secant"; if it touches the circle, e.g.
+DG, it is a "tangent." Any portion of the circumference terminated by
+two points, e.g. AD (fig. 2), is termed an "arc"; and the plane figure
+enclosed by a chord and arc, e.g. ABD, is termed a "segment"; if the
+chord be a diameter, the segment is termed a "semicircle." The figure
+included by two radii and an arc is a "sector," e.g. ECF (fig. 2).
+"Concentric circles" are, as the name obviously shows, circles having
+the same centre; the figure enclosed by the circumferences of two
+concentric circles is an "annulus" (fig. 3), and of two non-concentric
+circles a "lune," the shaded portions in fig. 4; the clear figure is
+sometimes termed a "lens."
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4]
+
+The circle was undoubtedly known to the early civilizations, its
+simplicity specially recommending it as an object for study. Euclid
+defines it (Book I. def. 15) as a "plane figure enclosed by one line,
+all the straight lines drawn to which from one point within the figure
+are equal to one another." In the succeeding three definitions the
+centre, diameter and the semicircle are defined, while the third
+postulate of the same book demands the possibility of describing a
+circle for every "centre" and "distance." Having employed the circle for
+the construction and demonstration of several propositions in Books I.
+and II. Euclid devotes his third book entirely to theorems and problems
+relating to the circle, and certain lines and angles, which he defines
+in introducing the propositions. The fourth book deals with the circle
+in its relations to inscribed and circumscribed triangles,
+quadrilaterals and regular polygons. Reference should be made to the
+article GEOMETRY: _Euclidean_, for a detailed summary of the Euclidean
+treatment, and the elementary properties of the circle.
+
+
+_Analytical Geometry of the Circle._
+
+  Cartesian co-ordinates.
+
+In the article GEOMETRY: _Analytical_, it is shown that the general
+equation to a circle in rectangular Cartesian co-ordinates is
+x^2+y^2+2gx+2fy+c=0, i.e. in the general equation of the second degree
+the co-efficients of x^2 and y^2 are equal, and of xy zero. The
+co-ordinates of its centre are -g/c, -f/c; and its radius is
+(g^2+f^2-c)^1/2. The equations to the chord, tangent and normal are
+readily derived by the ordinary methods.
+
+Consider the two circles:--
+
+  x^2+y^2+2gx+2fy+c=0,   x^2+y^2+2g'x+2f'y+c'=0.
+
+  Obviously these equations show that the curves intersect in four
+  points, two of which lie on the intersection of the line, 2(g - g')x +
+  2(f - f')y + c - c' = 0, the radical axis, with the circles, and the
+  other two where the lines x squared + y squared = (x + iy) (x - iy) = 0 (where i =
+  sqrt -1) intersect the circles. The first pair of intersections may be
+  either real or imaginary; we proceed to discuss the second pair.
+
+  The equation x squared + y squared = 0 denotes a pair of perpendicular imaginary
+  lines; it follows, therefore, that circles always intersect in two
+  imaginary points at infinity along these lines, and since the terms
+  x squared + y squared occur in the equation of every circle, it is seen that all
+  circles pass through two fixed points at infinity. The introduction of
+  these lines and points constitutes a striking achievement in geometry,
+  and from their association with circles they have been named the
+  "circular lines" and "circular points." Other names for the circular
+  lines are "circulars" or "isotropic lines." Since the equation to a
+  circle of zero radius is x squared + y squared = 0, i.e. identical with the circular
+  lines, it follows that this circle consists of a real point and the
+  two imaginary lines; conversely, the circular lines are both a pair of
+  lines and a circle. A further deduction from the principle of
+  continuity follows by considering the intersections of concentric
+  circles. The equations to such circles may be expressed in the form
+  x squared + y squared = [alpha] squared, x squared + y squared = [beta] squared. These equations show that the
+  circles touch where they intersect the lines x squared + y squared = 0, i.e.
+  concentric circles have double contact at the circular points, the
+  chord of contact being the line at infinity.
+
+In various systems of triangular co-ordinates the equations to circles
+specially related to the triangle of reference assume comparatively
+simple forms; consequently they provide elegant algebraical
+demonstrations of properties concerning a triangle and the circles
+intimately associated with its geometry. In this article the equations
+to the more important circles--the circumscribed, inscribed, escribed,
+self-conjugate--will be given; reference should be made to the article
+TRIANGLE for the consideration of other circles (nine-point, Brocard,
+Lemoine, &c.); while in the article GEOMETRY: _Analytical_, the
+principles of the different systems are discussed.
+
+
+    Trilinear co-ordinates.
+
+  The equation to the circumcircle assumes the simple form
+  a[beta][gamma] + b[gamma][alpha] + c[alpha][beta] = 0, the centre
+  being cos A, cos B, cos C. The inscribed circle is cos 1/2A sqrt([alpha])
+  cos 1/2B sqrt([beta]) + cos 1/2C sqrt([gamma]) = 0, with centre [alpha] =
+  [beta] = [gamma]; while the escribed circle opposite the angle A is
+  cos 1/2A sqrt(-[alpha]) + sin 1/2B sqrt([beta]) + sin 1/2C sqrt([gamma]) =
+  0, with centre -[alpha] = [beta] = [gamma]. The self-conjugate circle
+  is [alpha] squared sin 2A + [beta] squared sin 2B + [gamma] squared sin 2C = 0, or the
+  equivalent form a cos A [alpha] squared + b cos B [beta] squared + c cos C [gamma] squared =
+  0, the centre being sec A, sec B, sec C.
+
+  The general equation to the circle in trilinear co-ordinates is
+  readily deduced from the fact that the circle is the only curve which
+  intersects the line infinity in the circular points. Consider the
+  equation
+
+    a[beta][gamma] + b[gamma][alpha] + C[alpha][beta] + (l[alpha] +
+    m[beta] + n[gamma]) (a[alpha] + b[beta] + c[gamma]) = 0        (1).
+
+  This obviously represents a conic intersecting the circle
+  a[beta][gamma] + b[gamma][alpha] + c[alpha][beta] = 0 in points on the
+  common chords l[alpha] + m[beta] + n[gamma] = 0, a[alpha] + b[beta] +
+  c[gamma] = 0. The line l[alpha] + m[beta] + n[gamma] is the radical
+  axis, and since a[alpha] + b[beta] + c[gamma] = 0 is the line
+  infinity, it is obvious that equation (1) represents a conic passing
+  through the circular points, i.e. a circle. If we compare (1) with the
+  general equation of the second degree u[alpha] squared + v[beta] squared + w[gamma] squared
+  + 2u'[beta][gamma] + 2v'[gamma][alpha] + 2w'[alpha][beta] = 0, it is
+  readily seen that for this equation to represent a circle we must have
+
+    -kabc = vc squared + wb squared - 2u'bc = wa squared + uc squared - 2v'ca = ub squared + va squared - 2w'ab.
+
+
+    Areal co-ordinates.
+
+  The corresponding equations in areal co-ordinates are readily derived
+  by substituting x/a, y/b, z/c for [alpha], [beta], [gamma]
+  respectively in the trilinear equations. The circumcircle is thus seen
+  to be a squaredyz + b squaredzx + c squaredxy = 0, with centre sin 2A, sin 2B, sin 2C; the
+  inscribed circle is sqrt(x cot 1/2A) + sqrt(y cot 1/2B) + sqrt(z cot 1/2C) =
+  0, with centre sin A, sin B, sin C; the escribed circle opposite the
+  angle A is sqrt(-x cot 1/2A) + sqrt(y tan 1/2B) + sqrt(z tan 1/2C)=0, with
+  centre - sin A, sin B, sin C; and the self-conjugate circle is x squared cot
+  A + y squared cot B + z squared cot C = 0, with centre tan A, tan B, tan C. Since in
+  areal co-ordinates the line infinity is represented by the equation x
+  + y + z = 0 it is seen that every circle is of the form a squaredyz + b squaredzx +
+  c squaredxy + (lx + my + nz)(x + y + z) = 0. Comparing this equation with ux squared
+  + vy squared + wz squared + 2u'yz + 2v'zx + 2w'xy = 0, we obtain as the condition
+  for the general equation of the second degree to represent a
+  circle:--
+
+    (v + w - 2u')/a squared = (w + u - 2v')/b squared = (u + v - 2w')/c squared.
+
+
+    Tangential co-ordinates.
+
+  In tangential (p, q, r) co-ordinates the inscribed circle has for its
+  equation (s - a)qr + (s - b)rp + (s - c)pq = 0, s being equal to 1/2(a +
+  b + c); an alternative form is qr cot 1/2A + rp cot 1/2B + pq cot 1/2C = 0;
+  the centre is ap + bq + cr = 0, or p sin A + q sin B + r sin C = 0.
+  The escribed circle opposite the angle A is -sqr + (s - c)rp + (s -
+  b)pq = 0 or -qr cot 1/2A + rp tan 1/2B + pq tan 1/2C = 0, with centre -ap +
+  bq + cr = 0. The circumcircle is a sqrt(p) + b sqrt(q) + c sqrt(r) =
+  0, the centre being p sin 2A + q sin 2B + r sin 2C = 0. The general
+  equation to a circle in this system of co-ordinates is deduced as
+  follows: If [rho] be the radius and lp + mq + nr = 0 the centre, we
+  have [rho] = (lp1 + mq1 + nr1)/(l + m + n), in which p1, q1, r1 is a
+  line distant [rho] from the point lp + mq + nr = 0. Making this
+  equation homogeneous by the relation [Sigma]a squared(p - q) (p - r) =
+  4[Delta] squared (see GEOMETRY: _Analytical_), which is generally written
+  {ap, bq, cr} squared = 4[Delta] squared, we obtain {ap, bq, cr} squared[rho] squared =
+  4[Delta] squared{(lp + mq + nr)/(l + m + n)} squared, the accents being dropped, and
+  p, q, r regarded as current co-ordinates. This equation, which may be
+  more conveniently written {ap, bq, cr} squared = ([lambda]p + [mu]q +
+  [nu]r) squared, obviously represents a circle, the centre being [lambda]p +
+  [mu]q + [nu]r = 0, and radius 2[Delta]/([lambda] + [mu] + [nu]). If we
+  make [lambda] = [mu] = [nu] = 0, [rho] is infinite, and we obtain {ap,
+  bq, cr} squared = 0 as the equation to the circular points.
+
+
+_Systems of Circles._
+
+_Centres and Circle of Similitude._--The "centres of similitude" of two
+circles may be defined as the intersections of the common tangents to
+the two circles, the direct common tangents giving rise to the "external
+centre," the transverse tangents to the "internal centre." It may be
+readily shown that the external and internal centres are the points
+where the line joining the centres of the two circles is divided
+externally and internally in the ratio of their radii.
+
+The circle on the line joining the internal and external centres of
+similitude as diameter is named the "circle of similitude." It may be
+shown to be the locus of the vertex of the triangle which has for its
+base the distance between the centres of the circles and the ratio of
+the remaining sides equal to the ratio of the radii of the two circles.
+
+With a system of three circles it is readily seen that there are six
+centres of similitude, viz. two for each pair of circles, and it may be
+shown that these lie three by three on four lines, named the "axes of
+similitude." The collinear centres are the three sets of one external
+and two internal centres, and the three external centres.
+
+_Coaxal Circles._--A system of circles is coaxal when the locus of
+points from which tangents to the circles are equal is a straight line.
+Consider the case of two circles, and in the first place suppose them to
+intersect in two real points A and B. Then by Euclid iii. 36 it is seen
+that the line joining the points A and B is the locus of the
+intersection of equal tangents, for if P be any point on AB and PC and
+PD the tangents to the circles, then PA.PB = PC squared = PD squared, and therefore PC
+= PD. Furthermore it is seen that AB is perpendicular to the line
+joining the centres, and divides it in the ratio of the squares of the
+radii. The line AB is termed the "radical axis." A system coaxal with
+the two given circles is readily constructed by describing circles
+through the common points on the radical axis and any third point; the
+minimum circle of the system is obviously that which has the common
+chord of intersection for diameter, the maximum is the radical
+axis--considered as a circle of infinite radius. In the case of two
+non-intersecting circles it may be shown that the radical axis has the
+same metrical relations to the line of centres.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5]
+
+  There are several methods of constructing the radical axis in this
+  case. One of the simplest is: Let P and P' (fig. 5) be the points of
+  contact of a common tangent; drop perpendiculars PL, P'L', from P and
+  P' to OO', the line joining the centres, then the radical axis bisects
+  LL' (at X) and is perpendicular to OO'. To prove this let AB, AB1 be
+  the tangents from any point on the line AX. Then by Euc. i. 47, AB squared =
+  AO squared - OB squared = AX squared + OX squared + OP squared; and OX squared = OD squared - DX squared = OP squared + PD squared - DX squared.
+  Therefore AB squared = AX squared - DX squared + PD squared. Similarly AB' squared = AX squared - DX squared + DP' squared.
+  Since PD = PD', it follows that AB = AB'.
+
+  To construct circles coaxal with the two given circles, draw the
+  tangent, say XR, from X, the point where the radical axis intersects
+  the line of centres, to one of the given circles, and with centre X
+  and radius XR describe a circle. Then circles having the intersections
+  of tangents to this circle and the line of centres for centres, and
+  the lengths of the tangents as radii, are members of the coaxal
+  system.
+
+In the case of non-intersecting circles, it is seen that the minimum
+circles of the coaxal system are a pair of points I and I', where the
+orthogonal circle to the system intersects the line of centres; these
+points are named the "limiting points." In the case of a coaxal system
+having real points of intersection the limiting points are imaginary.
+Analytically, the Cartesian equation to a coaxal system can be written
+in the form x squared + y squared + 2ax +- k squared = 0, where a varies from member to
+member, while k is a constant. The radical axis is x = 0, and it may be
+shown that the length of the tangent from a point (0, h) is h squared +- k squared,
+i.e. it is independent of a, and therefore of any particular member of
+the system. The circles intersect in real or imaginary points according
+to the lower or upper sign of k squared, and the limiting points are real for
+the upper sign and imaginary for the lower sign. The fundamental
+properties of coaxal systems may be summarized:--
+
+  1. The centres of circles forming a coaxal system are collinear;
+
+  2. A coaxal system having real points of intersection has imaginary
+    limiting points;
+
+  3. A coaxal system having imaginary points of intersection has real
+    limiting points;
+
+  4. Every circle through the limiting points cuts all circles of the
+    system orthogonally;
+
+  5. The limiting points are inverse points for every circle of the
+    system.
+
+The theory of centres of similitude and coaxal circles affords elegant
+demonstrations of the famous problem: To describe a circle to touch
+three given circles. This problem, also termed the "Apollonian problem,"
+was demonstrated with the aid of conic sections by Apollonius in his
+book on _Contacts_ or _Tangencies_; geometrical solutions involving the
+conic sections were also given by Adrianus Romanus, Vieta, Newton and
+others. The earliest analytical solution appears to have been given by
+the princess Elizabeth, a pupil of Descartes and daughter of Frederick
+V. John Casey, professor of mathematics at the Catholic university of
+Dublin, has given elementary demonstrations founded on the theory of
+similitude and coaxal circles which are reproduced in his _Sequel to
+Euclid_; an analytical solution by Gergonne is given in Salmon's _Conic
+Sections_. Here we may notice that there are eight circles which solve
+the problem.
+
+
+_Mensuration of the Circle._
+
+All exact relations pertaining to the mensuration of the circle involve
+the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. This ratio, invariably
+denoted by [pi], is constant for all circles, but it does not admit of
+exact arithmetical expression, being of the nature of an incommensurable
+number. Very early in the history of geometry it was known that the
+circumference and area of a circle of radius r could be expressed in the
+forms 2[pi]r and [pi]r squared. The exact geometrical evaluation of the second
+quantity, viz. [pi]r squared, which, in reality, is equivalent to determining a
+square equal in area to a circle, engaged the attention of
+mathematicians for many centuries. The history of these attempts,
+together with modern contributions to our knowledge of the value and
+nature of the number [pi], is given below (_Squaring of the Circle_).
+
+  The following table gives the values of this constant and several
+  expiessions involving it:--
+
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+
+    |              |  Number.  | Logarithm.|
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+
+    |        [pi]  | 3.1415927 | 0.4971499 |
+    |      2 [pi]  | 6.2831858 | 0.7981799 |
+    |      4 [pi]  |12.5663706 | 1.0992099 |
+    |  (1/2) [pi]  | 1.5707963 | 0.1961199 |
+    |  (1/3) [pi]  | 1.0471976 | 0.0200286 |
+    |  (1/4) [pi]  | 0.7853982 | 1.8950899 |
+    |  (1/6) [pi]  | 0.5235988 | 1.7189986 |
+    |  (1/8) [pi]  | 0.3926991 | 1.5940599 |
+    | (1/12) [pi]  | 0.2617994 | 1.4179686 |
+    |  (4/3) [pi]  | 4.1887902 | 0.6220886 |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      [pi]    |           |           |
+    |     ------   | 0.0174533 | 2.2418774 |
+    |      180     |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |       1      |           |           |
+    |     ------   | 0.3183099 | 1.5028501 |
+    |      [pi]    |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |       4      |           |           |
+    |     ------   | 1.2732395 | 0.1049101 |
+    |      [pi]    |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |       1      |           |           |
+    |     ------   | 0.0795775 | 2.9097901 |
+    |     4 [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      180     |           |           |
+    |     ------   |57.2957795 | 1.7581226 |
+    |      [pi]    |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      [pi] squared   | 9.8696044 | 0.9942997 |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |        1     |           |           |
+    |    --------  | 0.0168869 | 2.2275490 |
+    |     6 [pi] squared  |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      _____   |           |           |
+    |    \/ [pi]   | 1.7724539 | 0.2485750 |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      _____   |           |           |
+    |   \ cubed/ [pi]   | 1.4645919 | 0.1657166 |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      1       |           |           |
+    |   --------   |           |           |
+    |      _____   | 0.5641896 | 1.7514251 |
+    |    \/ [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      2       |           |           |
+    |   --------   |           |           |
+    |      _____   | 1.1283792 | 0.0524551 |
+    |    \/ [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |      1       |           |           |
+    | ----------   |           |           |
+    |      _____   | 0.2820948 | 1.4503951 |
+    |  2 \/ [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |     _____    |           |           |
+    |    /  6      |           |           |
+    | \ cubed/ ----     | 1.2407010 | 0.0936671 |
+    |  V  [pi]     |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    |     ______   |           |           |
+    |    /   3     |           |           |
+    | \ cubed/ -------  | 0.6203505 | 1.7926371 |
+    |  V  4 [pi]   |           |           |
+    |              |           |           |
+    | log e [pi]   | 1.1447299 | 0.0587030 |
+    +--------------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  Useful fractional approximations are 22/7 and 355/113.
+
+  A synopsis of the leading formula connected with the circle will now
+  be given.
+
+  1. _Circle._--Data: radius = a. Circumference = 2[pi]a. Area = [pi]a squared.
+
+  2. _Arc_ and _Sector_.--Data: radius = a; [theta] = circular measure
+  of angle subtended at centre by arc; c = chord of arc; c2 = chord of
+  semi-arc; c4 = chord of quarter-arc.
+
+  Exact formulae are:--Arc = a[theta], where [theta] may be given
+  directly, or indirectly by the relation c = 2a sin 1/2[theta]. Area of
+  sector = 1/2a squared[theta] = 1/2 radius x arc.
+
+  Approximate formulae are:--Arc = (1/3)(8c2 - c) (Huygen's formula);
+  arc = (1/45)(c - 40c2 + 256c4).
+
+  3. _Segment._--Data: a, [theta], c, c2, as in (2); h = height of
+  segment, i.e. distance of mid-point of arc from chord.
+
+  Exact formulae are:--Area = 1/2a squared([theta] - sin [theta]) = 1/2a squared[theta]
+  -1/4c squared cot 1/2[theta] = 1/2a squared - 1/2c sqrt(a squared - 1/4c squared). If h be given, we can use
+  c squared + 4h squared = 8ah, 2h = c tan 1/4[theta] to determine [theta].
+
+  Approximate formulae are:--Area = (1/15)(6c + 8c2)h; = (2/3) sqrt(c squared +
+  (8/5)h squared).h; = (1/15)(7c + 3[alpha])h, [alpha] being the true length of
+  the arc.
+
+  From these results the mensuration of any figure bounded by circular
+  arcs and straight lines can be determined, e.g. the area of a _lune_
+  or _meniscus_ is expressible as the difference or sum of two segments,
+  and the circumference as the sum of two arcs.    (C. E.*)
+
+
+_Squaring of the Circle._
+
+The problem of finding a square equal in area to a given circle, like
+all problems, may be increased in difficulty by the imposition of
+restrictions; consequently under the designation there may be embraced
+quite a variety of geometrical problems. It has to be noted, however,
+that, when the "squaring" of the circle is especially spoken of, it is
+almost always tacitly assumed that the restrictions are those of the
+Euclidean geometry.
+
+Since the area of a circle equals that of the rectilineal triangle whose
+base has the same length as the circumference and whose altitude equals
+the radius (Archimedes, [Greek: Kyklou metresis], prop. 1), it follows
+that, if a straight line could be drawn equal in length to the
+circumference, the required square could be found by an ordinary
+Euclidean construction; also, it is evident that, conversely, if a
+square equal in area to the circle could be obtained it would be
+possible to draw a straight line equal to the circumference.
+Rectification and quadrature of the circle have thus been, since the
+time of Archimedes at least, practically identical problems. Again,
+since the circumferences of circles are proportional to their
+diameters--a proposition assumed to be true from the dawn almost of
+practical geometry--the rectification of the circle is seen to be
+transformable into finding the ratio of the circumference to the
+diameter. This correlative numerical problem and the two purely
+geometrical problems are inseparably connected historically.
+
+Probably the earliest value for the ratio was 3. It was so among the
+Jews (1 Kings vii. 23, 26), the Babylonians (Oppert, _Journ. asiatique_,
+August 1872, October 1874), the Chinese (Biot, _Journ. asiatique_, June
+1841), and probably also the Greeks. Among the ancient Egyptians, as
+would appear from a calculation in the Rhind papyrus, the number
+(4/3)^4, i.e. 3.1605, was at one time in use.[1] The first attempts to
+solve the purely geometrical problem appear to have been made by the
+Greeks (Anaxagoras, &c.)[2], one of whom, Hippocrates, doubtless raised
+hopes of a solution by his quadrature of the so-called _meniscoi_ or
+_lune_.[3]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 6.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 7.]
+
+[The Greeks were in possession of several relations pertaining to the
+quadrature of the lune. The following are among the more interesting. In
+fig. 6, ABC is an isosceles triangle right angled at C, ADB is the
+semicircle described on AB as diameter, AEB the circular arc described
+with centre C and radius CA = CB. It is easily shown that the areas of
+the lune ADBEA and the triangle ABC are equal. In fig. 7, ABC is any
+triangle right angled at C, semicircles are described on the three
+sides, thus forming two lunes AFCDA and CGBEC. The sum of the areas of
+these lunes equals the area of the triangle ABC.]
+
+As for Euclid, it is sufficient to recall the facts that the original
+author of prop. 8 of book iv. had strict proof of the ratio being <4,
+and the author of prop. 15 of the ratio being >3, and to direct
+attention to the importance of book x. on incommensurables and props. 2
+and 16 of book xii., viz. that "circles are to one another as the
+squares on their diameters" and that "in the greater of two concentric
+circles a regular 2n-gon can be inscribed which shall not meet the
+circumference of the less," however nearly equal the circles may be.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.]
+
+With Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) a notable advance was made. Taking the
+circumference as intermediate between the perimeters of the inscribed
+and the circumscribed regular n-gons, he showed that, the radius of the
+circle being given and the perimeter of some particular circumscribed
+regular polygon obtainable, the perimeter of the circumscribed regular
+polygon of double the number of sides could be calculated; that the like
+was true of the inscribed polygons; and that consequently a means was
+thus afforded of approximating to the circumference of the circle. As a
+matter of fact, he started with a semi-side AB of a circumscribed
+regular hexagon meeting the circle in B (see fig. 8), joined A and B
+with O the centre, bisected the angle AOB by OD, so that BD became the
+semi-side of a circumscribed regular 12-gon; then as AB:BO:OA::1:
+sqrt(3):2 he sought an approximation to sqrt(3) and found that AB:BO >
+153:265. Next he applied his theorem[4] BO + OA:AB::OB:BD to calculate
+BD; from this in turn he calculated the semi-sides of the circumscribed
+regular 24-gon, 48-gon and 96-gon, and so finally established for the
+circumscribed regular 96-gon that perimeter:diameter < (3-1/7):1. In a
+quite analogous manner he proved for the inscribed regular 96-gon that
+perimeter:diameter > 3-(10/71):1. The conclusion from these therefore
+was that the ratio of circumference to diameter is < 3-1/7 and >
+3-(10/71). This is a most notable piece of work; the immature condition
+of arithmetic at the time was the only real obstacle preventing the
+evaluation of the ratio to any degree of accuracy whatever.[5]
+
+No advance of any importance was made upon the achievement of Archimedes
+until after the revival of learning. His immediate successors may have
+used his method to attain a greater degree of accuracy, but there is
+very little evidence pointing in this direction. Ptolemy (fl. 127-151),
+in the _Great Syntaxis_, gives 3.141552 as the ratio[6]; and the Hindus
+(c. A.D. 500), who were very probably indebted to the Greeks, used
+62832/20000, that is, the now familiar 3.1416.[7]
+
+It was not until the 15th century that attention in Europe began to be
+once more directed to the subject, and after the resuscitation a
+considerable length of time elapsed before any progress was made. The
+first advance in accuracy was due to a certain Adrian, son of Anthony, a
+native of Metz (1527), and father of the better-known Adrian Metius of
+Alkmaar. In refutation of Duchesne(Van der Eycke), he showed that the
+ratio was < 3-(17/120) and > 3-(15/106), and thence made the exceedingly
+lucky step of taking a mean between the two by the quite unjustifiable
+process of halving the sum of the two numerators for a new numerator and
+halving the sum of the two denominators for a new denominator, thus
+arriving at the now well-known approximation 3-(16/113) or 355/113,
+which, being equal to 3.1415929..., is correct to the sixth fractional
+place.[8]
+
+The next to advance the calculation was Francisco Vieta. By finding the
+perimeter of the inscribed and that of the circumscribed regular polygon
+of 393216 (i.e. 6 X 2^16) sides, he proved that the ratio was >
+3.1415926535 and < 3.1415926537, so that its value became known (in
+1579) correctly to 10 fractional places. The theorem for angle-bisection
+which Vieta used was not that of Archimedes, but that which would now
+appear in the form 1 - cos [theta] = 2 sin squared 1/2[theta]. With Vieta, by
+reason of the advance in arithmetic, the style of treatment becomes more
+strictly trigonometrical; indeed, the _Universales Inspectiones_, in
+which the calculation occurs, would now be called plane and spherical
+trigonometry, and the accompanying _Canon mathematicus_ a table of
+sines, tangents and secants.[9] Further, in comparing the labours of
+Archimedes and Vieta, the effect of increased power of symbolical
+expression is very noticeable. Archimedes's process of unending cycles
+of arithmetical operations could at best have been expressed in his time
+by a "rule" in words; in the 16th century it could be condensed into a
+"formula." Accordingly, we find in Vieta a formula for the ratio of
+diameter to circumference, viz. the interminate product[10]--
+
+                                ___________________
+               __________      /        ___________
+      ___     /       ___     /        /        ___
+  1/2 \/ 1/2  . \/ 1/2 + 1/2\/ 1/2  . \/ 1/2 + 1/2 \/ 1/2 + 1/2 \/ 1/2  ...
+
+From this point onwards, therefore, no knowledge whatever of geometry
+was necessary in any one who aspired to determine the ratio to any
+required degree of accuracy; the problem being reduced to an
+arithmetical computation. Thus in connexion with the subject a genus of
+workers became possible who may be styled "[pi]-computers or
+circle-squarers"--a name which, if it connotes anything uncomplimentary,
+does so because of the almost entirely fruitless character of their
+labours. Passing over Adriaan van Roomen (Adrianus Romanus) of Louvain,
+who published the value of the ratio correct to 15 places in his _Idea
+mathematica_ (1593),[11] we come to the notable computer Ludolph van
+Ceulen (d. 1610), a native of Germany, long resident in Holland. His
+book, _Van den Circkel_ (Delft, 1596), gave the ratio correct to 20
+places, but he continued his calculations as long as he lived, and his
+best result was published on his tombstone in St Peter's church, Leiden.
+The inscription, which is not known to be now in existence,[12] is in
+part as follows:--
+
+  ... Qui in vita sua multo labore circumferentiae circuli proximam
+  rationem ad diametrum invenit sequentem--
+
+              quando diameter est 1
+      tum circuli circumferentia plus est
+
+  quam   314159265358979323846264338327950288
+         1OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
+
+                      et minus
+  quam   314159265358979323846264338327950289
+         1OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ...
+
+This gives the ratio correct to 35 places. Van Ceulen's process was
+essentially identical with that of Vieta. Its numerous root extractions
+amply justify a stronger expression than "multo labore," especially in
+an epitaph. In Germany the "Ludolphische Zahl" (Ludolph's number) is
+still a common name for the ratio.[13]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.]
+
+Up to this point the credit of most that had been done may be set down
+to Archimedes. A new departure, however, was made by Willebrord Snell of
+Leiden in his _Cyclometria_, published in 1621. His achievement was a
+closely approximate geometrical solution of the problem of rectification
+(see fig. 9): ACB being a semicircle whose centre is O, and AC the arc
+to be rectified, he produced AB to D, making BD equal to the radius,
+joined DC, and produced it to meet the tangent at A in E; and then his
+assertion (not established by him) was that AE was nearly equal to the
+arc AC, the error being in defect. For the purposes of the calculator a
+solution erring in excess was also required, and this Snell gave by
+slightly varying the former construction. Instead of producing AB (see
+fig. 10) so that BD was equal to r, he produced it only so far that,
+when the extremity D' was joined with C, the part D'F outside the circle
+was equal to r; in other words, by a non-Euclidean construction he
+trisected the angle AOC, for it is readily seen that, since FD' = FO =
+OC, the angle FOB = (1/3)AOC.[14] This couplet of constructions is as
+important from the calculator's point of view as it is interesting
+geometrically. To compare it on this score with the fundamental
+proposition of Archimedes, the latter must be put into a form similar to
+Snell's. AMC being an arc of a circle (see fig. 11) whose centre is O,
+AC its chord, and HK the tangent drawn at the middle point of the arc
+and bounded by OA, OC produced, then, according to Archimedes, AMC < HK,
+but > AC. In modern trigonometrical notation the propositions to be
+compared stand as follows:--
+
+  2 tan 1/2[theta] > [theta]  > 2sin 1/2 [theta]        (Archimedes);
+
+                                                    3 sin [theta]
+  tan (1/3)[theta] + 2sin (1/3)[theta] > [theta] > ---------------  (Snell).
+                                                   2 + cos [theta]
+
+It is readily shown that the latter gives the best approximation to
+[theta]; but, while the former requires for its application a knowledge
+of the trigonometrical ratios of only one angle (in other words, the
+ratios of the sides of only one right-angled triangle), the latter
+requires the same for two angles, [theta] and (1/3)[theta]. Grienberger,
+using Snell's method, calculated the ratio correct to 39 fractional
+places.[15] C. Huygens, in his _De Circuli Magnitudine Inventa_, 1654,
+proved the propositions of Snell, giving at the same time a number of
+other interesting theorems, for example, two inequalities which may be
+written as follows[16]--
+
+                 4chd [theta] + sin [theta]    1
+  chd [theta] + --------------------------- . --- (chd [theta] - sin [theta]) >
+                2chd [theta] + 3sin [theta]    3
+
+                             1
+    [theta] > chd [theta] + --- (chd [theta] - sin [theta]).
+                             3
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.]
+
+As might be expected, a fresh view of the matter was taken by Rene
+Descartes. The problem he set himself was the exact converse of that of
+Archimedes. A given straight line being viewed as equal in length to the
+circumference of a circle, he sought to find the diameter of the circle.
+His construction is as follows (see fig. 12). Take AB equal to one-fourth
+of the given line; on AB describe a square ABCD; join AC; in AC produced
+find, by a known process, a point C1 such that, when C1B1 is drawn
+perpendicular to AB produced and C1D1 perpendicular to BC produced, the
+rectangle BC1 will be equal to 1/4ABCD; by the same process find a point C2
+such that the rectangle B1C2 will be equal to 1/4BC1; and so on _ad
+infinitum_. The diameter sought is the straight line from A to the
+limiting position of the series of B's, say the straight line AB[oo]. As
+in the case of the process of Archimedes, we may direct our attention
+either to the infinite series of geometrical operations or to the
+corresponding infinite series of arithmetical operations. Denoting the
+number of units in AB by 1/4c, we can express BB1, B1B2, ... in terms of
+1/4c, and the identity AB[oo] = AB + BB1 + B1B2 + ... gives us at once an
+expression for the diameter in terms of the circumference by means of an
+infinite series.[17] The proof of the correctness of the construction is
+seen to be involved in the following theorem, which serves likewise to
+throw new light on the subject:--AB being any straight line whatever, and
+the above construction being made, then AB is the diameter of the circle
+circumscribed by the square ABCD (self-evident), AB1 is the diameter of
+the circle circumscribed by the regular 8-gon having the same perimeter
+as the square, AB2 is the diameter of the circle circumscribed by the
+regular 16-gon having the same perimeter as the square, and so on.
+Essentially, therefore, Descartes's process is that known later as the
+process of _isoperimeters_, and often attributed wholly to Schwab.[18]
+
+In 1655 appeared the _Arithmetica Infinitorum_ of John Wallis, where
+numerous problems of quadrature are dealt with, the curves being now
+represented in Cartesian co-ordinates, and algebra playing an important
+part. In a very curious manner, by viewing the circle y = (1 - x squared)^1/2
+as a member of the series of curves y = (1 - x squared)1, y = (1 - x
+squared) squared, &c., he was led to the proposition that four times the
+reciprocal of the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, i.e. 4/[pi],
+is equal to the infinite product
+
+  3 . 3 . 5 . 5 . 7 . 7 . 9 ...
+  -----------------------------;
+  2 . 4 . 4 . 6 . 6 . 8 . 8 ...
+
+and, the result having been communicated to Lord Brounker, the latter
+discovered the equally curious equivalent continued fraction
+
+       1 squared    3 squared     5 squared     7 squared
+  1 + ---   ---    ---    --- ...
+       2  +  2   +  2   +  2
+
+The work of Wallis had evidently an important influence on the next
+notable personality in the history of the subject, James Gregory, who
+lived during the period when the higher algebraic analysis was coming
+into power, and whose genius helped materially to develop it. He had,
+however, in a certain sense one eye fixed on the past and the other
+towards the future. His first contribution[19] was a variation of the
+method of Archimedes. The latter, as we know, calculated the perimeters
+of successive polygons, passing from one polygon to another of double
+the number of sides; in a similar manner Gregory calculated the areas.
+The general theorems which enabled him to do this, after a start had
+been made, are
+
+          _____
+  A2n = \/AnA'n (Snell's _Cyclom._),
+
+          2 An A'n      2 A'n A2n
+  A'2n = ---------- or ----------- (Gregory),
+         An + A'2n      A'n + A2n
+
+where An, A'n are the areas of the inscribed and the circumscribed
+regular n-gons respectively. He also gave approximate rectifications of
+circular arcs after the manner of Huygens; and, what is very notable, he
+made an ingenious and, according to J.E. Montucla, successful attempt to
+show that quadrature of the circle by a Euclidean construction was
+impossible.[20] Besides all this, however, and far beyond it in
+importance, was his use of infinite series. This merit he shares with
+his contemporaries N. Mercator, Sir I. Newton and G.W. Leibnitz, and the
+exact dates of discovery are a little uncertain. As far as the
+circle-squaring functions are concerned, it would seem that Gregory was
+the first (in 1670) to make known the series for the arc in terms of the
+tangent, the series for the tangent in terms of the arc, and the secant
+in terms of the arc; and in 1669 Newton showed to Isaac Barrow a little
+treatise in manuscript containing the series for the arc in terms of the
+sine, for the sine in terms of the arc, and for the cosine in terms of
+the arc. These discoveries formed an epoch in the history of
+mathematics generally, and had, of course, a marked influence on after
+investigations regarding circle-quadrature. Even among the mere
+computers the series
+
+  [theta] = tan - (1/3) tan^3 [theta] + (1/5) tan^5 [theta] - ...,
+
+specially known as Gregory's series, has ever since been a necessity of
+their calling.
+
+The calculator's work having now become easier and more mechanical,
+calculation went on apace. In 1699 Abraham Sharp, on the suggestion of
+Edmund Halley, took Gregory's series, and, putting tan [theta] = (1/3)
+sqrt(3), found the ratio equal to
+
+    __  /      1       1        1         \
+  \/12 ( 1 - ----- + ------ - ------ + ... ),
+        \    3 . 3   5 . 3 squared   7 . 3 cubed      /
+
+from which he calculated it correct to 71 fractional places.[21] About
+the same time John Machin calculated it correct to 100 places, and, what
+was of more importance, gave for the ratio the rapidly converging
+expression
+
+   16   /  1       1       1         \
+   --  (  ---- + ----- - ----- + ...  ) -
+   5    \ 3.5 squared   5.5^4   7.5^6       /
+
+      4   /      1         1         \
+     --- ( 1 - ------ + ------- - ... ),
+     239  \    3.239 squared   5.239^4      /
+
+which long remained without explanation.[22] Fautet de Lagny, still
+using tan 30 deg., advanced to the 127th place.[23]
+
+Leonhard Euler took up the subject several times during his life,
+effecting mainly improvements in the theory of the various series.[24]
+With him, apparently, began the usage of denoting by [pi] the ratio of
+the circumference to the diameter.[25]
+
+The most important publication, however, on the subject in the 18th
+century was a paper by J.H. Lambert,[26] read before the Berlin Academy
+in 1761, in which he demonstrated the irrationality of [pi]. The general
+test of irrationality which he established is that, if
+
+  a1   a2   a2
+  --   --   --   ...
+  b1 +- b2 +- b3 +-
+
+be an interminate continued fraction, a1, a2, ..., b1, b2 ... be
+integers, a1/b1, a2/b2, ... be proper fractions, and the value of every
+one of the interminate continued fractions
+
+  a1         a2
+  --       , --       , ... be < 1,
+  b1 +- ...   b2 +- ...
+
+then the given continued fraction represents an irrational quantity. If
+this be applied to the right-hand side of the identity
+
+       m      m     m squared     m squared
+  tan --- =  ---   ----   ---- ...
+       n      n  -  3n  -  5n
+
+it follows that the tangent of every arc commensurable with the radius
+is irrational, so that, as a particular case, an arc of 45 deg., having
+its tangent rational, must be incommensurable with the radius; that is to
+say, [pi]/4 is an incommensurable number.[27]
+
+This incontestable result had no effect, apparently, in repressing the
+[pi]-computers. G. von Vega in 1789, using series like Machin's, viz.
+Gregory's series and the identities
+
+  [pi]/4 = 5tan^{-1} (1/7) + 2tan^{-1} (3/79) (Euler, 1779),
+  [pi]/4 =  tan^{-1} (1/7) + 2tan^{-1} ( 1/3) (Hutton, 1776),
+
+neither of which was nearly so advantageous as several found by Charles
+Hutton, calculated [pi] correct to 136 places.[28] This achievement was
+anticipated or outdone by an unknown calculator, whose manuscript was
+seen in the Radcliffe library, Oxford, by Baron von Zach towards the end
+of the century, and contained the ratio correct to 152 places. More
+astonishing still have been the deeds of the [pi]-computers of the 19th
+century. A condensed record compiled by J.W.L. Glaisher (_Messenger of
+Math._ ii. 122) is as follows:--
+
+  +-----+------------+-----------------+--------------------------------------------+
+  |     |            |No. of fr. digits|                                            |
+  |Date.|  Computer. +--------+--------+            Place of Publication.           |
+  |     |            | calcd. |correct.|                                            |
+  +-----+------------+--------+--------+--------------------------------------------+
+  |1842 | Rutherford |   208  |   152  | _Trans. Roy. Soc._ (London, 1841), p. 283. |
+  |1844 | Dase       |   205  |   200  | _Crelle's Journ._. xxvii. 198.             |
+  |1847 | Clausen    |   250  |   248  | _Astron. Nachr._ xxv. col. 207.            |
+  |1853 | Shanks     |   318  |   318  | _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (London, 1853), 273.     |
+  |1853 | Rutherford |   440  |   440  |  Ibid.                                     |
+  |1853 | Shanks     |   530  |    ..  |  Ibid.                                     |
+  |1853 | Shanks     |   607  |    ..  |  W. Shanks, _Rectification of the Circle_  |
+  |     |            |        |        |    (London, 1853).                         |
+  |1853 | Richter    |   333  |   330  | _Grunert's Archiv_, xxi. 119.              |
+  |1854 | Richter    |   400  |   330  |  Ibid. xxii. 473.                          |
+  |1854 | Richter    |   400  |   400  |  Ibid. xxiii. 476.                         |
+  |1854 | Richter    |   500  |   500  |  Ibid. xxv. 472.                           |
+  |1873 | Shanks     |   707  |    ..  | _Proc. Roy. Soc._ (London), xxi.           |
+  +-----+------------+--------+--------+--------------------------------------------+
+
+By these computers Machin's identity, or identities analogous to it, e.g.
+
+     [pi]/4 =  tan^{-1} (1/2)  + tan^{-1} 1/5  + tan^{-1} 1/8  (Dase, 1844),
+     [pi]/4 = 4tan^{-1} (1/5) - tan^{-1} 1/70 + tan^{-1} 1/99 (Rutherford),
+
+and Gregory's series were employed.[29]
+
+A much less wise class than the [pi]-computers of modern times are the
+pseudo-circle-squarers, or circle-squarers technically so called, that
+is to say, persons who, having obtained by illegitimate means a
+Euclidean construction for the quadrature or a finitely expressible
+value for [pi], insist on using faulty reasoning and defective
+mathematics to establish their assertions. Such persons have flourished
+at all times in the history of mathematics; but the interest attaching
+to them is more psychological than mathematical.[30]
+
+It is of recent years that the most important advances in the theory of
+circle-quadrature have been made. In 1873 Charles Hermite proved that
+the base [eta] of the Napierian logarithms cannot be a root of a
+rational algebraical equation of any degree.[31] To prove the same
+proposition regarding [pi] is to prove that a Euclidean construction for
+circle-quadrature is impossible. For in such a construction every point
+of the figure is obtained by the intersection of two straight lines, a
+straight line and a circle, or two circles; and as this implies that,
+when a unit of length is introduced, numbers employed, and the problem
+transformed into one of algebraic geometry, the equations to be solved
+can only be of the first or second degree, it follows that the equation
+to which we must be finally led is a rational equation of even degree.
+Hermite[32] did not succeed in his attempt on [pi]; but in 1882 F.
+Lindemann, following exactly in Hermite's steps, accomplished the
+desired result.[33] (See also TRIGONOMETRY.)
+
+  REFERENCES.--Besides the various writings mentioned, see for the
+  history of the subject F. Rudio, _Geschichte des Problems von der
+  Quadratur des Zirkels_ (1892); M. Cantor, _Geschichte der Mathematik_
+  (1894-1901); Montucla, _Hist. des. math._ (6 vols., Paris, 1758, 2nd
+  ed. 1799-1802); Murhard, _Bibliotheca Mathematica_, ii. 106-123
+  (Leipzig, 1798); Reuss, _Repertorium Comment._ vii. 42-44 (Goettingen,
+  1808). For a few approximate geometrical solutions, see Leybourn's
+  _Math. Repository_, vi. 151-154; _Grunert's Archiv_, xii. 98, xlix. 3;
+  _Nieuw Archief v. Wisk._ iv. 200-204. For experimental determinations
+  of [pi], dependent on the theory of probability, see _Mess. of Math._
+  ii. 113, 119; _Casopis pro pistovani math. a fys._ x. 272-275;
+  _Analyst_, ix. 176.    (T. MU.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Eisenlohr, _Ein math. Handbuch d. alten Aegypter, uebers. u.
+    erklaert_ (Leipzig, 1877); Rodet, _Bull. de la Soc. Math. de France_,
+    vi. pp. 139-149.
+
+  [2] H. Hankel, _Zur Gesch. d. Math. im Alterthum_, &c., chap, v
+    (Leipzig, 1874); M. Cantor, _Vorlesungen ueber Gesch. d. Math._ i.
+    (Leipzig, 1880); Tannery, _Mem. de la Soc._, &c., _a Bordeaux_;
+    Allman, in _Hermathena_.
+
+  [3] Tannery. _Bull. des sc. math._ [2], x. pp. 213-226.
+
+  [4] In modern trigonometrical notation, 1 + sec [theta]:tan
+    [theta]::1:tan 1/2[theta].
+
+  [5] Tannery, "Sur la mesure du cercle d'Archimede," in _Mem....
+    Bordeaux_[2], iv. pp. 313-339; Menge, _Des Archimedes
+    Kreismessung_ (Coblenz, 1874).
+
+  [6] De Morgan, in _Penny Cyclop_, xix. p. 186.
+
+  [7] Kern, _Aryabhattiyam_ (Leiden, 1874), trans. by Rodet
+    (Paris,1879).
+
+  [8] De Morgan, art. "Quadrature of the Circle," in _English
+    Cyclop._; Glaisher, _Mess. of Math._ ii. pp. 119-128, iii. pp.
+    27-46; de Haan, _Nieuw Archief v. Wisk._ i. pp. 70-86, 206-211.
+
+  [9] Vieta, _Opera math._ (Leiden, 1646); Marie, _Hist. des sciences
+    math._ iii. 27 seq. (Paris, 1884).
+
+  [10] Kluegel, _Math. Woerterb._ ii. 606, 607.
+
+  [11] Kaestner, _Gesch. d. Math._ i. (Goettingen, 1796-1800).
+
+  [12] But see _Les Delices de Leide_ (Leiden, 1712); or de Haan,
+    _Mess. of Math._ iii. 24-26.
+
+  [13] For minute and lengthy details regarding the quadrature of the
+    circle in the Low Countries, see de Haan, "Bouwstoffen voor de
+    geschiedenis, &c.," in _Versl. en Mededeel. der K. Akad. van
+    Wetensch._ ix., x., xi., xii. (Amsterdam); also his "Notice sur
+    quelques quadrateurs, &c.," in _Bull. di bibliogr. e di storia delle
+    sci. mat. e fis._ vii. 99-144.
+
+  [14] It is thus manifest that by his first construction Snell gave
+    an approximate solution of two great problems of antiquity.
+
+  [15] _Elementa trigonometrica_ (Rome, 1630); Glaisher, _Messenger of
+    Math._ iii. 35 seq.
+
+  [16] See Kiessling's edition of the _De Circ. Magn. Inv._
+    (Flensburg, 1869); or Pirie's tract on _Geometrical Methods of
+    Approx. to the Value of [pi]_ (London, 1877).
+
+  [17] See Euler, "Annotationes in locum quendam Cartesii," in _Nov.
+    Comm. Acad. Petrop._ viii.
+
+  [18] Gergonne, _Annales de math._ vi.
+
+  [19] See _Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura_ (Padua, 1667); and
+    the _Appendicula_ to the same in his _Exercitationes geometricae_
+    (London, 1668).
+
+  [20] _Penny Cyclop._ xix. 187.
+
+  [21] See Sherwin's _Math. Tables_ (London, 1705), p. 59.
+
+  [22] See W. Jones, _Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos_ (London, 1706);
+    Maseres, _Scriptores Logarithmici_ (London, 1791-1796), iii. 159
+    seq.; Hutton, _Tracts_, i. 266.
+
+  [23] See _Hist. de l'Acad._ (Paris, 1719); 7 appears instead of 8 in
+    the 113th place.
+
+  [24] _Comment. Acad. Petrop._ ix., xi.; _Nov. Comm. Ac. Pet._ xvi.;
+    _Nova Acta Acad. Pet._ xi.
+
+  [25] _Introd. in Analysin Infin._ (Lausanne, 1748), chap. viii.
+
+  [26] _Mem. sur quelques proprietes remarquables des quantites
+    transcendantes, circulaires, et logarithmiques._
+
+  [27] See Legendre, _Elements de geometrie_ (Paris, 1794), note iv.;
+    Schloemilch, _Handbuch d. algeb. Analysis_ (Jena, 1851), chap. xiii.
+
+  [28] _Nova Acta Petrop._ ix. 41; _Thesaurus Logarithm. Completus_,
+    633.
+
+  [29] On the calculations made before Shanks, see Lehmann, "Beitrag
+    zur Berechnung der Zahl [pi]," in _Grunert's Archiv_, xxi. 121-174.
+
+  [30] See Montucla, _Hist. des rech. sur la quad. du cercle_ (Paris,
+    1754, 2nd ed. 1831); de Morgan, _Budget of Paradoxes_ (London,
+    1872).
+
+  [31] "Sur la fonction exponentielle," _Comples rendus_ (Paris),
+    lxxvii. 18, 74, 226, 285.
+
+  [32] See _Crelle's Journal_, lxxvi. 342.
+
+  [33] See "Ueber die Zahl [pi]," in _Math. Ann._ xx. 213.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Pickaway county, Ohio,
+U.S.A., about 26 m. S. by E. of Columbus, on the Scioto river and the
+Ohio Canal. Pop. (1890) 6556; (1900) 6991 (551 negroes); (1910) 6744. It
+is served by the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania lines) and
+the Norfolk & Western railways, and by the Scioto Valley electric line.
+Circleville is situated in a farming region, and its leading industries
+are the manufacture of straw boards and agricultural implements, and the
+canning of sweet corn and other produce. The city occupies the site of
+prehistoric earth-works, from one of which, built in the form of a
+circle, it derived its name. Circleville, first settled about 1806, was
+chosen as the county-seat in 1810. The court-house was built in the form
+of an octagon at the centre of the circle, and circular streets were
+laid out around it; but this arrangement proved to be inconvenient, the
+court-house was destroyed by fire in 1841, and at present no trace of
+the ancient landmarks remains. Circleville was incorporated as a village
+in 1814, and was chartered as a city in 1853.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCUIT (Lat. _circuitus_, from _circum_, round, and _ire_, to go), the
+act of moving round; so circumference, or anything encircling or
+encircled. The word is particularly known as a law term, signifying the
+periodical progress of a legal tribunal for the purpose of carrying out
+the administration of the law in the several provinces of a country. It
+has long been applied to the journey or progress which the judges have
+been in the habit of making through the several counties of England, to
+hold courts and administer justice, where recourse could not be had to
+the king's court at Westminster (see ASSIZE).
+
+In England, by sec. 23 of the Judicature Act 1875, power was conferred
+on the crown, by order in council, to make regulations respecting
+circuits, including the discontinuance of any circuit, and the formation
+of any new circuit, and the appointment of the place at which assizes
+are to be held on any circuit. Under this power an order of council,
+dated the 5th of February 1876, was made, whereby the circuit system was
+remodelled. A new circuit, called the North-Eastern circuit, was
+created, consisting of Newcastle and Durham taken out of the old
+Northern circuit, and York and Leeds taken out of the Midland circuit.
+Oakham, Leicester and Northampton, which had belonged to the Norfolk
+circuit, were added to the Midland. The Norfolk circuit and the Home
+circuit were abolished and a new South-Eastern circuit was created,
+consisting of Huntingdon, Cambridge, Ipswich, Norwich, Chelmsford,
+Hertford and Lewes, taken partly out of the old Norfolk circuit and
+partly out of the Home circuit. The counties of Kent and Surrey were
+left out of the circuit system, the assizes for these counties being
+held by the judges remaining in London. Subsequently Maidstone and
+Guildford were united under the revived name of the Home circuit for the
+purpose of the summer and winter assizes, and the assizes in these towns
+were held by one of the judges of the Western circuit, who, after
+disposing of the business there, rejoined his colleague in Exeter. In
+1899 this arrangement was abolished, and Maidstone and Guildford were
+added to the South-Eastern circuit. Other minor changes in the assize
+towns were made, which it is unnecessary to particularize. Birmingham
+first became a circuit town in the year 1884, and the work there became,
+by arrangement, the joint property of the Midland and Oxford circuits.
+There are alternative assize towns in the following counties, viz.:--On
+the Western circuit, Salisbury and Devizes for Wiltshire, and Wells and
+Taunton for Somerset; on the South-Eastern, Ipswich and Bury St Edmunds
+for Suffolk; on the North Wales circuit, Welshpool and Newtown for
+Montgomery; and on the South Wales circuit, Cardiff and Swansea for
+Glamorgan.
+
+According to the arrangements in force in 1909 there are four assizes in
+each year. There are two principal assizes, viz. the winter assizes,
+beginning in January, and the summer assizes, beginning at the end of
+May. At these two assizes criminal and civil business is disposed of in
+all the circuits. There are two other assizes, viz. the autumn assizes
+and the Easter assizes. The autumn assizes are regulated by acts of 1876
+and 1877 (Winter Assizes Acts 1876 and 1877), and orders of council made
+under the former act. They are held for the whole of England and Wales,
+but for the purpose of these assizes the work is to a large extent
+"grouped," so that not every county has a separate assize. For example,
+on the South-Eastern circuit Huntingdon is grouped with Cambridge; on
+the Midland, Rutland is grouped with Lincoln; on the Northern,
+Westmorland is grouped with Cumberland; and the North Wales and South
+Wales circuits are united, and no assizes are held at some of the
+smaller towns. At these assizes criminal business only is taken, except
+at Manchester, Liverpool, Swansea, Birmingham and Leeds. The Easter
+assizes are held in April and May on two circuits only, viz. at
+Manchester and Liverpool on the Northern and at Leeds on the
+North-Eastern. Both civil and criminal business is taken at Manchester
+and Liverpool, but criminal business only at Leeds.
+
+Other changes were made, with a view to preventing the complete
+interruption of the London sittings in the common law division by the
+absence of the judges on circuit. The assizes were so arranged as to
+commence on different dates in the various circuits. For example, the
+summer assizes begin in the South-Eastern and Western circuits on the
+29th of May; in the Northern circuit on the 28th of June; in the Midland
+and Oxford circuits on the 16th of June; in the North-Eastern circuit on
+the 6th of July; in the North Wales circuit on the 7th of July; and in
+the South Wales circuit on the 11th of July. Again, there has been a
+continuous development of what may be called the single-judge system. In
+the early days of the new order the members of the court of appeal and
+the judges of the chancery division shared the circuit work with the
+judges in the common law division. This did not prove to be a
+satisfactory arrangement. The assize work was not familiar and was
+uncongenial to the chancery judges, who had but little training or
+experience to fit them for it. Arrears increased in chancery, and the
+appeal court was shorn of much of its strength for a considerable part
+of the year. The practice was discontinued in or about the year 1884.
+The appeal and chancery judges were relieved of the duty of going on
+circuit, and an arrangement was made by the treasury for making an
+allowance for expenses of circuit to the common law judges, on whom the
+whole work of the assizes was thrown. In order to cope with the assize
+work, and at the same time keep the common law sittings going in London,
+an experiment, which had been previously tried by Lord Cairns and Lord
+Cross (then home secretary) and discontinued, was revived. Instead of
+two judges going together to each assize town, it was arranged that one
+judge should go by himself to certain selected places--practically, it
+may be said, to all except the more important provincial centres. The
+only places to which two judges now go are Exeter, Winchester, Bristol,
+Manchester, Liverpool, Nottingham, Stafford, Birmingham, Newcastle,
+Durham, York, Leeds, Chester, and Cardiff or Swansea.
+
+It could scarcely be said that, even with the amendments introduced
+under orders in council, the circuit system was altogether satisfactory
+or that the last word had been pronounced on the subject. In the first
+report of the Judicature Commission, dated March 25th, 1869, p. 17
+(_Parl. Papers_, 1868-1869), the majority report that "the necessity for
+holding assizes in every county without regard to the extent of the
+business to be transacted in such county leads, in our judgment, to a
+great waste of judicial strength and a great loss of time in going from
+one circuit town to another, and causes much unnecessary cost and
+inconvenience to those whose attendance is necessary or customary at the
+assizes." And in their second report, dated July 3rd, 1872 (_Parl.
+Papers_, 1872, vol. xx.), they dwell upon the advisability of grouping
+or a discontinuance of holding assizes "in several counties, for
+example, Rutland and Westmorland, where it is manifestly an idle waste
+of time and money to have assizes." It is thought that the grouping of
+counties which has been effected for the autumn assizes might be carried
+still further and applied to all the assizes; and that the system of
+holding the assizes alternately in one of two towns within a county
+might be extended to two towns in adjoining counties, for example,
+Gloucester and Worcester. The facility of railway communication renders
+this reform comparatively easy, and reforms in this direction have been
+approved by the judges, but ancient custom and local patriotism,
+interests, or susceptibility bar the way. The Assizes and Quarter
+Sessions Act 1908 contributed something to reform by dispensing with the
+obligation to hold assizes at a fixed date if there is no business to be
+transacted. Nor can it be said that the single-judge system has been
+altogether a success. When there is only one judge for both civil and
+criminal work, he properly takes the criminal business first. He can fix
+only approximately the time when he can hope to be free for the civil
+business. If the calendar is exceptionally heavy or one or more of the
+criminal cases prove to be unexpectedly long (as may easily happen), the
+civil business necessarily gets squeezed into the short residue of the
+allotted time. Suitors and their solicitors and witnesses are kept
+waiting for days, and after all perhaps it proves to be impossible for
+the judge to take the case, and a "remanet" is the result. It is the
+opinion of persons of experience that the result has undoubtedly been to
+drive to London much of the civil business which properly belongs to the
+provinces, and ought to be tried there, and thus at once to increase the
+burden on the judges and jurymen in London, and to increase the costs of
+the trial of the actions sent there. Some persons advocate the
+continuous sittings of the high court in certain centres, such as
+Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Newcastle, Birmingham and Bristol, or (in
+fact) a decentralization of the judicial system. There is already an
+excellent court for chancery cases for Lancashire in the county palatine
+court, presided over by the vice-chancellor, and with a local bar which
+has produced many men of great ability and even eminence. The Durham
+chancery court is also capable of development. Another suggestion has
+been made for continuous circuits throughout the legal year, so that a
+certain number of the judges, according to a rota, should be
+continuously in the provinces while the remaining judges did the London
+business. The value of this suggestion would depend on an estimate of
+the number of cases which might thus be tried in the country in relief
+of the London list. This estimate it would be difficult to make. The
+opinion has also been expressed that it is essential in any changes that
+may be made to retain the occasional administration by judges of the
+high court of criminal jurisdiction, both in populous centres and in
+remote places. It promotes a belief in the importance and dignity of
+justice and the care to be given to all matters affecting a citizen's
+life, liberty or character. It also does something, by the example set
+by judges in country districts, to check any tendency to undue severity
+of sentences in offences against property.
+
+Counsel are not expected to practise on a circuit other than that to
+which they have attached themselves, unless they receive a special
+retainer. They are then said to "go special," and the fee in such a case
+is one hundred guineas for a king's counsel, and fifty guineas for a
+junior. It is customary to employ one member of the circuit on the side
+on which the counsel comes special. Certain rules have been drawn up by
+the Bar Committee for regulating the practice as to retainers on
+circuit. (1) A special retainer must be given for a particular assize (a
+circuit retainer will not, however, make it compulsory upon counsel
+retained to go the circuit, but will give the right to counsel's
+services should he attend the assize and the case be entered for trial);
+(2) if the venue is changed to another place on the same circuit, a
+fresh retainer is not required; (3) if the action is not tried at the
+assize for which the retainer is given, the retainer must be renewed for
+every subsequent assize until the action is disposed of, unless a brief
+has been delivered; (4) a retainer may be given for a future assize,
+without a retainer for an intervening assize, unless notice of trial is
+given for such intervening assize. There are also various regulations
+enforced by the discipline of the circuit bar mess.
+
+In the United States the English circuit system still exists in some
+states, as in Massachusetts, where the judges sit in succession in the
+various counties of the state. The term _circuit courts_ applies
+distinctively in America to a certain class of inferior federal courts
+of the United States, exercising jurisdiction, concurrently with the
+state courts, in certain matters where the United States is a party to
+the litigation, or in cases of crime against the United States. The
+circuit courts act in nine judicial circuits, divided as follows: _1st
+circuit_, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island; _2nd
+circuit_, Connecticut, New York, Vermont; _3rd circuit_, Delaware, New
+Jersey, Pennsylvania; _4th circuit_, Maryland, North Carolina, South
+Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia; _5th circuit_, Alabama, Florida,
+Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas; _6th circuit_, Kentucky,
+Michigan, Ohio, Tennessee; _7th circuit_, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin;
+_8th circuit_, Arkansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota,
+Missouri, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah,
+Wyoming; _9th circuit_, Alaska, Arizona, California, Idaho, Montana,
+Nevada, Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii. A circuit court of appeals is
+made up of three judges of the circuit court, the judges of the district
+courts of the circuit, and the judge of the Supreme Court allotted to
+the circuit.
+
+In Scotland the judges of the supreme criminal court, or high court of
+justiciary, form also three separate circuit courts, consisting of two
+judges each; and the country, with the exception of the Lothians, is
+divided into corresponding districts, called the Northern, Western and
+Southern circuits. On the Northern circuit, courts are held at
+Inverness, Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen; on the Western, at Glasgow,
+Stirling and Inveraray; and on the Southern, at Dumfries, Jedburgh and
+Ayr.
+
+Ireland is divided into the North-East and the North-West circuits, and
+those of Leinster, Connaught and Munster.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCULAR NOTE, a documentary request by a bank to its foreign
+correspondents to pay a specified sum of money to a named person. The
+person in whose favour a circular note is issued is furnished with a
+letter (containing the signature of an official of the bank and the
+person named) called a letter of indication, which is usually referred
+to in the circular note, and must be produced on presentation of the
+note. Circular notes are generally issued against a payment of cash to
+the amount of the notes, but the notes need not necessarily be cashed,
+but may be returned to the banker in exchange for the amount for which
+they were originally issued. A forged signature on a circular note
+conveys no right, and as it is the duty of the payer to see that payment
+is made to the proper person, he cannot recover the amount of a forged
+note from the banker who issued the note. (See also LETTER OF CREDIT.)
+
+
+
+
+CIRCULUS IN PROBANDO (Lat. for "circle in proving"), in logic, a phrase
+used to describe a form of argument in which the very fact which one
+seeks to demonstrate is used as a premise, i.e. as part of the evidence
+on which the conclusion is based. This argument is one form of the
+fallacy known as _petitio principii_, "begging the question." It is most
+common in lengthy arguments, the complicated character of which enables
+the speaker to make his hearers forget the data from which he began.
+(See FALLACY.)
+
+
+
+
+CIRCUMCISION (Lat. _circum_, round, and _caedere_, to cut), the cutting
+off of the foreskin. This surgical operation, which is commonly
+prescribed for purely medical reasons, is also an initiation or
+religious ceremony among Jews and Mahommedans, and is a widespread
+institution in many Semitic races. It remains, with Jews, a necessary
+preliminary to the admission of proselytes, except in some Reformed
+communities. The origin of the rite among the Jews is in Genesis (xvii.)
+placed in the age of Abraham, and at all events it must have been very
+ancient, for flint stones were used in the operation (Exodus iv. 25;
+Joshua v. 2). The narrative in Joshua implies that the custom was
+introduced by him, not that it had merely been in abeyance in the
+Wilderness. At Gilgal he "rolled away the reproach of the Egyptians" by
+circumcising the people. This obviously means that whereas the Egyptians
+practised circumcision the Jews in the land of the Pharaohs did not, and
+hence were regarded with contempt. It was an old theory (Herodotus ii.
+36) that circumcision originated in Egypt; at all events it was
+practised in that country in ancient times (Ebers, _Egypten und die
+Buecher Mosis_, i. 278-284), and the same is true at the present day. But
+it is not generally thought probable that the Hebrews derived the rite
+directly from the Egyptians. As Driver puts it (_Genesis_, p. 190): "It
+is possible that, as Dillmann and Nowack suppose, the peoples of N.
+Africa and Asia who practised the rite adopted it from the Egyptians,
+but it appears in so many parts of the world that it must at any rate in
+these cases have originated independently." In another biblical
+narrative (Exodus iv. 25) Moses is subject to the divine anger because
+he had not made himself "a bridegroom of blood," that is, had not been
+circumcised before his marriage.
+
+The rite of circumcision was practised by all the inhabitants of
+Palestine with the exception of the Philistines. It was an ancient
+custom among the Arabs, being presupposed in the Koran. The only
+important Semitic peoples who most probably did not follow the rite were
+the Babylonians and Assyrians (Sayce, _Babyl. and Assyrians_, p. 47).
+Modern investigations have brought to light many instances of the
+prevalence of circumcision in various parts of the world. These facts
+are collected by Andree and Ploss, and go to prove that the rite is not
+only spread through the Mahommedan world (Turks, Persians, Arabs, &c.),
+but also is practised by the Christian Abyssinians and the Copts, as
+well as in central Australia and in America. In central Australia
+(Spencer and Gillen, pp. 212-386) circumcision with a stone knife must
+be undergone by every youth before he is reckoned a full member of the
+tribe or is permitted to enter on the married state. In other parts, too
+(e.g. Loango), no uncircumcised man may marry. Circumcision was known to
+the Aztecs (Bancroft, _Native Races_, vol. iii.), and is still practised
+by the Caribs of the Orinoco and the Tacunas of the Amazon. The method
+and period of the operation vary in important particulars. Among the
+Jews it is performed in infancy, when the male child is eight days old.
+The child is named at the same time, and the ceremony is elaborate. The
+child is carried in to the godfather (_sandek_, a hebraized form of the
+Gr. [Greek: sunteknos], "godfather," post-class.), who places the child
+on a cushion, which he holds on his knees throughout the ceremony. The
+operator (_mohel_) uses a steel knife, and pronounces various
+benedictions before and after the rite is performed (see S. Singer,
+_Authorized Daily Prayer Book_, pp. 304-307; an excellent account of the
+domestic festivities and spiritual joys associated with the ceremony
+among medieval and modern Jews may be read in S. Schechter's _Studies in
+Judaism_, first series, pp. 351 seq.). Some tribes in South America and
+elsewhere are said to perform the rite on the eighth day, like the Jews.
+The Mazequas do it between the first and second months. Among the
+Bedouins the rite is performed on children of three years, amid dances
+and the selection of brides (Doughty, _Arabia Deserta_, i. 340); among
+the Somalis the age is seven (Reinisch, _Somalisprache_, p. 110). But
+for the most part the tribes who perform the rite carry it out at the
+age of puberty. Many facts bearing on this point are given by B. Stade
+in _Zeitschrift fuer die alttest. Wissenschaft_, vi. (1886) pp. 132 seq.
+
+The significance of the rite of circumcision has been much disputed.
+Some see in it a tribal badge. If this be the true origin of
+circumcision, it must go back to the time when men went about naked.
+Mutilations (tattooing, removal of teeth and so forth) were tribal
+marks, being partly sacrifices and partly means of recognition (see
+MUTILATION). Such initiatory rites were often frightful ordeals, in
+which the neophyte's courage was severely tested (Robertson Smith,
+_Religion of the Semites_, p. 310). Some regard circumcision as a
+substitute for far more serious rites, including even human sacrifice.
+Utilitarian explanations have also been suggested. Sir R. Burton
+(_Memoirs Anthrop. Soc._ i. 318) held that it was introduced to promote
+fertility, and the claims of cleanliness have been put forward
+(following Philo's example, see ed. Mangey, ii. 210). Most probably,
+however, circumcision (which in many tribes is performed on both sexes)
+was connected with marriage, and was a preparation for connubium. It was
+in Robertson Smith's words "originally a preliminary to marriage, and so
+a ceremony of introduction to the full prerogative of manhood," the
+transference to infancy among the Jews being a later change. On this
+view, the decisive Biblical reference would be the Exodus passage (iv.
+25), in which Moses is represented as being in danger of his life
+because he had neglected the proper preliminary to marriage. In Genesis,
+on the other hand, circumcision is an external sign of God's covenant
+with Israel, and later Judaism now regards it in this symbolical sense.
+Barton (_Semitic Origins_, p. 100) declares that "the circumstances
+under which it is performed in Arabia point to the origin of
+circumcision as a sacrifice to the goddess of fertility, by which the
+child was placed under her protection and its reproductive powers
+consecrated to her service." But Barton admits that initiation to the
+connubium was the primitive origin of the rite.
+
+As regards the non-ritual use of male circumcision, it may be added that
+in recent years the medical profession has been responsible for its
+considerable extension among other than Jewish children, the operation
+being recommended not merely in cases of malformation, but generally for
+reasons of health.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--On the present diffusion of circumcision see H. Ploss,
+  _Das Kind im Brauch und Sitte der Voelker_, i. 342 seq., and his
+  researches in _Deutsches Archiv fuer Geschichte der Medizin_, viii.
+  312-344; Andree, "Die Beschneidung" in _Archiv fuer Anthropologie_,
+  xiii. 76; and Spencer and Gillen, _Tribes of Central Australia_. The
+  articles in the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ and _Dictionary of the Bible_
+  contain useful bibliographies as well as historical accounts of the
+  rite and its ceremonies, especially as concerns the Jews. The _Jewish
+  Encyclopedia_ in particular gives an extensive list of books on the
+  Jewish customs connected with circumcision, and the various articles
+  in that work are full of valuable information (vol. iv. pp. 92-102).
+  On the rite among the Arabs, see Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen
+  Heidentums_, 154.    (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+CIRCUMVALLATION, LINES OF (from Lat. _circum_, round, and _vallum_, a
+rampart), in fortification, a continuous circle of entrenchments
+surrounding a besieged place. "Lines of Contravallation" were similar
+works by which the besieger protected himself against the attack of a
+relieving army from any quarter. These continuous lines of
+circumvallation and contravallation were used only in the days of small
+armies and small fortresses, and both terms are now obsolete.
+
+
+
+
+CIRCUS (Lat. _circus_, Gr. [Greek: kirkos] or [Greek: krikos], a ring or
+circle; probably "circus" and "ring" are of the same origin), a space,
+in the strict sense circular, but sometimes oval or even oblong,
+intended for the exhibition of races and athletic contests generally.
+The circus differs from the theatre inasmuch as the performance takes
+place in a central circular space, not on a stage at one end of the
+building.
+
+1. _In Roman antiquities_ the circus was a building for the exhibition
+of horse and chariot races and other amusements. It consisted of tiers
+of seats running parallel with the sides of the course, and forming a
+crescent round one of the ends. The other end was straight and at right
+angles to the course, so that the plan of the whole had nearly the form
+of an ellipse cut in half at its vertical axis. Along the transverse
+axis ran a fence (_spina_) separating the return course from the
+starting one. The straight end had no seats, but was occupied by the
+stalls (_carceres_) where the chariots and horses were held in
+readiness. This end constituted also the front of the building with the
+main entrance. At each end of the course were three conical pillars
+(_metae_) to mark its limits.
+
+The oldest building of this kind in Rome was the _Circus Maximus_, in
+the valley between the Palatine and Aventine hills, where, before the
+erection of any permanent structure, races appear to have been held
+beside the altar of the god Consus. The first building is assigned to
+Tarquin the younger, but for a long time little seems to have been done
+to complete its accommodation, since it is not till 329 B.C. that we
+hear of stalls being erected for the chariots and horses. It was not in
+fact till under the empire that the circus became a conspicuous public
+resort. Caesar enlarged it to some extent, and also made a canal 10 ft.
+broad between the lowest tier of seats (_podium_) and the course as a
+precaution for the spectators' safety when exhibitions of fighting with
+wild beasts, such as were afterwards confined to the amphitheatre, took
+place. When these exhibitions were removed, and the canal (_euripus_)
+was no longer necessary, Nero had it filled up. Augustus is said to have
+placed an obelisk on the _spina_ between the _metae_, and to have built
+a new _pulvinar_, or imperial box; but if this is taken in connexion
+with the fact that the circus had been partially destroyed by fire in 31
+B.C., it may be supposed that besides this he had restored it
+altogether. Only the lower tiers of seats were of stone, the others
+being of wood, and this, from the liability to fire, may account for the
+frequent restorations to which the circus was subject; it would also
+explain the falling of the seats by which a crowd of people were killed
+in the time of Antoninus Pius. In the reign of Claudius, apparently
+after a fire, the _carceres_ of stone (tufa) were replaced by marble,
+and the _metae_ of wood by gilt bronze. Under Domitian, again, after a
+fire, the circus was rebuilt and the carceres increased to 12 instead of
+8 as before. The work was finished by Trajan. See further for seating
+capacity, &c., ROME: _Archaeology_, Sec. "Places of Amusement."
+
+The circus was the only public spectacle at which men and women were not
+separated. The lower seats were reserved for persons of rank; there were
+also various state boxes, e.g. for the giver of the games and his
+friends (called _cubicula_ or _suggestus_). The principal object of
+attraction apart from the racing must have been the _spina_ or low wall
+which ran down the middle of the course, with its obelisks, images and
+ornamental shrines. On it also were seven figures of dolphins and seven
+oval objects, one of which was taken down at every round made in a race,
+so that spectators might see readily how the contest proceeded. The
+chariot race consisted of seven rounds of the course. The chariots
+started abreast, but in an oblique line, so that the outer chariot might
+be compensated for the wider circle it had to make at the other end.
+Such a race was called a _missus_, and as many as 24 of these would take
+place in a day. The competitors wore different colours, originally white
+and red (_albata_ and _russata_), to which green (_prasina_) and blue
+(_veneta_) were added. Domitian introduced two more colours, gold and
+purple (_purpureus et auratus pannus_), which probably fell into disuse
+after his death. To provide the horses and large staff of attendants it
+was necessary to apply to rich capitalists and owners of studs, and from
+this there grew up in time four select companies (_factiones_) of circus
+purveyors, which were identified with the four colours, and with which
+those who organized the races had to contract for the proper supply of
+horses and men. The drivers (_aurigae, agitatores_), who were mostly
+slaves, were sometimes held in high repute for their skill, although
+their calling was regarded with contempt. The horses most valued were
+those of Sicily, Spain and Cappadocia, and great care was taken in
+training them. Chariots with two horses (_bigae_) or four (_quadrigae_)
+were most common, but sometimes also they had three (_trigae_), and
+exceptionally more than four horses. Occasionally there was combined
+with the chariots a race of riders (_desultores_), each rider having two
+horses and leaping from one to the other during the race. At certain of
+the races the proceedings were opened by a _pompa_ or procession in
+which images of the gods and of the imperial family deified were
+conveyed in cars drawn by horses, mules or elephants, attended by the
+colleges of priests, and led by the presiding magistrate (in some cases
+by the emperor himself) seated in a chariot in the dress and with the
+insignia of a triumphator. The procession passed from the capitol along
+the forum, and on to the circus, where it was received by the people
+standing and clapping their hands. The presiding magistrate gave the
+signal for the races by throwing a white flag (_mappa_) on to the
+course.
+
+Next in importance to the Circus Maximus in Rome was the _Circus
+Flaminius_, erected 221 B.C., in the censorship of C. Flaminius, from
+whom it may have taken its name; or the name may have been derived from
+Prata Flaminia, where it was situated, and where also were held plebeian
+meetings. The only games that are positively known to have been
+celebrated in this circus were the _Ludi Taurii_ and _Plebeii_. There is
+no mention of it after the 1st century. Its ruins were identified in the
+16th century at S. Catarina dei Funari and the Palazzo Mattei.
+
+A third circus in Rome was erected by Caligula in the gardens of
+Agrippina, and was known as the _Circus Neronis_, from the notoriety
+which it obtained through the Circensian pleasures of Nero. A fourth was
+constructed by Maxentius outside the Porta Appia near the tomb of
+Caecilia Metella, where its ruins are still, and now afford the only
+instance from which an idea of the ancient circi in Rome can be
+obtained. It was traced to Caracalla, till the discovery of an
+inscription in 1825 showed it to be the work of Maxentius. Old
+topographers speak of six circi, but two of these appear to be
+imaginary, the Circus Florae and the Circus Sallustii.
+
+Circus races were held in connexion with the following public festivals,
+and generally on the last day of the festival, if it extended over more
+than one day:--(1) The _Consualia_, August 21st, December 15th; (2)
+_Equirria_, February 27th, March 14th; (3) _Ludi Romani_, September
+4th-19th; (4) _Ludi Plebeii_, November 4th-17th; (5) _Cerialia_, April
+12th-19th; (6) _Ludi Apollinares_, July 6th-13th; (7) _Ludi Megalenses_,
+April 4th-10th; (8) _Floralia_, April 28th-May 3rd.
+
+  In addition to Smith's _Dictionary of Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1890),
+  see articles in Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_,
+  Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopaedie der classischen
+  Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2 (1899), and Marquardt, _Roemische
+  Staatsverwaltung_, iii. (2nd ed., 1885), p. 504. For existing remains
+  see works quoted under ROME: _Archaeology_.
+
+2. _The Modern Circus._--The "circus" in modern times is a form of
+popular entertainment which has little in common with the institution of
+classical Rome. It is frequently nomadic in character, the place of the
+permanent building known to the ancients as the circus being taken by a
+tent, which is carried from place to place and set up temporarily on any
+site procurable at country fairs or in provincial towns, and in which
+spectacular performances are given by a troupe employed by the
+proprietor. The centre of the tent forms an arena arranged as a
+horse-ring, strewn with tan or other soft substance, where the
+performances take place, the seats of the spectators being arranged in
+ascending tiers around the central space as in the Roman circus. The
+traditional type of exhibition in the modern travelling circus consists
+of feats of horsemanship, such as leaping through hoops from the back of
+a galloping horse, standing with one foot on each of two horses
+galloping side by side, turning somersaults from a springboard over a
+number of horses standing close together, or accomplishing acrobatic
+tricks on horseback. These performances, by male and female riders, are
+varied by the introduction of horses trained to perform tricks, and by
+drolleries on the part of the clown, whose place in the circus is as
+firmly established by tradition as in the pantomime.
+
+The popularity of the circus in England may be traced to that kept by
+Philip Astley (d. 1814) in London at the end of the 18th century. Astley
+was followed by Ducrow, whose feats of horsemanship had much to do with
+establishing the traditions of the circus, which were perpetuated by
+Hengler's and Sanger's celebrated shows in a later generation. In
+America a circus-actor named Ricketts is said to have performed before
+George Washington in 1780, and in the first half of the 19th century the
+establishments of Purdy, Welch & Co., and of van Amburgh gave a wide
+popularity to the circus in the United States. All former
+circus-proprietors were, however, far surpassed in enterprise and
+resource by P.T. Barnum (q.v.), whose claim to be the possessor of "the
+greatest show on earth" was no exaggeration. The influence of Barnum,
+however, brought about a considerable change in the character of the
+modern circus. In arenas too large for speech to be easily audible, the
+traditional comic dialogue of the clown assumed a less prominent place
+than formerly, while the vastly increased wealth of stage properties
+relegated to the background the old-fashioned equestrian feats, which
+were replaced by more ambitious acrobatic performances, and by
+exhibitions of skill, strength and daring, requiring the employment of
+immense numbers of performers and often of complicated and expensive
+machinery. These tendencies are, as is natural, most marked in shows
+given in permanent buildings in large cities, such as the London
+Hippodrome, which was built as a combination of the circus, the
+menagerie and the variety theatre, where wild animals such as lions and
+elephants from time to time appeared in the ring, and where convulsions
+of nature such as floods, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions have been
+produced with an extraordinary wealth of realistic display. At the
+Hippodrome in Paris--unlike its London namesake, a circus of the true
+classical type in which the arena is entirely surrounded by the seats of
+the spectators--chariot races after the Roman model were held in the
+latter part of the 19th century, at which prizes of considerable value
+were given by the management.
+
+
+
+
+CIRENCESTER (traditionally pronounced _Ciceter_), a market town in the
+Cirencester parliamentary division of Gloucestershire, England, on the
+river Churn, a tributary of the Thames, 93 m. W.N.W. of London. Pop. of
+urban district (1901) 7536. It is served by a branch of the Great
+Western railway, and there is also a station on the Midland and
+South-Western Junction railway. This is an ancient and prosperous market
+town of picturesque old houses clustering round a fine parish church,
+with a high embattled tower, and a remarkable south porch with parvise.
+The church is mainly Perpendicular, and among its numerous chapels that
+of St Catherine has a beautiful roof of fan-tracery in stone dated 1508.
+Of the abbey founded in 1117 by Henry I. there remain a Norman gateway
+and a few capitals. There are two good museums containing mosaics,
+inscriptions, carved and sculptured stones, and many smaller remains,
+for the town was the Roman _Corinium_ or _Durocornovium Dobunorum_.
+Little trace of Corinium, however, can be seen _in situ_, except the
+amphitheatre and some indications of the walls. To the west of the town
+is Cirencester House, the seat of Earl Bathurst. The first Lord Bathurst
+(1684-1775) devoted himself to beautifying the fine demesne of Oakley
+Park, which he planted and adorned with remarkable artificial ruins.
+This nobleman, who became baron in 1711 and earl in 1772, was a patron
+of art and literature no less than a statesman; and Pope, a frequent
+visitor here, was allowed to design the building known as Pope's Seat,
+in the park, commanding a splendid prospect of woods and avenues. Swift
+was another appreciative visitor. The house contains portraits by
+Lawrence, Gainsborough, Romney, Lely, Reynolds, Hoppner, Kneller and
+many others. A mile west of the town is the Royal Agricultural College,
+incorporated by charter in 1845. Its buildings include a chapel, a
+dining hall, a library, a lecture theatre, laboratories, classrooms,
+private studies and dormitories for the students, apartments for
+resident professors, and servants' offices; also a museum containing a
+collection of anatomical and pathological preparations, and
+mineralogical, botanical and geological specimens. The college farm
+comprises 500 acres, 450 of which are arable; and on it are the
+well-appointed farm-buildings and the veterinary hospital. Besides
+agriculture, the course of instruction at the college includes
+chemistry, natural and mechanical philosophy, natural history,
+mensuration, surveying and drawing, and other subjects of practical
+importance to the farmer, proficiency in which is tested by means of
+sessional examinations. The industries of Cirencester comprise various
+branches of agriculture. It has connexion by a branch canal with the
+Thames and Severn canal.
+
+Corinium was a flourishing Romano-British town, at first perhaps a
+cavalry post, but afterwards, for the greater part of the Roman period,
+purely a civilian city. At Chedworth, 7 m. N.E., is one of the most
+noteworthy Roman villas in England. Cirencester (_Cirneceaster_,
+_Cyrenceaster_, _Cyringceaster_) is described in Domesday as ancient
+demesne of the crown. The manor was granted by William I. to William
+Fitzosbern; on reverting to the crown it was given in 1189, with the
+township, to the Augustinian abbey founded here by Henry I. The struggle
+of the townsmen to prove that Cirencester was a borough probably began
+in the same year, when they were amerced for a false presentment. Four
+inquisitions during the 13th century supported the abbot's claims, yet
+in 1343 the townsmen declared in a chancery bill of complaint that
+Cirencester was a borough distinct from the manor, belonging to the king
+but usurped by the abbot, who since 1308 had abated their court of
+provostry. Accordingly they produced a copy of a forged charter from
+Henry I. to the town; the court ignored this and the abbot obtained a
+new charter and a writ of _supersedeas_. For their success against the
+earls of Kent and Salisbury Henry IV. in 1403 gave the townsmen a gild
+merchant, although two inquisitions reiterated the abbot's rights.
+These were confirmed in 1408-1409 and 1413; in 1418 the charter was
+annulled, and in 1477 parliament declared that Cirencester was not
+corporate. After several unsuccessful attempts to re-establish the gild
+merchant, the government in 1592 was vested in the bailiff of the lord
+of the manor. Cirencester became a parliamentary borough in 1572,
+returning two members, but was deprived of representation in 1885.
+Besides the "new market" of Domesday Book the abbots obtained charters
+in 1215 and 1253 for fairs during the octaves of All Saints and St
+Thomas the Martyr. The wool trade gave these great importance; in 1341
+there were ten wool merchants in Cirencester, and Leland speaks of the
+abbots' cloth-mill, while Camden calls it the greatest market for wool
+in England.
+
+  See _Transactions_ of the Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
+  Society, vols. ii., ix., xviii.
+
+
+
+
+CIRILLO, DOMENICO (1739-1799), Italian physician and patriot, was born
+at Grumo in the kingdom of Naples. Appointed while yet a young man to a
+botanical professorship, Cirillo went some years afterwards to England,
+where he was elected fellow of the Royal Society, and to France. On his
+return to Naples he was appointed successively to the chairs of
+practical and theoretical medicine. He wrote voluminously and well on
+scientific subjects and secured an extensive medical practice. On the
+French occupation of Naples and the proclamation of the Parthenopean
+republic (1799), Cirillo, after at first refusing to take part in the
+new government, consented to be chosen a representative of the people
+and became a member of the legislative commission, of which he was
+eventually elected president. On the abandonment of the republic by the
+French (June 1799), Cardinal Ruffo and the army of King Ferdinand IV.
+returned to Naples, and the Republicans withdrew, ill-armed and
+inadequately provisioned, to the forts. After a short siege they
+surrendered on honourable terms, life and liberty being guaranteed them
+by the signatures of Ruffo, of Foote, and of Micheroux. But the arrival
+of Nelson changed the complexion of affairs, and he refused to ratify
+the capitulation. Secure under the British flag, Ferdinand and his wife,
+Caroline of Austria, showed themselves eager for revenge, and Cirillo
+was involved with the other republicans in the vengeance of the royal
+family. He asked Lady Hamilton (wife of the British minister to Naples)
+to intercede on his behalf, but Nelson wrote in reference to the
+petition: "Domenico Cirillo, who had been the king's physician, might
+have been saved, but that he chose to play the fool and lie, denying
+that he had ever made any speeches against the government, and saying
+that he only took care of the poor in the hospitals" (_Nelson and the
+Neapolitan Jacobins_, Navy Records Society, 1903). He was condemned and
+hanged on the 29th of October 1799. Cirillo, whose favourite study was
+botany, and who was recognized as an entomologist by Linnaeus, left many
+books, in Latin and Italian, all of them treating of medical and
+scientific subjects, and all of little value now. Exception must,
+however, be made in favour of the _Virtu morali dell' Asino_, a pleasant
+philosophical pamphlet remarkable for its double charm of sense and
+style. He introduced many medical innovations into Naples, particularly
+inoculation for smallpox.
+
+  See C. Giglioli, _Naples in 1799_ (London, 1903); L. Conforti, _Napoli
+  nel 1799_ (Naples, 1889); C. Tivaroni, _L' Italia durante il dominio
+  francese_, vol. ii. pp. 179-204. Also under NAPLES; NELSON and
+  FERDINAND IV. OF NAPLES.
+
+
+
+
+CIRQUE (Lat. _circus_, ring), a French word used in physical geography
+to denote a semicircular crater-like amphitheatre at the head of a
+valley, or in the side of a glaciated mountain. The valley cirque is
+characteristic of calcareous districts. In the Chiltern Hills
+especially, and generally along the chalk escarpments, a flat-bottomed
+valley with an intermittent stream winds into the hill and ends suddenly
+in a cirque. There is an excellent example at Ivinghoe, Buckinghamshire,
+where it appears as though an enormous flat-bottomed scoop had been
+driven into the hillside and dragged outwards to the plain. In all cases
+it is found that the valley floor consists of hard or impervious rock
+above which lies a permeable or soluble stratum of considerable
+thickness. In the case of the chalk hills the upper strata are very
+porous, and the descending water with atmospheric and humous acids in
+solution has great solvent power. During the winter this upper layer
+becomes saturated and some of the water drains away along joints in the
+escarpment. An underground stream is thus developed carrying away a
+great deal of material in solution, and in consequence the ground above
+slowly collapses over the stream, while the cirque at the head, where
+the stream issues, gradually works backward and may pass completely
+through the hills, leaving a gap of which another drainage system may
+take possession. In the limestone country of the Cotteswold Hills, many
+small intermittent tributary streams are headed by cirques, and some of
+the longer dry valleys have springs issuing from beneath their lower
+ends, the dry valleys being collapsed areas above underground streams
+not yet revealed. In this case the pervious limestone is underlain by
+beds of impervious clay. There are many of these in the Jura Mountains.
+The Cirque de St Sulpice is a fine example where the impervious bed is a
+marly clay.
+
+The origin of the glacial cirque is entirely different and is said by
+W.D. Johnson (_Journal of Geology_, xii. No. 7, 1904) to be due to basal
+sapping and erosion under the _bergschrund_ of the glacier. In this he
+is supported by G.K. Gilbert in the same journal, who produces some
+remarkable examples from the Sierra Nevada in California, where the
+mountain fragments have been left behind "like a sheet of dough upon a
+board after the biscuit tin has done its work"; so that above the head
+of the glaciers "the rock detail is rugged and splintered but its
+general effect is that of a great symmetrical arc." Descending one of
+the bergschrunds of Mt. Lyell to a depth of 150 ft., Johnson found a
+rock floor cumbered with ice and blocks of rock and the rock face a
+literally vertical cliff "much riven, its fracture planes outlining
+sharp angular masses in all stages of displacement and dislodgment."
+Judging from these facts, he interprets the deep valleys with cirques at
+their head in formerly glaciated regions where at the head there is a
+"reversed grade" of slope, as due to ice-erosion at valley-heads where
+scour is impossible at the sides of the mountain but strongest under the
+glacier head where the ice is deepest. The opponents of ice-erosion
+nevertheless recognize the very frequent occurrence of glacial cirques
+often containing small lakes such as that under Cader Idris in Wales, or
+at the head of Little Timber Creek, Montana, and numerous examples in
+Alpine districts.
+
+
+
+
+CIRTA (mod. _Constantine_, q.v.), an ancient city of Numidia, in Africa,
+in the country of the Massyli. It was regarded by the Romans as the
+strongest position in Numidia, and was made by them the converging point
+of all their great military roads in that country. By the early emperors
+it was allowed to fall into decay, but was afterwards restored by
+Constantine, from whom it took its modern name.
+
+
+
+
+CISSEY, ERNEST LOUIS OCTAVE COURTOT DE (1810-1882), French general, was
+born at Paris on the 23rd of September 1810, and after passing through
+St Cyr, entered the army in 1832, becoming captain in 1839. He saw
+active service in Algeria, and became _chef d'escadron_ in 1849 and
+lieutenant-colonel in 1850. He took part as a colonel in the Crimean
+War, and after the battle of Inkerman received the rank of general of
+brigade. In 1863 he was promoted general of division. When the
+Franco-German War broke out in 1870, de Cissey was given a divisional
+command in the Army of the Rhine, and he was included in the surrender
+of Bazaine's army at Metz. He was released from captivity only at the
+end of the war, and on his return was at once appointed by the
+Versailles government to a command in the army engaged in the
+suppression of the Commune, a task in the execution of which he
+displayed great rigour. From July 1871 de Cissey sat as a deputy, and he
+had already become minister of war. He occupied this post several times
+during the critical period of the reorganization of the French army. In
+1880, whilst holding the command of the XI. corps at Nantes, he was
+accused of having relations with a certain Baroness Kaula, who was said
+to be a spy in the pay of Germany, and he was in consequence relieved
+from duty. An inquiry subsequently held resulted in de Cissey's favour
+(1881). He died on the 15th of June 1882 at Paris.
+
+
+
+
+CISSOID (from the Gr. [Greek: kissos], ivy, and [Greek: eidos], form), a
+curve invented by the Greek mathematician Diocles about 180 B.C., for
+the purpose of constructing two mean proportionals between two given
+lines, and in order to solve the problem of duplicating the cube. It was
+further investigated by John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens (who determined
+the length of any arc in 1657), and Pierre de Fermat (who evaluated the
+area between the curve and its asymptote in 1661). It is constructed in
+the following manner. Let APB be a semicircle, BT the tangent at B, and
+APT a line cutting the circle in P and BT at T; take a point Q on AT so
+that AQ always equals PT; then the locus of Q is the cissoid. Sir Isaac
+Newton devised the following mechanical construction. Take a rod LMN
+bent at right angles at M, such that MN = AB; let the leg LM always pass
+through a fixed point O on AB produced such that OA = CA, where C is the
+middle point of AB, and cause N to travel along the line perpendicular
+to AB at C; then the midpoint of MN traces the cissoid. The curve is
+symmetrical about the axis of x, and consists of two infinite branches
+asymptotic to the line BT and forming a cusp at the origin. The
+cartesian equation, when A is the origin and AB = 2a, is y squared(2a - x) =
+x cubed; the polar equation is r = 2a sin [theta] tan [theta]. The cissoid is
+the first positive pedal of the parabola y squared + 8ax = 0 for the vertex,
+and the inverse of the parabola y squared = 8ax, the vertex being the centre of
+inversion, and the semi-latus rectum the constant of inversion. The area
+between the curve and its asymptote is 3[pi]a squared, i.e. three times the
+area of the generating circle.
+
+The term cissoid has been given in modern times to curves generated in
+similar manner from other figures than the circle, and the form
+described above is distinguished as the cissoid of Diocles.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+A _cissoid angle_ is the angle included between the concave sides of two
+intersecting curves; the convex sides include the _sistroid angle_.
+
+  See John Wallis, _Collected Works_, vol. i.; T.H. Eagles, _Plane
+  Curves_ (1885).
+
+
+
+
+CIS-SUTLEJ STATES, the southern portion of the Punjab, India. The name,
+now obsolete, came into use in 1809, when the Sikh chiefs south of the
+Sutlej passed under British protection, and was generally applied to the
+country south of the Sutlej and north of the Delhi territory, bounded on
+the E. by the Himalayas, and on the W. by Sirsa district. Before 1846
+the greater part of this territory was independent, the chiefs being
+subject merely to control from a political officer stationed at Umballa,
+and styled the agent of the governor-general for the Cis-Sutlej states.
+After the first Sikh War the full administration of the territory became
+vested in this officer. In 1849 occurred the annexation of the Punjab,
+when the Cis-Sutlej states commissionership, comprising the districts of
+Umballa, Ferozepore, Ludhiana, Thanesar and Simla, was incorporated with
+the new province. The name continued to be applied to this division
+until 1862, when, owing to Ferozepore having been transferred to the
+Lahore, and a part of Thanesar to the Delhi division, it ceased to be
+appropriate. Since then, the tract remaining has been known as the
+Umballa division. Patiala, Jind and Nabha were appointed a separate
+political agency in 1901. Excluding Bahawalpur, for which there is no
+political agent, and Chamba, the other states are grouped under the
+commissioners of Jullunder and Delhi, and the superintendent of the
+Simla hill states.
+
+
+
+
+CIST (Gr. [Greek: kiste], Lat. _cista_, a box; cf. Ger. _Kiste_, Welsh
+_kistvaen_, stone-coffin, and also the other Eng. form "chest"), in
+Greek archaeology, a wicker-work receptacle used in the Eleusinian and
+other mysteries to carry the sacred vessels; also, in the archaeology
+of prehistoric man, a coffin formed of flat stones placed edgeways with
+another flat stone for a cover. The word is also used for a sepulchral
+chamber cut in the rock (see COFFIN).
+
+"Cistern," the common term for a water-tank, is a derivation of the same
+word (Lat. _cisterna_; cf. "cave" and "cavern").
+
+
+
+
+CISTERCIANS, otherwise GREY or WHITE MONKS (from the colour of the
+habit, over which is worn a black scapular or apron). In 1098 St Robert,
+born of a noble family in Champagne, at first a Benedictine monk, and
+then abbot of certain hermits settled at Molesme near Chatillon, being
+dissatisfied with the manner of life and observance there, migrated with
+twenty of the monks to a swampy place called Citeaux in the diocese of
+Chalons, not far from Dijon. Count Odo of Burgundy here built them a
+monastery, and they began to live a life of strict observance according
+to the letter of St Benedict's rule. In the following year Robert was
+compelled by papal authority to return to Molesme, and Alberic succeeded
+him as abbot of Citeaux and held the office till his death in 1109, when
+the Englishman St Stephen Harding became abbot, until 1134. For some
+years the new institute seemed little likely to prosper; few novices
+came, and in the first years of Stephen's abbacy it seemed doomed to
+failure. In 1112, however, St Bernard and thirty others offered
+themselves to the monastery, and a rapid and wonderful development at
+once set in. The next three years witnessed the foundation of the four
+great "daughter-houses of Citeaux"--La Ferte, Pontigny, Clairvaux and
+Morimond. At Stephen's death there were over 30 Cistercian houses; at
+Bernard's (1154) over 280; and by the end of the century over 500; and
+the Cistercian influence in the Church more than kept pace with this
+material expansion, so that St Bernard saw one of his monks ascend the
+papal chair as Eugenius III.
+
+The keynote of Cistercian life was a return to a literal observance of
+St Benedict's rule--how literal may be seen from the controversy between
+St Bernard and Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny (see Maitland, _Dark
+Ages_, Sec. xxii.). The Cistercians rejected alike all mitigations and all
+developments, and tried to reproduce the life exactly as it had been in
+St Benedict's time, indeed in various points they went beyond it in
+austerity. The most striking feature in the reform was the return to
+manual labour, and especially to field-work, which became a special
+characteristic of Cistercian life. In order to make time for this work
+they cut away the accretions to the divine office which had been
+steadily growing during three centuries, and in Cluny and the other
+Black Monk monasteries had come to exceed greatly in length the regular
+canonical office: one only of these accretions did they retain, the
+daily recitation of the Office of the Dead (Edm. Bishop, _Origin of the
+Primer_, Early English Text Society, original series, 109, p. xxx.).
+
+It was as agriculturists and horse and cattle breeders that, after the
+first blush of their success and before a century had passed, the
+Cistercians exercised their chief influence on the progress of
+civilization in the later middle ages: they were the great farmers of
+those days, and many of the improvements in the various farming
+operations were introduced and propagated by them; it is from this point
+of view that the importance of their extension in northern Europe is to
+be estimated. The Cistercians at the beginning renounced all sources of
+income arising from benefices, tithes, tolls and rents, and depended for
+their income wholly on the land. This developed an organized system for
+selling their farm produce, cattle and horses, and notably contributed
+to the commercial progress of the countries of western Europe. Thus by
+the middle of the 13th century the export of wool by the English
+Cistercians had become a feature in the commerce of the country. Farming
+operations on so extensive a scale could not be carried out by the monks
+alone, whose choir and religious duties took up a considerable portion
+of their time; and so from the beginning the system of lay brothers was
+introduced on a large scale. The lay brothers were recruited from the
+peasantry and were simple uneducated men, whose function consisted in
+carrying out the various field-works and plying all sorts of useful
+trades; they formed a body of men who lived alongside of the choir
+monks, but separate from them, not taking part in the canonical office,
+but having their own fixed round of prayer and religious exercises. A
+lay brother was never ordained, and never held any office of
+superiority. It was by this system of lay brothers that the Cistercians
+were able to play their distinctive part in the progress of European
+civilization. But it often happened that the number of lay brothers
+became excessive and out of proportion to the resources of the
+monasteries, there being sometimes as many as 200, or even 300, in a
+single abbey. On the other hand, at any rate in some countries, the
+system of lay brothers in course of time worked itself out; thus in
+England by the close of the 14th century it had shrunk to relatively
+small proportions, and in the 15th century the regime of the English
+Cistercian houses tended to approximate more and more to that of the
+Black Monks.
+
+The Cistercian polity calls for special mention. Its lines were
+adumbrated by Alberic, but it received its final form at a meeting of
+the abbots in the time of Stephen Harding, when was drawn up the _Carta
+Caritatis_ (Migne, _Patrol. Lat._ clxvi. 1377), a document which
+arranged the relations between the various houses of the Cistercian
+order, and exercised a great influence also upon the future course of
+western monachism. From one point of view, it may be regarded as a
+compromise between the primitive Benedictine system, whereby each abbey
+was autonomous and isolated, and the complete centralization of Cluny,
+whereby the abbot of Cluny was the only true superior in the body.
+Citeaux, on the one hand, maintained the independent organic life of the
+houses--each abbey had its own abbot, elected by its own monks; its own
+community, belonging to itself and not to the order in general; its own
+property and finances administered by itself, without interference from
+outside. On the other hand, all the abbeys were subjected to the general
+chapter, which met yearly at Citeaux, and consisted of the abbots only;
+the abbot of Citeaux was the president of the chapter and of the order,
+and the visitor of each and every house, with a predominant influence
+and the power of enforcing everywhere exact conformity to Citeaux in all
+details of the exterior life--observance, chant, customs. The principle
+was that Citeaux should always be the model to which all the other
+houses had to conform. In case of any divergence of view at the chapter,
+the side taken by the abbot of Citeaux was always to prevail (see F.A.
+Gasquet, _Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History_, pp. xxxv-xxxviii,
+prefixed to English trans, of Montalembert's _Monks of the West_, ed.
+1895).
+
+By the end of the 12th century the Cistercian houses numbered 500; in
+the 13th a hundred more were added; and in the 15th, when the order
+attained its greatest extension, there were close on 750 houses: the
+larger figures sometimes given are now recognized as apocryphal. Nearly
+half of the houses had been founded, directly or indirectly, from
+Clairvaux, so great was St Bernard's influence and prestige: indeed he
+has come almost to be regarded as the founder of the Cistercians, who
+have often been called Bernardines. The order was spread all over
+western Europe,--chiefly in France, but also in Germany, England,
+Scotland, Ireland, Sweden, Poland, Hungary, Italy and Sicily, Spain and
+Portugal,--where some of the houses, as Alcobaca, were of almost
+incredible magnificence. In England the first foundation was Furness
+(1127), and many of the most beautiful monastic buildings of the
+country, beautiful in themselves and beautiful in their sites, were
+Cistercian,--as Tintern, Rievaulx, Byland, Fountains. A hundred were
+established in England in the next hundred years, and then only one more
+up to the Dissolution (for list, see table and map in F.A. Gasquet's
+_English Monastic Life_, or _Catholic Dictionary_, art. "Cistercians").
+
+For a hundred years, till the first quarter of the 13th century, the
+Cistercians supplanted Cluny as the most powerful order and the chief
+religious influence in western Europe. But then in turn their influence
+began to wane, chiefly, no doubt, because of the rise of the mendicant
+orders, who ministered more directly to the needs and ideas of the new
+age. But some of the reasons of Cistercian decline were internal. In the
+first place, there was the permanent difficulty of maintaining in its
+first fervour a body embracing hundreds of monasteries and thousands of
+monks, spread all over Europe; and as the Cistercian very _raison
+d'etre_ consisted in its being a "reform," a return to primitive
+monachism, with its field-work and severe simplicity, any failures to
+live up to the ideal proposed worked more disastrously among Cistercians
+than among mere Benedictines, who were intended to live a life of
+self-denial, but not of great austerity. Relaxations were gradually
+introduced in regard to diet and to simplicity of life, and also in
+regard to the sources of income, rents and tolls being admitted and
+benefices incorporated, as was done among the Benedictines; the farming
+operations tended to produce a commercial spirit; wealth and splendour
+invaded many of the monasteries, and the choir monks abandoned
+field-work.
+
+The later history of the Cistercians is largely one of attempted
+revivals and reforms. The general chapter for long battled bravely
+against the invasion of relaxations and abuses. In 1335 Benedict XII.,
+himself a Cistercian, promulgated a series of regulations to restore the
+primitive spirit of the order, and in the 15th century various popes
+endeavoured to promote reforms. All these efforts at a reform of the
+great body of the order proved unavailing; but local reforms, producing
+various semi-independent offshoots and congregations, were successfully
+carried out in many parts in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries.
+In the 17th another great effort at a general reform was made, promoted
+by the pope and the king of France; the general chapter elected
+Richelieu (commendatory) abbot of Citeaux, thinking he would protect
+them from the threatened reform. In this they were disappointed, for he
+threw himself wholly on the side of reform. So great, however, was the
+resistance, and so serious the disturbances that ensued, that the
+attempt to reform Citeaux itself and the general body of the houses had
+again to be abandoned, and only local projects of reform could be
+carried out. In 1598 had arisen the reformed congregation of the
+Feuillants, which spread widely in France and Italy, in the latter
+country under the name of "Improved Bernardines." The French
+congregation of Sept-Fontaines (1654) also deserves mention. In 1663 de
+Rance reformed La Trappe (see TRAPPISTS).
+
+The Reformation, the ecclesiastical policy of Joseph II., the French
+Revolution, and the revolutions of the 19th century, almost wholly
+destroyed the Cistercians; but some survived, and since the beginning of
+the last half of the 19th century there has been a considerable
+recovery. They are at present divided into three bodies: (1) the Common
+Observance, with about 30 monasteries and 800 choir monks, the large
+majority being in Austria-Hungary; they represent the main body of the
+order and follow a mitigated rule of life; they do not carry on
+field-work, but have large secondary schools, and are in manner of life
+little different from fairly observant Benedictine Black monks; of late
+years, however, signs are not wanting of a tendency towards a return to
+older ideas; (2) the Middle Observance, embracing some dozen monasteries
+and about 150 choir monks; (3) the Strict Observance, or Trappists
+(q.v.), with nearly 60 monasteries, about 1600 choir monks and 2000 lay
+brothers.
+
+In all there are about 100 Cistercian monasteries and about 4700 monks,
+including lay brothers. There have always been a large number of
+Cistercian nuns; the first nunnery was founded at Tart in the diocese of
+Langres, 1125; at the period of their widest extension there are said to
+have been 900 nunneries, and the communities were very large. The nuns
+were devoted to contemplation and also did field-work. In Spain and
+France certain Cistercian abbesses had extraordinary privileges.
+Numerous reforms took place among the nuns. The best known of all
+Cistercian convents was probably Port-Royal (q.v.), reformed by
+Angelique Arnaud, and associated with the story of the Jansenist
+controversy. After all the troubles of the 19th century there still
+exist 100 Cistercian nunneries with 3000 nuns, choir and lay; of these,
+15 nunneries with 900 nuns are Trappist.
+
+  Accounts of the beginnings of the Cistercians and of the primitive
+  life and spirit will be found in the lives of St Bernard, the best
+  whereof is that of Abbe E. Vacandard (1895); also in the Life of St
+  Stephen Harding, in the _English Saints_. See also Henry Collins (one
+  of the Oxford Movement, who became a Cistercian), _Spirit and Mission
+  of the Cistercian Order_ (1866). The facts are related in Helyot,
+  _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), v. cc. 33-46, vi cc. 1, 2. Useful
+  sketches, with references to the literature, are supplied in Herzog,
+  _Realencyklopaedie_ (ed. 3), art. "Cistercienser"; Wetzer und Welte,
+  _Kirchenlexikon_ (ed. 2), art. "Cistercienserorden"; Max Heimbucher,
+  _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. Sec.Sec. 33, 34. Prof. Brewer's
+  discriminating, yet on the whole sympathetic, Preface to vol. iv. of
+  the Works of Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls Series of _Chronicles and
+  Memorials_) is very instructive. Denis Murphy's _Triumphalia
+  Monasterii S. Crucis_ (1891) contains a general sketch, with a
+  particular account of the Irish Cistercians.    (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CITATION (Lat. _citare_, to cite), in law, a summons to appear, more
+particularly applied in England to process in the probate and divorce
+division of the high court. In the ecclesiastical courts, citation was a
+method of commencing a probate suit, answering to a writ of summons at
+common law, and it is now in English probate practice an instrument
+issuing from the principal probate registry, chiefly used when a person,
+having the superior right to take a grant, delays or declines to do so,
+and another having an inferior right desires to obtain a grant; the
+party having the prior right is cited to appear and either to renounce
+the grant or show cause why it should not be decreed to the citator. In
+divorce practice, when a petitioner has filed his petition and
+affidavit, he extracts a citation, i.e. a command drawn in the name of
+the sovereign and signed by one of the registrars of the court, calling
+upon the alleged offender to appear and make answer to the petition. In
+Scots law, citation is used in the sense of a writ of summons. The word
+in its more general literary sense means the act of quoting, or the
+referring to an authority in support of an argument.
+
+
+
+
+CITEAUX, a village of eastern France, in the department of Cote d'Or, 16
+m. S.S.E. of Dijon by road. It is celebrated for the great abbey founded
+by Robert, abbot of Molesme, in 1098, which became the headquarters of
+the Cistercian order. The buildings which remain date chiefly from the
+18th century and are of little interest. The church, destroyed in 1792,
+used to contain the tombs of the earlier dukes of Burgundy.
+
+
+
+
+CITHAERON, now called from its pine forests Elatea, a famous mountain
+range (4626 ft.) in the south of Boeotia, separating that state from
+Megaris and Attica. It was famous in Greek mythology, and is frequently
+mentioned by the great poets, especially by Sophocles. It was on
+Cithaeron that Aetaeon was changed into a stag, that Pentheus was torn
+to pieces by the Bacchantes whose orgies he had been watching, and that
+the infant Oedipus was exposed. This mountain, too, was the scene of the
+mystic rites of Dionysus, and the festival of the Daedala in honour of
+Hera. The carriage-road from Athens to Thebes crosses the range by a
+picturesque defile (the pass of Dryoscephalae, "Oak-heads"), which was
+at one time guarded on the Attic side by a strong fortress, the ruins of
+which are known as Ghyphto-kastro ("Gipsy Castle"). Plataea is situated
+on the north slope of the mountain, and the strategy of the battle of
+479 B.C. was considerably affected by the fact that it was necessary for
+the Greeks to keep their communications open by the passes (see
+PLATAEA). The best known of these is that of Dryoscephalae, which must
+then, as now, have been the direct route from Athens to Thebes. Two
+other passes, farther to the west, were crossed by the roads from
+Plataea to Athens and to Megara respectively.    (E. GR.)
+
+
+
+
+CITHARA (Assyrian _chetarah_; Gr. [Greek: kithara]; Lat. _cithara_;
+perhaps Heb. _kinura, kinnor_), one of the most ancient stringed
+instruments, traced back to 1700 B.C. among the Semitic races, in Egypt,
+Assyria, Asia Minor, Greece and the Roman empire, whence the use of it
+spread over Europe. The main feature of the Greek _kithara_, its shallow
+sound-chest, being the most important part of it, is also that in which
+developments are most noticeable; its contour varied considerably during
+the many musical ages, but the characteristic in respect of which it
+fore-shadowed the precursors of the violin family, and by which they
+were distinguished from other contemporary stringed instruments of the
+middle ages, was preserved throughout in all European descendants
+bearing derived names. This characteristic box sound-chest (fig. 1)
+consisted of two resonating tables, either flat or delicately arched,
+connected by ribs or sides of equal width. The cithara may be regarded
+as an attempt by a more skilful craftsman or race to improve upon the
+lyre (q.v.), while retaining some of its features. The construction of
+the cithara can fortunately be accurately studied from two actual
+specimens found in Egypt and preserved in the museums of Berlin and
+Leiden. The Leiden cithara (fig. 2), which forms part of the d'Anastasy
+Collection in the Museum of Antiquities, is in a very good state of
+preservation. The sound-chest, in the form of an irregular square (17
+cm. X 17 cm.), is hollowed out of a solid block of wood from the base,
+which is open; the little bar, seen through the open base and measuring
+21/2 cm. (1 in.), is also of the same piece of wood. The arms, one short
+and one long, are solid and are fixed to the body by means of wooden
+pins; they are glued as well for greater strength. W. Pleyte, through
+whose courtesy the sketch was revised and corrected, states that there
+are no indications on the instrument of any kind of bridge or attachment
+for strings except the little half-hoop of iron wire which passes
+through the base from back to front. To this the strings were probably
+attached, and the little bar performed the double duty of sound-post and
+support for strengthening the tail-piece and enabling it to resist the
+tension of the strings. The oblique transverse bar, rendered necessary
+by the increasing length of the strings, was characteristic of the
+Egyptian cithara,[1] whereas the Asiatic and Greek instruments were
+generally constructed with horizontal bars resting on arms of equal
+length, the pitch of the strings being varied by thickness and tension,
+instead of by length. (For the Berlin cithara see LYRE.)
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Nero Citharoedus (_Mus. Pio-Clementino_),
+showing back of a Roman Cithara.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Ancient Egyptian Cithara from Thebes. Museum of
+Antiquities, Leiden.]
+
+The number of strings with which the cithara was strung varied from 4 to
+19 or 20 at different times; they were added less for the purpose of
+increasing the compass in the modern sense than to enable the performer
+to play in the different modes of the Greek musical system. Terpander is
+credited with having increased the number of strings to seven; Euclid,
+quoting him as his authority, states that "loving no more the
+tetrachordal chant, we will sing aloud new hymns to a seven-toned
+phorminx."
+
+What has been said of the scale of the lyre applies also to the cithara,
+and need therefore not be repeated here. The strings were vibrated by
+means of the fingers or plectrum ([Greek: plektron], from [Greek:
+plessein], to strike; Lat. _plectrum_, from _plango_, I strike).
+Twanging with the fingers for strings of gut, hemp or silk was
+undoubtedly the more artistic method, since the player was able to
+command various shades of expression which are impossible with a rigid
+plectrum.[2] Loudness of accent and great brilliancy of tone, however,
+can only be obtained by the use of the plectrum.
+
+Quotations from the classics abound to show what was the practice of the
+Greeks and Romans in this respect. The plectrum was held in the right
+hand, with elbow outstretched and palm bent inwards, and the strings
+were plucked with the straightened fingers of the left hand.[3] Both
+methods were used with intention according to the dictates of art for
+the sake of the variation in tone colour obtainable thereby.[4]
+
+The strings of the cithara were either knotted round the transverse
+tuning bar itself (_zugon_) or to rings threaded over the bar, which
+enabled the performer to increase or decrease the tension by shifting
+the knots or rings; or else they were wound round pegs,[5] knobs[6] or
+pins[7] fixed to the zugon. The other end of the strings was secured to
+a tail-piece after passing over a flat bridge, or the two were combined
+in the curious high box tail-piece which acted as a bridge. Plutarch[8]
+states that this contrivance was added to the cithara in the days of
+Cepion, pupil of Terpander. These boxes were hinged in order to allow
+the lid to be opened for the purpose of securing the strings to some
+contrivance concealed therein. It is a curious fact that no sculptured
+cithara provided with this box tail-piece is represented with strings,
+and in many cases there could never have been any, for the hand and
+arm[9] are visible across the space that would be filled by the strings,
+which are always carved in a solid block.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Apollo Citharoedus, showing Cithara with box
+tail-pieces.]
+
+Like the lyre the cithara was made in many sizes, conditioned by the
+pitch and the use to which the instrument was to be put. These
+instruments may have been distinguished by different names; the
+_pectis_, for instance, is declared by Sappho (22nd fragment) to have
+been small and shrill; the _phorminx_, on the other hand, seems to have
+been identical with the cithara.[10]
+
+The Greek _kithara_ was the instrument of the professional singer or
+citharoedus ([Greek: kitharodos]) and of the instrumentalist or
+citharista ([Greek: kitharistes]), and thus served the double purpose of
+(1) accompanying the voice--a use placed by the Greeks far above mere
+instrumental music--in epic recitations and rhapsodies, in odes and
+lyric songs; and (2) of accompanying the dance; it was also used for
+playing solos at the national games, at receptions and banquets and at
+trials of skill. The costume of the citharoedus and citharista was rich
+and recognized as being distinctive; it varied but little throughout the
+ages, as may be deduced from a comparison of representations of the
+citharoedus on a coin and on a Greek vase of the best period (fig. 4).
+The costume consisted of a _palla_ or long tunic with sleeves
+embroidered with gold and girt high above the waist, falling in graceful
+folds to the feet. This _palla_ must not be confounded with the mantle
+of the same name worn by women. Over one shoulder, or hanging down the
+back, was the purple _chlamys_ or cloak, and on his brow a golden wreath
+of laurels. All the citharoedi bear instruments of the type here
+described as the cithara, and never one of the lyre type. The records of
+the citharoedi extend over more than thirteen centuries and fall into
+two natural divisions: (1) The mythological period, approximately from
+the 13th century B.C. to the first Olympiad, 776 B.C.; and (2) the
+historical period to the days of Ptolemy, A.D. 161. One of the very few
+authentic Greek odes extant is a Pythian ode by Pindar, in which the
+phorminx of Apollo is mentioned; the solo is followed by a chorus of
+citharoedi. The scope of the solemn games and processions, called
+_Panathenaea_, held every four years in honour of the goddess Athena,
+which originally consisted principally of athletic sports and horse and
+chariot races, was extended under Peisistratus (c. 540 B.C.), and the
+celebration made to include contests of singers and instrumentalists,
+recitations of portions of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, such as are
+represented on the frieze of the Parthenon (in the Elgin Room at the
+British Museum) and later on friezes by Pheidias. It was at the same
+period that the first contests for solo-playing on the cithara ([Greek:
+kitharistus]) and for solo _aulos_-playing were instituted at the 8th
+Pythian Games.[11] One of the principal items at these contests for
+aulos and cithara was the _Nomos Pythikos_, descriptive of the victory
+of Apollo over the python and of the defeat of the monster.[12]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cithara or Phorminx, from a vase in the British
+Museum.]
+
+The Pythian Games survived the classic Greek period and were continued
+under Roman sway until about A.D. 394. Not only were these games held at
+Delphi, but smaller contests, called Pythia, modelled on the great
+Pythian, were instituted in various provinces of the empire, and more
+especially in Asia Minor. The games lasted for several days, the first
+being devoted to music. To the games at Delphi came musicians from all
+parts of the civilized world; and the Spaniards, at the beginning of our
+era, had attained to such a marvellous proficiency in playing the
+cithara, an instrument which they had learnt to know from the Phoenician
+colonists before the conquest by the Romans, that some of their
+citharoedi easily carried off the honours at the musical contests. The
+consul Metellus was so charmed with the music of the Spanish competitors
+that he sent some to Rome for the festivals, where the impression
+created was so great that the Spanish citharoedi obtained a permanent
+footing in Rome. Aulus Gellius (_Noct. Att._) describes an incident at a
+banquet which corroborates this statement.
+
+The degeneration of music as an art among the Romans, and its gradual
+degradation by association with the sensual amusements of corrupt Rome,
+nearly brought about its extinction at the end of the 4th century, when
+the condemnation of the Church closed the theatres, and the great
+national games came to an end. Instrumental music was banished from
+civil life and from religious rites, and thenceforth the slender threads
+which connect the musical instruments of Greeks and Romans with those of
+the middle ages must be sought among the unconverted barbarians of
+northern and western Europe, who kept alive the traditions taught them
+by conquerors and colonists; but as civilization was in its infancy with
+them the instruments sent out from their workshops must have been crude
+and primitive. Asia, the cradle of the cithara, also became its
+foster-mother; it was among the Greeks of Asia Minor that the several
+steps in the transition from cithara into guitar[13] (q.v.) took place.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Asiatic Cithara in transition (or rotta). From a
+fresco at Beni-Hasan (c. 1700 B.C.).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Roman Cithara in transition, of the Lycian
+Apollo (Rome Mus. Capit.).]
+
+The first of these steps produced the rotta (q.v.), by the construction
+of body, arms and transverse bar in one piece. The Semitic races used
+the rotta at a very remote period (1700 B.C.), as we know from a fresco
+at Beni-Hasan, dating from the reign of Senwosri II., which depicts a
+procession of strangers bringing tribute; among them is a bearded
+musician of Semitic type bearing a rotta which he holds horizontally in
+front of him in the Assyrian manner, and quite unlike the Greeks, who
+always played the lyre and cithara in an upright position. A unique
+specimen of this rectangular rotta was found in an Alamannic tomb of the
+5th or 6th century at Oberflacht in the Black Forest. The instrument was
+clasped in the arms of an armed knight; it is now preserved in the
+Voelker Museum in Berlin. This old German rotta is an exact counterpart
+of instruments pictured in illuminated MSS. of the 8th century, and is
+derived from the cithara with rectangular body, while from the cithara
+with a body having the curve of the lower half of the violin was
+produced a rotta with the outline of the body of the guitar. Both types
+were common in Europe until the 14th century, some played with a bow,
+others twanged by the fingers, and bearing indifferently both names,
+cithara and rotta. The addition of a finger-board, stretching like a
+short neck from body to transverse bar, leaving on each side of the
+finger-board space for the hand to pass through in order to stop the
+strings, produced the crwth or crowd (q.v.), and brought about the
+reduction in the number of the strings to three or four. The conversion
+of the rotta into the guitar (q.v.) was an easy transition effected by
+the addition of a long neck to a body derived from the oval rotta. When
+the bow was applied the result was the guitar or troubadour fiddle. At
+first the instrument called _cithara_ in the Latin versions of the
+Psalms was glossed _citran, citre_ in Anglo-Saxon, but in the 11th
+century the same instrument was rendered _hearpan_, and in French and
+English _harpe_ or _harp_, and our modern versions have retained this
+translation. The _cittern_ (q.v.), a later descendant of the cithara,
+although preserving the characteristic features of the cithara, the
+shallow sound-chest with ribs, adopted the pear-shaped outline of the
+Eastern instruments of the lute tribe. (K.S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] A drawing of an Egyptian cithara, similar to the Leiden
+    specimen, may be seen in Champollion, _Monuments de l'Egypte et de
+    la Nubie_, ii. pl. 175.
+
+  [2] See Plutarch, _Apophthegm. Lacon._
+
+  [3] Philostratus the Elder, _Imagines_, No. 10, "Amphion," and
+    Philostratus the Younger, _Imagines_, No. 7, "Orpheus," p. 403.
+
+  [4] Tibullus, _Eleg._ iii. 4. 39.
+
+  [5] _Le Antichita de Ercolano_, vol. iii. p. 5.
+
+  [6] _Idem_, vol. iv. p. 201.
+
+  [7] Thomas Hope, _Costumes of the Ancients_, vol. ii. p. 193; also
+    Edward Buhle, _Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen des
+    fruehen Mittelalters_ (Leipzig, 1903), frontispiece.
+
+  [8] See _De Musica_, ch. vi.
+
+  [9] See Visconti, _Museo Clementino_, pl. 22, Erato's cithara, and
+    in the same work that of Apollo Citharoedus (fig. 3 above).
+
+  [10] See _Od._ i. 153, 155; _Il._ xviii. 569-570. In Homer the form
+    is always [Greek: kitharis].
+
+  [11] See Pausanias x. 7, Sec. 4 et seq.
+
+  [12] For a description of the _Nomos Pythikos_ in its relation to
+    Greek music see Kathleen Schlesinger, "Researches into the Origin of
+    the Organs of the Ancients," _Intern. Mus. Ges._ Sbd. ii. (1901), 2,
+    p. 177, and Strabo ix. p. 421.
+
+  [13] For a discussion of this question see Kathleen Schlesinger,
+    _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, part ii., and especially
+    chapters on the cithara in transition during the middle ages, and
+    the question of the origin of the Utrecht Psalter, in which the
+    evolution of the cithara is traced at some length.
+
+
+
+
+CITIUM (Gr. [Greek: Kition]), the principal Phoenician city in Cyprus,
+situated at the north end of modern Larnaca, on the bay of the same name
+on the S.E. coast of the island. Converging currents from E. and W. meet
+and pass seawards off Cape Kiti a few miles south, and greatly
+facilitated ancient trade. To S. and W. the site is protected by
+lagoons, the salt from which was one of the sources of its prosperity.
+The earliest remains near the site go back to the Mycenaean age (c.
+1400-1100 B.C.) and seem to mark an Aegean colony.[1] but in historic
+times Citium is the chief centre of Phoenician influence in Cyprus. That
+this was still a recent settlement in the 7th century is suggested by an
+allusion in a list of the allies of Assur-bani-pal of Assyria in 668
+B.C. to a King Damasu of Kartihadasti (Phoenician for "New-town"), where
+Citium would be expected. A Phoenician dedication to "Baal of Lebanon"
+found here, and dated also to the 7th century, suggests that Citium may
+have belonged to Tyre. The biblical name Kittim, derived from Citium, is
+in fact used quite generally for Cyprus as a whole;[2] later also for
+Greeks and Romans in general.[3] The discovery here of an official
+monument of Sargon II. suggests that Citium was the administrative
+centre of Cyprus during the Assyrian protectorate (700-668 B.C.).[4]
+During the Greek revolts of 500, 386 foll. and 352 B.C., Citium led the
+side loyal to Persia and was besieged by an Athenian force in 449 B.C.;
+its extensive necropolis proves that it remained a considerable city
+even after the Greek cause triumphed with Alexander. But like other
+cities of Cyprus, it suffered repeatedly from earthquake, and in
+medieval times when its harbour became silted the population moved to
+Larnaca, on the open roadstead, farther south. Harbour and citadel have
+now quite disappeared, the latter having been used to fill up the former
+shortly after the British occupation; some gain to health resulted, but
+an irreparable loss to science. Traces remain of the circuit wall, and
+of a sanctuary with copious terra-cotta offerings; the large necropolis
+yields constant loot to illicit excavation.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--W.H. Engel, _Kypros_ (Berlin, 1841), (classical
+  allusions); J.L. Myres, _Journ. Hellenic Studies_, xvii. 147 ff.
+  (excavations); _Cyprus Museum Catalogue_ (Oxford, 1899), p. 5-6;
+  153-155; Index (Antiquities); G.F. Hill, _Brit. Mus. Cat. Coins of
+  Cyprus_ (London, 1904), (Coins). (J.L.M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Cf. the name Kathian in a Ramessid list of cities of Cyprus,
+    Oberhummer, _Die Insel Cypern_ (Munich, 1903), p. 4.
+
+  [2] Gen. x. 4; Num. xxiv. 24; Is. xxiii. 1, 12; Jer. ii. 10; Ezek.
+    xxvii. 6.
+
+  [3] Dan. xi. 30; I Macc. i. 1; viii. 5.
+
+  [4] Schrader, "Die Sargonstele des Berliner Museums," in _Abh. d. k.
+    Preuss. Akad. Wiss._ (1881); _Zur Geogr. d. assyr. Reiches_ (Berlin,
+    1890), pp. 337-344.
+
+
+
+
+CITIZEN (a form corrupted in Eng., apparently by analogy with "denizen,"
+from O. Fr. _citeain_, mod. Fr. _citoyen_), etymologically the
+inhabitant of a city, _cite_ or _civitas_ (see CITY), and in England the
+term still used primarily of persons possessing civic rights in a
+borough; thus used also of a townsman as opposed to a countryman. The
+more extended use of the word, however, corresponding to _civitas_,
+gives "citizen" the meaning of one who is a constituent member of a
+state in international relations and as such has full national rights
+and owes a certain allegiance (q.v.) as opposed to an "alien"; in
+republican countries the term is then commonly employed as the
+equivalent of "subject" in monarchies of feudal origin. For the rules
+governing the obtaining of citizenship in this latter sense in the
+United States and elsewhere see NATURALIZATION.
+
+
+
+
+CITOLE, also spelled SYTOLE, CYTHOLE, GYTOLLE, &c. (probably a Fr.
+diminutive form of _cithara_, and not from Lat. _cista_, a box), an
+obsolete musical instrument of which the exact form is uncertain. It is
+frequently mentioned by poetical writers of the 13th to the 15th
+centuries, and is found in Wycliffe's Bible (1360) in 2 Samuel vi. 5,
+"Harpis and sitols and tympane." The Authorized Version has
+"psaltiries," and the Vulgate "lyrae." It has been supposed to be
+another name for the psaltery (q.v.), a box-shaped instrument often seen
+in the illuminated missals of the middle ages.
+
+
+
+
+CITRIC ACID, _Acidum citricum_, or OXYTRICARBALLYLIC ACID,
+C3H4(OH) (CO.OH)3, a tetrahydroxytribasic acid, first obtained
+in the solid state by Karl Wilhelm Scheele, in 1784, from the juice of
+lemons. It is present also in oranges, citrons, currants, gooseberries
+and many other fruits, and in several bulbs and tubers. It is made on a
+large scale from lime or lemon juice, and also by the fermentation of
+glucose under the influence of _Citromycetes pfefferianus, C. glaber_
+and other ferments. Lemon juice is fermented for some time to free it
+from mucilage, then boiled and filtered, and neutralized with powdered
+chalk and a little milk of lime; the precipitate of calcium citrate so
+obtained is decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid, the solution
+filtered, evaporated to remove calcium sulphate and concentrated,
+preferably in vacuum pans. The acid is thus obtained in colourless
+rhombic prisms of the composition C6H8O7 + H2O. Crystals of
+a different form are deposited from a strong boiling solution of the
+acid. About 20 gallons of lemon juice should yield about 10 lb of
+crystallized citric acid. The acid may also be prepared from the juice
+of unripe gooseberries. Calcium citrate must be manufactured with care
+to avoid an excess of chalk or lime, which would precipitate
+constituents of the juice that cause the fermentation of the citrate and
+the production of calcium acetate and butyrate.
+
+The synthesis of citric acid was accomplished by L.E. Grimaux and P.
+Adam in 1881. Glycerin when treated with hydrochloric acid gives
+propenyl dichlorhydrin, which may be oxidized to s-dichloracetone. This
+compound combines with hydrocyanic acid to form a nitrile which
+hydrolyses to dichlor-hydroxy iso-butyric acid. Potassium cyanide reacts
+with this acid to form the corresponding dinitrile, which is converted
+by hydrochloric acid into citric acid. This series of operations proves
+the constitution of the acid. A. Haller and C.A. Held synthesized the
+acid from ethyl chlor-acetoacetate (from chlorine and acetoacetic ester)
+by heating with potassium cyanide and saponifying the resulting nitrile.
+The acetone dicarboxylic acid, CO(CH2CO2H)2, so obtained
+combines with hydrocyanic acid, and this product yields citric acid on
+hydrolysis.
+
+Citric acid has an agreeable sour taste. It is soluble in 3/4ths of its
+weight of cold, and in half its weight of boiling water, and dissolves
+in alcohol, but not in ether. At 150 deg.C. it melts, and on the continued
+application of heat boils, giving off its water of crystallization. At
+175 deg. C. it is resolved into water and aconitic acid, C6H6O6, a
+substance found in _Equisetum fluviatile_, monks-hood and other plants.
+A higher temperature decomposes this body into carbon dioxide and
+itaconic acid, C5H6C4, which, again, by the expulsion of a
+molecule of water, yields citraconic anhydride, C5H4O3. Citric
+acid digested at a temperature below 40 deg.C. with concentrated sulphuric
+acid gives off carbon monoxide and forms acetone dicarboxylic acid. With
+fused potash it forms potassium oxalate and acetate. It is a strong
+acid, and dissolved in water decomposes carbonates and attacks iron and
+zinc.
+
+The citrates are a numerous class of salts, the most soluble of which
+are those of the alkaline metals; the citrates of the alkaline earth
+metals are insoluble. Citric acid, being tribasic, forms either acid
+monometallic, acid dimetallic or neutral trimetallic salts; thus, mono-,
+di- and tri-potassium and sodium citrates are known. On warming citric
+acid with an excess of lime-water a precipitate of calcium citrate is
+obtained which is redissolved as the liquid cools.
+
+The impurities occasionally present in commercial citric acid are salts
+of potassium and sodium, traces of iron, lead and copper derived from
+the vessels used for its evaporation and crystallization, and free
+sulphuric, tartaric and even oxalic acid. Tartaric acid, which is
+sometimes present in large quantities as an adulterant in commercial
+citric acid, may be detected in the presence of the latter, by the
+production of a precipitate of acid potassium tartrate when potassium
+acetate is added to a cold solution. Another mode of separating the two
+acids is to convert them into calcium salts, which are then treated with
+a perfectly neutral solution of cupric chloride, soluble cupric citrate
+and calcium chloride being formed, while cupric tartrate remains
+undissolved. Citric acid is also distinguished from tartaric acid by the
+fact that an ammonia solution of silver tartrate produces a brilliant
+silver mirror when boiled, whereas silver citrate is reduced only after
+prolonged ebullition.
+
+Citric acid is used in calico printing, also in the preparation of
+effervescing draughts, as a refrigerant and sialogogue, and occasionally
+as an antiscorbutic, instead of fresh lemon juice. In the form of lime
+juice it has long been known as an antidote for scurvy. Several of the
+citrates are much employed as medicines, the most important being the
+scale preparations of iron. Of these iron and ammonium citrate is much
+used as a haematinic, and as it has hardly any tendency to cause gastric
+irritation or constipation it can be taken when the ordinary forms of
+iron are inadmissible. Iron and quinine citrate is used as a bitter
+stomachic and tonic. In the blood citrates are oxidized into carbonates;
+they therefore act as _remote alkalis_, increasing the alkalinity of the
+blood and thereby the general rate of chemical change within the body
+(see ACETIC ACID).
+
+
+
+
+CITRON, a species of _Citrus_ (_C. medica_), belonging to the tribe
+_Aurantieae_, of the botanical natural order Rutaceae; the same genus
+furnishes also the orange, lime and shaddock. The citron is a small
+evergreen tree or shrub growing to a height of about 10 ft.; it has
+irregular straggling spiny branches, large pale-green broadly oblong,
+slightly serrate leaves and generally unisexual flowers purplish without
+and white within. The large fruit is ovate or oblong, protuberant at the
+tip, and from 5 to 6 in. long, with a rough, furrowed, adherent rind,
+the inner portion of which is thick, white and fleshy, the outer, thin,
+greenish-yellow and very fragrant. The pulp is sub-acid and edible, and
+the seeds are bitter. There are many varieties of the fruit, some of
+them of great weight and size. The Madras citron has the form of an
+oblate sphere; and in the "fingered citron" of China the lobes are
+separated into finger-like divisions formed by separation of the
+constituent carpels, as occurs sometimes in the orange.
+
+The citron-tree thrives in the open air in China, Persia, the West
+Indies, Madeira, Sicily, Corsica, and the warmer parts of Spain and
+Italy; and in conservatories it is often to be seen in more northerly
+regions. Sir Joseph Hooker (_Flora of British India_, i. 514) regards it
+as a native of the valleys at the foot of the Himalaya, and of the
+Khasia hills and the Western Ghauts; Dr Bonavia, however, considers it
+to have originated in Cochin China or China, and to have been introduced
+into India, whence it spread to Media and Persia. It was described by
+Theophrastus as growing in Media, three centuries before Christ, and was
+early known to the ancients, and the fruit was held in great esteem by
+them; but they seem to have been acquainted with no other member of the
+_Aurantieae_, the introduction of oranges and lemons into the countries
+of the Mediterranean being due to the Arabs, between the 10th and 15th
+centuries. Josephus tells us that "the law of the Jews required that at
+the feast of tabernacles every one should have branches of palm-tree and
+citron-tree" (_Antiq._ xiii. 13. 5); and the Hebrew word _tappuach_,
+rendered "apples" and "apple-tree" in Cant. ii. 3, 5, Prov. xxv. 11,
+&c., probably signifies the citron-tree and its fruit. Oribasius in the
+4th century describes the fruit, accurately distinguishing the three
+parts of it. About the 3rd century the tree was introduced into Italy;
+and, as Gallesio informs us, it was much grown at Salerno in the 11th
+century. In China citrons are placed in apartments to make them
+fragrant. The rind of the citron yields two perfumes, _oil of cedra_ and
+_oil of citron_, isomeric with oil of turpentine; and when candied it is
+much esteemed as a dessert and in confectionery. The lemon (q.v.) is now
+generally regarded as a subspecies _Limonum_ of _Citrus medica_.
+
+  Oribasii Sardiani, _Collectorum Medicinalium Libri XVII._ i. 64 (_De
+  citrio_); Gallesio, _Traite du citrus_ (1811); Darwin, _Animals and
+  Plants under Domestication_, i. 334-336 (1868); Brandis, _Forest Flora
+  of North-West and Central India_, p. 51 (1874); E. Bonavia, _The
+  Cultivated Oranges and Lemons, &c., of India and Ceylon_ (1890).
+
+
+
+
+CITTADELLA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Padua, 20 m.
+N.W. by rail from the town of Padua; 160 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
+(1901) town, 3616; commune, 9686. The town was founded in 1220 by the
+Paduans to counterbalance the fortification of Castelfranco, 8 m. to the
+E., in 1218 by the Trevisans, and retains its well-preserved medieval
+walls, surrounded by a wet ditch. It was always a fortress of
+importance, and in modern times is a centre for the agricultural produce
+of the district, being the junction of the lines from Padua to Bassano
+and from Vicenza to Treviso.
+
+
+
+
+CITTA DELLA PIEVE, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the
+province of Perugia, situated 1666 ft. above the sea, 3 m. N.E. of its
+station on the railway between Chiusi and Orvieto. Pop. (1901) 8381.
+Etruscan tombs have been found in the neighbourhood, but it is not
+certain that the present town stands on an ancient site. It was the
+birthplace of the painter Pietro Vannucci (Perugino), and possesses
+several of his works, but none of the first rank.
+
+
+
+
+CITTA DI CASTELLO, a town and episcopal see of Umbria, Italy, in the
+province of Perugia, 38 m. E. of Arezzo by rail (18 m. direct), situated
+on the left bank of the Tiber, 945 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) of
+town, 6096; of commune, 26,885. It occupies, as inscriptions show, the
+site of the ancient _Tifernum Tiberinum_, near which Pliny had a villa
+(_Epist._ v. 6; cf. H. Winnefeld in _Jahrbuch des deutschen
+archaeologischen Instituts_, vi. Berlin, 1891, 203), but no remains exist
+above ground. The town was devastated by Totila, but seems to have
+recovered. We find it under the name of _Castrum Felicitatis_ at the end
+of the 8th century. The bishopric dates from the 7th century. The town
+went through various political vicissitudes in the middle ages, being
+subject now to the emperor, now to the Church, until in 1468 it came
+under the Vitelli: but when they died out it returned to the allegiance
+of the Church. It is built in the form of a rectangle and surrounded by
+walls of 1518. It contains fine buildings of the Renaissance, especially
+the palaces of the Vitelli, and the cathedral, originally Romanesque.
+The 12th-century altar front of the latter in silver is fine. The
+Palazzo Comunale is of the 14th century. Some of Raphael's earliest
+works were painted for churches in this town, but none of them remains
+there. There is, however, a small collection of pictures.
+
+  See Magherini Graziani, _L'Arte a Citta di Castello_ (1897).
+
+
+
+
+CITTA VECCHIA, or CITTA NOTABILE, a fortified city of Malta, 7 m. W. of
+Valletta, with which it is connected by railway. Pop. (1901) 7515. It
+lies on high, sharply rising ground which affords a view of a large part
+of the island. It is the seat of a bishop, and contains an ornate
+cathedral, overthrown by an earthquake in 1693, but rebuilt, which is
+said by an acceptable tradition to occupy the site of the house of the
+governor Publius, who welcomed the apostle Paul. It contains some rich
+stalls of the 15th century and other objects of interest. In the rock
+beneath the city there are some remarkable catacombs in part of
+pre-Christian origin, but containing evidence of early Christian burial;
+and a grotto, reputed to have given shelter to the apostle, is pointed
+out below the church of San Paolo. Remains of Roman buildings have been
+excavated in the town. About 2 m. E. of the town is the residence of the
+English governor, known as the palace of S. Antonio; and at a like
+distance to the south is the ancient palace of the grand masters of the
+order of St John, with an extensive public garden called Il Boschetto.
+Citta Vecchia was called Civitas Melita by the Romans and oldest
+writers, Medina (i.e. the city) by the Saracens, Notabile (_locale
+notabile, et insigne coronae regiae_, as it is called in a charter by
+Alphonso, 1428) under the Sicilian rule, and Citta Vecchia (old city) by
+the knights. It was the capital of the island till its supersession by
+Valletta in 1570. (See also MALTA.)
+
+
+
+
+CITTERN (also CITHERN, CITHRON, CYTHREN, CITHAREN, &c.; Fr. _citre,
+cistre, cithre, guitare allemande_ or _anglaise_; Ger. _Cither_, Zither
+(_mit Hals_, with neck); Ital. _cetera, cetra_), a medieval stringed
+instrument with a neck terminating in a grotesque and twanged by fingers
+or plectrum. The popularity of the cittern was at its height in England
+and Germany during the 16th and 17th centuries. The cittern consisted of
+a pear-shaped body similar to that of the lute but with a flat back and
+sound-board joined by ribs. The neck was provided with a fretted
+finger-board; the head was curved and surmounted by a grotesque head of
+a woman or of an animal.[1] The strings were of wire in pairs of
+unisons, known as courses, usually four in number in England. A
+peculiarity of the cittern lay in the tuning of the courses, the third
+course known as bass being lower than the fourth styled tenor.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+[Illustration: From Thomas Robinson's _New Citharen Lessons_, 1609.
+Four-course Cittern.]
+
+According to Vincentio Galilei (the father of the great astronomer)
+England was the birthplace of the cittern.[2] Several lesson books for
+this popular instrument were published during the 17th century in
+England. A very rare book (of which the British Museum does not possess
+a copy), _The Cittharn Schoole_, written by Anthony Holborne in 1597, is
+mentioned in Sir P. Leycester's manuscript commonplace book[3] dated
+1656, "For the little Instrument called a _Psittyrne_ Anthony Holborne
+and Tho. Robinson were most famous of any before them and have both of
+them set out a booke of Lessons for this Instrument. Holborne has
+composed a Basse-parte for the Viole to play unto the Psittyrne with
+those Lessons set out in his booke. These lived about Anno Domini 1600."
+Thomas Robinson's _New Citharen Lessons with perfect tunings for the
+same from Foure course of strings to Fourteene course_, &c. (printed
+London, 1609, by William Barley), contains illustrations of both kinds
+of instruments. The fourteen-course cittern was also known in England as
+_Bijuga_; the seven courses in pairs were stretched over the
+finger-board, and the seven single strings, fastened to the grotesque
+head, were stretched as in the lyre _a vide_ alongside the neck; all the
+strings rested on the one flat bridge near the tail-piece. Robinson
+gives instructions for learning to play the cittern and for reading the
+tablature. John Playford's _Musick's Delight on the Cithren_ (London,
+1666) also contains illustrations of the instrument as well as of the
+viol da Gamba and Pochette; he claims to have revived the instrument and
+restored it to what it was in the reign of Queen Mary.
+
+The cittern probably owed its popularity at this time to the ease with
+which it might be mastered and used to accompany the voice; it was one
+of four instruments generally found in barbers' shops, the others being
+the gittern, the lute and the virginals. The customers while waiting
+took down the instrument from its peg and played a merry tune to pass
+the time.[4] We read that when Konstantijn Huygens came over to England
+and was received by James I. at Bagshot, he played to the king on the
+cittern (cithara), and that his performance was duly appreciated and
+applauded. He tells us that, although he learnt to play the barbiton in
+a few weeks with skill, he had lessons from a master for two years on
+the cittern.[5] On the occasion of a third visit he witnessed the
+performance of some fine musicians and was astonished to hear a lady,
+mother of twelve, singing in divine fashion, accompanying herself on the
+cittern; one of these artists he calls Lanivius, the British Orpheus,
+whose performance was really enchanting.
+
+Michael Praetorius[6] gives various tunings for the cittern as well as
+an illustration (sounded an octave higher than the notation).
+
+[Illustration: French]
+
+[Illustration: Italian 4 course]
+
+[Illustration: Italian 6 course]
+
+During the 18th century the cittern, citra or English guitar, had twelve
+wire strings in six pairs of unisons tuned thus:
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The introduction of the Spanish guitar, which at once leapt into favour,
+gradually displaced the English variety. The Spanish guitar had gut
+strings twanged by the fingers. The last development of the cittern
+before its disappearance was the addition of keys. The keyed cithara[7]
+was first made by Claus & Co. of London in 1783. The keys, six in
+number, were placed on the left of the sound-board, and on being
+depressed they acted on hammers inside the sound-chest, which rising
+through the rose sound-hole struck the strings. Sometimes the keys were
+placed in a little box right over the strings, the hammers striking from
+above. M.J.B. Vuillaume of Paris possessed an Italian cetera (not keyed)
+by Antoine Stradivarius,[8] 1700 (now in the Museum of the
+Conservatoire, Paris), with twelve strings tuned in pairs of unisons to
+E, D, G, B, C, A, which was exhibited in London in 1871.
+
+The cittern of the 16th century was the result of certain transitions
+which took place during the evolution of the violin from the Greek
+kithara (see CITHARA).
+
+  _Genealogical Table of the Cittern._
+
+                 Assyrian Ketharah                      Persian Rebab
+            ____________|_____________                         :
+           |                          |                        :
+  Persian and Arabic           Greek Kithara               Arab Rebab
+       Kithara                        |                        :
+           |                          |                        :
+    Moorish Guitra,            Roman Cithara             European Rebec
+  Cuitra or Guitarra            or Fidicula                    :
+                                      |                        :
+                        Cithara in transition or Rotta         :
+           ___________________________|________________________:
+          |                           |                        |
+  Cithara in transition        Guitarra Latina          _Cittern_
+       or Guitar              or Vihuela de Mano
+          |                           |
+    Spanish Guitar                 Ghittern
+
+The cittern has retained the following characteristics of the archetype.
+(1) The derivation of the name, which after the introduction of the bow
+was used to characterize various instruments whose strings were twanged
+by fingers or plectrum, such as the harp and the rotta (both known as
+_cithara_), the citola and the zither. In an interlinear Latin and
+Anglo-Saxon version of the Psalms, dated A.D. 700 (Brit. Mus., Vesp. A.
+1), _cithara_ is translated _citran_, from which it is not difficult to
+trace the English _cithron, citteran, cittarn_, of the 16th century. (2)
+The construction of the sound-chest with flat back and sound-board
+connected by ribs. The pear-shaped outline was possibly borrowed from
+the Eastern instruments, both bowed as the rebab and twanged as the
+lute, so common all over Europe during the middle ages, or more probably
+derived from the _kithara_ of the Greeks of Asia Minor, which had the
+corners rounded. These early steps in the transition from the _cithara_
+may be seen in the miniatures of the Utrecht Psalter,[9] a unique and
+much-copied Carolingian MS. executed at Reims (9th century), the
+illustrations of which were undoubtedly adapted from an earlier psalter
+from the Christian East. The instruments which remained true to the
+prototype in outline as well as in construction and in the derivation
+of the name were the ghittern and the guitar, so often confused with the
+cittern. It is evident that the kinship of cittern and guitar was
+formerly recognized, for during the 18th century, as stated above, the
+cittern was known as the English guitar to distinguish it from the
+Spanish guitar. The grotesque head, popularly considered the
+characteristic feature of the cittern, was probably added in the 12th
+century at a time when this style of decoration was very noticeable in
+other musical instruments, such as the cornet or _Zinck_, the
+_Platerspiel_, the chaunter of the bagpipe, &c. The cittern of the
+middle ages was also to be found in oval shape. From the 13th century
+representations of the pear-shaped instrument abound in miniatures and
+carvings.[10]
+
+  A very clearly drawn cittern of the 14th century occurs in a MS.
+  treatise on astronomy (Sloane MS. 3983, Brit. Mus.) translated from
+  the Persian of Albumazar into Latin by Georgius Zothari Zopari
+  Fenduli, priest and philosopher, with a prologue and numerous
+  illustrations by his own hand; the cittern is here called _giga_ in an
+  inscription at the side of the drawing.
+
+  References to the cittern are plentiful in the literature of the 16th
+  and 17th centuries. Robert Fludd[11] describes it thus: "Cistrona quae
+  quatuor tantum chordas duplicatas habet easque cupreas et ferreas de
+  quibus aliquid dicemus quo loco." Others are given in the _New English
+  Dictionary_, "Cittern," and in Godefroy's _Dict. de l'anc. langue
+  franc. du IXe au XVe siecle_.    (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Shakespeare, _Love's Labour's Lost_, act v. sc. 2, where
+    Boyet compares the countenance of Holofernes to a cittern head; John
+    Forde, _Lovers' Melancholy_ (1629), act ii. sc. 1, "Barbers shall
+    wear thee on their citterns."
+
+  [2] _Dialogo della musica_ (Florence, 1581), p. 147.
+
+  [3] The musical extracts from the commonplace book were prepared by
+    Dr Rimbault for the Early English Text Society. Holborne's work is
+    mentioned in his _Bibliotheca Madrigaliana_. The descriptive list of
+    the musical instruments in use in England during Leycester's
+    lifetime (about 1656) has been extracted and published by Dr F.J.
+    Furnivall, in _Captain Cox, his Ballads and Books, or Robert
+    Laneham's Letter_ (1575), (London, 1871), pp. 65-68.
+
+  [4] See Knight's _London_, i. 142.
+
+  [5] See _De Vita propria sermonum inter liberos libri duo_ (Haarlem,
+    1817) and E. van der Straeten, _La Musique aux Pays-Bas_, ii.
+    348-35O.
+
+  [6] _Syntagma Musicum_ (1618). See also M. Mersenne, _Harmonie
+    universelle_ (Paris, 1636), livre ii. prop. xv., who gives different
+    accordances.
+
+  [7] See Carl Engel, _Catalogue_ of the Exhibition of Ancient Musical
+    Instruments (London, 1872), Nos. 289 and 290.
+
+  [8] See note above. Illustration in A.J. Hipkins, _Musical Instruments;
+    Historic, Rare and Unique_ (Edinburgh, 1888).
+
+  [9] For a resume of the question of the origin of this famous psalter,
+    and an inquiry into its bearing on the history of musical
+    instruments with illustrations and facsimile reproductions, see
+    Kathleen Schlesinger, _The Instruments of the Orchestra_, part ii.
+    "The Precursors of the Violin Family," pp. 127-166 (London,
+    1908-1909).
+
+  [10] An oval cittern and a ghittern, side by side, occur in the
+    beautiful 13th-century Spanish MS. known as _Cantigas de Santa
+    Maria_ in the Escorial. For a fine facsimile in colours see marquis
+    de Valmar, _Real. Acad. Esq._, publ. by L. Aguado (Madrid, 1889).
+    Reproductions in black and white in Juan F. Riano, _Critical and
+    Bibliog. Notes on Early Spanish Music_ (London, 1887). See also K.
+    Schlesinger, op. cit. fig. 167, p. 223, also boat-shaped citterns,
+    figs. 155 and 156, p. 197. Cittern with woman's head, 15th century,
+    on one of six bas-reliefs on the under parts of the seats of the
+    choir of the Priory church, Great Malvern, reproduced in J. Carter's
+    _Ancient Sculptures_, &c., vol. ii. pl. following p. 12. Another
+    without a head, ibid. pl. following p. 16, from a brass monumental
+    plate in St Margaret's, King's Lynn.
+
+  [11] _Historia utriusque Cosmi_ (Oppenheim, ed. 1617) i. 226.
+
+
+
+
+CITY (through Fr. _cite_, from Lat. _civitas_). In the United Kingdom,
+strictly speaking, "city" is an honorary title, officially applied to
+those towns which, in virtue of some preeminence (e.g. as episcopal
+sees, or great industrial centres), have by traditional usage or royal
+charter acquired the right to the designation. In the United Kingdom the
+official style of "city" does not necessarily involve the possession of
+municipal power greater than those of the ordinary boroughs, nor indeed
+the possession of a corporation at all (e.g. Ely). In the United States
+and the British colonies, on the other hand, the official application of
+the term "city" depends on the kind and extent of the municipal
+privileges possessed by the corporations, and charters are given raising
+towns to the rank of cities. Both in France and England the word is used
+to distinguish the older and central nucleus of some of the large towns,
+e.g. the _Cite_ in Paris, and the "square mile" under the jurisdiction
+of the lord mayor which is the "City of London."
+
+In common usage, however, the word implies no more than a somewhat vague
+idea of size and dignity, and is loosely applied to any large centre of
+population. Thus while, technically, the City of London is quite small,
+London is yet properly described as the largest city in the world. In
+the United States this use of the word is still more loose, and any
+town, whether technically a city or not, is usually so designated, with
+little regard to its actual size or importance.
+
+It is clear from the above that the word "city" is incapable of any very
+clear and inclusive definition, and the attempt to show that
+historically it possesses a meaning that clearly differentiates it from
+"town" or "borough" has led to some controversy. As the translation of
+the Greek [Greek: polis] or Latin _civitas_ it involves the ancient
+conception of the state or "city-state," i.e. of the state as not too
+large to prevent its government through the body of the citizens
+assembled in the _agora_, and is applied not to the place but to the
+whole body politic. From this conception both the word and its dignified
+connotation are without doubt historically derived. On the occupation of
+Gaul the Gallic states and tribes were called _civitates_ by the Romans,
+and subsequently the name was confined to the chief towns of the
+various administrative districts. These were also the seats of the
+bishops. It is thus affirmed that in France from the 5th to the 15th
+century the name _civitas_ or _cite_ was confined to such towns as were
+episcopal sees, and Du Cange (_Gloss._ s.v. _civitas_) defines that word
+as _urbs episcopalis_, and states that other towns were termed _castra_
+or _oppida_. How far any such distinction can be sharply drawn may be
+doubted. With regard to England no definite line can be drawn between
+those towns to which the name _civitas_ or _cite_ is given in medieval
+documents and those called _burgi_ or boroughs (see J.H. Round, _Feudal
+England_, p. 338; F.W. Maitland, _Domesday Book and After_, p. 183). It
+was, however, maintained by Coke and Blackstone that a city is a town
+incorporate which is or has been the see of a bishop. It is true,
+indeed, that the actual sees in England all have a formal right to the
+title; the boroughs erected into episcopal sees by Henry VIII. thereby
+became "cities"; but towns such as Thetford, Sherborne and Dorchester
+are never so designated, though they are regularly incorporated and were
+once episcopal sees. On the other hand, it has only been since the
+latter part of the 19th century that the official style of "city" has,
+in the United Kingdom, been conferred by royal authority on certain
+important towns which were not episcopal sees, Birmingham in 1889 being
+the first to be so distinguished. It is interesting to note that London,
+besides 27 boroughs, now contains two cities, one (the City of London)
+outside, the other (the City of Westminster) included in the
+administrative county.
+
+  For the history of the origin and development of modern city
+  government see BOROUGH and COMMUNE: _Medieval_.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD BOLIVAR, an inland city and river port of Venezuela, capital of
+the state of Bolivar, on the right bank of the Orinoco river, 240 m.
+above its mouth. Pop. (1891) 11,686. It stands upon a small hill about
+187 ft. above sea-level, and faces the river where it narrows to a width
+of less than half a mile. The city is largely built upon the hillside.
+It is the seat of the bishopric of Guayana (founded in 1790), and is the
+commercial centre of the great Orinoco basin. Among its noteworthy
+edifices are the cathedral, federal college, theatre, masonic temple,
+market, custom-house, and hospital. The mean temperature is 83 deg. The
+city has a public water-supply, a tramway line, telephone service,
+subfluvial cable communication with Soledad near the mouth of the
+Orinoco, where connexion is made with the national land lines, and
+regular steamship communication with the lower and upper Orinoco.
+Previous to the revolution of 1901-3 Ciudad Bolivar ranked fourth among
+the Venezuelan custom-houses, but the restrictions placed upon transit
+trade through West Indian ports have made her a dependency of the La
+Guaira custom-house to a large extent. The principal exports from this
+region include cattle, horses, mules, tobacco, cacao, rubber, tonka
+beans, bitters, hides, timber and many valuable forest products. The
+town was founded by Mendoza in 1764 as San Tomas de la Nueva Guayana,
+but its location at this particular point on the river gave to it the
+popular name of _Angostura_, the Spanish term for "narrows." This name
+was used until 1849, when that of the Venezuelan liberator was bestowed
+upon it. Ciudad Bolivar played an important part in the struggle for
+independence and was for a time the headquarters of the revolution. The
+town suffered severely in the struggle for its possession, and the
+political disorders which followed greatly retarded its growth.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD DE CURA, an inland town of the state of Aragua, Venezuela, 55 m.
+S.W. of Caracas, near the Lago de Valencia. Pop. (1891) 12,198. The town
+stands in a broad, fertile valley, between the sources of streams
+running southward to the Guarico river and northward to the lake, with
+an elevation above sea-level of 1598 ft. Traffic between Puerto Cabello
+and the Guarico plains has passed through this town since early colonial
+times, and has made it an important commercial centre, from which hides,
+cheese, coffee, cacao and beans are sent down to the coast for export;
+it bears a high reputation in Venezuela for commercial enterprise.
+Ciudad de Cura was founded in 1730, and suffered severely in the war of
+independence.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD JUAREZ, formerly EL PASO DEL NORTE, a northern frontier town of
+Mexico, in the state of Chihuahua, 1223 m. by rail N.N.W. of Mexico
+City. Pop. (1895) 6917. Ciudad Juarez stands 3800 ft. above sea-level on
+the right bank of the Rio Grande del Norte, opposite the city of El
+Paso, Texas, with which it is connected by two bridges. It is the
+northern terminus of the Mexican Central railway, and has a large and
+increasing transit trade with the United States, having a custom-house
+and a United States consulate. It is also a military post with a small
+garrison. The town has a straggling picturesque appearance, a
+considerable part of the habitations being small adobe or brick cabins.
+In the fertile neighbouring district cattle are raised, and wheat,
+Indian corn, fruit and grapes are grown, wine and brandy being made. The
+town was founded in 1681-1682; its present importance is due entirely to
+the railway. It was the headquarters of President Juarez in 1865, and
+was renamed in 1885 because of its devotion to his cause.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD PORFIRIO DIAZ, formerly PIEDRAS NEGRAS, a northern frontier town
+of Mexico in the state of Coahuila, 1008 m. N. by W. from Mexico City,
+on the Rio Grande del Norte, 720 ft. above sea-level, opposite the town
+of Eagle Pass, Texas. Pop. (1900, estimate) 5000. An international
+bridge connects the two towns, and the Mexican International railway has
+its northern terminus in Mexico at this point. The town has an important
+transfer trade with the United States, and is the centre of a fertile
+district devoted to agriculture and stock-raising. Coal is found in the
+vicinity. The Mexican government maintains a custom-house and military
+post here. The town was founded in 1849.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD REAL, a province of central Spain, formed in 1833 of districts
+taken from New Castile, and bounded on the N. by Toledo, E. by Albacete,
+S. by Jaen and Cordova and W. by Badajoz. Pop. (1900) 321,580; area,
+7620 sq. m. The surface of Ciudad Real consists chiefly of a level or
+slightly undulating plain, with low hills in the north-east and
+south-west; but along the south-western frontier the Sierra de Alcudia
+rises in two parallel ridges on either side of the river Alcudia, and is
+continued in the Sierra Madrona on the east. The river Guadiana drains
+almost the entire province, which it traverses from east to west; only
+the southernmost districts being watered by tributaries of the
+Guadalquivir. Numerous smaller streams flow into the Guadiana, which
+itself divides near Herencia into two branches,--the northern known as
+the Giguela, the southern as the Zancara. The eastern division of Ciudad
+Real forms part of the region known as La Mancha, a flat, thinly-peopled
+plain, clothed with meagre vegetation which is often ravaged by locusts.
+La Mancha (q.v.) is sometimes regarded as coextensive with the whole
+province. Severe drought is common here, although some of the rivers,
+such as the Jabalon and Azuer, issue fully formed from the chalky soil,
+and from their very sources give an abundant supply of water to the
+numerous mills. Towards the west, where the land is higher, there are
+considerable tracts of forest.
+
+The climate is oppressively hot in summer, and in winter the plains are
+exposed to violent and bitterly cold winds; while the cultivation of
+grain, the vine and the olive is further impeded by the want of proper
+irrigation, and the general barrenness of the soil. Large flocks of
+sheep and goats find pasture in the plains; and the swine which are kept
+in the oak and beech forests furnish bacon and hams of excellent
+quality. Coal is mined chiefly at Puertollano, lead in various
+districts, mercury at Almaden. There are no great manufacturing towns.
+The roads are insufficient and ill-kept, especially in the north-east
+where they form the sole means of communication; and neither the
+Guadiana nor its tributaries are navigable. The main railway from Madrid
+to Lisbon passes through the capital, Ciudad Real, and through
+Puertollano; farther east, the Madrid-Linares line passes through
+Manzanares and Valdepenas. Branch railways also connect the capital with
+Manzanares, and Valdepenas with the neighbouring town of La Calzada.
+
+The principal towns, Alcazar de San Juan (11,499), Almaden (7375),
+Almodovar del Campo (12,525), Ciudad Real (15,255), Manzanares (11,229)
+and Valdepenas (21,015), are described in separate articles. Almagro
+(7974) and Daimiel (11,825), in the district of La Mancha known as the
+Campo de Calatrava, belonged in the later middle ages to the knightly
+Order of Calatrava, which was founded in 1158 to keep the Moors in
+check. Almagro was long almost exclusively inhabited by monks and
+knights, and contains several interesting churches and monasteries,
+besides the castle of the knights, now used as barracks. Almagro is
+further celebrated for its lace, Daimiel for its medicinal salts.
+Tomelloso (13,929) is one of the chief market towns of La Mancha.
+Education is very backward, largely owing to the extreme poverty which
+has frequently brought the inhabitants to the verge of famine. (See also
+CASTILE.)
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD REAL, the capital formerly of La Mancha, and since 1833 of the
+province described above; 107 m. S. of Madrid, on the
+Madrid-Badajoz-Lisbon and Ciudad Real-Manzanares railways. Pop. (1900)
+15,255. Ciudad Real lies in the midst of a wide plain, watered on the
+north by the river Guadiana, and on the south by its tributary the
+Jabalon. Apart from the remnants of its 13th-century fortifications, and
+one Gothic church of immense size, built without aisles, the town
+contains little of interest; its public buildings--town-hall, barracks,
+churches, hospital and schools--being in no way distinguished above those
+of other provincial capitals. There are no important local manufactures,
+and the trade of the town consists chiefly in the weekly sales of
+agricultrural produce and live-stock. Ciudad Real was founded by Alphonso
+X. of Castile (1252-1284), and fortified by him as a check upon the
+Moorish power. Its original name of _Villarreal_ was changed to _Ciudad
+Real_ by John VI. in 1420. During the Peninsular War a Spanish force was
+defeated here by the French, on the 27th of March 1809.
+
+
+
+
+CIUDAD RODRIGO, a town of western Spain, in the province of Salamanca,
+situated 8 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier, on the right bank of the
+river Agueda, and the railway from Salamanca to Coimbra in Portugal.
+Pop. (1900) 8930. Ciudad Rodrigo is an episcopal see, and was for many
+centuries an important frontier fortress. Its cathedral dates from 1190,
+but was restored in the 15th century. The remnants of a Roman aqueduct,
+the foundations of a bridge across the Agueda, and other remains, seem
+to show that Ciudad Rodrigo occupies the site of a Roman settlement. It
+was founded in the 12th century by Count Rodrigo Gonzalez, from whom its
+name is derived. During the Peninsular War, it was captured by the
+French under Marshal Ney, in 1810; but on the 19th of January 1812 it
+was retaken by the British under Viscount Wellington, who, for this
+exploit, was created earl of Wellington, duke of Ciudad Rodrigo, and
+marquess of Torres Vedras, in Portugal.
+
+
+
+
+CIVERCHIO, VINCENZO, an early 16th-century Italian painter, born at
+Crema. There are altar-pieces by him at Brescia, and at Crema the
+altar-piece at the duomo (1509). His "Birth of Christ" is in the Brera,
+Milan; and at Lovere are other of his works dating from 1539 and 1540.
+
+
+
+
+CIVET, or properly CIVET-CAT, the designation of the more typical
+representatives of the mammalian family _Viverridae_ (see CARNIVORA).
+Civets are characterized by the possession of a deep pouch in the
+neighbourhood of the genital organs, into which the substance known as
+civet is poured from the glands by which it is secreted. This fatty
+substance is at first semifluid and yellow, but afterwards acquires the
+consistency of pomade and becomes darker. It has a strong musky odour,
+exceedingly disagreeable to those unaccustomed to it, but "when properly
+diluted and combined with other scents it produces a very pleasing
+effect, and possesses a much more floral fragrance than musk, indeed it
+would be impossible to imitate some flowers without it." The African
+civet (_Viverra civetta_) is from 2 to 3 ft. in length, exclusive of the
+tail, which is half the length of the body, and stands from 10 to 12 in.
+high. It is covered with long hair, longest on the middle line of the
+back, where it is capable of being raised or depressed at will, of a
+dark-grey colour, with numerous transverse black bands and spots. In
+habits it is chiefly nocturnal, and by preference carnivorous, feeding
+on birds and the smaller quadrupeds, in pursuit of which it climbs
+trees, but it is said also to eat fruits, roots and other vegetable
+matters. In a state of captivity the civet is never completely tamed,
+and only kept for the sake of its perfume, which is obtained in largest
+quantity from the male, especially when in good condition and subjected
+to irritation, being scraped from the pouch with a small spoon usually
+twice a week. The zibeth (_Viverra zibetha_) is a widely distributed
+species extending from Arabia to Malabar, and throughout several of the
+larger islands of the Indian Archipelago. It is smaller than the true
+civet, and wants the dorsal crest. In the wild state it does great
+damage among poultry, and frequently makes off with the young of swine
+and sheep. When hunted it makes a determined resistance, and emits a
+scent so strong as even to sicken the dogs, who nevertheless are
+exceedingly fond of the sport, and cannot be got to pursue any other
+game while the stench of the zibeth is in their nostrils. In
+confinement, it becomes comparatively tame, and yields civet in
+considerable quantity. In preparing this for the market it is usually
+spread out on the leaves of the pepper plant in order to free it from
+the hairs that have become detached from the pouch. On the Malabar coast
+this species is replaced by _V. civettina_. The small Indian civet or
+rasse (_Viverricula malaccensis_) ranges from Madagascar through India
+to China, the Malay Peninsula, and the islands of the Archipelago. It is
+almost 3 ft. long including the tail, and prettily marked with dark
+longitudinal stripes, and spots which have a distinctly linear
+arrangement. The perfume, which is extracted in the same way as in the
+two preceding species, is highly valued and much used by the Javanese.
+Although this animal is said to be an expert climber it usually inhabits
+holes in the ground. It is frequently kept in captivity in the East, and
+becomes tame. Fossil remains of extinct civets are found in the Miocene
+strata of Europe.
+
+
+
+
+CIVIDALE DEL FRIULI (anc. _Forum Iulii_), a town of Venetia, Italy, in
+the province of Udine, 10 m. E. by N. by rail from the town of Udine;
+453 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town, 4143; commune, 9061. It is
+situated on the river Natisone, which forms a picturesque ravine here.
+It contains some interesting relics of the art of the 8th century. The
+cathedral of the 15th century contains an octagonal marble canopy with
+sculptures in relief, with a font below it belonging to the 8th century,
+but altered later. The high altar has a fine silver altar front of 1185.
+The museum contains various Roman and Lombard antiquities, and valuable
+MSS. and works of art in gold, silver and ivory formerly belonging to
+the cathedral chapter. The small church of S. Maria in Valle belongs to
+the 8th century, and contains fine decorations in stucco which probably
+belong to the 11th or 12th century. The fine 15th-century Ponte del
+Diavolo leads to the church of S. Martino, which contains an altar of
+the 8th century with reliefs executed by order of the Lombard king
+Ratchis. At Cividale were born Paulus Diaconus, the historian of the
+Lombards in the time of Charlemagne, and the actress Adelaide Ristori
+(1822-1906).
+
+The Roman town (a _municipium_) of Forum Iulii was founded either by
+Julius Caesar or by Augustus, no doubt at the same time as the
+construction of the Via Iulia Augusta, which passed through Utina
+(Udine) on its way north. After the decay of Aquileia and Iulium
+Carnicum (Zuglio) it became the chief town of the district of Friuli and
+gave its name to it. The patriarchs of Aquileia resided here from 773 to
+1031, when they returned to Aquileia, and finally in 1238 removed to
+Udine. This last change of residence was the origin of the antagonism
+between Cividale and Udine, which was only terminated by their surrender
+to Venice in 1419 and 1420 respectively.
+
+
+
+
+CIVILIS, CLAUDIUS, or more correctly, JULIUS, leader of the Batavian
+revolt against Rome (A.D. 69-70). He was twice imprisoned on a charge of
+rebellion, and narrowly escaped execution. During the disturbances that
+followed the death of Nero, he took up arms under pretence of siding
+with Vespasian and induced the inhabitants of his native country to
+rebel. The Batavians, who had rendered valuable aid under the early
+emperors, had been well treated in order to attach them to the cause of
+Rome. They were exempt from tribute, but were obliged to supply a large
+number of men for the army, and the burden of conscription and the
+oppressions of provincial governors were important incentives to revolt.
+The Batavians were immediately joined by several neighbouring German
+tribes, the most important of whom were the Frisians. The Roman
+garrisons near the Rhine were driven out, and twenty-four ships
+captured. Two legions under Mummius Lupercus were defeated at Castra
+Vetera (near the modern Xanten) and surrounded. Eight cohorts of
+Batavian veterans joined their countrymen, and the troops sent by
+Vespasian to the relief of Vetera threw in their lot with them. The
+result of these accessions to the forces of Civilis was a rising in
+Gaul. Hordeonius Flaccus was murdered by his troops (70), and the whole
+of the Roman forces were induced by two commanders of the Gallic
+auxiliaries--Julius Classicus and Julius Tutor--to revolt from Rome and
+join Civilis. The whole of Gaul thus practically declared itself
+independent, and the foundation of a new kingdom of Gaul was
+contemplated. The prophetess Velleda predicted the complete success of
+Civilis and the fall of the Roman Empire. But disputes broke out amongst
+the different tribes and rendered co-operation impossible; Vespasian,
+having successfully ended the civil war, called upon Civilis to lay down
+his arms, and on his refusal resolved to take strong measures for the
+suppression of the revolt. The arrival of Petillius Cerialis with a
+strong force awed the Gauls and mutinous troops into submission; Civilis
+was defeated at Augusta Treverorum (Trier, Treves) and Vetera, and
+forced to withdraw to the island of the Batavians. He finally came to an
+agreement with Cerialis whereby his countrymen obtained certain
+advantages, and resumed amicable relations with Rome. From this time
+Civilis disappears from history.
+
+  The chief authority for the history of the insurrection is Tacitus,
+  _Historiae_, iv., v., whose account breaks off at the beginning of
+  Civilis's speech to Cerialis; see also Josephus, _Bellum Judaicum_,
+  vii. 4. There is a monograph by E. Meyer, _Der Freiheitskrieg der
+  Bataver unter Civilis_ (1856); see also Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans
+  under the Empire_, ch. 58; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der roemischen
+  Kaiserzeit_, bk. ii. ch. 2, Sec. 54 (1883).
+
+
+
+
+CIVILIZATION. The word "civilization" is an obvious derivative of the
+Lat. _civis_, a citizen, and _civilis_, pertaining to a citizen.
+Etymologically speaking, then, it would be putting no undue strain upon
+the word to interpret it as having to do with the entire period of human
+progress since mankind attained sufficient intelligence and social unity
+to develop a system of government. But in practice "civilization" is
+usually interpreted in a somewhat narrower sense, as having application
+solely to the most recent and comparatively brief period of time that
+has elapsed since the most highly developed races of men have used
+systems of writing. This restricted usage is probably explicable, in
+part at least, by the fact that the word, though distinctly modern in
+origin, is nevertheless older than the interpretation of social
+evolution that now finds universal acceptance. Only very recently has it
+come to be understood that primitive societies vastly antedating the
+historical period had attained relatively high stages of development and
+fixity, socially and politically. Now that this is understood, however,
+nothing but an arbitrary and highly inconvenient restriction of meanings
+can prevent us from speaking of the citizens of these early societies as
+having attained certain stages of civilization. It will be convenient,
+then, in outlining the successive stages of human progress here, to
+include under the comprehensive term "civilization" those long earlier
+periods of "savagery" and "barbarism" as well as the more recent period
+of higher development to which the word "civilization" is sometimes
+restricted.
+
+
+  Savagery and barbarism.
+
+Adequate proof that civilization as we now know it is the result of a
+long, slow process of evolution was put forward not long after the
+middle of the 19th century by the students of palaeontology and of
+prehistoric archaeology. A recognition of the fact that primitive man
+used implements of chipped flint, of polished stone, and of the softer
+metals for successive ages, before he attained a degree of technical
+skill and knowledge that would enable him to smelt iron, led the Danish
+archaeologists to classify the stages of human progress under these
+captions: the Rough Stone Age; the Age of Polished Stone; the Age of
+Bronze; and the Age of Iron. These terms acquired almost universal
+recognition, and they retain popularity as affording a very broad
+outline of the story of human progress. It is obviously desirable,
+however, to fill in the outlines of the story more in detail. To some
+extent it has been possible to do so, largely through the efforts of
+ethnologists who have studied the social conditions of existing races of
+savages. A recognition of the principle that, broadly speaking, progress
+has everywhere been achieved along the same lines and through the same
+sequence of changes, makes it possible to interpret the past history of
+the civilized races of to-day in the light of the present-day conditions
+of other races that are still existing under social and political
+conditions of a more primitive type. Such races as the Maoris and the
+American Indians have furnished invaluable information to the student of
+social evolution; and the knowledge thus gained has been extended and
+fortified by the ever-expanding researches of the palaeontologist and
+archaeologist.
+
+Thus it has become possible to present with some confidence a picture
+showing the successive stages of human development during the long dark
+period when our prehistoric ancestor was advancing along the toilsome
+and tortuous but on the whole always uprising path from lowest savagery
+to the stage of relative enlightenment at which we find him at the
+so-called "dawnings of history." That he was for long ages a savage
+before he attained sufficient culture to be termed, in modern
+phraseology, a barbarian, admits of no question. Equally little in doubt
+is it that other long ages of barbarism preceded the final ascent to
+civilization. The precise period of time covered by these successive
+"Ages" is of course only conjectural; but something like one hundred
+thousand years may perhaps be taken as a safe minimal estimate. At the
+beginning of this long period, the most advanced race of men must be
+thought of as a promiscuous company of pre-troglodytic mammals, at least
+partially arboreal in habit, living on uncooked fruits and vegetables,
+and possessed of no arts and crafts whatever--nor even of the knowledge
+of the rudest implement. At the end of the period, there emerges into
+the more or less clear light of history a large-brained being, living in
+houses of elaborate construction, supplying himself with divers luxuries
+through the aid of a multitude of elaborate handicrafts, associated with
+his fellows under the sway of highly organized governments, and
+satisfying aesthetic needs through the practice of pictorial and
+literary arts of a high order. How was this amazing transformation
+brought about?
+
+
+  Crucial developments.
+
+If an answer can be found to that query, we shall have a clue to all
+human progress, not only during the prehistoric but also during the
+historic periods; for we may well believe that recent progress has not
+departed from the scheme of development impressed on humanity during
+that long apprenticeship. Ethnologists believe that an answer can be
+found. They believe that the metamorphosis from beast-like savage to
+cultured civilian may be proximally explained (certain potentialities
+and attributes of the species being taken for granted) as the result of
+accumulated changes that found their initial impulses in a half-dozen or
+so of practical inventions. Stated thus, the explanation seems absurdly
+simple. Confessedly it supplies only a proximal, not a final, analysis
+of the forces impelling mankind along the pathway of progress. But it
+has the merit of tangibility; it presents certain highly important facts
+of human history vividly: and it furnishes a definite and fairly
+satisfactory basis for marking successive stages of incipient
+civilization.
+
+In outlining the story of primitive man's advancement, upon such a
+basis, we may follow the scheme of one of the most philosophical of
+ethnologists, Lewis H. Morgan, who made a provisional analysis of the
+prehistoric period that still remains among the most satisfactory
+attempts in this direction. Morgan divides the entire epoch of man's
+progress from bestiality to civilization into six successive periods,
+which he names respectively the Older, Middle and Later periods of
+Savagery, and the Older, Middle and Later periods of Barbarism.
+
+
+  Speech.
+
+The first of these periods, when mankind was in the lower status of
+savagery, comprises the epoch when articulate speech was being
+developed. Our ancestors of this epoch inhabited a necessarily
+restricted tropical territory, and subsisted upon raw nuts and fruits.
+They had no knowledge of the uses of fire. All existing races of men had
+advanced beyond this condition before the opening of the historical
+period.
+
+
+  Fire.
+
+The Middle Period of Savagery began with a knowledge of the uses of
+fire. This wonderful discovery enabled the developing race to extend its
+habitat almost indefinitely, and to include flesh, and in particular
+fish, in its regular dietary. Man could now leave the forests, and
+wander along the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less
+enervating than those to which he had previously been confined.
+Doubtless he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly equipped
+for hunting, being provided, probably, with no weapon more formidable
+than a crude hatchet and a roughly fashioned spear. The primitive races
+of Australia and Polynesia had not advanced beyond this middle status of
+savagery when they were discovered a few generations ago. It is obvious,
+then, that in dealing with the further progress of nascent civilization
+we have to do with certain favoured portions of the race, which sought
+out new territories and developed new capacities while many tribes of
+their quondam peers remained static and hence by comparison seemed to
+retrograde.
+
+
+  Bow and arrow.
+
+The next great epochal discovery, in virtue of which a portion of the
+race advanced to the Upper Status of Savagery, was that of the bow and
+arrow,--a truly wonderful implement. The possessor of this device could
+bring down the fleetest animal and could defend himself against the most
+predatory. He could provide himself not only with food but with
+materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus could migrate at
+will back from the seas and large rivers, and far into inhospitable but
+invigorating temperate and sub-Arctic regions. The meat diet, now for
+the first time freely available, probably contributed, along with the
+stimulating climate, to increase the physical vigour and courage of this
+highest savage, thus urging him along the paths of progress.
+Nevertheless many tribes came thus far and no further, as witness the
+Athapascans of the Hudson's Bay Territory and the Indians of the valley
+of the Columbia.
+
+
+  Pottery.
+
+We now come to the marvellous discovery that enabled our ancestor to
+make such advances upon the social conditions of his forbears as to
+entitle him, in the estimate of his remote descendants, to be considered
+as putting savagery behind him and as entering upon the Lower Status of
+Barbarism. The discovery in question had to do with the practice of the
+art of making pottery (see CERAMICS). Hitherto man had been possessed of
+no permanent utensils that could withstand the action of fire. He could
+not readily boil water except by some such cumbersome method as the
+dropping of heated stones into a wooden or skin receptacle. The effect
+upon his dietary of having at hand earthen vessels in which meat and
+herbs could be boiled over a fire must have been momentous. Various
+meats and many vegetables become highly palatable when boiled that are
+almost or quite inedible when merely roasted before a fire. Bones,
+sinews and even hides may be made to give up a modicum of nutriment in
+this way; and doubtless barbaric man, before whom starvation always
+loomed threateningly, found the crude pot an almost perennial refuge.
+And of course its use as a cooking utensil was only one of many ways in
+which the newly discovered mechanism exerted a civilizing influence.
+
+
+  Domestic animals.
+
+The next great progressive movement, which carried man into the Middle
+Status of Barbarism, is associated with the domestication of animals in
+the Eastern hemisphere, and with the use of irrigation in cultivating
+the soil and of adobe bricks and stone in architecture in the Western
+hemisphere. The dog was probably the first animal to be domesticated,
+but the sheep, the ox, the camel and the horse were doubtless added in
+relatively rapid succession, so soon as the idea that captive animals
+could be of service had been clearly conceived. Man now became a
+herdsman, no longer dependent for food upon the precarious chase of wild
+animals. Milk, procurable at all seasons, made a highly important
+addition to his dietary. With the aid of camel and horse he could
+traverse wide areas hitherto impassable, and come in contact with
+distant peoples. Thus commerce came to play an extended role in the
+dissemination of both commodities and ideas. In particular the nascent
+civilization of the Mediterranean region fell heir to numerous products
+of farther Asia,--gums, spices, oils, and most important of all, the
+cereals. The cultivation of the latter gave the finishing touch to a
+comprehensive and varied diet, while emphasizing the value of a fixed
+abode. For the first time it now became possible for large numbers of
+people to form localized communities. A natural consequence was the
+elaboration of political systems, which, however, proceeded along lines
+already suggested by the experience of earlier epochs. All this tended
+to establish and emphasize the idea of nationality, based primarily on
+blood-relationship; and at the same time to develop within the community
+itself the idea of property,--that is to say, of valuable or desirable
+commodities which have come into the possession of an individual through
+his enterprise or labour, and which should therefore be subject to his
+voluntary disposal. At an earlier stage of development, all property had
+been of communal, not of individual, ownership. It appears, then, that
+our mid-period barbarian had attained--if the verbal contradiction be
+permitted--a relatively high stage of civilization.
+
+
+  Iron.
+
+There remained, however, one master craft of which he had no conception.
+This was the art of smelting iron. When, ultimately, his descendants
+learned the wonderful secrets of that art, they rose in consequence to
+the Upper Status of Barbarism. This culminating practical invention, it
+will be observed, is the first of the great discoveries with which we
+have to do that was not primarily concerned with the question of man's
+food supply. Iron, to be sure, has abundant uses in the same connexion,
+but its most direct and obvious utilities have to do with weapons of war
+and with implements calculated to promote such arts of peace as
+house-building, road-making and the construction of vehicles. Wood and
+stone could now be fashioned as never before. Houses could be built and
+cities walled with unexampled facility; to say nothing of the making of
+a multitude of minor implements and utensils hitherto quite unknown, or
+at best rare and costly. Nor must we overlook the aesthetic influence of
+edged implements, with which wood and stone could readily be sculptured
+when placed in the hands of a race that had long been accustomed to
+scratch the semblance of living forms on bone or ivory and to fashion
+crude images of clay. In a word, man, the "tool-making animal," was now
+for the first time provided with tools worthy of his wonderful hands and
+yet more wonderful brain.
+
+Thus through the application of one revolutionary invention after
+another, the most advanced races of men had arrived, after long ages of
+effort, at a relatively high stage of development. A very wide range of
+experiences had enabled man to evolve a complex body politic, based on a
+fairly secure social basis, and his brain had correspondingly developed
+into a relatively efficient and stable organ of thought. But as yet he
+had devised no means of communicating freely with other people at a
+distance except through the medium of verbal messages; nor had he any
+method by which he could transmit his experiences to posterity more
+securely than by fugitive and fallible oral traditions. A vague
+symbolization of his achievements was preserved from generation to
+generation in myth-tale and epic, but he knew not how to make permanent
+record of his history. Until he could devise a means to make such
+record, he must remain, in the estimate of his descendants, a barbarian,
+though he might be admitted to have become a highly organized and even
+in a broad sense a cultured being.
+
+
+  Writing.
+
+At length, however, this last barrier was broken. Some race or races
+devised a method of symbolizing events and ultimately of making even
+abstruse ideas tangible by means of graphic signs. In other words, a
+system of writing was developed. Man thus achieved a virtual conquest
+over time as he had earlier conquered space. He could now transmit the
+record of his deeds and his thoughts to remote posterity. Thus he stood
+at the portals of what later generations would term secure history. He
+had graduated out of barbarism, and become in the narrower sense of the
+word a civilized being. Henceforth, his knowledge, his poetical
+dreamings, his moral aspirations might be recorded in such form as to be
+read not merely by his contemporaries but by successive generations of
+remote posterity. The inspiring character of such a message is obvious.
+The validity of making this great culminating intellectual achievement
+the test of "civilized" existence need not be denied. But we should ill
+comprehend the character of the message which the earlier generations of
+civilized beings transmit to us from the period which we term the
+"dawning of history" did we not bear constantly in mind the long series
+of progressive stages of "savagery" and "barbarism" that of necessity
+preceded the final stage of "civilization" proper. The achievements of
+those earlier stages afforded the secure foundation for the progress of
+the future. A multitude of minor arts, in addition to the important ones
+just outlined, had been developed; and for a long time civilized man was
+to make no other epochal addition to the list of accomplishments that
+came to him as a heritage from his barbaric progenitor. Indeed, even to
+this day the list of such additions is not a long one, nor, judged in
+the relative scale, so important as might at first thought be supposed.
+Whoever considers the subject carefully must admit the force of Morgan's
+suggestion that man's achievements as a barbarian, considered in their
+relation to the sum of human progress, "transcend, in relative
+importance, all his subsequent works."
+
+Without insisting on this comparison, however, let us ask what
+discoveries and inventions man has made within the historical period
+that may fairly be ranked with the half-dozen great epochal achievements
+that have been put forward as furnishing the keys to all the progress of
+the prehistoric periods. In other words, let us sketch the history of
+progress during the ten thousand years or so that have elapsed since man
+learned the art of writing, adapting our sketch to the same scale which
+we have already applied to the unnumbered millenniums of the prehistoric
+period. The view of world-history thus outlined will be a very different
+one from what might be expected by the student of national history; but
+it will present the essentials of the progress of civilization in a
+suggestive light.
+
+
+  Civilization proper.
+
+Without pretending to fix an exact date,--which the historical records
+do not at present permit,--we may assume that the most advanced race of
+men elaborated a system of writing not less than six thousand years
+before the beginning of the Christian era. Holding to the terminology
+already suggested for the earlier periods, we may speak of man's
+position during the ensuing generations as that of the First or Lowest
+Status of civilization. If we review the history of this period we shall
+find that it extends unbroken over a stretch of at least four or five
+thousand years. During the early part of this period such localized
+civilizations as those of the Egyptians, the Sumerians, the Babylonians
+and the Hittites rose, grew strong and passed beyond their meridian.
+This suggests that we must now admit the word "civilization" to yet
+another definition, within its larger meaning: we must speak of "_a_
+civilization," as that of Egypt, of Babylonia, of Assyria, and we must
+understand thereby a localized phase of society bearing the same
+relation to civilization as a whole that a wave bears to the ocean or a
+tree to the forest. Such other localized civilizations as those of
+Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece, Rome, Byzantium, the Sassanids, in due
+course waxed and waned, leaving a tremendous imprint on national
+history, but creating only minor and transitory ripples in the great
+ocean of civilization. Progress in the elaboration of the details of
+earlier methods and inventions took place as a matter of course. Some
+nation, probably the Phoenicians, gave a new impetus to the art of
+writing by developing a phonetic alphabet; but this achievement,
+remarkable as it was in itself, added nothing fundamental to human
+capacity. Literatures had previously flourished through the use of
+hieroglyphic and syllabic symbols; and the Babylonian syllabics
+continued in vogue throughout western Asia for a long time after the
+Phoenician alphabet had demonstrated its intrinsic superiority.
+
+Similarly the art of Egyptian and Assyrian and Greek was but the
+elaboration and perfection of methods that barbaric man had practised
+away back in the days when he was a cave-dweller. The weapons of warfare
+of Greek and Roman were the spear and the bow and arrow that their
+ancestors had used in the period of savagery, aided by sword and helmet
+dating from the upper period of barbarism. Greek and Roman government at
+their best were founded upon the system of _gentes_ that barbaric man
+had profoundly studied,--as witness, for example, the federal system of
+the barbaric Iroquois Indians existing in America before the coming of
+Columbus. And if the Greeks had better literature, the Romans better
+roads and larger cities, than their predecessors, these are but matters
+of detailed development, the like of which had marked the progress of
+the more important arts and the introduction of less important ancillary
+ones in each antecedent period. The axe of steel is no new implement,
+but a mere perfecting of the axe of chipped flint. The _Iliad_
+represents the perfecting of an art that unnumbered generations of
+barbarians practised before their camp-fires.
+
+
+  Great inventions of the middle ages.
+
+Thus for six or seven thousand years after man achieved civilization
+there was rhythmic progress in many lines, but there came no great
+epochal invention to usher in a new ethnic period. Then, towards the
+close of what historians of to-day are accustomed to call the middle
+ages, there appeared in rapid sequence three or four inventions and a
+great scientific discovery that, taken together, were destined to change
+the entire aspect of European civilization. The inventions were
+gunpowder, the mariner's compass, paper and the printing-press, three of
+which appear to have been brought into Europe by the Moors, whether or
+not they originated in the remote East. The scientific discovery which
+must be coupled with these inventions was the Copernican demonstration
+that the sun and not the earth is the centre of our planetary system.
+The generations of men that found themselves (1) confronted with the
+revolutionary conception of the universe given by the Copernican theory;
+(2) supplied with the new means of warfare provided by gunpowder; (3)
+equipped with an undreamed-of guide across the waters of the earth; and
+(4) enabled to promulgate knowledge with unexampled speed and cheapness
+through the aid of paper and printing-press--such generations of men
+might well be said to have entered upon a new ethnic period. The
+transition in their mode of thought and in their methods of practical
+life was as great as can be supposed to have resulted, in an early
+generation, from the introduction of iron, or in a yet earlier from the
+invention of the bow and arrow. So the Europeans of about the 15th
+century of the Christian era may be said to have entered upon the Second
+or Middle Status of civilization.
+
+
+  Steam machinery.
+
+The new period was destined to be a brief one. It had compassed only
+about four hundred years when, towards the close of the 18th century,
+James Watt gave to the world the perfected steam-engine. Almost
+contemporaneously Arkwright and Hargreaves developed revolutionary
+processes of spinning and weaving by machinery. Meantime James Hutton
+and William Smith and their successors on the one hand, and Erasmus
+Darwin, Francois Lamarck, and (a half-century later) Charles Darwin on
+the other, turned men's ideas topsy-turvy by demonstrating that the
+world as the abiding-place of animals and man is enormously old, and
+that man himself instead of deteriorating from a single perfect pair six
+thousand years removed, has ascended from bestiality through a slow
+process of evolution extending over hundreds of centuries. The
+revolution in practical life and in the mental life of our race that
+followed these inventions and this new presentation of truth probably
+exceeded in suddenness and in its far-reaching effects the metamorphosis
+effected at any previous transition from one ethnic period to another.
+The men of the 19th century, living now in the period that may be termed
+the Upper Status of civilization, saw such changes effected in the
+practical affairs of their everyday lives as had not been wrought before
+during the entire historical period. Their fathers had travelled in
+vehicles drawn by horses, quite as their remoter ancestors had done
+since the time of higher barbarism. It may be doubted whether there
+existed in the world in the year 1800 a postal service that could
+compare in speed and efficiency with the express service of the Romans
+of the time of Caesar; far less was there a telegraph service that could
+compare with that of the ancient Persians. Nor was there a ship sailing
+the seas that a Phoenician trireme might not have overhauled. But now
+within the lifetime of a single man the world was covered with a network
+of steel rails on which locomotives drew gigantic vehicles, laden with
+passengers at an hourly speed almost equalling Caesar's best journey of
+a day; over the land and under the seas were stretched wires along which
+messages coursed from continent to continent literally with the speed of
+lightning; and the waters of the earth were made to teem with gigantic
+craft propelled without sail or oar at a speed which the Phoenician
+captain of three thousand years ago and the English captain of the 18th
+century would alike have held incredible.
+
+
+  Social and political organization.
+
+There is no need to give further details here of the industrial
+revolutions that have been achieved in this newest period of
+civilization, since in their broader outlines at least they are familiar
+to every one. Nor need we dwell upon the revolution in thought whereby
+man has for the first time been given a clear inkling as to his origin
+and destiny. It suffices to point out that such periods of fermentation
+of ideas as this suggests have probably always been concomitant with
+those outbursts of creative genius that gave the world the practical
+inventions upon which human progress has been conditioned. The same
+attitude of receptivity to new ideas is pre-requisite to one form of
+discovery as to the other. Nor, it may be added, can either form of idea
+become effective for the progress of civilization except in proportion
+as a large body of any given generation are prepared to receive it.
+Doubtless here and there a dreamer played with fire, in a literal sense,
+for generations before the utility of fire as a practical aid to human
+progress came to be recognized in practice. And--to seek an illustration
+at the other end of the scale--we know that the advanced thinkers of
+Greece and Rome believed in the antiquity of the earth and in the
+evolution of man two thousand years before the coming of Darwin. We have
+but partly solved the mysteries of the progress of civilization, then,
+when we have pointed out that each tangible stage of progress owed its
+initiative to a new invention or discovery of science. To go to the root
+of the matter we must needs explain how it came about that a given
+generation of men was in mental mood to receive the new invention or
+discovery.
+
+The pursuit of this question would carry us farther into the realm of
+communal and racial psychology--to say nothing of the realm of
+conjecture--than comports with the purpose of this article. It must
+suffice to point out that alertness of mind--that all mentality--is, in
+the last analysis, a reaction to the influences of the environment. It
+follows that man may subject himself to new influences and thus give his
+mind a new stimulus by changing his habitat. A fundamental secret of
+progress is revealed in this fact. Man probably never would have evolved
+from savagery had he remained in the Tropics where he doubtless
+originated. But successive scientific inventions enabled him, as has
+been suggested, to migrate to distant latitudes, and thus more or less
+involuntarily to become the recipient of new creative and progressive
+impulses. After migrations in many directions had resulted in the
+development of divers races, each with certain capacities and
+acquirements due to its unique environment, there was opportunity for
+the application of the principle of environmental stimulus in an
+indirect way, through the mingling and physical intermixture of one race
+with another. Each of the great localized civilizations of antiquity
+appears to have owed its prominence in part at least--perhaps very
+largely--to such intermingling of two or more races. Each of these
+civilizations began to decay so soon as the nation had remained for a
+considerable number of generations in its localized environment, and had
+practically ceased to receive accretions from distant races at
+approximately the same stage of development. There is a suggestive
+lesson for present-day civilization in that thought-compelling fact.
+Further evidence of the application of the principle of environmental
+stimulus, operating through changed habitat and racial intermixture, is
+furnished by the virility of the colonial peoples of our own day. The
+receptiveness to new ideas and the rapidity of material progress of
+Americans, South Africans and Australians are proverbial. No one doubts,
+probably, that one or another of these countries will give a new
+stimulus to the progress of civilization, through the promulgation of
+some great epochal discovery, in the not distant future. Again, the
+value of racial intermingling is shown yet nearer home in the
+long-continued vitality of the British nation, which is explicable, in
+some measure at least, by the fact that the Celtic element held aloof
+from the Anglo-Saxon element century after century sufficiently to
+maintain racial integrity, yet mingled sufficiently to give and receive
+the fresh stimulus of "new blood." It is interesting in this connexion
+to examine the map of Great Britain with reference to the birthplaces of
+the men named above as being the originators of the inventions and
+discoveries that made the close of the 18th century memorable as
+ushering in a new ethnic era. It may be added that these names suggest
+yet another element in the causation of progress: the fact, namely,
+that, however necessary racial receptivity may be to the dynamitic
+upheaval of a new ethnic era, it is after all _individual_ genius that
+applies its detonating spark.
+
+
+  Nine periods of progress.
+
+Without further elaboration of this aspect of the subject it may be
+useful to recapitulate the analysis of the evolution of civilization
+above given, prior to characterizing it from another standpoint. It
+appears that the entire period of human progress up to the present may
+be divided into nine periods which, if of necessity more or less
+arbitrary, yet are not without certain warrant of logic. They may be
+defined as follows: (1) The Lower Period of Savagery, terminating with
+the discovery and application of the uses of fire. (2) The Middle Period
+of Savagery, terminating with the invention of the bow and arrow. (3)
+The Upper Period of Savagery, terminating with the invention of pottery.
+(4) The Lower Period of Barbarism, terminating with the domestication of
+animals. (5) The Middle Period of Barbarism, terminating with the
+discovery of the process of smelting iron ore. (6) The Upper Period of
+Barbarism, terminating with the development of a system of writing
+meeting the requirements of literary composition. (7) The First Period
+of Civilization (proper) terminating with the introduction of gunpowder.
+(8) The Second Period of Civilization, terminating with the invention of
+a practical steam-engine. (9) The Upper Period of Civilization, which is
+still in progress, but which, as will be suggested in a moment, is
+probably nearing its termination.
+
+It requires but a glance at the characteristics of these successive
+epochs to show the ever-increasing complexity of the inventions that
+delimit them and of the conditions of life that they connote. Were we to
+attempt to characterize in a few phrases the entire story of achievement
+thus outlined, we might say that during the three stages of Savagery man
+was attempting to make himself master of the geographical climates. His
+unconscious ideal was, to gain a foothold and the means of subsistence
+in every zone. During the three periods of Barbarism the ideal of
+conquest was extended to the beasts of the field, the vegetable world,
+and the mineral contents of the earth's crust. During the three periods
+of Civilization proper the ideal of conquest has become still more
+intellectual and subtle, being now extended to such abstractions as an
+analysis of speech-sounds, and to such intangibles as expanding gases
+and still more elusive electric currents: in other words, to the forces
+of nature, no less than to tangible substances. Hand in hand with this
+growing complexity of man's relations with the external world has gone a
+like increase of complexity in the social and political organizations
+that characterize man's relations with his fellowmen. In savagery the
+family expanded into the tribe; in barbarism the tribe developed into
+the nation. The epoch of civilization proper is aptly named, because it
+has been a time in which citizenship, in the narrower national
+significance, has probably been developed to its apogee. Throughout this
+period, in every land, the highest virtue has been considered to be
+patriotism,--by which must be understood an instinctive willingness on
+the part of every individual to defend even with his life the interests
+of the nation into which he chances to be born, regardless of whether
+the national cause in which he struggles be in any given case good or
+bad, right or wrong. The communal judgment of this epoch pronounces any
+man a traitor who will not uphold his own nation even in a wrong
+cause--and the word "traitor" marks the utmost brand of ignominy.
+
+
+  Nationality and cosmopolitanism.
+
+But while the idea of nationality has thus been accentuated, there has
+been a never-ending struggle within the bounds of the nation itself to
+adjust the relations of one citizen to another. The ideas that might
+makes right, that the strong man must dominate the weak, that leadership
+in the community properly belongs to the man who is physically most
+competent to lead--these ideas were a perfectly natural, and indeed an
+inevitable, outgrowth of the conditions under which man fought his way
+up through savagery and barbarism. Man in the first period of
+civilization inherited these ideas, along with the conditions of society
+that were their concomitants. So throughout the periods when the
+oriental civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia and Assyria and Persia
+were dominant, a despotic form of government was accepted as the natural
+order of things. It does not appear that any other form was even
+considered as a practicality. A despot might indeed be overthrown, but
+only to make way for the coronation of another despot. A little later
+the Greeks and Romans modified the conception of a heaven-sent
+individual monarch; but they went no further than to substitute a
+heaven-favoured community, with specially favoured groups (_Patricii_)
+within the community. With this, national egoism reached its climax; for
+each people regarded its own citizens as the only exemplars of
+civilization, openly branding all the rest of the world as "barbarians,"
+fit subjects for the exaction of tribute or for the imposition of the
+bonds of actual slavery. During the middle ages there was a reaction
+towards individualism as opposed to nationalism: but the entire system
+of feudalism, with its clearly recognized conditions of over-lordship
+and of vassaldom, gave expression, no less clearly than oriental
+despotism and classical "democracy" had done, to the idea of individual
+inequality; of divergence of moral and legal status based on natural
+inheritance. Thus this idea, a reminiscence of barbarism, maintained its
+dominance throughout the first period of civilization.
+
+But gunpowder, marking the transition to the second period of
+civilization, came as a great levelling influence. With its aid the
+weakest peasant might prove more than a match for the most powerful
+knight. Before its assaults the castle of the lord ceased to be an
+impregnable fortress. And while gunpowder thus levelled down the power
+of the mighty, the printing-press levelled up the intelligence, and
+hence the power and influence of the lowly. Meantime the mariner's
+compass opened up new territories beyond the seas, and in due course men
+of lowly origin were seen to attain to wealth and power through
+commercial pursuits, thus tending to break in upon the established
+social order. In the colonial territories themselves all men were
+subjected more or less to the same perils and dependent upon their own
+efforts. Success and prominence in the community came not as a
+birthright, but as the result of demonstrated fitness. The great lesson
+that the interests of all members of a community are, in the last
+analysis, mutual could be more clearly distinguished in these small
+colonies than in larger and older bodies politic. Through various
+channels, therefore, in the successive generations of this middle period
+of civilization, the idea gained ground that intelligence and moral
+worth, rather than physical prowess, should be the test of greatness;
+that it is incumbent on the strong in the interests of the body politic
+to protect the weak; and that, in the long run, the best interests of
+the community are conserved if all its members, without exception, are
+given moral equality before the law. This idea of equal rights and
+privileges for all members of the community--for each individual "the
+greatest amount of liberty consistent with a like liberty of every other
+individual"--first found expression as a philosophical doctrine towards
+the close of the 18th century; at which time also tentative efforts were
+made to put it into practice. It may be said therefore to represent the
+culminating sociological doctrine of the middle period of
+civilization,--the ideal towards which all the influences of the period
+had tended to impel the race.
+
+It will be observed, however, that this ideal of individual equality
+within the body politic in no direct wise influences the status of the
+body politic itself as the centre of a localized civilization that may
+be regarded as in a sense antagonistic to all other similarly localized
+civilizations. If there were any such influence, it would rather operate
+in the direction of accentuating the patriotism of the member of a
+democratical community, as against that of the subject of a despot,
+through the sense of personal responsibility developed in the former.
+The developments of the middle period of civilization cannot be
+considered, therefore, to have tended to decrease the spirit of
+nationality, with its concomitant penalty of what is sometimes called
+provincialism. The history of this entire period, as commonly presented,
+is largely made up of the records of international rivalries and
+jealousies, perennially culminating in bitterly contested wars. It was
+only towards the close of the epoch that the desirability of free
+commercial intercourse among nations began to find expression as a
+philosophical creed through the efforts of Quesnay and his followers;
+and the doctrine that both parties to an international commercial
+transaction are gainers thereby found its first clear expression in the
+year 1776 in the pages of Condillac and of Adam Smith.
+
+But the discoveries that ushered in the third period of civilization
+were destined to work powerfully from the outset for the breaking down
+of international barriers, though, of course, their effects would not be
+at once manifest. Thus the substitution of steam power for water power,
+besides giving a tremendous impetus to manufacturing in general, mapped
+out new industrial centres in regions that nature had supplied with coal
+but not always with other raw materials. To note a single result,
+England became the manufacturing centre of the world, drawing its raw
+materials from every corner of the globe; but in so doing it ceased to
+be self-supporting as regards the production of food-supplies. While
+growing in national wealth, as a result of the new inventions, England
+has therefore lost immeasurably in national self-sufficiency and
+independence; having become in large measure dependent upon other
+countries both for the raw materials without which her industries must
+perish and for the foods to maintain the very life of her people.
+
+What is true of England in this regard is of course true in greater or
+less measure of all other countries. Everywhere, thanks to the new
+mechanisms that increase industrial efficiency, there has been an
+increasing tendency to specialization; and since the manufacturer must
+often find his raw materials in one part of the world and his markets in
+another, this implies an ever-increasing intercommunication and
+interdependence between the nations. This spirit is obviously fostered
+by the new means of transportation by locomotive and steamship, and by
+the electric communication that enables the Londoner, for example, to
+transact business in New York or in Tokio with scarcely an hour's delay;
+and that puts every one in touch at to-day's breakfast table with the
+happenings of the entire world. Thanks to the new mechanisms, national
+isolation is no longer possible; globe-trotting has become a habit with
+thousands of individuals of many nations; and Orient and Occident,
+representing civilizations that for thousands of years were almost
+absolutely severed and mutually oblivious of each other, have been
+brought again into close touch for mutual education and betterment. The
+Western mind has learned with amazement that the aforetime _Terra
+Incognita_ of the far East has nurtured a gigantic civilization having
+ideals in many ways far different from our own. The Eastern mind has
+proved itself capable, in self-defence, of absorbing the essential
+practicalities of Western civilization within a single generation. Some
+of the most important problems of world-civilization of the immediate
+future hinge upon the mutual relations of these two long-severed
+communities, branched at some early stage of progress to opposite
+hemispheres of the globe, but now brought by the new mechanisms into
+daily and even hourly communication.
+
+
+  Modern humanism.
+
+While the new conditions of the industrial world have thus tended to
+develop a new national outlook, there has come about, as a result of the
+scientific discoveries already referred to, a no less significant
+broadening of the mental and spiritual horizons. Here also the trend is
+away from the narrowly egoistic and towards the cosmopolitan view. About
+the middle of the 19th century Dr Pritchard declared that many people
+debated whether it might not be permissible for the Australian settlers
+to shoot the natives as food for their dogs; some of the disputants
+arguing that savages were without the pale of human brotherhood. To-day
+the thesis that all mankind are one brotherhood needs no defence. The
+most primitive of existing aborigines are regarded merely as brethren
+who, through some defect or neglect of opportunity, have lagged behind
+in the race. Similarly the defective and criminal classes that make up
+so significant a part of the population of even our highest present-day
+civilizations, are no longer regarded with anger or contempt, as beings
+who are suffering just punishment for wilful transgressions, but are
+considered as pitiful victims of hereditary and environmental influences
+that they could neither choose nor control. Insanity is no longer
+thought of as demoniac possession, but as the most lamentable of
+diseases.
+
+The changed attitude towards savage races and defective classes affords
+tangible illustrations of a fundamental transformation of point of view
+which doubtless represents the most important result of the operation of
+new scientific knowledge in the course of the 19th century. It is a
+transformation that is only partially effected as yet, to be sure; but
+it is rapidly making headway, and when fully achieved it will represent,
+probably, the most radical metamorphosis of mental view that has taken
+place in the entire course of the historical period. The essence of the
+new view is this: to recognize the universality and the invariability of
+natural law; stated otherwise, to understand that the word
+"supernatural" involves a contradiction of terms and has in fact no
+meaning. Whoever has grasped the full import of this truth is privileged
+to sweep mental horizons wider by far than ever opened to the view of
+any thinker of an earlier epoch. He is privileged to forecast, as the
+sure heritage of the future, a civilization freed from the last ghost of
+superstition--an Age of Reason in which mankind shall at last find
+refuge from the hosts of occult and invisible powers, the fearsome
+galaxies of deities and demons, which have haunted him thus far at every
+stage of his long journey through savagery, barbarism and civilization.
+Doubtless here and there a thinker, even in the barbaric eras, may have
+realized that these ghosts that so influenced the everyday lives of his
+fellows were but children of the imagination. But the certainty that
+such is the case could not have come with the force of demonstration
+even to the most clear-sighted thinker until 19th-century science had
+investigated with penetrating vision the realm of molecule and atom; had
+revealed the awe-inspiring principle of the conservation of energy; and
+had offered a comprehensible explanation of the evolution of one form of
+life from another, from monad to man, that did not presuppose the
+intervention of powers more "supernatural" than those that operate about
+us everywhere to-day.
+
+The stupendous import of these new truths could not, of course, make
+itself evident to the generality of mankind in a single generation, when
+opposed to superstitions of a thousand generations' standing. But the
+new knowledge has made its way more expeditiously than could have been
+anticipated; and its effects are seen on every side, even where its
+agency is scarcely recognized. As a single illustration, we may note the
+familiar observation that the entire complexion of orthodox teaching of
+religion has been more altered in the past fifty years than in two
+thousand years before. This of course is not entirely due to the
+influence of physical and biological science; no effect has a unique
+cause, in the complex sociological scheme. Archaeology, comparative
+philology and textual criticism have also contributed their share; and
+the comparative study of religions has further tended to broaden the
+outlook and to make for universality, as opposed to insularity, of view.
+It is coming to be more and more widely recognized that all theologies
+are but the reflex of the more or less faulty knowledge of the times in
+which they originate, that the true and abiding purpose of religion
+should be the practical betterment of humanity--the advancement of
+civilization in the best sense of the word; and that this end may
+perhaps be best subserved by different systems of theology, adapted to
+the varied genius of different times and divers races. Wherefore there
+is not the same enthusiastic desire to-day that found expression a
+generation ago, to impose upon the cultured millions of the East a
+religion that seems to them alien to their manner of thought, unsuited
+to their needs and less distinctly ethical in teaching than their own
+religions.
+
+Such are but a few of the illustrations that might be cited from many
+fields to suggest that the mind of our generation is becoming receptive
+to a changed point of view that augurs the coming of a new ethnic era.
+If one may be permitted to enter very tentatively the field of prophecy,
+it seems not unlikely that the great revolutionary invention which will
+close the third period of civilization and usher in a new era is already
+being evolved. It seems not over-hazardous to predict that the air-ship,
+in one form or another, is destined to be the mechanism that will give
+the new impetus to human civilization; that the next era will have as
+one of its practical ideals the conquest of the air; and that this
+conquest will become a factor in the final emergence of humanity from
+the insularity of nationalism to the broad view of cosmopolitanism,
+towards which, as we have seen, the tendencies of the present era are
+verging. That the gap to be covered is a vastly wide one no one need be
+reminded who recalls that the civilized nations of Europe, together with
+America and Japan, are at present accustomed to spend more than three
+hundred million pounds each year merely that they may keep armaments in
+readiness to fly at one another's throats should occasion arise.
+Formidable as these armaments now seem, however, the developments of the
+not very distant future will probably make them quite obsolete; and
+sooner or later, as science develops yet more deadly implements of
+destruction, the time must come when communal intelligence will rebel at
+the suicidal folly of the international attitude that characterized, for
+example, the opening decade of the 20th century. At some time, after the
+first period of cosmopolitanism shall be ushered in as a tenth ethnic
+period, it will come to be recognized that there is a word fraught with
+fuller meanings even than the word patriotism. That word is
+humanitarianism. The enlightened generation that realizes the full
+implications of that word will doubtless marvel that their ancestors of
+the third period of civilization should have risen up as nations and
+slaughtered one another by thousands to settle a dispute about a
+geographical boundary. Such a procedure will appear to have been quite
+as barbarous as the cannibalistic practices of their yet more remote
+ancestors, and distinctly less rational, since cannibalism might
+sometimes save its practiser from starvation, whereas warfare of the
+civilized type was a purely destructive agency.
+
+Equally obvious must it appear to the cosmopolite of some generation of
+the future that quality rather than mere numbers must determine the
+efficiency of any given community. Race suicide will then cease to be a
+bugbear; and it will no longer be considered rational to keep up the
+census at the cost of propagating low orders of intelligence, to feed
+the ranks of paupers, defectives and criminals. On the contrary it will
+be thought fitting that man should become the conscious arbiter of his
+own racial destiny to the extent of applying whatever laws of heredity
+he knows or may acquire in the interests of his own species, as he has
+long applied them in the case of domesticated animals. The survival and
+procreation of the unfit will then cease to be a menace to the progress
+of civilization. It does not follow that all men will be brought to a
+dead level of equality of body and mind, nor that individual competition
+will cease; but the average physical mental status of the race will be
+raised immeasurably through the virtual elimination of that vast company
+of defectives which to-day constitutes so threatening an obstacle to
+racial progress. There are millions of men in Europe and America to-day
+whose whole mental equipment--despite the fact that they have been
+taught to read and write--is far more closely akin to the average of the
+Upper Period of Barbarism than to the highest standards of their own
+time; and these undeveloped or atavistic persons have on the average
+more offspring than are produced by the more highly cultured and
+intelligent among their contemporaries. "Race suicide" is thereby
+prevented, but the progress of civilization is no less surely
+handicapped. We may well believe that the cosmopolite of the future,
+aided by science, will find rational means to remedy this strange
+illogicality. In so doing he will exercise a more consciously purposeful
+function, and perhaps a more directly potent influence, in determining
+the line of human progress than he has hitherto attempted to assume,
+notwithstanding the almost infinitely varied character of the
+experiments through which he has worked his way from savagery to
+civilization.
+
+
+  Ethical evolution.
+
+All these considerations tend to define yet more clearly the ultimate
+goal towards which the progressive civilization of past and present
+appears to be trending. The contemplation of this goal brings into view
+the outlines of a vastly suggestive evolutionary cycle. For it appears
+that the social condition of cosmopolite man, so far as the present-day
+view can predict it, will represent a state of things, magnified to
+world-dimensions, that was curiously adumbrated by the social system of
+the earliest savage. At the very beginning of the journey through
+savagery, mankind, we may well believe, consisted of a limited tribe,
+representing no great range or variety of capacity, and an almost
+absolute identity of interests. Thanks to this community of
+interests,--which was fortified by the recognition of blood-relationship
+among all members of the tribe,--a principle which we now define as "the
+greatest ultimate good to the greatest number" found practical, even if
+unwitting, recognition; and therein lay the germs of all the moral
+development of the future. But obvious identity of interests could be
+recognized only so long as the tribe remained very small. So soon as its
+numbers became large, patent diversities of interest, based on
+individual selfishness, must appear, to obscure the larger harmony. And
+as savage man migrated hither and thither, occupying new regions and
+thus developing new tribes and ultimately a diversity of "races," all
+idea of community of interests, as between race and race, must have been
+absolutely banished. It was the obvious and patent fact that each race
+was more or less at rivalry, in disharmony, with all the others. In the
+hard struggle for subsistence, the expansion of one race meant the
+downfall of another. So far as any principle of "greatest good" remained
+in evidence, it applied solely to the members of one's own community, or
+even to one's particular phratry or gens.
+
+Barbaric man, thanks to his conquest of animal and vegetable nature, was
+able to extend the size of the unified community, and hence to develop
+through diverse and intricate channels the application of the principle
+of "greatest good" out of which the idea of right and wrong was
+elaborated. But quite as little as the savage did he think of extending
+the application of the principle beyond the bounds of his own race. The
+laws with which he gave expression to his ethical conceptions applied,
+of necessity, to his own people alone. The gods with which his
+imagination peopled the world were local in habitat, devoted to the
+interests of his race only, and at enmity with the gods of rival
+peoples. As between nation and nation, the only principle of ethics that
+ever occurred to him was that might makes right. Civilized man for a
+long time advanced but slowly upon this view of international morality.
+No Egyptian or Babylonian or Hebrew or Greek or Roman ever hesitated to
+attack a weaker nation on the ground that it would be wrong to do so.
+And few indeed are the instances in which even a modern nation has
+judged an international question on any other basis than that of
+self-interest. It was not till towards the close of the 19th century
+that an International Peace Conference gave tangible witness that the
+idea of fellowship of nations was finding recognition; and in the same
+recent period history has recorded the first instance of a powerful
+nation vanquishing a weaker one without attempting to exact at least an
+"indemnifying" tribute.
+
+But the citizen of the future, if the auguries of the present prove
+true, will be able to apply principles of right and wrong without
+reference to national boundaries. He will understand that the interests
+of the entire human family are, in the last analysis, common interests.
+The census through which he attempts to estimate "the greatest good of
+the greatest number" must include, not his own nation merely, but the
+remotest member of the human race. On this universal basis must be
+founded that absolute standard of ethics which will determine the
+relations of cosmopolite man with his fellows. When this ideal is
+attained, mankind will again represent a single family, as it did in the
+day when our primeval ancestors first entered on the pathway of
+progress; but it will be a family whose habitat has been extended from
+the narrow glade of some tropical forest to the utmost habitable
+confines of the globe. Each member of this family will be permitted to
+enjoy the greatest amount of liberty consistent with the like liberty of
+every other member; but the interests of the few will everywhere be
+recognized as subservient to the interests of the many, and such
+recognition of mutual interests will establish the practical criterion
+for the interpretation of international affairs.
+
+
+  Progress and efficiency.
+
+But such an extension of the altruistic principle by no means
+presupposes the elimination of egoistic impulses--of individualism. On
+the contrary, we must suppose that man at the highest stages of culture
+will be, even as was the savage, a seeker after the greatest attainable
+degree of comfort for the least necessary expenditure of energy. The
+pursuit of this ideal has been from first to last the ultimate impelling
+force in nature urging man forward. The only change has been a change in
+the interpretation of the ideal, an altered estimate as to what manner
+of things are most worth the purchase-price of toil and self-denial.
+That the things most worth the having cannot, generally speaking, be
+secured without such toil and self-denial, is a lesson that began to be
+inculcated while man was a savage, and that has never ceased to be
+reiterated generation after generation. It is the final test of
+progressive civilization that a given effort shall produce a larger and
+larger modicum of average individual comfort. That is why the great
+inventions that have increased man's efficiency as a worker have been
+the necessary prerequisites to racial progress. Stated otherwise, that
+is why the industrial factor is everywhere the most powerful factor in
+civilization; and why the economic interpretation is the most searching
+interpretation of history at its every stage. It is the basal fact that
+progress implies increased average working efficiency--a growing ratio
+between average effort and average achievement--that gives sure warrant
+for such a prognostication as has just been attempted concerning the
+future industrial unification of our race. The efforts of civilized man
+provide him, on the average, with a marvellous range of comforts, as
+contrasted with those that rewarded the most strenuous efforts of savage
+or barbarian, to whom present-day necessaries would have been
+undreamed-of luxuries. But the ideal ratio between effort and result has
+by no means been achieved; nor will it have been until the inventive
+brain of man has provided a civilization in which a far higher
+percentage of citizens will find the life-vocations to which they are
+best adapted by nature, and in which, therefore, the efforts of the
+average worker may be directed with such vigour, enthusiasm and interest
+as can alone make for true efficiency; a civilization adjusted to such
+an economic balance that the average man may live in reasonable comfort
+without heart-breaking strain, and yet accumulate a sufficient surplus
+to ensure ease and serenity for his declining days. Such, seemingly,
+should be the normal goal of progressive civilization. Doubtless mankind
+in advancing towards that goal will institute many changes that could by
+no possibility be foretold, but (to summarize the views just presented)
+it seems a safe augury from present-day conditions and tendencies that
+the important lines of progress will include (1) the organic betterment
+of the race through wise application of the laws of heredity; (2) the
+lessening of international jealousies and the consequent minimizing of
+the drain upon communal resources that attends a military regime; and
+(3) an ever-increasing movement towards the industrial and economic
+unification of the world.    (H. S. WI.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A list of works dealing with the savage and barbarous
+  periods of human development will be found appended to the article
+  ANTHROPOLOGY. Special reference may here be made to E.B. Tylor's
+  _Early History of Mankind_ (1865), _Primitive Culture_ (1871) and
+  _Anthropology_ (1881); Lord Avebury's _Prehistoric Times_ (new
+  edition, 1900) and _Origin of Civilization_ (new edition, 1902); A.H.
+  Keane's _Man Past and Present_ (1899); and Lewis H. Morgan's _Ancient
+  Society_ (1877). The earliest attempt at writing a history of
+  civilization which has any value for the 20th-century reader was F.
+  Guizot's in 1828-1830, a handy English translation by William Hazlitt
+  being included in Bohn's Standard Library under the title of _The
+  History of Civilization_. The earlier lectures, delivered at the Old
+  Sorbonne, deal with the general progress of European civilization,
+  whilst the greater part of the work is an account of the growth of
+  civilization in France. Guizot's attitude is somewhat antiquated, but
+  this book still has usefulness as a storehouse of facts. T.H. Buckle's
+  famous work, _The History of Civilization in England_ (1857-1861),
+  though only a gigantic unfinished introduction to the author's
+  proposed enterprise, holds an important place in historical literature
+  on account of the new method which it introduced, and has given birth
+  to a considerable number of valuable books on similar lines, such as
+  Lecky's _History of European Morals_ (1869) and _Rise and Influence of
+  Rationalism in Europe_ (1865). J.W. Draper's _History of the
+  Intellectual Development of Europe_ (1861) undertook, from the
+  American stand-point, "the labour of arranging the evidence offered by
+  the intellectual history of Europe in accordance with physiological
+  principles, so as to illustrate the orderly progress of civilization."
+  Its objective treatment and wealth of learning still give it great
+  value to the student. Since the third quarter of the 19th century it
+  may be said that all serious historical work has been more or less a
+  history of civilization as displayed in all countries and ages, and a
+  bibliography of the works bearing on the subject would be coextensive
+  with the catalogue of a complete historical library. Special mention,
+  however, may be made of such important and suggestive works as C.H.
+  Pearson's _National Life and Character_ (1893); Benjamin Kidd's
+  _Social Evolution_ (1894) and _Principles of Western Civilization_
+  (1902); Edward Eggleston's _Transit of Civilization_ (1901); C.
+  Seignobos's _Histoire de la civilisation_ (1887); C. Faulmann's
+  _Illustrirte Culturgeschichte_ (1881); G. Ducoudray's _Histoire de la
+  civilisation_ (1886); J. von Hellwald's _Kulturgeschichte_ (1896); J.
+  Lippert's _Kulturgeschichte der Menschheit_ (1886); O. Henne-am-Rhyn's
+  _Die Kultur der Vergangenheit, Gegenwart und Zukunft_ (1890); G.
+  Kurth's _Origines de la civilisation moderne_ (1886), &c. The vast
+  collection of modern works on sociology, from Herbert Spencer onwards,
+  should also be consulted; see bibliography attached to the article
+  SOCIOLOGY. The historical method on which practically all the articles
+  of the present edition of the _Ency. Brit._ are planned, makes the
+  whole work itself in essentials the most comprehensive history of
+  civilization in existence.
+
+
+
+
+CIVIL LAW, a phrase which, with its Latin equivalent _jus civile_, has
+been used in a great variety of meanings. _Jus civile_ was sometimes
+used to distinguish that portion of the Roman law which was the proper
+or ancient law of the city or state of Rome from the _jus gentium_, or
+the law common to all the nations comprising the Roman world, which was
+incorporated with the former through the agency of the praetorian
+edicts. This historical distinction remained as a permanent principle of
+division in the body of the Roman law. One of the first propositions of
+the Institutes of Justinian is the following:--"Jus autem civile vel
+gentium ita dividitur. Omnes populi qui legibus et moribus reguntur
+partim suo proprio, partim communi omnium hominum jure utuntur; nam quod
+quisque populus ipsi sibi jus constituit, id ipsius civitatis proprium
+est, vocaturque jus civile quasi jus proprium ipsius civitatis. Quod
+vero naturalis ratio inter omnes homines constituit, id apud omnes
+peraeque custoditur, vocaturque jus gentium quasi quo jure omnes gentes
+utuntur." The _jus gentium_ of this passage is elsewhere identified with
+_jus naturale_, so that the distinction comes to be one between civil
+law and natural or divine law. The municipal or private law of a state
+is sometimes described as civil law in distinction to public or
+international law. Again, the municipal law of a state may be divided
+into civil law and criminal law. The phrase, however, is applied _par
+excellence_ to the system of law created by the genius of the Roman
+people, and handed down by them to the nations of the modern world (see
+ROMAN LAW). The civil law in this sense would be distinguished from the
+local or national law of modern states. The civil law in this sense is
+further to be distinguished from that adaptation of its principles to
+ecclesiastical purposes which is known as the canon law (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+CIVIL LIST,
+
+  History
+
+the English term for the account in which are contained all the expenses
+immediately applicable to the support of the British sovereign's
+household and the honour and dignity of the crown. An annual sum is
+settled by the British parliament at the beginning of the reign on the
+sovereign, and is charged on the consolidated fund. But it is only from
+the reign of William IV. that the sum thus voted has been restricted
+solely to the personal expenses of the crown. Before his accession many
+charges properly belonging to the ordinary expenses of government had
+been placed on the civil list. The history of the civil list dates from
+the reign of William and Mary. Before the Revolution no distinction had
+been made between the expenses of government in time of peace and the
+expenses relating to the personal dignity and support of the sovereign.
+The ordinary revenues derived from the hereditary revenues of the crown,
+and from certain taxes voted for life to the king at the beginning of
+each reign, were supposed to provide for the support of the sovereign's
+dignity and the civil government, as well as for the public defence in
+time of peace. Any saving made by the king in the expenditure touching
+the government of the country or its defence would go to swell his privy
+purse. But with the Revolution a step forward was made towards the
+establishment of the principle that the expenses relating to the support
+of the crown should be separated from the ordinary expenses of the
+state. The evils of the old system under which no appropriation was made
+of the ordinary revenue granted to the crown for life had been made
+manifest in the reigns of Charles II. and James II.; it was their
+control of these large revenues that made them so independent of
+parliament. Moreover, while the civil government and the defences
+suffered, the king could use these revenues as he liked. The parliament
+of William and Mary fixed the revenue of the crown in time of peace at
+L1,200,000 per annum; of this sum about L700,000 was appropriated
+towards the "civil list." But from this the sovereign was to defray the
+expenses of the civil service and the payment of pensions, as well as
+the cost of the support of the royal household and his own personal
+expenses. It was from this that the term "civil list" arose, to
+distinguish it from the statement of military and naval charges. The
+revenue voted to meet the civil list consisted of the hereditary
+revenues of the crown and a part of the excise duties. Certain changes
+and additions were made in the sources of revenue thus appropriated
+between the reign of William and Mary and the accession of George III.,
+when a different system was adopted. Generally speaking, however, the
+sources of revenue remained as settled at the Revolution.
+
+
+  Anne, George I. and George II.
+
+  George III.
+
+Anne had the same civil list, estimated to produce an annual income of
+L700,000. During her reign a debt of L1,200,000 was incurred. This debt
+was paid by parliament and charged on the civil list itself. George I.
+enjoyed the same revenue by parliamentary grant, in addition to an
+annual sum of L120,000 on the aggregate fund. A debt of L1,000,000 was
+incurred, and discharged by parliament in the same manner as Anne's debt
+had been. To George II. a civil list of L800,000 as a minimum was
+granted, parliament undertaking to make up any deficiency if the sources
+of income appropriated to its service fell short of that sum. Thus in
+1746 a debt of L456,000 was paid by parliament on the civil list. On the
+accession of George III. a change was made in the system of the civil
+list. Hitherto the sources of revenue appropriated to the service of the
+civil list had been settled on the crown. If these revenues exceeded the
+sum they were computed to produce annually, the surplus went to the
+king. George III., however, surrendered the life-interest in the
+hereditary revenues and the excise duties hitherto voted to defray the
+civil list expenditure, and any claim to a surplus for a fixed amount.
+The king still retained other large sources of revenue which were not
+included in the civil list, and were free from the control of
+parliament. The revenues from which the civil list had been defrayed
+were henceforward to be carried into, and made part of, the aggregate
+fund. In their place a fixed civil list was granted--at first of
+L723,000 per annum, to be increased to L800,000 on the falling in of
+certain annuities to members of the royal family. From this L800,000 the
+king's household and the honour and dignity of the crown were to be
+supported, as well as the civil service offices, pensions and other
+charges still laid on the list.
+
+
+  Indebtedness of civil list.
+
+During the reign of George III. the civil list played an important part
+in the history of the struggle on the part of the king to establish the
+royal ascendancy. From the revenue appropriated to its service came a
+large portion of the money employed by the king in creating places and
+pensions for his supporters in parliament, and, under the colour of the
+royal bounty, bribery was practised on a large scale. No limit was set
+to the amount applicable to the pensions charged on the civil list, so
+long as the sum granted could meet the demand; and there was no
+principle on which the grant was regulated. Secret pensions at the
+king's pleasure were paid out of it, and in every way the independence
+of parliament was menaced; and though the more legitimate expenses of
+the royal household were diminished by the king's penurious style of
+living, and though many charges not directly connected with the king's
+personal expenditure were removed, the amount was constantly exceeded,
+and applications were made from time to time to parliament to pay off
+debts incurred; and thus opportunity was given for criticism. In 1769 a
+debt of L513,511 was paid off in arrears; and in spite of the demand for
+accounts and for an inquiry into the cause of the debt, the ministry
+succeeded in securing this vote without granting such information. All
+attempts to investigate the civil list were successfully resisted,
+though Lord Chatham went so far as to declare himself convinced that the
+funds were expended in corrupting members of parliament. Again, in 1777,
+an application was made to parliament to pay off L618,340 of debts; and
+in view of the growing discontent Lord North no longer dared to withhold
+accounts. Yet, in spite of strong opposition and free criticism, not
+only was the amount voted, but also a further L100,000 per annum, thus
+raising the civil list to an annual sum of L900,000.
+
+In 1779, at a time when the expenditure of the country and the national
+debt had been enormously increased by the American War, the general
+dissatisfaction found voice in parliament, and the abuses of the civil
+list were specially singled out for attack. Many petitions were
+presented to the House of Commons praying for its reduction, and a
+motion was made in the House of Lords in the same sense, though it was
+rejected. In 1780 Burke brought forward his scheme of economic reform,
+but his name was already associated with the growing desire to remedy
+the evils of the civil list by the publication in 1769 of his pamphlet
+on "The Causes of the Present Discontent." In this scheme Burke freely
+animadverts on the profusion and abuse of the civil list, criticizing
+the useless and obsolete offices and the offices performed by deputy. In
+every department he discovers jobbery, waste and peculation. His
+proposal was that the many offices should be reduced and consolidated,
+that the pension list should be brought down to a fixed sum of L60,000
+per annum, and that pensions should be conferred only to reward merit or
+fulfil real public charity. All pensions were to be paid at the
+exchequer. He proposed also that the civil list should be divided into
+classes, an arrangement which later was carried into effect. In 1780
+Burke succeeded in bringing in his Establishment Bill; but though at
+first it met with considerable support, and was even read a second time,
+Lord North's government defeated it in committee. The next year the bill
+was again introduced into the House of Commons, and Pitt made his first
+speech in its favour. The bill was, however, lost on the second reading.
+
+
+  Civil List Act 1782.
+
+In 1782 the Rockingham ministry, pledged to economic reform, came into
+power; and the Civil List Act 1782 was introduced and carried with the
+express object of limiting the patronage and influence of ministers, or,
+in other words, the ascendancy of the crown over parliament. Not only
+did the act effect the abolition of a number of useless offices, but it
+also imposed restraints on the issue of secret service money, and made
+provision for a more effectual supervision of the royal expenditure. As
+to the pension list, the annual amount was to be limited to L95,000; no
+pension to any one person was to exceed L1200, and all pensions were to
+be paid at the exchequer, thus putting a stop to the secret pensions
+payable during pleasure. Moreover, pensions were only to be bestowed in
+the way of royal bounty for persons in distress or as a reward for
+merit. Another very important change was made by this act: the civil
+list was divided into classes, and a fixed amount was to be appropriated
+to each class. The following were the classes:--
+
+  1. Pensions and allowances of the royal family.
+  2. Payment of salaries of lord chancellor, speaker and judges.
+  3. Salaries of ministers to foreign courts resident at the same.
+  4. Approved bills of tradesmen, artificers and labourers for any
+     article supplied and work done for His Majesty's service.
+  5. Menial servants of the household.
+  6. Pension list.
+  7. Salaries of all other places payable out of the civil list revenues.
+  8. Salaries and pensions of treasurer or commissioners of the
+     treasury and of the chancellor of the exchequer.
+
+Yet debt was still the condition of the civil list down to the end of
+the reign, in spite of the reforms established by the Rockingham
+ministry, and notwithstanding the removal from the list of many charges
+unconnected with the king's personal expenses. The debts discharged by
+parliament between 1782, the date of the passing of the Civil List Act,
+and the end of George III.'s reign, amounted to L2,300,000. In all,
+during his reign L3,398,061 of debt owing by the civil list was paid
+off.
+
+With the regency the civil list was increased by L70,000 per annum, and
+a special grant of L100,000 was settled on the prince regent. In 1816
+the annual amount was settled at L1,083,727, including the establishment
+of the king, now insane; though the civil list was relieved from some
+annuities payable to the royal family. Nevertheless, the fund still
+continued charged with such civil expenses as the salaries of judges,
+ambassadors and officers of state, and with pensions granted for public
+services. Other reforms were made as regards the definition of the
+several classes of expenditure, while the expenses of the royal
+household were henceforth to be audited by a treasury official--the
+auditor of the civil list. On the accession of George IV. the civil
+list, freed from the expenses of the late king, was settled at L845,727.
+On William IV. coming to the throne a sum of L510,000 per annum was
+fixed for the service of the civil list. The king at the same time
+surrendered all the sources of revenue enjoyed by his predecessors,
+apart from the civil list, represented by the hereditary revenues of
+Scotland--the Irish civil list, the droits of the crown and admiralty,
+the 41/2% duties, the West India duties, and other casual revenues
+hitherto vested in the crown, and independent of parliament. The
+revenues of the duchy of Lancaster were still retained by the crown. In
+return for this surrender and the diminished sum voted, the civil list
+was relieved from all the charges relating rather to the civil
+government than to the support of the dignity of the crown and the royal
+household. The future expenditure was divided into five classes, and a
+fixed annual sum was appropriated to each class. The pension list was
+reduced to L75,000. The king resisted an attempt on the part of the
+select committee to reduce the salaries of the officers of state on the
+grounds that this touched his prerogative, and the ministry of Earl Grey
+yielded to his remonstrance.
+
+
+  Queen Victoria's civil list.
+
+The civil list of Queen Victoria was settled on the same principles as
+that of William IV. A considerable reduction was made in the aggregate
+annual sum voted, from L510,000 to L385,000, and the pension list was
+separated from the ordinary civil list. The civil list proper was
+divided into the following five classes, with a fixed sum appropriated
+to each:--
+
+  Privy purse              L60,000
+  Salaries of household    131,260
+  Expenses of household    172,500
+  Royal bounty, &c.         13,200
+  Unappropriated             8,040
+
+In addition the queen might, on the advice of her ministers, grant
+pensions up to L1200 per annum, in accordance with a resolution of the
+House of Commons of February 18th, 1834, "to such persons as have just
+claims on the royal beneficence or who, by their personal services to
+the crown, by the performance of duties to the public, or by their
+useful discoveries in science and attainments in literature and art,
+have merited the gracious consideration of the sovereign and the
+gratitude of their country." The service of these pensions increased the
+annual sum devoted to support the dignity of the crown and the expenses
+of the household to about L409,000. The list of pensions must be laid
+before parliament within thirty days of 20th June. Thus the civil list
+was reduced in amount, and relieved from the very charges which gave it
+its name as distinct from the statement of military and naval charges.
+It now really only dealt with the support of the dignity and honour of
+the crown and the royal household. The arrangement was most successful,
+and during the last three reigns there was no application to parliament
+for the discharge of debts incurred on the civil list.
+
+
+  Civil List Act 1901.
+
+The death of Queen Victoria rendered it necessary that a renewed
+provision should be made for the civil list; and King Edward VII.,
+following former precedents, placed unreservedly at the disposal of
+parliament his hereditary revenues. A select committee of the House of
+Commons was appointed to consider the provisions of the civil list for
+the crown, and to report also on the question of grants for the
+honourable support and maintenance of Her Majesty the Queen and the
+members of the royal family. The committee in their conclusions were
+guided to a considerable extent by the actual civil list expenditure
+during the last ten years of the last reign, and made certain
+recommendations which, without undue interference with the sovereign's
+personal arrangements, tended towards increased efficiency and economy
+in the support of the sovereign's household and the honour and dignity
+of the crown. On their report was based the Civil List Act 1901, which
+established the new civil list. The system that the hereditary revenues
+should as before be paid into the exchequer and be part of the
+consolidated fund was maintained. The amount payable for the civil list
+was increased from L385,000 to L470,000. In the application of this sum
+the number of classes of expenditure to which separate amounts were to
+be appropriated was increased from five to six. The following was the
+new arrangement of classes:--1st class, Their Majesties' privy purse,
+L110,000; 2nd class, salaries of His Majesty's household and retired
+allowances, L125,800; 3rd class, expenses of His Majesty's household,
+L193,000; 4th class, works (the interior repair and decoration of
+Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle), L20,000; 5th class, royal bounty,
+alms and special services, L13,200; 6th class, unappropriated, L8000.
+The system relating to civil list pensions, established by the Civil
+List Act 1837, continued to apply, but the pensions were not regarded as
+chargeable on the sum paid for the civil list. The committee also
+advised that the mastership of the Buckhounds should not be continued;
+and the king, on the advice of his ministers, agreed to accept their
+recommendation. The maintenance of the royal hunt thus ceased to be a
+charge on the civil list. The annuities of L20,000 to the prince of
+Wales, of L10,000 to the princess of Wales, and of L18,000 to His
+Majesty's three daughters, were not included in the civil list, though
+they were conferred by the same act. Other grants made by special acts
+of parliament to members of the royal family were also excluded from it;
+these were L6000 to the princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, L6000
+to the princess Louise (duchess of Argyll), L25,000 to the duke of
+Connaught, L6000 to the duchess of Albany, L6000 to the princess
+Beatrice (Henry of Battenberg), and L3000 to the duchess of
+Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
+
+
+    Figures in other countries.
+
+  It may be interesting to compare with the British civil list the
+  corresponding figures in other countries. These are as follows, the
+  figures being those, for convenience, of 1905. Spain, L280,000,
+  exclusive of allowances to members of the royal family; Portugal,
+  L97,333, in addition to L1333 to the queen-consort--total grant to the
+  royal family, L116,700; Italy, L602,000, from which was deducted
+  L16,000 for the children of the deceased Prince Amedeo, duke of Aosta,
+  L16,000 to Prince Tommaso, duke of Genoa, and L40,000 to Queen
+  Margherita; Belgium, L140,000; Netherlands, L50,000, with, in
+  addition, L4000 for the maintenance of the royal palaces; Germany,
+  L770,500 (_Krondotations Rente_), the sovereign also possessing large
+  private property (_Kronfideikommiss und Schatullgueter_), the revenue
+  from which contributed to the expenditure of the court and the members
+  of the royal family; Denmark, L55,500, in addition to L6600 to the
+  heir-apparent; Norway, L38,888; Sweden, L72,700; Greece, L52,000,
+  which included L4000 each from Great Britain, France and Russia;
+  Austria-Hungary, L941,666, made up of L387,500 as emperor of Austria
+  out of the revenues of Austria, and L554,166 as king of Hungary out of
+  the revenues of Hungary; Japan, L300,000; Rumania, L47,000, in
+  addition to revenues from certain crown lands; Servia, L48,000;
+  Bulgaria, L40,000, besides L30,000 for maintenance of palaces, &c.;
+  Montenegro, L8300; Russia had no civil list, the sovereign having all
+  the revenue from the crown domains (actual amount unknown, but
+  supposed to amount to over L4,000,000); the president of the French
+  Republic had a salary of L24,000 a year, with a further L24,000 for
+  expenses; and the president of the United States had a salary of
+  $50,000 (from 1909, $75,000).
+
+
+
+
+CIVIL SERVICE, the generic name given to the aggregate of all the public
+servants, or paid civil administrators and clerks, of a state. It is the
+machinery by which the executive, through the various administrations,
+carries on the central government of the country.
+
+_British Empire._--The appointments to the civil service until the year
+1855 were made by nomination, with an examination not sufficient to form
+an intellectual or even a physical test. It was only after much
+consideration and almost years of discussion that the nomination system
+was abandoned. Various commissions reported on the civil service, and
+orders in council were issued. Finally in 1855 a qualifying examination
+of a stringent character was instituted, and in 1870 the principle of
+open competition was adopted as a general rule. On the report of the
+Playfair Commission (1876), an order in council was issued dividing the
+civil service into an upper and lower division. The order in council
+directed that a lower division should be constituted, and men and boy
+clerks holding permanent positions replaced the temporary assistants and
+writers. The "temporary" assistant was not found to be advantageous to
+the service. In December 1886 a new class of assistant clerks was formed
+to replace the men copyists. In 1887 the Ridley Commission reported on
+the civil service establishment. In 1890 two orders in council were
+issued based on the reports of the Ridley Commission, which sat from
+1886 to 1890. The first order constituted what is now known as the
+second division of the civil service. The second order in council
+concerned the officers of the 1st class; and provision was made for the
+possible promotion of the second division clerks to the first division
+after eight years' service.
+
+The whole system is under the administration of the civil service
+commissioners, and power is given to them, with the approval of the
+treasury, to prescribe the subjects of examination, limits of age, &c.
+The age is fixed for compulsory retirement at sixty-five. In exceptional
+cases a prolongation of five years is within the powers of the civil
+service commissioners. The examination for 1st class clerkships is held
+concurrently with that of the civil service of India and Eastern
+cadetships in the colonial service. Candidates can compete for all three
+or for two. In addition to the intellectual test the candidate must
+fulfil the conditions of age (22 to 24), must present recommendations as
+to character, and pass a medical examination. This examination
+approximates closely to the university type of education. Indeed, there
+is little chance of success except for candidates who have had a
+successful university career, and frequently, in addition, special
+preparation by a private teacher. The subjects include the language and
+literature of England, France, Germany, Italy, ancient Greece and Rome,
+Sanskrit and Arabic, mathematics (pure and applied), natural science
+(chemistry, physics, zoology, &c.), history (English, Greek, Roman and
+general modern), political economy and economic history, mental and
+moral philosophy, Roman and English law and political science. The
+candidate is obliged to reach a certain standard of knowledge in each
+subject before any marks at all are allowed him. This rule was made to
+prevent success by mere cramming, and to ensure competent knowledge on
+the basis of real study.
+
+The maximum scale of the salaries of clerks of Class I. is as
+follows:--3rd class, L200 a year, increasing by L20 a year to L500; 2nd
+class, L600, increasing by L25 a year to L800; 1st class, L850,
+increasing by L50 a year to L1000. Their pensions are fixed by the
+Superannuation Act 1859, 22 Vict. c. 26:--
+
+  "To any person who shall have served ten years and upwards, and under
+  eleven years, an annual allowance of ten-sixtieths of the annual
+  salary and emoluments of his office:
+
+  "For eleven years and under twelve years, an annual allowance of
+  eleven-sixtieths of such salary and emoluments:
+
+  "And in like manner a further addition to the annual allowance of
+  one-sixtieth in respect of each additional year of such service, until
+  the completion of a period of service of forty years, when the annual
+  allowance of forty-sixtieths may be granted; and no additions shall be
+  made in respect of any service beyond forty years."
+
+  The "ordinary annual holidays allowed to officers" (1st class) "shall
+  not exceed thirty-six week-days during each of their first ten years
+  of service and forty-eight week-days thereafter." Order in Council,
+  15th August 1890.
+
+  "Within that maximum heads of departments have now, as they have
+  hitherto had, an absolute discretion in fixing the annual leave."
+
+Sick leave can be granted on full salary for not more than six months,
+on half-salary for another six months.
+
+The scale of salary for 2nd division clerks begins at L70 a year,
+increasing by L5 to L100; then L100 a year, increasing by L7, 10s. to
+L190; and then L190 a year, increasing by L10 to L250. The highest is
+L300 to L500. Advancement in the 2nd division to the higher ranks
+depends on merit, not seniority. The ordinary annual holiday of the 2nd
+division clerks is 14 working days for the first five years, and 21
+working days afterwards. They can be allowed sick leave for six months
+on full pay and six months on half-pay. The subjects of their
+examination are: (1) handwriting and orthography, including copying MS.;
+(2) arithmetic; (3) English composition; (4) precis, including indexing
+and digest of returns; (5) book-keeping and shorthand writing; (6)
+geography and English history; (7) Latin; (8) French; (9) German; (10)
+elementary mathematics; (11) inorganic chemistry with elements of
+physics. Not more than four of the subjects (4) to (11) can be taken.
+The candidate must be between the ages of 17 and 20. A certain number of
+the places in the 2nd division were reserved for the candidates from the
+boy clerks appointed under the old system. The competition is severe,
+only about one out of every ten candidates being successful. Candidates
+are allowed a choice of departments subject to the exigencies of the
+services.
+
+  There is also a class of boy copyists who are almost entirely employed
+  in London, a few in Dublin and Edinburgh, and, very seldom, in some
+  provincial towns. The subjects of their examination are:
+  _Obligatory_--handwriting and orthography, arithmetic and English
+  composition. _Optional_--(any two of the following): (1) copying MS.;
+  (2) geography; (3) English history; (4) translation from one of the
+  following languages--Latin, French or German; (5) Euclid, bk. i. and
+  ii., and algebra, up to and including simple equations; (6) rudiments
+  of chemistry and physics. Candidates must be between the ages of 15
+  and 18. They have no claims to superannuation or compensation
+  allowance. Boy copyists are not retained after the age of 20.
+
+Candidates for the civil service of India take the same examination as
+for 1st class clerkships. Candidates successful in the examination must
+subsequently spend one year in England. They receive for that year L150
+if they elect to live at one of the universities or colleges approved by
+the secretary of state for India. They are submitted to a final
+examination in the following subjects--Indian Penal Code and the Code
+of Criminal Procedure, the principal vernacular language of the province
+to which they are assigned, the Indian Evidence Act (these three
+subjects are compulsory), either Hindu and Mahommedan Law, or Sanskrit,
+Arabic or Persian, Burmese (for Burma only). A candidate may not take
+Arabic or Sanskrit both in the first examination and in the final. They
+must also pass a thorough examination in riding. On reaching India
+their salary begins at 400 rupees a month. They may take, as leave,
+one-fourth of the time on active service in periods strictly limited by
+regulation. After 25 years' service (of which 21 must be active service)
+they can retire on a pension of L1000 a year. The unit of administration
+is the district. At the head of the district is an executive officer
+called either collector-magistrate or deputy-commissioner. In most
+provinces he is responsible to the commissioner, who corresponds
+directly with the provincial government. The Indian civilian after four
+years' probation in both branches of the service is called upon to elect
+whether he will enter the revenue or judicial department, and this
+choice as a rule is held to be final for his future work.
+
+  Candidates for the Indian Forest Service have to pass a competitive
+  examination, one of the compulsory subjects being German or French.
+  They have also to pass a severe medical examination, especially in
+  their powers of vision and hearing. They must be between the ages of
+  18 and 22. Successful candidates are required to pass a three years'
+  course, with a final examination, seven terms of the course at an
+  approved school of forestry, the rest of the time receiving practical
+  instruction in continental European forests. On reaching India they
+  start as assistant conservators at 380 rupees a month. The highest
+  salary, that of inspector-general of forests, in the Indian Forest
+  Service is 2650 rupees a month.
+
+  The Indian Police Service is entered by a competitive examination of
+  very much the same kind as for the forest service, except that special
+  subjects such as German and botany are not included. The candidates
+  are limited in age to 19 and 21. They must pass a riding examination.
+  A free passage out is given them. They are allotted as probationers,
+  their wishes being consulted as far as possible as to their province.
+  A probationer receives 300 rupees a month. A district superintendent
+  can rise to 1200 rupees a month, while there are a few posts with a
+  salary of 3000 rupees a month in the police service. The leave and
+  pension in both these departments follow the general rules for Indian
+  services.
+
+The civil service also includes student interpreterships for China,
+Japan and Siam, and for the Ottoman dominions, Persia, Greece and
+Morocco. Both these classes of student interpreters are selected by open
+competition. Their object is to supply the consular service in the
+above-named countries with persons having a thorough knowledge of the
+language of the country in which they serve.
+
+  In the first case, China, Japan, &c., they learn their language in the
+  country itself, receiving L200 as probationers. Then they become
+  assistants in a consulate. The highest post is that of consul-general.
+  In the case of student interpreters for the Ottoman dominions, Persia,
+  Greece and Morocco, the successful candidates learn their languages at
+  Oxford. Turkish is taught gratuitously, but they pay the usual fees
+  for other languages. At Oxford they receive L200 a year for two years.
+  On leaving Oxford they become assistants under the embassy at
+  Constantinople, the legations at Teheran, Athens or Morocco, or at one
+  of H.B.M. consulates. As assistants they receive L300 a year. The
+  consuls, the highest post to which they can reach, receive in the
+  Levant from L500 to L1600 a year. The civil services of Ceylon,
+  Hong-Kong, the Straits Settlements, and the Malay Peninsula are
+  supplied by the Eastern cadetships. The limits of age for the
+  examination are 18 and 24. The cadets are required to learn the native
+  language of the colony or dependency to which they are assigned. In
+  the case of the Straits Settlements and Malay cadets they may have to
+  learn Chinese or Tamil, as well as the native language. The salaries
+  are: passed cadets, 3500 rupees per annum, gradually increasing until
+  first-class officers receive from 12,000 to 18,000 rupees per annum.
+  They are allowed three months' vacation on full pay in two years, and
+  leave of absence on half-pay after six years' service, or before that
+  if urgently needed. They can retire for ill-health after ten years
+  with fifteen-sixtieths of their annual salary. Otherwise they can add
+  one-sixtieth of their annual salary to their pension for every
+  additional year's service up to thirty-five years' service.
+
+In spite of the general rule of open competition, there are still a few
+departments where the system of _nomination_ obtains, accompanied by a
+severe test of knowledge, either active or implied. Such are the foreign
+office, British Museum, and board of education.
+
+The employment of women in the civil service has been principally
+developed in the post office. Women are employed in the post office as
+female clerks, counter clerks, telegraphists, returners, sorters and
+post-mistresses all over the United Kingdom. The board of agriculture,
+the customs and the India office employ women. The department of
+agriculture, the board of education generally, the local government
+board, all to a certain extent employ women, whilst in the home office
+there are an increasing number of women inspectors of workshops and
+factories.
+
+  In 1881 the postmaster-general took a decided step in favour of female
+  employment, and with the consent of the treasury instituted female
+  clerkships. Female clerks do not come in contact with the public.
+  Their duties are purely clerical, and entirely in the
+  accountant-general's department at the savings bank. Their leave is
+  one month per annum; their pension is on the ordinary civil service
+  scale. The examination is competitive; the subjects are handwriting
+  and spelling, arithmetic, English composition, geography, English
+  history, French or German. Candidates must be between the ages of 18
+  and 20. Whether unmarried or widows they must resign on marriage. The
+  class of girl clerks take the same subjects in a competitive
+  examination. They must be between the ages of 16 and 18; they serve
+  only in the Savings Bank department. If competent they can pass on
+  later to female clerkships. The salaries of the female clerkships
+  range from L200 to L500 in the higher grade, L55 to L190 in the 2nd
+  class, whilst girl clerks are paid from L35 to L40, with the chance of
+  advancement to higher posts.
+
+
+  The "spoils system".
+
+_United States._--Civil service reform, like other great administrative
+reforms, began in America in the latter half of the 19th century.
+Personal and partisan government, with all the entailed evils of the
+patronage system, culminated in Great Britain during the reign of George
+III., and was one of the efficient causes of the American revolution.
+Trevelyan characterizes the use of patronage to influence legislation,
+and the giving of colonial positions as sinecures to the privileged
+classes and personal favourites of the administration, by saying, "It
+was a system which, as its one achievement of the first order, brought
+about the American War, and made England sick, once and for all, of the
+very name of personal government." It was natural that the founders of
+the new government in America, after breaking away from the
+mother-country, should strive to avoid the evils which had in a measure
+brought about the revolution. Their intention that the administrative
+officers of the government should hold office during good behaviour is
+manifest, and was given thorough and practical effect by every
+administration during the first forty years of the life of the
+government. The constitution fixed no term of office in the executive
+branch of the government except those of president and vice-president;
+and Madison, the expounder of the constitution, held that the wanton
+removal of a meritorious officer was an impeachable offence. Not until
+nine years after the passage of the Four Years' Tenure of Office Act in
+1820 was there any material departure from this traditional policy of
+the government. This act (suggested by an appointing officer who wished
+to use the power it gave in order to secure his own nomination for the
+presidency, and passed without debate and apparently without any
+adequate conception of its full effect) opened the doors of the service
+to all the evils of the "spoils system." The foremost statesmen of the
+time were not slow to perceive the baleful possibilities of this
+legislation, Jefferson,[1] Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton and many
+others being recorded as condemning and deploring it in the strongest
+terms. The transition to the "spoils system" was not, however,
+immediate, and for the next nine years the practice of reappointing all
+meritorious officers was practically universal; but in 1829 this
+practice ceased, and the act of 1820 lent the sanction of law to the
+system of proscriptions which followed, which was a practical
+application of the theory that "to the victor belong the spoils of the
+enemy." In 1836 the provisions of this law, which had at first been
+confined mainly to officers connected with the collection of revenue,
+were extended to include also all postmasters receiving a compensation
+of $1000 per annum or more. It rapidly became the practice to regard all
+these four years' tenure offices as agencies not so much for the
+transaction of the public business as for the advancement of political
+ends. The revenue service from being used for political purposes merely
+came to be used for corrupt purposes as well, with the result that in
+one administration frauds were practised upon the government to the
+extent of $75,000,000. The corrupting influences permeated the whole
+body politic. Political retainers were selected for appointment not on
+account of their ability to do certain work but because they were
+followers of certain politicians; these "public servants" acknowledged
+no obligation except to those politicians, and their public duties, if
+not entirely disregarded, were negligently and inefficiently performed.
+Thus grew a saturnalia of spoils and corruption which culminated in the
+assassination of a president.
+
+
+  Law of 1883.
+
+Acute conditions, not theories, give rise to reforms. In the
+congressional election of November 1882, following the assassination of
+President Garfield as an incident in the operation of the spoils system,
+the voice of the people commanding reform was unmistakable. Congress
+assembled in December 1882, and during the same month a bill looking to
+the improvement of the civil service, which had been pending in the
+Senate for nearly two years, was finally taken up and considered by that
+body. In the debate upon this bill its advocates declared that it would
+"vastly improve the whole civil service of the country," which they
+characterized as being at that time "inefficient, expensive and
+extravagant, and in many instances corrupt."[2] This bill passed the
+Senate on the 27th of December 1882, and the House on the 4th of January
+1883, and was signed by the president on the 16th of January 1883,
+coming into full operation on the 16th of July 1883. It is now the
+national civil service law. The fundamental principles of this law
+are:--(1) selection by competitive examination for all appointments to
+the "classified service," with a period of probationary service before
+absolute appointment; (2) apportionment among the states and
+territories, according to population, of all appointments in the
+departmental service at Washington; (3) freedom of all the employees of
+the government from any necessity to contribute to political campaign
+funds or to render political services. For putting these principles into
+effect the Civil Service Commission was created, and penalties were
+imposed for the solicitation or collection from government employees of
+contributions for political purposes, and for the use of official
+positions in coercing political action. The commission, in addition to
+its regular duties of aiding in the preparation of civil service rules,
+of regulating and holding examinations, and certifying the results
+thereof for use in making appointments, and of keeping records of all
+changes in the service, was given authority to investigate and report
+upon any violations of the act or rules. The "classified" service to
+which the act applies has grown, by the action of successive presidents
+in progressively including various branches of tne service within it,
+from 13,924 positions in 1883 to some 80,000 (in round numbers) in 1900,
+constituting about 40% of the entire civil service of the government and
+including practically all positions above the grade of mere labourer or
+workman to which appointment is _not_ made directly by the president
+with the consent of the Senate.[3] A very large class to which the act
+is expressly applicable, and which has been partly brought within its
+provisions by executive action, is that of fourth-class postmasters, of
+whom there are between 70,000 and 80,000 (about 15,000 classified in
+1909).
+
+In order to provide registers of eligibles for the various grades of
+positions in the classified service, the United States Civil Service
+Commission holds annually throughout the country about 300 different
+kinds of examinations. In the work of preparing these examinations and
+of marking the papers of competitors in them the commission is
+authorized by law to avail itself, in addition to its own corps of
+trained men, of the services of the scientific and other experts in the
+various executive departments. In the work of holding the examinations
+it is aided by about 1300 local boards of examiners, which are its local
+representatives throughout the country and are located at the principal
+post offices, custom houses and other government offices, being composed
+of three or more Federal employees in those offices. About 50,000
+persons annually compete in these examinations, and about 10,000 of
+those who are successful receive appointments through regular
+certification. Persons thus appointed, however, must serve six months
+"on probation" before their appointment can be made absolute. At the end
+of this probation, if his service has not been satisfactory, the
+appointee is simply dropped; and the fact that less than 1% of those
+appointed prove thus deficient on trial is high testimony to the
+practical nature of the examinations held by the commission, and to
+their aptness for securing persons qualified for all classes of
+positions.
+
+The effects of the Civil Service Act within the scope of its actual
+operation have amply justified the hopes and promises of its advocates.
+After its passage, absentee holders of lucrative appointments were
+required to report for duty or to sever their connexion with the
+service. Improved methods were adopted in the departments, and
+superfluous and useless work was no longer devised in order to provide a
+show of employment and a _locus standi_ for the parasites upon the
+public service. Individual clerks were required, and by reason of the
+new conditions were enabled, to do more and better work; and this,
+coupled with the increase in efficiency in the service on account of new
+blood coming in through the examinations, made possible an actual
+decrease in the force required in many offices, notwithstanding the
+natural growth in the amount of work to be done.[4] Experience proves
+that the desire to create new and unnecessary positions was in direct
+proportion to the power to control them, for where the act has taken
+away this power of control the desire had disappeared naturally. There
+is no longer any desire on the part of heads of departments to increase
+the number or salaries of classified positions which would fall by law
+within the civil service rules and be subject to competitive
+examinations. Thus the promises of improvement and economy in the
+service have been fulfilled.
+
+The chief drawback to the full success of the act within its intended
+scope of operation has been the withholding of certain positions in the
+service from the application of the vital principle of competition. The
+Civil Service Act contemplated no exceptions, within the limits to which
+it was made applicable, to the general principle of competition upon
+merit for entrance to the service. In framing the first civil service
+rules, however, in 1883, the president, yielding to the pressure of the
+heads of some of the departments, and against the urgent protest of the
+Civil Service Commission, excepted from the requirement of examination
+large numbers of positions in the higher grades of the service, chiefly
+fiduciary and administrative positions such as cashiers, chief clerks
+and chiefs of division. These positions being thus continued under the
+absolute control of the appointing officer, the effect of their
+exception from examination was to retain just that much of the old or
+"spoils" system within the nominal jurisdiction of the new or "merit"
+system. Even more: under the old system, while appointments from the
+outside had been made regardless of fitness, still those appointments
+had been made in the lower grades, the higher positions being filled by
+promotion within the service, usually of the most competent, but under
+the new system with its exceptions, while appointments to the lower
+grades were filled on the basis of merit, the pressure for spoils at
+each change of administration forced inexperienced, political or
+personal favourites in at the top. This blocked promotions and
+demoralized the service. Thus, while the general effect of the act was
+to limit very greatly the number of vicious appointments, at the same
+time the effect of these exceptions was to confine them to the upper
+grades, where the demoralizing effect of each upon the service would be
+a maximum. By constant efforts the Civil Service Commission succeeded in
+having position after position withdrawn from this excepted class, until
+by the action of the president, on the 6th of May 1896, it was finally
+reduced almost to a minimum. By subsequent presidential action,
+however, on the 29th of May 1899, the excepted class was again greatly
+extended.[5]
+
+A further obstacle to the complete success of the merit system, and one
+which prevents the carrying forward of the reform to the extent to which
+it has been carried in Great Britain, is inherent in the Civil Service
+Act itself. All postmasters who receive compensation of $1000 or more
+per annum, and all collectors of customs and collectors of internal
+revenue, are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate, and
+are therefore, by express provision of the act, not "required to be
+classified." The universal practice of treating these offices as
+political agencies instead of as administrative business offices is
+therefore not limited by the act. Such officers are active in political
+work throughout the country, and their official position adds greatly to
+their power to affect the political prospects of the leaders in their
+districts. Accordingly the Senate, from being, as originally intended,
+merely a confirming body as to these officers, has become in a large
+measure, actually if not formally, a nominating body, and holds with
+tenacity to the power thus acquired by the individual senators. Thorough
+civil service reform requires that these positions also, and all those
+of fourth-class postmasters (partly classified by order of 1st Dec.
+1908), be made subject to the merit system, for in them is the real
+remaining stronghold of the spoils system. Even though all their
+subordinates be appointed through examination, it will be impossible to
+carry the reform to ultimate and complete success so long as the
+officers in charge are appointed mainly for political reasons and are
+changed with every change of administration.
+
+The purpose of the act to protect the individual employees in the
+service from the rapacity of the "political barons" has been measurably,
+if not completely, successful. The power given the Civil Service
+Commission, to investigate and report upon violations of the law, has
+been used to bring to light such abuses as the levying of political
+contributions, and to set the machinery of the law in motion against
+them. While comparatively few actual prosecutions have been brought
+about, and although the penalties imposed by the act for this offence
+have been but seldom inflicted, still the publicity given to all such
+cases by the commission's investigations has had a wholesome deterrent
+effect. Before the passage of the act, positions were as a general rule
+held upon a well-understood lease-tenure, the political contributions
+for them being as securely and as certainly collected as any rent. Now,
+however, it can be said that these forced contributions have almost
+entirely disappeared. The efforts which are still made to collect
+political funds from government employees in evasion of the law are
+limited in the main to persuasion to make "voluntary" contributions, and
+it has been possible so to limit and obstruct these efforts that their
+practical effect upon the character of the service is now very small.
+
+
+  State examination.
+
+The same evils that the Federal Civil Service Act was designed to remedy
+exist to a large degree in many of the state governments, and are
+especially aggravated in the administration of the local governments of
+some of the larger cities. The chief, if not the only, test of fitness
+for office in many cases has been party loyalty, honesty and capacity
+being seldom more than secondary considerations. The result has been the
+fostering of dishonesty and extravagance, which have brought weakness
+and gross corruption into the administration of the local governments.
+In consequence of this there has been a constantly growing tendency,
+among the more intelligent class of citizens, to demand that honest
+business methods be applied to local public service, and that
+appointments be made on the basis of intelligence and capacity, rather
+than of party allegiance. The movement for the reform of the civil
+service of cities is going hand in hand with the movement for general
+municipal reform, those reformers regarding the merit system of
+appointments as not merely the necessary and only safe bulwark to
+preserve the results of their labours, but also as the most efficient
+means for bringing about other reforms. Hence civil service reform is
+given a leading position in all programmes for the reform of state and
+municipal governments. This has undoubtedly been due, in the first
+instance, at least, to the success which attended the application of the
+merit system to the Federal service, municipal and state legislation
+following in the wake of the national civil service law. In New York an
+act similar to the Federal Civil Service Act was passed on the 4th of
+May 1883, and in 1894 the principles of the merit system were introduced
+by an amendment into the state constitution, and made applicable to
+cities and villages as well. In Massachusetts an act was passed on the
+3rd of June 1884 which in its general features was based upon the
+Federal act and the New York act. Similar laws were passed in Illinois
+and Wisconsin in 1895, and in New Jersey in 1908; the laws provide for
+the adoption of the merit system in state and municipal government. In
+New Orleans, La., and in Seattle, Wash., the merit system was introduced
+by an amendment to the city charter in 1896. The same result was
+accomplished by New Haven, Conn., in 1897, and by San Francisco, Cal.,
+in 1899. In still other cities the principles of the merit system have
+been enacted into law, in some cases applying to the entire service and
+in others to only a part of it.
+
+The application of the merit system to state and municipal governments
+has proved successful wherever it has been given a fair trial.[6] As
+experience has fostered public confidence in the system, and at the same
+time shown those features of the law which are most vulnerable, and the
+best means for fortifying them, numerous and important improvements upon
+the pioneer act applying to the Federal service have been introduced in
+the more recent legislation. This is particularly true of the acts now
+in force in New York (passed in 1899) and in Chicago. The power of the
+commission to enforce these acts is materially greater than the power
+possessed by the Federal commission. In making investigations they are
+not confined to taking the testimony of voluntary witnesses, but may
+administer oaths, and compel testimony and the production of books and
+papers where necessary; and in taking action they are not confined to
+the making of a report of the findings in their investigations, but may
+themselves, in many cases, take final judicial action. Further than
+this, the payment of salaries is made dependent upon the certificate of
+the commission that the appointments of the recipients were made in
+accordance with the civil service law and rules. Thus these commissions
+have absolute power to prevent irregular or illegal appointments by
+refractory appointing officers. Their powers being so much greater than
+those of the national commission, their action can be much more drastic
+in most cases, and they can go more directly to the heart of an existing
+abuse, and apply more quickly and effectually the needed remedy.
+
+Upon the termination of the Spanish-American War, the necessity for the
+extension of the principles of the merit system to the new territories,
+the responsibility for whose government the results of this war had
+thrown upon the United States, was realized. By the acts providing for
+civil government in Porto Rico (April 12th, 1900) and Hawaii (April
+30th, 1900), the provisions of the Civil Service Act and Rules were
+applied to those islands. Under this legislation the classification
+applies to all positions which are analogous to positions in the Federal
+service, those which correspond to positions in the municipal and state
+governments being considered as local in character, and not included in
+the classification.
+
+On the 19th of September 1900 the United States Philippine Commission
+passed an act "for the establishment and maintenance of an efficient and
+honest civil service in the Philippine Islands." This act, in its
+general features, is based upon the national civil service law, but
+includes also a number of the stronger points to be found in the state
+and municipal law mentioned above. Among these are the power given the
+civil service board to administer oaths, summon witnesses, and require
+the production of official records; and the power to stop payment of
+salaries to persons illegally appointed. Promotions are determined by
+competitive examinations, and are made throughout the service, as there
+are no excepted positions. A just right of preference in local
+appointments is given to natives. The president of the Philippine
+commission in introducing this bill said: "The purpose of the United
+States government ... in these islands is to secure for the Filipino
+people as honest and as efficient a government as may be possible.... It
+is the hope of the commission to make it possible for one entering the
+lowest ranks to reach the highest, under a tenure based solely upon
+merit." Judging by past experience it is believed that this law is well
+adapted to accomplish the purpose above stated.
+
+  For fuller information upon the details of the present workings of the
+  merit system in the Federal service, recourse should be had to the
+  publications of the U.S. Civil Service Commission, which are to be
+  found in the public libraries in all the principal cities in the
+  United States, or which may be had free of charge upon application to
+  the commission. The _Manual of Examinations_, published semi-annually,
+  gives full information as to the character of the examinations held by
+  the commission, together with the schedule of dates and places for the
+  holding of those examinations. The _Annual Reports_ of the commission
+  contain full statistics of the results of its work, together with
+  comprehensive statements as to the difficulties encountered in
+  enforcing the law, and the means used to overcome them. In the
+  _Fifteenth Report_, pp. 443-485, will be found a very valuable
+  historical compilation from original sources, upon the "practice of
+  the presidents in appointments and removals in the executive civil
+  service, from 1789 to 1883." In the same report, pp. 511-517, is a
+  somewhat comprehensive bibliography of "civil service" in periodical
+  literature in the 19th century, brought down to the end of 1898. See
+  also C.R. Fish, _The Civil Service and the Patronage_ (New York,
+  1905).
+
+  In most European countries the civil service is recruited on much the
+  same lines as in the United Kingdom and the United States, that is,
+  either by examination or by nomination or by both. In some cases the
+  examination is purely competitive, in other cases, as in France,
+  holders of university degrees get special privileges, such as being
+  put at the head of the list, or going up a certain number of places;
+  or, as in Germany, many departmental posts are filled by nomination,
+  combined with the results of general examinations, either at school or
+  university. In the publications of the United States Department of
+  Labour and Commerce for 1904-1905 will be found brief details of the
+  systems adopted by the various foreign countries for appointing their
+  civil service employees.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See letter to Monroe, November 29th, 1820, Jefferson's
+    _Writings_, vii. 190. A quotation from this letter is given at p. 454
+    of the _Fifteenth Report of the U.S. Civil Service Commission_.
+
+  [2] See _Senate Report No. 576_, 47th Congress, 1st session; also
+    _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Third Report_, p. 16 et seq., _Tenth
+    Report_, pp. 136, 137, and _Fifteenth Report_, pp. 483, 484.
+
+  [3] The progressive classification of the executive civil service,
+    showing the growth of the merit system, is discussed, with
+    statistics, in the _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Sixteenth
+    Report_, pp. 129-137. A revision of this discussion, with important
+    additions, appears in the _Seventeenth Report_.
+
+  [4] For details justifying these statements, see _U.S. Civil Service
+    Commission's Fourteenth Report_, pp. 12-14.
+
+  [5] For the scope of these exceptions, see Civil Service Rule VI., at
+    p. 57 of the _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth and Sixteenth
+    Reports_. A statement of the number of positions actually affected by
+    this action of the president appears in the _Seventeenth Report_.
+
+  [6] In the _U.S. Civil Service Commission's Fifteenth Report_, pp.
+    489-502, the "growth of the civil service reform in states and
+    cities" is historically treated, briefly, but with some thoroughness.
+
+
+
+
+CIVITA CASTELLANA (anc. _Falerii_, q.v.), a town and episcopal see of
+the province of Rome, 45 m. by rail from the city of Rome (the station
+is 5 m. N.E. of the town). Population (1901) 5265. The cathedral of S.
+Maria possesses a fine portico, erected in 1210 by Laurentius Romanus,
+his son Jacobus and his grandson Cosmas, in the cosmatesque style, with
+ancient columns and mosaic decorations: the interior was modernized in
+the 18th century, but has some fragments of cosmatesque ornamentation.
+The citadel was erected by Pope Alexander VI. from the designs of
+Antonio da Sangallo the elder, and enlarged by Julius II. and Leo X. The
+lofty bridge by which the town is approached belongs to the 18th
+century. Mount Soracte lies about 6 m. to the south-east.
+
+
+
+
+CIVITA VECCHIA, a seaport town and episcopal see of Italy, in the
+province of Rome, 50 m. N.W. by rail and 35 m. direct from the city of
+Rome. Pop. (1871) 8143; (1901) 17,589. It is the ancient _Centum
+Cellae_, founded by Trajan. Interesting descriptions of it are given by
+Pliny the Younger (_Epist._ vi. 31) and Rutilius Namat. i. 237. The
+modern harbour works rest on the ancient foundations, and near it the
+cemetery of detachments of the _Classes Misenensis_ and _Ravennas_ has
+been found (_Corp. Inscr. Lat._ vol. xi., Berlin, 1888, pp. 3520 seq.).
+Remains of an aqueduct and other Roman buildings are preserved; the
+imperial family had a villa here. Procopius mentions it in the 6th
+century as a strong and populous place, but it was destroyed in 813 by
+the Saracens. Leo IV. erected a new city for the inhabitants on the site
+where they had taken refuge, about 8 m. N.N.E. of Civita Vecchia towards
+the hills, near La Farnesina, where its ruins may still be seen; the
+city walls and some of the streets and buildings may be traced, and an
+inscription (which must have stood over one of the city gates)
+recording its foundation has been discovered. It continued to exist
+under the name Cencelle as a feudal castle until the 15th century. In
+the meantime, however, the inhabitants returned to the old town by the
+shore in 889 and rebuilt it, giving it the name Civitas Vetus, the
+modern Civita Vecchia (see O. Marucchi in _Nuovo Bullettino di
+archeologia cristiana_, vi., 1900, p. 195 seq.). In 1508 Pope Julius II.
+began the construction of the castle from the designs of Bramante,
+Michelangelo being responsible for the addition of the central tower. It
+is considered by Burckhardt the finest building of its kind. Pius IV.
+added a convict prison. The arsenal was built by Alexander VII. and
+designed by Bernini. Civita Vecchia was the chief port of the Papal
+State and has still a considerable trade. There are cement factories in
+the town, and calcium carbide is an important article of export. The
+principal imports are coal, cattle for the home markets, and fire-bricks
+from the United Kingdom. Three miles N.E. were the _Aquae Tauri_, warm
+springs, now known as _Bagni della Ferrata_: considerable remains of the
+Roman baths are still preserved. About 1 m. W. of these are other hot
+springs, those of the _Ficoncella_, also known in Roman times.
+
+
+
+
+CLACKMANNAN, the county town of Clackmannanshire, Scotland. Pop. 1505.
+It lies near the north bank of the Forth, 2 m. E. of Alloa, with two
+stations on the North British railway. Among the public buildings are
+the parish church, the tower of which, standing on a commanding
+eminence, is a conspicuous landmark. Clackmannan Tower is now a
+picturesque ruin, but at one time played an important part in Scottish
+history, and was the seat of a lineal descendant of the Bruce family
+after the failure of the male line. The old market cross still exists,
+and close to it stands the stone that gives the town its name (Gaelic,
+_clach_, stone; Manann, the name of the district). A large spinning-mill
+and coalpits lend a modern touch in singular contrast with the quaint,
+old-world aspect of the place. About 1 m. to the S.E. is Kennet House,
+the seat of Lord Balfour of Burleigh, another member of the Bruce
+family.
+
+
+
+
+CLACKMANNANSHIRE, the smallest county in Scotland, bounded S.W. by the
+Forth, W. by Stirlingshire, N.N.E. and N.W. by Perthshire, and E. by
+Fifeshire. It has an area of 35,160 acres, or about 55 sq. m. An
+elevated ridge starting on the west, runs through the middle of the
+county, widening gradually till it reaches the eastern boundary, and
+skirting the alluvial or carse lands in the valleys of the Forth and
+Devon. Still farther to the N. the Ochil hills form a picturesque
+feature in the landscape, having their generally verdant surface broken
+by bold projecting rocks and deeply indented ravines. The principal
+summits are within the limits of the shire, among them Ben Cleuch (2363
+ft.), King's Seat (2111 ft.), Whitewisp (2110 ft.), the Law (above
+Tillicoultry, 2094 ft.) and Blairdenon (2072 ft.), on the northern
+slope, in which the river Devon takes its rise. The rivers of importance
+are the Devon and the Black or South Devon. The former, noted in the
+upper parts for its romantic scenery and its excellent trout-fishing,
+runs through the county near the base of the Ochils, and falls into the
+Forth at the village of Cambus, after a winding course of 33 m.,
+although as the crow flies its source is only 5 1/4 m. distant. The
+Black Devon, rising in the Cleish Hills, flows westwards in a direction
+nearly parallel to that of the Devon, and falls into the Forth near
+Clackmannan. It supplies motive power to numbers of mills and
+collieries; and its whole course is over coal strata. The Forth is
+navigable as far as it forms the boundary of the county, and ships of
+500 tons burden run up as far as Alloa. The only lake is Gartmorn, 1 m.
+long by about 1/3 of a mile broad, which has been dammed in order to
+furnish water to Alloa and power to mills. The Ochils are noted for the
+number of their glens. Though these are mostly small, they are well
+wooded and picturesque, and those at Menstrie, Alva, Tillicoultry and
+Dollar are particularly beautiful.
+
+  _Geology._--This county is divided geologically into two areas, the
+  boundary line skirting the southern margin of the Ochils and running
+  westwards from a point north of Dollar by Alva in the direction of
+  Airthrev in Stirlingshire. The northern portion forms part of the
+  volcanic range of the Ochils which belongs to the Old Red Sandstone
+  period, and consists of a great succession of lavas--basalts and
+  andesites--with intercalations of tuff and agglomerate. As the rocks
+  dip gently towards the north and form the highest ground in the county
+  they must reach a great thickness. They are pierced by small intrusive
+  masses of diorite, north of Tillicoultry House. The well-marked
+  feature running E. and W. along the southern base of the Ochils
+  indicates a line of fault or dislocation which abruptly truncates the
+  Lower Old Red volcanic rocks and brings down an important development
+  of Carboniferous strata occupying the southern part of the county.
+  These belong mainly to the Coal-measures and comprise a number of
+  valuable coal-seams which have been extensively worked. The
+  Clackmannan field is the northern continuation of the great
+  Lanarkshire basin which extends northwards by Slamannan, Falkirk and
+  the Carron Ironworks to Alloa. Along the eastern margin between
+  Cairnmuir and Brucefield the underlying Millstone Grit, consisting
+  mainly of false-bedded sandstones, comes to the surface. Close to the
+  river Devon south of Dollar the Vicars Bridge Limestone, which there
+  marks the top of the Carboniferous Limestone series, rises from
+  beneath the Millstone Grit. The structure of the Clackmannan field is
+  interesting. The strata are arranged in synclinal form, the highest
+  seams being found near the Devon ironworks, and they are traversed by
+  a series of parallel east and west faults each with a downthrow to the
+  south, whereby the coals are repeated and the field extended. During
+  mining operations evidence has been obtained of the existence of a
+  buried river-channel, filled with boulder clay and stratified deposits
+  along the course of the Devon, which extends below the present
+  sea-level and points to greater elevation of the land in pre-glacial
+  time. An excellent example of a dolerite dyke trending slightly north
+  of west occurs in the north part of the county where it traverses the
+  volcanic rocks of Lower Old Red Sandstone age.
+
+_Industries._--The soil is generally productive and well cultivated,
+though the greater part of the elevated range which is interposed
+between the carse lands on the Forth and the vale of Devon at the base
+of the Ochils on the north consists of inferior soils, often lying upon
+an impervious clay. Oats are the chief crop, but wheat and barley are
+profitably grown. Sheep-farming is successfully pursued, the Ochils
+affording excellent pasturage, and cattle, pigs and horses are also
+raised. There is a small tract of moorland in the east, called the
+Forest, bounded on its northern margin by the Black Devon. Iron-ore
+(haematite), copper, silver, lead, cobalt and arsenic have all been
+discovered in small quantity in the Ochils, between Alva and Dollar.
+Ironstone--found either in beds, or in oblate balls embedded in slaty
+clay, and yielded from 25 to 30% of iron--is mined for the Devon
+iron-works, near Clackmannan. Coal has been mined for a long period. The
+strata which compose the field are varieties of sandstone, shale,
+fire-clay and argillaceous ironstone. There is a heavy continuous output
+of coal at the mines at Sauchie, Fishcross, Coalsnaughton, Devonside,
+Clackmannan and other pits. The spinning-mills at Alloa, Tillicoultry
+and Alva are always busy, Alloa yarns and fingering being widely famous.
+The distilleries at Glenochil and Carsebridge and the breweries in Alloa
+and Cambus do a large export business. The minor trades include
+glass-blowing, pottery, coopering, tanning, iron-founding, electrical
+apparatus making, ship-building and paper-making.
+
+The north British railway serves the whole county, while the Caledonian
+has access to Alloa.
+
+_Population and Government._--The population was 33,140 in 1891 and
+32,029 in 1901, when 170 persons spoke Gaelic and English and one person
+Gaelic only. The county unites with Kinross-shire in returning one
+member to parliament. Clackmannan (pop. 1505) is the county town, but
+Alloa (14,458), Alva (4624), and Tillicoultry (3338) take precedence in
+population and trade. Menstrie (pop. 898) near Alloa has a large
+furniture factory and the great distillery of Glenochil. To the
+north-east of Alloa is the thriving mining village of Sauchie.
+Clackmannan forms a sheriffdom with Stirling and Dumbarton shires, and a
+sheriff-substitute sits at Alloa. Most of the schools in the shire are
+under school-board control, but there are a few voluntary schools,
+besides an exceptionally well-equipped technical school in Alloa and a
+well-known academy at Dollar.
+
+  See James Wallace, _The Sheriffdom of Clackmannan: a Sketch of its
+  History_ (Edinburgh, 1890); D. Beveridge, _Between the Ochils and the
+  Forth_ (Edinburgh, 1888); John Crawford, _Memorials of Alloa_ (1885);
+  William Gibson, _Reminiscences of Dollar, Tillicoultry_,
+
+
+
+
+CLACTON-ON-SEA, a watering-place in the Harwich parliamentary division
+of Essex, England; 71 m. E.N.E. from London by a branch from Colchester
+of the Great Eastern railway; served also by steamers from London in the
+summer months. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7456. Clay cliffs of slight
+altitude rise from the sandy beach and face south-eastward. In the
+neighbourhood, however, marshes fringe the shore. The church of Great
+Clacton, at the village 11/2 m. inland, is Norman and later, and of
+considerable interest. Clacton is provided with a pier, promenade and
+marine parade; and is the seat of various convalescent and other homes.
+
+
+
+
+CLADEL, LEON (1835-1892), French novelist, was born at Montauban
+(Tarn-et-Garonne) on the 13th of March 1835. The son of an artisan, he
+studied law at Toulouse and became a solicitor's clerk in Paris. He made
+a reputation in a limited circle by his first book, _Les Martyrs
+ridicules_ (1862), a novel for which Charles Baudelaire, whose literary
+disciple Cladel was, wrote a preface. He then returned to his native
+district of Quercy, where he produced a series of pictures of peasant
+life in _Eral le dompteur_ (1865), _Le Nomme Qouael_ (1868) and other
+volumes. Returning to Paris he published the two novels which are
+generally acknowledged as his best work, _Le Bouscassie_ (1869) and _La
+Fete votive de Saint Bartholomee Porte-glaive_ (1872). _Une Maudite_
+(1876) was judged dangerous to the public morals and cost its author a
+month's imprisonment. Other works by Cladel are _Les Va-nu-pieds_
+(1873), a volume of short stories; _N'a qu'un oeil_ (1882), _Urbains
+et ruraux_ (1884), _Gueux de marque_ (1887), and the posthumous _Juive
+errante_ (1897). He died at Sevres on the 20th of July 1892.
+
+  See _La Vie de Leon Cladel_ (Paris, 1905), by his daughter Judith
+  Cladel, containing also an article on Cladel by Edmond Picard, a
+  complete list of his works, and of the critical articles on his work.
+
+
+
+
+CLAFLIN, HORACE BRIGHAM (1811-1885), American merchant, was born in
+Milford, Massachusetts, on the 18th of December 1811. He was educated at
+Milford Academy, became a clerk in his father's store in Milford, and in
+1831, with his brother Aaron and his brother-in-law Samuel Daniels,
+succeeded to his father's business. In 1832 the firm opened a branch
+store in Worcester, Mass., and in 1833 Horace B. Claflin and Daniels
+secured the sole control of this establishment and restricted their
+dealing to dry goods. In 1843 Claflin removed to New York City and
+became a member of the firm of Bulkley & Claflin, wholesale dry goods
+merchants. In 1851 and in 1864 the firm was reorganized, being
+designated in these respective years as Claflin, Mellin & Company and
+H.B. Claflin & Company. Under Claflin's management the business
+increased so rapidly that the sales for a time after 1865 probably
+exceeded those of any other mercantile house in the world. Though the
+firm was temporarily embarrassed at the beginning of the Civil War, on
+account of its large business interests in the South, and during the
+financial panic of 1873, the promptness with which Mr Claflin met these
+crises and paid every dollar of his liabilities greatly increased his
+reputation for business ability and integrity. He died at Fordham, New
+York, on the 14th of November 1885.
+
+
+
+
+CLAIRAULT (or CLAIRAUT), ALEXIS CLAUDE (1713-1765), French
+mathematician, was born on the 13th or 7th of May 1713, at Paris, where
+his father was a teacher of mathematics. Under his father's tuition he
+made such rapid progress in mathematical studies that in his thirteenth
+year he read before the French Academy an account of the properties of
+four curves which he had then discovered. When only sixteen he finished
+a treatise, _Recherches sur les courbes a double courbure_, which, on
+its publication in 1731, procured his admission into the Academy of
+Sciences, although even then he was below the legal age. In 1736,
+together with Pierre Louis Maupertuis, he took part in the expedition to
+Lapland, which was undertaken for the purpose of estimating a degree of
+the meridian, and on his return he published his treatise _Theorie de la
+figure de la terre_ (1743). In this work he promulgated the theorem,
+known as "Clairault's theorem," which connects the gravity at points on
+the surface of a rotating ellipsoid with the compression and the
+centrifugal force at the equator (see EARTH, FIGURE OF THE). He obtained
+an ingenious approximate solution of the problem of the three bodies;
+in 1750 he gained the prize of the St Petersburg Academy for his essay
+_Theorie de la lune_; and in 1759 he calculated the perihelion of
+Halley's comet. He also detected singular solutions in differential
+equations of the first order, and of the second and higher degrees.
+Clairault died at Paris, on the 17th of May 1765.
+
+
+
+
+CLAIRON, LA (1723-1803), French actress, whose real name was CLAIRE
+JOSEPH HIPPOLYTE LERIS, was born at Conde sur l'Escaut, Hainaut, on the
+25th of January 1723, the natural daughter of any army sergeant. In 1736
+she made her first stage appearance at the Comedie Italienne, in a small
+part in Marivaux's _Ile des esclaves_. After several years in the
+provinces she returned to Paris. Her life, meanwhile, had been decidedly
+irregular, even if not to the degree indicated by the libellous pamphlet
+_Histoire de la demoiselle Cronel, dite Fretillon, actrice de la Comedie
+de Rouen, ecrite par elle-meme_ (The Hague, 1746), or to be inferred
+from the disingenuousness of her own _Memoires d'Hippolyte Clairon_
+(1798); and she had great difficulty in obtaining an order to make her
+_debut_ at the Comedie Francaise. Succeeding, however, at last, she had
+the courage to select the title-role of _Phedre_ (1743), and she
+obtained a veritable triumph. During her twenty-two years at this
+theatre, dividing the honours with her rival Mlle Dumesnil, she filled
+many of the classical roles of tragedy, and created a great number of
+parts in the plays of Voltaire, Marmontel, Saurin, de Belloy and others.
+She retired in 1766, and trained pupils for the stage, among them Mlle
+Raucourt. Goldsmith called Mlle Clairon "the most perfect female figure
+I have ever seen on any stage" (_The Bee_, 2nd No.); and Garrick, while
+recognizing her unwillingness or inability to make use of the
+inspiration of the instant, admitted that "she has everything that art
+and a good understanding with great natural spirit can give her."
+
+
+
+
+CLAIRVAUX, a village of north-eastern France, in the department of Aube,
+40 m. E.S.E. of Troyes on the Eastern railway to Belfort. Clairvaux
+(_Clara Vallis_) is situated in the valley of the Aube on the eastern
+border of the Forest of Clairvaux. Its celebrity is due to the abbey
+founded in 1115 by St Bernard, which became the centre of the Cistercian
+order. The buildings (see ABBEY) belong for the most part to the 18th
+century, but there is a large storehouse which dates from the 12th
+century. The abbey, suppressed at the Revolution, now serves as a
+prison, containing on an average 800 inmates, who are employed in
+agricultural and industrial occupations. Clairvaux has iron-works of
+some importance.
+
+
+
+
+CLAIRVOYANCE (Fr. for "clear-seeing"), a technical term in psychical
+research, properly equivalent to lucidity, a supernormal power of
+obtaining knowledge in which no part is played by (_a_) the ordinary
+processes of sense-perception or (_b_) supernormal communication with
+other intelligences, incarnate, or discarnate. The word is also used,
+sometimes qualified by the word _telepathic_, to mean the power of
+gaining supernormal knowledge from the mind of another (see TELEPATHY).
+It is further commonly used by spiritualists to mean the power of seeing
+spirit forms, or, more vaguely, of discovering facts by some supernormal
+means.
+
+_Lucidity._--Few experiments have been made to test the existence of
+this faculty. If communications from discarnate minds are regarded as
+possible, there are no means of distinguishing facts obtained in this
+way from facts obtained by independent clairvoyance. In practice no
+evidence has been obtained pointing to the possession by a discarnate
+spirit of knowledge not possessed by any living person (see MEDIUM). As
+explanation of the few successful experiments in independent
+clairvoyance we have the choice of three explanations: (1) lucidity; (2)
+telepathy from living persons; (3) hyperaesthesia. The second
+possibility was overlooked in Richet's diagram experiments; it cannot be
+assumed that a picture put into an envelope and not consciously recalled
+has been in reality forgotten. Similarly the clairvoyant diagnosis of
+diseases may depend on knowledge gained telepathically from the patient,
+who may be subliminally aware of diseased states of the body. The most
+elaborate experiments are by Prof. Richet with a hypnotized subject who
+succeeded in naming twelve cards out of sixty-eight. But no precautions
+were taken against hyperaesthesia further than enclosing the card in a
+second envelope. There is a power possessed by a certain number of
+people, of naming a card drawn by them or held in the hand face
+downwards, so that there is no normal knowledge of its suit and number.
+Few thorough trials have been made; but it seems to point to some kind
+of hyperaesthesia rather than to clairvoyance; in the Richet experiments
+even if the envelopes excluded hyperaesthesia of touch on the part of
+the medium, there may have been subliminal knowledge on Prof. Richet's
+part of the card which he put in the envelope. The experience known as
+the _deja vu_ has sometimes been explained as due to clairvoyance.
+
+_Telepathic Clairvoyance._--For a discussion of this see TELEPATHY and
+CRYSTAL-GAZING. It may be noted here that some curious relation seems to
+exist between apparently telepathic acquisition of knowledge and the
+arrival of a letter, newspaper, &c, from which the same knowledge could
+be directly gained. We are confronted with a similar problem in
+attempting an explanation of the power of mediums to state correctly
+facts relating to objects placed in their hands. Of a somewhat different
+character is retrocognition (_q.v._), where the knowledge in many cases,
+if telepathic, must be derived from a discarnate mind.
+
+Clairvoyance, as a term of spiritualism, with its correlative
+_clairaudience_, is the name given to the power of seeing and hearing
+discarnate spirits of dead relatives and others, with whom the living
+are said to be surrounded. More vaguely it includes the power of gaining
+knowledge, either through the spirit world or by means of psychometry
+(i.e. the supernormal acquisition of knowledge about owners of objects,
+writers of letters, &c). Some evidence for these latter powers has been
+accumulated by the Society for Psychical Research, but in many cases the
+piecing together of normally acquired knowledge, together with shrewd
+guessing, suffices to explain the facts, especially where the
+investigator has had no special training for his task.
+
+  See Richet, _Experimentelle Studien_ (1891); also in _Proc. S.P.R._
+  vi. 66. For a criticism see N.W. Thomas, _Thought Transference_, pp.
+  44-48. For Clairvoyance in general see F.W.H. Myers, _Human
+  Personality_, and in _Proc. S.P.R._ xi. 334 et seq. For a criticism of
+  the evidence see Mrs Sidgwick in _Proc. S.P.R._ vii. 30, 356.
+     (N. W. T.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAMECY, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the
+department of Nievre, at the confluence of the Yonne and Beuvron and on
+the Canal du Nivernais, 46 m. N.N.E. of Nevers on the Paris-Lyon
+railway. Pop. (1906) 4455. Its principal building is the church of St
+Martin, which dates chiefly from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries. The
+tower and facade are of the 16th century. The chevet, which is
+surrounded by an aisle, is rectangular--a feature found in few French
+churches. Of the old castle of the counts of Nevers, vaulted cellars
+alone remain. A church in the suburb of Bethlehem, dating from the 12th
+and 13th centuries, now serves as part of an hotel. The public
+institutions include the sub-prefecture, tribunals of first instance and
+of commerce and a communal college. Among the industrial establishments
+are saw-mills, fulling-mills and flour-mills, tanneries and
+manufactories of boots and shoes and chemicals; and there is
+considerable trade in wine and cattle and in wood and charcoal, which is
+conveyed principally to Paris, by way of the Yonne.
+
+In the early middle ages Clamecy belonged to the abbey of St Julian at
+Auxerre; in the 11th century it passed to the counts of Nevers, one of
+whom, Herve, enfranchised the inhabitants in 1213. After the capture of
+Jerusalem by Saladin in 1188, Clamecy became the seat of the bishops of
+Bethlehem, who till the Revolution resided in the hospital of Panthenor,
+bequeathed by William IV., count of Nevers. On the _coup d'etat_ of 1851
+an insurrection broke out in the town, and was repressed by the new
+authorities with great severity.
+
+
+
+
+CLAN (Gaelic _clann_, O. Ir. _cland_, connected with Lat. _planta_,
+shoot or scion, the ancient Gaelic or Goidelic substituting k for p), a
+group of people united by common blood, and usually settled in a common
+habitat. The clan system existed in Ireland and the Highlands of
+Scotland from early times. In its strictest sense the system was
+peculiar to those countries, but, in its wider meaning of a group of
+kinsmen forming a self-governing community, the system as represented by
+the village community has been shown by Sir H. Maine and others to have
+existed at one time or another in all lands.
+
+Before the use of surnames and elaborate written genealogies, a tribe in
+its definite sense was called in Celtic a _tuath_, a word of wide
+affinities, from a root _tu_, to grow, to multiply, existing in all
+European languages. When the tribal system began to be broken up by
+conquest and by the rise of towns and of territorial government, the use
+of a common surname furnished a new bond for keeping up a connexion
+between kindred. The head of a tribe or smaller group of kindred
+selected some ancestor and called himself his _Ua_, grandson, or as it
+has been anglicized _O', e.g. Ua Conchobair_ (O' Conor), _Ua
+Suilleabhain_ (O'Sullivan). All his kindred adopted the same name, the
+chief using no fore-name however. The usual mode of distinguishing a
+person before the introduction of surnames was to name his father and
+grandfather, e.g. Owen, son of Donal, son of Dermot. This naturally
+led some to form their surnames with _Mac_, son, instead of _Ua_,
+grandson, e.g. _MacCarthaigh_, son of _Carthach_ (MacCarthy),
+_MacRuaidhri_, son of Rory (Macrory). Both methods have been followed in
+Ireland, but in Scotland _Mac_ came to be exclusively used. The adoption
+of such genealogical surnames fostered the notion that all who bore the
+same surname were kinsmen, and hence the genealogical term _clann_,
+which properly means the descendants of some progenitor, gradually
+became synonymous with _tuath_, tribe. Like all purely genealogical
+terms, _clann_ may be used in the limited sense of a particular tribe
+governed by a chief, or in that of many tribes claiming descent from a
+common ancestor. In the latter sense it was synonymous with _sil, siol_,
+seed e.g. _Siol Alpine_, a great clan which included the smaller clans
+of the Macgregors, Grants, Mackinnons, Macnabs, Macphies, Macquarries
+and Macaulays.
+
+The clan system in the most archaic form of which we have any definite
+information can be best studied in the Irish _tuath_, or tribe.[1] This
+consisted of two classes: (1) tribesmen, and (2) a miscellaneous class
+of slaves, criminals, strangers and their descendants. The first class
+included tribesmen by blood in the male line, including all illegitimate
+children acknowledged by their fathers, and tribesmen by adoption or
+sons of tribeswomen by strangers, foster-sons, men who had done some
+signal service to the tribe, and lastly the descendants of the second
+class after a certain number of generations. Each _tuath_ had a chief
+called a _rig_, king, a word cognate with the Gaulish _rig-s_ or _rix_,
+the Latin _reg-s_ or _rex_, and the Old Norse _rik-ir_. The tribesmen
+formed a number of communities, each of which, like the tribe itself,
+consisted of a head, _ceann fine_, his kinsmen, slaves and other
+retainers. This was the _fine_, or sept. Each of these occupied a
+certain part of the tribe-land, the arable part being cultivated under a
+system of co-tillage, the pasture land co-grazed according to certain
+customs, and the wood, bog and mountains forming the marchland of the
+sept being the unrestricted common land of the sept. The sept was in
+fact a village community.
+
+What the sept was to the tribe, the homestead was to the sept. The head
+of a homestead was an _aire_, a representative freeman capable of acting
+as a witness, compurgator and bail. These were very important functions,
+especially when it is borne in mind that the tribal homestead was the
+home of many of the kinsfolk of the head of the family as well as of his
+own children. The descent of property being according to a gavel-kind
+custom, it constantly happened that when an _aire_ died the share of his
+property which each member of his immediate family was entitled to
+receive was not sufficient to qualify him to be an _aire_. In this case
+the family did not divide the inheritance, but remained together as "a
+joint and undivided family," one of the members being elected chief of
+the family or household, and in this capacity enjoyed the rights and
+privileges of an _aire_. Sir H.S. Maine directed attention to this kind
+of family as an important feature of the early institutions of all
+Indo-European nations. Beside the "joint and undivided family," there
+was another kind of family which we might call "the joint family." This
+was a partnership composed of three or four members of a sept whose
+individual wealth was not sufficient to qualify each of them to be an
+_aire_, but whose joint wealth qualified one of the co-partners as head
+of the joint family to be one.
+
+So long as there was abundance of land each family grazed its cattle
+upon the tribe-land without restriction; unequal increase of wealth and
+growth of population naturally led to its limitation, each head of a
+homestead being entitled to graze an amount of stock in proportion to
+his wealth, the size of his homestead, and his acquired position. The
+arable land was no doubt applotted annually at first; gradually,
+however, some of the richer families of the tribe succeeded in evading
+this exchange of allotments and converting part of the common land into
+an estate in sevralty. Septs were at first colonies of the tribe which
+settled on the march-land; afterwards the conversion of part of the
+common land into an estate in sevralty enabled the family that acquired
+it to become the parent of a new sept. The same process might, however,
+take place within a sept without dividing it; in other words, several
+members of the sept might hold part of the land of the sept as separate
+estate. The possession of land in sevralty introduced an important
+distinction into the tribal system--it created an aristocracy. An _aire_
+whose family held the same land for three generations was called a
+_flaith_, or lord, of which rank there were several grades according to
+their wealth in land and chattels. The _aires_ whose wealth consisted in
+cattle only were called _bo-aires_, or cow-_aires_, of whom there were
+also several grades, depending on their wealth in stock. When a
+_bo-aire_ had twice the wealth of the lowest class of _flaith_ he might
+enclose part of the land adjoining his house as a lawn; this was the
+first step towards his becoming a _flaith_. The relations which
+subsisted between the _flaiths_ and the _bo-aires_ formed the most
+curious part of the Celtic tribal system, and throw a flood of light on
+the origin of the feudal system. Every tribesman without exception owed
+_ceilsinne_ to the _rig_, or chief, that is, he was bound to become his
+_ceile_, or vassal. This consisted in paying the _rig_ a tribute in
+kind, for which the _ceile_ was entitled to receive a proportionate
+amount of stock without having to give any bond for their return, giving
+him service, e.g. in building his _dun_, or stronghold, reaping his
+harvest, keeping his roads clean and in repair, killing wolves, and
+especially service in the field, and doing him homage three times while
+seated every time he made his return of tribute. Paying the "_calpe_" to
+the Highland chiefs represented this kind of vassalage, a _colpdach_ or
+heifer being in many cases the amount of food-rent paid by a free or
+_saer ceile_. A tribesman might, however, if he pleased, pay a higher
+rent on receiving more stock together with certain other chattels for
+which no rent was chargeable. In this case he entered into a contract,
+and was therefore a bond or _daer ceile_. No one need have accepted
+stock on these terms, nor could he do so without the consent of his
+sept, and he might free himself at any time from his obligation by
+returning what he had received, and the rent due thereon.
+
+What every one was bound to do to his _rig_, or chief, he might do
+voluntarily to the _flaith_ of his sept, to any _flaith_ of the tribe,
+or even to one of another tribe. He might also become a bond _ceile_. In
+either case he might renounce his ceileship by returning a greater or
+lesser amount of stock than what he had received according to the
+circumstances under which he terminated his vassalage. In cases of
+disputed succession to the chiefship of a tribe the rival claimants were
+always anxious to get as many as possible to become their vassals. Hence
+the anxiety of minor chieftains, in later times in the Highlands of
+Scotland, to induce the clansmen to pay the "_calpe_" where there
+happened to be a doubt as to who was entitled to be chief.
+
+The effect of the custom of gavel-kind was to equalize the wealth of
+each and leave no one wealthy enough to be chief. The "joint and
+undivided family" and the formation of "joint families," or gilds, was
+one way of obviating this result; another way was the custom of
+tanistry. The headship of the tribe was practically confined to the
+members of one family; this was also the case with the headship of a
+sept. Sometimes a son succeeded his father, but the rule was that the
+eldest and most capable member of the _geilfine_, that is, the relatives
+of the actual chief to the fifth degree,[2] was selected during his
+lifetime to be his successor--generally the eldest surviving brother or
+son of the preceding chief. The man selected as successor to a chief of
+a tribe, or chieftain of a sept, was called the tanist, and should be
+"the most experienced, the most noble, the most wealthy, the wisest, the
+most learned, the most truly popular, the most powerful to oppose, the
+most steadfast to sue for profits and (be sued) for losses." In addition
+to these qualities he should be free from personal blemishes and
+deformities and of fit age to lead his tribe or sept, as the case may
+be, to battle.[3] So far as selecting the man of the _geilfine_ who was
+supposed to possess all those qualities, the office of chief of a tribe
+or chieftain of a sept was elective, but as the _geilfine_ was
+represented by four persons, together with the chief or chieftain, the
+election was practically confined to one of the four. In order to
+support the dignity of the chief or chieftain a certain portion of the
+tribe or sept land was attached as an apanage to the office; this land,
+with the _duns_ or fortified residences upon it, went to the successor,
+but a chief's own property might be gavelled. This custom of tanistry
+applied at first probably to the selection of the successors of a _rig_,
+but was gradually so extended that even a _bo-aire_ had a tanist.
+
+A sept might have only one _flaith_, or lord, connected with it, or
+might have several. It sometimes happened, however, that a sept might be
+so broken and reduced as not to have even one man qualified to rank as a
+_flaith_. The rank of a _flaith_ depended upon the number of his
+_ceiles_, that is, upon his wealth. The _flaith_ of a sept, and the
+highest when there was more than one, was _ceann fine_, or head of the
+sept, or as he was usually called in Scotland, the chieftain. He was
+also called the _flaith geilfine_, or head of the _geilfine_, that is,
+the kinsmen to the fifth degree from among whom should be chosen the
+tanist, and who, according to the custom of gavel-kind, were the
+immediate heirs who received the personal property and were answerable
+for the liabilities of the sept. The _flaiths_ of the different septs
+were the vassals of the _rig_, or chief of the tribe, and performed
+certain functions which were no doubt at first individual, but in time
+became the hereditary right of the sept. One of those was the office of
+_maer_, or steward of the chief's rents, &c.;[4] and another that of
+_aire tuisi_, leading _aire_, or _taoisech_, a word cognate with the
+Latin _duc-s_ or _dux_, and Anglo-Saxon here-_tog_, leader of the
+"here," or army. The _taoisech_ was leader of the tribe in battle; in
+later times the term seems to have been extended to several offices of
+rank. The cadet of a Highland clan was always called the _taoisech_,
+which has been translated captain; after the conquest of Wales the same
+term, _tywysaug_, was used for a ruling prince. Slavery was very common
+in Ireland and Scotland; in the former slaves constituted a common
+element in the stipends or gifts which the higher kings gave their
+vassal _sub-reguli_. Female slaves, who were employed in the houses of
+chiefs and _flaiths_ in grinding meal with the hand-mill or quern, and
+in other domestic work, must have been very common, for the unit or
+standard for estimating the wealth of a _bo-aire_, blood-fines, &c., was
+called a _cumhal_, the value of which was three cows, but which
+literally meant a female slave. The descendants of those slaves,
+prisoners of war, forfeited hostages, refugees from other tribes, broken
+tribesmen, &c., gathered round the residence of the _rig_ and _flaiths_,
+or squatted upon their march-lands, forming a motley band of retainers
+which made a considerable element in the population, and one of the
+chief sources of the wealth of chiefs and _flaiths_. The other principal
+source of their income was the food-rent paid by _ceiles_, and
+especially by the _daer_ or bond _ceiles_, who were hence called
+_biathachs_, from _biad_, food. A _flaith_, but not a _rig_, might, if
+he liked, go to the house of his _ceile_ and consume his food-rent in
+the house of the latter.
+
+Under the influence of feudal ideas and the growth of the modern views
+as to ownership of land, the chiefs and other lords of clans claimed in
+modern times the right of best owing the tribe-land as _turcrec_,
+instead of stock, and receiving rent not for cattle and other chattels
+as in former times, but proportionate to the extent of land given to
+them. The _turcrec_-land seems to have been at first given upon the same
+terms as _turcrec_-stock, but gradually a system of short leases grew
+up; sometimes, too, it was given on mortgage. In the Highlands of
+Scotland _ceiles_ who received _turcrec_-land were called "taksmen." On
+the death of the chief or lord, his successor either bestowed the land
+upon the same person or gave it to some other relative. In this way in
+each generation new families came into possession of land, and others
+sank into the mass of mere tribesmen. Sometimes a "taksman" succeeded in
+acquiring his land in perpetuity, by gift, marriage or purchase, or even
+by the "strong hand." The universal prevalence of exchangeable
+allotments, or the rundale system, shows that down to even comparatively
+modern times some of the land was still recognized as the property of
+the tribe, and was cultivated in village communities.
+
+The chief governed the clan by the aid of a council called the _sabaid_
+(_sab_, a prop), but the chief exercised much power, especially over the
+miscellaneous body of non-tribesmen who lived on his own estate. This
+power seems to have extended to life and death. Several of the
+_flaiths_, perhaps, all heads of septs, also possessed somewhat
+extensive powers of the same kind.
+
+The Celtic dress, at least in the middle ages, consisted of a kind of
+shirt reaching to a little below the knees called a _lenn_, a jacket
+called an _inar_, and a garment called a _brat_, consisting of a single
+piece of cloth. This was apparently the garb of the _aires_, who appear
+to have been further distinguished by the number of colours in their
+dress, for we are told that while a slave had clothes of one colour, a
+_reg tuatha_, or chief of a tribe, had five, and an _ollamh_ and a
+superior king six. The breeches was also known, and cloaks with a cowl
+or hood, which buttoned up tight in front. The _lenn_ is the modern
+kilt, and the _brat_ the plaid, so that the dress of the Irish and Welsh
+in former times was the same as that of the Scottish Highlander.
+
+By the abolition of the heritable jurisdiction of the Highland chiefs,
+and the general disarmament of the clans by the acts passed in 1747
+after the rebellion of 1745, the clan system was practically broken up,
+though its influence still lingers in the more remote districts. An act
+was also passed in 1747 forbidding the use of the Highland garb; but the
+injustice and impolicy of such a law being generally felt it was
+afterwards repealed.    (W. K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The following account of the Irish clan-system differs in some
+    respects from that in the article on BREHON LAWS (_q.v._); but it is
+    retained here in view of the authority of the writer and the admitted
+    obscurity of the whole subject. (ED. _E.B._)
+
+  [2] The explanation here given of _geilfine_ is different from that
+    given in the introduction to the third volume of the _Ancient Laws of
+    Ireland_, which was followed by Sir H.S. Maine in his account of it
+    in his _Early History of Institutions_, and which the present writer
+    believes to be erroneous.
+
+  [3] It should also be mentioned that illegitimacy was not a bar. The
+    issue of "handfast" marriages in Scotland were eligible to be chiefs,
+    and even sometimes claimed under feudal law.
+
+  [4] This office is of considerable importance in connexion with early
+    Scottish history. In the Irish annals the _rig_, or chief of a great
+    tribe (_mor tuath_), such as of Ross, Moray, Marr, Buchan, &c., is
+    called a _mor maer_, or great _maer_. Sometimes the same person is
+    called king also in these annals. Thus _Findlaec_, or Finlay, son of
+    _Ruadhri_, the father of Shakespeare's Macbeth, is called king of
+    Moray in the _Annals of Ulster_, and _mor maer_ in the _Annals of
+    Tighernach_. The term is never found in Scottish charters, but it
+    occurs in the Book of the Abbey of Deir in Buchan, now in the library
+    of the university of Cambridge. The Scotic kings and their successors
+    obviously regarded the chiefs of the great tribes in question merely
+    as their _maers_, while their tribesmen only knew them as kings. From
+    these "mor-maerships," which corresponded with the ancient _mor
+    tuatha_, came most, if not all, the ancient Scottish earldoms.
+
+
+
+
+CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE), 1st EARL OF (d. 1544),
+styled MacWilliam, and Ne-gan or Na-gCeann (i.e. "of the Heads," "having
+made a mount of the heads of men slain in battle which he covered up
+with earth"), was the son of Richard or Rickard de Burgh, lord of
+Clanricarde, by a daughter of Madden of Portumna, and grandson of Ulick
+de Burgh, lord of Clanricarde (1467-1487), the collateral heir male of
+the earls of Ulster. On the death of the last earl in 1333, his only
+child Elizabeth had married Lionel, duke of Clarence, and the earldom
+became merged in the crown, in consequence of which the de Burghs
+abjured English laws and sovereignty, and chose for their chiefs the
+sons of Sir William, the "Red" earl of Ulster's brother, the elder
+William taking the title of MacWilliam Eighter (Uachtar, i.e. Upper),
+and becoming the ancestor of the earls of Clanricarde, and his brother
+Sir Edmond that of MacWilliam Oughter (Ochtar, i.e. Lower), and founding
+the family of the earls of Mayo. In 1361 the duke of Clarence was sent
+over as lord-lieutenant to Ireland to enforce his claims as husband of
+the heir general, but failed, and the chiefs of the de Burghs maintained
+their independence of English sovereignty for several generations. Ulick
+de Burgh succeeded to the headship of his clan, exercised a quasi-royal
+authority and held vast estates in county Galway, in Connaught,
+including Loughry, Dunkellin, Kiltartan (Hilltaraght) and Athenry, as
+well as Clare and Leitrim. In March 1541, however, he wrote to Henry
+VIII., lamenting the degeneracy of his family, "which have been brought
+to Irish and disobedient rule by reason of marriage and nurseing with
+those Irish, sometime rebels, near adjoining to me," and placing himself
+and his estates in the king's hands. The same year he was present at
+Dublin, when the act was passed making Henry VIII. king of Ireland. In
+1543, in company with other Irish chiefs, he visited the king at
+Greenwich, made full submission, undertook to introduce English manners
+and abandon Irish names, received a regrant of the greater part of his
+estates with the addition of other lands, was confirmed in the
+captainship and rule of Clanricarde, and was created on the 1st of July
+1543 earl of Clanricarde and baron of Dunkellin in the peerage of
+Ireland, with unusual ceremony. "The making of McWilliam earl of
+Clanricarde made all the country during his time quiet and obedient,"
+states Lord Chancellor Cusake in his review of the state of Ireland in
+1553.[1] He did not live long, however, to enjoy his new English
+dignities, but died shortly after returning to Ireland about March 1544.
+He is called by the annalist of Loch Ce "a haughty and proud lord," who
+reduced many under his yoke, and by the Four Masters "the most
+illustrious of the English in Connaught."
+
+Clanricarde married (1) Grany or Grace, daughter of Mulrone O'Carroll,
+"prince of Ely," by whom he had Richard or Rickard "the Saxon," who
+succeeded him as 2nd earl of Clanricarde (grandfather of the 4th earl,
+whose son became marquess of Clanricarde), this alliance being the only
+one declared valid. After parting with his first wife he married (2)
+Honora, sister of Ulick de Burgh, from whom he also parted. He married
+(3) Mary Lynch, by whom he had John, who claimed the earldom in 1568.
+Other sons, according to Burke's _Peerage_, were Thomas "the Athlete,"
+shot in 1545, Redmond "of the Broom" (d. 1595), and Edmund (d. 1597).
+
+  See also _Annals of Ireland by the Four Masters_ (ed. by O. Connellan,
+  1846), p. 132 note, and reign of Henry VIII.; _Annals of Loch Ce
+  (Rerum Brit. Medii Aevi Scriptores_) (54) (1871); _Hist. Mem. of the
+  O'Briens_, by J.O. Donoghue (i860), pp 159, 519; _Ireland under the
+  Tudors_, by R. Bagwell, vol. i.; _State Papers, Ireland, Carew MSS._
+  and Gairdner's _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.; Cotton MSS._ Brit.
+  Mus., Titus B xi. f. 388. (P.C.Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Cal. of State Pap., Carew MSS._ 1515-1574, p. 246.
+
+
+
+
+CLANRICARDE, ULICK DE BURGH (BOURKE or BURKE), MARQUESS OF (1604-1657 or
+1658), son of Richard, 4th earl of Clanricarde, created in 1628 earl of
+St Albans, and of Frances, daughter and heir of Sir Francis Walsingham,
+and widow of Sir Philip Sidney and of Robert Devereux, earl of Essex,
+was born in 1604. He was summoned to the House of Lords as Lord Burgh in
+1628, and succeeded his father as 5th earl in 1635. He sat in the Short
+Parliament of 1640 and attended Charles I. in the Scottish expedition.
+On the outbreak of the Irish rebellion Clanricarde had powerful
+inducements for joining the Irish--the ancient greatness and
+independence of his family, his devotion to the Roman Catholic Church,
+and strongest of all, the ungrateful treatment meted out by Charles I.
+and Wentworth to his father, one of Elizabeth's most stanch adherents in
+Ireland, whose lands were appropriated by the crown and whose death, it
+was popularly asserted, was hastened by the harshness of the
+lord-lieutenant. Nevertheless at the crisis his loyalty never wavered.
+Alone of the Irish Roman Catholic nobility to declare for the king, he
+returned to Ireland, took up his residence at Portumna, kept Galway, of
+which he was governor, neutral, and took measures for the defence of the
+county and for the relief of the Protestants, making "his house and
+towns a refuge, nay, even a hospital for the distressed English."[1] In
+1643 he was one of the commissioners appointed by the king to confer
+with the Irish confederates, and urged the wisdom of a cessation of
+hostilities in a document which he publicly distributed. He was
+appointed commander of the English forces in Connaught in 1644, and in
+1646 was created a marquess and a privy councillor. He supported the
+same year the treaty between Charles I. and the confederates, and
+endeavoured after its failure to persuade Preston, the general of the
+Irish, to agree to a peace; but the latter, being advised by Rinuccini,
+the papal nuncio, refused in December. Together with Ormonde,
+Clanricarde opposed the nuncio's policy; and the royalist inhabitants of
+Galway having through the latter's influence rejected the cessation of
+hostilities, arranged with Lord Inchiquin in 1648, he besieged the town
+and compelled its acquiescence. In 1649 he reduced Sligo. On Ormonde's
+departure in December 1650 Clanricarde was appointed deputy
+lord-lieutenant, but he was not trusted by the Roman Catholics, and was
+unable to stem the tide of the parliamentary successes. In 1651 he
+opposed the offer of Charles, duke of Lorraine, to supply money and aid
+on condition of being acknowledged "Protector" of the kingdom. In May
+1652 Galway surrendered to the parliament, and in June Clanricarde
+signed articles with the parliamentary commissioners which allowed his
+departure from Ireland. In August he was excepted from pardon for life
+and estate, but by permits, renewed from time to time by the council, he
+was enabled to remain in England for the rest of his life, and in 1653
+L500 a year was settled upon him by the council of state in
+consideration of the protection which he had given to the Protestants in
+Ireland at the time of the rebellion. He died at Somerhill in Kent in
+1657 or 1658 and was buried at Tunbridge.
+
+The "great earl," as he was called, supported Ormonde in his desire to
+unite the English royalists with the more moderate Roman Catholics on
+the basis of religious toleration under the authority of the sovereign,
+against the papal scheme advocated by Rinuccini, and in opposition to
+the parliamentary and Puritan policy. By the author of the _Aphorismical
+Discovery_, who represents the opinion of the native Irish, he is
+denounced as the "masterpiece of the treasonable faction," "a foe to his
+king, nation and religion," and by the duke of Lorraine as "a traitor
+and a base fellow"; but there is no reason to doubt Clarendon's opinion
+of him as "a person of unquestionable fidelity. . . and of the most
+eminent constancy to the Roman Catholic religion of any man in the three
+kingdoms," or the verdict of Hallam, who describes him "as perhaps the
+most unsullied character in the annals of Ireland."
+
+He married Lady Anne Compton, daughter of William Compton, 1st earl of
+Northampton, but had issue only one daughter. On his death, accordingly,
+the marquessate and the English peerages became extinct, the Irish
+titles reverting to his cousin Richard, 6th earl, grandson of the 3rd
+earl of Clanricarde. Henry, the 12th earl (1742-1797), was again created
+a marquess in 1789, but the marquessate expired at his death without
+issue, the earldom going to his brother. In 1825 the 14th earl
+(1802-1874) was created a marquess; he was ambassador at St Petersburg,
+and later postmaster-general and lord privy seal, and married George
+Canning's daughter. His son (b. 1832), who achieved notoriety in the
+Irish land agitation, succeeded him as 2nd marquess.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--See the article "Burgh, Ulick de," in the _Dict. of
+  Nat. Biography_, and authorities there given; _Hist. of the Irish
+  Confederation_, by R. Bellings, ed. by J.T. Gilbert (1882);
+  _Aphorismical Discovery_ (Irish Archaeological Society, 1879);
+  _Memoirs of the Marquis of Clanricarde_ (1722, repr. 1744); _Memoirs
+  of Ulick_, _Marquis of Clanricarde_, by John, 11th earl (1757); _Life
+  of Ormonde_, by T. Carte (1851); S.R. Gardiner's _Hist. of the Civil
+  War_ and of the _Commonwealth; Thomason Tracts_ (Brit. Mus.) E 371
+  (11), 456 (10); _Cal. of State Papers, Irish_, esp. _Introd._
+  1633-1647 and _Domestic; Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marq. of Ormonde_
+  and _Earl of Egmont_.    (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS of Earl of Egmont_, i. 223.
+
+
+
+
+CLANVOWE, SIR THOMAS, the name of an English poet first mentioned in the
+history of English literature by F.S. Ellis in 1896, when, in editing
+the text of _The Book of Cupid, God of Love, or The Cuckoo and the
+Nightingale_, for the Kelmscott Press, he stated that Professor Skeat
+had discovered that at the end of the best of the MSS. the author was
+called Clanvowe. In 1897 this information was confirmed and expanded by
+Professor Skeat in the supplementary volume of his Clarendon Press
+_Chaucer_ (1894-1897). The beautiful romance of _The Cuckoo and the
+Nightingale_ was published by Thynne in 1532, and was attributed by him,
+and by successive editors down to the days of Henry Bradshaw, to
+Chaucer. It was due to this error that for three centuries Chaucer was
+supposed to be identified with the manor of Woodstock, and even painted,
+in fanciful pictures, as lying
+
+  "Under a maple that is fair and green,
+   Before the chamber-window of the Queen
+   At Wodestock, upon the greene lea."
+
+But this queen could only be Joan of Navarre, who arrived in 1403, three
+years after Chaucer's death, and it is to the spring of that year that
+Professor Skeat attributes the composition of the poem. Sir Thomas
+Clanvowe was of a Herefordshire family, settled near Wigmore. He was a
+prominent figure in the courts of Richard II. and Henry IV., and is said
+to have been a friend of Prince Hal. He was one of those who "had begun
+to mell of Lollardy, and drink the gall of heresy." He was one of the
+twenty-five knights who accompanied John Beaufort (son of John of Gaunt)
+to Barbary in 1390.
+
+The date of his birth is unknown, and his name is last mentioned in
+1404. The historic and literary importance of _The Cuckoo and the
+Nightingale_ is great. It is the work of a poet who had studied the
+prosody of Chaucer with more intelligent care than either Occleve or
+Lydgate, and who therefore forms an important link between the 14th and
+15th centuries in English poetry. Clanvowe writes with a surprising
+delicacy and sweetness, in a five-line measure almost peculiar to
+himself. Professor Skeat points out a unique characteristic of
+Clanvowe's versification, namely, the unprecedented freedom with which
+he employs the suffix of the final _-e_, and rather avoids than seeks
+elision. _The Cuckoo and the Nightingale_ was imitated by Milton in his
+sonnet to the Nightingale, and was rewritten in modern English by
+Wordsworth. It is a poem of so much individual beauty, that we must
+regret the apparent loss of everything else written by a poet of such
+unusual talent.
+
+  See also a critical edition of the _Boke of Cupide_ by Dr Erich
+  Vollmer (Berlin, 1898).    (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAPAREDE, JEAN LOUIS RENE ANTOINE EDOUARD (1832-1870), Swiss
+naturalist, was born at Geneva on the 24th of April 1832. He belonged to
+a French family, some members of which had taken refuge in that city
+after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. In 1852 he began to study
+medicine and natural science at Berlin, where he was greatly influenced
+by J. Mueller and C.G. Ehrenberg, the former being at that period engaged
+in his important researches on the Echinoderms. In 1855 he accompanied
+Mueller to Norway, and there spent two months on a desolate reef that he
+might obtain satisfactory observations. The latter part of his stay at
+Berlin he devoted, along with J. Lachmann, to the study of the Infusoria
+and Rhizopods. In 1857 he obtained the degree of doctor, and in 1862 he
+was chosen professor of comparative anatomy at Geneva. In 1859 he
+visited England, and in company with W.B. Carpenter made a voyage to the
+Hebrides; and in 1863 he spent some months in the Bay of Biscay. On the
+appearance of Darwin's work on the _Origin of Species_, he adopted his
+theories and published a valuable series of articles on the subject in
+the _Revue Germanique_ (1861). During 1865 and 1866 ill-health rendered
+him incapable of work, and he determined to pass the winter of 1866-1867
+in Naples. The change of climate produced some amelioration, and his
+energy was attested by two elaborate volumes on the Annelidae of the
+gulf. He again visited Naples with advantage in 1868; but in 1870,
+instead of recovering as before, he grew worse, and on the 31st of May
+he died at Siena on his way home. His _Recherches sur la structure des
+annelides sedentaires_ were published posthumously in 1873.
+
+
+
+
+CLAPPERTON, HUGH (1788-1827), Scottish traveller in West-Central Africa,
+was born in 1788 at Annan, Dumfriesshire, where his father was a
+surgeon. He gained some knowledge of practical mathematics and
+navigation, and at thirteen was apprenticed on board a vessel which
+traded between Liverpool and North America. After having made several
+voyages across the Atlantic he was impressed for the navy, in which he
+soon rose to the rank of midshipman. During the Napoleonic wars he saw a
+good deal of active service, and at the storming of Port Louis,
+Mauritius, in November 1810, he was first in the breach and hauled down
+the French flag. In 1814 he went to Canada, was promoted to the rank of
+lieutenant, and to the command of a schooner on the Canadian lakes. In
+1817, when the flotilla on the lakes was dismantled, he returned home on
+half-pay.
+
+In 1820 Clapperton removed to Edinburgh, where he made the acquaintance
+of Walter Oudney, M.D., who aroused in him an interest in African
+travel. Lieut. G.F. Lyon, R.N., having returned from an unsuccessful
+attempt to reach Bornu from Tripoli, the British government determined
+on a second expedition to that country. Dr Oudney was appointed by Lord
+Bathurst, then colonial secretary, to proceed to Bornu as consul with
+the object of promoting trade, and Clapperton and Major Dixon Denham
+(q.v.) were added to the party. From Tripoli, early in 1822, they set
+out southward to Murzuk, and from this point Clapperton and Oudney
+visited the Ghat oasis. Kuka, the capital of Bornu, was reached in
+February 1823, and Lake Chad seen for the first time by Europeans. At
+Bornu the travellers were well received by the sultan; and after
+remaining in the country till the 14th of December they again set out
+for the purpose of exploring the course of the Niger. At Murmur, on the
+road to Kano, Oudney died (January 1824). Clapperton continued his
+journey alone through Kano to Sokoto, the capital of the Fula empire,
+where by order of Sultan Bello he was obliged to stop, though the Niger
+was only five days' journey to the west. Worn out with his travel he
+returned by way of Zaria and Katsena to Kuka, where he again met Denham.
+The two travellers then set out for Tripoli, reached on the 26th of
+January 1825. An account of the travels was published in 1826 under the
+title of _Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central
+Africa in the years 1822-1824_.
+
+Immediately after his return Clapperton was raised to the rank of
+commander, and sent out with another expedition to Africa, the sultan
+Bello of Sokoto having professed his eagerness to open up trade with the
+west coast. Clapperton landed at Badagry in the Bight of Benin, and
+started overland for the Niger on the 7th of December 1825, having with
+him his servant Richard Lander (q.v.), Captain Pearce, R.N., and Dr
+Morrison, navy surgeon and naturalist. Before the month was out Pearce
+and Morrison were dead of fever. Clapperton continued his journey, and,
+passing through the Yoruba country, in January 1826 he crossed the Niger
+at Bussa, the spot where Mungo Park had died twenty years before. In
+July he arrived at Kano. Thence he went to Sokoto, intending afterwards
+to go to Bornu. The sultan, however, detained him, and being seized with
+dysentery he died near Sokoto on the 13th of April 1827.
+
+Clapperton was the first European to make known from personal
+observation the semi-civilized Hausa countries, which he visited soon
+after the establishment of the Sokoto empire by the Fula. In 1829
+appeared the _Journal of a Second Expedition into the Interior of
+Africa_, &c, by the late Commander Clapperton, to which was prefaced a
+biographical sketch of the explorer by his uncle, Lieut.-colonel S.
+Clapperton. Lander, who had brought back the journal of his master, also
+published _Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition to Africa ...
+with the subsequent Adventures of the Author_ (2 vols., London, 1830).
+
+
+
+
+CLAQUE (Fr. _claquer_, to clap the hands), an organized body of
+professional applauders in the French theatres. The hiring of persons to
+applaud dramatic performances was common in classical times, and the
+emperor Nero, when he acted, had his performance greeted by an encomium
+chanted by five thousand of his soldiers, who were called Angustals. The
+recollection of this gave the 16th-century French poet, Jean Daurat, an
+idea which has developed into the modern claque. Buying up a number of
+tickets for a performance of one of his plays, he distributed them
+gratuitously to those who promised publicly to express their
+approbation. It was not, however, till 1820 that a M. Sauton seriously
+undertook the systematization of the claque, and opened an office in
+Paris for the supply of _claqueurs_. By 1830 the claque had become a
+regular institution. The manager of a theatre sends an order for any
+number of _claqueurs_. These people are usually under a _chef de
+claque_, whose duty it is to judge where their efforts are needed and to
+start the demonstration of approval. This takes several forms. Thus
+there are _commissaires_, those who learn the piece by heart, and call
+the attention of their neighbours to its good points between the acts.
+The _rieurs_ are those who laugh loudly at the jokes. The _pleureurs_,
+generally women, feign tears, by holding their handkerchiefs to their
+eyes. The _chatouilleurs_ keep the audience in a good humour, while the
+_bisseurs_ simply clap their hands and cry _bis! bis!_ to secure
+encores.
+
+
+
+
+CLARA, SAINT (1194-1253), foundress of the Franciscan nuns, was born of
+a knightly family in Assisi in 1194. At eighteen she was so impressed by
+a sermon of St Francis that she was filled with the desire to devote
+herself to the kind of life he was leading. She obtained an interview
+with him, and to test her resolution he told her to dress in penitential
+sackcloth and beg alms for the poor in the streets of Assisi. Clara
+readily did this, and Francis, satisfied as to her vocation, told her to
+come to the Portiuncula arrayed as a bride. The friars met her with
+lighted candles, and at the foot of the altar Francis shore off her
+hair, received her vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, and invested
+her with the Franciscan habit, 1212. He placed her for a couple of years
+in a Benedictine convent in Assisi, until the convent at St Damian's,
+close to the town, was ready. Her two younger sisters, and, after her
+father's death, her mother and many others joined her, and the
+Franciscan nuns spread widely and rapidly (see CLARES, POOR). The
+relations of friendship and sympathy between St Clara and St Francis
+were very close, and there can be no doubt that she was one of the
+truest heirs of Francis's inmost spirit. After his death Clara threw
+herself wholly on the side of those who opposed mitigations in the rule
+and manner of life, and she was one of the chief upholders of St
+Francis's primitive idea of poverty (see FRANCISCANS). She was the close
+friend of Brother Leo and the other "Companions of St Francis," and they
+assisted at her death. For forty years she was abbess at St Damian's,
+and the great endeavour of her life was that the rule of the nuns should
+be purged of the foreign elements that had been introduced, and should
+become wholly conformable to St Francis's spirit. She lived just long
+enough to witness the fulfilment of her great wish, a rule such as she
+desired being approved by the pope two days before her death on the 11th
+of August 1253.
+
+  The sources for her life are to be found in the Bollandist _Acta
+  Sanctorum_ on the 11th of August, and sketches in such _Lives of the
+  Saints_ as Alban Butler's. See also Wetzer und Welte,
+  _Kirchen-lexicon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Clara."    (E. C. B.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARE, the name of a famous English family. The ancestor of this
+historic house, "which played," in Freeman's words, "so great a part
+alike in England, Wales and Ireland," was Count Godfrey, eldest of the
+illegitimate sons of Richard the Fearless, duke of Normandy. His son,
+Count Gilbert of Brionne, had two sons, Richard, lord of Bienfaite and
+Orbec, and Baldwin, lord of Le Sap and Meulles, both of whom accompanied
+the Conqueror to England. Baldwin, known as "De Meulles" or "of Exeter,"
+received the hereditary shrievalty of Devon with great estates in the
+West Country, and left three sons, William, Robert and Richard, of whom
+the first and last were in turn sheriffs of Devon. Richard, known as
+"de Bienfaite," or "of Tunbridge," or "of Clare," was the founder of the
+house of Clare.
+
+Richard derived his English appellation from his strongholds at
+Tunbridge and at Clare, at both of which his castle-mounds still remain.
+The latter, on the borders of Essex and Suffolk, was the head of his
+great "honour" which lay chiefly in the eastern counties. Appointed
+joint justiciar in the king's absence abroad, he took a leading part in
+suppressing the revolt of 1075. By his wife, Rohese, daughter of Walter
+Giffard, through whom great Giffard estates afterwards came to his
+house, he left five sons and two daughters. Roger was his heir in
+Normandy, Walter founded Tintern Abbey, Richard was a monk, and Robert,
+receiving the forfeited fief of the Baynards in the eastern counties,
+founded, through his son Walter, the house of FitzWalter (extinct 1432),
+of whom the most famous was Robert FitzWalter, the leader of the barons
+against King John. Of this house, spoken of by Jordan Fantosme as
+"Clarreaus," the Daventrys of Daventry (extinct 1380) and Fawsleys of
+Fawsley (extinct 1392) were cadets. One of Richard's two daughters
+married the famous Walter Tirel.
+
+Gilbert, Richard's heir in England, held his castle of Tunbridge against
+William Rufus, but was wounded and captured. Under Henry I., who
+favoured the Clares, he obtained a grant of Cardigan, and carried his
+arms into Wales. Dying about 1115, he left four sons, of whom Gilbert,
+the second, inherited Chepstow, with Nether-Gwent, from his uncle,
+Walter, the founder of Tintern, and was created earl of Pembroke by
+Stephen about 1138; he was father of Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke
+(q.v.). The youngest son Baldwin fought for Stephen at the battle of
+Lincoln (1141) and founded the priories of Bourne and Deeping on lands
+acquired with his wife. The eldest son Richard, who was slain by the
+Welsh on his way to Cardigan in 1135 or 1136, left two sons Gilbert and
+Roger, of whom Gilbert was created earl of Hertfordshire by Stephen.
+
+It was probably because he and the Clares had no interests in
+Hertfordshire that they were loosely and usually styled the earls of
+(de) Clare. Dying in 1152, Gilbert was succeeded by his brother Roger,
+of whom Fitz-Stephen observes that "nearly all the nobles of England
+were related to the earl of Clare, whose sister, the most beautiful
+woman in England, had long been desired by the king" (Henry II.). He was
+constantly fighting the Welsh for his family possessions in Wales and
+quarrelled with Becket over Tunbridge Castle. In 1173 or 1174 he was
+succeeded by his son Richard as third earl, whose marriage with Amicia,
+daughter and co-heir of William, earl of Gloucester, was destined to
+raise the fortunes of his house to their highest point. He and his son
+Gilbert were among the "barons of the Charter," Gilbert, who became
+fourth earl in 1217, obtained also, early in 1218, the earldom of
+Gloucester, with its great territorial "Honour," and the lordship of
+Glamorgan, in right of his mother; "from this time the house of Clare
+became the acknowledged head of the baronage." Gilbert had also
+inherited through his father his grandmother's "Honour of St Hilary" and
+a moiety of the Giffard fief; but the vast possessions of his house were
+still further swollen by his marriage with a daughter of William
+(Marshal), earl of Pembroke, through whom his son Richard succeeded in
+1245 to a fifth of the Marshall lands including the Kilkenny estates in
+Ireland. Richard's successor, Gilbert, the "Red" earl, died in 1295, the
+most powerful subject in the kingdom.
+
+On his death his earldoms seem to have been somewhat mysteriously deemed
+to have passed to his widow Joan, daughter of Edward I.; for her second
+husband, Ralph de Monthermer, was summoned to parliament in right of
+them from 1299 to 1306. After her death, however, in 1307, Earl
+Gilbert's son and namesake was summoned in 1308 as earl of Gloucester
+and Hertford, though only sixteen. A nephew of Edward II. and
+brother-in-law of Gaveston, he played a somewhat wavering part in the
+struggle between the king and the barons. Guardian of the realm in 1311
+and regent in 1313, he fell gloriously at Bannockburn (June 24th, 1314),
+when only twenty-three, rushing on the enemy "like a wild boar, making
+his sword drunk with their blood."
+
+The earl was the last of his mighty line, and his vast possessions in
+England (in over twenty counties), Wales and Ireland fell to his three
+sisters, of whom Elizabeth, the youngest, wife of John de Burgh,
+obtained the "Honour of Clare" and transmitted it to her son William de
+Burgh, 3rd earl of Ulster, whose daughter brought it to Lionel, son of
+King Edward III., who was thereupon created duke of Clarence, a title
+associated ever since with the royal house. The "Honour of Clare,"
+vested in the crown, still preserves a separate existence, with a court
+and steward of its own.
+
+Clare College, Cambridge, derived its name from the above Elizabeth,
+"Lady of Clare," who founded it as Clare Hall in 1347.
+
+Clare County in Ireland derives its name from the family, though whether
+from Richard Strongbow, or from Thomas de Clare, a younger son, who had
+a grant of Thomond in 1276, has been deemed doubtful.
+
+Clarenceux King of Arms, an officer of the Heralds' College, derives his
+style, through Clarence, from Clare.
+
+  See J.H. Round's _Geoffrey de Mandeville, Feudal England, Commune of
+  London_, and _Peerage Studies_; also his "Family of Clare" in _Arch.
+  Journ._ lvi., and "Origin of Armorial Bearings" in Ib. li.;
+  Parkinson's "Clarence, the origin and bearers of the title," in _The
+  Antiquary_, v.; Clark's "Lords of Glamorgan" in _Arch. Journ._ xxxv.;
+  Planche's "Earls of Gloucester" in _Journ. Arch. Assoc._ xxvi.;
+  Dugdale's _Baronage_, vol. i., and _Monasticon Anglicanum_; G.E.
+  C[okayne]'s _Complete Peerage_.    (J. H. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARE, JOHN (1793-1864), English poet, commonly known as "the
+Northamptonshire Peasant Poet," the son of a farm labourer, was born at
+Helpstone near Peterborough, on the 13th of July 1793. At the age of
+seven he was taken from school to tend sheep and geese; four years later
+he began to work on a farm, attending in the winter evenings a school
+where he is said to have learnt some algebra. He then became a pot-boy
+in a public-house and fell in love with Mary Joyce, but her father, a
+prosperous farmer, forbade her to meet him. Subsequently he was gardener
+at Burghley Park. He enlisted in the militia, tried camp life with
+gipsies, and worked as a lime burner in 1817, but in the following year
+he was obliged to accept parish relief. Clare had bought a copy of
+Thomson's _Seasons_ out of his scanty earnings and had begun to write
+poems. In 1819 a bookseller at Stamford, named Drury, lighted on one of
+Clare's poems, _The Setting Sun_, written on a scrap of paper enclosing
+a note to his predecessor in the business. He befriended the author and
+introduced his poems to the notice of John Taylor, of the publishing
+firm of Taylor & Hussey, who issued the _Poems Descriptive of Rural Life
+and Scenery_ in 1820. This book was highly praised, and in the next year
+his _Village Minstrel and other Poems_ were published. He was greatly
+patronized; fame, in the shape of curious visitors, broke the tenor of
+his life, and the convivial habits that he had formed were indulged more
+freely. He had married in 1820, and an annuity of 15 guineas from Lord
+Exeter, in whose service he had been, was supplemented by subscription,
+and he became possessed of L45 annually, a sum far beyond what he had
+ever earned, but new wants made his income insufficient, and in 1823 he
+was nearly penniless. The _Shepherd's Calendar_ (1827) met with little
+success, which was not increased by his hawking it himself. As he worked
+again on the fields his health temporarily improved; but he soon became
+seriously ill. Lord Fitzwilliam presented him with a new cottage and a
+piece of ground, but Clare could not settle in his new home. Gradually
+his mind gave way. His last and best work, the _Rural Muse_ (1835), was
+noticed by "Christopher North" alone. He had for some time shown
+symptoms of insanity; and in July 1837 he was removed to a private
+asylum, and afterwards to the Northampton general lunatic asylum, where
+he died on the 20th of May 1864. Clare's descriptions of rural scenes
+show a keen and loving appreciation of nature, and his love-songs and
+ballads charm by their genuine feeling; but his vogue was no doubt
+largely due to the interest aroused by his humble position in life.
+
+  See the _Life of John Clare_, by Frederick Martin (1865); and _Life
+  and Remains of John Clare_, by J.L. Cherry (1873), which, though not
+  so complete, contains some of the poet's asylum verses and prose
+  fragments.
+
+
+
+
+CLARE, JOHN FITZGIBBON, 1ST EARL OF (1749-1802), lord chancellor of
+Ireland, was the second son of John Fitzgibbon, who had abandoned the
+Roman Catholic faith in order to pursue a legal career. He was educated
+at Trinity College, Dublin, where he was highly distinguished as a
+classical scholar, and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in
+1770. In 1772 he was called to the Irish bar, and quickly acquired a
+very lucrative practice; he also inherited his father's large fortune on
+the death of his elder brother. In 1778 he entered the Irish House of
+Commons as member for Dublin University, and at first gave a general
+support to the popular party led by Henry Grattan (q.v.). He was,
+however, from the first hostile to that part of Grattan's policy which
+aimed at removing the disabilities of the Roman Catholics; he
+endeavoured to impede the Relief Bill of 1778 by raising difficulties
+about its effect on the Act of Settlement. He especially distrusted the
+priests, and many years later explained that his life-long resistance to
+all concession to the Catholics was based on his "unalterable opinion"
+that "a conscientious Popish ecclesiastic never will become a
+well-attached subject to a Protestant state, and that the Popish clergy
+must always have a commanding influence on every member of that
+communion." As early as 1780 Fitzgibbon began to separate himself from
+the popular or national party, by opposing Grattan's declaration of the
+Irish parliament's right to independence. There is no reason to suppose
+that in this change of view he was influenced by corrupt or personal
+motives. His cast of mind naturally inclined to authority rather than to
+democratic liberty; his hostility to the Catholic claims, and his
+distrust of parliamentary reform as likely to endanger the connexion of
+Ireland with Great Britain, made him a sincere opponent of the aims
+which Grattan had in view. In reply, however, to a remonstrance from his
+constituents Fitzgibbon promised to support Grattan's policy in the
+future, and described the claim of Great Britain to make laws for
+Ireland as "a daring usurpation of the rights of a free people."
+
+For some time longer there was no actual breach between him and Grattan.
+Grattan supported the appointment of Fitzgibbon as attorney-general in
+1783, and in 1785 the latter highly eulogized Grattan's character and
+services to the country in a speech in which he condemned Flood's
+volunteer movement. He also opposed Flood's Reform Bill of 1784; and
+from this time forward he was in fact the leading spirit in the Irish
+government, and the stiffest opponent of all concession to popular
+demands. In 1784 the permanent committee of revolutionary reformers in
+Dublin, of whom Napper Tandy was the most conspicuous, invited the
+sheriffs of counties to call meetings for the election of delegates to
+attend a convention for the discussion of reform; and when the sheriff
+of the county of Dublin summoned a meeting for this purpose Fitzgibbon
+procured his imprisonment for contempt of court, and justified this
+procedure in parliament, though Lord Erskine declared it grossly
+illegal. In the course of the debates on Pitt's commercial propositions
+in 1785, which Fitzgibbon supported in masterly speeches, he referred to
+Curran in terms which led to a duel between the two lawyers, when
+Fitzgibbon was accused of a deliberation in aiming at his opponent that
+was contrary to etiquette. His antagonism to Curran was life-long and
+bitter, and after he became chancellor his hostility to the famous
+advocate was said to have driven the latter out of practice. In January
+1787 Fitzgibbon introduced a stringent bill for repressing the Whiteboy
+outrages. It was supported by Grattan, who, however, procured the
+omission of a clause enacting that any Roman Catholic chapel near which
+an illegal oath had been tendered should be immediately demolished. His
+influence with the majority in the Irish parliament defeated Pitt's
+proposed reform of the tithe system in Ireland, Fitzgibbon refusing even
+to grant a committee to investigate the subject. On the regency question
+in 1789 Fitzgibbon, in opposition to Grattan, supported the doctrine of
+Pitt in a series of powerful speeches which proved him a great
+constitutional lawyer; he intimated that the choice for Ireland might in
+certain eventualities rest between complete separation from England and
+legislative union; and, while he exclaimed as to the latter alternative,
+"God forbid that I should ever see that day!" he admitted that
+separation would be the worse evil of the two.
+
+In the same year Lord Lifford resigned the chancellorship, and
+Fitzgibbon was appointed in his place, being raised to the peerage as
+Baron Fitzgibbon. His removal to the House of Lords greatly increased
+his power. In the Commons, though he had exercised great influence as
+attorney-general, his position had been secondary; in the House of Lords
+and in the privy council he was little less than despotic. "He was,"
+says Lecky, "by far the ablest Irishman who had adopted without
+restriction the doctrine that the Irish legislature must be maintained
+in a condition of permanent and unvarying subjection to the English
+executive." But the English ministry were now embarking on a policy of
+conciliation in Ireland. The Catholic Relief Bill of 1793 was forced on
+the Irish executive by the cabinet in London, but it passed rapidly and
+easily through the Irish parliament. Lord Fitzgibbon, while accepting
+the bill as inevitable under the circumstances that had arisen, made a
+most violent though exceedingly able speech against the principle of
+concession, which did much to destroy the conciliatory effect of the
+measure; and as a consequence of this act he began persistently to urge
+the necessity for a legislative union. From this date until the union
+was carried, the career of Fitzgibbon is practically the history of
+Ireland. True to his inveterate hostility to the popular claims, he was
+opposed to the appointment of Lord Fitzwilliam (q.v.) as viceroy in
+1795, and was probably the chief influence in procuring his recall; and
+it was Fitzgibbon who first put it into the head of George III. that the
+king would violate his coronation oath if he consented to the admission
+of Catholics to parliament. When Lord Camden, Fitzwilliam's successor in
+the viceroyalty, arrived in Dublin on the 31st of March 1795,
+Fitzgibbon's carriage was violently assaulted by the mob, and he himself
+was wounded; and in the riots that ensued his house was also attacked.
+But as if to impress upon the Catholics the hopelessness of their case,
+the government who had made Fitzgibbon a viscount immediately after his
+attack on the Catholics in 1793 now bestowed on him a further mark of
+honour. In June 1795 he was created earl of Clare. On the eve of the
+rebellion he warned the government that while emancipation and reform
+might be the objects aimed at by the better classes, the mass of the
+disaffected had in view "the separation of the country from her
+connexion with Great Britain, and a fraternal alliance with the French
+Republic." Clare advocated stringent measures to prevent an outbreak;
+but he was neither cruel nor immoderate, and was inclined to mercy in
+dealing with individuals. He attempted to save Lord Edward Fitzgerald
+(q.v.) from his fate by giving a friendly warning to his friends, and
+promising to facilitate his escape from the country; and Lord Edward's
+aunt, Lady Louisa Conolly, who was conducted to his death-bed in prison
+by the chancellor in person, declared that "nothing could exceed Lord
+Clare's kindness." His moderation and humanity after the rebellion was
+extolled by Cornwallis. He threw his great influence on the side of
+clemency, and it was through his intervention that Oliver Bond, when
+sentenced to death, was reprieved; and that an arrangement was made by
+which Arthur O'Connor, Thomas Emmet and other state prisoners were
+allowed to leave the country.
+
+In October 1798 Lord Clare, who since 1793 had been convinced of the
+necessity for a legislative union if the connexion between Great Britain
+and Ireland was to be maintained, and who was equally determined that
+the union must be unaccompanied by Catholic emancipation, crossed to
+England and successfully pressed his views on Pitt. In 1799 he induced
+the Irish House of Lords to throw out a bill for providing a permanent
+endowment of Maynooth. On the 10th of February 1800 Clare in the House
+of Lords moved the resolution approving the union in a long and powerful
+speech, in which he reviewed the history of Ireland since the
+Revolution, attributing the evils of recent years to the independent
+constitution of 1782, and speaking of Grattan in language of deep
+personal hatred. He was not aware of the assurance which Cornwallis had
+been authorized to convey to the Catholics that the union was to pave
+the way for emancipation, and when he heard of it after the passing of
+the act he bitterly complained that Pitt and Castlereagh had deceived
+him. After the union Clare became more violent than ever in his
+opposition to any policy of concession in Ireland. He died on the 28th
+of January 1802; his funeral in Dublin was the occasion of a riot
+organized "by a gang of about fourteen persons under orders of a
+leader." His wife, in compliance with his death-bed request, destroyed
+all his papers. His two sons, John (1792-1851) and Richard Hobart
+(1793-1864), succeeded in turn to the earldom, which became extinct on
+the death of the latter, whose only son, John Charles Henry, Viscount
+Fitzgibbon (1829-1854), was killed in the charge of the Light Brigade at
+Balaklava.
+
+Lord Clare was in private life an estimable and even an amiable man;
+many acts of generosity are related of him; the determination of his
+character swayed other wills to his purpose, and his courage was such as
+no danger, no obloquy, no public hatred or violence could disturb.
+Though not a great orator like Flood or Grattan, he was a skilful and
+ready debater, and he was by far the ablest Irish supporter of the
+union. He was, however, arrogant, overbearing and intolerant to the last
+degree. He was the first Irishman since the Revolution to hold the
+office of lord chancellor of Ireland. "Except where his furious personal
+antipathies and his ungovernable arrogance were called into action, he
+appears to have been," says Lecky, "an able, upright and energetic
+judge"; but as a politician there can be little question that Lord
+Clare's bitter and unceasing resistance to reasonable measures of reform
+did infinite mischief in the history of Ireland, by inflaming the
+passions of his countrymen, driving them into rebellion, and
+perpetuating their political and religious divisions.
+
+  See W.E.H. Lecky, _History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century_ (5
+  vols., London, 1892); J.R. O'Flanagan, _The Lives of the Lord
+  Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal in Ireland_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1870); _Cornwallis Correspondence_, ed. by C. Ross (3 vols.,
+  London, 1859); Charles Phillips, _Recollections of Curran and some of
+  his Contemporaries_ (London, 1822); Henry Grattan, _Memoirs of the
+  Life and Times of the Right Honble. Henry Grattan_ (5 vols., London,
+  1839-1846); Lord Auckland, _Journal and Correspondence_ (4 vols.,
+  London, 1861); Charles Coote, _History of the Union of Great Britain
+  and Ireland_ (London, 1802).    (R. J. M.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARE, a county in the province of Munster, Ireland, bounded N. by
+Galway Bay and Co. Galway, E. by Lough Derg, the river Shannon, and
+counties Tipperary and Limerick, S. by the estuary of the Shannon, and
+W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is 852,389 acres, or nearly 1332 sq.
+m. Although the surface of the county is hilly, and in some parts even
+mountainous, it nowhere rises to a great elevation. Much of the western
+baronies of Moyarta and Ibrickan is composed of bog land. Bogs are
+frequent also in the mountainous districts elsewhere, except in the
+limestone barony of Burren, the inhabitants of some parts of which
+supply themselves with turf from the opposite shores of Connemara.
+Generally speaking, the eastern parts of the county are mountainous,
+with tracts of rich pasture-land interspersed; the west abounds with
+bog; and the north is rocky and best adapted for grazing sheep. In the
+southern part, along the banks of the Fergus and Shannon, are the bands
+of rich low grounds called corcasses, of various breadth, indenting the
+land in a great variety of shapes. They are composed of deep rich loam,
+and are distinguished as the black corcasses, adapted for tillage, and
+the blue, used more advantageously as meadow land. The coast is in
+general rocky, and occasionally bold and precipitous in the extreme, as
+may be observed at the picturesque cliffs of Moher within a few miles of
+Ennistimon and Lisdoonvarna, which rise perpendicularly at O'Brien's
+Tower to an elevation of 580 ft. The coast of Clare is indented with
+several bays, the chief of which are Ballyvaghan, Liscannor and Malbay;
+but from Black Head to Loop Head, that is, along the entire western
+boundary of the county formed by the Atlantic, there is no safe harbour
+except Liscannor Bay. Malbay takes its name from its dangers to
+navigators, and the whole coast has been the scene of many fatal
+disasters. The county possesses only one large river, the Fergus; but
+nearly 100 m. of its boundary-line are washed by the river Shannon,
+which enters the Atlantic Ocean between this county and Kerry. The
+numerous bays and creeks on both sides of this great river render its
+navigation safe in every wind; but the passage to and from Limerick is
+often tedious, and the port of Kilrush has from that cause gained in
+importance. The river Fergus is navigable from the Shannon to the town
+of Clare, which is the terminating point of its natural navigation, and
+the port of all the central districts of the county.
+
+There are a great number of lakes and tarns in the county, of which the
+largest are Loughs Muckanagh, Graney, Atedaun and Dromore; but they are
+more remarkable for beauty than for size or utility, with the exception
+of the extensive and navigable Lough Derg, formed by the river Shannon
+between this county and Tipperary. The salmon fishery of the Shannon,
+both as a sport and as an industry, is famous; the Fergus also holds
+salmon, and there is much good trout-fishing in the lakes for which
+Ennis is a centre, and in the streams of the Atlantic seaboard. Clare is
+a county which, like all the western counties of Ireland, repays
+visitors in search of the pleasures of seaside resorts, sport, scenery
+or antiquarian interest. Yet, again like other western counties, it was
+long before it was rendered accessible. Communications, however, are now
+satisfactory.
+
+  _Geology._--Upper Carboniferous strata cover the county west of Ennis,
+  the coast-sections in them being particularly fine. Shales and
+  sandstones alternate, now horizontal, as in the Cliffs of Moher, now
+  thrown into striking folds. The Carboniferous Limestone forms a barren
+  terraced country, often devoid of soil, through the Burren in the
+  north, and extends to the estuary of the Fergus and the Shannon. On
+  the east, the folding has brought up two bold masses of Old Red
+  Sandstone, with Silurian cores. Slieve Bernagh, the more southerly of
+  these, rises to 1746 ft. above Killaloe, and the hilly country here
+  traversed by the Shannon is in marked contrast with the upper course
+  of the river through the great limestone plain.
+
+_Minerals._--Although metals and minerals have been found in many places
+throughout the county, they do not often show themselves in sufficient
+abundance to induce the application of capital for their extraction. The
+principal metals are lead, iron and manganese. The Milltown lead mine in
+the barony of Tulla is probably one of the oldest mines in Ireland, and
+formerly, if the extent of the ancient excavations may be taken as a
+guide, there must have been a very rich deposit. Copper pyrites occurs
+in several parts of Burren, but in small quantity. Coal exists at
+Labasheeda on the right bank of the Shannon, but the few and thin seams
+are not productive. The nodules of clay-ironstone in the strata that
+overlie the limestone were mined and smelted down to 1750. Within half a
+mile of the Milltown lead mine are immense natural vaulted passages of
+limestone, through which the river Ardsullas winds a singular course.
+The lower limestone of the eastern portion of the county has been found
+to contain several very large deposits of argentiferous galena. Flags,
+easily quarried, are procured near Kilrush, and thinner flags near
+Ennistimon. Slates are quarried in several places, the best being those
+of Broadford and Killaloe, which are nearly equal to the finest procured
+in Wales. A species of very fine black marble is obtained near Ennis; it
+takes a high polish, and is free from the white spots with which the
+black Kilkenny marble is marked.
+
+The mineral springs, which are found in many places, are chiefly
+chalybeate. That of Lisdoonvarna, a sulphur spa, about 8 m. from
+Ennistimon, has been celebrated since the 18th century for its medicinal
+qualities, and now attracts a large number of visitors annually. It lies
+9 m. by road N. of Ennistimon. There are chalybeate springs of less note
+at Kilkishen, Burren, Broadfoot, Lehinch, Kilkee, Kilrush, Killadysart,
+and near Milltown Malbay. Springs called by the people "holy" or
+"blessed" wells, generally mineral waters, are common; but the belief in
+their power of performing cures in inveterate maladies is nearly
+extinct.
+
+_Watering-places._--The Atlantic Ocean and the estuary of the Shannon
+afford many situations admirably adapted for summer bathing-places.
+Among the most frequented of these localities are Milltown Malbay; with
+one of the best beaches on the western coast; and the neighbouring
+Spanish Point (named from the scene of the wreck of two ships of the
+Armada); Lehinch, about 2 m. from Ennistimon on Liscannor Bay, and near
+the interesting cliffs of Moher, has a magnificent beach. Kilkee is the
+most fashionable watering-place on the western coast of Ireland; and
+Kilrush on the Shannon estuary is also favoured.
+
+_Industries._--The soil and surface of the county are in general better
+adapted for grazing than for tillage, and the acreage devoted to the
+former consequently exceeds three times that of the latter. Agriculture
+is in a backward state, and not a fifth of the total area is under
+cultivation, while the acreage shows a decrease even in the principal
+crops of oats and potatoes. Cattle, sheep, poultry and pigs, however,
+all receive considerable attention. Owing to the mountainous nature of
+the county nearly one-seventh of the total area is quite barren.
+
+There are no extensive manufactures, although flannels and friezes are
+made for home use, and hosiery of various kinds, chiefly coarse and
+strong, is made around Ennistimon and other places. There are several
+fishing stations on the coast, and cod, haddock, ling, sole, turbot,
+ray, mackerel and other fish abound, but the rugged nature of the coast
+and the tempestuous sea greatly hinder the operations of the fishermen.
+Near Pooldoody is the great Burren oyster bed called the Red Bank, where
+a large establishment is maintained, from which a constant supply of the
+excellent Red Bank oysters is furnished to the Dublin and other large
+markets. Crabs and lobsters are caught on the shores of the Bay of
+Galway in every creek from Black Head to Ardfry. In addition to the
+Shannon salmon fishery mentioned above, eels abound in every rivulet,
+and form an important article of consumption.
+
+The Great Southern & Western railway line from Limerick to Sligo
+intersects the centre of the county from north to south. From Ennis on
+this line the West Clare railway runs to Ennistimon on the coast, where
+it turns south and follows the coast by Milltown Malbay to Kilkee and
+Kilrush. Killaloe in the east of the county is the terminus of a branch
+of the Great Southern & Western railway.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The population (126,244 in 1891;
+112,334 in 1901; almost wholly Roman Catholic and rural) shows a
+decrease among the most serious of the Irish counties, and the
+emigration returns are proportionately heavy. The principal towns, all
+of insignificant size, are Ennis (pop. 5093, the county town), Kilrush
+(4179), Kilkee (1661) and Killaloe (885); but several of the smaller
+settlements, as resorts, are of more than local importance. The county,
+which is divided into 11 baronies, contains 79 parishes, and includes
+the Protestant diocese of Kilfenora, the greater part of Killaloe, and a
+very small portion of the diocese of Limerick. It is within the Roman
+Catholic dioceses of Killaloe and Limerick. The assizes are held at
+Ennis, and quarter sessions here and at Ennistimon, Killaloe, Kilrush
+and Tulla. The county is divided into the East and West parliamentary
+divisions, each returning one member.
+
+_History._--This county, together with part of the neighbouring
+district, was anciently called Thomond, that is, North Munster, and
+formed part of the monarchy of the celebrated Brian Boroihme, who held
+his court at Kincora near Killaloe, where his palace was situated on the
+banks of the Shannon. The site is still distinguished by extensive
+earthen ramparts. Settlements were effected by the Danes, and in the
+13th century by the Anglo-Normans, but without permanently affecting the
+possession of the district by its native proprietors. In 1543 Murrogh
+O'Brien, after dispossessing his nephew and vainly attempting a
+rebellion against the English rule, proceeded to England and submitted
+to Henry VIII., resigning his name and possessions. He soon received
+them back by an English tenure, together with the title of earl of
+Thomond, on condition of adopting the English dress, manners and
+customs. In 1565 this part of Thomond (sometimes called O'Brien's
+country) was added to Connaught, and made one of the six new counties
+into which that province was divided by Sir Henry Sidney. It was named
+Clare, the name being traceable either to Richard de Clare (Strongbow),
+earl of Pembroke, or to his younger brother, Thomas de Clare, who
+obtained a grant of Thomond from Edward I. in 1276, and whose family
+for some time maintained a precarious position in the district. Towards
+the close of the reign of Elizabeth, Clare was detached from the
+government of Connaught and given a separate administration; but at the
+Restoration it was reunited to Munster.
+
+_Antiquities._--The county abounds with remains of antiquities, both
+military and ecclesiastical, especially in the north-western part. There
+still exist above a hundred fortified castles, several of which are
+inhabited. They are mostly of small extent, a large portion being
+fortified dwellings. The chief of them is Bunratty Castle, built in
+1277, once inhabited by the earls of Thomond, 10 m. W. of Limerick, on
+the Shannon. Those of Ballykinvarga, Ballynalackan and Lemaneagh, all in
+the north-west, should also be mentioned. Raths or encampments are to be
+found in every part. They are generally circular, composed either of
+large stones without mortar or of earth thrown up and surrounded by one
+or more ditches. The list of abbeys and other religious houses formerly
+flourishing here (some now only known by name, but many of them
+surviving in ruins) comprehends upwards of twenty. The most remarkable
+are--Quin, considered one of the finest and most perfect specimens of
+ancient monastic architecture in Ireland; Corcomroe; Ennis, in which is
+a very fine window of uncommonly elegant workmanship; and those on
+Inniscattery or Scattery Island, in the Shannon, said to have been
+founded by St Senan (see KILRUSH). Kilfenora, 5 m. N.E. of Ennistimon,
+was until 1752 a separate diocese, and its small cathedral is of
+interest, with several neighbouring crosses and a holy well. The ruined
+churches of Kilnaboy, Nouhaval and Teampul Cronan are the most
+noteworthy of many in the north-west. Five round towers are to be found
+in various stages of preservation--at Scattery Island, Drumcliffe,
+Dysert O'Dea, Kilnaboy and Inniscaltra (Lough Derg). The cathedral of
+the diocese of Killaloe is at the town of that name. Cromlechs are
+found, chiefly in the rocky limestone district of Burren in the N.W.,
+though there are some in other baronies. That at Ballygannor is formed
+of a stone 40 ft. long and 10 broad.
+
+  See papers by T.J. Westropp in _Proceedings of the Royal Irish
+  Academy_--"Distribution of Cromlechs in County Clare" (1897); and
+  "Churches of County Clare, and Origin of Ecclesiastical Divisions"
+  (1900).
+
+
+
+
+CLAREMONT, a city of Sullivan county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., situated in
+the W. part of the state, bordering on the Connecticut river. Pop.
+(1890) 5565; (1900) 6498 (1442 foreign-born); (1910) 7529. Area, 6 sq.
+m. It is served by two branches of the Boston & Maine railway. In
+Claremont is the Fiske free library (1873), housed in a Carnegie
+building (1904). The Stevens high school is richly endowed by the gift
+of Paran Stevens, a native of Claremont. The city contains several
+villages, the principal being Claremont, Claremont Junction and West
+Claremont. Sugar river, flowing through the city into the Connecticut
+and falling 223 ft. within the city limits, furnishes good water-power.
+Among the manufactures are woollen and cotton goods, paper, mining and
+quarrying machinery, rubber goods, linens, shoes, wood trim and pearl
+buttons. The first settlement here was made in 1762, and a township was
+organized in 1764; in 1908 Claremont was chartered as a city. It was
+named from Claremont, Lord Clive's country place.
+
+
+
+
+CLARENCE, DUKES OF. The early history of this English title is identical
+with that of the family of Clare (q.v.), earls of Gloucester, who are
+sometimes called earls of Clare, of which word Clarence is a later form.
+The first duke of Clarence was Lionel of Antwerp (see below), third son
+of Edward III., who was created duke in 1362, and whose wife Elizabeth
+was a direct descendant of the Clares, the "Honour of Clare" being among
+the lands which she brought to her husband. When Lionel died without
+sons in 1368 the title became extinct; but in 1412 it was revived in
+favour of Thomas (see below), the second son of Henry IV. The third
+creation of a duke of Clarence took place in 1461, and was in favour of
+George (see below), brother of the King Edward IV. When this duke,
+accused by the king, was attainted and killed in 1478, his titles and
+estates were forfeited. There appears to have been no other creation of
+a duke of Clarence until 1789, when William, third son of George III.,
+was made a peer under this title. Having merged in the crown when
+William became king of Great Britain and Ireland in 1830, the title of
+duke of Clarence was again revived in 1890 in favour of Albert Victor
+(1864-1892), the elder son of King Edward VII., then prince of Wales,
+only to become extinct for the fifth time on his death in 1892.
+
+
+LIONEL OF ANTWERP, duke of Clarence (1338-1368), third son of Edward
+III., was born at Antwerp on the 29th of November 1338. Betrothed when a
+child to Elizabeth (d. 1363), daughter and heiress of William de Burgh,
+3rd earl of Ulster (d. 1332), he was married to her in 1352; but before
+this date he had entered nominally into possession of her great Irish
+inheritance. Having been named as his father's representative in England
+in 1345 and again in 1346, Lionel was created earl of Ulster, and joined
+an expedition into France in 1355, but his chief energies were reserved
+for the affairs of Ireland. Appointed governor of that country, he
+landed at Dublin in 1361, and in November of the following year was
+created duke of Clarence, while his father made an abortive attempt to
+secure for him the crown of Scotland. His efforts to secure an effective
+authority over his Irish lands were only moderately successful; and
+after holding a parliament at Kilkenny, which passed the celebrated
+statute of Kilkenny in 1367, he threw up his task in disgust and
+returned to England. About this time a marriage was arranged between
+Clarence and Violante, daughter of Galeazzo Visconti, lord of Pavia (d.
+1378); the enormous dowry which Galeazzo promised with his daughter
+being exaggerated by the rumour of the time. Journeying to fetch his
+bride, the duke was received in great state both in France and Italy,
+and was married to Violante at Milan in June 1368. Some months were then
+spent in festivities, during which Lionel was taken ill at Alba, where
+he died on the 7th of October 1368. His only child Philippa, a daughter
+by his first wife, married in 1368 Edmund Mortimer, 3rd earl of March
+(1351-1381), and through this union Clarence became the ancestor of
+Edward IV. The poet Chaucer was at one time a page in Lionel's
+household.
+
+
+THOMAS, duke of Clarence (c. 1388-1421), who was nominally lieutenant of
+Ireland from 1401 to 1413, and was in command of the English fleet in
+1405, acted in opposition to his elder brother, afterwards King Henry
+V., and the Beauforts during the later part of the reign of Henry IV.;
+and was for a short time at the head of the government, leading an
+unsuccessful expedition into France in 1412. When Henry V., however,
+became king in 1413 no serious dissensions took place between the
+brothers, and as a member of the royal council Clarence took part in the
+preparations for the French war. He was with the English king at
+Harfleur, but not at Agincourt, and shared in the expedition of 1417
+into Normandy, during which he led the assault on Caen, and
+distinguished himself as a soldier in other similar undertakings. When
+Henry V. returned to England in 1421, the duke remained in France as his
+lieutenant, and was killed at Beauge whilst rashly attacking the French
+and their Scottish allies on the 22nd of March 1421. He left no
+legitimate issue, and the title again became extinct.
+
+
+GEORGE, duke of Clarence (1449-1478), younger son of Richard, duke of
+York, by his wife Cicely, daughter of Ralph Neville, 1st earl of
+Westmorland, was born in Dublin on the 21st of October 1449. Soon after
+his elder brother became king as Edward IV. in March 1461, he was
+created duke of Clarence, and his youth was no bar to his appointment as
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland in the following year. Having been mentioned
+as a possible husband for Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, afterwards
+duke of Burgundy, Clarence came under the influence of Richard Neville,
+earl of Warwick, and in July 1469 was married at Calais to the earl's
+elder daughter Isabella. With his father-in-law he then acted in a
+disloyal manner towards the king. Both supported the rebels in the north
+of England, and when their treachery was discovered Clarence was
+deprived of his office as lord-lieutenant and fled to France. Returning
+to England with Warwick in September 1470, he witnessed the restoration
+of Henry VI., when the crown was settled upon himself in case the male
+line of Henry's family became extinct. The good understanding, however,
+between Warwick and his son-in-law was not lasting, and Clarence was
+soon secretly reconciled with Edward. The public reconciliation between
+the brothers took place when the king was besieging Warwick in Coventry,
+and Clarence then fought for the Yorkists at Barnet and Tewkesbury.
+After Warwick's death in April 1471 Clarence appears to have seized the
+whole of the vast estates of the earl, and in March 1472 was created by
+right of his wife earl of Warwick and Salisbury. He was consequently
+greatly disturbed when he heard that his younger brother Richard, duke
+of Gloucester, was seeking to marry Warwick's younger daughter Anne, and
+was claiming some part of Warwick's lands. A violent quarrel between the
+brothers ensued, but Clarence was unable to prevent Gloucester from
+marrying, and in 1474 the king interfered to settle the dispute,
+dividing the estates between his brothers. In 1477 Clarence was again a
+suitor for the hand of Mary, who had just become duchess of Burgundy.
+Edward objected to the match, and Clarence, jealous of Gloucester's
+influence, left the court. At length Edward was convinced that Clarence
+was aiming at his throne. The duke was thrown into prison, and in
+January 1478 the king unfolded the charges against his brother to the
+parliament. He had slandered the king; had received oaths of allegiance
+to himself and his heirs; had prepared for a new rebellion; and was in
+short incorrigible. Both Houses of Parliament passed the bill of
+attainder, and the sentence of death which followed was carried out on
+the 17th or 18th of February 1478. It is uncertain what share Gloucester
+had in his brother's death; but soon after the event the rumour gained
+ground that Clarence had been drowned in a butt of malmsey wine. Two of
+the duke's children survived their father: Margaret, countess of
+Salisbury (1473-1541), and Edward, earl of Warwick (1475-1499), who
+passed the greater part of his life in prison and was beheaded in
+November 1499.
+
+  On the last-named see W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History_, vol. iii.
+  (Oxford, 1895); Sir J.H. Ramsay, _Lancaster and York_ (Oxford, 1892);
+  C.W.C. Oman, _Warwick the Kingmaker_ (London, 1891). On the title
+  generally see G.E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898).
+
+
+
+
+CLARENDON, EDWARD HYDE, 1ST EARL OF (1609-1674), English historian and
+statesman, son of Henry Hyde of Dinton, Wiltshire, a member of a family
+for some time established at Norbury, Cheshire, was born on the 18th of
+February 1609. He entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, in 1622 (having been
+refused a demyship at Magdalen College), and graduated B.A. in 1626.
+Intended originally for holy orders, the death of two elder brothers
+made him his father's heir, and in 1625 he entered the Middle Temple. At
+the university his abilities were more conspicuous than his industry,
+and at the bar his time was devoted more to general reading and to the
+society of eminent scholars and writers than to the study of law
+treatises. This wandering from the beaten track, however, was not
+without its advantages. In later years Clarendon declared "next the
+immediate blessing and providence of God Almighty" that he "owed all the
+little he knew and the little good that was in him to the friendships
+and conversation ... of the most excellent men in their several kinds
+that lived in that age."[1] These included Ben Jonson, Selden, Waller,
+Hales, and especially Lord Falkland; and from their influence and the
+wide reading in which he indulged, he doubtless drew the solid learning
+and literary talent which afterwards distinguished him.
+
+In 1629 he married his first wife, Anne, daughter of Sir George Ayliffe,
+who died six months afterwards; and secondly, in 1634, Frances, daughter
+of Sir Thomas Aylesbury, Master of Requests. In 1633 he was called to
+the bar, and obtained quickly a good position and practice. His
+marriages had gained for him influential friends, and in December 1634
+he was made keeper of the writs and rolls of the common pleas; while his
+able conduct of the petition of the London merchants against Portland
+earned Laud's approval. He was returned to the Short Parliament in 1640
+as member for Wootton Bassett. Respect and veneration for the law and
+constitution of England were already fundamental principles with Hyde,
+and the flagrant violations and perversions of the law which
+characterized the twelve preceding years of absolute rule drove him into
+the ranks of the popular party. He served on numerous and important
+committees, and his parliamentary action was directed chiefly towards
+the support and restoration of the law. He assailed the jurisdiction of
+the earl marshal's court, and in the Long Parliament, in which he sat
+for Saltash, renewed his attacks and practically effected its
+suppression. In 1641 he served on the committees for inquiring into the
+status of the councils of Wales and of the North, distinguished himself
+by a speech against the latter, and took an important part in the
+proceedings against the judges. He supported Stafford's impeachment, and
+did not vote against the attainder, subsequently making an unsuccessful
+attempt through Essex to avert the capital penalty.[2] Hyde's
+allegiance, however, to the church of England was as staunch as his
+support of the law, and was soon to separate him from the popular
+faction. In February 1641 he opposed the reception of the London
+petition against episcopacy, and in May the project for unity of
+religion with the Scots, and the bill for the exclusion of the clergy
+from secular office. He showed special energy in his opposition to the
+Root and Branch Bill, and, though made chairman of the committee on the
+bill on the 11th of July in order to silence his opposition, he caused
+by his successful obstruction the failure of the measure. In consequence
+he was summoned to the king's presence, and encouraged in his attitude,
+and at the beginning of the second session was regarded as one of the
+king's ablest supporters in the Commons. He considered the claims put
+forward at this time by parliament as a violation and not as a guarantee
+of the law and constitution. He opposed the demand by the parliament to
+choose the king's ministers, and also the Grand Remonstrance, to which
+he wrote a reply published by the king.
+
+He now definitely though not openly joined the royal cause, and refused
+office in January 1642 with Colepeper and Falkland in order to serve the
+king's interests more effectually. Charles undertook to do nothing in
+the Commons without their advice. Nevertheless a few days afterwards,
+without their knowledge and by the advice of Lord Digby, he attempted
+the arrest of the five members, a resort to force which reduced Hyde to
+despair, and which indeed seemed to show that things had gone too far
+for an appeal to the law. He persevered, nevertheless, in his legal
+policy, to which Charles after the failure of his project again
+returned, joined the king openly in June, and continued to compose the
+king's answers and declarations in which he appealed to the "known Laws
+of the land" against the arbitrary and illegal acts of a seditious
+majority in the parliament, his advice to the king being "to shelter
+himself wholly under the law, ... presuming that the king and the law
+together would have been strong enough for any encounter." Hyde's appeal
+had great influence, and gained for the king's cause half the nation. It
+by no means, however, met with universal support among the royalists,
+Hobbes jeering at Hyde's love for "mixed monarchy," and the courtiers
+expressing their disapproval of the "spirit of accommodation" which
+"wounded the regality." It was destined to failure owing principally to
+the invincible distrust of Charles created in the parliament leaders,
+and to the fact that Charles was simultaneously carrying on another and
+an inconsistent policy, listening to very different advisers, such as
+the queen and Digby, and resolving on measures (such as the attempt on
+Hull) without Hyde's knowledge or approval.
+
+War, accordingly, in spite of his efforts, broke out. He was expelled
+the House of Commons on the 11th of August 1642, and was one of those
+excepted later from pardon. He showed great activity in collecting
+loans, was present at Edgehill, though not as a combatant, and followed
+the king to Oxford, residing at All Souls College from October 1642 till
+March 1645. On the 22nd of February he was made a privy councillor and
+knighted, and on the 3rd of March appointed chancellor of the exchequer.
+He was an influential member of the "Junto" which met every week to
+discuss business before it was laid before the council. His aim was to
+gain over some of the leading Parliamentarians by personal influence and
+personal considerations, and at the Uxbridge negotiations in January
+1645, where he acted as principal manager on the king's side, while
+remaining firm on the great political questions such as the church and
+the militia, he tried to win individuals by promises of places and
+honours. He promoted the assembly of the Oxford parliament in December
+1643 as a counterpoise to the influence and status of the Long
+Parliament. Hyde's policy and measures, however, all failed. They had
+been weakly and irregularly supported by the king, and were fiercely
+opposed by the military party, who were jealous of the civil influence,
+and were urging Charles to trust to force and arms alone and eschew all
+compromise and concessions. Charles fell now under the influence of
+persons devoid of all legal and constitutional scruples, sending to
+Glamorgan in Ireland "those strange powers and instructions inexcusable
+to justice, piety and prudence."[3]
+
+Hyde's influence was much diminished, and on the 4th of March 1645 he
+left the king for Bristol as one of the guardians of the prince of Wales
+and governors of the west. Here the disputes between the council and the
+army paralysed the proceedings, and lost, according to Hyde, the finest
+opportunity since the outbreak of the war of raising a strong force and
+gaining substantial victories in that part of the country. After
+Hopton's defeat on the 16th of February 1646, at Torrington, Hyde
+accompanied the prince, on the 4th of March, to Scilly, and on the 17th
+of April, for greater security, to Jersey. He strongly disapproved of
+the prince's removal to France by the queen's order and of the schemes
+of assistance from abroad, refused to accompany him, and signed a bond
+to prevent the sale of Jersey to the French supported by Jermyn. He
+opposed the projected sacrifice of the church to the Scots and the grant
+by the king of any but personal or temporary concessions, declaring that
+peace was only possible "upon the old foundations of government in
+church and state." He was especially averse to Charles's tampering with
+the Irish Romanists. "Oh, Mr Secretary," he wrote to Nicholas, "those
+stratagems have given me more sad hours than all the misfortunes in war
+which have befallen the king and look like the effects of God's anger
+towards us."[4] He refused to compound for his own estate. While in
+Jersey he resided first at St Helier and afterwards at Elizabeth Castle
+with Sir George Carteret. He composed the first portion of his _History_
+and kept in touch with events by means of an enormous correspondence. In
+1648 he published _A Full answer to an infamous and traiterous
+Pamphlet..._, a reply to the resolution of the parliament to present no
+more addresses to the king and a vindication of Charles.
+
+On the outbreak of the second Civil War Hyde left Jersey (26th of June
+1648) to join the queen and prince at Paris. He landed at Dieppe, sailed
+from that port to Dunkirk, and thence followed the prince to the Thames,
+where Charles had met the fleet, but was captured and robbed by a
+privateer, and only joined the prince in September after the latter's
+return to the Hague. He strongly disapproved of the king's concessions
+at Newport. When the army broke off the treaty and brought Charles to
+trial he endeavoured to save his life, and after the execution drew up a
+letter to the several European sovereigns invoking their assistance to
+avenge it. Hyde strongly opposed Charles II.'s ignominious surrender to
+the Covenanters, the alliance with the Scots, and the Scottish
+expedition, desiring to accomplish whatever was possible there through
+Montrose and the royalists, and inclined rather to an attempt in
+Ireland. His advice was not followed, and he gladly accepted a mission
+with Cottington to Spain to obtain money from the Roman Catholic powers,
+and to arrange an alliance between Owen O'Neill and Ormonde for the
+recovery of Ireland, arriving at Madrid on the 26th of November 1649.
+The defeat, however, of Charles at Dunbar, and the confirmation of
+Cromwell's ascendancy, influenced the Spanish government against them,
+and they were ordered to leave in December 1650. Hyde arrived at Antwerp
+in January 1651, and in December rejoined Charles at Paris after the
+latter's escape from Worcester. He now became one of his chief advisers,
+accompanying him in his change of residence to Cologne in October 1654
+and to Bruges in 1658, and was appointed lord chancellor on the 13th of
+January 1658. His influence was henceforth maintained in spite of the
+intrigues of both Romanists and Presbyterians, as well as the violent
+and openly displayed hostility of the queen, and was employed
+unremittingly in the endeavour to keep Charles faithful to the church
+and constitution, and in the prevention of unwise concessions and
+promises which might estrange the general body of the royalists. His
+advice to Charles was to wait upon the turn of events, "that all his
+activity was to consist in carefully avoiding to do anything that might
+do him hurt and to expect some blessed conjuncture."[5] In 1656, during
+the war between England and Spain, Charles received offers of help from
+the latter power provided he could gain a port in England, but Hyde
+discouraged small isolated attempts. He expected much from Cromwell's
+death. The same year he made an alliance with the Levellers, and was
+informed of their plots to assassinate the protector, without apparently
+expressing any disapproval.[6] He was well supplied with information
+from England,[7] and guided the action of the royalists with great
+ability and wisdom during the interval between Cromwell's death and the
+Restoration, urged patience, and advocated the obstruction of a
+settlement between the factions contending for power and the fomentation
+of their jealousies, rather than premature risings.
+
+The Restoration was a complete triumph for Hyde's policy. He lays no
+stress on his own great part in it, but it was owing to him that the
+Restoration was a national one, by the consent and invitation of
+parliament representing the whole people and not through the medium of
+one powerful faction enforcing its will upon a minority, and that it was
+not only a restoration of Charles but a restoration of the monarchy. By
+Hyde's advice concessions to the inconvenient demands of special
+factions had been avoided by referring the decision to a "free
+parliament," and the declaration of Breda reserved for parliament the
+settlement of the questions of amnesty, religious toleration and the
+proprietorship of forfeited lands.
+
+Hyde entered London with the king, all attempts at effecting his fall
+having failed, and immediately obtained the chief place in the
+government, retaining the chancellorship of the exchequer till the 13th
+of May 1661, when he surrendered it to Lord Ashley. He took his seat as
+speaker of the House of Lords and in the court of chancery on the 1st of
+June 1660. On the 3rd of November 1660 he was made Baron Hyde of Hindon,
+and on the 20th of April 1661 Viscount Cornbury and earl of Clarendon,
+receiving a grant from the king of L20,000 and at different times of
+various small estates and Irish rents. The marriage of his daughter Anne
+to James, duke of York, celebrated in secret in September 1660, at first
+alarmed Clarendon on account of the public hostility he expected thereby
+to incur, but finding his fears unconfirmed he acquiesced in its public
+recognition in December, and thus became related in a special manner to
+the royal family and the grandfather of two English sovereigns.[8]
+
+Clarendon's position was one of great difficulties, but at the same time
+of splendid opportunities. In particular a rare occasion now offered
+itself of settling the religious question on a broad principle of
+comprehension or toleration; for the monarchy had been restored not by
+the supporters of the church alone but largely by the influence and aid
+of the nonconformists and also of the Roman Catholics, who were all
+united at that happy moment by a common loyalty to the throne.
+Clarendon appears to have approved of comprehension but not of
+toleration. He had already in April 1660 sent to discuss terms with the
+leading Presbyterians in England, and after the Restoration offered
+bishoprics to several, including Richard Baxter. He drew up the royal
+declaration of October, promising limited episcopacy and a revised
+prayer-book and ritual, which was subsequently thrown out by parliament,
+and he appears to have anticipated some kind of settlement from the
+Savoy Conference which sat in April 1661. The failure of the latter
+proved perhaps that the differences were too great for compromise, and
+widened the breach. The parliament immediately proceeded to pass the
+series of narrow and tyrannical measures against the dissenters known as
+the Clarendon Code. The Corporations Act, obliging members of
+corporations to denounce the Covenant and take the sacrament according
+to the Anglican usage, became law on the 20th of December 1661, the Act
+of Uniformity enforcing the use of the prayer-book on ministers, as well
+as a declaration that it was unlawful to bear arms against the
+sovereign, on the 19th of May 1662, and these were followed by the
+Conventicle Act in 1664 suppressing conventicles and by the Five-Mile
+Act in 1665 forbidding ministers who had refused subscription to the Act
+of Uniformity to teach or reside within 5 m. of a borough. Clarendon
+appears to have reluctantly acquiesced in these civil measures rather
+than to have originated them, and to have endeavoured to mitigate their
+injustice and severity. He supported the continuance of the tenure by
+presbyterian ministers of livings not held by Anglicans and an amendment
+in the Lords allowing a pension to those deprived, earning the gratitude
+of Baxter and the nonconformists. On the 17th of March 1662 he
+introduced into parliament a declaration enabling the king to dispense
+with the Act of Uniformity in the case of ministers of merit.[9] But
+once committed to the narrow policy of intolerance, Clarendon was
+inevitably involved in all its consequences. His characteristic respect
+for the law and constitution rendered him hostile to the general policy
+of indulgence, which, though the favourite project of the king, he
+strongly opposed in the Lords, and in the end caused its withdrawal. He
+declared that he could have wished the law otherwise, "but when it was
+passed, he thought it absolutely necessary to see obedience paid to it
+without any connivance."[10] Charles was greatly angered. It was
+believed in May 1663 that the intrigues of Bennet and Buckingham, who
+seized the opportunity of ingratiating themselves with the king by
+zealously supporting the indulgence, had secured Clarendon's dismissal,
+and in July Bristol ventured to accuse him of high treason in the
+parliament; but the attack, which did not receive the king's support,
+failed entirely and only ended in the banishment from court of its
+promoter. Clarendon's opposition to the court policy in this way
+acquired a personal character, and he was compelled to identify himself
+more completely with the intolerant measures of the House of Commons.
+Though not the originator of the Conventicle Act or of the Five-Mile
+Act, he has recorded his approval,[11] and he ended by taking alarm at
+plots and rumours and by regarding the great party of nonconformists,
+through whose co-operation the monarchy had been restored, as a danger
+to the state whose "faction was their religion."[12]
+
+Meanwhile Clarendon's influence and direction had been predominant in
+nearly all departments of state. He supported the exception of the
+actual regicides from the Indemnity, but only ten out of the twenty-six
+condemned were executed, and Clarendon, with the king's support,
+prevented the passing of a bill in 1661 for the execution of thirteen
+more. He upheld the Act of Indemnity against all the attempts of the
+royalists to upset it. The conflicting claims to estates were left to be
+decided by the law. The confiscations of the usurping government
+accordingly were cancelled, while the properly executed transactions
+between individuals were necessarily upheld. There can be little doubt
+that the principle followed was the only safe one in the prevailing
+confusion. Great injustice was indeed suffered by individuals, but the
+proper remedy of such injustice was the benevolence of the king, which
+there is too much reason to believe proved inadequate and partial. The
+settlement of the church lands which was directed by Clarendon presented
+equal difficulties and involved equal hardships. In settling Scotland
+Clarendon's aim was to make that kingdom dependent upon England and to
+uphold the Cromwellian union. He proposed to establish a council at
+Whitehall to govern Scottish affairs, and showed great zeal in
+endeavouring to restore episcopacy through the medium of Archbishop
+Sharp. His influence, however, ended with the ascendancy of Lauderdale
+in 1663. He was, to some extent at least, responsible for the settlement
+in Ireland, but, while anxious for an establishment upon a solid
+Protestant basis, urged "temper and moderation and justice" in securing
+it. He supported Ormonde's wise and enlightened Irish administration,
+and in particular opposed persistently the prohibition of the import of
+Irish cattle into England, incurring thereby great unpopularity. He
+showed great activity in the advancement of the colonies, to whom he
+allowed full freedom of religion. He was a member of the council for
+foreign plantations, and one of the eight lords proprietors of Carolina
+in 1663; and in 1664 sent a commission to settle disputes in New
+England. In the department of foreign affairs he had less influence. His
+policy was limited to the maintenance of peace "necessary for the
+reducing [the king's] own dominions into that temper of subjection and
+obedience as they ought to be in."[13] In 1664 he demanded, on behalf of
+Charles, French support, and a loan of L50,000 against disturbance at
+home, and thus initiated that ignominious system of pensions and
+dependence upon France which proved so injurious to English interests
+later. But he was the promoter neither of the sale of Dunkirk on the
+27th of October 1662, the author of which seems to have been the earl of
+Sandwich,[14] nor of the Dutch War. He attached considerable value to
+the possession of the former, but when its sale was decided he conducted
+the negotiations and effected the bargain. He had zealously laboured for
+peace with Holland, and had concluded a treaty for the settlement of
+disputes on the 4th of September 1662. Commercial and naval jealousies,
+however, soon involved the two states in hostilities. Cape Corso and
+other Dutch possessions on the coast of Africa, and New Amsterdam in
+America, were seized by squadrons from the royal navy in 1664, and
+hostilities were declared on the 22nd of February 1665. Clarendon now
+gave his support to the war, asserted the extreme claims of the English
+crown over the British seas, and contemplated fresh cessions from the
+Dutch and an alliance with Sweden and Spain. According to his own
+account he initiated the policy of the Triple Alliance,[15] but it seems
+clear that his inclination towards France continued in spite of the
+intervention of the latter state in favour of Holland; and he took part
+in the negotiations for ending the war by an undertaking with Louis XIV.
+implying a neutrality, while the latter seized Flanders. The crisis in
+this feeble foreign policy and in the general official mismanagement was
+reached in June 1667, when the Dutch burnt several ships at Chatham and
+when "the roar of foreign guns were heard for the first and last time by
+the citizens of London."[16]
+
+The whole responsibility for the national calamity and disgrace, and for
+the ignominious peace which followed it, was unjustly thrown on the
+shoulders of Clarendon, though it must be admitted that the disjointed
+state of the administration and want of control over foreign policy were
+largely the causes of the disaster, and for these Clarendon's influence
+and obstruction of official reforms were to some extent answerable.
+According to Sir William Coventry, whose opinion has weight and who
+acknowledges the chancellor's fidelity to the king, while Clarendon "was
+so great at the council board and in the administration of matters, there
+was no room for anybody to propose any remedy to what was remiss ... he
+managing all things with that greatness which will now be removed."[17] He
+disapproved of the system of boards and committees instituted during the
+Commonwealth, as giving too much power to the parliament, and regarded the
+administration by the great officers of state, to the exclusion of pure
+men of business, as the only method compatible with the dignity and
+security of the monarchy. The lowering of the prestige of the privy
+council, and its subordination first to the parliament and afterwards to
+the military faction, he considered as one of the chief causes of the fall
+of Charles I. He aroused a strong feeling of hostility in the Commons by
+his opposition to the appropriation of supplies in 1665, and to the audit
+of the war accounts in 1666, as "an introduction to a commonwealth" and as
+"a new encroachment," and by his high tone of prerogative and authority,
+while by his advice to Charles to prorogue parliament he incurred their
+resentment and gave colour to the accusation that he had advised the king
+to govern without parliaments. He was unpopular among all classes, among
+the royalists on account of the Act of Indemnity, among the Presbyterians
+because of the Act of Uniformity. It was said that he had invented the
+maxim "that the king should buy and reward his enemies and do little for
+his friends, because they are his already."[18] Every kind of
+maladministration was currently ascribed to him, of designs to govern by a
+standing army, and of corruption. He was credited with having married
+Charles purposely to a barren queen in order to raise his own
+grandchildren to the throne, with having sold Dunkirk to France, and his
+magnificent house in St James's was nicknamed "Dunkirk House," while on
+the day of the Dutch attack on Chatham the mob set up a gibbet at his gate
+and broke his windows. He had always been exceedingly unpopular at court,
+and kept severely aloof from the revels and licence which reigned there.
+Evelyn names "the buffoons and the misses to whom he was an eyesore."[19]
+He was intensely disliked by the royal mistresses, whose favour he did not
+condescend to seek, and whose presence and influence were often the
+subject of his reproaches.[20] A party of younger men of the king's own
+age, more congenial to his temperament, and eager to drive the old
+chancellor from power and to succeed him in office, had for some time been
+endeavouring to undermine his influence by ridicule and intrigue.
+Surrounded by such general and violent animosity, Clarendon's only hope
+could be in the support of the king. But the chancellor had early and
+accurately gauged the nature and extent of the king's attachment to him,
+which proceeded neither from affection nor gratitude but "from his
+aversion to be troubled with the intricacies of his affairs," and in 1661
+he had resisted the importunities of Ormonde to resign the great seal for
+the lord treasurership with the rank of "first minister," "a title newly
+translated out of French into English," on account of the obloquy this
+position would incur and the further dependence which it entailed upon the
+inconstant king.[21] Charles, long weary of the old chancellor's rebukes,
+was especially incensed at this time owing to his failure in securing
+Frances Stuart (la Belle Stuart) for his seraglio, a disappointment which
+he attributed to Clarendon, and was now alarmed by the hostility which his
+administration had excited. He did not scruple to sacrifice at once the
+old adherent of his house and fortunes. "The truth is," he wrote Ormonde,
+"his behaviour and humour was grown so insupportable to myself and all the
+world else that I could no longer endure it, and it was impossible for me
+to live with it and do these things with the Parliament that must be done,
+or the government will be lost."[22] By the direction of Charles, James
+advised Clarendon to resign before the meeting of parliament, but in an
+interview with the king on the 26th of August Clarendon refused to deliver
+up the seal unless dismissed, and urged him not to take a step ruinous to
+the interests both of the chancellor himself and of the crown.[23] He
+could not believe his dismissal was really intended, but on the 30th of
+August he was deprived of the great seal, for which the king received the
+thanks of the parliament on the 16th of October. On the 12th of November
+his impeachment, consisting of various charges of arbitrary government,
+corruption and maladministration, was brought up to the Lords, but the
+latter refused to order his committal, on the ground that the Commons had
+only accused him of treason in general without specifying any particular
+charge. Clarendon wrote humbly to the king asking for pardon, and that the
+prosecution might be prevented, but Charles had openly taken part against
+him, and, though desiring his escape, would not order or assist his
+departure for fear of the Commons. Through the bishop of Hereford,
+however, on the 29th of November he pressed Clarendon to fly, promising
+that he should not during his absence suffer in his honour or fortune.
+Clarendon embarked the same night for Calais, where he arrived on the 2nd
+of December. The Lords immediately passed an act for his banishment and
+ordered the petition forwarded by him to parliament to be burnt.
+
+The rest of Clarendon's life was passed in exile. He left Calais for
+Rouen on the 25th of December, returning on the 21st of January 1668,
+visiting the baths of Bourbon in April, thence to Avignon in June,
+residing from July 1668 till June 1671 at Montpellier, whence he
+proceeded to Moulins and to Rouen again in May 1674. His sudden
+banishment entailed great personal hardships. His health at the time of
+his flight was much impaired, and on arriving at Calais he fell
+dangerously ill; and Louis XIV., anxious at this time to gain popularity
+in England, sent him peremptory and repeated orders to quit France. He
+suffered severely from gout, and during the greater part of his exile
+could not walk without the aid of two men. At Evreux, on the 23rd of
+April 1668, he was the victim of a murderous assault by English sailors,
+who attributed to him the non-payment of their wages, and who were on
+the point of despatching him when he was rescued by the guard. For some
+time he was not allowed to see any of his children; even correspondence
+with him was rendered treasonable by the Act of Banishment; and it was
+not apparently till 1671, 1673 and 1674 that he received visits from his
+sons, the younger, Lawrence Hyde, being present with him at his death.
+
+Clarendon bore his troubles with great dignity and fortitude. He found
+consolation in religious duties, and devoted a portion of every day to
+the composition of his _Contemplations on the Psalms_, and of his moral
+essays. Removed effectually from the public scene, and from all share in
+present politics, he turned his attention once more to the past and
+finished his _History_ and his _Autobiography_. Soon after reaching
+Calais he had written, on the 17th of December 1667, to the university
+of Oxford, desiring as his last request that the university should
+believe in his innocence and remember him, though there could be no
+further mention of him in their public devotions, in their private
+prayers.[24] In 1668 he wrote to the duke and duchess of York to
+remonstrate on the report that they had turned Roman Catholic, to the
+former urging "You cannot be without zeal for the Church to which your
+blessed father made himself a sacrifice," adding that such a change
+would bring a great storm against the Romanists. He entertained to the
+last hopes of obtaining leave to return to England. He asked for
+permission in June 1671 and in August 1674. In the dedication of his
+_Brief View of Mr Hobbes's Book Leviathan_ he repeats "the hope which
+sustains my weak, decayed spirits that your Majesty will at some time
+call to your remembrance my long and incorrupted fidelity to your person
+and your service"; but his petitions were not even answered or noticed.
+He died at Rouen on the 9th of December 1674. He was buried in
+Westminster Abbey at the foot of the steps at the entrance to Henry
+VII.'s chapel. He left two sons, Henry, 2nd earl of Clarendon, and
+Lawrence, earl of Rochester, his daughter Anne, duchess of York, and a
+third son, Edward, having predeceased him. His male descendants became
+extinct on the death of the 4th earl of Clarendon and 2nd earl of
+Rochester in 1753, the title of Clarendon being revived in 1776 in the
+person of Thomas Villiers, who had married the granddaughter and heir of
+the last earl.
+
+As a statesman Clarendon had obvious limitations and failings. He
+brought to the consideration of political questions an essentially legal
+but also a narrow mind, conceiving the law, "that great and admirable
+mystery," and the constitution as fixed, unchangeable and sufficient for
+all time, in contrast to Pym, who regarded them as living organisms
+capable of continual development and evolution; and he was incapable of
+comprehending and governing the new conditions and forces created by the
+civil wars. His character, however, and therefore to some extent his
+career, bear the indelible marks of greatness. He left the popular cause
+at the moment of its triumph and showed in so doing a strict
+consistency. In a court degraded by licence and self-indulgence, he
+maintained his self-respect and personal dignity regardless of
+consequences, and in an age of almost universal corruption and
+self-seeking he preserved a noble integrity and patriotism. At the
+Restoration he showed great moderation in accepting rewards. He refused
+a grant of 10,000 acres in the Fens from the king on the ground that it
+would create an evil precedent, and amused Charles and James by his
+indignation at the offer of a present of L10,000 from the French
+minister Fouquet, the only present he accepted from Louis XIV. being a
+set of books printed at the Louvre. His income, however, as lord
+chancellor was very large, and Clarendon maintained considerable state,
+considering it due to the dignity of the monarchy that the high officers
+should carry the external marks of greatness. The house built by him in
+St James's was one of the most magnificent ever seen in England, and was
+filled with a collection of portraits, chiefly those of contemporary
+statesmen and men of letters. It cost Clarendon L50,000, involved him
+deeply in debt and was considered one of the chief causes of the "gust
+of envy" that caused his fall.[25] He is described as "a fair, ruddy,
+fat, middle-statured, handsome man," and his appearance was stately and
+dignified. He expected deference from his inferiors, and one of the
+chief charges which he brought against the party of the young
+politicians was the want of respect with which they treated himself and
+the lord treasurer. His industry and devotion to public business, of
+which proofs still remain in the enormous mass of his state papers and
+correspondence, were exemplary, and were rendered all the more
+conspicuous by the negligence, inferiority in business, and frivolity of
+his successors. As lord chancellor Clarendon made no great impression in
+the court of chancery. His early legal training had long been
+interrupted, and his political preoccupations probably rendered
+necessary the delegation of many of his judicial duties to others.
+According to Speaker Onslow his decrees were always made with the aid of
+two judges. Burnet praises him, however, as "a very good chancellor,
+only a little too rough but very impartial in the administration of
+justice," and Pepys, who saw him presiding in his court, perceived him
+to be "a most able and ready man."[26] According to Evelyn, "though no
+considerable lawyer" he was "one who kept up the fame and substance of
+things in the nation with ... solemnity." He made good appointments to
+the bench and issued some important orders for the reform of abuses in
+his court.[27] As chancellor of Oxford University, to which office he
+was elected on the 27th of October 1660, Clarendon promoted the
+restoration of order and various educational reforms. In 1753 his
+manuscripts were left to the university by his great-grandson Lord
+Cornbury, and in 1868 the money gained by publication was spent in
+erecting the Clarendon Laboratory, the profits of the _History_ having
+provided in 1713 a building for the university press adjoining the
+Sheldonian theatre, known since the removal of the press to its present
+quarters as the Clarendon Building.
+
+Clarendon had risen to high office largely through his literary and
+oratorical gifts. His eloquence was greatly admired by Evelyn and
+Pepys, though Burnet criticises it as too copious. He was a great lover
+of books and collected a large library, was well read in the Roman and
+in the contemporary histories both foreign and English, and could
+appreciate Carew, Ben Jonson and Cowley. As a writer and historian
+Clarendon occupies a high place in English literature. His great work,
+the _History of the Rebellion_, is composed in the grand style. A
+characteristic feature is the wonderful series of well-known portraits,
+drawn with great skill and liveliness and especially praised by Evelyn
+and by Macaulay. The long digressions, the lengthy sentences, and the
+numerous parentheses do not accord with modern taste and usage, but it
+may be observed that these often follow more closely the natural
+involutions of the thought, and express the argument more clearly, than
+the short disconnected sentences, now generally employed, while in
+rhythm and dignity Clarendon's style is immeasurably superior. The
+composition, however, of the work as a whole is totally wanting in
+proportion, and the book is overloaded with state papers, misplaced and
+tedious in the narrative. In considering the accuracy of the history it
+is important to remember the dates and circumstances of the composition
+of its various portions. The published _History_ is mainly a compilation
+of two separate original manuscripts, the first being the history
+proper, written between 1646 and 1648, with the advantage of a fresh
+memory and the help of various documents and authorities, and ending in
+March 1644, and the second being the _Life_, extending from 1609 to
+1660, but composed long afterwards in exile and without the aid of
+papers between 1668 and 1670. The value of any statement, therefore, in
+the published _History_ depends chiefly on whether it is taken from the
+_History_ proper or the _Life_. In 1671 these two manuscripts were
+united by Clarendon with certain alterations and modifications making
+Books i.-vii. of the published _History_, while Books viii.-xv. were
+written subsequently, and, being composed for the most part without
+materials, are generally inaccurate, with the notable exception of Book
+ix., made up from two narratives written at Jersey in 1646, and
+containing very little from the _Life_. Sincerity and honest conviction
+are present on every page, and the inaccuracies are due not to wilful
+misrepresentation, but to failure of memory and to the disadvantages
+under which the author laboured in exile. But they lessen considerably
+the value of his work, and detract from his reputation as chronicler of
+contemporary events, for which he was specially fitted by his practical
+experience in public business, a qualification declared by himself to be
+the "genius, spirit and soul of an historian." In general, Clarendon,
+like many of his contemporaries, failed signally to comprehend the real
+issues and principles at stake in the great struggle, laying far too
+much stress on personalities and never understanding the real aims and
+motives of the Presbyterian party. The work was first published in
+1702-1704 from a copy of a transcript made by Clarendon's secretary,
+with a few unimportant alterations, and was the object of a violent
+attack by John Oldmixon for supposed changes and omissions in _Clarendon
+and Whitelocke compared_ (1727) and again in a preface to his _History
+of England_ (1730), repelled and refuted by John Burton in the
+_Genuineness of Lord Clarendon's History Vindicated_ (1744). The history
+was first published from the original in 1826; the best edition being
+that of 1888 edited by W.D. Macray and issued by the Clarendon Press.
+_The Lord Clarendon's History ... Compleated_, a supplement containing
+portraits and illustrative papers, was published in 1717, and _An
+Appendix to the History_, containing a life, speeches and various
+pieces, in 1724. The _Sutherland Clarendon_ in the Bodleian library at
+Oxford contains several thousand portraits and illustrations of the
+_History_. _The Life of Edward, earl of Clarendon ... [and the]
+Continuation of the History ..._, the first consisting of that portion
+of the _Life_ not included in the _History_, and the second of the
+account of Clarendon's administration and exile in France, begun in
+1672, was published in 1759, the _History of the Reign of King Charles
+II. from the Restoration ..._, published about 1755, being a
+surreptitious edition of this work, of which the latest and best edition
+is that of the Clarendon Press of 1857.
+
+Clarendon was also the author of _The Difference and Disparity between
+the Estate and Condition of George, duke of Buckingham and Robert, earl
+of Essex_, a youthful production vindicating Buckingham, printed in
+_Reliquiae Wottonianae_ (1672), i. 184; _Animadversions on a Book
+entitled Fanaticism_ (1673); _A Brief View ... of the dangerous ...
+errors in ... Mr Hobbes's book entitled "Leviathan"_ (1676); _The
+History of the Rebellion and Civil War in Ireland_ (1719); _A Collection
+of Several Pieces of Edward, earl of Clarendon_, containing reprints of
+speeches from the journals of the House of Lords and of the History of
+the Rebellion in Ireland (1727); _A Collection of Several Tracts_
+containing his _Vindication_ in answer to his impeachment, _Reflections
+upon several Christian Duties, Two Dialogues on Education and on the
+want of Respect due to age_, and _Contemplations on the Psalms_ (1727);
+_Religion and Policy_ (1811); _Essays moral and entertaining on the
+various faculties and passions of the human mind_ (1815, and in _British
+Prose Writers_, 1819, vol. i.); _Speeches_ in _Rushworth's Collections_
+(1692), pt. iii. vol. i. 230, 333; _Declarations and Manifestos_
+(Clarendon being the author of nearly all on the king's side between
+March 1642 and March 1645, the first being the answer to the Grand
+Remonstrance in January 1642, but not of the answer to the XIX.
+Propositions or the apology for the King's attack upon Brentford) in the
+published _History_, Rushworth's _Collections_, E. Husband's
+_Collections of Ordinances and Declarations_ (1646), _Old Parliamentary
+History_ (1751-1762), _Somers Tracts, State Tracts, Harleian Miscellany,
+Thomasson Tracts_ (Brit. Mus.), E. 157 (14); and a large number of
+anonymous pamphlets aimed against the parliament, including
+_Transcendent and Multiplied Rebellion and Treason_ (1645), _A Letter
+from a True and Lawful Member of Parliament ... to one of the Lords of
+his Highness's Council_ (1656), and _Two Speeches made in the House of
+Peers on Monday 19th Dec._ [1642] ... (_Somers Tracts_, Scott, vi. 576);
+_Second Thoughts_ (n.d., in favour of a limited toleration) is ascribed
+to him in the Catalogue in the British Museum; _A Letter ... to one of
+the Chief Ministers of the Nonconforming Party_ ... (Saumur, 7th May
+1674) has been attributed to him on insufficient evidence.
+
+Clarendon's correspondence, amounting to over 100 volumes, is in the
+Bodleian library at Oxford, and other letters are to be found in
+_Additional MSS._ in the British Museum. Selections have been published
+under the title of _State Papers Collected by Edward, earl of Clarendon_
+(Clarendon State Papers) between 1767 and 1786, and the collection has
+been calendared up to 1657 in 1869, 1872, 1876. Other letters of
+Clarendon are to be found in Lister's _Life of Clarendon, iii.; Nicholas
+Papers_ (Camden Soc., 1886); _Diary_ of J. Evelyn, _appendix_; Sir R.
+Fanshaw's _Original Letters_ (1724); Warburton's _Life of Prince Rupert_
+(1849): Barwick's _Life of Barwick_ (1724); _Hist. MSS. Comm._ 10th Rep.
+pt. vi. pp. 193-216, and in the _Harleian Miscellany_.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Clarendon's autobiographical works and Letters
+  enumerated above, and the MS. Collection in the Bodleian library. The
+  Lives of Clarendon by T.H. Lister (1838), and by C.H. Firth in the
+  _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ (with authorities there collected),
+  completely supersede all earlier accounts including that in _Lives of
+  All the Lord Chancellors_ (1708), in Macdiarmid's _Lives of British
+  Statesmen_ (1807), and in the different Lives by Wood in _Athenae
+  Oxonienses_ (Bliss), iii. 1018; while those in J.H. Browne's _Lives of
+  the Prime Ministers of England_ (1858), in Lodge's _Portraits_, in
+  Lord Campbell's _Lives of the Chancellors_, iii. 110 (1845), and in
+  Foss's _Judges_, supply no further information. In _Historical
+  Inquiries respecting the Character of Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon_,
+  various charges against Clarendon were collected by G.A. Ellis (1827)
+  and answered by Lister, vol. ii. 529, and by Lady Th. Lewis in _Lives
+  of the Contemporaries of Lord Clarendon_ (1852), i. preface pt. i. For
+  criticisms of the _History_ see Gardiner's _Civil Wars_ (1893), iii.
+  121; Ranke's _Hist. of England_, vi. 3-29; _Die Politik Karls des
+  Ersten_ ... _und Lord Clarendon's Darstellung_, by A. Buff (1868);
+  article in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ by C.H. Firth, and especially a
+  series of admirable articles by the same author in the _Eng. Hist.
+  Review_ (1904). For description of the MS., Macray's edition of the
+  _History_ (1888), Lady Th. Lewis's _Lives from the Clarendon Gallery_,
+  i. introd. pt. ii.; for list of earlier editions, _Ath. Oxon._ (Bliss)
+  iii. 1017. Lord Lansdowne defends Sir R. Granville against Clarendon's
+  strictures in the _Vindication (Genuine Works of G. Granville, Lord
+  Lansdowne, i. 503 [1732])_, and Lord Ashburnham defends John
+  Ashburnham in _A Narrative by John Ashburnham_ (1830). See also _Notes
+  at Meetings of the Privy Council between Charles II. and the Earl of
+  Clarendon_ (Roxburghe Club. 1896); _General Orders of the High Court
+  of Chancery_, by J. Beames (1815), 147-221; S.R. Gardiner's _Hist. of
+  England, of the Civil War and of the Commonwealth; Lord Clarendon_, by
+  A. Chassant (account of the assault at Evreux) (1891); _Annals of the
+  Bodleian Library_, by W.D. Macray (1868); Masson's _Life of Milton_;
+  _Life of Sir G. Savile_, by H.C. Foxcroft (1898); _Cal. of St. Pap.
+  Dom._, esp. 1667-1668, 58, 354, 370; _Hist. MSS. Comm. Series, MSS. of
+  J.M. Heathcote_ and _Various Collections_, vol. ii.; _Add. MSS._ in
+  the British Museum; _Notes and Queries_, 6 ser. v. 283, 9 ser. xi.
+  182, 1 ser. ix. 7; Pepys's _Diary_; J. Evelyn's _Diary and
+  Correspondence_; Gen. Catalogue in British Museum; _Edward Hyde, earl
+  of Clarendon_ (1909), a lecture delivered at Oxford during the
+  Clarendon centenary by C.H. Firth.    (P. C. Y.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Life_, i. 25.
+
+  [2] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, iii. 164, the account being
+    substantially accepted by Gardiner, in spite of inaccuracies in
+    details (_Hist._ ix. 341, note).
+
+  [3] _Clarendon St. Pap._ ii. 337.
+
+  [4] Ibid.
+
+  [5] _Hist. of the Rebellion_, xiii. 140.
+
+  [6] _Clarendon State Papers_, iii. 316, 325, 341, 343.
+
+  [7] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham_, 227.
+
+  [8] Anne Hyde (1637-1671), eldest daughter of the chancellor, was the
+    mother by James of Queen Mary and Queen Anne, besides six other
+    children, including four sons who all died in infancy. She became a
+    Roman Catholic in 1670 shortly before her death, and was buried in
+    the vault of Mary, queen of Scots, in Henry VII.'s chapel in
+    Westminster Abbey.
+
+  [9] See _Hist. MSS. Comm.: Various Collections_, ii. 118, and _MSS.
+    of Duke of Somerset_, 94.
+
+  [10] _Continuation_, 339.
+
+  [11] Ib. 511, 776.
+
+  [12] Lister's _Life of Clarendon_, ii. 295; _Hist. MSS. Comm.:
+    Various Collections_, ii. 379.
+
+  [13] _Continuation_, 1170.
+
+  [14] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of F.W. Leyborne-Popham_, 250.
+
+  [15] _Continuation_, 1066.
+
+  [16] Macaulay's _Hist. of England_, i. 193.
+
+  [17] Pepys's _Diary_, Sept. 2, 1667.
+
+  [18] _Hist. MSS. Comm._, 7th Rep. 162.
+
+  [19] _Diary_, iii. 95, 96.
+
+  [20] _Lives from the Clarendon Gallery_, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 39;
+    Burnet's _Hist. of his own Times_, i. 209.
+
+  [21] _Continuation_, 88.
+
+  [22] Lister's _Life of Clarendon_, ii. 416.
+
+  [23] _Continuation_, 1137.
+
+  [24] _Clarendon St. Pap._ iii. Suppl. xxxvii.
+
+  [25] Evelyn witnessed its demolition in 1683--_Diary_, May 19th, Sept.
+    18th; _Lives from the Clarendon Gallery_, by Lady Th. Lewis, i. 40.
+
+  [26] _Diary_, July 14th, 1664.
+
+  [27] _Lister_, ii. 528.
+
+
+
+
+CLARENDON, GEORGE WILLIAM FREDERICK VILLIERS, 4TH EARL OF (in the
+Villiers line) (1800-1870), English diplomatist and statesman, was born
+in London on the 12th of January 1800. He was the eldest son of Hon.
+George Villiers (1750-1827), youngest son of the 1st earl of Clarendon
+(second creation), by Theresa, only daughter of the first Lord
+Boringdon, and granddaughter of the first Lord Grantham. The earldom of
+the lord chancellor Clarendon became extinct in the Hyde line by the
+death of the 4th earl, his last male descendant. Jane Hyde, countess of
+Essex, the sister of that nobleman (she died in 1724), left two
+daughters; of these the eldest, Lady Charlotte, became heiress of the
+Hyde family. She married Thomas Villiers (1709-1786), second son of the
+2nd earl of Jersey, who served with distinction as English minister in
+Germany, and in 1776 the earldom of Clarendon was revived in his favour.
+The connexion with the Hyde family was therefore in the female line and
+somewhat remote. But a portion of the pictures and plate of the great
+chancellor was preserved to this branch of the family, and remains at
+The Grove, their family seat at Hertfordshire. The 2nd and 3rd earls
+were sons of the 1st, and, neither of them having sons, the title
+passed, on the death of the 3rd earl (John Charles) in 1838, to their
+younger brother's son.
+
+Young George Villiers entered upon life in circumstances which gave
+small promise of the brilliancy of his future career. He was well born;
+he was heir presumptive to an earldom; and his mother was a woman of
+great energy, admirable good sense, and high feeling. But the means of
+his family were contracted; his education was desultory and incomplete;
+he had not the advantages of a training either at a public school or in
+the House of Commons. He went up to Cambridge at the early age of
+sixteen, and entered St John's College on the 29th of June 1816. In
+1820, as the eldest son of an earl's brother with royal descent, he was
+enabled to take his M.A. degree under the statutes of the university
+then in force. In the same year he was appointed attache to the British
+embassy at St Petersburg, where he remained three years, and gained that
+practical knowledge of diplomacy which was of so much use to him in
+after-life. He had received from nature a singularly handsome person, a
+polished and engaging address, a ready command of languages, and a
+remarkable power of composition.
+
+Upon his return to England in 1823 he was appointed to a
+commissionership of customs, an office which he retained for about ten
+years. In 1831 he was despatched to France to negotiate a commercial
+treaty, which, however, led to no result. On the 16th of August 1833 he
+was appointed minister at the court of Spain. Ferdinand VII. died within
+a month of his arrival at Madrid, and the infant queen Isabella, then in
+the third year of her age, was placed by the old Spanish law of female
+inheritance on her contested throne. Don Carlos, the late king's
+brother, claimed the crown by virtue of the Salic law of the House of
+Bourbon which Ferdinand had renounced before the birth of his daughter.
+Isabella II. and her mother Christina, the queen regent, became the
+representatives of constitutional monarchy, Don Carlos of Catholic
+absolutism. The conflict which had divided the despotic and the
+constitutional powers of Europe since the French Revolution of 1830
+broke out into civil war in Spain, and by the Quadruple Treaty, signed
+on the 22nd of April 1834, France and England pledged themselves to the
+defence of the constitutional thrones of Spain and Portugal. For six
+years Villiers continued to give the most active and intelligent support
+to the Liberal government of Spain. He was accused, though unjustly, of
+having favoured the revolution of La Granja, which drove Christina, the
+queen mother, out of the kingdom, and raised Espartero to the regency.
+He undoubtedly supported the chiefs of the Liberal party, such as
+Espartero, against the intrigues of the French court; but the object of
+the British government was to establish the throne of Isabella on a
+truly national and liberal basis and to avert those complications,
+dictated by foreign influence, which eventually proved so fatal to that
+princess. Villiers received the grand cross of the Bath in 1838 in
+acknowledgment of his services, and succeeded, on the death of his
+uncle, to the title of earl of Clarendon; in the following year, having
+left Madrid, he married Katharine, eldest daughter of James Walter,
+first earl of Verulam.
+
+In January 1840 he entered Lord Melbourne's administration as lord privy
+seal, and from the death of Lord Holland in the autumn of that year Lord
+Clarendon also held the office of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
+until the dissolution of the ministry in 1841. Deeply convinced that the
+maintenance of a cordial understanding with France was the most
+essential condition of peace and of a liberal policy in Europe, he
+reluctantly concurred in the measures proposed by Lord Palmerston for
+the expulsion of the pasha of Egypt from Syria; he strenuously
+advocated, with Lord Holland, a more conciliatory policy towards France;
+and he was only restrained from sending in his resignation by the
+dislike he felt to break up a cabinet he had so recently joined.
+
+The interval of Sir Robert Peel's great administration (1841-1846) was
+to the leaders of the Whig party a period of repose; but Lord Clarendon
+took the warmest interest in the triumph of the principles of free trade
+and in the repeal of the corn-laws, of which his brother, Charles Pelham
+Villiers (q.v.), had been one of the earliest champions. For this
+reason, upon the formation of Lord John Russell's first administration,
+Lord Clarendon accepted the office of president of the Board of Trade.
+Twice in his career the governor-generalship of India was offered him,
+and once the governor-generalship of Canada;--these he refused from
+reluctance to withdraw from the politics of Europe. But in 1847 a sense
+of duty compelled him to take a far more laborious and uncongenial
+appointment. The desire of the cabinet was to abolish the
+lord-lieutenancy of Ireland, and Lord Clarendon was prevailed upon to
+accept that office, with a view to transform it ere long into an Irish
+secretaryship of state. But he had not been many months in Dublin before
+he acknowledged that the difficulties then existing in Ireland could
+only be met by the most vigilant and energetic authority, exercised on
+the spot. The crisis was one of extraordinary peril. Agrarian crimes of
+horrible atrocity had increased threefold. The Catholic clergy were
+openly disaffected. This was the second year of the Irish famine, and
+extraordinary measures were required to regulate the bounty of the
+government and the nation. In 1848 the revolution in France let loose
+fresh elements of discord, which culminated in an abortive insurrection,
+and for a lengthened period Ireland was a prey to more than her wonted
+symptoms of disaffection and disorder. Lord Clarendon remained viceroy
+of Ireland till 1852, and left behind him permanent marks of
+improvement. His services were expressly acknowledged in the queen's
+speech to both Houses of Parliament on the 5th of September 1848--this
+being the first time that any _civil_ services obtained that honour; and
+he was made a knight of the Garter (retaining also the grand cross of
+the Bath by special order) on the 23rd of March 1849.
+
+Upon the formation of the coalition ministry between the Whigs and the
+Peelites, in 1853, under Lord Aberdeen, Lord Clarendon became foreign
+minister. The country was already "drifting" into the Crimean War, an
+expression of his own which was never forgotten. Clarendon was not
+responsible for the policy which brought war about; but when it occurred
+he employed every means in his power to stimulate and assist the war
+departments, and above all he maintained the closest relations with the
+French. The tsar Nicholas had speculated on the impossibility of the
+sustained joint action of France and England in council and in the
+field. It was mainly by Lord Clarendon at Whitehall and by Lord Raglan
+before Sevastopol that such a combination was rendered practicable, and
+did eventually triumph over the enemy. The diplomatic conduct of such an
+alliance for three years between two great nations jealous of their
+military honour and fighting for no separate political advantage, tried
+by excessive hardships and at moments on the verge of defeat, was
+certainly one of the most arduous duties ever performed by a minister.
+The result was due in the main to the confidence with which Lord
+Clarendon had inspired the emperor of the French, and to the affection
+and regard of the empress, whom he had known in Spain from her
+childhood.
+
+In 1856 Lord Clarendon took his seat at the congress of Paris convoked
+for the restoration of peace, as first British plenipotentiary. It was
+the first time since the appearance of Lord Castlereagh at Vienna that a
+secretary of state for foreign affairs had been present in person at a
+congress on the continent. Lord Clarendon's first care was to obtain the
+admission of Italy to the council chamber as a belligerent power, and to
+raise the barrier which still excluded Prussia as a neutral one. But in
+the general anxiety of all the powers to terminate the war there was no
+small danger that the objects for which it had been undertaken would be
+abandoned or forgotten. It is due entirely to the firmness of Lord
+Clarendon that the principle of the neutralization of the Black Sea was
+preserved, that the Russian attempt to trick the allies out of the
+cession in Bessarabia was defeated, and that the results of the war were
+for a time secured. The congress was eager to turn to other subjects,
+and perhaps the most important result of its deliberations was the
+celebrated Declaration of the Maritime Powers, which abolished
+privateering, defined the right of blockade, and limited the right of
+capture to enemy's property in enemy's ships. Lord Clarendon has been
+accused of an abandonment of what are termed the belligerent rights of
+Great Britain, which were undoubtedly based on the old maritime laws of
+Europe. But he acted in strict conformity with the views of the British
+cabinet, and the British cabinet adopted those views because it was
+satisfied that it was not for the benefit of the country to adhere to
+practices which exposed the vast mercantile interests of Britain to
+depredation, even by the cruisers of a secondary maritime power, and
+which, if vigorously enforced against neutrals, could not fail to
+embroil her with every maritime state in the world.
+
+Upon the reconstitution of the Whig administration in 1859, Lord John
+Russell made it a condition of his acceptance of office under Lord
+Palmerston that the foreign department should be placed in his own
+hands, which implied that Lord Clarendon should be excluded from office,
+as it would have been inconsistent alike with his dignity and his tastes
+to fill any other post in the government. The consequence was that from
+1859 till 1864 Lord Clarendon remained out of office, and the critical
+relations arising out of the Civil War in the United States were left to
+the guidance of Earl Russell. But he re-entered the cabinet in May 1864
+as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster; and upon the death of Lord
+Palmerston in 1865, Lord Russell again became prime minister, when Lord
+Clarendon returned to the foreign office, which was again confided to
+him for the third time upon the formation of Mr Gladstone's
+administration in 1868. To the last moment of his existence, Lord
+Clarendon continued to devote every faculty of his mind and every
+instant of his life to the public service; and he expired surrounded by
+the boxes and papers of his office on the 27th of June 1870. No man owed
+more to the influence of a generous, unselfish and liberal disposition.
+If he had rivals he never ceased to treat them with the consideration
+and confidence of friends, and he cared but little for the ordinary
+prizes of ambition in comparison with the advancement of the cause of
+peace and progress.
+
+He was succeeded as 5th earl by his eldest son, EDWARD HYDE VILLIERS (b.
+1846), who became lord chamberlain in 1900.
+
+  See also the article (by Henry Reeve) in _Fraser's Magazine_, August
+  1876.
+
+
+
+
+CLARENDON, HENRY HYDE, 2ND EARL OF (1638-1709), English statesman,
+eldest son of the first earl, was born on the 2nd of June 1638. He
+accompanied his parents into exile and assisted his father as
+secretary, returning with them in 1660. In 1661 he was returned to
+parliament for Wiltshire as Lord Cornbury. He became secretary in 1662
+and lord chamberlain to the queen in 1665. He took no part in the life
+of the court, and on the dismissal of his father became a vehement
+opponent of the administration, defended his father in the impeachment,
+and subsequently made effective attacks upon Buckingham and Arlington.
+In 1674 he became earl of Clarendon by his father's death, and in 1679
+was made a privy councillor. He was not included in Sir W. Temple's
+council of that year, but was reappointed in 1680. In 1682 he supported
+Halifax's proposal of declaring war on France. On the accession of James
+in 1685 he was appointed lord privy seal, but shortly afterwards, in
+September, was removed from this office to that of lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland. Clarendon was embarrassed in his estate, and James required a
+willing agent to carry out his design by upsetting the Protestant
+government and the Act of Settlement. Clarendon arrived in Dublin on the
+9th of January 1686. He found himself completely in the power of
+Tyrconnel, the commander-in-chief; and though, like his father, a
+staunch Protestant, elected this year high steward of Oxford University,
+and detesting the king's policy, he obeyed his orders to introduce Roman
+Catholics into the government and the army and upon the bench, and clung
+to office till after the dismissal of his brother, the earl of
+Rochester, in January 1687, when he was recalled and succeeded by
+Tyrconnel. He now supported the church in its struggle with James,
+opposed the Declaration of Indulgence, wrote to Mary an account of the
+resistance of the bishops,[1] and visited and advised the latter in the
+Tower. He had no share, however, in inviting William to England. He
+assured James in September that the Church would be loyal, advised the
+calling of the parliament, and on the desertion of his son, Lord
+Cornbury, to William on the 14th of November, expressed to the king and
+queen the most poignant grief. In the council held on the 27th, however,
+he made a violent and unseasonable attack upon James's conduct, and on
+the 1st of December set out to meet William, joined him on the 3rd at
+Berwick near Salisbury, and was present at the conference at Hungerford
+on the 8th, and again at Windsor on the 16th. His wish was apparently to
+effect some compromise, saving the crown for James. According to Burnet,
+he advised sending James to Breda, and according to the duchess of
+Marlborough to the Tower, but he himself denies these statements.[2] He
+opposed vehemently the settlement of the crown upon William and Mary,
+voted for the regency, and refused to take the oaths of the new
+sovereigns, remaining a non-juror for the rest of his life. He
+subsequently retired to the country, engaged in cabals against the
+government, associated himself with Richard Graham, Lord Preston, and
+organizing a plot against William, was arrested on the 24th of June 1690
+by order of his niece, Queen Mary, and placed in the Tower. Liberated on
+the 15th of August, he immediately recommenced his intrigues. On
+Preston's arrest on the 31st of December, a compromising letter from
+Clarendon was found upon him, and he was named by Preston as one of his
+accomplices. He was examined before the privy council and again
+imprisoned in the Tower on the 4th of January 1691, remaining in
+confinement till the 3rd of July. This closed his public career. In
+1702, on Queen Anne's accession, he presented himself at court, "to talk
+to his niece," but the queen refused to see him till he had taken the
+oaths. He died on the 31st of October 1709, and was buried in
+Westminster Abbey.
+
+His public career had been neither distinguished nor useful, but it
+seems natural to ascribe its failure to small abilities and to the
+conflict between personal ties and political convictions which drew him
+in opposite directions, rather than, following Macaulay, to motives of
+self-interest. He was a man of some literary taste, a fellow of the
+Royal Society (1684), the author of _The History and Antiquities of the
+Cathedral Church of Winchester ... continued by S. Gale_ (1715), and he
+collaborated with his brother Rochester in the publication of his
+father's _History_ (1702-1704). He married (1) in 1660, Theodosia,
+daughter of Lord Capel, and (2) in 1670, Flower, daughter of William
+Backhouse of Swallowfield in Berkshire, and widow of William Bishopp and
+of Sir William Backhouse, Bart. He was succeeded by his only son, Edward
+(1661-1724), as 3rd earl of Clarendon; and, the latter having no
+surviving son, the title passed to Henry, 2nd earl of Rochester
+(1672-1753), at whose death without male heirs it became extinct in the
+Hyde line.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] _Hist. MSS. Comm.: MSS. of the Duke of Buccleuch_, ii. 31.
+
+  [2] _Correspondence and Diary_ (1828), ii. 286.
+
+
+
+
+CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS OF, a body of English laws issued at Clarendon
+in 1164, by which Henry II. endeavoured to settle the relations between
+Church and State. Though they purported to declare the usages on the
+subject which prevailed in the reign of Henry I. they were never
+accepted by the clergy, and were formally renounced by the king at
+Avranches in September 1172. Some of them, however, were in part at
+least, as they all purported to be, declaratory of ancient usage and
+remained in force after the royal renunciation. Of the sixteen
+provisions the one which provoked the greatest opposition was that which
+declared in effect that criminous clerks were to be summoned to the
+king's court, and from there, after formal accusation and defence, sent
+to the proper ecclesiastical court for trial. If found guilty they were
+to be degraded and sent back to the king's court for punishment. Another
+provision, which in spite of all opposition obtained a permanent place
+in English law, declared that all suits even between clerk and clerk
+concerning advowsons and presentations should be tried in the king's
+court. By other provisions appeals to Rome without the licence of the
+king were forbidden. None of the clergy were to leave the realm, nor
+were the king's tenants-in-chief and ministers to be excommunicated or
+their lands interdicted without the royal permission. Pleas of debt,
+whether involving a question of good faith or not, were to be in the
+jurisdiction of the king's courts. Two most interesting provisions, to
+which the clergy offered no opposition, were: (1) if a dispute arose
+between a clerk and a layman concerning a tenement which the clerk
+claimed as free-alms (frankalmoign) and the layman as a lay-fee, it
+should be determined by the recognition of twelve lawful men before the
+king's justice whether it belonged to free-alms or lay-fee, and if it
+were found to belong to free-alms then the plea was to be held in the
+ecclesiastical court, but if to lay-fee, in the court of the king or of
+one of his magnates; (2) a declaration of the procedure for election to
+bishoprics and royal abbeys, generally considered to state the terms of
+the settlement made between Henry I. and Anselm in 1107.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J.C. Robertson, _Materials for History of Thomas
+  Becket_, Rolls Series (1875-1885); Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland,
+  _History of English Law before the Time of Ed. I._ (Cambridge, 1898),
+  and F.W. Maitland, _Roman Canon Law in the Church of England_ (1898);
+  the text of the Constitutions is printed by W. Stubbs in _Select
+  Charters_ (Oxford, 1895). (G.J.T.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARES, POOR, otherwise _Clarisses_, Franciscan nuns, so called from
+their foundress, St Clara (q.v.). She was professed by St Francis in the
+Portiuncula in 1212, and two years later she and her first companions
+were established in the convent of St Damian's at Assisi. The nuns
+formed the "Second Order of St Francis," the friars being the "First
+Order," and the Tertiaries (q.v.) the "Third." Before Clara's death in
+1253, the Second Order had spread all over Italy and into Spain, France
+and Germany; in England they were introduced c. 1293 and established in
+London, outside Aldgate, where their name of Minoresses survives in the
+Minories; there were only two other English houses before the
+Dissolution. St Francis gave the nuns no rule, but only a "Form of Life"
+and a "Last Will," each only five lines long, and coming to no more than
+an inculcation of his idea of evangelical poverty. Something more than
+this became necessary as soon as the institute began to spread; and
+during Francis's absence in the East, 1219, his supporter Cardinal
+Hugolino composed a rule which made the Franciscan nuns practically a
+species of unduly strict Benedictines, St Francis's special
+characteristics being eliminated. St Clara made it her life work to have
+this rule altered, and to get the Franciscan character of the Second
+Order restored; in 1247 a "Second Rule" was approved which went a long
+way towards satisfying her desires, and finally in 1253 a "Third,"
+which practically gave what she wanted. This rule has come to be known
+as the "Rule of the Clares"; it is one of great poverty, seclusion and
+austerity of life. Most of the convents adopted it, but several clung to
+that of 1247. To bring about conformity, St Bonaventura, while general
+(1264), obtained papal permission to modify the rule of 1253, somewhat
+mitigating its austerities and allowing the convents to have fixed
+incomes,--thus assimilating them to the Conventual Franciscans as
+opposed to the Spirituals. This rule was adopted in many convents, but
+many more adhered to the strict rule of 1253. Indeed a counter-tendency
+towards a greater strictness set in, and a number of reforms were
+initiated, introducing an appalling austerity of life. The most
+important of these reforms were the Coletines (St Colette, c. 1400) and
+the Capucines (c. 1540; see CAPUCHINS). The half-dozen forms of the
+Franciscan rule for women here mentioned are still in use in different
+convents, and there are also a great number of religious institutes for
+women based on the rule of the Tertiaries. By the term "Poor Clares" the
+Coletine nuns are now commonly understood; there are various convents of
+these nuns, as of other Franciscans, in England and Ireland. Franciscan
+nuns have always been very numerous; there are now about 150 convents of
+the various observances of the Second Order, in every part of the world,
+besides innumerable institutions of Tertiaries.
+
+  See Helyot, _Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1792), vii. cc. 25-28 and
+  38-42; Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.), art. "Clara"; Max
+  Heimbucher, _Orden und Kongregationen_ (1896), i. Sec.Sec. 47, 48, who gives
+  references to all the literature. For a scientific study of the
+  beginnings see Lempp, "Die Anfaenge des Klarissenordens" in
+  _Zeitschrift fuer Kirchengeschichte_, xiii. (1892), 181 ff. (E.C.B.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARET (from the Fr. _vin claret_, mod. _clairet_, wine of a light clear
+colour, from Lat. _clarus_, clear), the English name for the red
+Bordeaux wines. The term was originally used in France for light-yellow
+or light-red wines, as distinguished from the _vins rouges_ and the
+_vins blancs_; later it was applied to red wines generally, but is
+rarely used in French, and never with the particular English meaning
+(see WINE).
+
+
+
+
+CLARETIE, JULES ARSENE ARNAUD (1840-   ), French man of letters and
+director of the Theatre Francais, was born at Limoges on the 3rd of
+December 1840. After studying at the lycee Bonaparte in Paris, he became
+an active journalist, achieving great success as dramatic critic to the
+_Figaro_ and to the _Opinion nationale_. He was a newspaper
+correspondent during the Franco-German War, and during the Commune acted
+as staff-officer in the National Guard. In 1885 he became director of
+the Theatre Francais, and from that time devoted his time chiefly to its
+administration. He was elected a member of the Academy in 1888, and took
+his seat in February 1889, being received by Ernest Renan. The long list
+of his works includes _Histoire de la revolution de 1870-1871_ (new ed.,
+5 vols., 1875-1876); _Cinq ans apres; l'Alsace et la Lorraine depuis
+l'annexion_ (1876); some annual volumes of reprints of his articles in
+the weekly press, entitled _La Vie a Paris; La Vie moderne au theatre_
+(1868-1869); _Moliere, sa vie et son oeuvre_ (1871); _Histoire de la
+litterature francaise, 900-1900_ (2nd ed. 1905); _Candidat!_ (1887), a
+novel of contemporary life; _Brichanteau, comedien francais_ (1896);
+several plays, some of which are based on novels of his own--_Les
+Muscadins_ (1874), _Le Regiment de Champagne_ (1877), _Les Mirabeau_
+(1879), _Monsieur le ministre_ (1883), and others; and the opera, _La
+Navarraise_, based on his novel _La Cigarette_, and written with Henri
+Cain to the music of Massenet. _La Navarraise_ was first produced at
+Covent Garden (June 1894) with Mme Calve in the part of Anita. His
+_OEuvres completes_ were published in 1897-1904.
+
+
+
+
+CLARI, GIOVANNI CARLO MARIA, Italian musical composer, chapel-master at
+Pistoia, was born at Pisa about the year 1669. The time of his death is
+unknown. He was the most celebrated pupil of Colonna, chapel-master of
+S. Petronio, at Bologna. He became _maestro di cappella_ at Pistoia
+about 1712, at Bologna in 1720, and at Pisa in 1736. He is supposed to
+have died about 1745. The works by which Clari distinguished himself
+pre-eminently are his vocal duets and trios, with a _basso continuo_,
+published between 1740 and 1747. These compositions, which combine
+graceful melody with contrapuntal learning, were much admired by
+Cherubini. They appear to have been admired by Handel also, since he did
+not hesitate to make appropriations from them. Clari composed one opera,
+_Il Savio delirante_, produced at Bologna in 1695, and a large quantity
+of church music, several specimens of which were printed in Novello's
+_Fitzwilliam Music_.
+
+
+
+
+CLARINA, a comparatively new instrument of the wood-wind class (although
+actually made of metal), a hybrid possessing characteristics of both
+oboe and clarinet. The clarina was invented by W. Heckel of
+Biebrich-am-Rhein, and has been used since 1891 at the Festspielhaus,
+Bayreuth, in _Tristan und Isolde_, as a substitute for the
+_Holztrompete_ made according to Wagner's instructions. The clarina has
+been found more practical and more effective in producing the desired
+tone-colour. The clarina is a metal instrument with the conical bore and
+fingering of the oboe and the clarinet single-reed mouthpiece. The
+compass of the instrument is as shown, and it stands in the key of
+B[flat]. Like the clarinet, the clarina is a transposing instrument, for
+which the music must be written in a key a tone higher than that of the
+composition. The timbre resulting from the combination of conical bore
+and single-reed mouthpiece has in the lowest register affinities with
+the _cor anglais_, in the middle with the saxophone, and in the highest
+with the clarinet. Other German orchestras have followed the example of
+Bayreuth. The clarina has also been found very effective as a solo
+instrument.    (K. S.)
+
+[Illustration: Notation.]
+
+[Illustration: Real Sounds.]
+
+
+
+
+CLARINET, or CLARIONET (Fr. _clarinette_; Ger. _Clarinette, Klarinett_;
+Ital. _clarinetto, chiarinetto_), a wood-wind instrument having a
+cylindrical bore and played by means of a single-reed mouthpiece. The
+word "clarinet" is said to be derived from _clarinetto_, a diminutive of
+_clarino_, the Italian for (1) the soprano trumpet, (2) the highest
+register of the instrument, (3) the trumpet played musically without the
+blare of the martial instrument. The word "clarionet" is similarly
+derived from "clarion," the English equivalent of _clarino_. It is
+suggested that the name _clarinet_ or _clarinetto_ was bestowed on
+account of the resemblance in timbre between the high registers of the
+clarino and clarinet. By adding the speaker-hole to the old chalumeau,
+J.C. Denner gave it an additional compass based on the overblowing of
+the harmonic twelfth, and consisting of an octave and a half of
+harmonics, which received the name of _clarino_, while the lower
+register retained the name of _chalumeau_. There is something to be said
+also in favour of another suggested derivation from the Italian
+_chiarina_, the name for reed instruments and the equivalent for tibia
+and aulos. At the beginning of the 18th century in Italy _clarinetto_,
+the diminutive of _clarino_, would be masculine, whereas _chiarinetta_
+or _clarinetta_ would be feminine,[1] as in Doppelmayr's account of the
+invention written in 1730. The word "clarinet" is sometimes used in a
+generic sense to denote the whole family, which consists of the
+clarinet, or discant corresponding to the violin, oboe, &c; the alto
+clarinet in E; the basset horn in F (q.v.); the bass clarinet (q.v.),
+and the pedal clarinet (q.v.).
+
+The modern clarinet consists of five (or four) separate pieces: (1) the
+mouthpiece; (2) the bulb; (3) the upper middle joint, or left-hand
+joint; (4) the lower middle joint, or right-hand joint[2]; (5) the bell;
+which (the bell excepted) when joined together, form a tube with a
+continuous cylindrical bore, 2 ft. or more in length, according to the
+pitch of the instrument. The mouthpiece, including the beating or
+single-reed common to the whole clarinet family, has the appearance of a
+beak with the point bevelled off and thinned at the edge to correspond
+with the end of the reed shaped like a spatula. The under part of the
+mouthpiece (fig. 2) is flattened in order to form a table for the
+support of the reed which is adjusted thereon with great nicety,
+allowing just the amount of play requisite to set in vibration the
+column of air within the tube.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Clarinet (Albert Model).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Clarinet Mouthpiece. _a_, the mouthpiece showing
+the position of the bore inside; _b_, the single or beating reed.]
+
+The mouthpiece, which is subject to continual fluctuations of dampness
+and dryness, and to changes of temperature, requires to be made of a
+material having great powers of resistance, such as cocus wood, ivory or
+vulcanite, which are mostly used for the purpose in England. A
+longitudinal aperture 1 in. long and 1/2 in. wide, communicating with the
+bore, is cut in the table and covered by the reed. The aperture is thus
+closed except towards the point, where, for the distance of 1/3 to 1/4
+in., the reed is thinned and the table curves backwards towards the
+point, leaving a gap between the ends of the mouthpiece and of the reed
+of 1 mm. or about the thickness of a sixpence for the B flat clarinet.
+The curve of the table and the size of the gap are therefore of
+considerable importance. The reed is cut from a joint of the _Arundo
+donax_ or _sativa_, which grows wild in the regions bordering on the
+Mediterranean. A flat slip of the reed is cut, flattened on one side and
+thinned to a very delicate edge on the other. At first the reed was
+fastened to the table by means of many turns of a fine waxed cord. The
+metal band adjusted by means of two screws, known as the "ligature," was
+introduced about 1817 by Ivan Mueller. The reed is set in vibration by
+the breath of the performer, and being flexible it beats against the
+table, opening and closing the gap at a rate depending on the rate of
+the vibrations it sets up in the air column, this rate varying according
+to the length of the column as determined by opening the lateral holes
+and keys. A cylindrical tube played by means of a reed has the acoustic
+properties of a stopped pipe, i.e. the fundamental tone produced by the
+tube is an octave lower than the corresponding tone of an open pipe of
+the same length, and overblows a twelfth; whereas tubes having a conical
+bore like the oboe, and played by means of a reed, speak as open pipes
+and overblow an octave. This forms the fundamental difference between
+the instruments of the oboe and clarinet families. Wind instruments
+depending upon lateral holes for the production of their scale must
+either have as many holes pierced in the bore as they require notes, or
+make use of the property possessed by the air-column of dividing into
+harmonics or partials of the fundamental tones. Twenty to twenty-two
+holes is the number generally accepted as the practical limit for the
+clarinet; beyond that number the fingering and mechanism become too
+complicated. The compass of the clarinet is therefore extended through
+the medium of the harmonic overtones. In stopped pipes a node is formed
+near the mouthpiece, and they are therefore only able to produce the
+uneven harmonics, such as the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, &c, corresponding to
+the fundamental, and the diatonic intervals of the 5th one octave above,
+and of the 3rd and 7th two octaves above the fundamental. By pressing
+the reed with the lip near the base where it is thicker and stiffer, and
+increasing the pressure of the breath, the air-column is forced to
+divide and to sound the harmonics, a principle well understood by the
+ancient Greeks and Romans in playing upon the aulos and tibia.[3] This
+is easier to accomplish with the double reed than with the beating reed;
+in fact with a tube of wide diameter, such as that of the modern
+clarinet, it would not be possible by this means alone to do justice to
+the tone of the instrument or to the music now written for it. The bore
+of the aulos was very much narrower than that of the clarinet.
+
+In order to facilitate the production of the harmonic notes on the
+clarinet, a small hole, closed by means of a key and called the
+"speaker," is bored near the mouthpiece. By means of this small hole the
+air-column is placed in communication with the external atmosphere, a
+ventral segment is formed, and the air-column divides into three equal
+parts, producing a triple number of vibrations resulting in the third
+note of the harmonic series, at an interval of a twelfth above the
+fundamental.[4] In a wind instrument with lateral holes the fundamental
+note corresponding to any particular hole is produced when all the holes
+below that hole are open and it itself and all above it are closed, the
+effective length of the resonating tube being shortened as each of the
+closed holes is successively uncovered. In order to obtain a complete
+chromatic scale on the clarinet at least eighteen holes are required.
+This series produces with the bell-note a succession of nineteen
+semitones, giving the range of a twelfth and known as the fundamental
+scale or _chalumeau_ register, so called, no doubt, because it was the
+compass (without chromatic semitones) of the more primitive predecessor
+of the clarinet, known as the _chalumeau_, which must not be confounded
+with the shawm or schalmey of the middle ages.
+
+  The fundamental scale of the modern clarinet in C extends from
+  [Illustration]. The next octave and a half is obtained by opening the
+  speaker key, whereby each of the fundamental notes is reproduced a
+  twelfth higher; the bell-note thus jumps from E to B#, the first key
+  gives instead of F its twelfth C#, and so on, extending the compass to
+  [Illustration], which ends the natural compass of the instrument,
+  although a skilful performer may obtain another octave by
+  cross-fingering. The names of the holes and keys on the clarinet are
+  derived not from the notes of the fundamental scale, but from the name
+  of the twelfth produced by overblowing with the speaker key open; for
+  instance, the first key near the bell is known not as the E key but as
+  the B#. The use of the speaker key forms the greatest technical
+  difficulty in learning to play the clarinet, on account of the thumb
+  having to do double duty, closing one hole and raising the lever of
+  the speaker key simultaneously. In a clarinet designed by Richard
+  Carte this difficulty was ingeniously overcome by placing the left
+  thumb-hole towards the front, and closing it by a thumb-lever or with
+  a ring action by the first or second finger of the left hand, thus
+  leaving the thumb free to work the speaker key alone.
+
+  There is good reason to think that the ancient Greeks understood the
+  advantage of a speaker-hole, which they called _Syrinx_, for
+  facilitating the production of harmonics on the aulos. The credit of
+  the discovery of this interesting fact is due to A.A. Howard,[5] of
+  Harvard University; it explains many passages in the classics which
+  before were obscure (see AULOS). Plutarch relates[6] that Telephanes
+  of Megara was so incensed with the syrinx that he never allowed his
+  instrument-makers to place one on any of his auloi; he even went so
+  far as to absent himself, principally on account of the syrinx, from
+  the Pythian games. Telephanes was a great virtuoso who scorned the use
+  of a speaker-hole, being able to obtain his harmonics on the aulos by
+  the mere control of lips and teeth.
+
+  The modern clarinet has from thirteen to nineteen keys, some being
+  normally open and others closed. In order to understand why, when once
+  the idea of adding keys to the chalumeau had been conceived, the
+  number rose so slowly, keys being added one or two at a time by makers
+  of various nationalities at long intervals, it is necessary to
+  consider the effect of boring holes in the side of a cylindrical tube.
+  If it were possible to proceed from an absolute theoretical basis,
+  there would be but little difficulty; there are, however, practical
+  reasons which make this a matter of great difficulty. According to V.
+  Mahillon,[7] the theoretical length of a B flat clarinet (French pitch
+  diapason normal A = 435 vibrations), is 39 cm. when the internal
+  diameter of the bore measures exactly 1.4 cm. Any increase in the
+  diameter of the cylindrical bore for a given length of tube raises the
+  pitch proportionally and in the same way a decrease lowers it. A bore
+  narrow in proportion to the length facilitates the production of the
+  harmonics, which is no doubt the reason why the aulos was made with a
+  very narrow diameter, and produced such deep notes in proportion to
+  its length. In determining the position of the holes along the tube,
+  the thickness of the wood to be pierced must be taken into
+  consideration, for the length of the passage from the main bore to the
+  outer air adds to the length of the resonating column; as, however,
+  the clarinet tube is reckoned as a closed one, only half the extra
+  length must be taken into account. When placed in its correct
+  theoretical position, a hole should have its diameter equal to the
+  diameter of the main bore, which is the ideal condition for obtaining
+  a full, rich tone; it is, however, feasible to give the hole a smaller
+  diameter, altering its position by placing it nearer the mouthpiece.
+  These laws, which were likewise known to the Greeks and Romans,[8] had
+  to be rediscovered by experience in the 18th and 19th centuries,
+  during which the mechanism of the key system was repeatedly improved.
+  Due consideration having been given to these points, it will also be
+  necessary to remember that the stopping of the seven open holes leaves
+  only the two little fingers (the thumb of the right hand being in the
+  ordinary clarinet engaged in supporting the instrument) free at all
+  times for key service, the other fingers doing duty when momentarily
+  disengaged. The fingering of the clarinet is the most difficult of any
+  instrument in the orchestra, for it differs in all four octaves of its
+  compass. Once mastered, however, it is the same for all clarinets, the
+  music being always written in the key of C.
+
+  [Illustration: real sounds]
+
+  The actual tonality of the clarinet is determined by the diatonic
+  scale produced when, starting with keys untouched and finger and
+  thumb-holes closed, the fingers are raised one by one from the holes.
+  In the B flat clarinet, the _real sounds_ thus produced are being part
+  of the scale of B flat major. By the closing of two _open_ keys, the
+  lower E flat and D are added.
+
+  The following are the various sizes of clarinets with the key proper
+  to each:
+
+    E flat, a minor third above the C clarinet.
+    B flat, a tone below         "      "
+    The high F, 4 tones above    "      "
+    The D, 1 tone above          "      "
+    The low G, a  fourth below   "      "
+    The A, a minor third below   "      "
+    The B# 1 semintone below     "      "
+    The alto clarinet in E flat, a fifth below the B flat clarinet.
+    The tenor or basset horn, in F, a fifth below the C clarinet.
+    The bass clarinet in B flat, an 8ve below that in B flat.
+    The pedal clarinet in B flat, an 8ve below the bass clarinet.
+    The clarinets in B flat and A are used in the orchestra; those in C
+  and E flat in military bands.
+
+_History_.--Although the single beating-reed associated with the
+instruments of the clarinet family has been traced in ancient Egypt, the
+double reed, characteristic of the oboe family, being of simpler
+construction, was probably of still greater antiquity. An ancient
+Egyptian pipe found in a mummy-case and now preserved in the museum at
+Turin was found to contain a beating-reed sunk 3 in. below the end of
+the pipe, which is the principle of the drone. It would appear that the
+double chalumeau, called arghoul (q.v.) by the modern Egyptians, was
+known in ancient Egypt, although it was not perhaps in common use. The
+Musee Guimet possesses a copy of a fresco from the tombs at Saqqarah
+(executed under the direction of Mariette Bey) assigned to the 4th or
+5th dynasty, on which is shown a concert with dancing; the instruments
+used are two harps, the long oblique flute "nay," blown from the end
+without any mouthpiece or embouchure, and an instrument identified as an
+arghoul[9] from its resemblance to the modern instrument of the same
+name. This is believed to be the only illustration of the ancient double
+chalumeau yet found in Egypt, with the single exception of a hieroglyph
+occurring also once only, i.e. the sign read _As-it_, consisting of a
+cylindrical pipe with a beak mouthpiece bound round with a cord tied in
+a bow. The bow is taken to indicate the double parallel pipes bound
+together; the same sign without the bow occurs frequently and is read
+_Ma-it_,[10] and is considered to be the generic name for reed wind
+instruments. The beating-reed was probably introduced into classic
+Greece from Egypt or Asia Minor. A few ancient Greek instruments are
+extant, five of which are in the British Museum. They are as nearly
+cylindrical as would be the natural growing reed itself. The probability
+is that both single and double reeds were at times used with the Greek
+aulos and the Roman tibia. V. Mahillon and A.A. Howard of Harvard have
+both obtained facsimiles of actual instruments, some found at Pompeii
+and now deposited in the museum at Naples, and others in the British
+Museum. Experiments made with these instruments, whose original
+mouthpieces have perished, show that with pipes of such narrow diameter
+the fundamental scale and pitch are the same whether sounded by means of
+a single or of a double reed, but the modern combination of single reed
+and cylindrical tube alone gives the full pure tone quality. The subject
+is more fully discussed in the article AULOS.[11] The Roman tibia, if
+monuments can be trusted, sometimes had a beak-shaped mouthpiece, as for
+instance that attached to a pipe discovered at Pompeii, or that shown in
+a scene on Trajan's column.[12] It is probable that when, at the decline
+of the Roman empire, instrumental music was placed by the church under a
+ban--and the tibia more especially from its association with every form
+of licence and moral depravity--this instrument, sharing the common
+fate, survived chiefly among itinerant musicians who carried it into
+western Europe, where it was preserved from complete extinction. An
+instrument of difficult technique requiring an advanced knowledge of
+acoustics was not, however, likely to flourish or even to be understood
+among nations whose culture was as yet in its infancy.
+
+The tide of culture from the Byzantine empire filtered through to the
+south and west, leaving many traces; a fresh impetus was received from
+the east through the Arabs; and later, as a result of the Crusades, the
+prototype of the clarinet, together with the practical knowledge
+necessary for making the instrument and playing upon it, may have been
+re-introduced through any one or all of these sources. However this may
+be, the instrument was during the Carolingian period identified with the
+tibia of the Romans until such time as the new western civilization
+ceased to be content to go back to classical Rome for its models, and
+began to express itself, at first naively and awkwardly, as the 11th
+century dawned. The name then changed to the derivatives of the Greek
+_kalamos_, assuming an almost bewildering variety of forms, of which the
+commonest are chalemie, chalumeau, schalmey, scalmeye, shawm, calemel,
+kalemele.[13] The derivation of the name seems to point to a Byzantine
+rather than an Arab source for the revival of the instruments which
+formed the prototype of both oboe and clarinet, but it must not be
+forgotten that the instruments with a conical bore--more especially
+those played by a reed--are primarily of Asiatic origin. At the
+beginning of the 13th century in France, where the instrument remained
+a special favourite until it was displaced by the clarinet, the
+chalumeau is mentioned in some of the early romances:--"Tabars et
+chalemiaux et estrumens sonner" (_Aye d'Avignon_, v. 4137); "Grelles et
+chelimiaus et buisines bruians" (_Gui de Bourgogne_, v. 1374), &c. By
+the end of the 13th century, the German equivalent _Schalmey_ appears in
+the literature of that country,--"Pusunen und Schalmeyen schal moht
+niemen da gehoeren wal" (_Frauendienst_, 492, fol. 5, Ulrich von
+Lichtenstein). The schalmey or shawm is frequently represented in
+miniatures from the 13th century, but it must have been known long
+before, since it was at that period in use as the chaunter of the
+bag-pipe (q.v.), a fully-developed complex instrument which presupposes
+a separate previous existence for its component parts.
+
+We have no reason to suppose that any distinction was drawn between the
+single and double reed instruments during the early middle ages--if
+indeed the single reed was then known at all--for the derivatives of
+_kalamos_ were applied to a variety of pipes. The first clear and
+unmistakable drawing yet found of the single reed occurs in Mersenne's
+_Harmonie universelle_ (p. 282), where the primitive reed pipe is shown
+with the beating-reed detached from the tube of the instrument itself,
+by making a lateral slit and then splitting back a little tongue of reed
+towards a knot. Mersenne calls this the simplest form of chalumeau or
+wheat-stalk (_tuyau de ble_). It is evident that no significance was
+then attached to the form of the vibrating reed, whether single or
+double, for Mersenne and other writers of his time call the chaunters of
+the musette and cornemuse chalumeaux whether they are of cylindrical or
+of conical bore. The difference in timbre produced by the two kinds of
+reeds was, however, understood, for Mersenne states that a special kind
+of cornemuse was used in concert with the _hautbois de Poitou_ (an oboe
+whose double reed was enclosed in an air chamber) and was distinguished
+from the shepherd's cornemuse by having double reeds throughout, whereas
+the drones of the latter instrument were furnished with beating reeds.
+It is therefore evident that as late as 1636 (the date at which Mersenne
+wrote) in France the word "chalumeau" was not applied to the instrument
+transformed some sixty years later into the clarinet, nor was it applied
+exclusively to any one kind of pipe except when acting as the chaunter
+of the bagpipe, and that independently of any structural
+characteristics. The chaunter was still called chalumeau in 1737.[14] Of
+the instrument which has been looked upon as the chalumeau, there is but
+little trace in Germany or in France at the beginning of the 17th
+century. A chalumeau with beak mouthpiece and characteristic short
+cylindrical tube pierced with six holes figures among the musical
+instruments used for the triumphal procession of the emperor Maximilian
+I., commemorated by a fine series of plates,[15] engraved on wood by
+Hans Burgkmair, the friend and colleague of A. Duerer. On the same plate
+(No. 79) are five schalmeys with double reeds and five chalumeaux with
+single-reed beak mouthpieces; the latter instruments were in all
+probability made in the Netherlands, which excelled from the 12th
+century in the manufacture of all musical instruments. No single-reed
+instrument, with the exception of the regal (q.v.), is figured by S.
+Virdung,[16] M. Agricola[17] or M. Praetorius.[18]
+
+A good idea of the primitive chalumeau may be gained from a reproduction
+of one of the few specimens from the 16th or 17th century still extant,
+which belonged to Cesare Snoeck and was exhibited at the Royal Military
+Exhibition in London in 1890.[19] The tube is stopped at the mouthpiece
+end by a natural joint of the reed, and a tongue has been detached just
+under the joint; there are six finger-holes and one for the thumb. An
+instrument almost identical with the above, but with a rudimentary bell,
+and showing plainly the detached tongue, is figured by Jost Amman in
+1589.[20] A plate in Diderot and d'Alembert's _Encyclopedie_[21] shows a
+less primitive instrument, outwardly cylindrical and having a separate
+mouthpiece joint and a clarinet reed but no keys. A chalumeau without
+keys, but consisting apparently of three joints--mouthpiece, main tube
+and bell,--is figured on the title-page of a musical work[22] dated
+1690; it is very similar to the one represented in fig. 3, except that
+only six holes are visible.
+
+[Illustrations: (From Diderot and d'Alembert's _Encyclopedie_.) FIG. 3.
+Chalumeau, 1767. (_a_) Front, (_b_) Back view.]
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In his biographical notice of J. Christian Denner (1655-1707), J.G.
+Doppelmayr[23] states that at the beginning of the 18th century "Denner
+invented a new kind of pipe, the so-called clarinet, which greatly
+delighted lovers of music; he also made great improvements in the stock
+or rackett-fagottos, known in the olden time and finally also in the
+chalumeaux." It is probable that the improvements in the chalumeau to
+which Doppelmayr alludes without understanding them consisted (_a_) in
+giving the mouthpiece the shape of a beak and adding a separate reed
+tongue as in that of the modern clarinet, unless this change had already
+taken place in the Netherlands, the country which the unremitting
+labours of E. van der Straeten[24] have revealed as taking the lead in
+Europe from the 14th to the 16th century in the construction of musical
+instruments of all kinds; (_b_) in the boring of two additional holes
+for A and B near the mouthpiece and covering them with two keys; (_c_)
+in replacing the long cylindrical mouthpiece joint by a bulb, thus
+restoring one of the characteristic features of the tibia,[25] known as
+the [Greek: holmos]. There are a few of these improved chalumeaux in
+existence, two being in the Bavarian national museum at Munich, the one
+in high A, in a bad state of preservation, the second in C, marked J.C.
+Denner, of which V. Mahillon has made a facsimile[26] for the museum of
+the Brussels Conservatoire. There are two keys and eight holes; the
+first consists of two small holes on the same level giving a semitone if
+only one be closed. If the thumb-key be left open, the sounds of the
+fundamental scale (shown in the black notes below) rise a twelfth to
+form the second register (the white notes). This early clarinet or
+improved chalumeau has a clarinet mouthpiece, but no bulb; it measures
+50 cm. (20 in.), whereas the one in A mentioned above is only 28 cm. in
+length, the long cylindrical tube between mouthpiece and key-joint,
+afterwards turned into the bulb, being absent. Mahillon was probably the
+first to point out that the so-called invention of the clarinet by J.C.
+Denner consisted in providing a device--the speaker-key--to facilitate
+the production of the harmonics of the fundamental. Can we be sure that
+the same result was not obtained on the old chalumeau before keys were
+added, by partially uncovering the hole for the thumb?
+
+The Berlin museum possesses an early clarinet with two keys, marked J.B.
+Oberlender, derived from the Snoeck collection. Paul de Wit's collection
+has a similar specimen by Enkelmer. The Brussels Conservatoire possesses
+clarinets with two keys by Flemish makers, G.A. Rottenburgh and J.B.
+Willems[27]; the latter, with a small bulb and bell, is in G a fifth
+above the C clarinet. The next improvements in the clarinet, made in
+1720, are due to J. Denner, probably a son of J.C. Denner. They
+consisted in the addition of a bell and in the removal of the
+speaker-hole and key nearer the mouthpiece, involving the reduction of
+the diameter of the hole. The effect of this change of position was to
+turn the B[natural] into B flat, for J. Denner introduced into the
+hole, nearly as far as the axis of the bore, a small metal drainage
+tube[28] for the moisture of the breath. In the modern clarinet, the
+same result is attained by raising this little tube slightly above the
+surface of the main tube, placing a key on the top of it, and bending
+the lever. In order to produce the missing B[natural], J. Denner
+lengthened the tube and pierced another hole, the low E, covered by an
+open key with a long lever which, when closed, gives the desired B as
+its twelfth, thus forming a connexion between the two registers. A
+clarinet with three keys, of similar construction (about 1750), marked
+J.W. Kenigsperger, is preserved in the Bavarian national museum, at
+Munich. Another in B flat marked Lindner[29] belongs to the collection
+at Brussels. About the middle of the 18th century, the number of keys
+was raised to five, some say[30] by Barthold Fritz of Brunswick
+(1697-1766), who added keys for C# and D#. [Illustration] According to
+Altenburg[31] the E flat or D# key is due to the virtuoso Joseph Beer
+(1744-1811). The sixth key was added about 1790 by the celebrated French
+virtuoso Xavier Lefebure (or Lefevre), and produced G#. [Illustration]
+Anton Stadler and his brother, both clarinettists in the Vienna court
+orchestra and instrument-makers, are said to have lengthened the tube of
+the B flat clarinet, extending the compass down to C (real sound B
+flat). It was for the Stadler brothers that Mozart wrote his quintet for
+strings, with a fine obbligato for the clarinet in A (1789), and the
+clarinet concerto with orchestra in 1791.
+
+This, then, was the state of the clarinet in 1810 when Ivan Mueller, then
+living in Paris, carried the number of keys up to thirteen, and made
+several structural improvements already mentioned, which gave us the
+modern instrument and inaugurated a new era in the construction and
+technique of the clarinet. Mueller's system is still adopted in principle
+by most clarinet makers. The instrument was successively improved during
+the 19th century by the Belgian makers Bachmann, the elder Sax, Albert
+and C. Mahillon, whose invention in 1862 of the C# key with double
+action is now generally adopted. In Paris the labours of Lefebure,
+Buffet-Crampon, and Goumas are pre-eminent. In 1842 H.E. Klose conceived
+the idea of adapting to the clarinet the ingenious mechanism of movable
+rings, invented by Boehm for the flute, and he entrusted the execution
+of this innovation to Buffet-Crampon; this is the type of clarinet
+generally adopted in French orchestras. From this adaptation has sprung
+the erroneous notion that Klose's clarinet was constructed according to
+the Boehm system; Klose's lateral divisions of the tube do not follow
+those applied by Boehm to the flute.
+
+In England the clarinet has also passed through several progressive
+stages since its introduction about 1770, and first of all at the hands
+of Cornelius Ward. The principal improvements were due to Richard Carte,
+who took out a patent in 1858 for an improved Boehm clarinet which
+possessed some claim to the name, since Boehm's principle of boring the
+holes at theoretically correct intervals and of venting the holes by
+means of open holes below was carried out. Carte made several
+modifications of his original patent, his chief endeavour being to so
+dispose the key-work as to reduce the difficulties in fingering. By the
+extension of the principle of the ring action, the work of the third and
+little fingers of the left hand was simplified and the fingering of
+certain difficult notes and shakes greatly facilitated. Messrs Rudall,
+Carte & Company have made further improvements in the clarinet, which
+are embodied in Klussmann's patent (fig. 4); these consist in the
+introduction of the duplicate G# key, a note which has hitherto formed a
+serious obstacle to perfect execution. The duplicate key, operated by
+the third or second finger of the right hand, releases the fourth finger
+of the left hand. The old G# is still retained and may be used in the
+usual way if desired. The body of the instrument is now made in one
+joint, and the position of the G# hole is mathematically correct,
+whereby perfect intonation for C#, G# and F[n] is secured. Other
+improvements were made in Paris by Messrs Evette & Schaeffer and by M.
+Paradis,[32] a clarinet-player in the band of the Garde Republicaine,
+and very great improvements in boring and in key mechanism were effected
+by Albert of Brussels (see fig. 1).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Clarinet (Boehm model, Klussmann's patent).]
+
+The clarinet appears to have received appreciation in the Netherlands
+earlier than in its own native land. According to W. Altenburg (op. cit.
+p. 11),[33] a MS. is preserved in the cathedral at Antwerp of a mass
+written by A.J. Faber in 1720, which is scored for a clarinet. Johann
+Mattheson,[34] _Kapellmeister_ at Hamburg, mentions clarinet music in
+1713, although Handel, whose rival he was, does not appear to have known
+the instrument. Joh. Christ. Bach scored for the clarinet in 1763 in his
+opera _Orione_ performed in London, and Rameau had already employed the
+instrument in 1751 in a theatre for his pastoral entitled _Acante et
+Cephise_.[35] The clarinet was formally introduced into the orchestra in
+Vienna in 1767,[36] Gluck having contented himself with the use of the
+chalumeau in _Orfeo_ (1762) and in _Alceste_ (1767).[37] The clarinet
+had already been adopted in military bands in France in 1755, where it
+very speedily completely replaced the oboe. One of Napoleon Bonaparte's
+bands is said to have had no less than twenty clarinets.
+
+  For further information on the clarinet at the beginning of the 19th
+  century, consult the _Methods_ by Ivan Mueller and Xavier Lefebure, and
+  Joseph Froehlich's admirable work on the instruments of the orchestra;
+  and Gottfried Weber's articles in Ersch and Gruber's _Encyclopaedia_.
+  See also BASSET HORN; BASS CLARINET and PEDAL CLARINET.    (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See Gottfried Weber's objection to this derivation in "Ueber
+    Clarinette und Basset-horn," _Caecilia_ (Mainz, 1829), vol. xi. pp.
+    36 and 37, note.
+
+  [2] Nos. 3 and 4 are sometimes made in one, as for instance in Messrs
+    Rudall, Carte & Company's modification, the Klussmann patent.
+
+  [3] Aristotle (_de Audib._ 802 b 18, and 804 a) and Porphyry (ed.
+    Wallis, pp. 249 and 252) mention that if the performer presses the
+    _zeuge_ (mouthpiece) or the _glottai_ (reeds) of the pipes, a sharper
+    tone is produced.
+
+  [4] Cf. V.C. Mahillon, _Elements d'acoustique musicale et
+    instrumentale_ (Brussels, 1874), p. 161; and Fr. Zamminer, _Die Musik
+    und die musikalischen Instrumente in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen
+    der Akustik ..._ (Giessen, 1855), pp. 297 and 298.
+
+  [5] "The Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard Studies_, iv. (Boston, 1893).
+
+  [6] _De Musica_, 1138.
+
+  [7] _Op. cit._ pp. 160 et seq.; and Wilhelm Altenburg, _Die
+    Klarinette_ (Heilbronn, 1904), p. 9, who refers to Mahillon.
+
+  [8] See Macrobius, _Comm. in somnium Scipionis_, ii. 4. 5 "nec secus
+    probamus in tibiis de quarum foraminibus vicinis inflantis ori sonus
+    acutus emittitur, de longinquis autem et termino proximis, gravior:
+    item acutior per patentiora foramina, gravior per angusta."
+
+  [9] See Victor Loret, _L'Egypte au temps des Pharaons--la vie, le
+    science, et l'art_ (Paris, 1889), illustration p. 139 and p. 143. The
+    author gives no information about this fresco except that it is in
+    the Musee Guimet. It is probably identical with the second of the
+    mural paintings described on p. 190 of _Petit guide illustre au Musee
+    Guimet_, par L. de Milloue.
+
+  [10] See Victor Loret, "Les flutes egyptiennes antiques," _Journal
+    asiatique_ (Paris, 1889), [8], xiv. pp. 129, 130, 132.
+
+  [11] See also A.A. Howard, "Study on the Aulos or Tibia," _Harvard
+    Studies_, vol. iv. (Boston, 1893); F.C. Gevaert, _Musique de
+    l'antiquite_; Carl von Jan, article "Floete" in August Baumeister's
+    _Denkmaeler des klassischen Alterthums_ (Leipzig, 1884-1888), vol. i.;
+    Dr Hugo Riemann, _Handbuch der Musikgesch._ vol. i. p. 90, &c.
+    (Leipzig, 1904); all of whom have not come to the same conclusions.
+
+  [12] Wilhelm Froehner, _La Colonne trajane_ (Paris, 1872), t. ii. pl.
+    76.
+
+  [13] "Aveuc aus ert vestus Guis
+        Ki leur cante et Kalemele,
+        En la muse au grant bourdon."
+
+     J.A.U. Scheler's _Trouveres belges_.
+
+  [14] See Ernest Thoinan, _Les Hotteterre et les Chedeville, celebres
+    facteurs de flutes, hautbois, bassons et musettes_ (Paris, 1894), p.
+    15 et seq., and _Methode pour la musette_, &c., par Hotteterre le
+    Romain (Paris, 1737).
+
+  [15] The whole series of 135 plates has been reproduced in _Jahrb. d.
+    Samml. des Alterh. Kaiserhauses_ (Vienna, 1883-1884).
+
+  [16] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [17] _Musica Instrumentalis Deudsch_ (Nuremberg, 1528 and 1545).
+
+  [18] _Syntagma Musicum_ (Wolfenbuettel, 1618). This work and those
+    mentioned in the two previous notes have been reprinted by the Ges.
+    f. Musikforschung in vols. xi., xx. and xiii. of _Publikationen_
+    (Berlin).
+
+  [19] See _Descriptive Catalogue_, by Capt. C.R. Day (London, 1891),
+    pl. iv. A and p. 110, No. 221.
+
+  [20] _Wappenbuch_, p. 111, "Musica."
+
+  [21] Paris, 1767, vol. v. "Planches," pl. ix. 20, 21, 22.
+
+  [22] Dr Theofilo Muffat, "Componimenti musicali per il cembalo," in
+    _Denkmaeler d. Tonkunst in Oesterreich_, Bd. iii.
+
+  [23] _Historische Nachricht von den Nuernbergischen Mathematicis u.
+    Kuenstlern_, &c. (Nuremberg, 1730), p. 305.
+
+  [24] _Histoire de la musique aux Pays Bas avant le XIXe siecle._
+
+  [25] For a facsimile of one of the Pompeii tibiae, see Capt. C.R.
+    Day, _op. cit._ pl. iv. C. and p. 109.
+
+  [26] _Catalogue descriptif_ (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 211, No. 911,
+    where an illustration is given. See also Capt. C.R. Day, _op. cit._
+    pl. iv. B and _Errata_ where the description is printed.
+
+  [27] For a description with illustration see V. Mahillon's _Catalogue
+    descriptif_ (Ghent, 1896), vol. ii. p. 215, No. 916.
+
+  [28] See Wilhelm Altenburg, op. cit. p. 6.
+
+  [29] See V. Mahillon, _Catal. descript._ (1896), p. 213, No. 913.
+
+  [30] H. Welcker von Gontershausen, _Die musikalischen Tonwerk-zeuge_
+    (Frankfort-on-Main, 1855), p. 141.
+
+  [31] Op. cit. p. 6.
+
+  [32] See Capt. C.R. Day, op. cit. p. 106.
+
+  [33] V. Mahillon, _Catal. desc._ (1880), p. 182, refers his statement
+    to the Chevalier L. de Burbure.
+
+  [34] _Das neu-eroeffnete Orchester_ (Hamburg, 1713).
+
+  [35] Mahillon, _Catal. desc._ (1880), vol. i. p. 182.
+
+  [36] See Chevalier Ludwig von Koechel, _Die kaiserliche
+    Hofmusik-kapelle zu Wien, 1543-1867_ (Vienna, 1869).
+
+  [37] In the Italian edition of 1769 the part is scored for clarinet.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, SIR ANDREW, Bart. (1826-1893), British physician, was born at
+Aberdeen on the 28th of October 1826. His father, who also was a medical
+man, died when he was only a few years old. After attending school in
+Aberdeen, he was sent by his guardians to Dundee and apprenticed to a
+druggist; then returning to Aberdeen he began his medical studies in the
+university of that city. Soon, however, he went to Edinburgh, where in
+the extra-academical school he had a student's career of the most
+brilliant description, ultimately becoming assistant to J. Hughes
+Bennett in the pathological department of the Royal Infirmary, and
+assistant demonstrator of anatomy to Robert Knox. But symptoms of
+pulmonary phthisis brought his academic life to a close, and in the hope
+that the sea might benefit his health he joined the medical department
+of the navy in 1848. Next year he became pathologist to the Haslar
+hospital, where T.H. Huxley was one of his colleagues, and in 1853 he
+was the successful candidate for the newly-instituted post of curator to
+the museum of the London hospital. Here he intended to devote all his
+energies to pathology, but circumstances brought him into active medical
+practice. In 1854, the year in which he took his doctor's degree at
+Aberdeen, the post of assistant-physician to the hospital became vacant
+and he was prevailed upon to apply for it. He was fond of telling how
+his phthisical tendencies gained him the appointment. "He is only a poor
+Scotch doctor," it was said, "with but a few months to live; let him
+have it." He had it, and two years before his death publicly declared
+that of those who were on the staff of the hospital at the time of his
+selection he was the only one remaining alive. In 1854 he became a
+member of the College of Physicians, and in 1858 a fellow, and then went
+in succession through all the offices of honour the college has to
+offer, ending in 1888 with the presidency, which he continued to hold
+till his death. From the time of his selection as assistant physician to
+the London hospital, his fame rapidly grew until he became a fashionable
+doctor with one of the largest practices in London, counting among his
+patients some of the most distinguished men of the day. The great number
+of persons who passed through his consulting-room every morning rendered
+it inevitable that to a large extent his advice should become
+stereotyped and his prescriptions often reduced to mere stock formulae,
+but in really serious cases he was not to be surpassed in the skill and
+carefulness of his diagnosis and in his attention to detail. In spite of
+the claims of his practice he found time to produce a good many books,
+all written in the precise and polished style on which he used to pride
+himself. Doubtless owing largely to personal reasons, lung diseases and
+especially fibroid phthisis formed his favourite theme, but he also
+discussed other subjects, such as renal inadequacy, anaemia,
+constipation, &c. He died in London on the 6th of November 1893, after a
+paralytic stroke which was probably the result of persistent overwork.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, FRANCIS EDWARD (1851-   ), American clergyman, was born of New
+England ancestry at Aylmer, Province of Quebec, Canada, on the 12th of
+September 1851. He was the son of Charles C. Symmes, but took the name
+of an uncle, the Rev. E.W. Clark, by whom he was adopted after his
+father's death in 1853. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1873 and at
+Andover Theological Seminary in 1876, was ordained in the Congregational
+ministry, and was pastor of the Williston Congregational church at
+Portland, Maine, from 1876 to 1883, and of the Phillips Congregational
+church, South Boston, Mass., from 1883 to 1887. On the 2nd of February
+1881 he founded at Portland the Young People's Society of Christian
+Endeavor, which, beginning as a small society in a single New England
+church, developed into a great interdenominational organization, which
+in 1908 had 70,761 societies and more than 3,500,000 members scattered
+throughout the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Australia, South
+Africa, India, Japan and China. After 1887 he devoted his time entirely
+to the extension of this work, and was president of the United Societies
+of Christian Endeavor and of the World's Christian Endeavor Union, and
+editor of the _Christian Endeavor World_ (originally _The Golden Rule_).
+Among his numerous publications are _The Children and the Church_
+(1882); _Looking Out on Life_ (1883); _Young People's Prayer Meetings_
+(1884); _Some Christian Endeavor Saints_ (1889); _World-Wide Endeavor_
+(1895); _A New Way Round an Old World_ (1900).
+
+  See his _The Young People's Christian Endeavor, where it began, &c._
+  (Boston, 1895); _Christian Endeavor Manual_ (Boston, 1903); and
+  _Christian Endeavor in All Lands: Record of Twenty-five Years of
+  Progress_ (Philadelphia, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, GEORGE ROGERS (1752-1818), American frontier military leader, was
+born near Charlottesville, in Albemarle county, Virginia, on the 19th of
+November 1752. Early in life he became a land-surveyor; he took part in
+Lord Dunmore's War (1774), and in 1775 went as a surveyor for the Ohio
+Company to Kentucky (then a district of Virginia), whither he removed
+early in 1776. His iron will, strong passions, audacious courage and
+magnificent physique soon made him a leader among his frontier
+neighbours, by whom in 1776 he was sent as a delegate to the Virginia
+legislature. In this capacity he was instrumental in bringing about the
+organization of Kentucky as a county of Virginia, and also obtained from
+Governor Patrick Henry a supply of powder for the Kentucky settlers.
+Convinced that the Indians were instigated and supported in their raids
+against the American settlers by British officers stationed in the forts
+north of the Ohio river, and that the conquest of those forts would put
+an end to the evil, he went on foot to Virginia late in 1777 and
+submitted to Governor Henry and his council a plan for offensive
+operations. On the 2nd of January 1778 he was commissioned
+lieutenant-colonel, received L1200 in depreciated currency, and was
+authorized to enlist troops; and by the end of May he was at the falls
+of the Ohio (the site of Louisville) with about 175 men. The expedition
+proceeded to Fort Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, in what is now
+Illinois. This place and Cahokia, also on the Mississippi, near St
+Louis, were defended by small British garrisons, which depended upon the
+support of the French _habitants_. The French being willing to accept
+the authority of Virginia, both forts were easily taken. Clark gained
+the friendship of Father Pierre Gibault, the priest at Kaskaskia, and
+through his influence the French at Vincennes on the Wabash were induced
+(late in July) to change their allegiance. On the 17th of December
+Lieut.-Governor Henry Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit,
+recovered Vincennes and went into winter quarters. Late in February 1779
+he was surprised by Clark and compelled to give up Vincennes and its
+fort, Fort Sackville, and to surrender himself and his garrison of about
+80 men, as prisoners of war. With the exception of Detroit and several
+other posts on the Canadian frontier the whole of the North-West was
+thus brought under American influence; many of the Indians, previously
+hostile, became friendly, and the United States was put in a position to
+demand the cession of the North-West in the treaty of 1783. For this
+valuable service, in which Clark had freely used his own private funds,
+he received practically no recompense either from Virginia or from the
+United States, and for many years before his death he lived in poverty.
+To him and his men, however, the Virginia legislature granted 150,000
+acres of land in 1781, which was subsequently located in what are now
+Clark, Floyd and Scott counties, Indiana; Clark's individual share was
+8049 acres, but from this he realized little. Clark built Fort Jefferson
+on the Mississippi, 4 or 5 m. below the mouth of the Ohio, in 1780,
+destroyed the Indian towns Chillicothe and Piqua in the same year, and
+in November 1782 destroyed the Indian towns on the Miami river. With
+this last expedition his active military service virtually ended, and in
+July 1783 he was relieved of his command by Virginia. Thereafter he
+lived on part of the land granted to him by Virginia or in Louisville
+for the rest of his life. In 1793 he accepted from Citizen Genet a
+commission as "major-general in the armies of France, and
+commander-in-chief of the French Revolutionary Legion in the Mississippi
+Valley," and tried to raise a force for an attack upon the Spanish
+possessions in the valley of the Mississippi. The scheme, however, was
+abandoned after Genet's recall. Disappointed at what he regarded as his
+country's ingratitude, and broken down by excessive drinking and
+paralysis, he lost his once powerful influence and lived in comparative
+isolation until his death, near Louisville, Kentucky, on the 13th of
+February 1818.
+
+  See W.H. English, _Conquest of the Country north-west of the River
+  Ohio, 1778-1783, and Life of George Rogers Clark_ (2 vols.,
+  Indianapolis and Kansas City, 1896), an accurate and detailed work,
+  which represents an immense amount of research among both printed and
+  manuscript sources. Clark's own accounts of his expeditions, and other
+  interesting documents, are given in the appendix to this work.
+
+
+CLARK, WILLIAM (1770-1838), the well-known explorer, was the youngest
+brother of the foregoing. He was born in Caroline county, Virginia, on
+the 1st of August 1770. At the age of fourteen he removed with his
+parents to Kentucky, settling at the falls of the Ohio (Louisville). He
+entered the United States army as a lieutenant of infantry in March
+1792, and served under General Anthony Wayne against the Indians in
+1794. In July 1796 he resigned his commission on account of ill-health.
+In 1803-1806, with Meriwether Lewis (q.v.), he commanded the famous
+exploring expedition across the continent to the mouth of the Columbia
+river, and was commissioned second lieutenant in March 1804 and first
+lieutenant in January 1806. In February he again resigned from the army.
+He then served for a few years as brigadier-general of the Louisiana
+territorial militia, as Indian agent for "Upper Louisiana," as
+territorial governor of Missouri in 1813-1820, and as superintendent of
+Indian affairs at St Louis from 1822 until his death there on the 1st of
+September 1838.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, SIR JAMES (1788-1870), English physician, was born at Cullen,
+Banffshire, and was educated at the grammar school of Fordyce and at the
+universities of Aberdeen and Edinburgh. He served for six years as a
+surgeon in the army; then spent some time in travelling on the
+continent, in order to investigate the mineral waters and the climate of
+various health resorts; and for seven years he lived in Rome. In 1826 he
+began to practise in London. In 1835 he was appointed physician to the
+duchess of Kent, becoming physician in ordinary to Queen Victoria in
+1837. In 1838 he was created a baronet. He published _The Influence of
+Climate in Chronic Diseases_, containing valuable meteorological tables
+(1829), and a _Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption_ (1835).
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, JOHN BATES (1847-   ), American economist, was born at Providence,
+Rhode Island, on the 26th of January 1847. Educated at Brown University,
+Amherst College, Heidelberg and Zurich, he was appointed professor of
+political economy at Carleton College, Minnesota, in 1877. In 1881 he
+became professor of history and political science in Smith College,
+Massachusetts; in 1892 professor of political economy in Amherst
+College. He was appointed professor of political economy at Columbia
+University in 1895. Among his works are: _The Philosophy of Wealth_
+(1885); _Wages_ (1889); _Capital and its Earnings_ (1898); _The Control
+of Trusts_ (1901); _The Problem of Monopoly_ (1904); and _Essentials of
+Economic Theory_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, JOSIAH LATIMER (1822-1898), English engineer and electrician, was
+born on the 10th of March 1822 at Great Marlow, Bucks. His first
+interest was in chemical manufacturing, but in 1848 he became assistant
+engineer at the Menai Straits bridge under his elder brother Edwin
+(1814-1894), the inventor of the Clark hydraulic lift graving dock. Two
+years later, when his brother was appointed engineer to the Electric
+Telegraph Company, he again acted as his assistant, and subsequently
+succeeded him as chief engineer. In 1854 he took out a patent "for
+conveying letters or parcels between places by the pressure of air and
+vacuum," and later was concerned in the construction of a large
+pneumatic despatch tube between the general post office and Euston
+station, London. About the same period he was engaged in experimental
+researches on the propagation of the electric current in submarine
+cables, on which he published a pamphlet in 1855, and in 1859 he was a
+member of the committee which was appointed by the government to
+consider the numerous failures of submarine cable enterprises. Latimer
+Clark paid much attention to the subject of electrical measurement, and
+besides designing various improvements in method and apparatus and
+inventing the Clark standard cell, he took a leading part in the
+movement for the systematization of electrical standards, which was
+inaugurated by the paper which he and Sir C.T. Bright read on the
+question before the British Association in 1861. With Bright also he
+devised improvements in the insulation of submarine cables. In the later
+part of his life he was a member of several firms engaged in laying
+submarine cables, in manufacturing electrical appliances, and in
+hydraulic engineering. He died in London on the 30th of October 1898.
+Besides professional papers, he published an _Elementary Treatise on
+Electrical Measurement_ (1868), together with two books on astronomical
+subjects, and a memoir of Sir W.F. Cooke.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, THOMAS (1801-1867), Scottish chemist, was born at Ayr on the 31st
+of March 1801. In 1826 he was appointed lecturer on chemistry at the
+Glasgow mechanics' institute, and in 1831 he took the degree of M.D. at
+the university of that city. Two years later he became professor of
+chemistry in Marischal College, Aberdeen, but was obliged to give up the
+duties of that position in 1844 through ill-health, though nominally he
+remained professor till 1860. His name is chiefly known in connexion
+with his process for softening hard waters, and his water tests,
+patented in 1841. The last twenty years before his death at Glasgow on
+the 27th of November 1867 were occupied with the study of the historical
+origin of the Gospels.
+
+
+
+
+CLARK, WILLIAM GEORGE (1821-1878), English classical and Shakespearian
+scholar, was born at Barford Hall, Darlington, in March 1821. He was
+educated at Sedbergh and Shrewsbury schools and Trinity College,
+Cambridge, where he was elected fellow after a brilliant university
+career. In 1857 he was appointed public orator. He travelled much during
+the long vacations, visiting Spain, Greece, Italy and Poland. His
+_Peloponnesus_ (1858) was an important contribution to the knowledge of
+the country at that time. In 1853 Clark had taken orders, but left the
+Church in 1870 after the passing of the Clerical Disabilities Act, of
+which he was one of the promoters. He also resigned the public
+oratorship in the same year, and in consequence of illness left
+Cambridge in 1873. He died at York on the 6th of November 1878. He
+bequeathed a sum of money to his old college for the foundation of a
+lectureship in English literature. Although Clark was before all a
+classical scholar, he published little in that branch of learning. A
+contemplated edition of the works of Aristophanes, a task for which he
+was singularly fitted, was never published. He visited Italy in 1868 for
+the express purpose of examining the Ravenna and other MSS., and on his
+return began the notes to the _Acharnians_, but they were left in too
+incomplete a state to admit of publication in book form even after his
+death (see _Journal of Philology_, viii., 1879). He established the
+Cambridge _Journal of Philology_, and cooperated with B.H. Kennedy and
+James Riddell in the production of the well-known _Sabrinae Corolla_.
+The work by which he is best known is the Cambridge Shakespeare
+(1863-1866), containing a collation of early editions and selected
+emendations, edited by him at first with John Glover and afterwards with
+W. Aldis Wright. _Gazpacho_ (1853)gives an account of his tour in Spain;
+his visits to Italy at the time of Garibaldi's insurrection, and to
+Poland during the insurrection of 1863, are described in _Vacation
+Tourists_, ed. F. Galton, i. and iii.
+
+  H.A.J. Munro in _Journal of Philology_ (viii. 1879) describes Clark as
+  "the most accomplished and versatile man he ever met"; see also
+  notices by W. Aldis Wright in _Academy_ (Nov. 23, 1878); R. Burn in
+  _Athenaeum_ (Nov. 16, 1878); _The Times_ (Nov. 8, 1878); _Notes and
+  Queries_, 5th series, x. (1878), p. 400.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, ADAM (1762?-1832), British Nonconformist divine, was born at
+Moybeg, Co. Londonderry, Ireland, in 1760 or 1762. After receiving a
+very limited education he was apprenticed to a linen manufacturer, but,
+finding the employment uncongenial, he resumed school-life at the
+institution founded by Wesley at Kingswood, near Bristol. In 1782 he
+entered on the duties of the ministry, being appointed by Wesley to the
+Bradford (Wiltshire) circuit. His popularity as a preacher was very
+great, and his influence in the denomination is indicated by the fact
+that he was three times (1806, 1814, 1822) chosen to be president of the
+conference. He served twice on the London circuit, the second period
+being extended considerably longer than the rule allowed, at the special
+request of the British and Foreign Bible Society, who had employed him
+in the preparation of their Arabic Bible. Though ardent in his pastoral
+work, he found time for diligent study of Hebrew and other Oriental
+languages, undertaken chiefly with the view of qualifying himself for
+the great work of his life, his _Commentary on the Holy Scriptures_ (8
+vols., 1810-1820). In 1802 he published a _Bibliographical Dictionary_
+in six volumes, to which he afterwards added a supplement. He was
+selected by the Records Commission to re-edit Rymer's _Foedera_, a task
+which after ten years' labour (1808-1818) he had to resign. He also
+wrote _Memoirs of the Wesley Family_ (1823), and edited a large number
+of religious works. Honours were showered upon him (he was M.A., LL.D.
+of Aberdeen), and many distinguished men in church and state were his
+personal friends. He died in London on the 16th of August 1832.
+
+  His _Miscellaneous Works_ were published in 13 vols. (1836), and a
+  _Life_ (3 vols.) by his son, J.B.B. Clarke, appeared in 1833.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, SIR ANDREW (1824-1902), British soldier and administrator, son
+of Colonel Andrew Clarke, of Co. Donegal, Ireland, governor of West
+Australia, was born at Southsea, England, on the 27th of July 1824, and
+educated at King's school, Canterbury. He entered the Royal Military
+Academy, Woolwich, and obtained his commission in the army in 1844 as
+second lieutenant in the Royal Engineers. He was appointed to his
+father's staff in West Australia, but was transferred to be A.D.C. and
+military secretary to the governor of Tasmania; and in 1847 he went to
+New Zealand to take part in the Maori War, and for some years served on
+Sir George Grey's staff. He was then made surveyor-general in Victoria,
+took a prominent part in framing its new constitution, and held the
+office of minister of public lands during the first administration
+(1855-1857). He returned to England in 1857, and in 1863 was sent on a
+special mission to the West Coast of Africa. In 1864 he was appointed
+director of works for the navy, and held this post for nine years, being
+responsible for great improvements in the naval arsenals at Chatham,
+Portsmouth and Plymouth, and for fortifications at Malta, Cork, Bermuda
+and elsewhere. In 1873 he was made K.C.M.G., and became governor of the
+Straits Settlements, where he did most valuable work in consolidating
+British rule and ameliorating the condition of the people. From 1875 to
+1880 he was minister of public works in India; and on his return to
+England in 1881, holding then the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the
+army, he was first appointed commandant at Chatham and then
+inspector-general of fortifications (1882-1886). Having attained the
+rank of lieutenant-general and been created G.C.M.G., he retired from
+official life, and in 1886 and 1893 unsuccessfully stood for parliament
+as a supporter of Mr Gladstone. During his last years he was
+agent-general for Victoria. He died on the 29th of March 1902. Both as a
+technical and strategical engineer and as an Imperial administrator Sir
+Andrew Clarke was one of the ablest and most useful public servants of
+his time; and his contributions to periodical literature, as well as his
+official memoranda, contained valuable suggestions on the subjects of
+imperial defence and imperial consolidation which received too little
+consideration at a period when the home governments were not properly
+alive to their importance. He is entitled to remembrance as one of those
+who first inculcated, from a wide practical experience, the views of
+imperial administration and its responsibilities, which in his last
+years he saw accepted by the bulk of his countrymen.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, CHARLES COWDEN (1787-1877), English author and Shakespearian
+scholar, was born at Enfield, Middlesex, on the 15th of December 1787.
+His father, John Clarke, was a schoolmaster, among whose pupils was John
+Keats. Charles Clarke taught Keats his letters, and encouraged his love
+of poetry. He knew Charles and Mary Lamb, and afterwards became
+acquainted with Shelley, Leigh Hunt, Coleridge and Hazlitt. Clarke
+became a music publisher in partnership with Alfred Novello, and married
+in 1828 his partner's sister, Mary Victoria (1809-1898), the eldest
+daughter of Vincent Novello. In the year after her marriage Mrs Cowden
+Clarke began her valuable Shakespeare concordance, which was eventually
+issued in eighteen monthly parts (1844-1845), and in volume form in
+1845 as _The Complete Concordance to Shakespeare, being a Verbal Index
+to all the Passages in the Dramatic Works of the Poet_. This work
+superseded the _Copious Index to ... Shakespeare_ (1790) of Samuel
+Ayscough, and the _Complete Verbal Index ..._ (1805-1807) of Francis
+Twiss. Charles Cowden Clarke published many useful books, and edited the
+text for John Nichol's edition of the British poets; but his most
+important work consisted of lectures delivered between 1834 and 1856 on
+Shakespeare and other literary subjects. Some of the more notable series
+were published, among them being _Shakespeare's Characters, chiefly
+those subordinate_ (1863), and _Moliere's Characters_ (1865). In 1859 he
+published a volume of original poems, _Carmina Minima_. For some years
+after their marriage the Cowden Clarkes lived with the Novellos in
+London. In 1849 Vincent Novello with his wife removed to Nice, where he
+was joined by the Clarkes in 1856. After his death they lived at Genoa
+at the "Villa Novello." They collaborated in _The Shakespeare Key,
+unlocking the Treasures of his Style ..._ (1879), and in an edition of
+Shakespeare for Messrs Cassell, which was issued in weekly parts, and
+completed in 1868. It was reissued in 1886 as _Cassell's Illustrated
+Shakespeare_. Charles Clarke died on the 13th of March 1877 at Genoa,
+and his wife survived him until the 12th of January 1898. Among Mrs
+Cowden Clarke's other works may be mentioned _The Girlhood of
+Shakespeare's Heroines_ (3 vols., 1850-1852), and a translation of
+Berlioz's _Treatise upon Modern Instrumentation and Orchestration_
+(1856).
+
+  See _Recollections of Writers_ (1898), a joint work by the Clarkes
+  containing letters and reminiscences of their many literary friends;
+  and Mary Cowden Clarke's autobiography, _My Long Life_ (1896). A
+  charming series of letters (1850-1861), addressed by her to an
+  American admirer of her work, Robert Balmanno, was edited by Anne
+  Upton Nettleton as _Letters to an Enthusiast_ (Chicago, 1902).
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, EDWARD DANIEL (1769-1822), English mineralogist and traveller,
+was born at Willingdon, Sussex, on the 5th of June 1769, and educated
+first at Tonbridge. In 1786 he obtained the office of chapel clerk at
+Jesus College, Cambridge, but the loss of his father at this time
+involved him in difficulties. In 1790 he took his degree, and soon after
+became private tutor to Henry Tufton, nephew of the duke of Dorset. In
+1792 he obtained an engagement to travel with Lord Berwick through
+Germany, Switzerland and Italy. After crossing the Alps, and visiting a
+few of the principal cities of Italy, including Rome, he went to Naples,
+where he remained nearly two years. Having returned to England in the
+summer of 1794, he became tutor in several distinguished families. In
+1799 he set out with a Mr Cripps on a tour through the continent of
+Europe, beginning with Norway and Sweden, whence they proceeded through
+Russia and the Crimea to Constantinople, Rhodes, and afterwards to Egypt
+and Palestine. After the capitulation of Alexandria, Clarke was of
+considerable use in securing for England the statues, sarcophagi, maps,
+manuscripts, &c., which had been collected by the French savants. Greece
+was the country next visited. From Athens the travellers proceeded by
+land to Constantinople, and after a short stay in that city directed
+their course homewards through Rumelia, Austria, Germany and France.
+Clarke, who had now obtained considerable reputation, took up his
+residence at Cambridge. He received the degree of LL.D. shortly after
+his return in 1803, on account of the valuable donations, including a
+colossal statue of the Eleusinian Ceres, which he had made to the
+university. He was also presented to the college living of Harlton, near
+Cambridge, in 1805, to which, four years later, his father-in-law added
+that of Yeldham. Towards the end of 1808 Dr Clarke was appointed to the
+professorship of mineralogy in Cambridge, then first instituted. Nor was
+his perseverance as a traveller otherwise unrewarded. The MSS. which he
+had collected in the course of his travels were sold to the Bodleian
+library for L1000; and by the publication of his travels he realized
+altogether a clear profit of L6595. Besides lecturing on mineralogy and
+discharging his clerical duties, Dr Clarke eagerly prosecuted the study
+of chemistry, and made several discoveries, principally by means of the
+gas blow-pipe, which he had brought to a high degree of perfection. He
+was also appointed university librarian in 1817, and was one of the
+founders of the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1819. He died in
+London on the 9th of March 1822. The following is a list of his
+principal works:--_Testimony of Authors respecting the Colossal Statue
+of Ceres in the Public Library, Cambridge_ (8vo, 1801-1803); _The Tomb
+of Alexander, a Dissertation on the Sarcophagus brought from Alexandria,
+and now in the British Museum_ (4to, 1805); _A Methodical Distribution
+of the Mineral Kingdom_ (fol., Lewes, 1807); _A Description of the Greek
+Marbles brought from the Shores of the Euxine, Archipelago and
+Mediterranean, and deposited in the University Library, Cambridge_ (8vo,
+1809); _Travels in various Countries of Europe, Asia and Africa_ (4to,
+1810-1819; 2nd ed., 1811-1823).
+
+  See _Life and Remains_, by Rev. W. Otter (1824).
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, SIR EDWARD GEORGE (1841-   ), English lawyer and politician, son
+of J.G. Clarke of Moorgate Street, London, was born on the 15th of
+February 1841. In 1859 he became a writer in the India office, but
+resigned in the next year, and became a law reporter. He obtained a
+Tancred law scholarship in 1861, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's
+Inn in 1864. He joined the home circuit, became Q.C. in 1880, and a
+bencher of Lincoln's Inn in 1882. In November 1877 he was successful in
+securing the acquittal of Chief-Inspector Clarke from the charge brought
+against certain Scotland Yard officials of conspiracy to defeat justice,
+and his reputation was assured by his defence of Patrick Staunton in the
+Penge murder case (1877), and of Mrs Bartlett against the charge of
+poisoning her husband (1886). Among other notable cases he was counsel
+for the plaintiff in the libel action brought by Sir William
+Gordon-Cumming (1890) against Mr and Mrs Lycett Green and others for
+slander, charging him with cheating in the game of baccarat (in this
+case the prince of Wales, afterwards Edward VII., gave evidence), and he
+appeared for Dr Jameson, Sir John Willoughby and others when they were
+tried (1896) under the Foreign Enlistment Act. He was knighted in 1886.
+He was returned as Conservative member for Southwark at a by-election
+early in 1880, but failed to retain his seat at the general election
+which followed a month or two later; he found a seat at Plymouth,
+however, which he retained until 1900. He was solicitor-general in the
+Conservative administration of 1886-1892, but declined office under the
+Unionist government of 1895 when the law officers of the crown were
+debarred from private practice. The most remarkable, perhaps, of his
+speeches in the House of Commons was his reply to Mr Gladstone on the
+second reading of the Home Rule Bill in 1893. In 1899 differences which
+arose between Sir Edward Clarke and his party on the subject of the
+government's South African policy led to his resigning his seat. At the
+general election of 1906 he was returned at the head of the poll for the
+city of London, but he offended a large section of his constituents by a
+speech against tariff reform in the House of Commons on the 12th of
+March, and shortly afterwards he resigned his seat on grounds of health.
+He published a _Treatise on the Law of Extradition_ (4th ed., 1903), and
+also three volumes of his political and forensic speeches.
+
+CLARKE, JAMES FREEMAN (1810-1888), American preacher and author, was
+born in Hanover, New Hampshire, on the 4th of April 1810. He was
+prepared for college at the public Latin school of Boston, and graduated
+at Harvard College in 1829, and at the Harvard Divinity School in 1833.
+He was then ordained as minister of a Unitarian congregation at
+Louisville, Kentucky, which was then a slave state. Clarke soon threw
+himself heart and soul into the national movement for the abolition of
+slavery, though he was never what was then called in America a "radical
+abolitionist." In 1839 he returned to Boston, where he and his friends
+established (1841) the "Church of the Disciples." It brought together a
+body of men and women active and eager in applying the Christian
+religion to the social problems of the day, and he would have said that
+the feature which distinguished it from any other church was that they
+also were ministers of the highest religious life. Ordination could make
+no distinction between him and them. Of this church he was the minister
+from 1841 until 1850 and from 1854 until his death. He was also
+secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-1871 professor of
+natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard. From the beginning
+of his active life he wrote freely for the press. From 1836 until 1839
+he was editor of the _Western Messenger_, a magazine intended to carry
+to readers in the Mississippi Valley simple statements of "liberal
+religion," involving what were then the most radical appeals as to
+national duty, especially the abolition of slavery. The magazine is now
+of value to collectors because it contains the earliest printed poems of
+Ralph Waldo Emerson, who was Clarke's personal friend. Most of Clarke's
+earlier published writings were addressed to the immediate need of
+establishing a larger theory of religion than that espoused by people
+who were still trying to be Calvinists, people who maintained what a
+good American phrase calls "hard-shelled churches." But it would be
+wrong to call his work controversial. He was always declaring that the
+business of the Church is Eirenic and not Polemic. Such books as
+_Orthodoxy: Its Truths and Errors_ (1866) have been read more largely by
+members of orthodox churches than by Unitarians. In the great moral
+questions of his time Clarke was a fearless and practical advocate of
+the broadest statement of human rights. Without caring much what company
+he served in, he could always be seen and heard, a leader of unflinching
+courage, in the front rank of the battle. He published but few verses,
+but at the bottom he was a poet. He was a diligent and accurate scholar,
+and among the books by which he is best known is one called _Ten Great
+Religions_ (2 vols., 1871-1883). Few Americans have done more than
+Clarke to give breadth to the published discussion of the subjects of
+literature, ethics and religious philosophy. Among his later books are
+_Every-Day Religion_ (1886) and _Sermons on the Lord's Prayer_ (1888).
+He died at Jamaica Plain, Mass., on the 8th of June 1888.
+
+  His _Autobiography, Diary and Correspondence_, edited by Edward
+  Everett Hale, was published in Boston in 1891. (E.E.H.)
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, JOHN SLEEPER (1833-1899), American actor, was born in Baltimore,
+Maryland, on the 3rd of September 1833, and was educated for the law. He
+made his first appearance in Boston as Frank Hardy in _Paul Pry_ in
+1851. In 1859 he married Asia Booth, daughter of Junius Brutus Booth,
+and he was associated with his brother-in-law Edwin Booth in the
+management of the Winter Garden theatre in New York, the Walnut Street
+theatre in Philadelphia and the Boston theatre. In 1867 he went to
+London, where he made his first appearance at the St James's as Major
+Wellington de Boots in Stirling Coynes's _Everybody's Friend_, rewritten
+for him and called _The Widow's Hunt_. His success was so great that he
+remained in England for the rest of his life, except for four visits to
+America. Among his favourite parts were Toodles, which ran for 200
+nights at the Strand, Dr Pangloss in _The Heir-at-law_, and Dr Ollapod
+in _The Poor Gentleman_. He managed several London theatres, including
+the Haymarket, where he preceded the Bancrofts. He retired in 1889, and
+died on the 24th of September 1899. His two sons also were actors.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, MARCUS ANDREW HISLOP (1846-1881), Australian author, was born in
+London on the 24th of April 1846. He was the only son of William Hislop
+Clarke, a barrister of the Middle Temple who died in 1863. He emigrated
+forthwith to Australia, where his uncle, James Langton Clarke, was a
+county court judge. He was at first a clerk in the bank of Australasia,
+but showed no business ability, and soon proceeded to learn farming at a
+station on the Wimmera river, Victoria. He was already writing stories
+for the _Australian Magazine_, when in 1867 he joined the staff of the
+Melbourne _Argus_ through the introduction of Dr Robert Lewins. He also
+became secretary (1872) to the trustees of the Melbourne public library
+and later (1876) assistant librarian. He founded in 1868 the Yorick
+Club, which soon numbered among its members the chief Australian men of
+letters. The most famous of his books is _For the Term of his Natural
+Life_ (Melbourne, 1874), a powerful tale of an Australian penal
+settlement, which originally appeared in serial form in a Melbourne
+paper. He also wrote _The Peripatetic Philosopher_ (1869), a series of
+amusing papers reprinted from _The Austral-asian; Long Odds_ (London,
+1870), a novel; and numerous comedies and pantomimes, the best of which
+was _Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star_ (Theatre Royal, Melbourne;
+Christmas, 1873). He married an actress, Marian Dunn. In spite of his
+popular success Clarke was constantly involved in pecuniary
+difficulties, which are said to have hastened his death at Melbourne on
+the 2nd of August 1881.
+
+  See _The Marcus Clarke Memorial Volume_ (Melbourne, 1884), containing
+  selections from his writings with a biography and list of works,
+  edited by Hamilton Mackinnon.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, MARY ANNE (c. 1776-1852), mistress of Frederick duke of York,
+second son of George III., was born either in London or at Oxford. Her
+father, whose name was Thompson, seems to have been a tradesman in
+rather humble circumstances. She married before she was eighteen, but Mr
+Clarke, the proprietor of a stonemasonry business, became bankrupt, and
+she left him. After other _liaisons_, she became in 1803 the mistress of
+the duke of York, then commander-in-chief, maintaining a large and
+expensive establishment in a fashionable district. The duke's promised
+allowance was not regularly paid, and to escape her financial
+difficulties Mrs Clarke trafficked in her protector's position,
+receiving money from various promotion-seekers, military, civil and even
+clerical, in return for her promise to secure them the good services of
+the duke. Her procedure became a public scandal, and in 1809 Colonel
+Wardle, M.P., brought eight charges of abuse of military patronage
+against the duke in the House of Commons, and a committee of inquiry was
+appointed, before which Mrs Clarke herself gave evidence. The result of
+the inquiry clearly established the charges as far as she was concerned,
+and the duke of York was shown to have been aware of what was being
+done, but to have derived no pecuniary benefit himself. He resigned his
+appointment as commander-in-chief, and terminated his connexion with Mrs
+Clarke, who subsequently obtained from him a considerable sum in cash
+and a pension, as the price for withholding the publication of his
+numerous letters to her. Mrs Clarke died at Boulogne on the 21st of June
+1852.
+
+  See Taylor, _Authentic Memoirs of Mrs Clarke_; Clarke (? pseud.),
+  _Life of Mrs M.A. Clarkek_; _Annual Register_, vol. li.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, SAMUEL (1675-1729), English philosopher and divine, son of
+Edward Clarke, an alderman, who for several years was parliamentary
+representative of the city of Norwich, was born on the 11th of October
+1675, and educated at the free school of Norwich and at Caius College,
+Cambridge. The philosophy of Descartes was the reigning system at the
+university; Clarke, however, mastered the new system of Newton, and
+contributed greatly to its extension by publishing an excellent Latin
+version of the _Traite de physique_ of Jacques Rohault (1620-1675) with
+valuable notes, which he finished before he was twenty-two years of age.
+The system of Rohault was founded entirely upon Cartesian principles,
+and was previously known only through the medium of a rude Latin
+version. Clarke's translation (1697) continued to be used as a text-book
+in the university till supplanted by the treatises of Newton, which it
+had been designed to introduce. Four editions were issued, the last and
+best being that of 1718. It was translated into English in 1723 by his
+brother Dr John Clarke (1682-1757), dean of Sarum.
+
+Clarke afterwards devoted himself to the study of Scripture in the
+original, and of the primitive Christian writers. Having taken holy
+orders, he became chaplain to John Moore (1646-1714), bishop of Norwich,
+who was ever afterwards his friend and patron. In 1699 he published two
+treatises,--one entitled _Three Practical Essays on Baptism,
+Confirmation and Repentance_, and the other, _Some Reflections on that
+part of a book called Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton's Life, which
+relates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and, the Canon of the
+New Testament_. In 1701 he published _A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St
+Matthew_, which was followed, in 1702, by the _Paraphrases upon the
+Gospels of St Mark and St Luke_, and soon afterwards by a third volume
+upon St John. They were subsequently printed together in two volumes and
+have since passed through several editions. He intended to treat in the
+same manner the remaining books of the New Testament, but his design was
+unfulfilled.
+
+Meanwhile he had been presented by Bishop Moore to the rectory of
+Drayton, near Norwich. As Boyle lecturer, he dealt in 1704 with the
+_Being and Attributes of God_, and in 1705 with the _Evidences of
+Natural and Revealed Religion_. These lectures, first printed
+separately, were afterwards published together under the title of _A
+Discourse concerning the Being and Attributes of God, the Obligations of
+Natural Religion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian
+Revelation, in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the author of the Oracles
+of Reason, and other Deniers of Natural and Revealed Religion_.
+
+In 1706 he wrote a refutation of Dr Henry Dodwell's views on the
+immortality of the soul, and this drew him into controversy with Anthony
+Collins. He also wrote at this time a translation of Newton's _Optics_,
+for which the author presented him with L500. In the same year through
+the influence of Bishop Moore, he obtained the rectory of St Benet's,
+Paul's Wharf, London. Soon afterwards Queen Anne appointed him one of
+her chaplains in ordinary, and in 1709 presented him to the rectory of
+St James's, Westminster. He then took the degree of doctor in divinity,
+defending as his thesis the two propositions: _Nullum fidei Christianae
+dogma, in Sacris Scripturis traditum, est rectae rationi dissentaneum_,
+and _Sine actionum humanarum libertate nulla potest esse religio_.
+During the same year, at the request of the author, he revised Whiston's
+English translation of the _Apostolical Constitutions_.
+
+In 1712 he published a carefully punctuated and annotated edition (folio
+1712, octavo 1720) of Caesar's _Commentaries_, with elegant engravings,
+dedicated to the duke of Marlborough. During the same year he published
+his celebrated treatise on _The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity_. It
+is divided into three parts. The first contains a collection and
+exegesis of all the texts in the New Testament relating to the doctrine
+of the Trinity; in the second the doctrine is set forth at large, and
+explained in particular and distinct propositions; and in the third the
+principal passages in the liturgy of the Church of England relating to
+the doctrine of the Trinity are considered. Whiston informs us that,
+some time before the publication of this book, a message was sent to him
+from Lord Godolphin "that the affairs of the public were with difficulty
+then kept in the hands of those that were for liberty; that it was
+therefore an unseasonable time for the publication of a book that would
+make a great noise and disturbance; and that therefore they desired him
+to forbear till a fitter opportunity should offer itself,"--a message
+that Clarke of course entirely disregarded. The ministers were right in
+their conjectures; and the work not only provoked a great number of
+replies, but occasioned a formal complaint from the Lower House of
+Convocation. Clarke, in reply, drew up an apologetic preface, and
+afterwards gave several explanations, which satisfied the Upper House;
+and, on his pledging himself that his future conduct would occasion no
+trouble, the matter dropped.
+
+In 1715 and 1716 he had a discussion with Leibnitz relative to the
+principles of natural philosophy and religion, which was at length cut
+short by the death of his antagonist. A collection of the papers which
+passed between them was published in 1717 (cf. G. v. Leroy, _Die philos.
+Probleme in dem Briefwechsel Leibniz und Clarke_, Giessen, 1893). In
+1719 he was presented by Nicholas 1st Baron Lechmere, to the mastership
+of Wigston's hospital in Leicester. In 1724 he published seventeen
+sermons, eleven of which had not before been printed. In 1727, on the
+death of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court the place of
+master of the mint, worth on an average from L1200 to L1500 a year. This
+secular preferment, however, he absolutely refused. In 1728 was
+published "A Letter from Dr Clarke to Benjamin Hoadly, F.R.S.,
+occasioned by the controversy relating to the Proportion of Velocity and
+Force in Bodies in Motion," printed in the _Philosophical Transactions_.
+In 1729 he published the first twelve books of Homer's _Iliad_. This
+edition, dedicated to William Augustus, duke of Cumberland, was highly
+praised by Bishop Hoadly. On Sunday, the 11th of May 1729, when going
+out to preach before the judges at Serjeants' Inn, he was seized with a
+sudden illness, which caused his death on the Saturday following (May
+17, 1729).
+
+Soon after his death his brother Dr John Clarke, dean of Sarum,
+published, from his original manuscripts, _An Exposition of the Church
+Catechism_, and ten volumes of sermons. The _Exposition_ is composed of
+the lectures which he read every Thursday morning, for some months in
+the year, at St James's church. In the latter part of his life he
+revised them with great care, and left them completely prepared for the
+press. Three years after his death appeared also the last twelve books
+of the _Iliad_, published by his son Samuel Clarke, the first three of
+these books and part of the fourth having, as he states, been revised
+and annotated by his father.
+
+In disposition Clarke was cheerful and even playful. An intimate friend
+relates that he once found him swimming upon a table. At another time
+Clarke on looking out at the window saw a grave blockhead approaching
+the house; upon which he cried out, "Boys, boys, be wise; here comes a
+fool." Dr Warton, in his observations upon Pope's line,
+
+  "Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,"
+
+says, "Who could imagine that Locke was fond of romances; that Newton
+once studied astrology; that Dr Clarke valued himself on his agility,
+and frequently amused himself in a private room of his house in leaping
+over the tables and chairs?"
+
+  _Philosophy._--Clarke, though in no way an original thinker, was
+  eminent in theology, mathematics, metaphysics and philology, but his
+  chief strength lay in his logical power. The materialism of Hobbes,
+  the pantheism of Spinoza, the empiricism of Locke, the determinism of
+  Leibnitz, Collins' necessitarianism, Dodwell's denial of the natural
+  immortality of the soul, rationalistic attacks on Christianity, and
+  the morality of the sensationalists--all these he opposed with a
+  thorough conviction of the truth of the principles which he advocated.
+  His fame as theologian and philosopher rests to a large extent on his
+  demonstration of the existence of God and his theory of the foundation
+  of rectitude. The former is not a purely a priori argument, nor is it
+  presented as such by its author. It starts from a fact and it often
+  explicitly appeals to facts. The intelligence, for example, of the
+  self-existence and original cause of all things is, he says, "not
+  easily proved a priori," but "demonstrably proved a posteriori from
+  the variety and degrees of perfection in things, and the order of
+  causes and effects, from the intelligence that created beings are
+  confessedly endowed with, and from the beauty, order, and final
+  purpose of things." The propositions maintained in the argument
+  are--"(1) That something has existed from eternity; (2) that there has
+  existed from eternity some one immutable and independent being; (3)
+  that that immutable and independent being, which has existed from
+  eternity, without any external cause of its existence, must be
+  self-existent, that is, necessarily existing; (4) what the substance
+  or essence of that being is, which is self-existent or necessarily
+  existing, we have no idea, neither is it at all possible for us to
+  comprehend it; (5) that though the substance or essence of the
+  self-existent being is itself absolutely incomprehensible to us, yet
+  many of the essential attributes of his nature are strictly
+  demonstrable as well as his existence, and, in the first place, that
+  he must be of necessity eternal; (6) that the self-existent being must
+  of necessity be infinite and omnipresent; (7) must be but one; (8)
+  must be an intelligent being; (9) must be not a necessary agent, but a
+  being endued with liberty and choice; (10) must of necessity have
+  infinite power; (11) must be infinitely wise, and (12) must of
+  necessity be a being of infinite goodness, justice, and truth, and all
+  other moral perfections, such as become the supreme governor and judge
+  of the world."
+
+  In order to establish his sixth proposition, Clarke contends that time
+  and space, eternity and immensity, are not substances, but
+  attributes--the attributes of a self-existent being. Edmund Law,
+  Dugald Stewart, Lord Brougham, and many other writers, have, in
+  consequence, represented Clarke as arguing from the existence of time
+  and space to the existence of Deity. This is a serious mistake. The
+  existence of an immutable, independent, and necessary being is
+  supposed to be proved before any reference is made to the nature of
+  time and space. Clarke has been generally supposed to have derived the
+  opinion that time and space are attributes of an infinite immaterial
+  and spiritual being from the _Scholium Generale_, first published in
+  the second edition of Newton's _Principia_ (1714). The truth is that
+  his work on the Being and Attributes of God appeared nine years before
+  that _Scholium_. The view propounded by Clarke may have been derived
+  from the Midrash, the Kabbalah, Philo, Henry More, or Cudworth, but
+  not from Newton. It is a view difficult to prove, and probably few
+  will acknowledge that Clarke has conclusively proved it.
+
+  His ethical theory of "fitness" (see ETHICS) is formulated on the
+  analogy of mathematics. He held that in relation to the will things
+  possess an objective fitness similar to the mutual consistency of
+  things in the physical universe. This fitness God has given to
+  actions, as he has given laws to Nature; and the fitness is as
+  immutable as the laws. The theory has been unfairly criticized by
+  Jouffroy, Amedee Jacques, Sir James Mackintosh, Thomas Brown and
+  others. It is said, for example, that Clarke made virtue consist in
+  conformity to the relations of things universally, although the whole
+  tenor of his argument shows him to have had in view conformity to such
+  relations only as belong to the sphere of moral agency. It is true
+  that he might have emphasized the relation of moral fitness to the
+  will, and in this respect J.F. Herbart (_q.v._) improved on Clarke's
+  statement of the case. To say, however, that Clarke simply confused
+  mathematics and morals by justifying the moral criterion on a
+  mathematical basis is a mistake. He compared the two subjects for the
+  sake of the analogy.
+
+  Though Clarke can thus be defended against this and similar criticism,
+  his work as a whole can be regarded only as an attempt to present the
+  doctrines of the Cartesian school in a form which would not shock the
+  conscience of his time. His work contained a measure of rationalism
+  sufficient to arouse the suspicion of orthodox theologians, without
+  making any valuable addition to, or modification of, the underlying
+  doctrine.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--See W. Whiston's _Historical Memoirs_, and the preface
+  by Benjamin Hoadly to Clarke's _Works_ (4 vols., London, 1738-1742).
+  See further on his general philosophical position J. Hunt's _Religious
+  Thought in England_, _passim_, but particularly in vol. ii. 447-457,
+  and vol. iii. 20-29 and 109-115, &c.; Rob. Zimmermann in the
+  _Denkschriften d. k. Akademie der Wissenschaften, Phil.-Hist. Classe_,
+  Bd. xix. (Vienna, 1870); H. Sidgwick's _Methods of Ethics_ (6th ed.,
+  1901), p. 384; A. Bain's _Moral Science_ (1872), p. 562 foll., and
+  _Mental Science_ (1872), p. 416; Sir L. Stephen's _English Thought in
+  the Eighteenth Century_ (3rd ed., 1902), c. iii.; J. E. le Rossignol,
+  _Ethical Philosophy of S. Clarke_ (Leipzig, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, THOMAS SHIELDS (1860-   ), American artist, was born in Pittsburg,
+Pennsylvania, on the 25th of April 1860, and graduated at Princeton in
+1882. He was a pupil of the Art Students' League, New York, and of the
+Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, under J.L. Gerome; later he entered the
+atelier of Dagnan-Bouveret, and, becoming interested in sculpture,
+worked for a while under Henri M. Chapu. As a sculptor, he received a
+medal of honour in Madrid for his "The Cider Press," now in the Golden
+Gate Park, San Francisco, California, and he made four caryatides of
+"The Seasons" for the Appellate Court House, New York. He designed an
+"Alma Mater" for Princeton University, and a model is in the library.
+Among his paintings are his "Night Market in Morocco" (Philadelphia Art
+Club), for which he received a medal at the International Exposition in
+Berlin in 1891, and his "A Fool's Fool," exhibited at the Salon in 1887
+and now in the collection of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts,
+Philadelphia.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKE, WILLIAM BRANWHITE (1798-1878), British geologist, was born at
+East Bergholt, in Suffolk, on the 2nd of June 1798. He received his
+early education at Dedham grammar school, and in 1817 entered Jesus
+College, Cambridge; he took his B.A. in 1821, was ordained and became
+M.A. in 1824. In 1821 he was appointed curate of Ramsholt in Suffolk,
+and he acted in his clerical capacity in other places until 1839. Having
+become interested in geology through the teachings of Sedgwick, he
+utilized his opportunities and gathered many interesting facts on the
+geology of East Anglia which were embodied in a paper "On the Geological
+Structure and Phenomena of Suffolk" (_Trans. Geol. Soc._ 1837). He also
+communicated a series of papers on the geology of S.E. Dorsetshire to
+the _Magazine of Nat. Hist._ (1837-1838). In 1839, after a severe
+illness, he left England for New South Wales, mainly with the object of
+benefiting by the sea voyage. He remained, however, in that country, and
+came to be regarded as the "Father of Australian Geology." From the date
+of his arrival in New South Wales until 1870 he was in clerical charge
+first of the country from Paramatta to the Hawkesbury river, then of
+Campbelltown, and finally of Willoughby. He zealously devoted attention
+to the geology of the country, with results that have been of paramount
+importance. In 1841 he discovered gold, being the first explorer who had
+obtained it _in situ_ in the country, finding it both in the detrital
+deposits and in the quartzites of the Blue Mountains, and he then
+declared his belief in its abundance. In 1849 he made the first actual
+discovery of tin in Australia and in 1859 he made known the occurrence
+of the diamond. He was also the first to indicate the presence of
+Silurian rocks, and to determine the age of the coal-bearing rocks in
+New South Wales. In 1869 he announced the discovery of remains of
+_Dinornis_ in Queensland. He was a trustee of the Australian museum at
+Sydney, and an active member of the Royal Society of New South Wales. In
+1860 he published _Researches in the Southern Gold-fields of New South
+Wales_. He was elected F.R.S. in 1876, and in the following year was
+awarded the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London. His
+contributions to Australian scientific journals were numerous. He died
+near Sydney, on the 17th of June 1878.
+
+
+
+
+CLARKSON, THOMAS (1760-1846), English anti-slavery agitator, was born on
+the 28th of March 1760, at Wisbeach, in Cambridgeshire, where his father
+was headmaster of the free grammar school. He was educated at St Paul's
+school and at St John's College, Cambridge. Having taken the first place
+among the middle bachelors as Latin essayist, he succeeded in 1785 in
+gaining a similar honour among the senior bachelors. The subject
+appointed by the vice-chancellor, Dr Peckhard, was one in which he was
+himself deeply interested--_Anne liceat invitos in servitutem dare?_ (Is
+it right to make men slaves against their will?). In preparing for this
+essay Clarkson consulted a number of works on African slavery, of which
+the chief was Benezet's _Historical Survey of New Guinea_; and the
+atrocities of which he read affected him so deeply that he determined to
+devote all his energies to effect the abolition of the slave trade, and
+gave up his intention of entering the church.
+
+His first measure was to publish, with additions, an English translation
+of his prize essay (June 1786). He then commenced to search in all
+quarters for information concerning slavery. He soon discovered that the
+cause had already been taken up to some extent by others, most of whom
+belonged to the Society of Friends, and among the chief of whom were
+William Dillwyn, Joseph Wood and Granville Sharp. With the aid of these
+gentlemen, a committee of twelve was formed in May 1787 to do all that
+was possible to effect the abolition of the slave trade. Meanwhile
+Clarkson had also gained the sympathy of Wilberforce, Whitbread, Sturge
+and several other men of influence. Travelling from port to port, he now
+commenced to collect a large mass of evidence; and much of it was
+embodied in his _Summary View of the Slave Trade, and the Probable
+Consequences of its Abolition_, which, with a number of other
+anti-slavery tracts, was published by the committee. Pitt, Grenville,
+Fox and Burke looked favourably on the movement; in May 1788 Pitt
+introduced a parliamentary discussion on the subject, and Sir W. Dolben
+brought forward a bill providing that the number of slaves carried in a
+vessel should be proportional to its tonnage. A number of Liverpool and
+Bristol merchants obtained permission from the House to be heard by
+council against the bill, but on the 18th of June it passed the Commons.
+Soon after Clarkson published an _Essay on the Impolicy of the Slave
+Trade_; and for two months he was continuously engaged in travelling
+that he might meet men who were personally acquainted with the facts of
+the trade. From their lips he collected a considerable amount of
+evidence; but only nine could be prevailed upon to promise to appear
+before the privy council. Meanwhile other witnesses had been obtained by
+Wilberforce and the committee, and on the 12th of May 1789 the former
+led a debate on the subject in the House of Commons, in which he was
+seconded by Burke and supported by Pitt and Fox.
+
+It was now the beginning of the French Revolution, and in the hope that
+he might arouse the French to sweep away slavery with other abuses,
+Clarkson crossed to Paris, where he remained six months. He found Necker
+head of the government, and obtained from him some sympathy but little
+help. Mirabeau, however, with his assistance, prepared a speech against
+slavery, to be delivered before the National Assembly, and the Marquis
+de la Fayette entered enthusiastically into his views. During this visit
+Clarkson met a deputation of negroes from Santo Domingo, who had come to
+France to present a petition to the National Assembly, desiring to be
+placed on an equal footing with the whites; but the storm of the
+Revolution permitted no substantial success to be achieved. Soon after
+his return home he engaged in a search, the apparent hopelessness of
+which finely displays his unshrinking laboriousness and his passionate
+enthusiasm. He desired to find some one who had himself witnessed the
+capture of the negroes in Africa; and a friend having met by chance a
+man-of-war's-man who had done so, Clarkson, though ignorant of the name
+and address of the sailor, set out in search of him, and actually
+discovered him. His last tour was undertaken in order to form
+anti-slavery committees in all the principal towns. At length, in the
+autumn of 1794, his health gave way, and he was obliged to cease active
+work. He now occupied his time in writing a _History of the Abolition of
+the Slave Trade_, which appeared in 1808. The bill for the abolition of
+the trade became law in 1807; but it was still necessary to secure the
+assent of the other powers to its principle. To obtain this was, under
+pressure of the public opinion created by Clarkson and his friends, one
+of the main objects of British diplomacy at the Congress of Vienna, and
+in February 1815 the trade was condemned by the powers. The question of
+concerting practical measures for its abolition was raised at the
+Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but without result. On this
+occasion Clarkson personally presented an address to the emperor
+Alexander I., who communicated it to the sovereigns of Austria and
+Prussia. In 1823 the Anti-Slavery Society was formed, and Clarkson was
+one of its vice-presidents. He was for some time blind from cataract;
+but several years before his death on the 26th of September 1846, his
+sight was restored.
+
+  Besides the works already mentioned, he published the _Portraiture of
+  Quakerism_ (1806), _Memoirs of William Penn_ (1813), _Researches,
+  Antediluvian, Patriarchal and Historical_ (1836), intended as a
+  history of the interference of Providence for man's spiritual good,
+  and _Strictures_ on several of the remarks concerning himself made in
+  the _Life of Wilberforce_, in which his claim as originator of the
+  anti-slavery movement is denied.
+
+  See the lives by Thomas Elmes (1876) and Thomas Taylor (1839).
+
+
+
+
+CLARKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Montgomery county, Tennessee,
+U.S.A., situated in the N. part of the state, about 50 m. N.W. of
+Nashville, on the Cumberland river, at the mouth of the Red river. Pop.
+(1890) 7924; (1900) 9431, of whom 5094 were negroes; (1910 census) 8548.
+It is served by the Louisville & Nashville, and the Illinois Central
+railways, and by passenger and freight steamboat lines on the Cumberland
+river. The city hall, and the public library are among the principal
+public buildings, and the city is the seat of the Tennessee Odd Fellows'
+home, and of the South-Western Presbyterian University, founded in 1875.
+Clarksville lies in the centre of the dark tobacco belt--commonly known
+as the "Black Patch"--and is an important tobacco market, with an annual
+trade in that staple of about $4,000,000, most of the product being
+exported to France, Italy, Austria and Spain. The city is situated in a
+region well adapted for the growing of wheat, Indian corn, and
+vegetables, and for the raising of live-stock; and Clarksville is a
+shipping point for the lumber--chiefly oak, poplar and birch--and the
+iron-ore of the surrounding country, a branch of the Louisville &
+Nashville railway extending into the iron district. The city's principal
+manufactures are flour and grist mill products, chewing and smoking
+tobacco and snuff, furniture, lumber, iron, and pearl buttons. The value
+of the factory product in 1905 was $2,210,112, being 32% greater than in
+1900. The municipality owns its water-works. Clarksville was first
+settled as early as 1780, was named in honour of General George Rogers
+Clark, and was chartered as a city in 1850.
+
+
+
+
+CLASSICS. The term "classic" is derived from the Latin epithet
+_classicus_, found in a passage of Aulus Gellius (xix. 8. 15), where a
+"_scriptor 'classicus'_" is contrasted with a "_scriptor proletarius_."
+The metaphor is taken from the division of the Roman people into
+_classes_ by Servius Tullius, those in the first class being called
+_classici_, all the rest _infra classem_, and those in the last
+_proletarii_.[1] The epithet "classic" is accordingly applied (1)
+generally to an author of the first rank, and (2) more particularly to
+a Greek or Roman author of that character. Similarly, "the classics" is
+a synonym for the choicest products of the literature of ancient Greece
+and Rome. It is to this sense of the word that the following article is
+devoted in two main divisions: (A) the general history of classical
+(i.e. Greek and Latin) scholarship, and (B) its place in higher
+education.
+
+
+(A) GENERAL HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS
+
+We may consider this subject in four principal periods:--(i.) the
+_Alexandrian_, c. 300-1 B.C.; (ii.) the _Roman_, A.D. c. 1-530; (iii.)
+the _Middle Ages_, c. 530-1350; and (iv.) the _Modern Age_, c. 1350 to
+the present day.
+
+(i.) _The Alexandrian Age._--The study of the Greek classics begins with
+the school of Alexandria. Under the rule of Ptolemy Philadelphus
+(285-247 B.C.), learning found a home in the Alexandrian Museum and in
+the great Alexandrian Library. The first four librarians were Zenodotus,
+Eratosthenes, Aristophanes of Byzantium, and Aristarchus. Zenodotus
+produced before 274 the first scientific edition of the _Iliad_ and
+_Odyssey_, an edition in which spurious lines were marked, at the
+beginning, with a short horizontal dash called an _obelus_ (--). He also
+drew up select lists of epic and lyric poets. Soon afterwards a
+classified catalogue of dramatists, epic and lyric poets, legislators,
+philosophers, historians, orators and rhetoricians, and miscellaneous
+writers, with a brief biography of each, was produced by the scholar and
+poet Callimachus (fl. 260). Among the pupils of Callimachus was
+Eratosthenes who, in 234, succeeded Zenodotus as librarian. Apart from
+his special interest in the history of the Old Attic comedy, he was a
+man of vast and varied learning; the founder of astronomical geography
+and of scientific chronology; and the first to assume the name of
+[Greek: philologos]. The greatest philologist of antiquity was, however,
+his successor, Aristophanes of Byzantium (195), who reduced accentuation
+and punctuation to a definite system, and used a variety of critical
+symbols in his recension of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_. He also edited
+Hesiod and Pindar, Euripides and Aristophanes, besides composing brief
+introductions to the several plays, parts of which are still extant.
+Lastly, he established a scientific system of lexicography and drew up
+lists of the "best authors." Two critical editions of the _Iliad_ and
+_Odyssey_ were produced by his successor, Aristarchus, who was librarian
+until 146 B.C. and was the founder of scientific scholarship. His
+distinguished pupil, Dionysius Thrax (born c. 166 B.C.), drew up a Greek
+grammar which continued in use for more than thirteen centuries. The
+most industrious of the successors of Aristarchus was Didymus (c. 65
+B.C.-A.D. 10), who, in his work on the Homeric poems, aimed at restoring
+the lost recensions of Aristarchus. He also composed commentaries on the
+lyric and comic poets and on Thucydides and Demosthenes; part of his
+commentary on this last author was first published in 1904. He was a
+teacher in Alexandria (and perhaps also in Rome); and his death, about
+A.D. 10, marks the close of the Alexandrian age. He is the industrious
+compiler who gathered up the remnants of the learning of his
+predecessors and transmitted them to posterity. The poets of that age,
+including Callimachus and Theocritus, were subsequently expounded by
+Theon, who flourished under Tiberius, and has been well described as
+"the Didymus of the Alexandrian poets."
+
+The Alexandrian canon of the Greek classics, which probably had its
+origin in the lists drawn up by Callimachus, Aristophanes of Byzantium
+and Aristarchus, included the following authors:--
+
+  _Epic poets_ (5): Homer, Hesiod, Peisander, Panyasis, Antimachus.
+
+  _Iambic poets_ (3): Simonides of Amorgos, Archilochus, Hipponax.
+
+  _Tragic poets_ (5): Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Ion, Achaeus.
+
+  _Comic poets, Old_ (7): Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis, Aristophanes,
+  Pherecrates, Crates, Plato. _Middle_ (2): Antiphanes, Alexis. _New_
+  (5): Menander, Philippides, Diphilus, Philemon, Apollodorus.
+
+  _Elegiac poets_ (4): Callinus, Mimnermus, Philetas, Callimachus.
+
+  _Lyric poets_ (9): Alcman, Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus, Pindar,
+  Bacchylides, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides of Ceos.
+
+  _Orators_ (10): Demosthenes, Lysias, Hypereides, Isocrates, Aeschines,
+  Lycurgus, Isaeus, Antiphon, Andocides, Deinarchus.
+
+  _Historians_ (10): Thucydides, Herodotus, Xenophon, Philistius,
+  Theopompus, Ephorus, Anaximenes, Callisthenes, Hellanicus, Polybius.
+
+The latest name in the above list is that of Polybius, who died about
+123 B.C. Apollonius Rhodius, Aratus and Theocritus were subsequently
+added to the "epic" poets. Philosophers, such as Plato and Aristotle,
+were possibly classed in a separate "canon."
+
+While the scholars of Alexandria were mainly interested in the _verbal
+criticism_ of the Greek _poets_, a wider variety of studies was the
+characteristic of the school of Pergamum, the literary rival of
+Alexandria. Pergamum was a home of learning for a large part of the 150
+years of the Attalid dynasty, 283-133 B.C.
+
+The grammar of the Stoics, gradually elaborated by Zeno, Cleanthes and
+Chrysippus, supplied a terminology which, in words such as "genitive,"
+"accusative" and "aorist," has become a permanent part of the
+grammarian's vocabulary; and the study of this grammar found its
+earliest home in Pergamum.
+
+From about 168 B.C. the head of the Pergamene school was Crates of
+Mallus, who (like the Stoics) was an adherent of the principle of
+"anomaly" in grammar, and was thus opposed to Aristarchus of Alexandria,
+the champion of "analogy." He also opposed Aristarchus, and supported
+the Stoics, by insisting on an _allegorical_ interpretation of Homer. He
+is credited with having drawn up the classified lists of the best
+authors for the Pergamene library. His mission as an envoy to the Roman
+senate, "shortly after the death of Ennius" in 169 B.C., had a
+remarkable influence on literary studies in Rome. Meeting with an
+accident while he was wandering on the Palatine, and being detained in
+Rome, he passed part of his enforced leisure in giving lectures
+(possibly on Homer, his favourite author), and thus succeeded in
+arousing among the Romans a taste for the scholarly study of literature.
+The example set by Crates led to the production of a new edition of the
+epic poem of Naevius, and to the public recitation of the _Annals_ of
+Ennius, and (two generations later) the _Satires_ of Lucilius.
+
+(ii.) _The Roman Age._--(a) _Latin Studies._--In the 1st century B.C.
+the foremost scholar in Rome was L. Aelius Stilo (c. 154-c. 74), who is
+described by Cicero as profoundly learned in Greek and Latin literature,
+and as an accomplished critic of Roman antiquities and of ancient
+authors. Of the plays then passing under the name of Plautus, he
+recognized twenty-five as genuine. His most famous pupil was Varro
+(116-27), the six surviving books of whose great work on the Latin
+language are mainly concerned with the great grammatical controversy on
+analogy and anomaly--a controversy which also engaged the attention of
+Cicero and Caesar, and of the elder Pliny and Quintilian. The twenty-one
+plays of Plautus accepted by Varro are doubtless the twenty now extant,
+together with the lost _Vidularia_. The influence of Varro's last work
+on the nine _disciplinae_, or branches of study, long survived in the
+seven "liberal arts" recognized by St Augustine and Martianus Capella,
+and in the _trivium_ and _quadrivium_ of the middle ages.
+
+Part of Varro's treatise on Latin was dedicated to Cicero (106-43), who
+as an interpreter of Greek philosophy to his fellow-countrymen enlarged
+the vocabulary of Latin by his admirable renderings of Greek
+philosophical terms, and thus ultimately gave us such indispensable
+words as "species," "quality" and "quantity."
+
+The earliest of Latin lexicons was produced about 10 B.C. by Verrius
+Flaccus in a work, _De Verborum Significatu_, which survived in the
+abridgment by Festus (2nd century A.D.) and in the further abridgment
+dedicated by Paulus Diaconus to Charles the Great.
+
+Greek models were diligently studied by Virgil and Horace. Their own
+poems soon became the theme of criticism and of comment; and, by the
+time of Quintilian and Juvenal, they shared the fate (which Horace had
+feared) of becoming text-books for use in schools.
+
+Recensions of Terence, Lucretius and Persius, as well as Horace and
+Virgil, were produced by Probus (d. A.D. 88), with critical symbols
+resembling those invented by the Alexandrian scholars. His contemporary
+Asconius is best known as the author of an extant historical commentary
+on five of the speeches of Cicero. In A.D. 88 Quintilian was placed at
+the head of the first state-supported school in Rome. His comprehensive
+work on the training of the future orator includes an outline of general
+education, which had an important influence on the humanistic schools of
+the Italian Renaissance. It also presents us with a critical survey of
+the Greek and Latin classics arranged under the heads of poets,
+historians, orators and philosophers (book x. chap. i.). The lives of
+Roman poets and scholars were among the many subjects that exercised the
+literary skill of Hadrian's private secretary, Suetonius. One of his
+lost works is the principal source of the erudition of Isidore of
+Seville (d. A.D. 636), whose comprehensive encyclopaedia was a favourite
+text-book in the middle ages. About the time of the death of Suetonius
+(A.D. 160) a work entitled the _Noctes Atticae_ was begun by Aulus
+Gellius. The author is an industrious student and a typical scholar, who
+frequents libraries and is interested in the MSS. of old Latin authors.
+Early in the 4th century the study of grammar was represented in
+northern Africa by the Numidian tiro, Nonius Marcellus (fl. 323), the
+author of an encyclopaedic work in three parts, lexicographical,
+grammatical and antiquarian, the main value of which lies in its
+quotations from early Latin literature. About the middle of the same
+century grammar had a far abler exponent at Rome in the person of Aelius
+Donatus, the preceptor of St Jerome, as well as the author of a
+text-book that remained in use throughout the middle ages. The general
+state of learning in this century is illustrated by Ausonius (c.
+310-393), the grammarian and rhetorician of Bordeaux, the author of the
+_Mosella_, and the probable inspirer of the memorable decree of Gratian
+(376), providing for the appointment and the payment of teachers of
+rhetoric and of Greek and Latin literature in the principal cities of
+Gaul. His distinguished friend, Q. Aurelius Symmachus, the consul of
+A.D. 391, aroused in his own immediate circle an interest in Livy, the
+whole of whose history was still extant. Early in the 5th century other
+aristocratic Romans interested themselves in the textual criticism of
+Persius and Martial. Among the contemporaries of Symmachus, the devoted
+adherent of the old Roman religion, was St Jerome (d. 420), the most
+scholarly representative of Christianity in the 4th century, the student
+of Plautus and Terence, of Virgil and Cicero, the translator of the
+_Chronology_ of Eusebius, and the author of the Latin version of the
+Bible now known as the Vulgate. St Augustine (d. 430) confesses to his
+early fondness for Virgil, and also tells us that he received his first
+serious impressions from the _Hortensius_ of Cicero, an eloquent
+exhortation to the study of philosophy, of which only a few fragments
+survive. In his survey of the "liberal arts" St Augustine imitates (as
+we have seen) the _Disciplinae_ of Varro, and in the greatest of his
+works, the _De Civitate Dei_ (426), he has preserved large portions of
+the _Antiquitates_ of Varro and the _De Republica_ of Cicero. About the
+same date, and in the same province of northern Africa, Martianus
+Capella produced his allegorical work on the "liberal arts," the
+principal, and, indeed, often the only, text-book of the medieval
+schools.
+
+In the second half of the 5th century the foremost representative of
+Latin studies in Gaul was Apollinaris Sidonius (fl. 470), whose
+_Letters_ were modelled on those of the younger Pliny, while his poems
+give proof of a wide though superficial acquaintance with classical
+literature. He laments the increasing decline in the classical purity of
+the Latin language.
+
+An interest in Latin literature lived longest in Gaul, where schools of
+learning flourished as early as the 1st century at Autun, Lyons,
+Toulouse, Nimes, Vienne, Narbonne and Marseilles; and, from the 3rd
+century onwards, at Trier, Poitiers, Besancon and Bordeaux.
+
+About ten years after the death of Sidonius we find Asterius, the consul
+of 494, critically revising the text of Virgil in Rome. Boethius, who
+early in life formed the ambitious plan of expounding and reconciling
+the opinions of Plato and Aristotle, continued in the year of his sole
+consulship (510) to instruct his fellow-countrymen in the wisdom of
+Greece. He is a link between the ancient world and the middle ages,
+having been the last of the learned Romans who understood the language
+and studied the literature of Greece, and the first to interpret to the
+middle ages the logical treatises of Aristotle. He thereby gave the
+signal for the age-long conflict between Nominalism and Realism, which
+exercised the keenest intellects among the Schoolmen, while the crowning
+work of his life, the _Consolatio Philosophiae_ (524), was repeatedly
+expounded and imitated, and reproduced in renderings that were among the
+earliest literary products of the vernacular languages of modern Europe.
+His contemporary, Cassiodorus (c. 480-c. 575), after spending thirty
+years in the service of the Ostrogothic dynasty at Ravenna, passed the
+last thirty-three years of his long life on the shores of the Bay of
+Squillace, where he founded two monasteries and diligently trained their
+inmates to become careful copyists. In his latest work he made extracts
+for their benefit from the pages of Priscian (fl. 512), a transcript of
+whose great work on Latin grammar was completed at Constantinople by one
+of that grammarian's pupils in 527, to be reproduced in a thousand MSS.
+in the middle ages. More than ten years before Cassiodorus founded his
+monasteries in the south of Italy, Benedict of Nursia (480-543) had
+rendered a more permanent service to the cause of scholarship by
+building, amid the ruins of the temple of Apollo on the crest of Monte
+Cassino, the earliest of those homes of learning that have lent an
+undying distinction to the Benedictine order. The learned labours of the
+Benedictines were no part of the original requirements of the rule of St
+Benedict; but before the founder's death his favourite disciple had
+planted a monastery in France, and the name of that disciple is
+permanently associated with the learned labours of the Benedictines of
+the Congregation of St Maur (see MAURISTS).
+
+(b) _Greek Studies._--Meanwhile, the study of the Greek classics was
+ably represented at Rome in the Augustan age by Dionysius of
+Halicarnassus (fl. 30-8 B.C.), the intelligent critic of the ancient
+Attic orators, while the 1st century of our era is the probable date of
+the masterpiece of literary criticism known as the treatise _On the
+Sublime_ by Longinus (q.v.).
+
+The 2nd century is the age of the two great grammarians, Apollonius
+Dyscolus (the founder of scientific grammar and the creator of the study
+of Greek syntax) and his son Herodian, the larger part of whose
+principal work dealt with the subject of Greek accentuation. It is also
+the age of the lexicographers of Attic Greek, the most important of whom
+are Phrynichus, Pollux (fl. A.D. 180) and Harpocration.
+
+In the 4th century Demosthenes was expounded and imitated by the widely
+influential teacher, Libanius of Antioch (c. 314-c. 393), the pagan
+preceptor of St Chrysostom. To the same century we may assign the
+grammarian Theodosius of Alexandria, who, instead of confining himself
+(like Dionysius Thrax) to the tenses of [Greek: thupto] in actual use,
+was the first to set forth all the imaginary aorists and futures of that
+verb, which have thence descended through the Byzantine age to the
+grammars of the Renaissance and of modern Europe.
+
+In the 5th century we may place Hesychius of Alexandria, the compiler of
+the most extensive of our ancient Greek lexicons, and Proclus, the
+author of a chrestomathy, to the extracts from which (as preserved by
+Photius) we owe almost all our knowledge of the contents of the lost
+epics of early Greece. In the same century the study of Plato was
+represented by Synesius of Cyrene (c. 370-c. 413) and by the
+Neoplatonists of Alexandria and of Athens. The lower limit of the Roman
+age of classical studies may be conveniently placed in the year 529. In
+that year the monastery of Monte Cassino was founded in the West, while
+the school of Athens was closed in the East. The Roman age thus ends in
+the West with Boethius, Cassiodorus and St Benedict, and in the East
+with Priscian and Justinian.
+
+(iii.) _The Middle Ages_.--(a) _In the East_, commonly called the
+_Byzantine Age_, c. 530-1350. In this age, grammatical learning was
+represented by Choeroboscus, and lexicography by Photius (d. 891), the
+patriarch of Constantinople, who is also the author of a _Bibliotheca_
+reviewing and criticizing the contents of 280 MSS., and incidentally
+preserving important extracts from the lost Greek historians.
+
+In the time of Photius the poets usually studied at school were Homer,
+Hesiod, Pindar; certain select plays of Aeschylus (_Prometheus, Septem_
+and _Persae_), Sophocles (_Ajax, Electra_ and _Oedipus Tyrannus_), and
+Euripides (_Hecuba, Orestes, Phoenissae_, and, next to these, _Alcestis,
+Andromache, Hippolytus, Medea, Rhesus, Troades_,) also Aristophanes
+(beginning with the _Plutus_), Theocritus, Lycophron, and Dionysius
+Periegetes. The principal prose authors were Thucydides, parts of Plato
+and Demosthenes, with Aristotle, Plutarch's _Lives_, and, above all,
+Lucian, who is often imitated in the Byzantine age.
+
+One of the distinguished pupils of Photius, Arethas, bishop of Caesarea
+in Cappadocia (c. 907-932), devoted himself with remarkable energy to
+collecting and expounding the Greek classics. Among the important MSS.
+still extant that were copied at his expense are the Bodleian Euclid
+(888) and the Bodleian Plato (895). To the third quarter of the 10th
+century we may assign the Greek lexicon of Suidas, a combination of a
+lexicon and an encyclopaedia, the best articles being those on the
+history of literature.
+
+Meanwhile, during the "dark age" of secular learning at Constantinople
+(641-850), the light of Greek learning had spread eastwards to Syria and
+Arabia. At Bagdad, in the reign of Mamun (813-833), the son of Harun
+al-Rashid, philosophical works were translated by Syrian Christians from
+Greek into Syriac and from Syriac into Arabic. It was in his reign that
+Aristotle was first translated into Arabic, and, shortly afterwards, we
+have Syriac and Arabic renderings of commentators on Aristotle, and of
+portions of Plato, Hippocrates and Galen; while in the 10th century new
+translations of Aristotle and his commentators were produced by the
+Nestorian Christians.
+
+The Arabic translations of Aristotle passed from the East to the West by
+being transmitted through the Arab dominions in northern Africa to
+Spain, which had been conquered by the Arabs in the 8th century. In the
+12th century Toledo was the centre of the study of Aristotle in the
+West, and it was from Toledo that the knowledge of Aristotle spread to
+Paris and to other seats of learning in western Europe.
+
+The 12th century in Constantinople is marked by the name of Tzetzes (c.
+1110-c. 1180), the author of a mythological, literary and historical
+miscellany called the _Chiliades_, in the course of which he quotes more
+than four hundred authors. The prolegomena to his scholia on
+Aristophanes supply us with valuable information on the Alexandrian
+libraries. The most memorable name, however, among the scholars of this
+century is that of Eustathius, whose philological studies at
+Constantinople preceded his tenure of the archbishopric of Thessalonica
+(1175-1192). The opening pages of his commentaries on the _Iliad_ and
+the _Odyssey_ dwell with enthusiasm on the abiding influence of Homer on
+the literature of Greece.
+
+While the Byzantine MSS. of the 11th century (such as the Laurentian
+MSS. of Aeschylus and Sophocles, and the Ravenna MS. of Aristophanes)
+maintain the sound traditions of the Alexandrian and Roman ages, those
+of the times of the Palaeologi give proof of a frequent tampering with
+the metres of the ancient poets in order to bring them into conformity
+with theories recently invented by Moschopulus and Triclinius. The
+scholars of these times are the natural precursors of the earliest
+representatives of the Revival of Learning in the West. Of these later
+Byzantines the first in order of date is the monk Planudes (d. 1330),
+who devoted his knowledge of Latin to producing excellent translations
+of Caesar's _Gallic War_ as well as Ovid's _Metamorphoses_ and
+_Heroides_, and the classic work of Boethius; he also compiled (in 1302)
+the only Greek anthology known to scholars before the recovery in 1607
+of the earlier and fuller anthology of Cephalas (fl. 917).
+
+The scholars of the Byzantine age cannot be compared with the great
+Alexandrians, but they served to maintain the continuity of tradition by
+which the Greek classics selected by the critics of Alexandria were
+transmitted to modern Europe.
+
+(b) _In the West_ (c. 530-c. 1350).--At the portal of the middle ages
+stands Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), who had little (if any) knowledge
+of Greek and had no sympathy with the _secular_ side of the study of
+Latin. A decline in grammatical learning is exemplified in the three
+Latin historians of the 6th century, Jordanes, Gildas and Gregory of
+Tours (d. 594), who begins his history of the Franks by lamenting the
+decay of Latin literature in Gaul. The historian of Tours befriended the
+Latin poet, Venantius Fortunatus (d. _c._ 600), who is still remembered
+as the writer of the three well-known hymns beginning _Salve festa
+dies_, _Vexilla regis prodeunt_, and _Pange lingua gloriosi proelium
+certaminis_. The decadence of Latin early in the 7th century is
+exemplified by the fantastic grammarian Virgilius Maro, who also
+illustrates the transition from Latin to Provencal, and from quantitive
+to accentual forms of verse.
+
+While Latin was declining in Gaul, even Greek was not unknown in
+Ireland, and the Irish passion for travel led to the spread of Greek
+learning in the west of Europe. The Irish monk Columban, shortly before
+his death in 615, founded in the neighbourhood of Pavia the monastery of
+Bobbio, to be the repository of many Latin MSS. which were ultimately
+dispersed among the libraries of Rome, Milan and Turin. About the same
+date his fellow-traveller, Gallus, founded above the Lake of Constance
+the monastery of St Gallen, where Latin MSS. were preserved until their
+recovery in the age of the Renaissance. During the next twenty-five
+years Isidore of Seville (d. 636) produced in his _Origines_ an
+encyclopaedic work which gathered up for the middle ages much of the
+learning of the ancient world.
+
+In Italy a decline in the knowledge of Greek in the 5th and 6th
+centuries led to an estrangement between the Greek and Latin Churches.
+The year 690 is regarded as the date of the temporary extinction of
+Greek in Italy, but, in the first quarters of the 8th and the 9th
+centuries, the iconoclastic decrees of the Byzantine emperors drove many
+of the Greek monks and their lay adherents to the south of Italy, and
+even to Rome itself.
+
+In Ireland we find Greek characters used in the Book of Armagh (_c._
+807); and, in the same century, a Greek psalter was copied by an Irish
+monk of Liege, named Sedulius (fl. 850), who had a wide knowledge of
+Latin literature. In England, some sixty years after the death of
+Augustine, the Greek archbishop of Canterbury, Theodore of Tarsus (d.
+690) founded a school for the study of Greek, and with the help of an
+African monk named Hadrian made many of the English monasteries schools
+of Greek and Latin learning, so that, in the time of Bede (d. 735), some
+of the scholars who still survived were "as familiar with Greek and
+Latin as with their mother-tongue." Among those who had learned their
+Greek at Canterbury was Aldhelm (d. 709), "the first Englishman who
+cultivated classical learning with any success." While Aldhelm is known
+as "the father of Anglo-Latin verse," Latin prose was the literary
+medium used by Bede in his celebrated _Ecclesiastical History_ of
+England (731). Nine years after the death of Bede (735), Boniface, "the
+apostle of Germany," sanctioned the founding of Fulda (744), which soon
+rivalled St Gallen as a school of learning. Alcuin (d. 804), who was
+probably born in the year of Bede's death, tells us of the wealth of
+Latin literature preserved in the library at York. Through the
+invitation of Charles the Great, he became associated with the revival
+of learning which marks the reign of that monarch, by presiding over the
+School of the Palace (782-790), and by exercising a healthy influence as
+abbot of St Martin's at Tours (796-804). Among the friends of Alcuin and
+the advisers of Charles was Theodulfus, bishop of Orleans and abbot of
+Fleury (d. 821), who is memorable as an accomplished Latin poet, and as
+the initiator of free education. Einhard (d. 840), in his classic life
+of Charles the Great, models his style on that of Suetonius, and shows
+his familiarity with Caesar and Livy and Cicero, while Rabanus Maurus
+(d. 856), who long presided over Einhard's school of Fulda, was the
+first to introduce Priscian into the schools of Germany. His pupil,
+Walafrid Strabo, the abbot of Reichenau (d. 849), had a genuine gift for
+Latin poetry, a gift agreeably exemplified in his poem on the plants in
+the monastic garden. In the same century an eager interest in the Latin
+classics is displayed by Servatus Lupus, who was educated at Fulda, and
+was abbot of Ferrieres for the last twenty years of his life (d. 862).
+In his literary spirit he is a precursor of the humanists of the
+Renaissance. Under Charles the Bald (d. 877) there was a certain revival
+of interest in literature, when John the Scot (Erigena) became, for some
+thirty years (c. 845-875), the head of the Palace School. He was
+familiar with the Greek Fathers, and was chosen to execute a Latin
+rendering of the writings of "Dionysius the Areopagite," the patron
+saint of France. In the preface the translator praises the king for
+prompting him not to rest satisfied with the literature of the West, but
+to have recourse to the "most pure and copious waters of the Greeks." In
+the next generation Remi of Auxerre was the first to open a school in
+Paris (900). Virgil is the main authority quoted in Remi's Commentary on
+Donatus, which remained in use until the Renaissance. During the two
+centuries after John the Scot, the study of Greek declined in France. In
+England the 9th century closes with Alfred, who, with the aid of the
+Welsh monk, Asser, produced a series of free translations from Latin
+texts, including Boethius and Orosius and Bede, and the _Cura
+Pastoralis_ of Gregory the Great.
+
+In the 10th century learning flourished at Aachen under Bruno, brother
+of Otto I. and archbishop of Cologne (953-965), who had himself learned
+Greek from certain Eastern monks at the imperial court, and who called
+an Irish bishop from Trier to teach Greek at the imperial capital. He
+also encouraged the transcription of Latin MSS., which became models of
+style to Widukind of Corvey, the imitator of Sallust and Livy. In the
+same century the monastery of Gandersheim, south of Hanover, was the
+retreat of the learned nun Hroswitha, who celebrated the exploits of
+Otho in leonine hexameters, and composed in prose six moral and
+religious plays in imitation of Terence. One of the most prominent
+personages of the century was Gerbert of Aurillac, who, after teaching
+at Tours and Fleury, became abbot of Bobbio, archbishop of Reims, and
+ultimately pope under the name of Silvester II. (d. 1003). He frequently
+quotes from the speeches of Cicero, and it has been surmised that the
+survival of those speeches may have been due to the influence of
+Gerbert. The most original hellenist of this age is Luitprand, bishop of
+Cremona (d. 972), who acquired some knowledge of Greek during his
+repeated missions to Constantinople. About the same time in England
+Oswald of York, who had himself been educated at Fleury, invited Abbo
+(d. 1004) to instruct the monks of the abbey recently founded at Ramsey,
+near Huntingdon. At Ramsey he wrote for his pupils a scholarly work
+dealing with points of prosody and pronunciation, and exhibiting an
+accurate knowledge of Virgil and Horace. During the same half-century,
+AElfric, the abbot of Eynsham (d. c. 1030), aided Bishop AEthelwold in
+making Winchester famous as a place of education. It was there that he
+began his _Latin Grammar_, his _Glossary_ (the earliest Latin-English
+dictionary in existence), and his _Colloquium_, in which Latin is taught
+in a conversational manner.
+
+In France, the most notable teacher in the first quarter of the 11th
+century was Fulbert, bishop of Chartres (d. 1029). In and after the
+middle of that century the Norman monastery of Bec flourished under the
+rule of Lanfranc and Anselm, both of whom had begun their career in
+northern Italy, and closed it at Canterbury. Meanwhile, in Germany, the
+styles of Sallust and Livy were being happily imitated in the _Annals_
+of Lambert of Hersfeld (d. 1077). In Italy, where the study of Latin
+literature seems never to have entirely died out, young nobles and
+students preparing for the priesthood were not infrequently learning
+Latin together, in private grammar schools under liberal clerics, such
+as Anselm of Bisate (fl. 1050), who describes himself as divided in his
+allegiance between the saints and the muses. Learning flourished at
+Monte Cassino under the rule of the Abbot Desiderius (afterwards Pope
+Victor III.). In this century that famous monastery had its classical
+chronicler in Leo Marsicanus, and its Latin poet in Alfanus, the future
+archbishop of Salerno.
+
+The Schoolmen devoted most of their attention to Aristotle, and we may
+here briefly note the successive stages in their gradually increasing
+knowledge of his works. Until 1128 only the first two of the five parts
+of the _Organon_ were known, and those solely in Latin translations from
+the original. After that date two more became known; the whole was
+familiar to John of Salisbury in 1159; while the _Physics_ and
+_Metaphysics_ came into notice about 1200. Plato was mainly represented
+by the Latin translation of the _Timaeus_. Abelard (d. 1142) was
+acquainted with no Greek works except in Latin translations, but he has
+left his mark on the history of European education. The wide popularity
+of his brilliant lectures in the "schools" of Paris made this city the
+resort of the many students who were ultimately organized as a
+"university" (c. 1170). John of Salisbury attended Abelard's lectures in
+1136, and, after spending two years in the study of logic in Paris,
+passed three more in the scholarly study of Latin literature at
+Chartres, where a sound and healthy tradition, originally due to Bernard
+of Chartres (fl. 1120), was still perpetuated by his pupils. In that
+school the study of "figures of speech" was treated as merely
+introductory to that of the classical texts. Stress was laid on the
+sense as well as the style of the author studied. Discussions on set
+subjects were held, select passages from the classics learned by heart,
+while written exercises in prose and verse were founded on the best
+ancient models. In the general scheme of education the authority
+followed was Quintilian. John of Salisbury (d. 1180), the ripest product
+of this school, is the most learned man of his time. His favourite
+author is Cicero, and in all the Latin literature accessible to him he
+is the best-read scholar of his age. Among Latin scholars of the next
+generation we have Giraldus Cambrensis (d. c. 1222), the author of
+topographical and historical writings on Ireland and Wales, and of other
+works teeming with quotations from the Latin classics. During the middle
+ages Latin prose never dies out. It is the normal language of
+literature. In England it is used by many chroniclers and historians,
+the best known of whom are William of Malmesbury (d. 1142) and Matthew
+Paris (d. 1259). In Italy Latin verse had been felicitously applied to
+historic themes by William of Apulia (fl. 1100) and other Latin poets
+(1088-1247). In the 12th century England claims at least seven Latin
+poets, one of these being her only Latin epic poet, Joseph of Exeter (d.
+1210), whose poem on the Trojan war is still extant. The Latin
+versifier, John of Garlandia, an Englishman who lived mainly in France
+(fl. 1204-1252), produced several Latin vocabularies which were still in
+use in the boyhood of Erasmus. The Latin poets of French birth include
+Gautier and Alain de Lille (d. c. 1203), the former being the author of
+the _Alexandreis_, and the latter that of the _Anti-Claudianus_, a poem
+familiar to Chaucer.
+
+During the hundred and thirty years that elapsed between the early
+translations of Aristotle executed at Toledo about 1150 and the death in
+1281 of William of Moerbeke, the translator of the _Rhetoric_ and the
+_Politics_, the knowledge of Aristotle had been greatly extended in
+Europe by means of translations, first from the Arabic, and, next, from
+the original Greek. Aristotle had been studied in England by Grosseteste
+(d. 1253), and expounded abroad by the great Dominican, Albertus Magnus
+(d. 1280), and his famous pupil, Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274). Among the
+keenest critics of the Schoolmen and of the recent translations of
+Aristotle was Roger Bacon (d. 1294), whose _Opus majus_ has been
+recognized as the _Encyclopedie_ and the _Organon_ of the 13th century.
+His knowledge of Greek, as shown in his _Greek Grammar_ (first published
+in 1902), was clearly derived from the Greeks of his own day. The
+medieval dependence on the authority of Aristotle gradually diminished.
+This was partly due to the recovery of some of the lost works of ancient
+literature, and the transition from the middle ages to the revival of
+learning was attended by a general widening of the range of classical
+studies and by a renewed interest in Plato.
+
+The classical learning of the middle ages was largely second-hand. It
+was often derived from glossaries, from books of elegant extracts, or
+from comprehensive encyclopaedias. Among the compilers of these last
+were Isidore and Hrabanus, William of Conches and Honorius of Autun,
+Bartholomaeus Anglicus (fl. 1250), Vincent of Beauvais (d. 1264), and,
+lastly, Brunetto Latini (d. 1290), the earlier contemporary of Dante.
+For Aristotle, as interpreted by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas,
+Dante has the highest regard. To the Latin translations of Aristotle
+and to his interpreters he refers in more than three hundred passages,
+while the number of his references to the Latin translation of the
+_Timaeus_ of Plato is less than ten. His five great pagan poets are
+Homer, Virgil, Horace, Ovid, Lucan; Statius he regards as a "Christian"
+converted by Virgil's _Fourth Eclogue_. His standard authors in Latin
+prose are Cicero, Livy, Pliny, Frontinus and Orosius. His knowledge of
+Greek was practically nil. Latin was the language of his political
+treatise, _De Monarchia_, and even that of his defence of the vulgar
+tongue, _De Vulgari Eloquio_. He is, in a limited sense, a precursor of
+the Renaissance, but he is far more truly to be regarded as the crowning
+representative of the spirit of the middle ages.
+
+
+  Italy.
+
+(iv.) _The Modern Age._--(a) Our fourth period is ushered in by the age
+of the Revival of Learning in Italy (c. 1350-1527). Petrarch (1304-1374)
+has been well described as "the first of modern men." In contrast with
+the Schoolmen of the middle ages, he has no partiality for Aristotle. He
+was interested in Greek, and, a full century before the fall of
+Constantinople, he was in possession of MSS. of Homer and Plato, though
+his knowledge of the language was limited to the barest rudiments. For
+that knowledge, scanty as it was, he was indebted to Leontius Pilatus,
+with whose aid Boccaccio (1313-1375) became "the first of modern men" to
+study Greek to some purpose during the three years that Leontius spent
+as his guest in Florence (1360-1363). It was also at Florence that Greek
+was taught in the next generation by Chrysoloras (in 1396-1400). Another
+generation passed, and the scholars of the East and West met at the
+council of Florence (1439). One of the envoys of the Greeks, Gemistus
+Pletho, then inspired Cosimo dei Medici with the thought of founding an
+academy for the study of Plato. The academy was founded, and, in the age
+of Lorenzo, Plato and Plotinus were translated into Latin by Marsilio
+Ficino (d. 1499). The _Apology_ and _Crito_, the _Phaedo, Phaedrus_ and
+_Gorgias_ of Plato, as well as speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines,
+with the _Oeconomics, Ethics_ and _Politics_ of Aristotle, had already
+been translated by Leonardo Bruni (d. 1444); the _Rhetoric_ by Filelfo
+(1430), and Plato's _Republic_ by Decembrio (1439). A comprehensive
+scheme for translating the principal Greek prose authors into Latin was
+carried out at Rome by the founder of the manuscript collections of the
+Vatican, Nicholas V. (1447-1455), who had belonged to the literary
+circle of Cosimo at Florence. The translation of Aristotle was entrusted
+to three of the learned Greeks who had already arrived in Italy,
+Trapezuntius, Gaza and Bessarion, while other authors were undertaken by
+Italian scholars such as Guarino, Valla, Decembrio and Perotti. Among
+the scholars of Italian birth, probably the only one in this age who
+rivalled the Greeks as a public expositor of their own literature was
+Politian (1454-1494), who lectured on Homer and Aristotle in Florence,
+translated Herodian, and was specially interested in the Latin authors
+of the Silver Age and in the text of the _Pandects_ of Justinian. It
+will be observed that the study of Greek had been resumed in Florence
+half a century before the fall of Constantinople, and that the principal
+writers of Greek prose had been translated into Latin before that event.
+
+Meanwhile, the quest of MSS. of the Latin classics had been actively
+pursued. Petrarch had discovered Cicero's Speech _pro Archia_ at Liege
+(1333) and the _Letters to Atticus_ and _Quintus_ at Verona (1345).
+Boccaccio had discovered Martial and Ausonius, and had been the first of
+the humanists to be familiar with Varro and Tacitus, while Salutati had
+recovered Cicero's letters _Ad Familiares_ (1389). During the council of
+Constance, Poggio, the papal secretary, spent in the quest of MSS. the
+interval between May 1415 and November 1417, during which he was left at
+leisure by the vacancy in the apostolic see.
+
+Thirteen of Cicero's speeches were found by him at Cluny and Langres,
+and elsewhere in France or Germany; the commentary of Asconius, a
+complete Quintilian, and a large part of Valerius Flaccus were
+discovered at St Gallen. A second expedition to that monastery and to
+others in the neighbourhood led to the recovery of Lucretius, Manilius,
+Silius Italicus and Ammianus Marcellinus, while the _Silvae_ of Statius
+were recovered shortly afterwards. A complete MS. of Cicero, _De
+Oratore_, _Brutus_ and _Orator_, was found by Bishop Landriani at Lodi
+(1421). Cornelius Nepos was discovered by Traversari in Padua (1434).
+The _Agricola_, _Germania_ and _Dialogue_ of Tacitus reached Italy from
+Germany in 1455, and the early books of the _Annals_ in 1508. Pliny's
+_Panegyric_ was discovered by Aurispa at Mainz (1433), and his
+correspondence with Trajan by Fra Giocondo in Paris about 1500.
+
+Greek MSS. were brought from the East by Aurispa, who in 1423 returned
+with no less than two hundred and thirty-eight, including the celebrated
+Laurentian MS. of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Apollonius Rhodius. A smaller
+number was brought from Constantinople by Filelfo (1427), while Quintus
+Smyrnaeus was discovered in south Italy by Bessarion, who presented his
+own collection of MSS. to the republic of Venice and thus led to the
+foundation of the library of St Mark's (1468). As the emissary of
+Lorenzo, Janus Lascaris paid two visits to the East, returning from his
+second visit in 1492 with two hundred MSS. from Mount Athos.
+
+The Renaissance theory of a humanistic education is illustrated by
+several treatises still extant. In 1392 Vergerio addressed to a prince
+of Padua the first treatise which methodically maintains the claims of
+Latin as an essential part of a liberal education. Eight years later, he
+was learning Greek from Chrysoloras. Among the most distinguished pupils
+of the latter was Leonardo Bruni, who, about 1405, wrote "the earliest
+humanistic tract on education expressly addressed to a lady." He here
+urges that the foundation of all true learning is a "sound and thorough
+knowledge of Latin," and draws up a course of reading, in which history
+is represented by Livy, Sallust, Curtius, and Caesar; oratory by Cicero;
+and poetry by Virgil. The same year saw the birth of Maffeo Vegio, whose
+early reverence for the muse of Virgil and whose later devotion to the
+memory of Monica have left their mark on the educational treatise which
+he wrote a few years before his death in 1458. The authors he recommends
+include "Aesop" and Sallust, the tragedies of Seneca and the epic poets,
+especially Virgil, whom he interprets in an allegorical sense. He is in
+favour of an early simultaneous study of a wide variety of subjects, to
+be followed later by the special study of one or two. Eight years before
+the death of Vegio, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pius II.) had composed a
+brief treatise on education in the form of a letter to Ladislaus, the
+young king of Bohemia and Hungary. The Latin poets to be studied include
+Virgil, Lucan, Statius, Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, and (with certain
+limitations) Horace, Juvenal and Persius, as well as Plautus, Terence
+and the tragedies of Seneca; the prose authors recommended are Cicero,
+Livy and Sallust. The first great school of the Renaissance was that
+established by Vittorino da Feltre at Mantua, where he resided for the
+last twenty-two years of his life (1424-1446). Among the Latin authors
+studied were Virgil and Lucan, with selections from Horace, Ovid and
+Juvenal, besides Cicero and Quintilian, Sallust and Curtius, Caesar and
+Livy. The Greek authors were Homer, Hesiod, Pindar and the dramatists,
+with Herodotus, Xenophon and Plato, Isocrates and Demosthenes, Plutarch
+and Arrian.
+
+Meanwhile, Guarino had been devoting five years to the training of the
+eldest son of the marquis of Ferrara. At Ferrara he spent the last
+thirty years of his long life (1370-1460), producing text-books of Greek
+and Latin grammar, and translations from Strabo and Plutarch. His method
+may be gathered from his son's treatise, _De Ordine Docendi et
+Studendi_. In that treatise the essential marks of an educated person
+are, not only ability to write Latin verse, but also, a point of "at
+least equal importance," "familiarity with the language and literature
+of Greece." "Without a knowledge of Greek, Latin scholarship itself is,
+in any real sense, impossible" (1459).
+
+By the fall of Constantinople in 1453, "Italy (in the eloquent phrase of
+Carducci) became sole heir and guardian of the ancient civilization,"
+but its fall was in no way necessary for the revival of learning, which
+had begun a century before. Bessarion, Theodorus Gaza, Georgius
+Trepezuntius, Argyropulus, Chalcondyles, all had reached Italy before
+1453. A few more Greeks fled to Italy after that date, and among these
+were Janus Lascaris, Musurus and Callierges. All three were of signal
+service in devoting their knowledge of Greek to perpetuating and
+popularizing the Greek classics with the aid of the newly-invented art
+of printing. That art had been introduced into Italy by the German
+printers, Sweynheym and Pannartz, who had worked under Fust at Mainz. At
+Subiaco and at Rome they had produced in 1465-1471 the earliest editions
+of Cicero, _De Oratore_ and the _Letters_, and eight other Latin
+authors.
+
+The printing of Greek began at Milan with the Greek grammar of
+Constantine Lascaris (1476). At Florence the earliest editions of Homer
+(1488) and Isocrates (1493) had been produced by Demetrius Chalcondyles,
+while Janus Lascaris was the first to edit the Greek anthology,
+Apollonius Rhodius, and parts of Euripides, Callimachus and Lucian
+(1494-1496). In 1494-1515 Aldus Manutius published at Venice no less
+than twenty-seven _editiones principes_ of Greek authors and of Greek
+works of reference, the authors including Aristotle, Theophrastus,
+Theocritus, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Sophocles, Herodotus, Euripides,
+Demosthenes (and the minor Attic orators), Pindar, Plato and Athenaeus.
+In producing Plato, Athenaeus and Aristophanes, the scholar-printer was
+largely aided by Musurus, who also edited the Aldine Pausanias (1516)
+and the _Etymologicum_ printed in Venice by another Greek immigrant,
+Callierges (1499).
+
+The Revival of Learning in Italy ends with the sack of Rome (1527).
+Before 1525 the study of Greek had begun to decline in Italy, but
+meanwhile an interest in that language had been transmitted to the lands
+beyond the Alps.
+
+In the study of Latin the principal aim of the Italian humanists was the
+_imitation_ of the style of their classical models. In the case of
+poetry, this imitative spirit is apparent in Petrarch's _Africa_, and in
+the Latin poems of Politian, Pontano, Sannazaro, Vida and many others.
+Petrarch was not only the imitator of Virgil, who had been the leading
+name in Latin letters throughout the middle ages; it was the influence
+of Petrarch that gave a new prominence to Cicero. The imitation of
+Cicero was carried on with varying degrees of success by humanists such
+as Gasparino da Barzizza (d. 1431), who introduced a new style of
+epistolary Latin; by Paolo Cortesi, who discovered the importance of a
+rhythmical structure in the composition of Ciceronian prose (1490); and
+by the accomplished secretaries of Leo X., Bembo and Sadoleto. Both of
+these papal secretaries were mentioned in complimentary terms by Erasmus
+in his celebrated dialogue, the _Ciceronianus_ (1528), in which no less
+than one hundred and six Ciceronian scholars of all nations are briefly
+and brilliantly reviewed, the slavish imitation of Cicero denounced, and
+the law laid down that "to speak with propriety we must adapt ourselves
+to the age in which we live--an age that differs entirely from that of
+Cicero." One of the younger Ciceronians criticized by Erasmus was
+Longolius, who had died at Padua in 1522. The cause of the Ciceronians
+was defended by the elder Scaliger in 1531 and 1536, and by Etienne
+Dolet in 1535, and the controversy was continued by other scholars down
+to the year 1610. Meanwhile, in Italy, a strict type of Ciceronianism
+was represented by Paulus Manutius (d. 1574), and a freer and more
+original form of Latinity by Muretus (d. 1585).
+
+Before touching on the salient points in the subsequent centuries, in
+connexion with the leading nations of Europe, we may briefly note the
+cosmopolitan position of Erasmus (1466-1536), who, although he was a
+native of the Netherlands, was far more closely connected with France,
+England, Italy, Germany and Switzerland, than with the land of his
+birth. He was still a school-boy at Deventer when his high promise was
+recognized by Rudolf Agricola, "the first (says Erasmus) who brought
+from Italy some breath of a better culture." Late in 1499 Erasmus spent
+some two months at Oxford, where he met Colet; it was in London that he
+met More and Linacre and Grocyn, who had already ceased to lecture at
+Oxford. At Paris, in 1500, he was fully conscious that "without Greek
+the amplest knowledge of Latin was imperfect"; and, during his three
+years in Italy (1506-1509), he worked quietly at Greek in Bologna and
+attended the lectures of Musurus in Padua. In October 1511 he was
+teaching Greek to a little band of students in Cambridge; at Basel in
+1516 he produced his edition of the Greek Testament, the first that was
+actually published; and during the next few years he was helping to
+organize the college lately founded at Louvain for the study of Greek
+and Hebrew, as well as Latin. Seven years at Basel were followed by five
+at Freiburg, and by two more at Basel, where he died. The names of all
+these places are suggestive of the wide range of his influence. By his
+published works, his _Colloquies_, his _Adages_ and his _Apophthegms_,
+he was the educator of the nations of Europe. An educational aim is also
+apparent in his editions of Terence and of Seneca, while his Latin
+translations made his contemporaries more familiar with Greek poetry and
+prose, and his _Paraphrase_ promoted a better understanding of the Greek
+Testament. He was not so much a scientific scholar as a keen and
+brilliant man of letters and a widely influential apostle of humanism.
+
+
+  France.
+
+  Germany.
+
+In France the most effective of the early teachers of Greek was Janus
+Lascaris (1495-1503). Among his occasional pupils was Budaeus (d. 1540),
+who prompted Francis I. to found in 1530 the corporation of the Royal
+Readers in Greek, as well as Latin and Hebrew, afterwards famous under
+the name of the College de France. In the study of Greek one of the
+earliest links between Italy and Germany was Rudolf Agricola, who had
+learned Greek under Gaza at Ferrara. It was in Paris that his younger
+contemporary Reuchlin acquired part of that proficiency in Greek which
+attracted the notice of Argyropulus, whose admiration of Reuchlin is
+twice recorded by Melanchthon, who soon afterwards was pre-eminent as
+the "praeceptor" of Germany.
+
+
+  England.
+
+In the age of the revival the first Englishman who studied Greek was a
+Benedictine monk, William of Selling (d. 1494), who paid two visits to
+Italy. At Canterbury he inspired with his own love of learning his
+nephew, Linacre, who joined him on one of those visits, studied Greek at
+Florence under Politian and Chalcondyles, and apparently stayed in Italy
+from 1485 to 1499. His translation of a treatise of Galen was printed at
+Cambridge in 1521 by Siberch, who, in the same year and place, was the
+first to use Greek type in England. Greek had been first taught to some
+purpose at Oxford by Grocyn on his return from Italy in 1491. One of the
+younger scholars of the day was William Lilye, who picked up his Greek
+at Rhodes on his way to Palestine and became the first high-master of
+the school founded by Colet at St Paul's (1510).
+
+(b) That part of the _Modern Period_ of classical studies which succeeds
+the age of the Revival in Italy may be subdivided into three periods
+distinguished by the names of the nations most prominent in each.
+
+
+  The French period.
+
+1. The first may be designated the _French_ period. It begins with the
+foundation of the Royal Readers by Francis I. in 1530, and it may
+perhaps be regarded as extending to 1700. This period is marked by a
+many-sided _erudition_ rather than by any special cult of the _form_ of
+the classical languages. It is the period of the great polyhistors of
+France. It includes Budaeus and the elder Scaliger (who settled in
+France in 1529), with Turnebus and Lambinus, and the learned printers
+Robertus and Henricus Stephanus, while among its foremost names are
+those of the younger (and greater) Scaliger, Casaubon and Salmasius. Of
+these, Casaubon ended his days in England (1614); Scaliger, by leaving
+France for the Netherlands in 1593, for a time at least transferred the
+supremacy in scholarship from the land of his birth to that of his
+adoption. The last sixteen years of his life (1593-1609) were spent at
+Leiden, which was also for more than twenty years (1631-1653) the home
+of Salmasius, and for thirteen (1579-1592) that of Lipsius (d. 1606). In
+the 17th century the erudition of France is best represented by
+"Henricus Valesius," Du Cange and Mabillon. In the same period Italy was
+represented by Muretus, who had left France in 1563, and by her own
+sons, Nizolius, Victorius, Robortelli and Sigonius, followed in the 17th
+century by R. Fabretti. The Netherlands, in the 16th, claim W. Canter as
+well as Lipsius, and, in the 17th, G.J. Vossius, Johannes Meursius, the
+elder and younger Heinsius, Hugo Grotius, J.F. Gronovius, J.G. Graevius
+and J. Perizonius. Scotland, in the 16th, is represented by George
+Buchanan; England by Sir John Cheke, Roger Ascham, and Sir Henry Savile,
+and, in the 17th, by Thomas Gataker, Thomas Stanley, Henry Dodwell, and
+Joshua Barnes; Germany by Janus Gruter, Ezechiel Spanheim and Chr.
+Cellarius, the first two of whom were also connected with other
+countries.
+
+
+  Literary Latin.
+
+We have already seen that a strict imitation of Cicero was one of the
+characteristics of the Italian humanists. In and after the middle of the
+16th century a correct and pure Latinity was promoted by the educational
+system of the Jesuits; but with the growth of the vernacular literatures
+Latin became more and more exclusively the language of the learned.
+Among the most conspicuous Latin writers of the 17th century are G.J.
+Vossius and the Heinsii, with Salmasius and his great adversary, Milton.
+Latin was also used in works on science and philosophy, such as Sir
+Isaac Newton's _Principia_ (1687), and many of the works of Leibnitz
+(1646-1705). In botany the custom followed by John Ray (1627-1705) in
+his _Historia Plantarum_ and in other works was continued in 1760 by
+Linnaeus in his _Systema Naturae_. The last important work in English
+theology written in Latin was George Bull's _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_
+(1685). The use of Latin in diplomacy died out towards the end of the
+17th century; but, long after that date negotiations with the German
+empire were conducted in Latin, and Latin was the language of the
+debates in the Hungarian diet down to 1825.
+
+
+  The English and Dutch period.
+
+2. During the 18th century the classical scholarship of the Netherlands
+was under the healthy and stimulating influence of Bentley (1662-1742),
+who marks the beginning of the English and Dutch period, mainly
+represented in Holland by Bentley's younger contemporary and
+correspondent, Tiberius Hemsterhuys (1685-1766), and the latter
+scholar's great pupil David Ruhnken (1723-1798). It is the age of
+historical and literary, as well as verbal, criticism. Both of these
+were ably represented in the first half of the century by Bentley
+himself, while, in the twenty years between 1782 and 1803, the verbal
+criticism of the tragic poets of Athens was the peculiar province of
+Richard Porson (1759-1808), who was born in the same year as F.A. Wolf.
+Among other representatives of England were Jeremiah Markland and
+Jonathan Toup, Thomas Tyrwhitt and Thomas Twining, Samuel Parr and Sir
+William Jones; and of the Netherlands, the two Burmanns and L. Kuester,
+Arnold Drakenborch and Wesseling, Lodewyk Valckenaer and Daniel
+Wyttenbach (1746-1829). Germany is represented by Fabricius and J.M.
+Gesner, J.A. Ernesti and J.J. Reiske, J.J. Winckelmann and Chr. G.
+Heyne; France by B. de Montfaucon and J.B.G.D. Villoison; Alsace by
+French subjects of German origin, R.F.P. Brunck and J. Schweighaeuser;
+and Italy by E. Forcellini and Ed. Corsini.
+
+
+  The German period.
+
+3. The _German_ period begins with F.A. Wolf (1759-1824), whose
+_Prolegomena_ to Homer appeared in 1795. He is the founder of the
+systematic and encyclopaedic type of scholarship embodied in the
+comprehensive term _Altertumswissenschaft_, or "a scientific knowledge
+of the old classical world." The tradition of Wolf was ably continued by
+August Boeckh (d. 1867), one of the leaders of the historical and
+antiquarian school, brilliantly represented in the previous generation
+by B.G. Niebuhr (d. 1831).
+
+In contrast with this school we have the critical and grammatical school
+of Gottfried Hermann (d. 1848). During this period, while Germany
+remains the most productive of the nations, scholarship has been more
+and more international and cosmopolitan in its character.
+
+
+  Germany.
+
+_19th Century._--We must here be content with simply recording the names
+of a few of the more prominent representatives of the 19th century in
+some of the most obvious departments of classical learning. Among
+natives of Germany the leading scholars have been, in _Greek_, C.F.W.
+Jacobs, C.A. Lobeck, L. Dissen, I. Bekker, A. Meineke, C. Lehrs, W.
+Dindorf, T. Bergk, F.W. Schneidewin, H. Koechly, A. Nauck, H. Usener, G.
+Kaibel, F. Blass and W. Christ; in _Latin_, C. Lachmann, F. Ritschl, M.
+Haupt, C. Halm, M. Hertz, A. Fleckeisen, E. Baehrens, L. Mueller and O.
+Ribbeck. _Grammar_ and kindred subjects have been represented by P.
+Buttmann, A. Matthiae, F.W. Thiersch, C.G. Zumpt, G. Bernhardy, C.W.
+Krueger, R. Kuehner and H.L. Ahrens; and _lexicography_ by F. Passow and
+C.E. Georges. Among editors of _Thucydides_ we have had E.F. Poppo and
+J. Classen; among editors of _Demosthenes or other orators_, G.H.
+Schaefer, J.T. Voemel, G.E. Benseler, A. Westermann, G.F. Schoemann, H.
+Sauppe, and C. Rehdantz (besides Blass, already mentioned). The
+_Platonists_ include F. Schleiermacher, G.A.F. Ast, G. Stallbaum and the
+many-sided C.F. Hermann; the _Aristotelians_, C.A. Brandis, A.
+Trendelenburg, L. Spengel, H. Bonitz, C. Prantl, J. Bernays and F.
+Susemihl. The history of _Greek philosophy_ was written by F. Ueberweg,
+and, more fully, by E. Zeller. _Greek history_ was the domain of G.
+Droysen, Max Duncker, Ernst Curtius, Arnold Schaefer and Adolf Holm;
+_Greek antiquities_ that of M.H. Meier and G.F. Schoemann and of G.
+Gilbert; _Greek epigraphy_ that of J. Franz, A. Kirchhoff, W. von
+Hartel, U. Koehler, G. Hirschfeld and W. Dittenberger; _Roman history and
+constitutional antiquities_ that of Theodor Mommsen (1817-1903), who was
+associated in _Latin epigraphy_ with E. Huebner and W. Henzen. _Classical
+art and archaeology_ were represented by F.G. Welcker, E. Gerhard, C.O.
+Mueller, F. Wieseler, O. Jahn, C.L. Urlichs, H. Brunn, C.B. Stark, J.
+Overbeck, W. Helbig, O. Benndorf and A. Furtwaengler; _mythology_ (with
+cognate subjects) by G.F. Creuzer, P.W. Forchhammer, L. Preller, A.
+Kuhn, J.W. Mannhardt and E. Rohde; and _comparative philology_ by F.
+Bopp, A.F. Pott, T. Benfey, W. Corssen, Georg Curtius, A. Schleicher and
+H. Steinthal. The history of _classical philology_ in Germany was
+written by Conrad Bursian (1830-1883).
+
+
+  France,
+
+  Belgium, Holland,
+
+  England.
+
+In France we have J.F. Boissonade, J.A. Letronne, L.M. Quicherat, M.P.
+Littre, B. Saint-Hilaire, J.V. Duruy, B.E. Miller, E. Egger, C.V.
+Daremberg, C. Thurot, L.E. Benoist, O. Riemann and C. Graux; (in
+archaeology) A.C. Quatremere de Quincy, P. le Bas, C.F.M. Texier, the
+duc de Luynes, the Lenormants (C. and F.), W.H. Waddington and O. Rayet;
+and (in comparative philology) Victor Henry. Greece was ably represented
+in France by A. Koraes. In Belgium we have P. Willems and the Baron De
+Witte (long resident in France); in Holland, C.G. Cobet; in Denmark,
+J.N. Madvig. Among the scholars of Great Britain and Ireland may be
+mentioned: P. Elmsley, S. Butler, T. Gaisford, P.P. Dobree, J.H. Monk,
+C.J. Blomfield, W. Veitch, T.H. Key, B.H. Kennedy, W. Ramsay, T.W.
+Peile, R. Shilleto, W.H. Thompson, J.W. Donaldson, Robert Scott, H.G.
+Liddell, C. Badham, G. Rawlinson, F.A. Paley, B. Jowett, T.S. Evans,
+E.M. Cope, H.A.J. Munro, W.G. Clark, Churchill Babington, H.A. Holden,
+J. Riddell, J. Conington, W.Y. Sellar, A. Grant, W.D. Geddes, D.B.
+Monro, H. Nettleship, A. Palmer, R.C. Jebb, A.S. Wilkins, W.G.
+Rutherford and James Adam; among historians and archaeologists, W.M.
+Leake, H. Fynes-Clinton, G. Grote and C. Thirlwall, T. Arnold, G. Long
+and Charles Merivale, Sir Henry Maine, Sir Charles Newton and A.S.
+Murray, Robert Burn and H.F. Pelham. Among comparative philologists Max
+Mueller belonged to Germany by birth and to England by adoption, while,
+in the United States, his ablest counterpart was W.D. Whitney. B.L.
+Gildersleeve, W.W. Goodwin, Henry Drisler, J.B. Greenough and G.M. Lane
+were prominent American classical scholars.
+
+
+  Schools of Rome and Athens.
+
+The 19th century in Germany was marked by the organization of the great
+series of Greek and Latin inscriptions, and by the foundation of the
+Archaeological Institute in Rome (1829), which was at first
+international in its character. The Athenian Institute was founded in
+1874. Schools at Athens and Rome were founded by France in 1846 and
+1873, by the United States of America in 1882 and 1895, and by England
+in 1883 and 1901; and periodicals are published by the schools of all
+these four nations. An interest in Greek studies (and especially in art
+and archaeology) has been maintained in England by the Hellenic Society,
+founded in 1879, with its organ the _Journal of Hellenic Studies_. A
+further interest in Greek archaeology has been awakened in all civilized
+lands by the excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, Epidaurus, Sparta,
+Olympia, Dodona, Delphi, Delos and of important sites in Crete. The
+extensive discoveries of papyri in Egypt have greatly extended our
+knowledge of the administration of that country in the times of the
+Ptolemies, and have materially added to the existing remains of Greek
+literature. Scholars have been enabled to realize in their own
+experience some of the enthusiasm that attended the recovery of lost
+classics during the Revival of Learning. They have found themselves
+living in a new age of _editiones principes_, and have eagerly welcomed
+the first publication of Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_ (1891),
+Herondas (1891) and Bacchylides (1897), as well as the _Persae_ of
+Timotheus of Miletus (1903), with some of the _Paeans_ of Pindar (1907)
+and large portions of the plays of Menander (1898-1899 and 1907). The
+first four of these were first edited by F.G. Kenyon, Timotheus by von
+Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Menander partly by J. Nicole and G. Lefebre and
+partly by B.P. Grenfell and A.S. Hunt, who have also produced fragments
+of the _Paeans_ of Pindar and many other classic texts (including a
+Greek continuation of Thucydides and a Latin epitome of part of Livy) in
+the successive volumes of the _Oxyrhynchus papyri_ and other kindred
+publications.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For a full bibliography of the history of classical
+  philology, see E. Huebner, _Grundriss zu Vorlesungen ueber die
+  Geschichte und Encyklopaedie der klassischen Philologie_ (2nd ed.,
+  1889); and for a brief outline, C.L. Urlichs in Iwan von Mueller's
+  _Handbuch_, vol. i. (2nd ed., 1891). 33-145; S. Reinach, _Manuel de
+  philologie classique_ (2nd ed., 1883-1884; _nouveau tirage_ 1907),
+  1-22; and A. Gudemann, _Grundris_ (Leipzig, 1907), pp. 224 seq. For
+  the Alexandrian period, F. Susemihl, _Gesch. der griechischen
+  Litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit_ (2 vols., 1891-1892); cf. F.A.
+  Eckstein, _Nomenclator Philologorum_ (1871), and W. Poekel,
+  _Philologisches Schriftsteller-Lexikon_ (1882). For the period ending
+  A.D. 400, see A. Graefenhan, _Gesch. der klass. Philologie_ (4 vols.,
+  1843-1850); for the Byzantine period, C. Krumbacher in Iwan von
+  Mueller, vol. ix. (1) (2nd ed., 1897); for the Renaissance, G. Voigt,
+  _Die Wiederbelebung des class. Altertums_ (3rd ed., 1894, with
+  bibliography); L. Geiger, _Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und
+  Deutschland_ (1882, with bibliography); J.A. Symonds, _Revival of
+  Learning_ (1877, &c.); R.C. Jebb, in _Cambridge Modern History_, i.
+  (1902), 532-584; and J.E. Sandys, _Harvard Lectures on the Revival of
+  Learning_ (1905); also P. de Nolhac, _Petrarque et l'humanisme_ (2nd
+  ed., 1907). On the history of Greek scholarship in France, E. Egger,
+  _L'Histoire d'hellenisme en France_ (1869); Mark Pattison, _Essays_,
+  i., and _Life of Casaubon_; in Germany, C. Bursian, _Gesch. der class.
+  Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); in Holland, L. Mueller, _Gesch. der
+  class. Philologie in den Niederlanden_ (1869); in Belgium, L.C.
+  Roersch in E.P. van Bemmel's _Patria Belgica_, vol. iii. (1875),
+  407-432; and in England, R.C. Jebb, "Erasmus" (1890) and "Bentley"
+  (1882), and "Porson" (in _Dict. Nat. Biog._). On the subject as a
+  whole see J.E. Sandys, _History of Classical Scholarship_ (with
+  chronological tables, portraits and facsimiles), vol. i.; _From the
+  Sixth Century B.C. to the end of the Middle Ages_ (1903, 2nd ed.,
+  1906); vols. ii. and iii., _From the Revival of Learning to the
+  Present Day_ (1908), including the history of scholarship in all the
+  countries of Europe and in the United States of America. See also the
+  separate biographical articles in this Encyclopaedia.
+
+
+(B) THE STUDY OF THE CLASSICS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION
+
+After the Revival of Learning the study of the classics owed much to the
+influence and example of Vittorino da Feltre, Budacus, Erasmus and
+Melanchthon, who were among the leading representatives of that revival
+in Italy, France, England and Germany.
+
+
+  England.
+
+1. In _England_, the two great schools of Winchester (1382) and Eton
+(1440) had been founded during the life of Vittorino, but before the
+revival had reached Britain. The first school[2] which came into being
+under the immediate influence of humanism was that founded at St Paul's
+by Dean Colet (1510), the friend of Erasmus, whose treatise _De pueris
+instituendis_ (1529) has its English counterpart in the _Governor_ of
+Sir Thomas Elyot (1531). The highmaster of St Paul's was to be "learned
+in good and clean Latin, and also in Greek, if such may be gotten." The
+master and the second master of Shrewsbury (founded 1551) were to be
+"well able to make a Latin verse, and learned in the Greek tongue." The
+influence of the revival extended to many other schools, such as
+Christ's Hospital (1552), Westminster (1560), and Merchant Taylors'
+(1561); Repton (1557), Rugby (1567) and Harrow (1571).
+
+
+  Shakespeare and the grammar-school.
+
+  Early text-books.
+
+At the grammar school of Stratford-on-Avon, about 1571-1577, Shakespeare
+presumably studied Terence, Horace, Ovid and the _Bucolics_ of Baptista
+Mantuanus (1502). In the early plays he quotes Ovid and Seneca.
+Similarly, in _Titus Andronicus_ (iv. 2) he says, of _Integer vitae_:
+"'Tis a verse in Horace; I know it well: I read it in the grammar long
+ago." In _Henry VI._ part ii. sc. 7, when Jack Cade charges Lord Say
+with having "most traitorously corrupted the youth of the realm in
+erecting a grammar-school," Lord Say replies that "ignorance is the
+curse of God, knowledge the wing wherewith we fly to heaven." In the
+_Taming of the Shrew_ (I. i. 157) a line is quoted as from Terence
+(_Andria_, 74): "_redime te captum quam queas minimo._" This is taken
+_verbatim_ from Lilye's contribution to the _Brevis Institutio_,
+originally composed by Colet, Erasmus and Lilye for St Paul's School
+(1527), and ultimately adopted as the _Eton Latin Grammar_. The
+_Westminster Greek Grammar_ of Grant (1575) was succeeded by that of
+Camden (1595), founded mainly on a Paduan text-book, and apparently
+adopted in 1596 by Sir Henry Savile at Eton, where it long remained in
+use as the _Eton Greek Grammar_, while at Westminster itself it was
+superseded by that of Busby (1663). The text-books to be used at Harrow
+in 1590 included Hesiod and some of the Greek orators and historians.
+
+
+  Ascham.
+
+In one of the _Paston Letters_ (i. 301), an Eton boy of 1468 quotes two
+Latin verses of his own composition. Nearly a century later, on New
+Year's Day, 1560, forty-four boys of the school presented Latin verses
+to Queen Elizabeth. The queen's former tutor, Roger Ascham, in his
+_Scholemaster_ (1570), agrees with his Strassburg friend, J. Sturm, in
+making the imitation of the Latin classics the main aim of instruction.
+He is more original when he insists on the value of translation and
+retranslation for acquiring a mastery over Latin prose composition, and
+when he protests against compelling boys to converse in Latin too soon.
+Ascham's influence is apparent in the _Positions_ of Mulcaster, who in
+1581 insists on instruction in English before admission to a
+grammar-school, while he is distinctly in advance of his age in urging
+the foundation of a special college for the training of teachers.
+
+
+  Cleland.
+
+  Bacon, Milton, Petty.
+
+  Locke.
+
+Cleland's _Institution of a Young Nobleman_ (1607) owes much to the
+Italian humanists. The author follows Ascham in protesting against
+compulsory Latin conversation, and only slightly modifies his
+predecessor's method of teaching Latin prose. When Latin grammar has
+been mastered, he bids the teacher lead his pupil "into the sweet
+fountain and spring of all Arts and Science," that is, Greek learning
+which is "as profitable for the understanding as the Latin tongue for
+speaking." In the study of ancient history, "deeds and not words" are
+the prime interest. "In Plutarch pleasure is so mixed and confounded
+with profit; that I esteem the reading of him as a paradise for a
+curious spirit to walk in at all time." Bacon in his _Advancement of
+Learning_ (1605) notes it as "the first distemper of learning when men
+study words and not matter" (I. iv. 3); he also observes that the
+Jesuits "have much quickened and strengthened the state of learning" (I.
+vi. 15). He is on the side of reform in education; he waves the humanist
+aside with the words: _vetustas cessit, ratio vicit_. Milton, in his
+_Tractate on Education_ (1644), advances further on Bacon's lines,
+protesting against the length of time spent on instruction in language,
+denouncing merely verbal knowledge, and recommending the study of a
+large number of classical authors for the sake of their subject-matter,
+and with a view to their bearing on practical life. His ideal place of
+education is an institution combining a school and a university. Sir
+William Petty, the economist (1623-1687), urged the establishment of
+_ergastula literaria_ for instruction of a purely practical kind. Locke,
+who had been educated at Winchester and had lectured on Greek at Oxford
+(1660), nevertheless almost completely eliminated Greek from the scheme
+which he unfolded in his _Thoughts on Education_ (1693). With Locke, the
+moral and practical qualities of virtue and prudence are of the first
+consideration. Instruction, he declares, is but the least part of
+education; his aim is to train, not men of letters or men of science,
+but practical men armed for the battle of life. Latin was, above all, to
+be learned through use, with as little grammar as possible, but with the
+reading of easy Latin texts, and with no repetition, no composition.
+Greek he absolutely proscribes, reserving a knowledge of that language
+to the learned and the lettered, and to professional scholars.
+
+
+  Arnold.
+
+Throughout the 18th century and the early part of the 19th, the old
+routine went on in England with little variety, and with no sign of
+expansion. The range of studies was widened, however, at Rugby in
+1828-1842 by Thomas Arnold, whose interest in ancient history and
+geography, as a necessary part of classical learning, is attested by his
+edition of Thucydides; while his influence was still further extended
+when those who had been trained in his traditions became head masters of
+other schools.
+
+During the rest of the century the leading landmarks are the three royal
+commissions known by the names of their chairmen: (1) Lord Clarendon's
+on nine public schools, Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse,
+Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, St Paul's and Merchant Taylors' (1861-1864),
+resulting in the Public Schools Act of 1868; (2) Lord Taunton's on 782
+endowed schools (1864-1867), followed by the act of 1869; and (3) Mr
+Bryce's on secondary education (1894-1895).
+
+
+  Controversy on classical education.
+
+A certain discontent with the current traditions of classical training
+found expression in the _Essays on a Liberal Education_ (1867). The
+author of the first essay, C.S. Parker, closed his review of the reforms
+instituted in Germany and France by adding that in England there had
+been but little change. The same volume included a critical examination
+of the "Theory of Classical Education" by Henry Sidgwick, and an attack
+on compulsory Greek and Latin verse composition by F.W. Farrar. The
+claims of verse composition have since been judiciously defended by the
+Hon. Edward Lyttelton (1897), while a temperate and effective
+restatement of the case for the classics may be found in Sir Richard
+Jebb's Romanes Lecture on "Humanism in Education" (1899).
+
+The question of the position of Greek in secondary education has from
+time to time attracted attention in connexion with the requirement of
+Greek in Responsions at Oxford, and in the Previous Examination at
+Cambridge.
+
+
+  "Compulsory Greek."
+
+In the _Cambridge University Reporter_ for November 9, 1870, it was
+stated that, "in order to provide adequate encouragement for the study
+of Modern Languages and Natural Science," the commissioners for endowed
+schools had determined on the establishment of modern schools of the
+first grade in which Greek would be excluded. The commissioners feared
+that, so long as Greek was a _sine qua non_ at the universities, these
+schools would be cut off from direct connexion with the universities,
+while the universities would in some degree lose their control over a
+portion of the higher culture of the nation. On the 9th of March 1871 a
+syndicate recommended that, in the Previous Examination, French and
+German (taken together) should be allowed in place of Greek; on the 27th
+of April this recommendation (which only affected candidates for honours
+or for medical degrees) was rejected by 51 votes to 48.
+
+All the other proposals and votes relating to Greek in the Previous
+Examination in 1870-1873, 1878-1880, and 1891-1892 are set forth in the
+_Cambridge University Reporter_ for November 11, 1904, pp. 202-205. In
+November 1903 a syndicate was appointed to consider the studies and
+examinations of the university, their report of November 1904 on the
+Previous Examination was fully discussed, and the speeches published in
+the _Reporter_ fcr December 17, 1904. In the course of the discussion
+Sir Richard Jebb drew attention to the statistics collected by the
+master of Emmanuel, Mr W. Chawner, showing that, out of 86 head masters
+belonging to the Head Masters' Conference whose replies had been
+published, "about 56 held the opinion that the exemption from Greek for
+all candidates for a degree would endanger or altogether extinguish the
+study of Greek in the vast majority of schools, while about 21 head
+masters held a different opinion." On the 3rd of March 1905 a proposal
+for accepting either French or German as an alternative for either Latin
+or Greek in the Previous Examination was rejected by 1559 to 1052 votes,
+and on the 26th of May 1906 proposals distinguishing between students in
+letters and students in science, and (_inter alia_) _requiring_ the
+latter to take either French or German for either Latin or Greek in the
+Previous Examination, were rejected by 746 to 241.
+
+Meanwhile, at Oxford a proposal practically making Greek optional with
+all undergraduates was rejected, in November 1902, by 189 votes to 166;
+a preliminary proposal permitting students of mathematics or natural
+science to offer one or more modern languages in lieu of Greek was
+passed by 164 to 162 in February 1904, but on the 29th of November the
+draft of a statute to this effect was thrown out by 200 to 164. In the
+course of the controversy three presidents of the Royal Society, Lord
+Kelvin, Lord Lister and Sir W. Huggins, expressed the opinion that the
+proposed exemption was not beneficial to science students.
+
+
+  The Classical Association.
+
+Incidentally, the question of "compulsory Greek" has stimulated a desire
+for greater efficiency in classical teaching. In December 1903, a year
+before the most important of the public discussions at Cambridge, the
+Classical Association was founded in London. The aim of that association
+is "to promote the development, and maintain the well-being, of
+classical studies, and in particular (a) to impress upon public opinion
+the claim of such studies to an eminent place in the national scheme of
+education; (b) to improve the practice of classical teaching by free
+discussion of its scope and methods; (c) to encourage investigation and
+call attention to new discoveries; (d) to create opportunities of
+friendly intercourse and co-operation between all lovers of classical
+learning in this country."
+
+
+  The curriculum.
+
+The question of the curriculum and the time-table in secondary education
+has occupied the attention of the Classical Association, the British
+Association and the Education Department of Scotland. The general effect
+of the recommendations already made would be to begin the study of
+foreign languages with French, and to postpone the study of Latin to the
+age of twelve and that of Greek to the age of thirteen. At the Head
+Masters' Conference of December 1907 a proposal to lower the standard of
+Greek in the entrance scholarship examinations of public schools was
+lost by 10 votes to 16, and the "British Association report" was adopted
+with reservations in 1908. In the case of secondary schools in receipt
+of grants of public money (about 700 in England and 100 in Wales in
+1907-1908), "the curriculum, and time-table must be approved by the
+Board of Education." The Board has also a certain control over the
+curriculum of schools under the Endowed Schools Acts and the Charitable
+Trusts Acts, and also over that of schools voluntarily applying for
+inspection with a view to being recognized as efficient.
+
+
+  Reform in Latin pronunciation.
+
+Further efficiency in classical education has been the aim of the
+movement in favour of the reform of Latin pronunciation. In 1871 this
+movement resulted in Munro and Palmer's _Syllabus of Latin
+Pronunciation_. The reform was carried forward at University College,
+London, by Professor Key and by Professor Robinson Ellis in 1873, and
+was accepted at Shrewsbury, Marlborough, Liverpool College, Christ's
+Hospital, Dulwich, and the City of London school. It was taken up anew
+by the Cambridge Philological Society in 1886, by the Modern Languages
+Association in 1901, by the Classical Association in 1904-1905, and the
+Philological Societies of Oxford and Cambridge in 1906. The reform was
+accepted by the various bodies of head masters and assistant masters in
+December 1906-January 1907, and the proposed scheme was formally
+approved by the Board of Education in February 1907.
+
+  See W.H. Woodward, _Studies in Education during the Age of the
+  Renaissance_ (1906), chap. xiii.; Acland and Llewellin Smith, _Studies
+  in Secondary Education_, with introduction by James Bryce (1892);
+  _Essays on a Liberal Education_, ed. F.W. Farrar (1867); R.C. Jebb,
+  "Humanism in Education," Romanes Lecture of 1899, reprinted with other
+  lectures on cognate subjects in _Essays and Addresses_ (1907); Foster
+  Watson, _The Curriculum and Practice of the English Grammar Schools up
+  to 1660_ (1908); "Greek at Oxford," by a Resident, in _The Times_
+  (December 27, 1904); _Cambridge University Reporter_ (November 11 and
+  December 17, 1904); _British Association Report on Curricula of
+  Secondary Schools_ (with an independent paper by Professor Armstrong
+  on "The Teaching of Classics"), (December 1907); W.H.D. Rouse in _The
+  Year's Work in Classical Studies_ (1907 and 1908), chap. i.; J.P.
+  Postgate, _How to pronounce Latin_ (Appendix B, on "Recent Progress"),
+  (1907). For further bibliographical details see pp. 875-890 of Dr Karl
+  Breul's "Grossbritannien" in Baumeister's _Handbuch_, I. ii. 737-892
+  (Munich, 1897).
+
+
+  France.
+
+2. In _France_ it was mainly with a view to promoting the study of Greek
+that the corporation of Royal Readers was founded by Francis I. in 1530
+at the prompting of Budaeus. In the university of Paris, which was
+originally opposed to this innovation, the statutes of 1598 prescribed
+the study of Homer, Hesiod, Pindar, Theocritus, Plato, Demosthenes and
+Isocrates (as well as the principal Latin classics), and required the
+production of three exercises in Greek or Latin in each week.
+
+
+  Textbooks.
+
+From the middle of the 16th century the elements of Latin were generally
+learned from unattractive abridgments of the grammar of the Flemish
+scholar, van Pauteren or Despautere (d. 1520), which, in its original
+folio editions of 1537-1538, was an excellent work. The unhappy lot of
+those who were compelled to learn their Latin from the current
+abridgments was lamented by a Port-Royalist in a striking passage
+describing the gloomy forest of _le pays de Despautere_ (Guyot, quoted
+in Sainte-Beuve's _Port-Royal_, iii. 429). The first Latin grammar
+written in French was that of Pere de Condren of the _Oratoire_ (c.
+1642), which was followed by the Port-Royal _Methode latine_ of Claude
+Lancelot (1644), and by the grammar composed by Bossuet for the dauphin,
+and also used by Fenelon for the instruction of the duc de Bourgogne. In
+the second half of the 17th century the rules of grammar and rhetoric
+were simplified, and the time withdrawn from the practice of composition
+(especially verse composition) transferred to the explanation and the
+study of authors.
+
+
+  Richelieu, Bossuet, Fenelon, Fleury.
+
+Richelieu, in 1640, formed a scheme for a college in which Latin was to
+have a subordinate place, while room was to be found for the study of
+history and science, Greek, and French and modern languages. Bossuet, in
+educating the dauphin, added to the ordinary classical routine
+represented by the extensive series of the "Delphin Classics" the study
+of history and of science. A greater originality in the method of
+teaching the ancient languages was exemplified by Fenelon, whose views
+were partially reflected by the Abbe Fleury, who also desired the
+simplification of grammar, the diminution of composition, and even the
+suppression of Latin verse. Of the ordinary teaching of Greek in his
+day, Fleury wittily observed that most boys "learned just enough of that
+language to have a pretext for saying for the rest of their lives that
+Greek was a subject easily forgotten."
+
+
+  Rollin.
+
+In the 18th century Rollin, in his _Traite des etudes_ (1726), agreed
+with the Port-Royalists in demanding that Latin grammars should be
+written in French, that the rules should be simplified and explained by
+a sufficient number of examples, and that a more important place should
+be assigned to translation than to composition. The supremacy of Latin
+was the subject of a long series of attacks in the same century. Even at
+the close of the previous century the brilliant achievements of French
+literature had prompted La Bruyere to declare in _Des ouvrages de
+l'esprit_ (about 1680), "We have at last thrown off the yoke of
+_Latinism_"; and, in the same year, Jacques Spon claimed in his
+correspondence the right to use the French language in discussing points
+of archaeology.
+
+
+  The Jesuits.
+
+Meanwhile, in 1563, notwithstanding the opposition of the university of
+Paris, the Jesuits had succeeded in founding the _Collegium
+Claromontanum_. After the accession of Henry IV. they were expelled from
+Paris and other important towns in 1594, and not allowed to return until
+1609, when they found themselves confronted once more by their rival,
+the university of Paris. They opened the doors of their schools to the
+Greek and Latin classics, but they represented the ancient masterpieces
+dissevered from their original historic environment, as impersonal
+models of taste, as isolated standards of style. They did much, however,
+for the cultivation of original composition modelled on Cicero and
+Virgil. They have been charged with paying an exaggerated attention to
+form, and with neglecting the subject-matter of the classics. This
+neglect is attributed to their anxiety to avoid the "pagan" element in
+the ancient literature. Intensely conservative in their methods, they
+kept up the system of using Latin in their grammars (and in their oral
+instruction) long after it had been abandoned by others.
+
+
+  Port-Royal.
+
+The use of French for these purposes was a characteristic of the "Little
+Schools" of the Jansenists of Port-Royal(1643-1660). The text-books
+prepared for them by Lancelot included not only the above-mentioned
+Latin grammar (1644) but also the _Methode grecque_ of 1655 and the
+_Jardin des racines grecques_ (1657), which remained in use for two
+centuries and largely superseded the grammar of Clenardus (1636) and the
+_Tirocinium_ of Pere Labbe (1648). Greek began to decline in the
+university about 1650, at the very time when the Port-Royalists were
+aiming at its revival. During the brief existence of their schools their
+most celebrated pupils were Tillemont and Racine.
+
+The Jesuits, on the other hand, claimed Corneille and Moliere, as well
+as Descartes and Bossuet, Fontenelle, Montesquieu and Voltaire. Of their
+Latin poets the best-known were Denis Petau (d. 1652), Rene Rapin (d.
+1687) and N.E. Sanadon (d. 1733). In 1762 the Jesuits were suppressed,
+and more than one hundred schools were thus deprived of their teachers.
+The university of Paris, which had prompted their suppression, and the
+parliament, which had carried it into effect, made every endeavour to
+replace them. The university took possession of the _Collegium
+Claromontanum_, then known as the _College Louis-le-Grand_, and
+transformed it into an _ecole normale_. Many of the Jesuit schools were
+transferred to the congregations of the _Oratoire_ and the Benedictines,
+and to the secular clergy. On the eve of the Revolution, out of a grand
+total of 562 classical schools, 384 were in the hands of the clergy and
+178 in those of the congregations.
+
+
+  Classical education attacked.
+
+The expulsion of the Jesuits gave a new impulse to the attacks directed
+against all schemes of education in which Latin held a prominent
+position. At the moment when the university of Paris was, by the absence
+of its rivals, placed in complete control of the education of France,
+she found herself driven to defend the principles of classical education
+against a crowd of assailants. All kinds of devices were suggested for
+expediting the acquisition of Latin; grammar was to be set aside; Latin
+was to be learned as a "living language"; much attention was to be
+devoted to acquiring an extensive vocabulary; and, "to save time,"
+composition was to be abolished. To facilitate the reading of Latin
+texts, the favourite method was the use of interlinear translations,
+originally proposed by Locke, first popularized in France by Dumarsais
+(1722), and in constant vogue down to the time of the Revolution.
+
+Early in the 18th century Rollin pleaded for the "utility of Greek,"
+while he described that language as the heritage of the university of
+Paris. In 1753 Berthier feared that in thirty years no one would be able
+to read Greek. In 1768 Rolland declared that the university, which held
+Greek in high honour, nevertheless had reason to lament that her
+students learnt little of the language, and he traced this decline to
+the fact that attendance at lectures had ceased to be compulsory. Greek,
+however, was still recognized as part of the examination held for the
+appointment of schoolmasters.
+
+
+  Eve of the Revolution.
+
+During the 18th century, in Greek as well as in Latin, the general aim
+was to reach the goal as rapidly as possible, even at the risk of
+missing it altogether. On the eve of the Revolution, France was enjoying
+the study of the institutions of Greece in the attractive pages of the
+_Voyage du jeune Anacharsis_ (1789), but the study of Greek was menaced
+even more than that of Latin. For fifty years before the Revolution
+there was a distinct dissatisfaction with the routine of the schools. To
+meet that dissatisfaction, the teachers had accepted new subjects of
+study, had improved their methods, and had simplified the learning of
+the dead languages. But even this was not enough. In the study of the
+classics, as in other spheres, it was revolution rather than evolution
+that was loudly demanded.
+
+
+  First Republic.
+
+The Revolution was soon followed by the long-continued battle of the
+"Programmes." Under the First Republic the schemes of Condorcet (April
+1792) and J. Lakanal (February 1795) were superseded by that of P.C.F.
+Daunou (October 1795), which divided the pupils of the "central schools"
+into three groups, according to age, with corresponding subjects of
+study: (1) twelve to fourteen,--drawing, natural history, Greek and
+Latin, and a choice of modern languages; (2) fourteen to
+sixteen,--mathematics, physics, chemistry; (3) over sixteen,--general
+grammar, literature, history and constitutional law..
+
+
+  Consulate.
+
+In July 1801, under the consulate, there were two courses, (1) nine to
+twelve,--elementary knowledge, including elements of Latin; (2) above
+twelve,--a higher course, with two alternatives, "humanistic" studies
+for the "civil," and purely practical studies for the "military"
+section. The law of the 1st of May 1802 brought the _lycees_ into
+existence, the subjects being, in Napoleon's own phrase, "mainly Latin
+and mathematics."
+
+
+  Restoration.
+
+At the Restoration (1814) the military discipline of the lycees was
+replaced by the ecclesiastical discipline of the "Royal Colleges." The
+reaction of 1815-1821 in favour of classics was followed by the more
+liberal programme of Vatimesnil (1829), including, for those who had no
+taste for a classical education, certain "special courses" (1830), which
+were the germ of the _enseignement special_ and the _enseignement
+moderne_.
+
+
+  Third Republic.
+
+Under Louis Philippe (1830-1848), amid all varieties of administration
+there was a consistent desire to hold the balance fairly between all the
+conflicting subjects of study. After the revolution of 1848 the
+difficulties raised by the excessive number of subjects were solved by
+H.N.H. Fortoul's expedient of "bifurcation," the alternatives being
+letters and science. In 1863, under Napoleon III., Victor Duruy
+encouraged the study of history, and also did much for classical
+learning by founding the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. In 1872, under the
+Third Republic, Jules Simon found time for hygiene, geography and modern
+languages by abolishing Latin verse composition and reducing the number
+of exercises in Latin prose, while he insisted on the importance of
+studying the inner meaning of the ancient classics. The same principles
+were carried out by Jules Ferry (1880) and Paul Bert (1881-1882). In the
+scheme of 1890 the Latin course of six years began with ten hours a week
+and ended with four; Greek was begun a year later with two hours,
+increasing to six and ending with four.
+
+The commission of 1899, under the able chairmanship of M. Alexandre
+Ribot, published an important report, which was followed in 1902 by the
+scheme of M. Georges Leygues. The preamble includes a striking tribute
+to the advantages that France had derived from the study of the
+classics:--
+
+  "L'etude de l'antiquite grecque et latine a donne au genie francais
+  une mesure, une clarte et une elegance incomparables. C'est par elle
+  que notre philosophie, nos lettres et nos arts ont brille d'un si vif
+  eclat; c'est par elle que notre influence morale s'est exercee en
+  souveraine dans le monde. Les humanites doivent etre protegees contre
+  toute atteinte et fortifiees. Elles font partie du patrimoine
+  national.
+
+  "L'esprit classique n'est pas ... incompatible avec l'esprit moderne.
+  Il est de tous les temps, parce qu'il est le culte de la raison claire
+  et libre, la recherche de la beaute harmonieuse et simple dans toutes
+  les manifestations de la pensee."
+
+By the scheme introduced in these memorable terms the course of seven
+years is divided into two cycles, the first cycle (of four years) having
+two parallel courses: (1) without Greek or Latin, and (2) with Latin,
+and with optional Greek at the beginning of the third year. In the
+second cycle (of three years) those who have been learning both Greek
+and Latin, and those who have been learning neither, continue on the
+same lines as before; while those who have been learning Latin only may
+either (1) discontinue it in favour of modern languages _and_ science,
+or (2) continue it with _either_. As an alternative to the second cycle,
+which normally ends in the examination for the _baccalaureat_, there is
+a shorter course, mainly founded on modern languages or applied science
+and ending in a public examination without the _baccalaureat_. The
+_baccalaureat_, however, has been condemned by the next minister, M.
+Briand, who prefers to crown the course with the award of a school
+diploma (1907).
+
+  See H. Lantoine, _Histoire de l'enseignement secondaire en France au
+  XVIIe siecle_ (1874); A. Sicard, _Les Etudes classiques avant la
+  Revolution_ (1887); Sainte-Beuve, _Port-Royal_, vols. i.-v.
+  (1840-1859), especially iii. 383-588; O. Greard, _Education et
+  instruction_, 4 vols., especially "Enseignement secondaire," vol. ii.
+  pp. 1-90, with conspectus of programmes in the appendix (1889); A.
+  Ribot, _La Reforme de l'enseignement secondaire_ (1900); G. Leygues,
+  _Plan d'etudes_, &c. (1902); H.H. Johnson, "Present State of Classical
+  Studies in France," in _Classical Review_ (December 1907). See also
+  the English Education Department's _Special Reports on Education in
+  France_ (1899). The earlier literature is best represented in England
+  by Matthew Arnold's _Schools and Universities in France_ (1868; new
+  edition, 1892) and _A French Eton_ (1864).
+
+
+  Germany.
+
+3. The history of education in Germany since 1500 falls into three
+periods: (a) the age of the Revival of Learning and the Reformation
+(1500-1650), (b) the age of French influence (1650-1800), and (c) the
+19th century.
+
+
+  Melanchthon.
+
+  The Greek Testament.
+
+(a) During the first twenty years of the 16th century the reform of
+Latin instruction was carried out by setting aside the old medieval
+grammars, by introducing new manuals of classical literature, and by
+prescribing the study of classical authors and the imitation of
+classical models. In all these points the lead was first taken by south
+Germany, and by the towns along the Rhine down to the Netherlands. The
+old schools and universities were being quietly interpenetrated by the
+new spirit of humanism, when the sky was suddenly darkened by the clouds
+of religious conflict. In 1525-1535 there was a marked depression in the
+classical studies of Germany. Erasmus, writing to W. Pirckheimer in
+1528, exclaims: "Wherever the spirit of Luther prevails, learning goes
+to the ground." Such a fate was, however, averted by the intervention of
+Melanchthon (d. 1560), the _praeceptor Germaniae_, who was the
+embodiment of the spirit of the new Protestant type of education, with
+its union of evangelical doctrine and humanistic culture. Under his
+influence, new schools rapidly rose into being at Magdeburg, Eisleben
+and Nuremberg (1521-1526). During more than forty years of academic
+activity he not only provided manuals of Latin and Greek grammar and
+many other text-books that long remained in use, but he also formed for
+Germany a well-trained class of learned teachers, who extended his
+influence throughout the land. His principal ally as an educator and as
+a writer of text-books was Camerarius (d. 1574). Precepts of style, and
+models taken from the best Latin authors, were the means whereby a
+remarkable skill in the imitation of Cicero was attained at Strassburg
+during the forty-four years of the headmastership of Johannes von Sturm
+(d. 1589), who had himself been influenced by the _De disciplinis_ of
+J.L. Vives (1531), and in all his teaching aimed at the formation of a
+_sapiens atque eloquens pietas_. Latin continued to be the living
+language of learning and of literature, and a correct and elegant Latin
+style was regarded as the mark of an educated person. Greek was taught
+in all the great schools, but became more and more confined to the study
+of the Greek Testament. In 1550 it was proposed in Brunswick to banish
+all "profane" authors from the schools, and in 1589 a competent scholar
+was instructed to write a sacred epic on the kings of Israel as a
+substitute for the works of the "pagan" poets. In 1637, when the doubts
+of Scaliger and Heinsius as to the purity of the Greek of the New
+Testament prompted the rector of Hamburg to introduce the study of
+classical authors, any reflection on the style of the Greek Testament
+was bitterly resented.
+
+
+  The Jesuits.
+
+The Society of Jesus was founded in 1540, and by 1600 most of the
+teachers in the Catholic schools and universities of Germany were
+Jesuits. The society was "dissolved" in 1773, but survived its
+dissolution. In accordance with the _Ratio Studiorum_ of Aquaviva
+(1599), which long remained unaltered and was only partially revised by
+J. Roothaan (1832), the main subjects of instruction were the _litterae
+humaniores diversarum linguarum_. The chief place among these was
+naturally assigned to Latin, the language of the society and of the
+Roman Church. The Latin grammar in use was that of the Jesuit rector of
+the school at Lisbon, Alvarez (1572). As in the Protestant schools, the
+principal aim was the attainment of _eloquentia_. A comparatively
+subordinate place was assigned to Greek, especially as the importance
+attributed to the Vulgate weakened the motive for studying the original
+text. It was recognized, however, that Latin itself (as Vives had said)
+was "in no small need of Greek," and that, "unless Greek was learnt in
+boyhood, it would hardly ever be learnt at all." The text-book used was
+the _Institutiones linguae Graecae_ of the German Jesuit, Jacob Gretser,
+of Ingolstadt (c. 1590), and the reading in the highest class included
+portions of Demosthenes, Isocrates, Plato, Thucydides, Homer, Hesiod,
+Pindar, Gregory of Nazianzus, Basil and Chrysostom. The Catholic and
+Protestant schools of the 16th century succeeded, as a rule, in giving a
+command over a correct Latin style and a taste for literary form and for
+culture. Latin was still the language of the law-courts and of a large
+part of general literature. Between Luther and Lessing there was no
+great writer of German prose.
+
+
+  The age of French influence.
+
+(b) In the early part of the period 1650-1800, while Latin continued to
+hold the foremost place, it was ceasing to be Latin of the strictly
+classical type. Greek fell still further into the background; and Homer
+and Demosthenes gradually gave way to the Greek Testament. Between 1600
+and 1775 there was a great gap in the production of new editions of the
+principal Greek classics. The spell was only partially broken by J.A.
+Ernesti's _Homer_ (1759 f.) and Chr. G. Heyne's _Pindar_ (1773 f.).
+
+
+  Modern and secular education.
+
+The peace of Westphalia (1648) marks a distinct epoch in the history of
+education in Germany. Thenceforth, education became more modern and more
+secular. The long wars of religion in Germany, as in France and England,
+were followed by a certain indifference as to disputed points of
+theology. But the modern and secular type of education that now
+supervened was opposed by the pietism of the second half of the 17th
+century, represented at the newly-founded university of Halle (1694) by
+A.H. Francke, the professor of Greek (d. 1727), whose influence was far
+greater than that of Chr. Cellarius (d. 1707), the founder of the first
+philological _Seminar_ (1697). Francke's contemporary, Chr. Thomasius
+(d. 1728), was never weary of attacking scholarship of the old
+humanistic type and everything that savoured of antiquarian pedantry,
+and it was mainly his influence that made German the language of
+university lectures and of scientific and learned literature. A modern
+education is also the aim of the general introduction to the _nova
+methodus_ of Leibnitz, where the study of Greek is recommended solely
+for the sake of the Greek Testament (1666). Meanwhile, Ratichius (d.
+1635) had in vain pretended to teach Hebrew, Greek and Latin in the
+space of six months (1612), but he had the merit of maintaining that the
+study of a language should begin with the study of an author. Comenius
+(d. 1671) had proposed to teach Latin by drilling his pupils in a
+thousand graduated phrases distributed over a hundred instructive
+chapters, while the Latin authors were banished because of their
+difficulty and their "paganism" (1631). One of the catchwords of the day
+was to insist on a knowledge of _things_ instead of a knowledge of
+_words_, on "realism" instead of "verbalism."
+
+
+  Ritter-akademien.
+
+Under the influence of France the perfect courtier became the ideal in
+the German education of the upper classes of the 17th and 18th
+centuries. A large number of aristocratic schools (_Ritter-Akademien_)
+were founded, beginning with the Collegium Illustre of Tuebingen (1589)
+and ending with the Hohe Karlschule of Stuttgart (1775). In these
+schools the subjects of study included mathematics and natural sciences,
+geography and history, and modern languages (especially French), with
+riding, fencing and dancing; Latin assumed a subordinate place, and
+classical composition in prose or verse was not considered a
+sufficiently courtly accomplishment. The youthful aristocracy were thus
+withdrawn from the old Latin schools of Germany, but the aristocratic
+schools vanished with the dawn of the 19th century, and the ordinary
+public schools were once more frequented by the young nobility.
+
+
+  The "new humanism."
+
+  Herder.
+
+  School reorganization.
+
+(c) _The Modern Period._--In the last third of the 18th century two
+important movements came into play, the "naturalism" of Rousseau and the
+"new humanism." While Rousseau sought his ideal in a form of education
+and of culture that was in close accord with nature, the German apostles
+of the new humanism were convinced that they had found that ideal
+completely realized in the old Greek world. Hence the aim of education
+was to make young people thoroughly "Greek," to fill them with the
+"Greek" spirit, with courage and keenness in the quest of truth, and
+with a devotion to all that was beautiful. The link between the
+naturalism of Rousseau and the new humanism is to be found in J.G.
+Herder, whose passion for all that is Greek inspires him with almost a
+hatred of Latin. The new humanism was a kind of revival of the
+Renaissance, which had been retarded by the Reformation in Germany and
+by the Counter-Reformation in Italy, or had at least been degraded to
+the dull classicism of the schools. The new humanism agreed with the
+Renaissance in its unreserved recognition of the old classical world as
+a perfect pattern of culture. But, while the Renaissance aimed at
+reproducing the Augustan age of _Rome_, the new humanism found its
+golden age in _Athens_. The Latin Renaissance in Italy aimed at
+recovering and verbally imitating the ancient literature; the Greek
+Renaissance in Germany sought inspiration from the creative originality
+of Greek literature with a view to producing an original literature in
+the German language. The movement had its effect on the schools by
+discouraging the old classical routine of verbal imitation, and giving a
+new prominence to Greek and to German. The new humanism found a home in
+Goettingen (1783) in the days of J.M. Gesner and C.G. Heyne. It was
+represented at Leipzig by Gesner's successor, Ernesti (d. 1781); and at
+Halle by F.A. Wolf, who in 1783 was appointed professor of education by
+Zedlitz, the minister of Frederick the Great. In literature, its leading
+names were Winckelmann, Lessing and Voss, and Herder, Goethe and
+Schiller. The tide of the new movement had reached its height about
+1800. Goethe and Schiller were convinced that the old Greek world was
+the highest revelation of humanity; and the universities and schools of
+Germany were reorganized in this spirit by F.A. Wolf and his illustrious
+pupil, Wilhelm von Humboldt. In 1809-1810 Humboldt was at the head of
+the educational section of the Prussian Home Office, and, in the brief
+interval of a year and a half, gave to the general system of education
+the direction which it followed (with slight exceptions) throughout the
+whole century. In 1810 the _examen pro facultate docendi_ first made the
+profession of a schoolmaster independent of that of a minister of
+religion. The new scheme drawn up by J.W. Suevern recognized four
+principal co-ordinated branches of learning: Latin, Greek, German,
+mathematics. All four were studied throughout the school, Greek being
+begun in the fourth of the nine classes, that corresponding to the
+English "third form." The old Latin school had only one main subject,
+the study of Latin style (combined with a modicum of Greek). The new
+gymnasium aimed at a wider education, in which literature was
+represented by Latin, Greek and German, by the side of mathematics and
+natural science, history and religion. The uniform employment of the
+term _Gymnasium_ for the highest type of a Prussian school dates from
+1812. The leaving examination (_Abgangspruefung_), instituted in that
+year, required Greek translation at sight, with Greek prose composition,
+and ability to speak and to write Latin. In 1818-1840 the leading spirit
+on the board of education was Johannes Schulze, and a _complete_ and
+comprehensive system of education continued to be the ideal kept in
+view. Such an education, however, was found in practice to involve a
+prolongation of the years spent at school and a correspondingly later
+start in life. It was also attacked on the ground that it led to
+"overwork." This attack was partially met by the scheme of 1837.
+Schulze's period of prominence in Berlin closely corresponded to that of
+Herbart at Koenigsberg (1809-1833) and Goettingen (1833-1841), who
+insisted that for boys of eight to twelve there was no better text-book
+than the Greek _Odyssey_, and this principle was brought into practice
+at Hanover by his distinguished pupil, Ahrens.
+
+The Prussian policy of the next period, beginning with the accession of
+Friedrich Wilhelm IV. in 1840, was to lay a new stress on religious
+teaching, and to obviate the risk of overwork resulting from the
+simultaneous study of all subjects by the encouragement of
+specialization in a few. Ludwig Wiese's scheme of 1856 insisted on the
+retention of Latin verse as well as Latin prose, and showed less favour
+to natural science, but it awakened little enthusiasm, while the attempt
+to revive the old humanistic Gymnasium led to a demand for schools of a
+more modern type, which issued in the recognition of the _Realgymnasium_
+(1859).
+
+In the age of Bismarck, school policy in Prussia had for its aim an
+increasing recognition of modern requirements. In 1875 Wiese was
+succeeded by Bonitz, the eminent Aristotelian scholar, who in 1849 had
+introduced mathematics and natural science into the schools of Austria,
+and had substituted the wide reading of classical authors for the
+prevalent practice of speaking and writing Latin. By his scheme of 1882
+natural science recovered its former position in Prussia, and the hours
+assigned in each week to Latin were diminished from 86 to 77. But
+neither of the two great parties in the educational world was satisfied;
+and great expectations were aroused when the question of reform was
+taken up by the German emperor, William II., in 1890. The result of the
+conference of December 1890 was a compromise between the conservatism of
+a majority of its members and the forward policy of the emperor. The
+scheme of 1892 reduced the number of hours assigned to Latin from 77 to
+62, and laid special stress on the _German_ essay; but the modern
+training given by the _Realgymnasium_ was still unrecognized as an
+avenue to a university education. A conference held in June 1900, in
+which the speakers included Mommsen and von Wilamowitz, Harnack and
+Diels, was followed by the "Kiel Decree" of the 26th of November. In
+that decree the emperor urged the equal recognition of the classical and
+the modern _Gymnasium_, and emphasized the importance of giving more
+time to Latin and to English in both. In the teaching of Greek, "useless
+details" were to be set aside, and special care devoted to the connexion
+between ancient and modern culture, while, in all subjects, attention
+was to be paid to the classic precept: _multum, non multa_.
+
+By the scheme of 1901 the pupils of the _Realgymnasium_, the
+_Oberrealschule_ and the _Gymnasium_ were admitted to the university on
+equal terms in virtue of their leaving-certificates, but Greek and Latin
+were still required for students of classics or divinity.
+
+For the _Gymnasium_ the aim of the new scheme is, in _Latin_, "to supply
+boys with a sound basis of grammatical training, with a view to their
+understanding the more important classical writers of Rome, and being
+thus introduced to the intellectual life and culture of the ancient
+world"; and, in _Greek_, "to give them a sufficient knowledge of the
+language with a view to their obtaining an acquaintance with some of the
+Greek classical works which are distinguished both in matter and in
+style, and thus gaining an insight into the intellectual life and
+culture of Ancient Greece." In consequence of these changes Greek is now
+studied by a smaller number of boys, but with better results, and a new
+lease of life has been won for the classical _Gymnasium_.
+
+Lastly, by the side of the classical _Gymnasium_, we now have the
+"German Reform Schools" of two different types, that of Altona (dating
+from 1878) and that of Frankfort-on-the-Main (1892). The leading
+principle in both is the postponement of the time for learning Latin.
+Schools of the Frankfort type take French as their only foreign language
+in the first three years of the course, and aim at achieving in six
+years as much as has been achieved by the _Gymnasia_ in nine; and it is
+maintained that, in six years, they succeed in mastering a larger amount
+of Latin literature than was attempted a generation ago, even in the
+best _Gymnasia_ of the old style. It may be added that in all the German
+_Gymnasia_, whether reformed or not, more time is given to classics than
+in the corresponding schools in England.
+
+  See F. Paulsen, _Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts vom Ausgang des
+  Mittelalters bis auf die Gegenwart mit besonderer Ruecksicht auf den
+  klassischen Unterricht_ (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1896); _Das Realgymnasium
+  und die humanistische Bildung_ (1889); _Die hoeheren Schulen und das
+  Universitaetsstudium im 20. Jahrhundert_ (1901); "Das moderne
+  Bildungswesen" in _Die Kulture der Gegenwart_, vol. i. (1904); _Das
+  deutsche Bildungswesen in seiner geschichtlichen Entwickelung_ (1906)
+  (with the literature there quoted, pp. 190-192), translated by Dr T.
+  Lorenz, _German Education, Past and Present_ (1908); T. Ziegler,
+  _Notwendigkeit ... des Realgymnasiums_ (Stuttgart, 1894); F.A.
+  Eckstein, _Lateinischer und griechischer Unterricht_ (1887); O. Kohl,
+  "Griechischer Unterricht" (Langensalza, 1896) in W. Rein's _Handbuch_;
+  A. Baumeister's _Handbuch_ (1895), especially vol. i. 1 (History) and
+  i. 2 (Educational Systems); P. Stoetzner, _Das oeffentliche
+  Unterrichtswesen Deutschlands in der Gegenwart_ (1901); F. Seiler,
+  _Geschichte des deutschen Unterrichtswesens_ (2 vols., 1906);
+  _Verhandlungen_ of June 1900 (2nd ed., 1902); _Lehrplaene_, &c. (1901);
+  _Die Reform des hoeheren Schulwesens_, ed. W. Lexis (1902); A.
+  Harnack's _Vortrag_ and W. Parow's _Erwiderung_ (1905); H. Mueller,
+  _Das hoehere Schulwesen Deutschlands am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts_
+  (Stuttgart, 1904); O. Steinbart, _Durchfuehrung des preussischen
+  Schulreform in ganz Deutschland_ (Duisburg, 1904); J. Schipper, _Alte
+  Bildung und moderne Cultur_ (Vienna, 1901); Papers by M.E. Sadler: (1)
+  "Problems in Prussian Secondary Education" (Special Reports of
+  Education Dept., 1899); (2) "The Unrest in Secondary Education in
+  Germany and Elsewhere" (Special Reports of Board of Education, vol. 9,
+  1902); J.L. Paton, _The Teaching of Classics in Prussian Secondary
+  Schools_ (on "German Reform Schools") (1907, Wyman, London); J.E.
+  Russell, _German Higher Schools_ (New York, 1899); and (among earlier
+  English publications) Matthew Arnold's _Higher Schools and
+  Universities in Germany_ (1874, reprinted from _Schools and
+  Universities on the Continent_, 1865).
+
+
+  United States.
+
+(4) In the _United States of America_ the highest degree of educational
+development has been subsequent to the Civil War. The study of Latin
+begins in the "high schools," the average age of admission being fifteen
+and the normal course extending over four years. Among classical
+teachers an increasing number would prefer a longer course extending
+over six years for Latin, and at least three for Greek, and some of
+these would assign to the elementary school the first two of the
+proposed six years of Latin study. Others are content with the late
+learning of Latin and prefer that it should be preceded by a thorough
+study of modern languages (see Prof. B.I. Wheeler, in Baumeister's
+_Handbuch_, 1897, ii. 2, pp. 584-586).
+
+
+  Latin pronunciation.
+
+It was mainly owing to a pamphlet issued in 1871 by Prof. G.M. Lane, of
+Harvard, that a reformed pronunciation of Latin was adopted in all the
+colleges and schools of the United States. Some misgivings on this
+reform found expression in a work on the _Teaching of Latin_, published
+by Prof. C.E. Bennett of Cornell in 1901, a year in which it was
+estimated that this pronunciation was in use by more than 96% of the
+Latin pupils in the secondary schools.
+
+Some important statistics as to the number studying Latin and Greek in
+the secondary schools were collected in 1900 by a committee of twelve
+educational experts representing all parts of the Union, with a view to
+a uniform course of instruction being pursued in all classical schools.
+They had the advantage of the co-operation of Dr W.T. Harris, the U.S.
+commissioner of education, and they were able to report that, in all the
+five groups into which they had divided the states, the number of pupils
+pursuing the study of Latin and Greek showed a remarkable advance,
+especially in the most progressive states of the middle west. The number
+learning Latin had increased from 100,144 in 1890 to 314,856 in
+1899-1900, and those learning Greek from 12,869 to 24,869. Thus the
+number learning Latin at the later date was three times, and the number
+learning Greek twice, as many as those learning Latin or Greek ten years
+previously. But the total number in 1000 was 630,048; so that,
+notwithstanding this proof of progress, the number learning Greek in
+1900 was only about one twenty-fifth of the total number, while the
+number learning Latin was as high as half.
+
+The position of Greek as an "elective" or "optional" subject (notably at
+Harvard), an arrangement regarded with approval by some eminent
+educational authorities and with regret by others, probably has some
+effect on the high schools in the small number of those who learn Greek,
+and in their lower rate of increase, as compared with those who learn
+Latin. Some evidence as to the quality of the study of those languages
+in the schools is supplied by English commissioners in the _Reports of
+the Mosely Commission_. Thus Mr Papillon considered that, while the
+teaching of English literature was admirable, the average standard of
+Latin and Greek teaching and attainment in the upper classes was "below
+that of an English public school"; he felt, however, that the secondary
+schools of the United States had a "greater variety of the curriculum to
+suit the practical needs of life," and that they existed, not "for the
+select few," but "for the whole people" (pp. 250 f.).
+
+  For full information see the "Two volumes of Monographs prepared for
+  the United States Educational Exhibit at the Paris Exposition of
+  1900," edited by Dr N. Murray Butler; the _Annual Reports_ of the U.S.
+  commissioner of education (Washington); and the _Reports of the Mosely
+  Commission to the United States of America_ (London, 1904). Cf.
+  statistics quoted in G.G. Ramsay's "Address on Efficiency in
+  Education" (Glasgow, 1902, 17-20), from the _Transactions of the Amer.
+  Philol. Association_, xxx. (1899), pp. lxxvii-cxxii; also Bennett and
+  Bristol, _The Teaching of Latin and Greek in the Secondary School_
+  (New York, 1901).    (J. E. S.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The above derivation is in accordance with English usage. In the
+    _New English Dictionary_ the earliest example of the word "classical"
+    is the phrase "classical and canonical," found in the _Europae
+    Speculum_ of Sir Edwin Sandys (1599), and, as applied to a writer, it
+    is explained as meaning "of the first rank or authority." This
+    exactly corresponds with the meaning of _classicus_ in the above
+    passage of Gellius. On the other hand, the French word _classique_
+    (in Littre's view) primarily means "used in class."
+
+  [2] See also the article SCHOOLS.
+
+
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION (Lat. _classis_, a class, probably from the root _cal-_,
+_cla-_, as in Gr. [Greek: kaleo], _clamor_), a logical process, common
+to all the special sciences and to knowledge in general, consisting in
+the collection under a common name of a number of objects which are
+alike in one or more respects. The process consists in observing the
+objects and abstracting from their various qualities that characteristic
+which they have in common. This characteristic constitutes the
+definition of the "class" to which they are regarded as belonging. It
+is this process by which we arrive first at "species" and then at
+"genus," i.e. at all scientific generalization. Individual things,
+regarded as such, constitute a mere aggregate, unconnected with one
+another, and so far unexplained; scientific knowledge consists in
+systematic classification. Thus if we observe the heavenly bodies
+individually we can state merely that they have been observed to have
+certain motions through the sky, that they are luminous, and the like.
+If, however, we compare them one with another, we discover that, whereas
+all partake in the general movement of the heavens, some have a movement
+of their own. Thus we arrive at a system of classification according to
+motion, by which fixed stars are differentiated from planets. A further
+classification according to other criteria gives us stars of the first
+magnitude and stars of the second magnitude, and so forth. We thus
+arrive at a systematic understanding expressed in laws by the
+application of which accurate forecasts of celestial phenomena can be
+made. Classification in the strict logical sense consists in discovering
+the casual interrelation of natural objects; it thus differs from what
+is often called "artificial" classification, which is the preparation,
+e.g. of statistics for particular purposes, administrative and the like.
+
+Of the systems of classification adopted in physical science, only one
+requires treatment here, namely, the classification of the sciences as
+a whole, a problem which has from the time of Aristotle attracted
+considerable attention. Its object is to delimit the spheres of
+influence of the positive sciences and show how they are mutually
+related. Of such attempts three are specially noteworthy, those of
+Francis Bacon, Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer.
+
+Bacon's classification is based on the subjective criterion of the
+various faculties which are specially concerned. He thus distinguished
+History (natural, civil, literary, ecclesiastical) as the province of
+memory, Philosophy (including Theology) as that of reason, and Poetry,
+Fables and the like, as that of imagination. This classification was
+made the basis of the _Encyclopedie_. Comte adopted an entirely
+different system based on an objective criterion. Having first
+enunciated the theory that all science passes through three stages,
+theological, metaphysical and positive, he neglects the two first, and
+divides the last according to the "things to be classified," in view of
+their real affinity and natural connexions, into six, in order of
+decreasing generality and increasing complexity--mathematics, astronomy,
+physics, chemistry, physiology and biology (including psychology), and
+sociology. This he conceives to be not only the logical, but also the
+historical, order of development, from the abstract and purely deductive
+to the concrete and inductive. Sociology is thus the highest, most
+complex, and most positive of the sciences. Herbert Spencer, condemning
+this division as both incomplete and theoretically unsound, adopted a
+three-fold division into (1) _abstract_ science (including logic and
+mathematics) dealing with the universal forms under which all knowledge
+of phenomena is possible, (2) _abstract-concrete_ science (including
+mechanics, chemistry, physics), dealing with the elements of phenomena
+themselves, i.e. laws of forces as deducible from the persistence of
+forces, and (3) _concrete_ science (e.g. astronomy, biology, sociology),
+dealing with "phenomena themselves in their totalities," the universal
+laws of the continuous redistribution of Matter and Motion, Evolution
+and Dissolution.
+
+Beside the above three systems several others deserve brief mention. In
+Greece at the dawn of systematic thought the physical sciences were few
+in number; none the less philosophers were not agreed as to their true
+relation. The Platonic school adopted a triple classification, physics,
+ethics and dialectics; Aristotle's system was more complicated, nor do
+we know precisely how he subdivided his three main classes, theoretical,
+practical and poetical (i.e. technical, having to do with [Greek:
+poiesis], creative). The second class covered ethics and politics, the
+latter of which was often regarded by Aristotle as including ethics; the
+third includes the useful and the imitative sciences; the first includes
+metaphysics and physics. As regards pure logic Aristotle sometimes seems
+to include it with metaphysics and physics, sometimes to regard it as
+ancillary to all the sciences.
+
+Thomas Hobbes (_Leviathan_) drew up an elaborate paradigm of the
+sciences, the first stage of which was a dichotomy into "Naturall
+Philosophy" ("consequences from the accidents of bodies naturall") and
+"Politiques and Civill Philosophy" ("consequences from accidents of
+Politique bodies"). The former by successive subdivisions is reduced to
+eighteen special sciences; the latter is subdivided into the rights and
+duties of sovereign powers, and those of the subject.
+
+Jeremy Bentham and A.M. Ampere both drew up elaborate systems based on
+the principle of dichotomy, and beginning from the distinction of mind
+and body. Bentham invented an artificial terminology which is rather
+curious than valuable. The science of the body was Somatology, that of
+the mind Pneumatology. The former include Posology (science of quantity,
+mathematics) and Poiology (science of quality); Posology includes
+Morphoscopic (geometry) and Alegomorphic(arithmetic). See further
+Bentham's _Chrestomathia_ and works quoted under BENTHAM, JEREMY.
+
+Carl Wundt criticized most of these systems as taking too little account
+of the real facts, and preferred a classification based on the
+standpoint of the various sciences towards their subject-matter. His
+system may, therefore, be described as conceptional. It distinguishes
+philosophy, which deals with facts in their widest universal relations,
+from the special sciences, which consider facts in the light of a
+particular relation or set of relations.
+
+All these systems have a certain value, and are interesting as throwing
+light on the views of those who invented them. It will be seen, however,
+that none can lay claim to unique validity. The _fundamenta divisionis_,
+though in themselves more or less logical, are quite arbitrarily chosen,
+generally as being germane to a preconceived philosophical or scientific
+theory.
+
+
+
+
+CLASTIDIUM (mod. _Casteggio_), a village of the Anamares, in Gallia
+Cispadana, on the Via Postumia, 5 m. E. of Iria (mod. _Voghera_) and 31
+m. W. of Placentia. Here in 222 B.C. M. Claudius Marcellus defeated the
+Gauls and won the _spolia opima_; in 218 Hannibal took it and its stores
+of corn by treachery. It never had an independent government, and not
+later than 190 B.C. was made part of the colony of Placentia (founded
+219). In the Augustan division of Italy, however, Placentia belonged to
+the 8th region, Aemilia, whereas Iria certainly, and Clastidium
+possibly, belonged to the 9th, Liguria (see Th. Mommsen in _Corp.
+Inscrip. Lat._ vol. v. Berlin, 1877, p. 828). The remains visible at
+Clastidium are scanty; there is a fountain (the Fontana d'Annibale), and
+a Roman bridge, which seems to have been constructed of tiles, not of
+stone, was discovered in 1857, but destroyed.
+
+  See C. Giulietti, _Casteggio, notizie storiche II. Avanzi di
+  antichita_ (Voghera, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUBERG, JOHANN (1622-1665), German philosopher, was born at Solingen,
+in Westphalia, on the 24th of February 1622. After travelling in France
+and England, he studied the Cartesian philosophy under John Raey at
+Leiden. He became (1649) professor of philosophy and theology at
+Herborn, but subsequently (1651), in consequence of the jealousy of his
+colleagues, accepted an invitation to a similar post at Duisburg, where
+he died on the 31st of January 1665. Clauberg was one of the earliest
+teachers of the new doctrines in Germany and an exact and methodical
+commentator on his master's writings. His theory of the connexion
+between the soul and the body is in some respects analogous to that of
+Malebranche; but he is not therefore to be regarded as a true forerunner
+of Occasionalism, as he uses "Occasion" for the stimulus which directly
+produces a mental phenomenon, without postulating the intervention of
+God (H. Mueller, _J. Clauberg und seine Stellung im Cartesianismus_).
+His view of the relation of God to his creatures is held to foreshadow
+the pantheism of Spinoza. All creatures exist only through the
+continuous creative energy of the Divine Being, and are no more
+independent of his will than are our thoughts independent of us,--or
+rather less, for there are thoughts which force themselves upon us
+whether we will or not. For metaphysics Clauberg suggested the names
+_ontosophy_ or _ontology_, the latter being afterwards adopted by Wolff.
+He also devoted considerable attention to the German languages, and his
+researches in this direction attracted the favourable notice of
+Leibnitz. His chief works are: _De conjunctione animae et corporis
+humani_; _Exercitationes centum de cognitione Dei et nostri_; _Logica
+vetus et nova_; _Initiatio philosophi, seu Dubitatio Cartesiana_; a
+commentary on Descartes' _Meditations_; and _Ars etymologica Teutonum_.
+
+  A collected edition of his philosophical works was published at
+  Amsterdam (1691), with life by H.C. Hennin; see also E. Zeller,
+  _Geschichte der deutschen Philosophie seit Leibnitz_ (1873).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDE, JEAN (1619-1687), French Protestant divine, was born at La
+Sauvetat-du-Dropt near Agen. After studying at Montauban, he entered the
+ministry in 1645. He was for eight years professor of theology in the
+Protestant college of Nimes; but in 1661, having successfully opposed a
+scheme for re-uniting Catholics and Protestants, he was forbidden to
+preach in Lower Languedoc. In 1662 he obtained a post at Montauban
+similar to that which he had lost; but after four years he was removed
+from this also. He next became pastor at Charenton near Paris, where he
+engaged in controversies with Pierre Nicole (_Reponse aux deux traites
+intitules la perpetuite de la foi_, 1665), Antoine Arnauld (_Reponse au
+livre de M. Arnauld_, 1670), and J.B. Bossuet (_Reponse au livre de M.
+l'eveque de Meaux_, 1683). On the revocation of the edict of Nantes he
+fled to Holland, and received a pension from William of Orange, who
+commissioned him to write an account of the persecuted Huguenots
+(_Plaintes des protestants cruellement opprimes dans le royaume de
+France_, 1686). The book was translated into English, but by order of
+James II, both the translation and the original were publicly burnt by
+the common hangman on the 5th of May 1686, as containing "expressions
+scandalous to His Majesty the king of France." Other works by him were
+_Reponse au livre de P. Nouet sur l'eucharistie_ (1668); _Oeuvres
+posthumes_ (Amsterdam, 1688), containing the _Traite de la composition
+d'un sermon_, translated into English in 1778.
+
+  See biographies by J.P. Niceron and Abel Rotholf de la Deveze; E.
+  Haag, _La France protestante_, vol. iv. (1884, new edition).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDE OF LORRAINE, or CLAUDE GELEE (1600-1682), French
+landscape-painter, was born of very poor parents at the village of
+Chamagne in Lorraine. When it was discovered that he made no progress at
+school, he was apprenticed, it is commonly said, to a pastry-cook, but
+this is extremely dubious. At the age of twelve, being left an orphan,
+he went to live at Freiburg on the Rhine with an elder brother, Jean
+Gelee, a wood-carver of moderate merit, and under him he designed
+arabesques and foliage. He afterwards rambled to Rome to seek a
+livelihood; but from his clownishness and ignorance of the language, he
+failed to obtain permanent employment. He next went to Naples, to study
+landscape painting under Godfrey Waals, a painter of much repute. With
+him he remained two years; then he returned to Rome, and was
+domesticated until April 1625 with another landscape-painter, Augustin
+Tassi, who hired him to grind his colours and to do all the household
+drudgery.
+
+His master, hoping to make Claude serviceable in some of his greatest
+works, advanced him in the rules of perspective and the elements of
+design. Under his tuition the mind of Claude began to expand, and he
+devoted himself to artistic study with great eagerness. He exerted his
+utmost industry to explore the true principles of painting by an
+incessant examination of nature; and for this purpose he made his
+studies in the open fields, where he very frequently remained from
+sunrise till sunset, watching the effect of the shifting light upon the
+landscape. He generally sketched whatever he thought beautiful or
+striking, marking every tinge of light with a similar colour; from these
+sketches he perfected his landscapes. Leaving Tassi, he made a tour in
+Italy, France and a part of Germany, including his native Lorraine,
+suffering numerous misadventures by the way. Karl Dervent, painter to
+the duke of Lorraine, kept him as assistant for a year; and he painted
+at Nancy the architectural subjects on the ceiling of the Carmelite
+church. He did not, however, relish this employment, and in 1627
+returned to Rome. Here, painting two landscapes for Cardinal
+Bentivoglio, he earned the protection of Pope Urban VIII, and from about
+1637 he rapidly rose into celebrity. Claude was acquainted not only with
+the facts, but also with the laws of nature; and the German painter
+Joachim von Sandrart relates that he used to explain, as they walked
+together through the fields, the causes of the different appearances of
+the same landscape at different hours of the day, from the reflections
+or refractions of light, or from the morning and evening dews or
+vapours, with all the precision of a natural philosopher. He elaborated
+his pictures with great care; and if any performance fell short of his
+ideal, he altered, erased and repainted it several times over.
+
+His skies are aerial and full of lustre, and every object harmoniously
+illumined. His distances and colouring are delicate, and his tints have
+a sweetness and variety till then unexampled. He frequently gave an
+uncommon tenderness to his finished trees by glazing. His figures,
+however, are very indifferent; but he was so conscious of his deficiency
+in this respect, that he usually engaged other artists to paint them for
+him, among whom were Courtois and Filippo Lauri. Indeed, he was wont to
+say that he sold his landscapes and gave away his figures. In order to
+avoid a repetition of the same subject, and also to detect the very
+numerous spurious copies of his works, he made tinted outline drawings
+(in six paper books prepared for this purpose) of all those pictures
+which were transmitted to different countries; and on the back of each
+drawing he wrote the name of the purchaser. These books he named _Libri
+di verita_. This valuable work (now belonging to the duke of Devonshire)
+has been engraved and published, and has always been highly esteemed by
+students of the art of landscape. Claude, who had suffered much from
+gout, died in Rome at the age of eighty-two, on the 21st (or perhaps the
+23rd) of November 1682, leaving his wealth, which was considerable,
+between his only surviving relatives, a nephew and an adopted daughter
+(? niece).
+
+Many choice specimens of his genius may be seen in the National Gallery
+and in the Louvre; the landscapes in the Altieri and Colonna palaces in
+Rome are also of especial celebrity. A list has been printed showing no
+less than 92 examples in the various public galleries of Europe. He
+himself regarded a landscape which he painted in the Villa Madama, being
+a cento of various views with great abundance and variety of leafage,
+and a composition of Esther and Ahasuerus, as his finest works; the
+former he refused to sell, although Clement IX. offered to cover its
+surface with gold pieces. He etched a series of twenty-eight landscapes,
+fine impressions of which are greatly prized. Full of amenity, and
+deeply sensitive to the graces of nature, Claude was long deemed the
+prince of landscape painters, and he must always be accounted a prime
+leader in that form of art, and in his day a great enlarger and refiner
+of its province.
+
+Claude was a man of amiable and simple character, very kind to his
+pupils, a patient and unwearied worker; in his own sphere of study, his
+mind was stored (as we have seen) with observation and knowledge, but he
+continued an unlettered man till his death. Famous and highly patronized
+though he was in all his later years, he seems to have been very little
+known to his brother artists, with the single exception of Sandrart.
+This painter is the chief direct authority for the facts of Claude's
+life (_Academia Artis Pictoriae_, 1683); Baldinucci, who obtained
+information from some of Claude's immediate survivors, relates various
+incidents to a different effect (_Notizie dei professori del disegno_).
+
+  See also Victor Cousin, _Sur Claude Gelee_ (1853); M.F. Sweetser,
+  _Claude Lorrain_ (1878); Lady Dilke, _Claude Lorrain_ (1884).
+     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDET, ANTOINE FRANCOIS JEAN (1797-1867), French photographer, was
+born at Lyons on the 12th of August 1797. Having acquired a share in
+L.J.M. Daguerre's invention, he was one of the first to practise
+daguerreotype portraiture in England, and he improved the sensitizing
+process by using chlorine in addition to iodine, thus gaining greater
+rapidity of action. In 1848 he produced the photographometer, an
+instrument designed to measure the intensity of photogenic rays; and in
+1849 he brought out the focimeter, for securing a perfect focus in
+photographic portraiture. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society
+in 1853, and in 1858 he produced the stereomonoscope, in reply to a
+challenge from Sir David Brewster. He died in London on the 27th of
+December 1867.
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIANUS, CLAUDIUS, Latin epic poet and panegyrist, flourished during
+the reign of Arcadius and Honorius. He was an Egyptian by birth,
+probably an Alexandrian, but it may be conjectured from his name and his
+mastery of Latin that he was of Roman extraction. His own authority has
+been assumed for the assertion that his first poetical compositions were
+in Greek, and that he had written nothing in Latin before A.D. 395; but
+this seems improbable, and the passage (_Carm. Min._ xli. 13) which is
+taken to prove it does not necessarily bear this meaning. In that year
+he appears to have come to Rome, and made his debut as a Latin poet by a
+panegyric on the consulship of Olybrius and Probinus, the first brothers
+not belonging to the imperial family who had ever simultaneously filled
+the office of consul. This piece proved the precursor of the series of
+panegyrical poems which compose the bulk of his writings. In Birt's
+edition a complete chronological list of Claudian's poems is given, and
+also in J.B. Bury's edition of Gibbon (iii. app. i. p. 485), where the
+dates given differ slightly from those in the present article.
+
+In 396 appeared the encomium on the third consulship of the emperor
+Honorius, and the epic on the downfall of Rufinus, the unworthy
+minister of Arcadius at Constantinople. This revolution was principally
+effected by the contrivance of Stilicho, the great general and minister
+of Honorius. Claudian's poem appears to have obtained his patronage, or
+rather perhaps that of his wife Serena, by whose interposition the poet
+was within a year or two enabled to contract a wealthy marriage in
+Africa (_Epist._ 2). Previously to this event he had produced (398) his
+panegyric on the fourth consulship of Honorius, his epithalamium on the
+marriage of Honorius to Stilicho's daughter, Maria, and his poem on the
+Gildonic war, celebrating the repression of a revolt in Africa. To these
+succeeded his piece on the consulship of Manlius Theodorus (399), the
+unfinished or mutilated invective against the Byzantine prime minister
+Eutropius in the same year, the epics on Stilicho's first consulship and
+on his repulse of Alaric (400 and 403), and the panegyric on the sixth
+consulship of Honorius (404). From this time all trace of Claudian is
+lost, and he is generally supposed to have perished with his patron
+Stilicho in 408. It may be conjectured that he must have died in 404, as
+he could hardly otherwise have omitted to celebrate the greatest of
+Stilicho's achievements, the destruction of the barbarian host led by
+Radagaisus in the following year. On the other hand, he may have
+survived Stilicho, as in the dedication to the second book of his epic
+on the _Rape of Proserpine_ (which Birt, however, assigns to 395-397),
+he speaks of his disuse of poetry in terms hardly reconcilable with the
+fertility which he displayed during his patron's lifetime. From the
+manner in which Augustine alludes to him in his _De civitate Dei_, it
+may be inferred that he was no longer living at the date of the
+composition of that work, between 415 and 428.
+
+Besides Claudian's chief poems, his lively Fescennines on the emperor's
+marriage, his panegyric on Serena, and the _Gigantomachia_, a fragment
+of an unfinished Greek epic, may also be mentioned. Several poems
+expressing Christian sentiments are undoubtedly spurious. Claudian's
+paganism, however, neither prevented his celebrating Christian rulers
+and magistrates nor his enjoying the distinction of a court laureate. It
+is probable that he was nominally a Christian, like his patron Stilicho
+and Ausonius, although at heart attached to the old religion. The very
+decided statements of Orosius and Augustine as to his heathenism may be
+explained by the pagan style of Claudian's political poems. We have his
+own authority for his having been honoured by a bronze statue in the
+forum, and Pomponius Laetus discovered in the 15th century an
+inscription (_C.I.L._ vi. 1710) on the pedestal, which, formerly
+considered spurious, is now generally regarded as genuine.
+
+The position of Claudian--the last of the Roman poets--is unique in
+literature. It is sufficiently remarkable that, after nearly three
+centuries of torpor, the Latin muse should have experienced any revival
+in the age of Honorius, nothing less than amazing that this revival
+should have been the work of a foreigner, most surprising of all that a
+just and enduring celebrity should have been gained by official
+panegyrics on the generally uninteresting transactions of an inglorious
+epoch. The first of these particulars bespeaks Claudian's taste, rising
+superior to the prevailing barbarism, the second his command of
+language, the third his rhetorical skill. As remarked by Gibbon, "he was
+endowed with the rare and precious talent of raising the meanest, of
+adorning the most barren, and of diversifying the most similar topics."
+This gift is especially displayed in his poem on the downfall of
+Rufinus, where the punishment of a public malefactor is exalted to the
+dignity of an epical subject by the magnificence of diction and the
+ostentation of supernatural machinery. The noble exordium, in which the
+fate of Rufinus is propounded as the vindication of divine justice,
+places the subject at once on a dignified level; and the council of the
+infernal powers has afforded a hint to Tasso, and through him to Milton.
+The inevitable monotony of the panegyrics on Honorius is relieved by
+just and brilliant expatiation on the duties of a sovereign. In his
+celebration of Stilicho's victories Claudian found a subject more worthy
+of his powers, and some passages, such as the description of the flight
+of Alaric, and of Stilicho's arrival at Rome, and the felicitous
+parallel between his triumphs and those of Marius, rank among the
+brightest ornaments of Latin poetry. Claudian's panegyric, however
+lavish and regardless of veracity, is in general far less offensive than
+usual in his age, a circumstance attributable partly to his more refined
+taste and partly to the genuine merit of his patron Stilicho. He is a
+valuable authority for the history of his times, and is rarely to be
+convicted of serious inaccuracy in his facts, whatever may be thought of
+the colouring he chooses to impart to them. He was animated by true
+patriotic feeling, in the shape of a reverence for Rome as the source
+and symbol of law, order and civilization. Outside the sphere of actual
+life he is less successful; his _Rape of Proserpine_, though the
+beauties of detail are as great as usual, betrays his deficiency in the
+creative power requisite for dealing with a purely ideal subject. This
+denotes the rhetorician rather than the poet, and in general it may be
+said that his especial gifts of vivid natural description, and of
+copious illustration, derived from extensive but not cumbrous erudition,
+are fully as appropriate to eloquence as to poetry. In the general cast
+of his mind and character of his writings, and especially, in his
+faculty for bestowing enduring interest upon occasional themes, we may
+fitly compare him with Dryden, remembering that while Dryden exulted in
+the energy of a vigorous and fast-developing language, Claudian was
+cramped by an artificial diction, confined to the literary class.
+
+  The editio princeps of Claudian was printed at Vicenza in 1482; the
+  editions of J.M. Gesner (1759) and P. Burmann (1760) are still
+  valuable for their notes. The first critical edition was that of L.
+  Jeep (1876-1879), now superseded by the exhaustive work of T. Birt,
+  with bibliography, in _Monumenta Germaniae Historica_ (x., 1892;
+  smaller ed. founded on this by J. Koch, Teubner series, 1893). There
+  is a separate edition with commentary and verse translation of _Il
+  Ratto di Proserpina_, by L. Garces de Diez (1889); the satire _In
+  Eutropium_ is discussed by T. Birt in _Zwei politische Satiren des
+  alten Rom_ (1888). There is a complete English verse translation of
+  little merit by A. Hawkins (1817). See the articles by Ramsay in
+  Smith's _Classical Dictionary_ and Vollmer in Pauly-Wissowa's
+  _Realencyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2
+  (1899); also J.H.E. Crees, _Claudian as an Historian_ (1908), the
+  "Cambridge Historical Essay" for 1906 (No. 17); T. Hodgkin, _Claudian,
+  the last of the Roman Poets_ (1875).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIUS [TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS DRUSUS NERO GERMANICUS], Roman emperor A.D.
+41-54, son of Drusus and Antonia, nephew of the emperor Tiberius, and
+grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus, was born at Lugdunum (Lyons) on
+the 1st of August 10 B.C. During his boyhood he was treated with
+contempt, owing to his weak and timid character and his natural
+infirmities; the fact that he was regarded as little better than an
+imbecile saved him from death at the hands of Caligula. He chiefly
+devoted himself to literature, especially history, and until his
+accession he took no real part in public affairs, though Caligula
+honoured him with the dignity of consul. He was four times married: to
+Plautia Urgulanilla, whom he divorced because he suspected her of
+designs against his life; to Aelia Petina, also divorced; to the
+infamous Valeria Messallina (q.v.); and to his niece Agrippina.
+
+In A.D. 41, on the murder of Caligula, Claudius was seized by the
+praetorians, and declared emperor. The senate, which had entertained the
+idea of restoring the republic, was obliged to acquiesce. One of
+Claudius's first acts was to proclaim an amnesty for all except Cassius
+Chaerea, the assassin of his predecessor, and one or two others. After
+the discovery of a conspiracy against his life in 42, he fell completely
+under the influence of Messallina and his favourite freedmen Pallas and
+Narcissus, who must be held responsible for acts of cruelty which have
+brought undeserved odium upon the emperor. There is no doubt that
+Claudius was a liberal-minded man of kindly nature, anxious for the
+welfare of his people. Humane regulations were made in regard to
+freedmen, slaves, widows and orphans; the police system was admirably
+organized; commerce was put on a sound footing; the provinces were
+governed in a spirit of liberality; the rights of citizens and admission
+to the senate were extended to communities outside Italy. The speech of
+Claudius delivered (in the year 48) in the senate in support of the
+petition of the Aeduans that their senators should have the _jus
+petendorum honorum_ (claim of admission to the senate and magistracies)
+at Rome has been partly preserved on the fragment of a bronze tablet
+found at Lyons in 1524; an imperial edict concerning the citizenship of
+the Anaunians (15th of March 46) was found in the southern Tirol in 1869
+(_C.I.L._ v. 5050). Claudius was especially fond of building. He
+completed the great aqueduct (Aqua Claudia) begun by Caligula, drained
+the Lacus Fucinus, and built the harbour of Ostia. Nor were his military
+operations unsuccessful. Mauretania was made a Roman province; the
+conquest of Britain was begun; his distinguished general Domitius
+Corbulo (_q.v._) gained considerable successes in Germany and the East.
+The intrigues of Narcissus caused Messallina to be put to death by order
+of Claudius, who took as his fourth wife his niece Agrippina, a woman as
+criminal as any of her predecessors. She prevailed upon him to set aside
+his own son Britannicus in favour of Nero, her son by a former marriage;
+and in 54, to make Nero's position secure, she put the emperor to death
+by poison. The apotheosis of Claudius was the subject of a lampoon by
+Seneca called _apokolokyntosis_, the "pumpkinification" of Claudius.
+
+Claudius was a prolific writer, chiefly on history, but his works are
+lost. He wrote (in Greek) a history of Carthage and a history of
+Etruria; (in Latin) a history of Rome from the death of Caesar, an
+autobiography, and an essay in defence of Cicero against the attacks of
+Asinius Gallus. He also introduced three new letters into the Latin
+alphabet: [Latin character] for the consonantal V, [Latin character] for
+BS and PS, [Latin character] for the intermediate sound between I and U.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Ancient: the _Annals_ of Tacitus, Suetonius and Dio
+  Cassius. Modern: H. Lehmann, _Claudius und seine Zeit_, with
+  introductory chapter on the ancient authorities (1858); Lucien Double,
+  _L'Empereur Claude_ (1876); A. Ziegler, _Die politische Seite der
+  Regierung des Kaisers Claudius_ (1885); H.F. Pelham in _Quarterly
+  Review_ (April 1905), where certain administrative and political
+  changes introduced by Claudius, for which he was attacked by his
+  contemporaries, are discussed and defended; Merivale, _Hist. of the
+  Romans under the Empire_, chs. 49, 50; H. Schiller, _Geschichte der
+  roemischen Kaiserzeit_, i., pt. 1; H. Furneaux's ed. of the _Annals_ of
+  Tacitus (introduction).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIUS, the name of a famous Roman gens. The by-form _Clodius_, in its
+origin a mere orthographical variant, was regularly used for certain
+Claudii in late republican times, but otherwise the two forms were used
+indifferently. The gens contained a patrician and a plebeian family; the
+chief representatives of the former were the Pulchri, of the latter the
+Marcelli (see MARCELLUS). The following members of the gens deserve
+particular mention.
+
+
+1. APPIUS SAMINUS INREGILLENSIS, or REGILLENSIS, CLAUDIUS, so called
+from Regillum (or Regilli) in Sabine territory, founder of the Claudian
+gens. His original name was Attus or Attius Clausus. About 504 B.C. he
+settled in Rome, where he and his followers formed a tribe. In 495 he
+was consul, and his cruel enforcement of the laws of debtor and
+creditor, in opposition to his milder colleague, P. Servilius Priscus,
+was one of the chief causes of the "secession" of the plebs to the
+Sacred Mount. On several occasions he displayed his hatred of the
+people, although it is stated that he subsequently played the part of
+mediator.
+
+  Suetonius, _Tiberius_, i.; Livy ii. 16-29; Dion. Halic. v. 40, vi. 23,
+  24.
+
+
+2. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CRASSUS, a Roman patrician, consul in 471
+and 451 B.C., and in the same and following year one of the decemvirs.
+At first he was conspicuous for his aristocratic pride and bitter hatred
+of the plebeians. Twice they refused to fight under him, and fled before
+their enemies. He retaliated by decimating the army. He was banished,
+but soon returned, and again became consul. In the same year (451) he
+was made one of the decemviri who had been appointed to draw up a code
+of written laws. When it was decided to elect decemvirs for another
+year, he who had formerly been looked upon as the champion of the
+aristocracy, suddenly came forward as the friend of the people, and was
+himself re-elected together with several plebeians. But no sooner was
+the new body in office, than it treated both patricians and plebeians
+with equal violence, and refused to resign at the end of the year.
+Matters were brought to a crisis by the affair of Virginia. Enamoured
+of the beautiful daughter of the plebeian centurion Virginius, Claudius
+attempted to seize her by an abuse of justice. One of his clients,
+Marcus Claudius, swore that she was the child of a slave belonging to
+him, and had been stolen by the childless wife of the centurion.
+Virginius was summoned from the army, and on the day of trial was
+present to expose the conspiracy. Nevertheless, judgment was given
+according to the evidence of Marcus, and Claudius commanded Virginia to
+be given up to him. In despair, her father seized a knife from a
+neighbouring stall and plunged it in her side. A general insurrection
+was the result; and the people seceded to the Sacred Mount. The
+decemvirs were finally compelled to resign and Appius Claudius died in
+prison, either by his own hand or by that of the executioner. For a
+discussion of the character of Appius Claudius, see Mommsen's appendix
+to vol. i. of his _History of Rome_. He holds that Claudius was never
+the leader of the patrician party, but a patrician demagogue who ended
+by becoming a tyrant to patricians as well as plebeians. The
+decemvirate, one of the triumphs of the plebs, could hardly have been
+abolished by that body, but would naturally have been overthrown by the
+patricians. The revolution which ruined Claudius was a return to the
+rule of the patricians represented by the Horatii and Valerii.
+
+  Livy iii. 32-58; Dion. Halic. x. 59, xi. 3.
+
+
+3. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed CAECUS, Roman patrician and author. In 312
+B.C. he was elected censor without having passed through the office of
+consul. His censorship--which he retained for five years, in spite of
+the lex Aemilia which limited the tenure of that office to eighteen
+months--was remarkable for the actual or attempted achievement of
+several great constitutional changes. He filled vacancies in the senate
+with men of low birth, in some cases even the sons of freedmen (Diod.
+Sic. xx. 36; Livy ix. 30; Suetonius, _Claudius_, 24). His most important
+political innovation was the abolition of the old free birth, freehold
+basis of suffrage. He enrolled the freedmen and landless citizens both
+in the centuries and in the tribes, and, instead of assigning them to
+the four urban tribes, he distributed them through all the tribes and
+thus gave them practical control of the elections. In 304, however, Q.
+Fabius Rullianus limited the landless and poorer freedmen to the four
+urban tribes, thus annulling the effect of Claudius's arrangement.
+Appius Claudius transferred the charge of the public worship of Hercules
+in the Forum Boarium from the Potitian gens to a number of public
+slaves. He further invaded the exclusive rights of the patricians by
+directing his secretary Gnaeus Flavius (whom, though a freedman, he made
+a senator) to publish the _legis actiones_ (methods of legal practice)
+and the list of _dies fasti_ (or days on which legal business could be
+transacted). Lastly, he gained enduring fame by the construction of a
+road and an aqueduct, which--a thing unheard of before--he called by his
+own name (Livy ix. 29; Frontinus, _De Aquis_, 115; Diod. Sic. xx. 36).
+In 307 he was elected consul for the first time. In 298 he was interrex;
+in 296, as consul, he led the army in Samnium, and although, with his
+colleague, he gained a victory over the Etruscans and Samnites, he does
+not seem to have specially distinguished himself as a soldier (Livy x.
+19). Next year he was praetor, and he was once dictator. His character,
+like his namesake the decemvir's is not easy to define. In spite of his
+political reforms, he opposed the admission of the plebeians to the
+consulship and priestly offices; and, although these reforms might
+appear to be democratic in character and calculated to give
+preponderance to the lowest class of the people, his probable aim was to
+strengthen the power of the magistrates (and lessen that of the senate)
+by founding it on the popular will, which would find its expression in
+the urban inhabitants and could be most easily influenced by the
+magistrate. He was already blind and too feeble to walk, when Cineas,
+the minister of Pyrrhus, visited him, but so vigorously did he oppose
+every concession that all the eloquence of Cineas was in vain, and the
+Romans forgot past misfortunes in the inspiration of Claudius's
+patriotism (Livy x. 13; Justin xviii. 2; Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 19). The
+story of his blindness, however, may be merely a method of accounting
+for his cognomen. Tradition regarded it as the punishment of his
+transference of the cult of Hercules from the Potitii.
+
+Appius Claudius Caecus is also remarkable as the first writer mentioned
+in Roman literature. His speech against peace with Pyrrhus was the first
+that was transmitted to writing, and thereby laid the foundation of
+prose composition. He was the author of a collection of aphorisms in
+verse mentioned by Cicero (of which a few fragments remain), and of a
+legal work entitled _De Usurpationibus_. It is very likely also that he
+was concerned in the drawing up of the _Legis Actiones_ published by
+Flavius. The famous dictum "Every man is the architect of his own
+fortune" is attributed to him. He also interested himself in grammatical
+questions, distinguished the two sounds R and S in writing, and did away
+with the letter Z.
+
+  See Mommsen's appendix to his _Roman History_ (vol. i.); treatises by
+  W. Siebert (1863) and F.D. Gerlach (1872), dealing especially with the
+  censorship of Claudius.
+
+
+4. CLAUDIUS, PUBLIUS, surnamed PULCHER, son of (3). He was the first of
+the gens who bore this surname. In 249 he was consul and appointed to
+the command of the fleet in the first Punic War. Instead of continuing
+the siege of Lilybaeum, he decided to attack the Carthaginians in the
+harbour of Drepanum, and was completely defeated. The disaster was
+commonly attributed to Claudius's treatment of the sacred chickens,
+which refused to eat before the battle. "Let them drink then," said the
+consul, and ordered them to be thrown into the sea. Having been recalled
+and ordered to appoint a dictator, he gave another instance of his
+high-handedness by nominating a subordinate official, M. Claudius
+Glicia, but the nomination was at once overruled. Claudius himself was
+accused of high treason and heavily fined. He must have died before 246,
+in which year his sister Claudia was fined for publicly expressing a
+wish that her brother Publius could rise from the grave to lose a second
+fleet and thereby diminish the number of the people. It is supposed that
+he committed suicide.
+
+  Livy, _Epit._, 19; Polybius i. 49; Cicero, _De Divinatione_, i. 16,
+  ii. 8; Valerius Maximus i. 4, viii. I.
+
+
+5. CLAUDIUS, APPIUS, surnamed PULCHER, Roman statesman and author. He
+served under his brother-in-law Lucullus in Asia (72 B.C.) and was
+commissioned to deliver the ultimatum to Tigranes, which gave him the
+choice of war with Rome or the surrender of Mithradates. In 57 he was
+praetor, in 56 propraetor in Sardinia, and in 54 consul with L. Domitius
+Ahenobarbus. Through the intervention of Pompey, he became reconciled to
+Cicero, who had been greatly offended because Claudius had indirectly
+opposed his return from exile. In this and certain other transactions
+Claudius seems to have acted from avaricious motives,--a result of his
+early poverty. In 53 he entered upon the governorship of Cilicia, in
+which capacity he seems to have been rapacious and tyrannical. During
+this period he carried on a correspondence with Cicero, whose letters to
+him form the third book of the _Epistolae ad Familiares_. Claudius
+resented the appointment of Cicero as his successor, avoided meeting
+him, and even issued orders after his arrival in the province. On his
+return to Rome Claudius was impeached by P. Cornelius Dolabella on the
+ground of having violated the sovereign rights of the people. This led
+him to make advances to Cicero, since it was necessary to obtain
+witnesses in his favour from his old province. He was acquitted, and a
+charge of bribery against him also proved unsuccessful. In 50 he was
+censor, and expelled many of the members of the senate, amongst them the
+historian Sallust on the ground of immorality. His connexion with Pompey
+brought upon him the enmity of Caesar, at whose march on Rome he fled
+from Italy. Having been appointed by Pompey to the command in Greece, in
+obedience to an ambiguous oracle he crossed over to Euboea, where he
+died about 48, before the battle of Pharsalus. Claudius was of a
+distinctly religious turn of mind, as is shown by the interest he took
+in sacred buildings (the temple at Eleusis, the sanctuary of Amphiaraus
+at Oropus). He wrote a work on augury, the first book of which he
+dedicated to Cicero. He was also extremely superstitious, and believed
+in invocations of the dead. Cicero had a high opinion of his
+intellectual powers, and considered him a great orator (see Orelli,
+_Onomasticon Tullianum_).
+
+  A full account of all the Claudii will be found in Pauly-Wissowa's
+  _Realencyclopaedie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft_, iii. 2
+  (1899).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIUS, MARCUS AURELIUS, surnamed GOTHICUS, Roman emperor A.D.
+268-270, belonged to an obscure Illyrian family. On account of his
+military ability he was placed in command of an army by Decius; and
+Valerian appointed him general on the Illyrian frontier, and ruler of
+the provinces of the lower Danube. During the reign of Gallienus, he was
+called to Italy in order to crush Aureolus; and on the death of the
+emperor (268) he was chosen as his successor, in accordance, it was
+said, with his express desire. Shortly after his accession he routed the
+Alamanni on the Lacus Benacus (some doubt is thrown upon this); in 269 a
+great victory over the Goths at Naissus in Moesia gained him the title
+of Gothicus. In the following year he died of the plague at Sirmium, in
+his fifty-sixth year. He enjoyed great popularity, and appears to have
+been a man of ability and character.
+
+  His life was written by Trebellius Pollio, one of the _Scriptores
+  Historiae Augusiae_; see also Zosimus i. 40-43, the histories of Th.
+  Bernhardt and H. Schiller, and special dissertations by A. Duncker on
+  the life of Claudius (1868) and the defeat of the Alamanni (_Annalen
+  des Vereins fuer nassauische Altertumskunde_, 1879); Homo, _De Claudio
+  Gothico_ (1900); Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopaedie_, ii. 2458 ff.
+  (Henze).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUDIUS, MATTHIAS (1740-1815), German poet, otherwise known by the _nom
+de plume_ of ASMUS, was born on the 15th of August 1740 at Reinfeld,
+near Luebeck, and studied at Jena. He spent the greater part of his life
+in the little town of Wandsbeck, near Hamburg, where he earned his first
+literary reputation by editing from 1771 to 1775, a newspaper called the
+_Wandsbecker Bote_ (_Wandsbeck Messenger_), in which he published a
+large number of prose essays and poems. They were written in pure and
+simple German, and appealed to the popular taste; in many there was a
+vein of extravagant humour or even burlesque, while others were full of
+quiet meditation and solemn sentiment. In his later days, perhaps
+through the influence of Klopstock, with whom he had formed an intimate
+acquaintance, Claudius became strongly pietistic, and the graver side of
+his nature showed itself. In 1814 he removed to Hamburg, to the house of
+his son-in-law, the publisher Friedrich Christoph Perthes, where he died
+on the 21st of January 1815.
+
+  Claudius's collected works were published under the title of _Asmus
+  omnia sua secum portans, oder Saemtliche Werke des Wandsbecker Boten_
+  (8 vols., 1775-1812; 13th edition, by C. Redich, 2 vols., 1902). His
+  biography has been written by Wilhelm Herbst (4th ed., 1878). See also
+  M. Schneidereit, _M. Claudius, seine Weltanschauung und
+  Lebensweisheit_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSEL (more correctly CLAUZEL), BERTRAND, COUNT (1772-1842), marshal
+of France, was born at Mirepoix (Ariege) on the 12th of December 1772,
+and served in the first campaign of the French Revolutionary Wars as one
+of the volunteers of 1791. In June 1795, having distinguished himself
+repeatedly in the war on the northern frontier (1792-1793) and the
+fighting in the eastern Pyrenees (1793-1794), Clausel was made a general
+of brigade. In this rank he served in Italy in 1798 and 1799, and in the
+disastrous campaign of the latter year he won great distinction at the
+battles of the Trebbia and of Novi. In 1802 he served in the expedition
+to S. Domingo. He became a general of division in December 1802, and
+after his return to France he was in almost continuous military
+employment there until in 1806 he was sent to the army of Naples. Soon
+after this Napoleon made him a grand officer of the Legion of Honour. In
+1808-1809 he was with Marmont in Dalmatia, and at the close of 1809 he
+was appointed to a command in the army of Portugal under Massena.
+
+Clausel took part in the Peninsular campaigns of 1810 and 1811,
+including the Torres Vedras campaign, and under Marmont he did excellent
+service in re-establishing the discipline, efficiency and mobility of
+the army, which had suffered severely in the retreat from Torres Vedras.
+In the Salamanca campaign (1812) the result of Clausel's work was shown
+in the marching powers of the French, and at the battle of Salamanca,
+Clausel, who had succeeded to the command on Marmont being wounded, and
+had himself received a severe wound, drew off his army with the greatest
+skill, the retreat on Burgos being conducted by him in such a way that
+the pursuers failed to make the slightest impression, and had themselves
+in the end to retire from the siege of Burgos (1812). Early in 1813
+Clausel was made commander of the Army of the North in Spain, but he was
+unable to avert the great disaster of Vittoria. Under the supreme
+command of Soult he served through the rest of the Peninsular War with
+unvarying distinction. On the first restoration in 1814 he submitted
+unwillingly to the Bourbons, and when Napoleon returned to France, he
+hastened to join him. During the Hundred Days he was in command of an
+army defending the Pyrenean frontier. Even after Waterloo he long
+refused to recognize the restored government, and he escaped to America,
+being condemned to death in absence. He took the first opportunity of
+returning to aid the Liberals in France (1820), sat in the chamber of
+deputies from 1827 to 1830, and after the revolution of 1830 was at once
+given a military command. At the head of the army of Algiers, Clausel
+made a successful campaign, but he was soon recalled by the home
+government, which desired to avoid complications in Algeria. At the same
+time he was made a marshal of France (February 1831). For some four
+years thereafter he urged his Algerian policy upon the chamber of
+deputies, and finally in 1835 was reappointed commander-in-chief. But
+after several victories, including the taking of Mascara in 1835, the
+marshal met with a severe repulse at Constantine in 1836. A change of
+government in France was primarily responsible for the failure, but
+public opinion attributed it to Clausel, who was recalled in February
+1837. He thereupon retired from active service, and, after vigorously
+defending his conduct before the deputies, he ceased to take part in
+public affairs. He lived in complete retirement up to his death at
+Secourrieu (Garonne) on the 21st of April 1842.
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSEN, GEORGE (1852-   ), English painter, was born in London, the son
+of a decorative artist. He attended the design classes at the South
+Kensington schools from 1867-1873 with great success. He then worked in
+the studio of Edwin Long, R.A., and subsequently in Paris under
+Bouguereau and Robert-Fleury. He became one of the foremost modern
+painters of landscape and of peasant life, influenced to a certain
+extent by the impressionists with whom he shared the view that light is
+the real subject of landscape art. His pictures excel in rendering the
+appearance of things under flecking outdoor sunlight, or in the shady
+shelter of a barn or stable. His "Girl at the Gate" was acquired for the
+nation by the Chantrey Trustees and is now at the National Gallery of
+British Art (Tate Gallery). He was elected associate of the Royal
+Academy in 1895, and as professor of painting gave a memorable series of
+lectures to the students of the schools,--published as _Six Lectures on
+Painting_ (1904) and _Aims and Ideals in Art_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSEWITZ, KARL VON (1780-1831), Prussian general and military writer,
+was born at Burg, near Magdeburg, on the 1st of June 1780. His family,
+originally Polish, had settled in Germany at the end of the previous
+century. Entering the army in 1792, he first saw service in the Rhine
+campaigns of 1793-1794, receiving his commission at the siege of Mainz.
+On his return to garrison duty he set to work so zealously to remedy the
+defects in his education caused by his father's poverty, that in 1801 he
+was admitted to the Berlin Academy for young officers, then directed by
+Scharnhorst. Scharnhorst, attracted by his pupil's industry and force of
+character, paid special attention to his training, and profoundly
+influenced the development of his mind. In 1803, on Scharnhorst's
+recommendation, Clausewitz was made "adjutant" (aide-de-camp) to Prince
+August, and he served in this capacity in the campaign of Jena (1806),
+being captured along with the prince by the French at Prenzlau. A
+prisoner in France and Switzerland for the next two years, he returned
+to Prussia in 1809; and for the next three years, as a departmental
+chief in the ministry of war, as a teacher in the military school, and
+as military instructor to the crown prince, he assisted Scharnhorst in
+the famous reorganization of the Prussian army. In 1810 he married the
+countess Marie von Bruehl.
+
+On the outbreak of the Russian war in 1812, Clausewitz, like many other
+Prussian officers, took service with his country's nominal enemy. This
+step he justified in a memorial, published for the first time in the
+_Leben Gneisenaus_ by Pertz (Berlin, 1869). At first adjutant to General
+Phull, who had himself been a Prussian officer, he served later under
+Pahlen at Witepsk and Smolensk, and from the final Russian position at
+Kaluga he was sent to the army of Wittgenstein. It was Clausewitz who
+negotiated the convention of Tauroggen, which separated the cause of
+Yorck's Prussians from that of the French, and began the War of
+Liberation (see YORCK VON WARTENBURG; also Blumenthal's _Die Konvention
+von Tauroggen_, Berlin, 1901). As a Russian officer he superintended the
+formation of the _Landwehr_ of east Prussia (see STEIN, BARON VOM), and
+in the campaign of 1813 served as chief of staff to Count Wallmoden. He
+conducted the fight at Goehrde, and after the armistice, with Gneisenau's
+permission, published an account of the campaign (_Der Feldzug von 1813
+bis zum Waffenstillstand_, Leipzig, 1813). This work was long attributed
+to Gneisenau himself. After the peace of 1814 Clausewitz re-entered the
+Prussian service, and in the Waterloo campaign was present at Ligny and
+Wavre as General Thielmann's chief of staff. This post he retained till
+1818, when he was promoted major-general and appointed director of the
+_Allgemeine Kriegsschule_. Here he remained till in 1830 he was made
+chief of the 3rd Artillery Inspection at Breslau. Next year he became
+chief of staff to Field-marshal Gneisenau, who commanded an army of
+observation on the Polish frontier. After the dissolution of this army
+Clausewitz returned to his artillery duties; but on the 18th of November
+1831 he died at Breslau of cholera, which had proved fatal to his chief
+also, and a little previously, to his old Russian commander Diebitsch on
+the other side of the frontier.
+
+His collected works were edited and published by his widow, who was
+aided by some officers, personal friends of the general, in her task. Of
+the ten volumes of _Hinterlassene Werke ueber Krieg und Kriegfuehrung_
+(Berlin, 1832-1837, later edition called _Clausewitz's Gesammte Werke_,
+Berlin, 1874) the first three contain Clausewitz's masterpiece, _Vom
+Kriege_, an exposition of the philosophy of war which is absolutely
+unrivalled. He produced no "system" of strategy, and his critics styled
+his work "negative" and asked "_Qu'a-t-il fonde?_" What he had "founded"
+was that modern strategy which, by its hold on the Prussian mind,
+carried the Prussian arms to victory in 1866 and 1870 over the
+"systematic" strategists Krismanic and Bazaine, and his philosophy of
+war became, not only in Germany but in many other countries, the
+essential basis of all serious study of the art of war. The English and
+French translations (Graham, _On War_, London, 1873; Neuens, _La
+Guerre_, Paris, 1849-1852; or Vatry, _Theorie de la grande guerre_,
+Paris, 1899), with the German original, place the work at the disposal
+of students of most nationalities. The remaining volumes deal with
+military history: vol. 4, the Italian campaign of 1796-97; vols. 5 and
+6, the campaign of 1799 in Switzerland and Italy; vol. 7, the wars of
+1812, 1813 to the armistice, and 1814; vol. 8, the Waterloo Campaign;
+vols. 9 and 10, papers on the campaigns of Gustavus Adolphus, Turenne,
+Luxemburg, Muennich, John Sobieski, Frederick the Great, Ferdinand of
+Brunswick, &c. He also wrote _Ueber das Leben und den Charakter von
+Scharnhorst_ (printed in Ranke's _Historisch-politischer Zeitschrift_,
+1832). A manuscript on the catastrophe of 1806 long remained
+unpublished. It was used by v. Hoepfner in his history of that war, and
+eventually published by the Great General Staff in 1888 (French
+translation, 1903). Letters from Clausewitz to his wife were published
+in _Zeitschrift fuer preussische Landeskunde_ (1876). His name is borne
+by the 28th Field Artillery regiment of the German army.
+
+  See Schwartz, _Leben des General von Clausewitz und der Frau Marie von
+  Clausewitz_ (2 vols., Berlin, 1877); von Meerheimb, _Karl von
+  Clausewitz_ (Berlin, 1875), also Memoir in _Allgemeine deutsche
+  Biographie_; Bernhardi, _Leben des Generals von Clausewitz_ (10th
+  Supplement, _Militaer. Wochenblatt_, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSIUS, RUDOLF JULIUS EMMANUEL (1822-1888), German physicist, was born
+on the 2nd of January 1822 at Koeslin, in Pomerania. After attending the
+Gymnasium at Stettin, he studied at Berlin University from 1840 to 1844.
+In 1848 he took his degree at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed professor
+of physics in the royal artillery and engineering school at Berlin. Late
+in the same year he delivered his inaugural lecture as _Privatdocent_ in
+the university. In 1855 he became an ordinary professor at Zuerich
+Polytechnic, accepting at the same time a professorship in the
+university of Zuerich In 1867 he moved to Wuerzburg as professor of
+physics, and two years later was appointed to the same chair at Bonn,
+where he died on the 24th of August 1888. During the Franco-German War
+he was at the head of an ambulance corps composed of Bonn students, and
+received the Iron Cross for the services he rendered at Vionville and
+Gravelotte. The work of Clausius, who was a mathematical rather than an
+experimental physicist, was concerned with many of the most abstruse
+problems of molecular physics. By his restatement of Carnot's principle
+he put the theory of heat on a truer and sounder basis, and he deserves
+the credit of having made thermodynamics a science; he enunciated the
+second law, in a paper contributed to the Berlin Academy in 1850, in the
+well-known form, "Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter
+body." His results he applied to an exhaustive development of the theory
+of the steam-engine, laying stress in particular on the conception of
+entropy. The kinetic theory of gases owes much to his labours, Clerk
+Maxwell calling him its principal founder. It was he who raised it, on
+the basis of the dynamical theory of heat, to the level of a theory, and
+he carried out many numerical determinations in connextion with it, e.g.
+of the mean free path of a molecule. To Clausius also was due an
+important advance in the theory of electrolysis, and he put forward the
+idea that molecules in electrolytes are continually interchanging atoms,
+the electric force not causing, but merely directing, the interchange.
+This view found little favour until 1887, when it was taken up by S.A.
+Arrhenius, who made it the basis of the theory of electrolytic
+dissociation. In addition to many scientific papers he wrote _Die
+Potentialfunktion und das Potential_, 1864, and _Abhandlungen ueber die
+mechanische Waermetheorie_, 1864-1867.
+
+
+
+
+CLAUSTHAL, or KLAUSTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Harz, lying
+on a bleak plateau, 1860 ft. above sea-level, 50. m. by rail W.S.W. of
+Halberstadt. Pop. (1905) 8565. Clausthal is the chief mining town of the
+Upper Harz Mountains, and practically forms one town with Zellerfeld,
+which is separated from it by a small stream, the Zellbach. The streets
+are broad, opportunity for improvement having been given by fires in
+1844 and 1854; the houses are mostly of wood. There are an Evangelical
+and a Roman Catholic church, and a gymnasium. Clausthal has a famous
+mining college with a mineralogical museum, and a disused mint. Its
+chief mines are silver and lead, but it also smelts copper and a little
+gold. Four or five sanatoria are in the neighbourhood. The museum of the
+Upper Harz is at Zellerfeld.
+
+Clausthal was founded about the middle of the 12th century in
+consequence probably of the erection of a Benedictine monastery (closed
+in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellerfeld. At the beginning
+of the 16th century the dukes of Brunswick made a new settlement here,
+and under their directions the mining, which had been begun by the
+monks, was carried on more energetically. The first church was built at
+Clausthal in 1570. In 1864 the control of the mines passed into the
+hands of the state.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVECIN, the French for clavisymbal or harpsichord (Ger. _Clavicymbel_
+or _Dockenklavier_), an abbreviation of the Flemish _clavisinbal_ and
+Ital. _clavicimbalo_, a keyboard musical instrument in which the strings
+were plucked by means of a plectrum consisting of a quill mounted upon a
+jack.
+
+  See PIANOFORTE; HARPSICHORD.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVICEMBALO, or GRAVICEMBALO (from Lat. _clavis_, key, and _cymbalum_,
+cymbal; Eng. clavicymbal, clavisymbal; Flemish, _clavisinbal_; Span.
+_clavisinbanos_), a keyboard musical instrument with strings plucked by
+means of small quill or leather plectra. "Cymbal" (Gr. [Greek:
+kumbalon], from [Greek: khumbe], a hollow vessel) was the old European
+term for the dulcimer, and hence its place in the formation of the word.
+
+  See PIANOFORTE; SPINET; VIRGINAL.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVICHORD, or CLARICHORD (Fr. _manicorde_; Ger. _Clavichord_; Ital.
+_manicordo_; Span. _manicordio_[1]), a medieval stringed keyboard
+instrument, a forerunner of the pianoforte (q.v.), its strings being set
+in vibration by a blow from a brass tangent instead of a hammer as in
+the modern instrument. The clavichord, derived from the dulcimer by the
+addition of a keyboard, consisted of a rectangular case, with or without
+legs, often very elaborately ornamented with paintings and gilding. The
+earliest instruments were small and portable, being placed upon a table
+or stand. The strings, of finely drawn brass, steel or iron wire, were
+stretched almost parallel with the keyboard over the narrow belly or
+soundboard resting on the soundboard bridges, often three in number, and
+wound as in the piano round wrest or tuning pins set in a block at the
+right-hand side of the soundboard and attached at the other end to hitch
+pins. The bridges served to direct the course of the strings and to
+conduct the sound waves to the soundboard. The scaling, or division of
+the strings determining their vibrating length, was effected by the
+position of the tangents. These tangents, small wedge-shaped blades of
+brass, beaten out at the top, were inserted in the end of the arm of the
+keys. As the latter were depressed by the fingers the tangents rose to
+strike the strings and stop them at the proper length from the
+belly-bridge. Thus the string was set in vibration between the point of
+impact and the belly-bridge just as long as the key was pressed down.
+The key being released, the vibrations were instantly stopped by a list
+of cloth acting as damper and interwoven among the strings behind the
+line of the tangents.
+
+There were two kinds of clavichords--the fretted or _gebunden_ and the
+fret-free or _bund-frei_. The term "fretted" was applied to those
+clavichords which, instead of being provided with a string or set of
+strings in unison for each note, had one set of strings acting for three
+or four notes, the arms of the keys being twisted in order to bring the
+contact of the tangent into the acoustically correct position under the
+string. The "fret-free" were chromatically-scaled instruments. The first
+_bund-frei_ clavichord is attributed to Daniel Faber of Crailsheim in
+Saxony about 1720. This important change in construction increased the
+size of the instrument, each pair of unison strings requiring a key and
+tangent of its own, and led to the introduction of the system of tuning
+by equal temperament upheld by J.S. Bach. Clavichords were made with
+pedals.[2]
+
+The tone of the clavichord, extremely sweet and delicate, was
+characterized by a tremulous hesitancy, which formed its great charm
+while rendering it suitable only for the private music room or study.
+Between 1883 and 1893 renewed attention was drawn to the instrument by
+A.J. Hipkins's lectures and recitals on keyboard instruments in London,
+Oxford and Cambridge; and Arnold Dolmetsch reintroduced the art of
+making clavichords in 1894.    (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The words _clavicorde_, _clavicordo_ and _clavicordio_,
+    respectively French, Italian and Spanish, were applied to a different
+    type of instrument, the spinet (q.v.).
+
+  [2] See Sebastian Virdung, _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel,
+    1511) (facsimile reprint Berlin, 1882, edited by R. Eitner); J.
+    Verschuere Reynvaan, _Musijkaal Kunst-Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam, 1795)
+    (a very scarce book, of which the British Museum does not possess a
+    copy); Jacob Adlung, _Musica Mechanica Organoedi_ (Berlin, 1768),
+    vol. ii. pp. 158-9; A.J. Hipkins, _The History of the Pianoforte_
+    (London, 1896), pp. 61 and 62.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVICYTHERIUM, a name usually applied to an upright spinet (q.v.), the
+soundboard and strings of which were vertical instead of horizontal,
+being thus perpendicular to the keyboard; but it would seem that the
+clavicytherium proper is distinct from the upright spinet in that its
+strings are placed horizontally. In the early clavicytherium there was,
+as in the spinet, only one string (of gut) to each key, set in vibration
+by means of a small quill or leather plectrum mounted on a jack which
+acted as in the spinet and harpsichord (q.v.). The clavicytherium or
+keyed cythera or cetra, names which in the 14th and 15th centuries had
+been applied somewhat indiscriminately to instruments having strings
+stretched over a soundboard and plucked by fingers or plectrum, was
+probably of Italian[1] or possibly of south German origin. Sebastian
+Virdung,[2] writing early in the 16th century, describes the
+clavicytherium as a new invention, having gut strings, and gives an
+illustration of it. (See PIANOFORTE.) A certain amount of uncertainty
+exists as to its exact construction, due to the extreme rarity of
+unrestored specimens extant, and to the almost total absence of
+trustworthy practical information.
+
+In a unique specimen with two keyboards dating from the 16th or 17th
+century, which is in the collection of Baron Alexandre Kraus,[3] what
+appear to be vibrating strings stretched over a soundboard perpendicular
+to the keyboard are in reality the wires forming part of the mechanism
+of the action. The arrangement of this mechanism is the distinctive
+feature of the clavicytherium, for the wires, unlike the strings of the
+upright spinet, increase in length from _left to right_, so that the
+upright harp-shaped back has its higher side over the treble of the
+keyboard instead of over the bass. The vibrating strings of the
+clavicytherium in the Kraus Museum are stretched horizontally over two
+kinds of psalteries fixed one over the other. The first, serving for the
+lower register, is of the well-known trapezoid shape and lies over the
+keyboards; it has 30 wire strings in pairs of unisons corresponding to
+the 15 lowest keys. The second psaltery resembles the kanoun of the
+Arabs, and has 36 strings in courses of 3 unisons corresponding to the
+next 12 keys, and 88 very thin strings in courses of 4, completing the
+49 keys; the compass thus has a range of four octaves from C to C. The
+quills of the jacks belonging to the two keyboards are of different
+length and thickness. The jacks, which work as in the spinet, are
+attached to the perpendicular wires, disposed in two parallel rows, one
+for each keyboard.
+
+There is a very fine specimen of the so-called clavicytherium (upright
+spinet) in the Donaldson museum of the Royal College of Music, London,
+acquired from the Correr collection at Venice in 1885.[4] The instrument
+is undated, but A.J. Hipkins[5] placed it early in the 16th or even at
+the end of the 15th century. There is German writing on the inside of
+the back, referring to some agreement at Ulm. The case is of pine-wood,
+and the natural keys of box-wood. The jacks have the early steel
+springs, and in 1885 traces were found in the instrument of original
+brass plectra, all of which point to a very early date.
+
+A learned Italian, Nicolo Vicentino,[6] living in the 16th century,
+describes an _archicembalo_ of his own invention, at which the performer
+had to stand, having four rows of keys designed to obtain a complete
+mesotonic pure third tuning. This was an attempt to reintroduce the
+ancient Greek musical system. This instrument was probably an upright
+harpsichord or clavicembalo.
+
+  For the history of the clavicytherium considered as a forerunner of
+  the pianoforte see PIANOFORTE.    (K. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Mersenne, _Harmonie universelle_ (Paris, 1636), p. 113, calls the
+    clavicytherium "une nouvelle forme d'epinette dont on use en Italie,"
+    and states that the action of the jacks and levers is parallel from
+    back to front.
+
+  [2] _Musica getutscht und auszgezogen_ (Basel, 1511).
+
+  [3] See "Une Piece unique du Musee Kraus de Florence" in _Annales de
+    l'alliance scientifique universelle_ (Paris, 1907).
+
+  [4] See illustration by William Gibb in A.J. Hipkins's _Musical
+    Instruments, Historic, Rare and Unique_ (1888).
+
+  [5] _History of the Pianoforte_, Novello's Music Primers, No. 52
+    (1896), p. 75.
+
+  [6] _L'Antica Musica ridotta moderna prattica_ (Rome, 1555).
+
+
+
+
+CLAVIE, BURNING THE, an ancient Scottish custom still observed at
+Burghead, a fishing village on the Moray Firth, near Forres. The
+"clavie" is a bonfire of casks split in two, lighted on the 12th of
+January, corresponding to the New Year of the old calendar. One of these
+casks is joined together again by a huge nail (Lat. _clavus_; hence the
+term). It is then filled with tar, lighted and carried flaming round the
+village and finally up to a headland upon which stands the ruins of a
+Roman altar, locally called "the Douro." It here forms the nucleus of
+the bonfire, which is built up of split casks. When the burning
+tar-barrel falls in pieces, the people scramble to get a lighted piece
+with which to kindle the New Year's fire on their cottage hearth. The
+charcoal of the clavie is collected and is put in pieces up the cottage
+chimneys, to keep spirits and witches from coming down.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVIERE, ETIENNE (1735-1793), French financier and politician, was a
+native of Geneva. As one of the democratic leaders there he was obliged
+in 1782 to take refuge in England, upon the armed interference of
+France, Sardinia and Berne in favour of the aristocratic party. There he
+met other Swiss, among them Marat and Etienne Dumont, but their schemes
+for a new Geneva in Ireland--which the government favoured--were given
+up when Necker came to power in France, and Claviere, with most of his
+comrades, went to Paris. There in 1789 he and Dumont allied themselves
+with Mirabeau, secretly collaborating for him on the _Courrier de
+Provence_ and also in preparing the speeches which Mirabeau delivered as
+his own. It was mainly by his use of Claviere that Mirabeau sustained
+his reputation as a financier. But Claviere also published some
+pamphlets under his own name, and through these and his friendship with
+J.P. Brissot, whom he had met in London, he became minister of finance
+in the Girondist ministry, from March to the 12th of June 1792. After
+the 10th of August he was again given charge of the finances in the
+provisional executive council, though with but indifferent success. He
+shared in the fall of the Girondists, was arrested on the 2nd of June
+1793, but somehow was left in prison until the 8th of December, when, on
+receiving notice that he was to appear on the next day before the
+Revolutionary Tribunal, he committed suicide.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVIJO, RUY GONZALEZ DE (d. 1412), Spanish traveller of the 15th
+century, whose narrative is the first important one of its kind
+contributed to Spanish literature, was a native of Madrid, and belonged
+to a family of some antiquity and position. On the return of the
+ambassadors Pelayo de Sotomayor and Hernan Sanchez de Palazuelos from
+the court of Timur, Henry III. of Castille determined to send another
+embassy to the new lord of Western Asia, and for this purpose he
+selected Clavijo, Gomez de Salazar (who died on the outward journey),
+and a master of theology named Fray Alonzo Paez de Santa Maria. They
+sailed from St Mary Port near Cadiz on the 22nd of May 1403, touched at
+the Balearic Isles, Gaeta and Rhodes, spent some time at Constantinople,
+sailed along the southern coast of the Black Sea to Trebizond, and
+proceeded inland by Erzerum, the Ararat region, Tabriz, Sultanieh,
+Teheran and Meshed, to Samarkand, where they were well received by the
+conqueror. Their return was at last accomplished, in part after Timur's
+death, and with countless difficulties and dangers, and they landed in
+Spain on the 1st of March 1406. Clavijo proceeded at once to the court,
+at that time in Alcala de Henares, and served as chamberlain till the
+king's death (in the spring of 1406-1407); he then returned to Madrid,
+and lived there in opulence till his own death on the 2nd of April 1412.
+He was buried in the chapel of the monastery of St Francis, which he had
+rebuilt at great expense.
+
+  There are two leading MSS. of Clavijo's narrative--(a) London, British
+  Museum, Additional MSS., 16,613 fols. I, n.-125, v.; (b) Madrid,
+  National Library, 9218; and two old editions of the original
+  Spanish--(1) by Goncalo Argote de Molina (Seville, 1582), (2) by
+  Antonio de Sancha (Madrid, 1782), both having the misleading titles,
+  apparently invented by Molina, of _Historia del gran Tamorlan_, and
+  _Vida y hazanas del gran Tamorlan_ (the latter at the beginning of the
+  text itself); a better sub-title is added, viz. _Itinerario y
+  enarracion del viage y relacion de la embaxada que Ruy Gonzalez de
+  Clavijo le hizo_. Both editors, and especially Sancha, supply general
+  explanatory dissertations. The Spanish text has also been published,
+  with a Russian translation, in vol. xxviii. (pp. 1-455) of the
+  _Publications of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences_ (_Section
+  of Russian Language_, &c.), edited by I.I. Sreznevski (1881). An
+  English version, by Sir Clements Markham, was issued by the Hakluyt
+  Society in 1859 (_Narrative of the Embassy of R ... G ... de Clavijo
+  to the Court of Timour_). The identification of a great number of the
+  places mentioned by Clavijo is a matter of considerable difficulty,
+  and has given rise to some discussion (see Khanikof's list in
+  _Geographical Magazine_ (1874), and Sreznevski's _Annotated Index_ in
+  the Russian edition of 1881). A short account ot Clavijo's life is
+  given by Alvarez y Baena in the _Hijos de Madrid_, vol. ix. See also
+  C.R. Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, iii. 332-56.
+
+
+
+
+CLAVIJO Y FAJARDO, JOSE (1730-1806), Spanish publicist, was born at
+Lanzarote (Canary Islands) in 1730. He settled in Madrid, became editor
+of _El Pensador_, and by his campaign against the public performance of
+_autos sacramentales_ secured their prohibition in 1765. In 1770 he was
+appointed director of the royal theatres, a post which he resigned in
+order to take up the editorship of the _Mercurio historico y politico de
+Madrid_: at the time of his death in 1806 he was secretary to the
+Cabinet of Natural History. He had in abundance the courage,
+perseverance and gift of pungent expression which form the equipment of
+the aggressive journalist, but his work would long since have been
+forgotten were it not that it put an end to a peculiarly national form
+of dramatic exposition, and that his love affair with one of
+Beaumarchais' sisters suggested the theme of Goethe's first publication,
+_Clavigo_.
+
+
+
+
+CLAY, CASSIUS MARCELLUS (1810-1903), American politician, was born in
+Madison county, Kentucky, on the 19th of October 1810. He was the son of
+Green Clay (1757-1826), a Kentucky soldier of the war of 1812 and a
+relative of Henry Clay. He was educated at Centre College, Danville,
+Kentucky, and at Yale, where he graduated in 1832. Influenced to some
+extent by William Lloyd Garrison, he became an advocate of the abolition
+of slavery, and on his return to his native state, at the risk of social
+and political ostracism, he gave utterance to his belief. He studied
+law, but instead of practising devoted himself to a political career. In
+1835, 1837 and 1840 he was elected as a Whig to the Kentucky
+legislature, where he advocated a system of gradual emancipation, and
+secured the establishment of a public school system, and a much-needed
+reform in the jury system. In 1841 he was defeated on account of his
+abolition views. In 1844 he delivered campaign speeches for Henry Clay
+throughout the North. In 1845 he established, at Lexington, Kentucky, an
+anti-slavery publication known as _The True American_, but in the same
+year his office and press were wrecked by a mob, and he removed the
+publication office to Cincinnati, Ohio. During this and the earlier
+period of his career his zeal and hot temper involved him in numerous
+personal encounters and several duels, in all of which he bore himself
+with a reckless bravery. In the Mexican War he served as a captain of a
+Kentucky company of militia, and was taken prisoner, while
+reconnoitring, during General Scott's advance on the City of Mexico. He
+left the Whig party in 1850, and as an anti-slavery candidate for
+governor of Kentucky polled 5000 votes. In 1856 he joined the Republican
+party, and wielded considerable influence as a Southern representative
+in its councils. In 1860 he was a leading candidate for the
+vice-presidential nomination. In 1861 he was sent by President Lincoln
+as minister to Russia; in 1862 he returned to America to accept a
+commission as major-general of volunteers, but in March 1863 was
+reappointed to his former post at St Petersburg, where he remained until
+1869. Disapproving of the Republican policy of reconstruction, he left
+the party, and in 1872 was one of the organizers of the
+Liberal-Republican revolt, and was largely instrumental in securing the
+nomination of Horace Greeley for the presidency. In the political
+campaigns of 1876 and 1880 he supported the Democratic candidate, but
+rejoined the Republican party in the campaign of 1884. He died at
+Whitehall, Kentucky, on the 22nd of July 1903.
+
+  See his autobiography, _The Life, Memoirs, Writings, and Speeches of
+  Cassius Marcellus Clay_ (Cincinnati, 1896); and _The Writings of
+  Cassius Marcellus Clay_ (edited with a "Memoir" by Horace Greeley. New
+  York, 1848).
+
+
+
+
+CLAY, CHARLES (1801-1893), English surgeon, was born at Bredbury, near
+Stockport, on the 27th of December 1801. He began his medical education
+as a pupil of Kinder Wood in Manchester (where he used to attend John
+Dalton's lectures on chemistry), and in 1821 went to Edinburgh to
+continue his studies there. Qualifying in 1823, he began a general
+practice in Ashton-under-Lyne, but in 1839 removed to Manchester to
+practise as an operative and consulting surgeon. It was there that, in
+1842, he first performed the operation of ovariotomy with which his name
+is associated. On this occasion it was perfectly successful, and when
+in 1865 he published an analysis of 111 cases he was able to show a
+mortality only slightly above 30%. Although his merits in this matter
+have sometimes been denied, his claim to the title "Father of
+Ovariotomy" is now generally conceded, and it is admittted that he
+deserves the credit not only of having shown how that operation could be
+made a success, but also of having played an important part in the
+advance of abdominal surgery for which the 19th century was conspicuous.
+In spite of the claims of a heavy practice, Clay found time for the
+pursuit of geology and archaeology. Among the books of which he was the
+author were a volume of _Geological Sketches of Manchester_ (1839) and a
+_History of the Currency of the Isle of Man_ (1849), and his collections
+included over a thousand editions of the Old and New Testaments and a
+remarkably complete series of the silver and copper coins of the United
+States. He died at Poulton-le-Fylde, near Preston, on the 19th of
+September 1893.
+
+
+
+
+CLAY, FREDERIC (1838-1889), English musical composer, the son of James
+Clay, M.P., who was celebrated as a player of whist and a writer on that
+subject, was born in Paris on the 3rd of August 1838. He studied music
+under W.B. Molique in Paris and Moritz Hauptmann at Leipzig. With the
+exception of a few songs and two cantatas, _The Knights of the Cross_
+(1866) and _Lalla Rookh_ (1877),--the latter of which contained his
+well-known song "I'll sing thee songs of Araby,"--his compositions were
+all written for the stage. Clay's first public appearance was made with
+an opera entitled _Court and Cottage_, the libretto of which was written
+by Tom Taylor. This was produced at Covent Garden in 1862, and was
+followed by _Constance_ (1865), _Ages Ago_ (1869), and _Princess Toto_
+(1875), to name only three of many works which have long since been
+forgotten. The last two, which were written to libretti by W.S. Gilbert,
+are among Clay's most tuneful and most attractive works. He wrote part
+of the music for _Babil and Bijou_ (1872) and _The Black Crook_ (1873),
+both of which were produced at the Alhambra. He also furnished
+incidental music for a revival of _Twelfth Night_ and for the production
+of James Albery's _Oriana_. His last works, _The Merry Duchess_ (1883)
+and _The Golden Ring_ (1883), the latter written for the reopening of
+the Alhambra, which had been burned to the ground the year before,
+showed an advance upon his previous work, and rendered all the more
+regrettable the stroke of paralysis which crippled his physical and
+mental energies during the last few years of his life. He died at Great
+Marlow on the 24th of November 1889.
+
+
+
+
+CLAY, HENRY (1777-1852), American statesman and orator, was born in
+Hanover county, Virginia, on the 12th of April 1777, and died in
+Washington on the 29th of June 1852. Few public characters in the United
+States have been the subject of more heated controversy. His enemies
+denounced him as a pretender, a selfish intriguer, and an abandoned
+profligate; his supporters placed him among the sages and sometimes even
+among the saints. He was an arranger of measures and leader of political
+forces, not an originator of ideas and systems. His public life covered
+nearly half a century, and his name and fame rest entirely upon his own
+merits. He achieved his success despite serious obstacles. He was tall,
+rawboned and awkward; his early instruction was scant; but he "read
+books," talked well, and so, after his admission to the bar at Richmond,
+Virginia, in 1797, and his removal next year to Lexington, Kentucky, he
+quickly acquired a reputation and a lucrative income from his law
+practice.
+
+Thereafter, until the end of life, and in a field where he met, as
+either friend or foe, John Quincy Adams, Gallatin, Madison, Monroe,
+Webster, Jackson, Calhoun, Randolph and Benton, his political activity
+was wellnigh ceaseless. At the age of twenty-two (1799), he was elected
+to a constitutional convention in Kentucky; at twenty-six, to the
+Kentucky legislature; at twenty-nine, while yet under the age limit of
+the United States constitution, he was appointed to an unexpired term
+(1806-1807) in the United States Senate, where, contrary to custom, he
+at once plunged into business, as though he had been there all his life.
+He again served in the Kentucky legislature (1808-1809), was chosen
+speaker of its lower house, and achieved distinction by preventing an
+intense and widespread anti-British feeling from excluding the common
+law from the Kentucky code. A year later he was elected to another
+unexpired term in the United States Senate, serving in 1810-1811. At
+thirty-four (1811) he was elected to the United States House of
+Representatives and chosen speaker on the first day of the session. One
+of the chief sources of his popularity was his activity in Congress in
+promoting the war with Great Britain in 1812, while as one of the peace
+commissioners he reluctantly signed the treaty of Ghent on the 24th of
+December 1814. During the fourteen years following his first election,
+he was re-elected five times to the House and to the speakership;
+retiring for one term (1821-1823) to resume his law practice and
+retrieve his fortunes. He thus served as speaker in 1811-1814, in
+1815-1820 and in 1823-1825. Once he was unanimously elected by his
+constituents, and once nearly defeated for having at the previous
+session voted to increase congressional salaries. He was a warm friend
+of the Spanish-American revolutionists (1818) and of the Greek
+insurgents (1824). From 1825 to 1829 he served as secretary of state in
+President John Quincy Adams's cabinet, and in 1831 he was elected to the
+United States Senate, where he served until 1842, and again from 1849
+until his death.
+
+From the beginning of his career he was in favour of internal
+improvements as a means of opening up the fertile but inaccessible West,
+and was opposed to the abuse of official patronage known as "the spoils
+system." The most important of the national questions with which Clay
+was associated, however, were the various phases of slavery politics and
+protection to home industries. The most prominent characteristics of his
+public life were his predisposition to "compromises" and "pacifications"
+which generally failed of their object, and his passionate patriotic
+devotion to the Union.
+
+
+  His career as a Protectionist.
+
+His earliest championship of protection was a resolution introduced by
+him in the Kentucky legislature (1808) which favoured the wearing by its
+members of home-made clothes; and one in the United States Senate (April
+1810), on behalf of home-grown and home-made supplies for the United
+States navy, but only to the point of making the nation independent of
+foreign supply. In 1816 he advocated the Dallas tariff, in which the
+duties ranged up to 35% on articles of home production, the supply of
+which could satisfy the home demand; the avowed purpose being to build
+up certain industries for safety in time of war. In 1824 he advocated
+high duties to relieve the prevailing distress, which he pictured in a
+brilliant and effective speech. Although the distress was caused by the
+reactionary effect of a disordered currency and the inflated prices of
+the war of 1812, he ascribed it to the country's dependence on foreign
+supply and foreign markets. Great Britain, he said, was a shining
+example of the wisdom of a high tariff. No nation ever flourished
+without one. He closed his principal speech on the subject in the House
+of Representatives with a glowing appeal in behalf of what he called
+"The American System." In spite of the opposition of Webster and other
+prominent statesmen, Clay succeeded in enacting a tariff which the
+people of the Southern states denounced as a "tariff of abominations."
+As it overswelled the revenue, in 1832 he vigorously favoured reducing
+the tariff rates on all articles not competing with American products.
+His speech in behalf of the measure was for years a protection
+text-book; but the measure itself reduced the revenue so little and
+provoked such serious threats of nullification and secession in South
+Carolina, that, to prevent bloodshed and to forestall a free trade
+measure from the next Congress, Clay brought forward in 1833 a
+compromise gradually reducing the tariff rates to an average of 20%. To
+the Protectionists this was "like a crash of thunder in winter"; but it
+was received with such favour by the country generally, that its author
+was hailed as "The Great Pacificator," as he had been thirteen years
+before at the time of the Missouri Compromise (see below). As, however,
+the discontent with the tariff in the South was only a symptom of the
+real trouble there--the sensitiveness of the slave-power,--Clay
+subsequently confessed his serious doubts of the policy of his
+interference.
+
+He was only twenty-two, when, as an opponent of slavery, he vainly urged
+an emancipation clause for the new constitution of Kentucky, and he
+never ceased regretting that its failure put his state, in improvements
+and progress, behind its free neighbours. In 1820 he congratulated the
+new South American republics on having abolished slavery, but the same
+year the threats of the Southern states to destroy the Union led him to
+advocate the "Missouri Compromise," which, while keeping slavery out of
+all the rest of the territory acquired by the "Louisiana Purchase" north
+of Missouri's southern boundary line, permitted it in that state. Then,
+greeted with the title of "The Great Pacificator" as a reward for his
+success, he retired temporarily to private life, with a larger stock of
+popularity than he had ever had before. Although at various times he had
+helped to strengthen the law for the recovery of fugitive slaves,
+declining as secretary of state to aid Great Britain in the further
+suppression of the slave trade, and demanding the return of fugitives
+from Canada, yet he heartily supported the colonizing of the slaves in
+Africa, because slavery was the "deepest stain upon the character of the
+country," opposition to which could not be repressed except by "blowing
+out the moral lights around," and "eradicating from the human soul the
+light of reason and the law of liberty." When the slave power became
+more aggressive, in and after the year 1831, Clay defended the right of
+petition for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, and
+opposed Calhoun's bill forbidding the use of the mails to "abolition"
+newspapers and documents. He was luke-warm toward recognizing the
+independence of Texas, lest it should aid the increase of slave
+territory, and generally favoured the freedom of speech and press as
+regards the question of slavery; yet his various concessions and
+compromises resulted, as he himself declared, in the abolitionists
+denouncing him as a slaveholder, and the slaveholders as an
+abolitionist. In 1839, only twelve months after opposing the pro-slavery
+demands, he prepared an elaborate speech, in order "to set himself right
+with the South," which, before its delivery, received pro-slavery
+approval. While affirming that he was "no friend of slavery" he held
+abolition and the abolitionists responsible for the hatred, strife,
+disruption and carnage that menaced the nation. In response, Calhoun
+extended to him a most hearty welcome, and assigned him to a place on
+the bench of the penitents. Being a candidate for the presidency Clay
+had to take the insult without wincing. It was in reference to this
+speech that he made the oft-quoted remark that he "would rather be right
+than be president." While a candidate for president in 1844, he opposed
+in the "Raleigh letter" the annexation of Texas on many grounds except
+that of its increasing the slave power, thus displeasing both the men of
+anti-slavery and those of pro-slavery sentiments. In 1847, after the
+conquest of Mexico, he made a speech against the annexation of that
+country or the acquiring of any foreign territory for the spread of
+slavery. Although in 1849 he again vainly proposed emancipation in
+Kentucky, he was unanimously elected to the United States Senate, where
+in 1850 he temporarily pacified both sections of the country by
+successfully offering, for the sake of the "peace, concord and harmony
+of these states," a measure or series of measures that became known as
+the "Compromise of 1850." It admitted California as a free state,
+organized Utah and New Mexico as Territories without reference to
+slavery, and enacted a more efficient fugitive slave law. In spite of
+great physical weakness he made several earnest speeches in behalf of
+these measures to save the Union.
+
+Another conspicuous feature of Clay's public career was his absorbing
+and rightful, but constantly ungratified, ambition to be president of
+the United States. His name in connexion therewith was mentioned
+comparatively early, and in 1824, with W.H. Crawford, Andrew Jackson,
+and John Quincy Adams, he was a candidate for that office. There being
+no choice by the people, and the House of Representatives having elected
+Adams, Clay was accused by Jackson and his friends of making a corrupt
+bargain whereby, in payment of his vote and influence for Adams, he was
+appointed secretary of state. This made Jackson Clay's lifelong enemy,
+and ever after kept Clay busy explaining and denying the allegation. In
+1832 Clay was unanimously nominated for the presidency by the National
+Republicans; Jackson, by the Democrats. The main issue was the policy of
+continuing the United States Bank, which in 1811 Clay had opposed, but
+in 1816 and always subsequently warmly favoured. A majority of the
+voters approved of Jackson's fight against what Clay had once denounced
+as a dangerous and unconstitutional monopoly. Clay made the mistake of
+supposing that he could arouse popular enthusiasm for a moneyed
+corporation in its contest with the great military "hero of New
+Orleans." In 1839 he was a candidate for the Whig nomination, but by a
+secret ballot his enemies defeated him in the party convention, held in
+December of that year, and nominated William Henry Harrison. The result
+threw Clay into paroxysms of rage, and he violently complained that his
+friends always used him as their candidate when he was sure to be
+defeated, and betrayed him when he or any one could have been elected.
+In 1844 he was nominated by the Whigs against James K. Polk, the
+Democratic candidate. By an audacious fraud that represented him as an
+enemy, and Polk as a friend of protection, Clay lost the vote of
+Pennsylvania; and he lost the vote of New York by his own letter abating
+the force of his previous opposition to the annexation of Texas. Even
+his enemies felt that his defeat by Polk was almost a national calamity.
+In 1848, Zachary Taylor, a Mexican War hero, and hardly even a convert
+to the Whig party, defeated Clay for the nomination, Kentucky herself
+deserting her "favourite son."
+
+Clay's quick intelligence and sympathy, and his irreproachable conduct
+in youth, explain his precocious prominence in public affairs. In his
+persuasiveness as an orator and his charming personality lay the secret
+of his power. He had early trained himself in the art of speech-making,
+in the forest, the field and even the barn, with horse and ox for
+audience. By contemporaries his voice was declared to be the finest
+musical instrument that they ever heard. His eloquence was in turn
+majestic, fierce, playful, insinuating; his gesticulation natural,
+vivid, large, powerful. In public he was of magnificent bearing,
+possessing the true oratorical temperament, the nervous exaltation that
+makes the orator feel and appear a superior being, transfusing his
+thought, passion and will into the mind and heart of the listener; but
+his imagination frequently ran away with his understanding, while his
+imperious temper and ardent combativeness hurried him and his party into
+disadvantageous positions. The ease, too, with which he outshone men of
+vastly greater learning lured him from the task of intense and arduous
+study. His speeches were characterized by skill of statement, ingenious
+grouping of facts, fervent diction, and ardent patriotism; sometimes by
+biting sarcasm, but also by superficial research, half-knowledge and an
+unwillingness to reason a proposition to its logical results. In
+private, his never-failing courtesy, his agreeable manners and a noble
+and generous heart for all who needed protection against the powerful or
+the lawless, endeared him to hosts of friends. His popularity was as
+great and as inexhaustible among his neighbours as among his
+fellow-citizens generally. He pronounced upon himself a just judgment
+when he wrote: "If any one desires to know the leading and paramount
+object of my public life, the preservation of this Union will furnish
+him the key."
+
+  See Calvin Colton, _The Works of Henry Clay_ (6 vols., New York, 1857;
+  new ed., 7 vols., New York, 1898), the first three volumes of which
+  are an account of Clay's "Life and Times"; Carl Schurz, _Henry Clay_
+  (2 vols., Boston, 1887), in the "American Statesmen" series; and the
+  life by T. Hart Clay (1910).    (C. S.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAY (from O. Eng. _claeg_, a word common in various forms to Teutonic
+languages, cf. Ger. _Klei_), commonly defined as a fine-grained, almost
+impalpable substance, very soft, more or less coherent when dry, plastic
+and retentive of water when wet; it has an "earthy" odour when breathed
+upon or moistened, and consists essentially of hydrous aluminium
+silicate with various impurities. Of clay are formed a great number of
+rocks, which collectively are known as "clay-rocks" or "pelitic rocks"
+(from Gr. [Greek: pelos], clay), e.g. mudstone, shale, slate: these
+exhibit in greater or less perfection the properties above described
+according to their freedom from impurities. In nature, clays are rarely
+free from foreign ingredients, many of which can be detected with the
+unaided eye, while others may be observed by means of the microscope.
+The commonest impurities are:--(1) organic matter, humus, &c.
+(exemplified by clay-soils with an admixture of peat, oil shales,
+carbonaceous shales); (2) fossils (such as plants in the shales of the
+Lias and Coal Measures, shells in clays of all geological periods and in
+fresh water marls); (3) carbonate of lime (rarely altogether absent, but
+abundant in marls, cement-stones and argillaceous limestones); (4)
+sulphide of iron, as pyrite or marcasite (when finely diffused, giving
+the clay a dark grey-blue colour, which weathers to brown--e.g. London
+Clay; also as nodules and concretions, e.g. Gault); (5) oxides of iron
+(staining the clay bright red when ferric oxide, red ochre; yellow when
+hydrous, e.g. yellow ochre); (6) sand or detrital silica (forming loams,
+arenaceous clays, argillaceous sandstones, &c.). Less frequently present
+are the following:--rock salt (Triassic clays, and marls of Cheshire,
+&c.); gypsum (London Clay, Triassic clays); dolomite, phosphate of lime,
+vivianite (phosphate of iron), oxides of manganese, copper ores (e.g.
+_Kupferschiefer_), wavellite and amber. As the impurities increase in
+amount the clay rocks pass gradually into argillaceous sands and
+sandstones, argillaceous limestones and dolomites, shaly coals and clay
+ironstones.
+
+Natural clays, even when most pure, show a considerable range of
+composition, and hence cannot be regarded as consisting of a single
+mineral; clay is a _rock_, and has that variability which characterizes
+all rocks. Of the essential properties of clay some are merely physical,
+and depend on the minute size of the particles. If any rock be taken
+(even a piece of pure quartz) and crushed to a very fine powder, it will
+show some of the peculiarities of clays; for example, it will be
+plastic, retentive of moisture, impermeable to water, and will shrink to
+some extent if the moist mass be kneaded, and then allowed to dry. It
+happens, however, that many rocks are not disintegrated to this extreme
+degree by natural processes, and weathering invariably accompanies
+disintegration. Quartz, for example, has little or no cleavage, and is
+not attacked by the atmosphere. It breaks up into fragments, which
+become rounded by attrition, but after they reach a certain minuteness
+are borne along by currents of water or air in a state of suspension,
+and are not further reduced in size. Hence sands are more coarse grained
+than clays. A great number of rock-forming minerals, however, possess a
+good cleavage, so that when bruised they split into thin fragments; many
+of these minerals decompose somewhat readily, yielding secondary
+minerals, which are comparatively soft and have a scaly character, with
+eminently perfect cleavages, which facilitate splitting into exceedingly
+thin plates. The principal substances of this description are kaolin,
+muscovite and chlorite. Kaolin and muscovite are formed principally
+after felspar (and the felspars are the commonest minerals of all
+crystalline rocks); also from nepheline, leucite, scapolite and a
+variety of other rock-forming minerals. Chlorite arises from biotite,
+augite and hornblende. Serpentine, which may be fibrous or scaly, is a
+secondary product of olivine and certain pyroxenes. Clays consist
+essentially of the above ingredients (although serpentine is not known
+to take part in them to any extent, it is closely allied to chlorite).
+At the same time other substances are produced as decomposition goes on.
+They are principally finely divided quartz, epidote, zoisite, rutile,
+limonite, calcite, pyrites, and very small particles of these are rarely
+absent from natural clays. These fine-grained materials are at first
+mixed with broken and more or less weathered rock fragments and coarser
+mineral particles in the soil and subsoil, but by the action of wind and
+rain they are swept away and deposited in distant situations. "Loess" is
+a fine calcareous clay, which has been wind-borne, and subsequently laid
+down on the margins of dry steppes and deserts. Most clays are
+water-borne, having been carried from the surface of the land by rain
+and transported by the brooks and rivers into lakes or the sea. In this
+state the fine particles are known as "mud." They are deposited where
+the currents are checked and the water becomes very still. If
+temporarily laid down in other situations they are ultimately lifted
+again and removed. A little clay, stirred up with water in a glass
+vessel, takes hours to settle, and even after two or three days some
+remains in suspension; in fact, it has been suggested that in such cases
+the clay forms a sort of "colloidal solution" in the water. Traces of
+dissolved salts, such as common salt, gypsum or alum, greatly accelerate
+deposition. For these reasons the principal gathering places of fine
+pure clays are deep, still lakes, and the sea bottom at considerable
+distances from the shore. The coarser materials settle nearer the land,
+and the shallower portions of the sea floor are strewn with gravel and
+sand, except in occasional depressions and near the mouths of rivers
+where mud may gather. Farther out the great mud deposits begin,
+extending from 50 to 200 m. from the land, according to the amount of
+sediment brought in, and the rate at which the water deepens. A girdle
+of mud accumulations encircles all the continents. These sediments are
+fine and tenacious; their principal components, in addition to clay,
+being small grains of quartz, zircon, tourmaline, hornblende, felspar
+and iron compounds. Their typical colour is blackish-blue, owing to the
+abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; when fresh they have a sulphurous
+odour, when weathered they are brown, as their iron is present as
+hydrous oxides (limonite, &c). These deposits are tenanted by numerous
+forms of marine life, and the sulphur they contain is derived from
+decomposing organic matter. Occasionally water-logged plant debris is
+mingled with the mud. In a few places a red colour prevails, the iron
+being mostly oxidized; elsewhere the muds are green owing to abundant
+glauconite. Traced landwards the muds become more sandy, while on their
+outer margins they grade into the abysmal deposits, such as the
+globigerina ooze (see OCEAN AND OCEANOGRAPHY). Near volcanoes they
+contain many volcanic minerals, and around coral islands they are often
+in large part calcareous.
+
+Microscopic sections of some of the more coherent clays and shales may
+be prepared by saturating them with Canada balsam by long boiling, and
+slicing the resultant mass in the same manner as one of the harder
+rocks. They show that clay rocks contain abundant very small grains of
+quartz (about 0.01 to 0.05 mm. in diameter), with often felspar,
+tourmaline, zircon, epidote, rutile and more or less calcite. These may
+form more than one-third of an ordinary shale; the greater part,
+however, consists of still smaller scales of other minerals (0.01 mm. in
+diameter and less than this). Some of these are recognizable as pale
+yellowish and white mica; others seem to be chlorite, the remainder is
+perhaps kaolin, but, owing to the minute size of the flakes, they yield
+very indistinct reactions to polarized light. They are also often
+stained with iron oxide and organic substances, and in consequence their
+true nature is almost impossible to determine. It is certain, however,
+that the finer-grained rocks are richest in alumina, and in combined
+water; hence the inference is clear that kaolin or some other hydrous
+aluminium silicate is the dominating constituent. These results are
+confirmed by the mechanical analysis of clays. This process consists in
+finely pulverizing the soil or rock, and levigating it in vessels of
+water. A series of powders is obtained progressively finer according to
+the time required to settle to the bottom of the vessel. The clay is
+held to include those particles which have less than 0.005 mm. diameter,
+and contains a higher percentage of alumina than any of the other
+ingredients.
+
+As might be inferred from the differences they exhibit in other
+respects, clay rocks vary greatly in their chemical composition. Some of
+them contain much iron (yellow, blue and red clays); others contain
+abundant calcium carbonate (calcareous clays and marls). Pure clays,
+however, may be found almost quite free from these substances. Their
+silica ranges from about 60 to 45%, varying in accordance with the
+amount of quartz and alkali-felspar present. It is almost always more
+than would be the case if the rock consisted of kaolin mixed with
+muscovite. Alumina is high in the finer clays (18 to 30%), and they are
+the most aluminous of all sediments, except bauxite. Magnesia is never
+absent, though its amount may be less than 1%; it is usually contained
+in minerals of the chlorite group, but partly also in dolomite. The
+alkalis are very interesting; often they form 5 or 10% of the whole
+rock; they indicate abundance of white micas or of undecomposed
+particles of felspar. Some clays, however, such as fireclays, contain
+very little potash or soda, while they are rich in alumina; and it is a
+fair inference that hydrated aluminous silicates, such as kaolin, are
+well represented in these rocks. There are, in fact, a few clays which
+contain about 45% of alumina, that is to say, more than in pure kaolin.
+It is probable that these are related to bauxite and certain kinds of
+laterite.
+
+A few of the most important clay rocks, such as china-clay, brick-clay,
+red-clay and shale, may be briefly described here.
+
+_China-clay_ is white, friable and earthy. It occurs in regions of
+granite, porphyry and syenite, and usually occupies funnel-shaped
+cavities of no great superficial area, but of considerable depth. It
+consists of very fine scaly kaolin, larger, shining plates of white
+mica, grains of quartz and particles of semi-decomposed felspar,
+tourmaline, zircon and other minerals, which originally formed part of
+the granite. These clays are produced by the decomposition of the
+granite by acid vapours, which are discharged after the igneous rock has
+solidified ("fumarole or pneumatolytic action"). Fluorine and its
+compounds are often supposed to have been among the agencies which
+produce this change, but more probably carbonic acid played the
+principal role. The felspar decomposes into kaolin and quartz; its
+alkalis are for the most part set free and removed in solution, but are
+partly retained in the white mica which is constantly found in crude
+china-clays. Semi-decomposed varieties of the granite are known as
+china-stone. The kaolin may be washed away from its original site, and
+deposited in hollows or lakes to form beds of white clay, such as
+pipe-clay; in this case it is always more or less impure. Yellow and
+pinkish varieties of china-clay and pipe-clay contain a small quantity
+of oxide of iron. The best known localities for china-clay are Cornwall,
+Limoges (France), Saxony, Bohemia and China; it is found also in
+Pennsylvania, N. Carolina and elsewhere in the United States.
+
+_Fire-clays_ include all those varieties of clay which are very
+refractory to heat. They must contain little alkalis, lime, magnesia and
+iron, but some of them are comparatively rich in silica. Many of the
+clays which pass under this designation belong to the Carboniferous
+period, and are found underlying seams of coal. Either by rapid growth
+of vegetation, or by subsequent percolation of organic solutions, most
+of the alkalis and the lime have been carried away.
+
+Any argillaceous material, which can be used for the manufacture of
+bricks, may be called a _brick-clay_. In England, Kimmeridge Clay, Lias
+clays, London Clay and pulverized shale and slate are all employed for
+this purpose. Each variety needs special treatment according to its
+properties. The true brick-clays, however, are superficial deposits of
+Pleistocene or Quaternary age, and occur in hollows, filled-up lakes and
+deserted stream channels. Many of them are derived from the glacial
+boulder-clays, or from the washing away of the finer materials contained
+in older clay formations. They are always very impure.
+
+The _red-clay_ is an abysmal formation, occurring in the sea bottom in
+the deepest part of the oceans. It is estimated to cover over fifty
+millions of square miles, and is probably the most extensive deposit
+which is in course of accumulation at the present day. In addition to
+the reddish or brownish argillaceous matrix it contains fresh or
+decomposed crystals of volcanic minerals, such as felspar, augite,
+hornblende, olivine and pumiceous or palagonitic rocks. These must
+either have been ejected by submarine volcanoes or drifted by the wind
+from active vents, as the fine ash discharged by Krakatoa was wafted
+over the whole globe. Larger rounded lumps of pumice, found in the clay,
+have probably floated to their present situations, and sank when
+decomposed, all their cavities becoming filled with sea water. Crystals
+of zeolites (phillipsite) form in the red-clay as radiate, nodular
+groups. Lumps of manganese oxide, with a black, shining outer surface,
+are also characteristic of this deposit, and frequently encrust pieces
+of pumice or animal remains. The only fossils of the clay are
+radiolaria, sharks' teeth and the ear-bones of whales, precisely those
+parts of the skeleton of marine creatures which are hardest and can
+longest survive exposure to sea-water. Their comparative abundance shows
+how slowly the clay gathers. Small rounded spherules of iron, believed
+by some to be meteoric dust, have also been obtained in some numbers.
+Among the rocks of the continents nothing exactly the same as this
+remarkable deposit is known to occur, though fine dark clays, with
+manganese nodules, are found in many localities, accompanied by other
+rocks which indicate deep-water conditions of deposit.
+
+Another type of red-clay is found in caves, and is known as _cave-earth_
+or _red-earth_ (_terra rossa_). It is fine, tenacious and bright red,
+and represents the insoluble and thoroughly weathered impurities which
+are left behind when the calcareous matter is removed in solution by
+carbonated waters. Similar residual clays sometimes occur on the surface
+of areas of limestone in hollows and fissures formed by weathering.
+
+_Boulder-clay_ is a coarse unstratified deposit of fine clay, with more
+or less sand, and boulders of various sizes, the latter usually marked
+with glacial striations.
+
+Some clay rocks which have been laid down by water are very uniform
+through their whole thickness, and are called _mud-stones_. Others split
+readily into fine leaflets or laminae parallel to their bedding, and
+this structure is accentuated by the presence of films of other
+materials, such as sand or vegetable debris. Laminated clays of this
+sort are generally known as _shales_; they occur in many formations but
+are very common in the Carboniferous. Some of them contain much organic
+debris, and when distilled yield paraffin oil, wax, compounds of
+ammonia, &c. In these oil-shales there are clear, globular, yellow
+bodies which seem to be resinous. It has been suggested that the
+admixture of large quantities of decomposed fresh-water algae among the
+original mud is the origin of the paraffins. In New South Wales,
+Scotland and several parts of America such oil-shales are worked on a
+commercial scale. Many shales contain great numbers of ovoid or rounded
+septarian nodules of clay ironstone. Others are rich in pyrites, which,
+on oxidation, produces sulphuric acid; this attacks the aluminous
+silicates of the clay and forms aluminium sulphate (_alum shales_). The
+lias shales of Whitby contain blocks of semi-mineralized wood, or jet,
+which is black with a resinous lustre, and a fibrous structure. The
+laminated structure of shales, though partly due to successive very thin
+sheets of deposit, is certainly dependent also on the vertical pressure
+exerted by masses of super-incumbent rock; it indicates a transition to
+the fissile character of clay slates.    (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAY CROSS, an urban district in the Chesterfield parliamentary division
+of Derbyshire, England, near the river Amber, on the Midland railway, 5
+m. S. of Chesterfield. Pop. (1901) 8358. The Clay Cross Colliery and
+Ironworks Company, whose mines were for a time leased by George
+Stephenson, employ a great number of hands.
+
+
+
+
+CLAYMORE (from the Gaelic _claidheamh mor_, "great sword"), the old
+two-edged broadsword with cross hilt, of which the guards were usually
+turned down, used by the Highlanders of Scotland. The name is also
+wrongly applied to the single-edged basket-hilted sword adopted in the
+16th century and still worn as the full-dress sword in the Highland
+regiments of the British army.
+
+
+
+
+CLAYS, PAUL JEAN (1819-1900), Belgian artist, was born at Bruges in
+1819, and died at Brussels in 1900. He was one of the most esteemed
+marine painters of his time, and early in his career he substituted a
+sincere study of nature for the extravagant and artificial
+conventionality of most of his predecessors. When he began to paint, the
+sea was considered by continental artists as worth representing only
+under its most tempestuous aspects. Artists cared only for the stirring
+drama of storm and wreck, and they clung still to the old-world
+tradition of the romantic school. Clays was the first to appreciate the
+beauty of calm waters reflecting the slow procession of clouds, the
+glories of sunset illuminating the sails of ships or gilding the tarred
+sides of heavy fishing-boats. He painted the peaceful life of rivers,
+the poetry of wide estuaries, the regulated stir of roadsteads and
+ports. And while he thus broke away from old traditions he also threw
+off the trammels imposed on him by his master, the marine painter
+Theodore Gudin (1802-1880). Endeavouring only to give truthful
+expression to the nature that delighted his eyes, he sought to render
+the limpid salt atmosphere, the weight of waters, the transparence of
+moist horizons, the gem-like sparkle of the sky. A Fleming in his
+feeling for colour, he set his palette with clean strong hues, and their
+powerful harmonies were in striking contrast with the rusty, smoky tones
+then in favour. If he was not a "luminist" in the modern use of the
+word, he deserves at any rate to be classed with the founders of the
+modern naturalistic school. This conscientious and healthy
+interpretation, to which the artist remained faithful, without any
+important change, to the end of an unusually long and laborious career,
+attracted those minds which aspired to be bold, and won over those which
+were moderate. Clays soon took his place among the most famous Belgian
+painters of his generation, and his pictures, sold at high prices, are
+to be seen in most public and private galleries. We may mention, among
+others, "The Beach at Ault," "Boats in a Dutch Port," and "Dutch Boats
+in the Flushing Roads," the last in the National Gallery, London. In the
+Brussels gallery are "The Port of Antwerp," "Coast near Ostend," and a
+"Calm on the Scheldt"; in the Antwerp museum, "The Meuse at Dordrecht";
+in the Pinakothek at Munich, "The Open North Sea"; in the Metropolitan
+Museum of Fine Arts, New York, "The Festival of the Freedom of the
+Scheldt at Antwerp in 1863"; in the palace of the king of the Belgians,
+"Arrival of Queen Victoria at Ostend in 1857"; in the Bruges academy,
+"Port of Feirugudo, Portugal." Clays was a member of several Academies,
+Belgian and foreign, and of the Order of Leopold, the Legion of Honour,
+&c.
+
+  See Camille Lemonnier, _Histoire des Beaux-Arts_ (Brussels, 1887).
+     (O. M.*)
+
+
+
+
+CLAYTON, JOHN MIDDLETON (1796-1856), American politician, was born in
+Dagsborough, Sussex county, Delaware, on the 24th of July 1796. He came
+of an old Quaker family long prominent in the political history of
+Delaware. He graduated at Yale in 1815, and in 1819 began to practise
+law at Dover, Delaware, where for a time he was associated with his
+cousin, Thomas Clayton (1778-1854), subsequently a United States senator
+and chief-justice of the state. He soon gained a large practice. He
+became a member of the state House of Representatives in 1824, and from
+December 1826 to October 1828 was secretary of state of Delaware. In
+1829, by a combination of anti-Jackson forces in the state legislature,
+he was elected to the United States Senate. Here his great oratorical
+gifts gave him a high place as one of the ablest and most eloquent
+opponents of the administration. In 1831 he was a member of the Delaware
+constitutional convention, and in 1835 he was returned to the Senate as
+a Whig, but resigned in the following year. In 1837-1839 he was chief
+justice of Delaware. In 1845 he again entered the Senate, where he
+opposed the annexation of Texas and the Mexican War, but advocated the
+active prosecution of the latter once it was begun. In March 1849 he
+became secretary of state in the cabinet of President Zachary Taylor, to
+whose nomination and election his influence had contributed. His brief
+tenure of the state portfolio, which terminated on the 22nd of July
+1850, soon after Taylor's death, was notable chiefly for the negotiation
+with the British minister, Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, of the
+Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (q.v.). He was once more a member of the Senate
+from March 1853 until his death at Dover, Delaware, on the 9th of
+November 1856. By his contemporaries Clayton was considered one of the
+ablest debaters and orators in the Senate.
+
+  See the memoir by Joseph P. Comegys in the _Papers_ of the Historical
+  Society of Delaware, No. 4 (Wilmington, 1882).
+
+
+
+
+CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY, a famous treaty between the United States and
+Great Britain, negotiated in 1850 by John M. Clayton and Sir Henry
+Lytton Bulwer (Lord Dalling), in consequence of the situation created by
+the project of an interoceanic canal across Nicaragua, each signatory
+being jealous of the activities of the other in Central America. Great
+Britain had large and indefinite territorial claims in three
+regions--Belize or British Honduras, the Mosquito Coast and the Bay
+Islands.[1] On the other hand, the United States, without territorial
+claims, held in reserve, ready for ratification, treaties with Nicaragua
+and Honduras, which gave her a certain diplomatic vantage with which to
+balance the _de facto_ dominion of Great Britain. Agreement on these
+points being impossible and agreement on the canal question possible,
+the latter was put in the foreground. The resulting treaty had four
+essential points. It bound both parties not to "obtain or maintain" any
+exclusive control of the proposed canal, or unequal advantage in its
+use. It guaranteed the neutralization of such canal. It declared that,
+the intention of the signatories being not only the accomplishment of "a
+particular object"--i.e. that the canal, then supposedly near
+realization, should be neutral and equally free to the two contracting
+powers--"but also to establish a general principle," they agreed "to
+extend their protection by treaty stipulation to any other practicable
+communications, whether by canal or railway, across the isthmus which
+connects North and South America." Finally, it stipulated that neither
+signatory would ever "occupy, or fortify, or colonize, or assume or
+exercise any dominion over Nicaragua, Costa Rica, the Mosquito Coast or
+any part of Central America," nor make use of any protectorate or
+alliance, present or future, to such ends.
+
+The treaty was signed on the 19th of April, and was ratified by both
+governments; but before the exchange of ratifications Lord Palmerston,
+on the 8th of June, directed Sir H. Bulwer to make a "declaration" that
+the British government did not understand the treaty "as applying to Her
+Majesty's settlement at Honduras, or its dependencies." Mr Clayton made
+a counter-declaration, which recited that the United States did not
+regard the treaty as applying to "the British settlement in Honduras
+commonly called British-Honduras ... nor the small islands in the
+neighbourhood of that settlement which may be known as its
+dependencies"; that the treaty's engagements did apply to all the
+Central American states, "with their just limits and proper
+dependencies"; and that these declarations, not being submitted to the
+United States Senate, could of course not affect the legal import of the
+treaty. The interpretation of the declarations soon became a matter of
+contention. The phraseology reflects the effort made by the United
+States to render impossible a physical control of the canal by Great
+Britain through the territory held by her at its mouth--the United
+States losing the above-mentioned treaty advantages,--just as the
+explicit abnegations of the treaty rendered impossible such control
+politically by either power. But great Britain claimed that the excepted
+"settlement" at Honduras was the "Belize" covered by the extreme British
+claim; that the Bay Islands were a dependency of Belize; and that, as
+for the Mosquito Coast, the abnegatory clauses being wholly prospective
+in intent, she was not required to abandon her protectorate. The United
+States contended that the Bay Islands were not the "dependencies" of
+Belize, these being the small neighbouring islands mentioned in the same
+treaties; that the excepted "settlement" was the British-Honduras of
+definite extent and narrow purpose recognized in British treaties with
+Spain; that she had not confirmed by recognition the large, indefinite
+and offensive claims whose dangers the treaty was primarily designed to
+lessen; and that, as to the Mosquito Coast, the treaty was
+retrospective, and mutual in the rigour of its requirements, and as the
+United States had no _de facto_ possessions, while Great Britain had,
+the clause binding both not to "occupy" any part of Central America or
+the Mosquito Coast necessitated the abandonment of such territory as
+Great Britain was already actually occupying or exercising dominion
+over; and the United States demanded the complete abandonment of the
+British protectorate over the Mosquito Indians. It seems to be a just
+conclusion that when in 1852 the Bay Islands were erected into a British
+"colony" this was a flagrant infraction of the treaty; that as regards
+Belize the American arguments were decidedly stronger, and more correct
+historically; and that as regards the Mosquito question, inasmuch as a
+protectorate seems certainly to have been recognized by the treaty, to
+demand its absolute abandonment was unwarranted, although to satisfy the
+treaty Great Britain was bound materially to weaken it.
+
+In 1859-1860, by British treaties with Central American states, the Bay
+Islands and Mosquito questions were settled nearly in accord with the
+American contentions.[2] But by the same treaties Belize was accorded
+limits much greater than those contended for by the United States. This
+settlement the latter power accepted without cavil for many years.
+
+Until 1866 the policy of the United States was consistently for
+inter-oceanic canals open equally to all nations, and unequivocally
+neutralized; indeed, until 1880 there was practically no official
+divergence from this policy. But in 1880-1884 a variety of reasons were
+advanced why the United States might justly repudiate at will the
+Clayton-Bulwer Treaty.[3] The new policy was based on national
+self-interest. The arguments advanced on its behalf were quite
+indefensible in law and history, and although the position of the United
+States in 1850-1860 was in general the stronger in history, law and
+political ethics, that of Great Britain was even more conspicuously the
+stronger in the years 1880-1884. In 1885 the former government reverted
+to its traditional policy, and the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1902, which
+replaced the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, adopted the rule of neutralization
+for the Panama Canal.
+
+  See the collected diplomatic correspondence in I.D. Travis, _History
+  of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty_ (Ann Arbor, Mich., 1899); J.H. Latane,
+  _Diplomatic Relations of the United States and Spanish America_
+  (Baltimore, 1900); T.J. Lawrence, _Disputed Questions of Modern
+  International Law_ (2nd ed., Cambridge, England, 1885); Sir E.L.
+  Bulwer in 99 _Quarterly Rev._ 235-286, and Sir H. Bulwer in 104
+  _Edinburgh Rev._ 280-298.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The claims to a part of the first two were very old in origin,
+    but all were heavily clouded by interruptions of possession,
+    contested interpretations of Spanish-British treaties, and active
+    controversy with the Central American States. The claim to some of
+    the territory was new and still more contestable. See particularly on
+    these claims Travis'e book cited below.
+
+  [2] The islands were ceded to Honduras. The Mosquito Coast was
+    recognized as under Nicaraguan rule limited by an attenuated British
+    protectorate over the Indians, who were given a reservation and
+    certain peculiar rights. They were left free to accept full
+    Nicaraguan rule at will. This they did in 1894.
+
+  [3] It was argued, e.g., that the "general principle" of that
+    engagement was contingent on the prior realization of its "particular
+    object," which had failed, and the treaty had determined as a special
+    contract; moreover, none of the additional treaties to embody the
+    "general principle" had been negotiated, and Great Britain had not
+    even offered co-operation in the protection and neutrality-guarantee
+    of the Panama railway built in 1850-1855, so that her rights had
+    lapsed; certain engagements of the treaty she had violated, and
+    therefore the whole treaty was voidable, &c.
+
+
+
+
+CLAY-WITH-FLINTS, in geology, the name given by W. Whitaker in 1861 to a
+peculiar deposit of stiff red, brown or yellow clay containing unworn
+whole flints as well as angular shattered fragments, also with a
+variable admixture of rounded flint, quartz, quartzite and other
+pebbles. It occurs "in sheets or patches of various sizes over a large
+area in the south of England, from Hertfordshire on the north to Sussex
+on the south, and from Kent on the east to Devon on the west. It almost
+always lies on the surface of the Upper Chalk, but in Dorset it passes
+on to the Middle and Lower Chalk, and in Devon it is found on the
+Chert-Beds of the Selbornian group" (A.J. Jukes-Browne, "The
+Clay-with-Flints, its Origin and Distribution," _Q.J.G.S._, vol. lxii.,
+1906, p. 132). Many geologists have supposed, and some still hold, that
+the Clay-with-Flints is the residue left by the slow solution and
+disintegration of the Chalk by the processes of weathering; on the other
+hand, it has long been known that the deposit very frequently contains
+materials foreign to the Chalk, derived either from the Tertiary rocks
+or from overlying drift. In the paper quoted above, Jukes-Browne ably
+summarizes the evidence against the view that the deposit is mainly a
+Chalk residue, and brings forward a good deal of evidence to show that
+many patches of the Clay-with-Flints lie upon the same plane and may be
+directly associated with Reading Beds. He concludes "that the material
+of the Clay-with-Flints has been chiefly and almost entirely derived
+from Eocene clay, with addition of some flints from the Chalk; that its
+presence is an indication of the previous existence of Lower Eocene Beds
+on the same site and nearly at the same relative level, and,
+consequently, that comparatively little Chalk has been removed from
+beneath it. Finally, I think that the tracts of Clay-with-Flints have
+been much more extensive than they are now" (loc. cit. p. 159).
+
+It is noteworthy that the Clay-with-Flints is developed over an area
+which is just beyond the limits of the ice sheets of the Glacial epoch,
+and the peculiar conditions of late Pliocene and Pleistocene times;
+involving heavy rains, snow and frost, may have had much to do with the
+mingling of the Tertiary and Chalky material. Besides the occurrence in
+surface patches, Clay-with-Flints is very commonly to be observed
+descending in "pipes" often to a considerable depth into the Chalk;
+here, if anywhere, the residual chalk portion of the deposit should be
+found, and it is surmised that a thin layer of very dark clay with
+darkly stained flints, which appears in contact with the sides and
+bottom of the pipe, may represent all there is of insoluble residue.
+
+A somewhat similar deposit, a "_conglomerat de silex_" or "_argue a
+silex_," occurs at the base of the Eocene on the southern and western
+borders of the Paris basin, in the neighbourhood of Chartres, Thimerais
+and Sancerrois.    (J. A. H.)
+
+
+
+
+CLAZOMENAE (mod. _Kelisman_), an ancient town of Ionia and a member of
+the Ionian Dodecapolis (Confederation of Twelve Cities), on the Gulf of
+Smyrna, about 20 m. W. of that city. Though not in existence before the
+arrival of the Ionians in Asia, its original founders were largely
+settlers from Phlius and Cleonae. It stood originally on the isthmus
+connecting the mainland with the peninsula on which Erythrae stood; but
+the inhabitants, alarmed by the encroachments of the Persians, removed
+to one of the small islands of the bay, and there established their
+city. This island was connected with the mainland by Alexander the Great
+by means of a pier, the remains of which are still visible. During the
+5th century it was for some time subject to the Athenians, but about the
+middle of the Peloponnesian war (412 B.C.) it revolted. After a brief
+resistance, however, it again acknowledged the Athenian supremacy, and
+repelled a Lacedaemonian attack. Under the Romans Clazomenae was
+included in the province of Asia, and enjoyed an immunity from taxation.
+The site can still be made out, in the neighbourhood of Vourla, but
+nearly every portion of its ruins has been removed. It was the
+birthplace of the philosopher Anaxagoras. It is famous for its painted
+terra-cotta sarcophagi, which are the finest monuments of Ionian
+painting in the 6th century B.C.    (E. GR.)
+
+
+
+
+CLEANTHES (c. 301-232 or 252 B.C.), Stoic philosopher, born at Assos in
+the Troad, was originally a boxer. With but four drachmae in his
+possession he came to Athens, where he listened first to the lectures of
+Crates the Cynic, and then to those of Zeno, the Stoic, supporting
+himself meanwhile by working all night as water-carrier to a gardener
+(hence his nickname [Greek: phrehantles]). His power of patient
+endurance, or perhaps his slowness, earned him the title of "the Ass";
+but such was the esteem awakened by his high moral qualities that, on
+the death of Zeno in 263, he became the leader of the school. He
+continued, however, to support himself by the labour of his own hands.
+Among his pupils were his successor, Chrysippus, and Antigonus, king of
+Macedon, from whom he accepted 2000 minae. The manner of his death was
+characteristic. A dangerous ulcer had compelled him to fast for a time.
+Subsequently he continued his abstinence, saying that, as he was already
+half-way on the road to death, he would not trouble to retrace his
+steps.
+
+Cleanthes produced very little that was original, though he wrote some
+fifty works, of which fragments have come down to us. The principal is
+the large portion of the _Hymn to Zeus_ which has been preserved in
+Stobaeus. He regarded the sun as the abode of God, the intelligent
+providence, or (in accordance with Stoical materialism) the vivifying
+fire or aether of the universe. Virtue, he taught, is life according to
+nature; but pleasure is not according to nature. He originated a new
+theory as to the individual existence of the human soul; he held that
+the degree of its vitality after death depends upon the degree of its
+vitality in this life. The principal fragments of Cleanthes's works are
+contained in Diogenes Laertius and Stobaeus; some may be found in Cicero
+and Seneca.
+
+  See G.C. Mohinke, _Kleanthes der Stoiker_ (Greifswald, 1814); C.
+  Wachsmuth, _Commentationes de Zenone Citiensi et Cleanthe Assio_
+  (Goettingen, 1874-1875); A.C. Pearson, _Fragments of Zeno and
+  Cleanthes_ (Camb., 1891); article by E. Wellmann in Ersch and Gruber's
+  _Allgemeine Encyklopaedie_; R. Hirzel, _Untersuchungen zu Ciceros
+  philosophischen Schriften_, ii. (1882), containing a vindication of
+  the originality of Cleanthes; A.B. Krische, _Forschungen auf dem
+  Gebiete der alten Philosophie_ (1840); also works quoted under STOICS.
+
+
+
+
+CLEARCHUS, the son of Rhamphias, a Spartan general and condottiere. Born
+about the middle of the 5th century B.C., Clearchus was sent with a
+fleet to the Hellespont in 411 and became governor ([Greek: harmostes])
+of Byzantium, of which town he was _proxenus_. His severity, however,
+made him unpopular, and in his absence the gates were opened to the
+Athenian besieging army under Alcibiades (409). Subsequently appointed
+by the ephors to settle the political dissensions then rife at Byzantium
+and to protect the city and the neighbouring Greek colonies from
+Thracian attacks, he made himself tyrant of Byzantium, and, when
+declared an outlaw and driven thence by a Spartan force, he fled to
+Cyrus. In the "expedition of the ten thousand" undertaken by Cyrus to
+dethrone his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon, Clearchus led the
+Peloponnesians, who formed the right wing of Cyrus's army at the battle
+of Cunaxa (401). On Cyrus's death Clearchus assumed the chief command
+and conducted the retreat, until, being treacherously seized with his
+fellow-generals by Tissaphernes, he was handed over to Artaxerxes and
+executed (Thuc. viii. 8. 39, 80; Xen. _Hellenica_, i. 3. 15-19;
+_Anabasis_, i. ii.; Diodorus xiv. 12. 19-26). In character he was a
+typical product of the Spartan educational system. He was a warrior to
+the finger-tips ([Greek: polemikos kai philopolemos eschatos]. Xen.
+_Anab._ ii. 6. 1), and his tireless energy, unfaltering courage and
+strategic ability made him an officer of no mean order. But he seems to
+have had no redeeming touch of refinement or humanity.
+
+
+
+
+CLEARFIELD, a borough and the county-seat of Clearfield county,
+Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the W. branch of the Susquehanna river, in the
+W. central part of the state. Pop. (1890) 2248; (1900) 5081 (310
+foreign-born); (1910) 6851. It is served by the New York Central &
+Hudson River, the Pennsylvania, and the Buffalo, Rochester & Pittsburg
+railways. The borough is about 1105 ft. above sea-level, in a rather
+limited space between the hills, which command picturesque views of the
+narrow valley. The river runs through the borough. Coal and fireclay
+abound in the vicinity, and these, with leather, iron, timber and the
+products of the fertile soil, are the bases of its leading industries.
+Before the arrival of the whites the place had been cleared of timber
+(whence its name), and in 1805 it was chosen as a site for the
+county-seat of the newly erected county and laid out as a town; in 1840
+it was incorporated as a borough.
+
+
+
+
+CLEARING-HOUSE, the general term for a central institution employed in
+connexion with large and interrelated businesses for the purpose of
+facilitating the settlement of accounts.
+
+_Banking._--The London Clearing-House was established between 1750 and
+1770 as a place where the clerks of the bankers of the city of London
+could assemble daily to exchange with one another the cheques drawn upon
+and bills payable at their respective houses. Before the clearing-house
+existed, each banker had to send a clerk to the places of business of
+all the other bankers in London to collect the sums payable by them in
+respect of cheques and bills; and it is obvious that much time was
+consumed by this process, which involved the use of an unnecessary
+quantity of money and corresponding risks of safe carriage. In 1775 a
+room in Change Alley was settled upon as a common centre of exchange;
+this was afterwards removed to Post Office Court, Lombard Street. This
+clearing centre was at first confined to the bankers--at that time and
+long afterwards exclusively private bankers--doing business within the
+city, and the bankers in the west end of the metropolis used some one or
+other of the city banks as their agent in clearing. When the joint-stock
+banks were first established, the jealousy of the existing banks was
+powerful enough to exclude them altogether from the use of the
+Clearing-House; and it was not until 1854 that this feeling was removed
+so as to allow them to be admitted.
+
+At first the Clearing-House was simply a place of meeting, but it came
+to be perceived that the sorting and distribution of cheques, bills, &c,
+could be more expeditiously conducted by the appointment of two or three
+common clerks to whom each banker's clerk could give all the instruments
+of exchange he wished to collect, and from whom he could receive all
+those payable at his own house. The payment of the balance settled the
+transaction, but the arrangements were afterwards so perfected that the
+balance is now settled by means of transfers made at the Bank of England
+between the Clearing-House account and those of the various banks, the
+Clearing-House, as well as each banker using it, having an account at
+the Bank of England. The use of the Clearing-House was still further
+extended in 1858, so as to include the settlement of exchanges between
+the country bankers of England. Before that time each country banker
+receiving cheques on other country bankers sent them to those other
+bankers by post (supposing they were not carrying on business in the
+same place), and requested that the amount should be paid by the London
+agent of the banker on whom the cheques were drawn to the London agent
+of the banker remitting them. Cheques were thus collected by
+correspondence, and each remittance involved a separate payment in
+London. Since 1858, accordingly, a country banker sends cheques on other
+country banks to his London correspondent, who exchanges them at the
+Clearing-House with the correspondents of the bankers on whom they are
+drawn.
+
+The Clearing-House consists of one long room, lighted from the roof.
+Around the walls and down the centre are placed desks, allotted to the
+various banks, according to the amount of their business. The desks are
+arranged alphabetically, so that the clerks may lose no time in passing
+round the room and delivering their "charges" or batches of cheques to
+the representatives of the various banks. There are three clearings in
+London each day. The first is at 10.30 A.M., the second at noon, and the
+third at 2.30 P.M. It is the busiest of all, and continues until five
+minutes past four, when the last delivery must be made. The three
+clearings were, in 1907, divided into town, metropolitan and country
+clearings, each with a definite area. All the clearing banks have their
+cheques marked with the letters "T," "M" and "C," according to the
+district in which the issuing bank is situated. Every cheque issued by
+the clearing banks, even though drawn in the head office of a bank, goes
+through the Clearing-House.
+
+The amount of business transacted at the Clearing-House varies very much
+with the seasons of the year, the busiest time being when dividends are
+paid and stock exchange settlements are made, but the volume of
+transactions averages roughly from 200 to 300 millions sterling a week,
+and the yearly clearances amount to something like L12,000,000,000.
+There are provincial clearing-houses at Manchester, Liverpool,
+Birmingham, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Leeds, Sheffield, Leicester and Bristol.
+There are also clearing-houses in most of the large towns of Scotland
+and Ireland. In New York and the other large cities of the United States
+there are clearing-houses providing accommodation for the various
+banking institutions (see BANKS AND BANKING).
+
+The progress of banking on the continent of Europe has been slow in
+comparison with that of the United Kingdom, and the use of cheques is
+not so general, consequently the need for clearing-houses is not so
+great. In France, too, the greater proportion of the banking business
+is carried on through three banks only, the Banque de France, the
+Societe Generale and the Credit Lyonnais, and a great part of their
+transactions are settled at their own head offices. But at the same time
+large sums pass through the Paris Chambre de Compensation (the
+clearing-house), established in 1872.
+
+There are clearing-houses also in Berlin, Hamburg and many other
+European cities.
+
+_Railways._--The British Railway Clearing-House was established in 1842,
+its purpose, as defined by the Railway Clearing-House Act of 1850, being
+"to settle and adjust the receipts arising from railway traffic within,
+or partly within, the United Kingdom, and passing over more than one
+railway within the United Kingdom, booked or invoiced at throughout
+rates or fares." It is an independent body, governed by a committee
+which is composed of delegates (usually the chairman or one of the
+directors) from each of the railways that belong to it. Any railway
+company may be admitted a party to the clearing-system with the assent
+of the committee, may cease to be a member at a month's notice, and may
+be expelled if such expulsion be voted for by two-thirds of the
+delegates present at a specially convened meeting. The cost of
+maintaining it is defrayed by contributions from the companies
+proportional to the volume of business passed through it by each. It has
+two main functions. (1) When passengers or goods are booked through
+between stations belonging to different railway companies at an
+inclusive charge for the whole journey, it distributes the money
+received in due proportions between the companies concerned in rendering
+the service. To this end it receives, in the case of passenger traffic,
+a monthly return of the tickets issued at each station to stations on
+other lines, and, in the case of goods traffic, it is supplied by both
+the sending and receiving stations (when these are on different
+companies' systems) with abstracts showing the character, weight, &c.,
+of the goods that have travelled between them. By the aid of these
+particulars it allocates the proper share of the receipts to each
+company, having due regard to the distance over which the traffic has
+been carried on each line, to the terminal services rendered by each
+company, to any incidental expenses to which it may have been put, and
+to the existence of any special agreements for the division of traffic.
+(2) To avoid the inconvenience of a change of train at points where the
+lines of different companies meet, passengers are often, and goods and
+minerals generally, carried in through vehicles from their
+starting-point to their destination. In consequence, vehicles belonging
+to one company are constantly forming part of trains that belong to, and
+run over the lines of, other companies, which thus have the temporary
+use of rolling stock that does not belong to them. By the aid of a large
+staff of "number takers" who are stationed at junctions all over the
+country, and whose business is to record particulars of the vehicles
+which pass through those junctions, the Clearing-House follows the
+movements of vehicles which have left their owners' line, ascertains how
+far they have run on the lines of other companies, and debits each of
+the latter with the amount it has to pay for their use. This charge is
+known as "mileage"; another charge which is also determined by the
+Clearing-House is "demurrage," that is, the amount exacted from the
+detaining company if a vehicle is not returned to its owners within a
+prescribed time. By the exercise of these functions the Clearing-House
+accumulates a long series of credits to, and debits against, each
+company; these are periodically added up and set against each other,
+with the result that the accounts between it and the companies are
+finally settled by the transfer of comparatively small balances. It also
+distributes the money paid by the post-office to the railways on account
+of the conveyance of parcel-post traffic, and through its lost luggage
+department many thousands of articles left in railway carriages are
+every year returned to their owners. Its situation in London further
+renders it a convenient meeting-place for several "Clearing-House
+Conferences" of railway officials, as of the general managers, the goods
+managers, and the superintendents of the line, held four times a year
+for the consideration of questions in which all the companies are
+interested. The Irish Railway Clearing-House, established in 1848, has
+its headquarters in Dublin, and was incorporated by act of parliament in
+1860.
+
+_General_.--The principle of clearing adopted by banks and railways has
+been applied with considerable success in other businesses.
+
+In 1874 the London Stock Exchange Clearing-House was established for the
+purpose of settling transactions in stock, the clearing being effected
+by balance-sheets and tickets; the balance of stock to be received or
+delivered is shown on a balance-sheet sent in by each member, and the
+items are then cancelled against one another and tickets issued for the
+balances outstanding. The New York Stock Exchange Clearing-House was
+established in 1892. The settlements on the Paris Bourse are cleared
+within the Bourse itself, through the Compagnie des Agents de Change de
+Paris.
+
+In 1888 a society was formed in London called the Beetroot Sugar
+Association for clearing bargains in beetroot sugar. For every 500 bags
+of sugar of a definite weight which a broker sells, he issues a
+_filiere_ (a form something like a dock-warrant), giving particulars as
+to the ship, the warehouse, trade-marks, &c. The filiere contains also a
+series of transfer forms which are filled up and signed by each
+successive holder, so transferring the property to a new purchaser. The
+new purchaser also fills up a coupon attached to the transfer, quoting
+the date and hour of sale. This coupon is detached by the seller and
+retained by him as evidence to determine any liability through
+subsequent delay in the delivery of the sugar. Any purchaser requiring
+delivery of the sugar forwards the filiere to the clearing-house, and
+the officials then send on his name to the first seller who tenders him
+the warrant direct. These filieres pass from hand to hand within a limit
+of six days, a stamp being affixed on each transfer as a clearing-house
+fee. The difference between each of the successive transactions is
+adjusted by the clearing-house to the profit or loss of the seller.
+
+The London Produce Clearing-House was established in 1888 for regulating
+and adjusting bargains in foreign and colonial produce. The object of
+the association is to guarantee both to the buyer and the seller the
+fulfilment of bargains for future delivery. The transactions on either
+side are allowed to accumulate during a month and an adjustment made at
+the end by a settlement of the final balance owing. On the same lines
+are the Caisse de Liquidation at Havre and the Waaren Liquidations Casse
+at Hamburg. The Cotton Association also has a clearing-house at
+Liverpool for clearing the transactions which arise from dealings in
+cotton.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--W. Howarth, _Our Clearing System and Clearing Houses_
+  (1897), _The Banks in the Clearing House_ (1905); J.G. Cannon,
+  _Clearing-houses, their History, Methods and Administration_ (1901);
+  H.T. Easton, _Money, Exchange and Banking_ (1905); and the various
+  volumes of the _Journal of the Institute of Bankers_. (T.A.I.)
+
+
+
+
+CLEAT (a word common in various forms to many Teutonic languages, in the
+sense of a wedge or lump, cf. "clod" and "clot"), a wedge-shaped piece
+of wood fastened to ships' masts and elsewhere to prevent a rope, collar
+or the like from slipping, or to act as a step; more particularly a
+piece of wood or metal with double or single horns used for belaying
+ropes. A "cleat" is also a wedge fastened to a ship's side to catch the
+shores in a launching cradle or dry dock. "Cleat" is also used in mining
+for the vertical cleavage-planes of coal.
+
+
+
+
+CLEATOR MOOR, an urban district in the Egremont parliamentary division
+of Cumberland, England, 4 m. S.E. of White-haven, served by the Furness,
+London & North-Western and Cleator & Workington Junction railways. Pop.
+(1901) 8120. The town lies between the valleys of the Ehen and its
+tributary the Dub Beck, in a district rich in coal and iron ore. The
+mining of these, together with blast furnaces and engineering works,
+occupies the large industrial population.
+
+
+
+
+CLEAVERS, or GOOSE-GRASS, _Galium Aparine_ (natural order Rubiaceae), a
+common plant in hedges and waste places, with a long, weak, straggling,
+four-sided, green stem, bearing whorls of 6 to 8 narrow leaves, 1/2 to 2
+in. long, and, like the angles of the stem, rough from the presence of
+short, stiff, downwardly-pointing, hooked hairs. The small, white,
+regular flowers are borne, a few together, in axillary clusters, and are
+followed by the large, hispid, two-celled fruit, which, like the rest of
+the plant, readily clings to a rough surface, whence the common name.
+The plant has a wide distribution throughout the north temperate zone,
+and is also found in temperate South America.
+
+
+
+
+CLEBURNE, a town and the county-seat of Johnson county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+25 m. S. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1890) 3278; (1900) 7493, including 611
+negroes; (1910) 10,364. It is served by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe,
+the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Trinity & Brazos Valley railways.
+It is the centre of a prosperous farming, fruit and stock-raising
+region, has large railway repair shops, flour-mills, cotton gins and
+foundries, a canning factory and machine shops. It has a Carnegie
+library, and St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic; for girls). The town
+was named in honour of Patrick Ronayne Cleburne (1828-1864), a
+major-general of the Confederate army, who was of Irish birth, practised
+law in Helena, Arkansas, served at Shiloh, Perryville, Stone River,
+Chickamauga, Missionary Ridge, Ring-gold Gap, Jonesboro and Franklin,
+and was killed in the last-named battle; he was called the "Stonewall of
+the West."
+
+
+
+
+CLECKHEATON, an urban district in the Spen Valley parliamentary division
+of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 51/2 m. S. by E. of Bradford, on
+the Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great Northern and London & North-Western
+railways. Pop. (1901) 12,524. A chamber of commerce has held meetings
+here since 1878. The industries comprise the manufacture of woollens,
+blankets, flannel, wire-card and machinery.
+
+
+
+
+CLEETHORPES, a watering-place of Lincolnshire, England; within the
+parliamentary borough of Great Grimsby, 3 m. S.E. of that town by a
+branch of the Great Central railway. Pop. of urban district of
+Cleethorpe with Thrunscoe (1901) 12,578. Cleethorpes faces eastward to
+the North Sea, but its shore of fine sand, affording good bathing,
+actually belongs to the estuary of the Humber. There is a pier, and the
+sea-wall extends for about a mile, forming a pleasant promenade. The
+suburb of New Clee connects Cleethorpes with Grimsby. The church of the
+Holy Trinity and St Mary is principally Norman of various dates, but
+work of a date apparently previous to the Conquest appears in the tower.
+Cleethorpes is greatly favoured by visitors from the midland counties,
+Lancashire and Yorkshire.
+
+
+
+
+CLEFT PALATE and HARE-LIP, in surgery. _Cleft Palate_ is a congenital
+cleavage, or incomplete development in the roof of the mouth, and is
+frequently associated with hare-lip. The infant is prevented from
+sucking, and an operation is necessary. Cleft-palate is often a
+hereditary defect. The most favourable time for operating is between the
+age of two weeks and three months, and if the cleft is closed at this
+early date, not only are the nutrition and general development of the
+child greatly improved, but the voice is probably saved from much of the
+unpleasant tone which is usually associated with a defective roof to the
+mouth and is apt to persist even if a cleft has been successfully
+operated on later in childhood. The greatest advance which has been made
+in the operative treatment of cleft palate is due to the teaching of Dr
+Truman W. Brophy, who adopted the ingenious plan of thrusting together
+to the middle line of the mouth the halves of the palate which nature
+had unfortunately left apart. But, as noted above, this operation must,
+to give the best results, be undertaken in the earliest months of
+infancy. After the cleft in the palate has been effectually dealt with,
+the hare-lip can be repaired with ease and success.
+
+_Hare-lip_.--In the hare the splitting of the lip is in the middle line,
+but in the human subject it is on one side, or on both sides of the
+middle line. This is accounted for on developmental grounds: a cleft in
+the exact middle line is of extremely rare occurrence. Hare-lip is often
+associated with cleft palate. Though we are at present unable to explain
+why development should so frequently miss the mark in connexion with the
+formation of the lip and palate, it is unlikely that maternal
+impressions have anything to do with it. As a rule, the supposed
+"fright" comes long after the lips are developed. They are completely
+formed by the ninth week. Heredity has a powerful influence in many
+cases. The best time for operating on a hare-lip depends upon various
+circumstances. Thus, if it is associated with cleft palate, the palatine
+cleft has first to be closed, in which case the child will probably be
+several months old before the lip is operated on. If the infant is in so
+poor a state of nutrition that it appears unsuitable for surgical
+treatment, the operation must be postponed until his condition is
+sufficiently improved. But, assuming that the infant is in fair health,
+that he is taking his food well and thriving on it, that he is not
+troubled by vomiting or diarrhoea, and that the hare-lip is not
+associated with a defective palate, the sooner it is operated on the
+better. It may be successfully done even within a few hours of birth.
+When a hare-lip is unassociated with cleft palate, the infant may
+possibly be enabled to take the breast within a short time of the gap
+being closed. In such a case the operation may be advisably undertaken
+within the first few days of birth. The case being suitable, the
+operation may be conveniently undertaken at any time after the tenth
+day.    (E. O.*)
+
+
+
+
+CLEISTHENES, the name of two Greek statesmen, (1) of Athens, (2) of
+Sicyon, of whom the first is far the more important.
+
+
+1. CLEISTHENES, the Athenian statesman, was the son of Megacles and
+Agariste, daughter of Cleisthenes of Sicyon. He thus belonged, through
+his father, to the noble family of the Alcmaeonidae (q.v.), who bore
+upon them the curse of the Cylonian massacre, and had been in exile
+during the rule of the Peisistratids. In the hope of washing out the
+stigma, which damaged their prestige, they spent the latter part of
+their exile in carrying out with great splendour the contract given out
+by the Amphictyons for the rebuilding of the temple at Delphi (destroyed
+by fire in 548 B.C.). By building the pronaos of Parian marble instead
+of limestone as specified in the contract, they acquired a high
+reputation for piety; the curse was consigned to oblivion, and their
+reinstatement was imposed by the oracle itself upon the Spartan king,
+Cleomenes (q.v.). Cleisthenes, to whom this far-seeing atonement must
+probably be attributed, had also on his side (1) the malcontents in
+Athens who were disgusted with the growing severity of Hippias, and (2)
+the oligarchs of Sparta, partly on religious grounds, and partly owing
+to their hatred of tyranny. Aristotle's _Constitution of Athens_,
+however, treats the alliance of the Peisistratids with Argos, the rival
+of Sparta in the Peloponnese, as the chief ground for the action of
+Sparta (_c._ 19). In _c._ 513 B.C. Cleisthenes invaded Attica, but was
+defeated by the tyrant's mercenaries at Leipsydrium (S. of Mt. Parnes).
+Sparta then, in tardy obedience to the oracle, threw off her alliance
+with the Peisistratids, and, after one failure, expelled Hippias in
+511-510 B.C., leaving Athens once again at the mercy of the powerful
+families.
+
+
+  Home and foreign policy.
+
+Cleisthenes, on his return, was in a difficulty; he realized that Athens
+would not tolerate a new tyranny, nor were the other nobles willing to
+accept him as leader of a constitutional oligarchy. It was left for him
+to "take the people into partnership" as Peisistratus had in a different
+way done before him. Solon's reforms had failed, primarily because they
+left unimpaired the power of the great landed nobles, who, in their
+several districts, doubled the roles of landlord, priest and patriarch.
+This evil of local influence Peisistratus had concealed by satisfying
+the nominally sovereign people that in him they had a sufficient
+representative. It was left to Cleisthenes to adopt the remaining remedy
+of giving substance to the form of the Solonian constitution. His first
+attempts roused the aristocrats to a last effort; Isagoras appealed to
+the Spartans (who, though they disliked tyranny, had no love for
+democracy) to come to his aid. Cleisthenes retired on the arrival of a
+herald from Cleomenes, reviving the old question of the curse; Isagoras
+thus became all-powerful[1] and expelled seven hundred families. The
+democrats, however, rose, and after besieging Cleomenes and Isagoras in
+the Acropolis, let them go under a safe-conduct, and brought back the
+exiles.
+
+Apart from the reforms which Cleisthenes was now able to establish, the
+period of his ascendancy is a blank, nor are we told when and how it
+came to an end. It is clear, however--and it is impossible in connexion
+with the Pan-hellenic patriotism to which Athens laid claim, to overrate
+the importance of the fact--that Cleisthenes, hard pressed in the war
+with Boeotia, Euboea and Sparta (Herod, v. 73 and foll.), sent
+ambassadors to ask the help of Persia. The story, as told by Herodotus,
+that the ambassadors of their own accord agreed to give "earth and
+water" (i.e. submission) in return for Persian assistance, and that the
+Ecclesia subsequently disavowed their action as unauthorized, is
+scarcely credible. Cleisthenes (1) was in full control and must have
+instructed the ambassadors; (2) he knew that any help from Persia meant
+submission. It is practically certain, therefore, that he (cf. the
+Alcmaeonids and the story of the shield at Marathon) was the first to
+"medize" (see Curtius, _History of Greece_). Probably he had hoped to
+persuade the Ecclesia that the agreement was a mere form. Aelian says
+that he himself was a victim to his own device of ostracism (q.v.);
+this, though apparently inconsistent with the _Constitution of Athens_
+(_c._ 22), may perhaps indicate that his political career ended in
+disgrace, a hypothesis which is explicable on the ground of this act of
+treachery in respect of the attempted Persian alliance. Whether to
+Cleisthenes are due the final success over Boeotia and Euboea, the
+planting of the 4000 cleruchs on the Lelantine Plain, and the policy of
+the Aeginetan War (see AEGINA), in which Athens borrowed ships from
+Corinth, it is impossible to determine. The eclipse of Cleisthenes in
+all records is one of the most curious facts in Greek history. It is
+also curious that we do not know in what official capacity Cleisthenes
+carried his reforms. Perhaps he was given extraordinary _ad hoc_ powers
+for a specified time; conceivably he used the ordinary mechanism. It
+seems clear that he had fully considered his scheme in advance, that he
+broached it before the last attack of Isagoras, and that it was only
+after the final expulsion of Isagoras and his Spartan allies that it
+became possible for him to put it into execution.
+
+
+  Analysis of his reforms
+
+  The ten tribes
+
+Cleisthenes aimed at being the leader of a self-governing people; in
+other words he aimed at making the democracy actual. He realized that
+the dead-weight which held the democracy down was the influence on
+politics of the local religious unit. Therefore his prime object was to
+dissociate the clans and the phratries from politics, and to give the
+democracy a totally new electoral basis in which old associations and
+vested interests would be split up and become ineffective. It was
+necessary that no man should govern a pocket-constituency merely by
+virtue of his religious, financial or ancestral prestige, and that there
+should be created a new local unit with administrative powers of a
+democratic character which would galvanize the lethargic voters into a
+new sense of responsibility and independence. His first step was to
+abolish the four Solonian tribes and create ten new ones.[2] Each of the
+new tribes was subdivided into "demes'" (roughly "townships"); this
+organization did not, except politically, supersede the system of clans
+and phratries whose old religious signification remained untouched. The
+new tribes, however, though geographically arranged, did not represent
+local interests. Further, the tribe names were taken from legendary
+heroes (Cecropis, Pandionis, Aegeis recalled the storied kings of
+Attica), and, therefore, contributed to the idea of a national unity;
+even Ajax, the eponym of the tribe Aeantis, though not Attic, was famous
+as an ally (Herod, v. 66) and ranked as a national hero. Each tribe had
+its shrine and its particular hero-cult, which, however, was free from
+local association and the dominance of particular families. This
+national idea Cleisthenes further emphasized by setting up in the
+market-place at Athens a statue of each tribal hero.
+
+
+  Demes.
+
+The next step was the organization of the deme. Within each tribe he
+grouped ten demes (see below), each of which had (1) its hero and its
+chapel, and (2) its census-list kept by the demarch. The demarch (local
+governor), who was elected popularly and held office for one year,
+presided over meetings affecting local administration and the provision
+of crews for the state-navy, and was probably under a system of scrutiny
+like the _dokimasia_ of the state-magistrates. According to the
+Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_, Cleisthenes further divided
+Attica into three districts, Urban and Suburban, Inland (_Mesogaios_),
+and Maritime (_Paralia_), each of which was subdivided into ten
+_trittyes_; each tribe had three trittyes in each of these districts.
+The problem of establishing this decimal system in connexion with the
+demes and trittyes is insoluble. Herodotus says that there were ten[3]
+demes to each tribe ([Greek: deka eis tas phylas]); but each tribe was
+composed of three trittyes, one in each of the three districts. Since
+the deme was, as will be seen, the electoral unit, it is clear that in
+tribal voting the object of ending the old threefold schism of the
+Plain, the Hill and the Shore was attained, but the relation of deme and
+trittys is obviously of an unsymmetrical kind. The _Constitution of
+Athens_ says nothing of the ten-deme-to-each-tribe arrangement, and
+there is no sufficient reason for supposing that the demes originally
+were exactly a hundred in number. We know the names of 168 demes, and
+Polemon (3rd century B.C.) enumerated 173. It has been suggested that
+the demes did originally number exactly a hundred, and that new demes
+were added as the population increased. This theory, however,
+presupposes that the demes were originally equal in numbers. In the 5th
+and 4th centuries this was certainly not the case; the number of
+demesmen in some cases was only one hundred or two hundred, whereas the
+deme Acharnae is referred to as a "great part" of the whole state, and
+is known to have furnished three thousand hoplites. The theory is
+fundamentally at fault, inasmuch as it regards the deme as consisting of
+all those _resident within its borders_. In point of fact membership was
+hereditary, not residential; Demosthenes "of the Paeanian deme" might
+live where he would without severing his deme connexion. Thus the
+increase of population could be no reason for creating new demes. This
+distinction in a deme between demesmen and residents belonging to
+another deme (the [Greek: egkektemenoi]), who paid a deme-tax for their
+privilege, is an important one. It should further be noted that the
+demes belonging to a particular tribe do not, as a fact, appear always
+in three separate groups; the tribe Aeantis consisted of Phalerum and
+eleven demes in the district of Marathon; other tribes had demes in five
+or six groups. It must, therefore, be admitted that the problem is
+insoluble for want of data. Nor are we better equipped to settle the
+relation between the Cleisthenean division into Urban, Maritime and
+Inland, and the old divisions of the Plain, the Shore and the Upland or
+Hill. The "Maritime" of Cleisthenes and the old "Shore" are certainly
+not coincident, nor is the "Inland" identical with the "Upland."
+
+Lastly, it has been asked whether we are to believe that Cleisthenes
+invented the demes. To this the answer is in the negative. The demes
+were undoubtedly primitive divisions of Attica; Herodotus (ix. 73)
+speaks of the Dioscuri as ravaging the demes of Decelea (see R.W. Macan
+_ad loc._) and we hear of opposition between the city and the demes. The
+most logical conclusion perhaps is that Cleisthenes, while he _did_
+create the demes which Athens itself comprised, did not create the
+country demes, but merely gave them definition as political divisions.
+Thus the city itself had six demes in five different tribes, and the
+other five tribes were represented in the suburbs and the Peiraeus. It
+is clear that in the Cleisthenean system there was one great source of
+danger, namely that the residents in and about Athens must always have
+had more weight in elections than those in distant demes. There can be
+little doubt that the preponderating influence of the city was
+responsible for the unwisdom of the later imperial policy and the
+Peloponnesian war.
+
+
+  The diapsephismus.
+
+A second problem is the franchise reform of Cleisthenes. Aristotle in
+the _Politics_ (iii. 2. 3 = 1275 b) says that Cleisthenes created new
+citizens by enrolling in the tribes "many resident aliens and
+emancipated slaves."[4] But the Aristotelian _Constitution of Athens_
+asserts that he gave "citizenship to the masses." These two statements
+are not compatible. It is perfectly clear that Cleisthenes is to be
+regarded as a democrat, and it would have been no bribe to the people
+merely to confer a boon on aliens and slaves. Moreover, a revision of
+the citizen-roll (_diapsephismus_) had recently taken place (after the
+end of the tyranny) and a great many citizens had been struck off the
+roll as being of impure descent ([Greek: _oi to genei me katharoi_]).
+This class had existed from the time of Solon, and, through fear of
+political extinction by the oligarchs, had been favourable to
+Peisistratus. Cleisthenes may have enfranchised aliens and slaves, but
+it seems certain that he must have dealt with these free Athenians who
+had lost their rights. Now Isagoras presumably did not carry out this
+revision of the roll (_diapsephismus_); as "the friend of the tyrants"
+(so _Ath. Pol._ 20; by Meyer, Busolt and others contest this) he would
+not have struck a blow at a class which favoured his own views. A
+reasonable hypothesis is that Cleisthenes was the originator of the
+measure of expulsion, and that he now changed his policy, and
+strengthened his hold on the democracy by reinstating the disfranchised
+in much larger numbers. The new citizens, whoever they were, must, of
+course, have been enrolled also in the (hitherto exclusive) phratry
+lists and the deme-rolls.
+
+
+  The council and boards of ten.
+
+The Boul[=e] (q.v.) was reorganized to suit the new tribal arrangement,
+and was known henceforward as the Council of the Five Hundred, fifty
+from each tribe. Its exact constitution is unknown, but it was certainly
+more democratic than the Solonian Four Hundred. Further, the system of
+ten tribes led in course of time to the construction of boards of ten to
+deal with military and civil affairs, e.g. the Strategi (see STRATEGUS),
+the Apodectae, and others. Of these the former cannot be attributed to
+Cleisthenes, but on the evidence of Androtion it is certain that it was
+Cleisthenes who replaced the Colacretae[5] by the Apodectae
+("receivers"), who were controllers and auditors of the finance
+department, and, before the council in the council-chamber, received the
+revenues. The Colacretae, who had done this work before, remained in
+authority over the internal expenses of the Prytaneum. A further change
+which followed from the new tribal system was the reconstitution of the
+army; this, however, probably took place about 501 B.C., and cannot be
+attributed directly to Cleisthenes. It has been said that the deme
+became the local political unit, replacing the naucrary (q.v.). But the
+naucraries still supplied the fleet, and were increased in number from
+forty-eight to fifty; if each naucrary still supplied a ship and two
+mounted soldiers as before, it is interesting to learn that, only
+seventy years before the Peloponnesian War, Athens had but fifty ships
+and a hundred horse.[6]
+
+The device of ostracism is the final stone in the Cleisthenean
+structure. An admirable scheme in theory, and, at first, in practice, it
+deteriorated in the 5th century into a mere party weapon, and in the
+case of Hyperbolus (417) became an absurdity.
+
+
+  Summary.
+
+In conclusion it should be noticed that Cleisthenes was the founder of
+the Athens which we know. To him was due the spirit of nationality, the
+principle of liberty duly apportioned and controlled by centralized and
+decentralized administration, which prepared the ground for the rich
+developments of the Golden Age with its triumphs of art and literature,
+politics and philosophy. It was Cleisthenes who organized the structure
+which, for a long time, bore the heavy burden of the Empire against
+impossible odds, the structure which the very different genius of
+Pericles was able to beautify. He was the first to appreciate the unique
+power in politics, literature and society of an organized public
+opinion.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Ancient:_ Aristotle, _Constitution of Athens_ (ed. J.E.
+  Sandys), cc. 20-22, 41; Herodotus v, 63-73, vi. 131; Aristotle,
+  _Politics_, iii. 2, 3 (= 1275 b, for franchise reforms). _Modern:_
+  Histories of Greece in general, especially those of Grote and Curtius
+  (which, of course, lack the information contained in the _Constitution
+  of Athens_), and J.B. Bury. See also E. Meyer, _Geschichte des
+  Altertums_ (vol. ii.); G. Busolt, _Griech. Gesch._ (2nd ed., 1893
+  foll.); Milchhoefer, "Ueber die Demenordnung des Kleisthenes" in
+  appendix to _Abhandlung d. Berl. Akad._ (1892); R. Loeper in _Athen.
+  Mitteil._ (1892), pp. 319-433; A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek
+  Constitutional History_ (1896); Gilbert, _Greek Constitutional
+  Antiquities_ (Eng. trans., 1895); R.W. Macan, _Herodotus iv.-vi._,
+  vol. ii. (1895), pp. 127-148; U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, _Arist.
+  und Athen._ See also BOLL[=E]; ECCLESIA; OSTRACISM; NAUCRARY; SOLON.
+
+
+2. CLEISTHENES OF SICYON (c. 600-570), grandfather of the above, became
+tyrant of Sicyon as the representative of the conquered Ionian section
+of the inhabitants. He emphasized the destruction of Dorian predominance
+by giving ridiculous epithets to their tribal units, which from Hylleis,
+Dymanes and Pamphyli become Hyatae ("Swine-men"), Choireatae ("Pig-men")
+and Oneatae ("Ass-men"). He also attacked Dorian Argos, and suppressed
+the Homeric "rhapsodists" who sang the exploits of Dorian heroes. He
+championed the cause of the Delphic oracle against the town of Crisa
+(Cirrha) in the Sacred War (c. 590). Crisa was destroyed, and Delphi
+became one of the meeting-places of the old amphictyony of Anthela,
+henceforward often called the Delphic amphictyony. The Pythian games,
+largely on the initiative of Cleisthenes, were re-established with new
+magnificence, and Cleisthenes won the first chariot race in 582. He
+founded Pythian games at Sicyon, and possibly built a new Sicyonian
+treasury at Delphi. His power was so great that when he offered his
+daughter Agariste in marriage, some of the most prominent Greeks sought
+the honour, which fell upon Megacles, the Alcmaeonid. The story of the
+rival wooers with the famous retort, "Hippocleides don't care," is told
+in Herod. vi. 125; see also Herod, v. 67 and Thuc. i. 18.
+
+  CLEISTHENES is also the name of an Athenian, pilloried by Aristophanes
+  (_Clouds_, 354; _Thesm._ 574) as a fop and a profligate.    (J. M. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The archonship of Isagoras in 508 is important as showing that
+    Cleisthenes, three years after his return, had so far failed to
+    secure the support of a majority in Athens. There is no sufficient
+    reason for supposing that the election of Isagoras was procured by
+    Cleomenes; all the evidence points to its having been brought about
+    in the ordinary way. Probably, therefore, Cleisthenes did not take
+    the people thoroughly into partnership till after the spring of 508.
+
+  [2] The explanation given for this step by Herodotus (v. 67) is an
+    amusing example of his incapacity as a critical historian. To compare
+    Cleisthenes of Sicyon (see below), bent on humiliating the Dorians of
+    Sicyon by giving opprobrious names to the Dorian tribes, with his
+    grandson, whose endeavour was to elevate the very persons whose
+    tribal organization he replaced, is clearly absurd.
+
+  [3] Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (_Arist. und Athen_, pp. 149-150)
+    suggests [Greek: dekacha], "in ten batches," instead of [Greek:
+    deka].
+
+  [4] It should be observed that there are other translations of the
+    difficult phrase [Greek: xenous kai doulous metoikous].
+
+  [5] _Colacretae_ were very ancient Athenian magistrates; either (1)
+    those who "cut up the joints" in the Prytaneum ([Greek: kola,
+    keiro]), or (2) those who "collected the joints" ([Greek: kola,
+    ageiro]) which were left over from public sacrifices, and consumed in
+    the Prytaneum. These officials were again important in the time of
+    Aristophanes (_Wasps_, 693, 724; _Birds_, 1541), and they presided
+    over the payment of the dicasts instituted by Pericles. They are not
+    mentioned, though they may have existed, after 403 B.C. At Sicyon
+    also magistrates of this name are found.
+
+  [6] It is, however, more probable that the right reading of the
+    passage is [Greek: deka ippeis] instead of [Greek: duo], which would
+    give a cavalry force in early Athens of 480, a reasonable number in
+    proportion to the total fighting strength.
+
+
+
+
+CLEITARCHUS, one of the historians of Alexander the Great, son of
+Deinon, also an historian, was possibly a native of Egypt, or at least
+spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy Lagus. Quintilian
+(_Instit._ x. i. 74) credits him with more ability than trustworthiness,
+and Cicero (_Brutus_, 11) accuses him of giving a fictitious account of
+the death of Themistocles. But there is no doubt that his history was
+very popular, and much used by Diodorus Siculus, Quintus Curtius, Justin
+and Plutarch, and the authors of the Alexander romances. His unnatural
+and exaggerated style became proverbial.
+
+  The fragments, some thirty in number, chiefly preserved in Aelian and
+  Strabo, will be found in C. Mueller's _Scriptores Rerum Alexandri
+  Magni_ (in the Didot _Arrian_, 1846); monographs by C. Raun, _De
+  Clitarcho Diodori, Curtii, Justini auctore_ (1868), and F. Reuss,
+  "Hellenistische Beitraege" in _Rhein. Mus._ lxiii. (1908), pp. 58-78.
+
+
+
+
+CLEITHRAL (Gr. [Greek: kleithron], an enclosed or shut-up place), an
+architectural term applied to a covered Greek temple, in
+contradistinction to _hypaethral_, which designates one that is
+uncovered; the roof of a cleithral temple completely covers it.
+
+
+
+
+CLEITOR, or CLITOR, a town of ancient Greece, in that part of Arcadia
+which corresponds to the modern eparchy of Kalavryta in the nomos of
+Elis and Achaea. It stood in a fertile plain to the south of Mt Chelmos,
+the highest peak of the Aroanian Mountains, and not far from a stream
+of its own name, which joined the Aroanius, or Katzana. In the
+neighbourhood was a fountain, the waters of which were said to deprive
+those who drank them of the taste for wine. The town was a place of
+considerable importance in Arcadia, and its inhabitants were noted for
+their love of liberty. It extended its territory over several
+neighbouring towns, and in the Theban war fought against Orchomenus. It
+joined the other Arcadian cities in the foundation of Megalopolis. As a
+member of the Achaean league it was besieged by the Aetolians in 220
+B.C., and was on several occasions the seat of the federal assemblies.
+It coined money up to the time of Septimius Severus. The ruins, which
+bear the common name of Paleopoli, or Old City, are still to be seen
+about 3 m. from a village that preserves the ancient designation. The
+greater part of the walls which enclose an area of about a mile and
+several of the semi-circular towers with which they were strengthened
+can be clearly made out; and there are also remains of three Doric
+temples and a small theatre.
+
+
+
+
+CLELAND, WILLIAM (1661?-1689), Scottish poet and soldier, son of Thomas
+Cleland, gamekeeper to the marquis of Douglas, was born about 1661. He
+was probably brought up on the marquess of Douglas's estate in
+Lanarkshire, and was educated at St Andrews University. Immediately on
+leaving college he joined the army of the Covenanters, and was present
+at Drumclog, where, says Robert Wodrow, some attributed to Cleland the
+manoeuvre which led to the victory. He also fought at Bothwell Bridge.
+He and his brother James were described in a royal proclamation of the
+16th of June 1679 among the leaders of the insurgents. He escaped to
+Holland, but in 1685 was again in Scotland in connexion with the
+abortive invasion of the earl of Argyll. He escaped once more, to return
+in 1688 as agent for William of Orange. He was appointed
+lieutenant-colonel of the Cameronian regiment raised from the minority
+of the western Covenanters who consented to serve under William III. The
+Cameronians were entrusted with the defence of Dunkeld, which they held
+against the fierce assault of the Highlanders on the 26th of August. The
+repulse of the Highlanders before Dunkeld ended the Jacobite rising, but
+Cleland fell in the struggle. He wrote _A Collection of several Poems
+and Verses_ composed upon various occasions (published posthumously,
+1697). Of "Hullo, my fancie, whither wilt thou go?" only the last nine
+stanzas are by Cleland. His poems have small literary merit, and are
+written, not in pure Lowland Scots, but in English with a large
+admixture of Scottish words. The longest and most important of them are
+the "mock poems" "On the Expedition of the Highland Host who came to
+destroy the western shires in winter 1678" and "On the clergie when they
+met to consult about taking the Test in the year 1681."
+
+  An Exact Narrative of the _Conflict of Dunkeld ... collected from
+  several officers of the regiment ..._ appeared in 1689.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMATIS, in botany, a genus of the natural order Ranunculaceae,
+containing nearly two hundred species, and widely distributed. It is
+represented in England by _Clematis Vitalba_, "old man's beard" or
+"traveller's joy," a common plant on chalky or light soil. The plants
+are shrubby climbers with generally compound opposite leaves, the stalk
+of which is sensitive to contact like a tendril, becoming twisted round
+suitable objects and thereby giving support to the plant. The flowers
+are arranged in axillary or terminal clusters; they have no petals, but
+white or coloured, often very large sepals, and an indefinite number of
+stamens and carpels. They contain no honey, and are visited by insects
+for the sake of the pollen, which is plentiful. The fruit is a head of
+achenes, each bearing the long-bearded persistent style, suggesting the
+popular name. This feathery style is an important agent in the
+distribution of the seed by means of the wind. Several of the species,
+especially the large-flowered ones, are favourite garden plants, well
+adapted for covering trellises or walls, or trailing over the ground.
+Many garden forms have been produced by hybridization; among the best
+known is _C. Jackmanni_, due to Mr George Jackman of Woking.
+
+  Further information may be obtained from _The Clematis as a Garden
+  Flower_, by Thos. Moore and George Jackman. See also G. Nicholson,
+  _Dictionary of Gardening_, i. (1885) and _Supplements_.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENCEAU, GEORGES (1841-   ), French statesman, was born at
+Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vendee, on the 28th of September 1841. Having
+adopted medicine as his profession, he settled in 1869 in Montmartre;
+and after the revolution of 1870 he had become sufficiently well known
+to be nominated mayor of the 18th arrondissement of Paris
+(Montmartre)--an unruly district over which it was a difficult task to
+preside. On the 8th of February 1871 he was elected as a Radical to the
+National Assembly for the department of the Seine, and voted against the
+peace preliminaries. The execution, or rather murder, of Generals
+Lecomte and Clement Thomas by the communists on 18th March, which he
+vainly tried to prevent, brought him into collision with the central
+committee sitting at the hotel de ville, and they ordered his arrest,
+but he escaped; he was accused, however, by various witnesses, at the
+subsequent trial of the murderers (November 29th), of not having
+intervened when he might have done, and though he was cleared of this
+charge it led to a duel, for his share in which he was prosecuted and
+sentenced to a fine and a fortnight's imprisonment.
+
+Meanwhile, on the 20th of March 1871, he had introduced in the National
+Assembly at Versailles, on behalf of his Radical colleagues, the bill
+establishing a Paris municipal council of eighty members; but he was not
+returned himself at the elections of the 26th of March. He tried with
+the other Paris mayors to mediate between Versailles and the hotel de
+ville, but failed, and accordingly resigned his mayoralty and his seat
+in the Assembly, and temporarily gave up politics; but he was elected to
+the Paris municipal council on the 23rd of July 1871 for the
+Clignancourt _quartier_, and retained his seat till 1876, passing
+through the offices of secretary and vice-president, and becoming
+president in 1875. In 1876 he stood again for the Chamber of Deputies,
+and was elected for the 18th arrondissement. He joined the Extreme Left,
+and his energy and mordant eloquence speedily made him the leader of the
+Radical section. In 1877, after the _Seize Mai_ (see FRANCE: _History_),
+he was one of the republican majority who denounced the Broglie
+ministry, and he took a leading part in resisting the anti-republican
+policy of which the _Seize Mai_ incident was a symptom, his demand in
+1879 for the indictment of the Broglie ministry bringing him into
+particular prominence. In 1880 he started his newspaper, _La Justice_,
+which became the principal organ of Parisian Radicalism; and from this
+time onwards throughout M. Grevy's presidency his reputation as a
+political critic, and as a destroyer of ministries who yet would not
+take office himself, rapidly grew. He led the Extreme Left in the
+Chamber. He was an active opponent of M. Jules Ferry's colonial policy
+and of the Opportunist party, and in 1885 it was his use of the Tongking
+disaster which principally determined the fall of the Ferry cabinet. At
+the elections of 1885 he advocated a strong Radical programme, and was
+returned both for his old seat in Paris and for the Var, selecting the
+latter. Refusing to form a ministry to replace the one he had
+overthrown, he supported the Right in keeping M. Freycinet in power in
+1886, and was responsible for the inclusion of General Boulanger in the
+Freycinet cabinet as war minister. When Boulanger (q.v.) showed himself
+as an ambitious pretender, Clemenceau withdrew his support and became a
+vigorous combatant against the Boulangist movement, though the Radical
+press and a section of the party continued to patronize the general.
+
+By his exposure of the Wilson scandal, and by his personal plain
+speaking, M. Clemenceau contributed largely to M. Grevy's resignation of
+the presidency in 1887, having himself declined Grevy's request to form
+a cabinet on the downfall of that of M. Rouvier; and he was primarily
+responsible, by advising his followers to vote neither for Floquet,
+Ferry nor Freycinet, for the election of an "outsider" as president in
+M. Carnot. He had arrived, however, at the height of his influence, and
+several factors now contributed to his decline. The split in the Radical
+party over Boulangism weakened his hands, and its collapse made his help
+unnecessary to the moderate republicans. A further misfortune occurred
+in the Panama affair, Clemenceau's relations with Cornelius Herz leading
+to his being involved in the general suspicion; and, though he remained
+the leading spokesman of French Radicalism, his hostility to the Russian
+alliance so increased his unpopularity that in the election for 1893 he
+was defeated for the Chamber, after having sat in it continuously since
+1876. After his defeat for the Chamber, M. Clemenceau confined his
+political activities to journalism, his career being further
+overclouded--so far as any immediate possibility of regaining his old
+ascendancy was concerned--by the long-drawn-out Dreyfus case, in which
+he took an active and honourable part as a supporter of M. Zola and an
+opponent of the anti-Semitic and Nationalist campaign. In 1900 he
+withdrew from _La Justice_ to found a weekly review, _Le Bloc_, which
+lasted until March 1902. On the 6th of April 1902 he was elected senator
+for the Var, although he had previously continually demanded the
+suppression of the Senate. He sat with the Socialist Radicals, and
+vigorously supported the Combes ministry. In June 1903 he undertook the
+direction of the journal _L'Aurore_, which he had founded. In it he led
+the campaign for the revision of the Dreyfus affair, and for the
+separation of Church and State.
+
+In March 1906 the fall of the Rouvier ministry, owing to the riots
+provoked by the inventories of church property, at last brought
+Clemenceau to power as minister of the interior in the Sarrien cabinet.
+The strike of miners in the Pas de Calais after the disaster at
+Courrieres, leading to the threat of disorder on the 1st of May 1906,
+obliged him to employ the military; and his attitude in the matter
+alienated the Socialist party, from which he definitely broke in his
+notable reply in the Chamber to Jean Jaures in June 1906. This speech
+marked him out as the strong man of the day in French politics; and when
+the Sarrien ministry resigned in October, he became premier. During 1907
+and 1908 his premiership was notable for the way in which the new
+_entente_ with England was cemented, and for the successful part which
+France played in European politics, in spite of difficulties with
+Germany and attacks by the Socialist party in connexion with Morocco
+(see FRANCE: _History_). But on July 20th, 1909, he was defeated in a
+discussion in the Chamber on the state of the navy, in which bitter
+words were exchanged between him and Delcasse; and he at once resigned,
+being succeeded as premier by M. Briand, with a reconstructed cabinet.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENCIN, DIEGO (1765-1834), Spanish scholar and politician, was born
+on the 27th of September 1765, at Murcia, and was educated there at the
+Colegio de San Fulgencio. Abandoning his intention of taking orders, he
+found employment at Madrid in 1788 as tutor to the sons of the
+countess-duchess de Benavente, and devoted himself to the study of
+archaeology. In 1807 he became editor of the _Gaceta de Madrid_, and in
+the following year was condemned to death by Murat for publishing a
+patriotic article; he fled to Cadiz, and under the Junta Central held
+various posts from which he was dismissed by the reactionary government
+of 1814. During the liberal regime of 1820-1823 Clemencin took office as
+colonial minister, was exiled till 1827, and in 1833 published the first
+volume of his edition (1833-1839) of _Don Quixote_. Its merits were
+recognized by his appointment as royal librarian, but he did not long
+enjoy his triumph: he died on the 30th of July 1834. His commentary on
+_Don Quixote_ owes something to John Bowle, and is disfigured by a
+patronizing, carping spirit; nevertheless it is the most valuable work
+of its kind, and is still unsuperseded. Clemencin is also the author of
+an interesting _Elogio de la reina Isabel la Catolica_, published as the
+sixth volume of the _Memorias_ of the Spanish Academy of History, to
+which body he was elected on the 12th of September 1800.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENT (Lat. _Clemens_, i.e. merciful; Gr. [Greek: Klemes]), the name
+of fourteen popes and two anti-popes.
+
+
+CLEMENT I., generally known as Clement of Rome, or CLEMENS ROMANUS
+(flor. c. A.D. 96), was one of the "Apostolic Fathers," and in the lists
+of bishops of Rome is given the third or fourth place--Peter, Linus,
+(Anencletus), Clement. There is no ground for identifying him with the
+Clement of Phil. iv. 3. He may have been a freedman of T. Flavius
+Clemens, who was consul with his cousin, the Emperor Domitian, in A.D.
+95. A 9th-century tradition says he was martyred in the Crimea in 102;
+earlier authorities say he died a natural death; he is commemorated on
+the 23rd of November.
+
+In _The Shepherd of Hermas_ (q.v.) (Vis. 11. iv. 3) mention is made of
+one Clement whose office it is to communicate with other churches, and
+this function agrees well with what we find in the letter to the church
+at Corinth by which Clement is best known. Whilst being on our guard
+against reading later ideas into the title "bishop" as applied to
+Clement, there is no reason to doubt that he was one of the chief
+personalities in the Christian community at Rome, where since the time
+of Paul the separate house congregations (Rom. xvi.) had been united
+into one church officered by presbyters and deacons (Clem. 40-42). The
+letter in question was occasioned by a dispute in the church of Corinth,
+which had led to the ejection of several presbyters from their office.
+It does not contain Clement's name, but is addressed by "the Church of
+God which sojourneth in Rome to the Church of God which sojourneth in
+Corinth." But there is no reason for doubting the universal tradition
+which ascribes it to Clement, or the generally accepted date, c. A.D.
+96. No claim is made by the Roman Church to interfere on any ground of
+superior rank; yet it is noteworthy that in the earliest document
+outside the canon which we can securely date, the church in the imperial
+city comes forward as a peacemaker to compose the troubles of a church
+in Greece. Nothing is known of the cause of the discontent; no moral
+offence is charged against the presbyters, and their dismissal is
+regarded by Clement as high-handed and unjustifiable, and as a revolt of
+the younger members of the community against the elder. After a
+laudatory account of the past conduct of the Corinthian Church, he
+enters upon a denunciation of vices and a praise of virtues, and
+illustrates his various topics by copious citations from the Old
+Testament scriptures. Thus he paves the way for his tardy rebuke of
+present disorders, which he reserves until two-thirds of his epistle is
+completed. Clement is exceedingly discursive, and his letter reaches
+twice the length of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Many of his general
+exhortations are but very indirectly connected with the practical issue
+to which the epistle is directed, and it is very probable that he was
+drawing largely upon the homiletical material with which he was
+accustomed to edify his fellow-Christians at Rome.
+
+This view receives some support from the long liturgical prayer at the
+close, which almost certainly represents the intercession used in the
+Roman eucharists. But we must not allow such a theory to blind us to the
+true wisdom with which the writer defers his censure. He knows that the
+roots of the quarrel lie in a wrong condition of the church's life. His
+general exhortations, courteously expressed in the first person plural,
+are directed towards a wide reformation of manners. If the wrong spirit
+can be exorcised, there is hope that the quarrel will end in a general
+desire for reconciliation. The most permanent interest of the epistle
+lies in the conception of the grounds on which the Christian ministry
+rests according to the view of a prominent teacher before the 1st
+century has closed. The orderliness of nature is appealed to as
+expressing the mind of its Creator. The orderliness of Old Testament
+worship bears a like witness; everything is duly fixed by God; high
+priests, priests and Levites, and the people in the people's place.
+Similarly in the Christian dispensation all is in order due. "The
+apostles preached the gospel to us from the Lord Jesus Christ; Jesus
+Christ was sent from God. Christ then is from God, and the apostles from
+Christ. . . . They appointed their first-fruits, having tested them by
+the Spirit, as bishops and deacons of those who should believe. . . .
+Our apostles knew through our Lord Jesus Christ that there would be
+strife about the name of the bishop's office. For this cause therefore,
+having received perfect foreknowledge, they appointed the aforesaid, and
+afterwards gave a further injunction ([Greek: heptnomen] has now the
+further evidence of the Latin _legem_) that, if these should fall
+asleep, other approved men should succeed to their ministry. . . . It
+will be no small sin in us if we eject from the bishop's office those
+who have offered the gifts blamelessly and holily" (cc. xlii. xliv.).
+
+Clement's familiarity with the Old Testament points to his being a
+Christian of long standing rather than a recent convert. We learn from
+his letter (i. 7) that the church at Rome, though suffering persecution,
+was firmly held together by faith and love, and was exhibiting its unity
+in an orderly worship. The epistle was publicly read from time to time
+at Corinth, and by the 4th century this usage had spread to other
+churches. We even find it attached to the famous Alexandrian MS. (Codex
+A) of the New Testament, but this does not imply that it ever reached
+canonical rank. For the mass of early Christian literature that was
+gradually attached to his name see CLEMENTINE LITERATURE.
+
+  The epistle was published in 1633 by Patrick Young from Cod.
+  Alexandrinus, in which a leaf near the end was missing, so that the
+  great prayer (cc. lv.-lxiv.) remained unknown. In 1875 (six years
+  after J.B. Lightfoot's first edition) Bryennius (q.v.) published a
+  complete text from the MS. in Constantinople (dated 1055), from which
+  in 1883 he gave us the _Didache_. In 1876 R.L. Bensly found a complete
+  Syriac text in a MS. recently obtained by the University library at
+  Cambridge. Lightfoot made use of these new materials in an Appendix
+  (1877); his second edition, on which he had been at work at the time
+  of his death, came out in 1890. This must remain the standard edition,
+  notwithstanding Dom Morin's most interesting discovery of a Latin
+  version (1894), which was probably made in the 3rd century, and is a
+  valuable addition to the authorities for the text. Its evidence is
+  used in a small edition of the epistle by R. Knopf (Leipzig, 1899).
+  See also W. Wrede, _Untersuchungen zum ersten Clemensbrief_ (1891),
+  and the other literature cited in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopaedie_,
+  vol. iv.    (A. J. G.; J. A. R.)
+
+
+CLEMENT II. (Suidger) became pope on the 25th of December 1046. He
+belonged to a noble Saxon family, was bishop of Bamberg, and chancellor
+to the emperor Henry III., to whom he was indebted for his elevation to
+the papacy upon the abdication of Gregory VI. He was the first pope
+placed on the throne by the power of the German emperors, but his short
+pontificate was only signalized by the convocation of a council in which
+decrees were enacted against simony. He died on the 9th of October 1047,
+and was buried at Bamberg.    (L. D.*)
+
+
+CLEMENT III. (Paolo Scolari), pope from 1187 to 1191, a Roman, was made
+cardinal bishop of Palestrina by Alexander III. in 1180 or 1181. On the
+19th of December 1187 he was chosen at Pisa to succeed Gregory VIII. On
+the 31st of May 1188 he concluded a treaty with the Romans which removed
+difficulties of long standing, and in April 1189 he made peace with the
+emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa. He settled a controversy with William
+of Scotland concerning the choice of the archbishop of St Andrews, and
+on the 13th of March 1188 removed the Scottish church from under the
+legatine jurisdiction of the archbishop of York, thus making it
+independent of all save Rome. In spite of his conciliatory policy,
+Clement angered Henry VI. of Germany by bestowing Sicily on Tancred. The
+crisis was acute when the pope died, probably in the latter part of
+March 1191.
+
+  See "Epistolae et Privilegia," in J.P. Migne, _Patrologiae cursus
+  completes_, tom. 204 (Paris, 1853), 1253 ff.; additional material in
+  _Neues Archiv fuer die aeltere deutsche Geschichtskunde_, 2. 219; 6.
+  293; 14. 178-182; P. Jaffe, _Regesta Pontificum Romanorum_, tom. 2
+  (2nd edition, Leipzig, 1888), 535 ff.    (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+CLEMENT IV. (Gui Foulques), pope from 1265 to 1268, son of a successful
+lawyer and judge, was born at St Gilles-sur-Rhone. He studied law, and
+became a valued adviser of Louis IX. of France. He married, and was the
+father of two daughters, but after the death of his wife took orders. In
+1257 he became bishop of Le Puy; in 1259 he was elected archbishop of
+Narbonne; and on the 24th of December 1261 Urban IV. created him
+cardinal bishop of Sabina. He was appointed legate in England on the
+22nd of November 1263, and before his return was elected pope at Perugia
+on the 5th of February 1265. On the 26th of February he invested Charles
+of Anjou with the kingdom of Sicily; but subsequently he came into
+conflict with Charles, especially after the death of Manfred in February
+1266. To the cruelty and avarice of Charles he opposed a generous
+humanity. When Conradin, the last of the Hohenstaufen, appeared in Italy
+the pope excommunicated him and his supporters, but it is improbable
+that he was in the remotest degree responsible for his execution. At
+Viterbo, where he spent most of his pontificate, Clement died on the
+29th of November 1268, leaving a name unsullied by nepotism. As the
+benefactor and protector of Roger Bacon he has a special title to the
+gratitude of posterity.
+
+  See A. Potthast, _Regesta Pontificum Romanorum_, vol. ii. (Berlin,
+  l875). 1542 ff.; E. Jordan, _Les Registres de Clement IV_ (Paris, 1893
+  ff.); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie_ (3rd ed., vol. iv., Leipzig,
+  1898), 144 f.; J. Heidemann, _Papst Clemens IV., I. Teil: Das Vorleben
+  des Papstes und sein Legationsregister = Kirchengeschichtliche
+  Studien, herausgegeben von Knoepfler_, &c., 6. Band, 4. Heft (Muenster,
+  1903), reprints _Processus legationis in Angliam_.    (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+CLEMENT V. (Bertrand de Gouth), pope from 1305 to 1314, was born of a
+noble Gascon family about 1264. After studying the arts at Toulouse and
+law at Orleans and Bologna, he became a canon at Bordeaux and then
+vicar-general to his brother the archbishop of Lyons, who in 1294 was
+created cardinal bishop of Albano. Bertrand was made a chaplain to
+Boniface VIII., who in 1295 nominated him bishop of Cominges (Haute
+Garonne), and in 1299 translated him to the archbishopric of Bordeaux.
+Because he attended the synod at Rome in 1302 in the controversy between
+France and the Pope, he was considered a supporter of Boniface VIII.,
+yet was by no means unfavourably regarded at the French court. At
+Perugia on the 5th of June 1305 he was chosen to succeed Benedict XI;
+the cardinals by a vote of ten to five electing one neither an Italian
+nor a cardinal, in order to end a conclave which had lasted eleven
+months. The chronicler Villani relates that Bertrand owed his election
+to a secret agreement with Philip IV., made at St Jean d'Angely in
+Saintonge; this may be dismissed as gossip, but it is probable that the
+future pope had to accept certain conditions laid down by the cardinals.
+At Bordeaux Bertrand was formally notified of his election and urged to
+come to Italy; but he caused his coronation to take place at Lyons on
+the 14th of November 1305. From the beginning Clement V. was subservient
+to French interests. Among his first acts was the creation of nine
+French cardinals. Early in 1306 he modified or explained away those
+features of the bulls _Clericis Laicos_ and _Unam sanctam_ which were
+particularly offensive to the king. Most of the year 1306 he spent at
+Bordeaux because of ill-health; subsequently he resided at Poitiers and
+elsewhere, and in March 1309 the entire papal court settled at Avignon,
+an imperial fief held by the king of Sicily. Thus began the seventy
+years "Babylonian captivity of the Church." On the 13th of October 1307
+came the arrest of all the Knights Templar in France, the breaking of a
+storm conjured up by royal jealousy and greed. From the very day of
+Clement's coronation the king had charged the Templars with heresy,
+immorality and abuses, and the scruples of the weak pope were at length
+overcome by apprehension lest the State should not wait for the Church,
+but should proceed independently against the alleged heretics, as well
+as by the royal threats of pressing the accusation of heresy against the
+late Boniface VIII. In pursuance of the king's wishes Clement summoned
+the council of Vienne (see VIENNE, COUNCIL OF), which was unable to
+conclude that the Templars were guilty of heresy. The pope abolished the
+order, however, as it seemed to be in bad repute and had outlived its
+usefulness. Its French estates were granted to the Hospitallers, but
+actually Philip IV. held them until his death.
+
+In his relations to the Empire Clement was an opportunist. He refused to
+use his full influence in favour of the candidacy of Charles of Valois,
+brother of Philip IV., lest France became too powerful; and recognized
+Henry of Luxemburg, whom his representatives crowned emperor at the
+Lateran in 1312. When Henry, however, came into conflict with Robert of
+Naples, Clement supported Robert and threatened the emperor with ban and
+interdict. But the crisis passed with the unexpected death of Henry,
+soon followed by that of the pope on the 20th of April 1314 at
+Roquemaure-sur-Rhone. Though the sale of offices and oppressive taxation
+which disgraced his pontificate may in part be explained by the
+desperate condition of the papal finances and by his saving up gold for
+a crusade, nevertheless he indulged in unbecoming pomp. Showing
+favouritism toward his family and his nation, he brought untold
+disaster on the Church.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY--See "Clementis V. . . . et aliorum epistolae," in S.
+  Baluzius, _Vitae Paparum Avenionensium_, tom. ii. (Paris, 1693), 55
+  ff.; "Tractatus cum Henrico VII. imp. Germ. anno 1309," in Pertz,
+  _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, legum ii. I. 492-496; J.F. Rabanis,
+  _Clement V et Philippe le Bel. Suivie du journal de la visite
+  pastorale de Bertrand de Got dans la province ecclesiastique de
+  Bordeaux en 1304 et 1305_ (Paris, 1858); "Clementis Papae V.
+  Constitutiones," in _Corpus Iuris Canonici_, ed. Aemilius Friedberg,
+  vol. ii. (Leipzig, 1881), 1125-1200; P.B. Gams, _Series Episcoporum
+  Ecclesiae Catholicae_ (Regensburg, 1873); Wetzer und Welte,
+  _Kirchenlexikon_, vol. iii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1884), 462-473;
+  _Regestum Clementis Papae V. ex Vaticanis archetypis cura et studio
+  monachorum ord. Ben._ (Rome, 1885-1892), 9 vols. and appendix; J.
+  Gmelin, _Schuld oder Unschuld des Templerordens_ (Stuttgart, 1893);
+  Gachon, _Pieces relatifs au debat du pape Clement V avec l'empereur
+  Henri VII_ (Montpellier 1894); Lacoste, _Nouvelles Etudes sur Clement
+  V_ (1896); Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie_, vol. iv. (3rd ed.,
+  Leipzig, 1898), 144 f.; J. Loserth, _Geschichte des spaeteren
+  Mittelalters_ (Munich, 1903); and A. Eitel, _Der Kirchenstaat unter
+  Klemens V._ (Berlin, 1907).    (W. W. R.*)
+
+
+CLEMENT VI. (Pierre Roger), pope from the 7th of May 1342 to the 6th of
+December 1352, was born at Maumont in Limousin in 1291, the son of the
+wealthy lord of Rosieres, entered the Benedictine order as a boy,
+studied at Paris, and became successively prior of St Baudil, abbot of
+Fecamp, bishop of Arras, chancellor of France, archbishop of Sens and
+archbishop of Rouen. He was made cardinal-priest of Sti Nereo ed
+Achilleo and administrator of the bishopric of Avignon by Benedict XII.
+in 1338, and four years later succeeded him as pope. He continued to
+reside at Avignon despite the arguments of envoys and the verses of
+Petrarch, but threw a sop to the Romans by reducing the Jubilee term
+from one hundred years to fifty. He appointed Cola di Rienzo to a civil
+position at Rome, and, although at first approving the establishment of
+the tribunate, he later sent a legate who excommunicated Rienzo and,
+with the help of the aristocratic faction, drove him from the city
+(December 1347). Clement continued the struggle of his predecessors with
+the emperor Louis the Bavarian, excommunicating him after protracted
+negotiations on the 13th of April 1346, and directing the election of
+Charles of Moravia, who received general recognition after the death of
+Louis in October 1347, and put an end to the schism which had long
+divided Germany. Clement proclaimed a crusade in 1343, but nothing was
+accomplished beyond a naval attack on Smyrna (29th of October 1344). He
+also carried on fruitless negotiations for church unity with the
+Armenians and with the Greek emperor, John Cantacuzenus. He tried to end
+the Hundred Years' War between England and France, but secured only a
+temporary truce. He excommunicated Casimir of Poland for marital
+infidelity and forced him to do penance. He successfully resisted
+encroachments on ecclesiastical jurisdiction by the kings of England,
+Castile and Aragon. He made Prague an archbishopric in 1344, and three
+years later founded the university there. During the disastrous plague
+of 1347-1348 Clement did all he could to alleviate the distress, and
+condemned the Flagellants and Jew-baiters. He tried Queen Joanna of
+Naples for the murder of her husband and acquitted her. He secured full
+ownership of the county of Avignon through purchase from Queen Joanna
+(9th of June 1348) and renunciation of feudal claims by Charles IV. of
+France, and considerably enlarged the papal palace in that city. To
+supply money for his many undertakings Clement revived the practice of
+selling reservations and expectancies, which had been abolished by his
+predecessor. Oppressive taxation and unblushing nepotism were Clement's
+great faults. On the other hand, he was famed for his engaging manners,
+eloquence and theological learning. He died on the 6th of December 1352,
+and was buried in the Benedictine abbey at Auvergne, but his tomb was
+destroyed by Calvinists in 1562. His successor was Innocent VI.
+
+  The chief sources for the life of Clement VI. are in Baluzius, _Vitae
+  Pap. Avenion._, vol. i. (Paris, 1693); E. Werunsky, _Excerpta ex
+  registris Clementis VI. et Innocentii VI._ (Innsbruck, 1885); and F.
+  Cerasoli, _Clemente VI. e Giovanni I. di Napoli--Documenti inedite
+  dell' Archivio Vaticano_ (1896, &c).
+
+  See L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i., trans, by F.I.
+  Antrobus (London, 1899); F. Gregorovius, _Rome in the Middle Ages_,
+  vol. vi. trans. by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1900-1902); J.B.
+  Christophe, _Histoire de la papaute pendant le XIVe siecle_, vol. ii.
+  (Paris, 1853); also article by L. Kuepper in the _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd
+  ed.). (C.H.HA.)
+
+
+CLEMENT VII. (Robert of Geneva), (d. 1394), antipope, brother of Peter,
+count of Genevois, was connected by blood or marriage with most of the
+sovereigns of Europe. After occupying the episcopal sees of Therouanne
+and Cambrai, he attained to the cardinalate at an early age. In 1377, as
+legate of Pope Gregory XI. in the Romagna, he directed, or rather
+assisted in, the savage suppression of the revolt of the inhabitants of
+Cesena against the papal authority. In the following year he took part
+in the election of Pope Urban VI. at Rome, and was perhaps the first to
+express doubts as to the validity of that tumultuous election. After
+withdrawing to Fondi to reconsider the election, the cardinals finally
+resolved to regard Urban as an intruder and the Holy See as still
+vacant, and an almost unanimous vote was given in favour of Robert of
+Geneva (20th of September 1378), who took the name of Clement VII. Thus
+originated the Great Schism of the West.
+
+To his high connexions and his adroitness, as well as to the gross
+mistakes of his rival, Clement owed the immediate support of Queen
+Joanna of Naples and of several of the Italian barons; and the king of
+France, Charles V., who seems to have been sounded beforehand on the
+choice of the Roman pontiff, soon became his warmest protector. Clement
+eventually succeeded in winning to his cause Scotland, Castile, Aragon,
+Navarre, a great part of the Latin East, and Flanders. He had adherents,
+besides, scattered through Germany, while Portugal on two occasions
+acknowledged him, but afterwards forsook him. From Avignon, however,
+where he had immediately fixed his residence, his eyes were always
+turned towards Italy, his purpose being to wrest Rome from his rival. To
+attain this end he lavished his gold--or rather the gold provided by the
+clergy in his obedience--without stint, and conceived a succession of
+the most adventurous projects, of which one at least was to leave a
+lasting mark on history.
+
+By the bait of a kingdom to be carved expressly out of the States of the
+Church and to be called the kingdom of Adria, coupled with the
+expectation of succeeding to Queen Joanna, Clement incited Louis, duke
+of Anjou, the eldest of the brothers of Charles V., to take arms in his
+favour. These tempting offers gave rise to a series of expeditions into
+Italy carried out almost exclusively at Clement's expense, in the first
+of which Louis lost his life. These enterprises on several occasions
+planted Angevin domination in the south of the Italian peninsula, and
+their most decisive result was the assuring of Provence to the dukes of
+Anjou and afterwards to the kings of France. After the death of Louis,
+Clement hoped to find equally brave and interested champions in Louis'
+son and namesake; in Louis of Orleans, the brother of Charles VI.; in
+Charles VI. himself; and in John III., count of Armagnac. The prospect
+of his briliant progress to Rome was ever before his eyes; and in his
+thoughts force of arms, of French arms, was to be the instrument of his
+glorious triumph over his competitor.
+
+There came a time, however, when Clement and more particularly his
+following had to acknowledge the vanity of these illusive dreams; and
+before his death, which took place on the 16th of September 1394, he
+realized the impossibility of overcoming by brute force an opposition
+which was founded on the convictions of the greater part of Catholic
+Europe, and discerned among his adherents the germs of disaffection. By
+his vast expenditure, ascribable not only to his wars in Italy, his
+incessant embassies, and the necessity of defending himself in the
+Comtat Venaissin against the incursions of the adventurous Raymond of
+Turenne, but also to his luxurious tastes and princely habits, as well
+as by his persistent refusal to refer the question of the schism to a
+council, he incurred general reproach. Unity was the crying need; and
+men began to fasten upon him the responsibility of the hateful schism,
+not on the score of insincerity--which would have been very unjust,--but
+by reason of his obstinate persistence in the course he had chosen.
+
+  See N. Valois, _La France el le grand schisme d'occident_ (Paris,
+  1896). (N.V.)
+
+
+CLEMENT VII. (Giulio de' Medici), pope from 1523 to 1534, was the son of
+Giuliano de' Medici, assassinated in the conspiracy of the Pazzi at
+Florence, and of a certain Fioretta, daughter of Antonia. Being left an
+orphan he was taken into his own house by Lorenzo the Magnificent and
+educated with his sons. In 1494 Giulio went with them into exile; but,
+on Giovanni's restoration to power, returned to Florence, of which he
+was made archbishop by his cousin Pope Leo X., a special dispensation
+being granted on account of his illegitimate birth, followed by a formal
+declaration of the fact that his parents had been secretly married and
+that he was therefore legitimate. On the 23rd of September 1513 the pope
+conferred on him the title of cardinal and made him legate at Bologna.
+During the reign of the pleasure-loving Leo, Cardinal Giulio had
+practically the whole papal government in his hands and displayed all
+the qualities of a good administrator; and when, on the death of Adrian
+VI.--whose election he had done most to secure--he was chosen pope (Nov.
+18, 1523), his accession was hailed as the dawn of a happier era. It
+soon became clear, however, that the qualities which had made Clement an
+excellent second in command were not equal to the exigencies of supreme
+power at a time of peculiar peril and difficulty.
+
+Though free from the grosser vices of his predecessors, a man of taste,
+and economical without being avaricious, Clement VII. was essentially a
+man of narrow outlook and interests. He failed to understand the great
+spiritual movement which was convulsing the Church; and instead of
+bending his mind to the problem of the Reformation, he from the first
+subordinated the cause of Catholicism and of the world to his interests
+as an Italian prince and a Medici. Even in these purely secular affairs,
+moreover, his timidity and indecision prevented him from pursuing a
+consistent policy; and his ill fortune, or his lack of judgment, placed
+him, as long as he had the power of choice, ever on the losing side.
+
+Clement's accession at once brought about a political change in favour
+of France; yet he was unable to take a strong line, and wavered between
+the emperor and Francis I., concluding a treaty of alliance with the
+French king, and then, when the crushing defeat of Pavia had shown him
+his mistake, making his peace with Charles (April 1, 1525), only to
+break it again by countenancing Girolamo Morone's League of Freedom, of
+which the aim was to assert the independence of Italy from foreign
+powers. On the betrayal of this conspiracy Clement made a fresh
+submission to the emperor, only to follow this, a year later, by the
+Holy League of Cognac with Francis I. (May 22, 1526). Then followed the
+imperial invasion of Italy and Bourbon's sack of Rome (May 1527) which
+ended the Augustan age of the papal city in a horror of fire and blood.
+The pope himself was besieged in the castle of St Angelo, compelled on
+the 6th of June to ransom himself with a payment of 400,000 scudi, and
+kept in confinement until, on the 26th of November, he accepted the
+emperor's terms, which besides money payments included the promise to
+convene a general council to deal with Lutheranism. On the 6th of
+December Clement escaped, before the day fixed for his liberation, to
+Orvieto, and at once set to work to establish peace. After the signature
+of the treaty of Cambrai on the 3rd of August 1529 Charles met Clement
+at Bologna and received from him the imperial crown and the iron crown
+of Lombardy. The pope was now restored to the greater part of his
+temporal power; but for some years it was exercised in subservience to
+the emperor. During this period Clement was mainly occupied in urging
+Charles to arrest the progress of the Reformation in Germany and in
+efforts to elude the emperor's demand for a general council, which
+Clement feared lest the question of the mode of his election and his
+legitimacy should be raised. It was due to his dependence on Charles V.,
+rather than to any conscientious scruples, that Clement evaded Henry
+VIII.'s demand for the nullification of his marriage with Catherine of
+Aragon, and so brought about the breach between England and Rome. Some
+time before his death, however, the dynastic interests of his family led
+him once more to a rapprochement with France. On the 9th of June 1531 an
+agreement was signed for the marriage of Henry of Orleans with
+Catherine de' Medici; but it was not till October 1533 that Clement met
+Francis at Marseilles, the wedding being celebrated on the 27th. Before,
+however, the new political alliance, thus cemented, could take effect,
+Clement died, on the 25th of September 1534.
+
+  See E. Casanova, _Lettere di Carlo V. a Clemente VII._ (Florence,
+  1893); Hugo Laemmer, _Monumenta Vaticana_, &c (Freiburg, 1861); P.
+  Balan, _Monumenta saeculi XVI. hist. illustr._ (Innsbruck, 1885); ib.
+  _Mon. Reform. Luther_ (Regensburg, 1884); Stefan Ehses, _Roem. Dokum.
+  z. Gesch. der Ehescheidung Heinrichs VIII._ (Paderborn, 1893);
+  _Calendar of State Papers_ (London, 1869, &c.); J.J.I. von Doellinger,
+  _Beitraege zur politischen, kirchlichen und Kulturgeschichte_ (3 vols.,
+  Vienna, 1882); F. Guicciardini, _Istoria d'Italia_; L. von Ranke, _Die
+  roemischen Paepste in den letzten vier Jahrhunderten_, and _Deutsche
+  Gesch. im Zeitalter der Reformation_; W. Hellwig, _Die politischen
+  Beziehungen Clements VII. zu Karl V., 1526_ (Leipzig, 1889); H.
+  Baumgarten, _Gesch. Karls V._ (Stuttgart, 1888); F. Gregorovius,
+  _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, vol. viii. p. 414. (2nd ed., 1874); P.
+  Balan, _Clemente VII. e l' Italia de' suoi tempi_ (Milan, 1887); E.
+  Armstrong, _Charles the Fifth_ (2 vols., London, 1902); M. Creighton,
+  _Hist. of the Papacy during the Period of the Reformation_ (London,
+  1882); and H.M. Vaughan, _The Medici Popes_ (1908). Further references
+  will be found in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie, s. Clemens VII_. See
+  also _Cambridge Modern History_, vol. ii. chap. i. and bibliography.
+     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+CLEMENT VIII. (Aegidius Munoz), antipope from 1425 to the 26th of July
+1429, was a canon at Barcelona until elected at Peniscola by three
+cardinals whom the stubborn antipope Benedict XIII. had named on his
+death-bed. Clement was immediately recognized by Alphonso V. of Aragon,
+who was hostile to Pope Martin V. on account of the latter's opposition
+to his claims to the kingdom of Naples, but abdicated as soon as an
+agreement was reached between Alphonso and Martin through the exertions
+of Cardinal Pierre de Foix, an able diplomat and relation of the king's.
+Clement spent his last years as bishop of Majorca, and died on the 28th
+of December 1446.
+
+  See. L. Pastor, _History of the Popes_, vol. i. trans, by F.I.
+  Antrobus (London, 1899); M. Creighton, _History of the Papacy_, vol.
+  ii. (London, 1899); and consult bibliography on MARTIN V. (C.H.HA.)
+
+
+CLEMENT VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope from 1592 to 1605, was born
+at Fano, in 1535. He became a jurist and filled several important
+offices. In 1585 he was made a cardinal, and subsequently discharged a
+delicate mission to Poland with skill. His moderation and experience
+commended him to his fellow cardinals, and on the 30th of January 1592
+he was elected pope, to succeed Innocent IX. While not hostile to Philip
+II., Clement desired to emancipate the papacy from undue Spanish
+influence, and to that end cultivated closer relations with France. In
+1595 he granted absolution to Henry IV., and so removed the last
+objection to the acknowledgment of his legitimacy. The peace of Vervins
+(1598), which marked the end of Philip's opposition to Henry, was mainly
+the work of the pope. Clement also entertained hopes of recovering
+England. He corresponded with James I. and with his queen, Anne of
+Denmark, a convert to Catholicism. But James was only half in earnest,
+and, besides, dared not risk a breach with his subjects. Upon the
+failure of the line of Este, Clement claimed the reversion of Ferrara
+and reincorporated it into the States of the Church (1598). He
+remonstrated against the exclusion of the Jesuits from France, and
+obtained their readmission. But in their doctrinal controversy with the
+Dominicans (see MOLINA, LUIS) he refrained from a decision, being
+unwilling to offend either party. Under Clement the publication of the
+revised edition of the Vulgate, begun by Sixtus V., was finished; the
+Breviary, Missal and Pontifical received certain corrections; the Index
+was expanded; the Vatican library enlarged; and the Collegium
+Clementinum founded. Clement was an unblushing nepotist; three of his
+nephews he made cardinals, and to one of them gradually surrendered the
+control of affairs. But on the other hand among those whom he promoted
+to the cardinalate were such men as Baronius, Bellarmine and Toledo.
+During this pontificate occurred the burning of Giordano Bruno for
+heresy; and the tragedy of the Cenci (see the respective articles).
+Clement died on the 5th of March 1605, and was succeeded by Leo XI.
+
+  See the contemporary life by Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum
+  Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1601-1602); Francolini, _Ippolito Aldobrandini,
+  che fu Clemente VIII._ (Perugia, 1867); Ranke's excellent sketch,
+  _Popes_ (Eng. trans. Austin), ii. 234 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der
+  Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 599 seq.; Brosch, _Gesch. des Kirchenstaates_
+  (1880), i. 301 seq.    (T. F. C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT IX. (Giulio Rospigliosi) was born in 1600, became successively
+auditor of the Rota, archbishop of Tarsus _in partibus_, and cardinal,
+and was elected pope on the 20th of June 1667. He effected a temporary
+adjustment of the Jansenist controversy; was instrumental in concluding
+the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668); healed a long-standing breach
+between the Holy See and Portugal; aided Venice against the Turks, and
+laboured unceasingly for the relief of Crete, the fall of which hastened
+his death on the 9th of October 1669.
+
+  See Oldoin, continuator of Ciaconius, _Vitae et res gestae summorum
+  Pontiff. Rom._; Palazzi, _Gesta Pontiff. Rom._ (Venice, 1687-1688),
+  iv. 621 seq. (both contemporary); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans. Austin),
+  iii. 59 seq.; and v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2, 634 seq.
+  (T.F.C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT X. (Emilio Altieri) was born in Rome, on the 13th of July 1590.
+Before becoming pope, on the 29th of April 1670 he had been auditor in
+Poland, governor of Ancona, and nuncio in Naples. His advanced age
+induced him to resign the control of affairs to his adopted nephew,
+Cardinal Paluzzi, who embroiled the papacy in disputes with the resident
+ambassadors, and incurred the enmity of Louis XIV., thus provoking the
+long controversy over the regalia (see INNOCENT XI.). Clement died on
+the 22nd of July 1676.
+
+  See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751),
+  (contin. of Ciaconius), i. 1 seq.; Palazzi, _Gesta Pontiff. Rom._
+  (Venice, 1687-1688), iv. 655 seq.; and Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans.
+  Austin), iii. 172 seq. (T.F.C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT XI (Giovanni Francesco Albani), pope from 1700 to 1721, was born
+in Urbino, on the 22nd of July 1649, received an extraordinary education
+in letters, theology and law, filled various important offices in the
+Curia, and finally, on the 23rd of November 1700, succeeded Innocent
+XII. as pope. His private life and his administration were blameless,
+but it was his misfortune to reign in troublous times. In the war of the
+Spanish Succession he would willingly have remained neutral, but found
+himself between two fires, forced first to recognize Philip V., then
+driven by the emperor to recognize the Archduke Charles. In the peace of
+Utrecht he was ignored; Sardinia and Sicily, Parma and Piacenza, were
+disposed of without regard to papal claims. When he quarrelled with the
+duke of Savoy, and revoked his investiture rights in Sicily (1715), his
+interdict was treated with contempt. The prestige of the papacy had
+hardly been lower within two centuries. About 1702 the Jansenist
+controversy broke out afresh. Clement reaffirmed the infallibility of
+the pope, in matters of _fact_ (1705), and, in 1713, issued the bull
+_Unigenitus_, condemning 101 Jansenistic propositions extracted from the
+_Moral Reflections_ of Pasquier Quesnel. The rejection of this bull by
+certain bishops led to a new party division and a further prolonging of
+the controversy (see JANSENISM and QUESNEL, PASQUIER). Clement also
+forbade the practice of the Jesuit missionaries in China of
+"accommodating" their teachings to pagan notions or customs, in order to
+win converts. Clement was a polished writer, and a generous patron of
+art and letters. He died on the 19th of March 1721.
+
+  For contemporary lives see Elci, _The Present State of the Court of
+  Rome_, trans, from the Ital. (London, 1706); Polidoro, _De Vita et
+  Reb. Gest. Clem. XI._ (Urbino, 1727); Reboulet, _Hist. de Clem. XI.
+  Pape_ (Avignon, 1752); Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gest. Pontiff. Rom._
+  (Rome, 1751); Sandini, _Vitae Pontiff Rom._ (Padua, 1739); Buder,
+  _Leben u. Thaten Clementis XI._ (Frankfort, 1720-1721). See also
+  _Clementis XI. Opera Omnia_ (Frankfort, 1729); the detailed "Studii
+  sul pontificato di Clem. XI.," by Pometti in the _Archivio della R.
+  Soc. romana di storia patria_, vols. 21, 22, 23 (1898-1900), and the
+  extended bibliography in Hergenroether, _Allg. Kirchengesch._ (1880),
+  iii. 506.    (T. F. C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT XII. (Lorenzo Corsini), pope from 1730 to 1740, succeeded
+Benedict XIII. on the 12th of July 1730, at the age of seventy-eight.
+The rascally Cardinal Coscia, who had deluded Benedict, was at once
+brought to justice and forced to disgorge his dishonest gains.
+Politically the papacy had sunk to the level of pitiful helplessness,
+unable to resist the aggressions of the Powers, who ignored or coerced
+it at will. Yet Clement entertained high hopes for Catholicism; he
+laboured for a union with the Greek Church, and was ready to facilitate
+the return of the Protestants of Saxony. He deserves well of posterity
+for his services to learning and art; the restoration of the Arch of
+Constantine; the enrichment of the Capitoline museum with antique
+marbles and inscriptions, and of the Vatican library With oriental
+manuscripts (see ASSEMANI); and the embellishment of the city with many
+buildings. He died on the 6th of February 1740, and was succeeded by
+Benedict XIV.
+
+  See Guarnacci, _Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom._ (Rome, 1751);
+  Sandini, _Vitae Pontiff. Rom._ (Padua, 1739); Fabroni, _De Vita et
+  Reb. Gest. Clementis XII_. (Rome, 1760); Ranke, _Popes_ (Eng. trans.
+  Austin), iii. 191 seq.; v. Reumont, _Gesch. der Stadt Rom_, iii. 2,
+  653 seq. (T.F.C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT XIII. (Carlo della Torre Rezzonico), pope from 1758 to 1769, was
+born in Venice, on the 7th of March 1693, filled various important posts
+in the Curia, became cardinal in 1737, bishop of Padua in 1743, and
+succeeded Benedict XIV. as pope on the 6th of July 1758. He was a man of
+upright, moderate and pacific intentions, but his pontificate of eleven
+years was anything but tranquil. The Jesuits had fallen upon evil days;
+in 1758 Pombal expelled them from Portugal; his example was followed by
+the Bourbon countries--France, Spain, the Two Sicilies and Parma
+(1764-1768). The order turned to the pope as its natural protector; but
+his protests (cf. the bull _Apostolicum pascendi munus_, 7th of January
+1765) were unheeded (see JESUITS). A clash with Parma occurred to
+aggravate his troubles. The Bourbon kings espoused their relative's
+quarrel, seized Avignon, Benevento and Ponte Corvo, and united in a
+peremptory demand for the suppression of the Jesuits (January 1769).
+Driven to extremities, Clement consented to call a Consistory to
+consider the step, but on the very eve of the day set for its meeting he
+died (2nd of February 1769), not without suspicion of poison, of which,
+however, there appears to be no conclusive evidence.
+
+  A contemporary account of Clement was written by Augustin de Andres y
+  Sobinas, ... _el nacimiento, estudios y empleos de ... Clem. XIII_.
+  (Madrid, 1759). Ravignan's _Clement XIII. e Clement XIV._ (Paris,
+  1854) is partisan but free from rancour; and appends many interesting
+  documents. See also the bibliographical note under Clement XIV.
+  _infra_.; and the extended bibliography in Hergenroether, _Allg.
+  Kirchengesch._ (1880), iii. 509.    (T. F. C.)
+
+
+CLEMENT XIV. (Lorenzo Ganganelli), pope from 1769 to 1774, son of a
+physician of St Arcangelo, near Rimini, was born on the 31st of October
+1705, entered the Franciscan order at the age of seventeen, and became a
+teacher of theology and philosophy. As regent of the college of S.
+Bonaventura, Rome, he came under the notice of Benedict XIV., who
+conceived a high opinion of his talents and made him consulter of the
+Inquisition. Upon the recommendation of Ricci, general of the Jesuits,
+Clement XIII. made him a cardinal; but, owing to his disapproval of the
+pope's policy, he found himself out of favour and without influence. The
+conclave following the death of Clement XIII. was the most momentous of
+at least two centuries. The fate of the Jesuits hung in the balance; and
+the Bourbon princes were determined to have a pope subservient to their
+hostile designs. The struggle was prolonged three months. At length, on
+the 19th of May 1769, Ganganelli was chosen, not as a declared enemy of
+the Jesuits, but as being least objectionable to each of the contending
+factions. The charge of simony was inspired by Jesuit hatred; there is
+absolutely no evidence that Ganganelli pledged himself to suppress the
+order.
+
+The outlook for the papacy was dark; Portugal was talking of a
+patriarchate; France held Avignon; Naples held Ponte Corvo and
+Benevento; Spain was ill-affected; Parma, defiant; Venice, aggressive;
+Poland meditating a restriction of the rights of the nuncio. Clement
+realized the imperative necessity of conciliating the powers. He
+suspended the public reading of the bull _In Coena Domini_, so obnoxious
+to civil authority; resumed relations with Portugal; revoked the
+_monitorium_ of his predecessor against Parma. But the powers were bent
+upon the destruction of the Jesuits, and they had the pope at their
+mercy. Clement looked abroad for help, but found none. Even Maria
+Theresa, his last hope, suppressed the order in Austria. Temporizing
+and partial concessions were of no avail. At last, convinced that the
+peace of the Church demanded the sacrifice, Clement signed the brief
+_Dominus ac Redemptor_, dissolving the order, on the 21st of July 1773.
+The powers at once gave substantial proof of their satisfaction;
+Benevento, Ponte Corvo, Avignon and the Venaissin were restored to the
+Holy See. But it would be unfair to accept this as evidence of a
+bargain. Clement had formerly indignantly rejected the suggestion of
+such an exchange of favours.
+
+There is no question of the legality of the pope's act; whether he was
+morally culpable, however, continues to be a matter of bitter
+controversy. On the one hand, the suppression is denounced as a base
+surrender to the forces of tyranny and irreligion, an act of treason to
+conscience, which reaped its just punishment of remorse; on the other
+hand, it is as ardently maintained that Clement acted in full accord
+with his conscience, and that the order merited its fate by its own
+mischievous activities which made it an offence to religion and
+authority alike. But whatever the guilt or innocence of the Jesuits, and
+whether their suppression were ill-advised or not, there appears to be
+no ground for impeaching the motives of Clement, or of doubting that he
+had the approval of his conscience. The stories of his having swooned
+after signing the brief, and of having lost hope and even reason, are
+too absurd to be entertained. The decline in health, which set in
+shortly after the suppression, and his death (on the 22nd of September
+1774) proceeded from wholly natural causes. The testimony of his
+physician and of his confessor ought to be sufficient to discredit the
+oft-repeated story of slow poisoning (see Duhr, _Jesuiten Fabeln_, 4th
+ed., 1904, pp. 69 seq.).
+
+The suppression of the Jesuits bulks so large in the pontificate of
+Clement that he has scarcely been given due credit for his praiseworthy
+attempt to reduce the burdens of taxation and to reform the financial
+administration, nor for his liberal encouragement of art and learning,
+of which the museum Pio-Clementino is a lasting monument.
+
+No pope has been the subject of more diverse judgments than Clement XIV.
+Zealous defenders credit him with all virtues, and bless him as the
+instrument divinely ordained to restore the peace of the Church;
+virulent detractors charge him with ingratitude, cowardice and
+double-dealing. The truth is at neither extreme. Clement's was a deeply
+religious and poetical nature, animated by a lofty and refined spirit.
+Gentleness, equanimity and benevolence were native to him. He cherished
+high purposes and obeyed a lively conscience. But he instinctively
+shrank from conflict; he lacked the resoluteness and the sterner sort of
+courage that grapples with a crisis.
+
+  Caraccioli's _Vie de Clement XIV_ (Paris, 1775) (freq. translated), is
+  incomplete, uncritical and too laudatory. The middle of the 19th
+  century saw quite a spirited controversy over Clement XIV.; St Priest,
+  in his _Hist. de la chute des Jesuites_ (Paris, 1846), represented
+  Clement as lamentably, almost culpably, weak; Cretineau-Joly, in his
+  _Hist. ... de la Comp. de Jesus_ (Paris, 1844-1845), and his _Clement
+  XIV et les Jesuites_ (Paris, 1847), was outspoken and bitter in his
+  condemnation; this provoked Theiner's _Gesch. des Pontificats Clemens'
+  XIV._ (Leipzig and Paris, 1852), a vigorous defence based upon
+  original documents to which, as custodian of the Vatican archives, the
+  author had freest access; Cretineau-Joly replied with _Le Pape Clement
+  XIV; Lettres au P. Theiner_ (Paris, 1852). Ravignan's _Clem. XIII. e
+  Clem. XIV._ (Paris, 1854) is a weak, half-hearted apology for Clement
+  XIV. See also v. Reumont, _Ganganelli, Papst Clemens XIV._ (Berlin,
+  1847); and Reinerding, _Clemens XIV. u. d. Aufhebung der Gesellschaft
+  Jesu_ (Augsburg, 1854). The letters of Clement have frequently been
+  printed; the genuineness of Caraccioli's collection (Paris, 1776;
+  freq. translated) has been questioned, but most of the letters are now
+  generally accepted as genuine; see also _Clementis XIV. Epp. ac
+  Brevia_, ed. Theiner (Paris, 1852). An extended bibliography is to be
+  found in Hergenroether, _Allg. Kirchengesch._ (1880), iii. 510 seq.
+     (T. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA (_Clemens Alexandrinus_), Greek Father of the
+Church. The little we know of him is mainly derived from his own works.
+He was probably born about A.D. 150 of heathen parents in Athens. The
+earliest writer after himself who gives us any information with regard
+to him is Eusebius. The only points on which his works now extant inform
+us are his date and his instructors. In the _Stromateis_, while
+attempting to show that the Jewish Scriptures were older than any
+writings of the Greeks, he invariably brings down his dates to the death
+of Commodus, a circumstance which at once suggests that he wrote in the
+reign of the emperor Severus, from 193 to 211 A.D. (see _Strom._ lib. i.
+cap. xxi. 140, p. 403, Potter's edition). The passage in regard to his
+teachers is corrupt, and the sense is therefore doubtful (_Strom._ lib.
+i. cap. i. 11, p. 322, P.).
+
+  "This treatise," he says, speaking of the _Stromateis_, "has not been
+  contrived for mere display, but memoranda are treasured up in it for
+  my old age to be a remedy for forgetfulness,--an image, truly, and an
+  outline of those clear and living discourses, and those men truly
+  blessed and noteworthy I was privileged to hear. One of these was in
+  Greece, the Ionian, the other was in Magna Graecia; the one of them
+  was from Coele Syria, the other from Egypt; but there were others in
+  the East, one of whom belonged to the Assyrians, but the other was in
+  Palestine, originally a Jew. The last of those whom I met was first in
+  power. On falling in with him I found rest, having tracked him while
+  he lay concealed in Egypt. He was in truth the Sicilian bee, and,
+  plucking the flowers of the prophetic and apostolic meadow, he
+  produced a wonderfully pure knowledge in the souls of the listeners."
+
+Some have supposed that in this passage seven teachers are named, others
+that there are only five, and various conjectures have been hazarded as
+to what persons were meant. The only one about whom conjecture has any
+basis for speculating is the last, for Eusebius states (_H.E._ v. 11)
+that Clement made mention of Pantaenus as his teacher in the
+_Hypotyposes_. The reference in this passage is plainly to one whom he
+might well designate as his teacher.
+
+To the information which Clement here supplies subsequent writers add
+little. By Eusebius and Photius he is called Titus Flavius Clemens, and
+"the Alexandrian" is added to his name. Epiphanius tells us that some
+said Clement was an Alexandrian, others that he was an Athenian (_Haer._
+xxxii. 6), and a modern writer imagined that he reconciled this
+discordance by the supposition that he was born at Athens, but lived at
+Alexandria. We know nothing of his conversion except that he passed from
+heathenism to Christianity. This is expressly stated by Eusebius
+(_Praep. Evangel._ lib. ii. cap. 2), though it is likely that Eusebius
+had no other authority than the works of Clement. These works, however,
+warrant the inference. They show a singularly minute acquaintance with
+the ceremonies of pagan religion, and there are indications that Clement
+himself had been initiated in some of the mysteries (_Protrept._ cap.
+ii. sec. 14, p. 13, P.). There is no means of determining the date of
+his conversion. He attained the position of presbyter in the church of
+Alexandria (Eus. _H.E._ vi. 11, and Jerome, _De Vir. Ill._ 38), and
+became perhaps the assistant, and certainly the successor of Pantaenus
+in the catechetical school of that place. Among his pupils were Origen
+(Eus. _H.E._ vi. 7) and Alexander, bishop of Jerusalem (Eus. _H.E._ vi.
+14.). How long he continued in Alexandria, and when and where he died,
+are all matters of pure conjecture. The only further notice of Clement
+that we have in history is in a letter written in 211 by Alexander,
+bishop of Jerusalem, to the Antiochians, and preserved by Eusebius
+(_H.E._ vi. 11). The words are as follows:--"This letter I sent through
+Clement the blessed presbyter, a man virtuous and tried, whom ye know
+and will come to know completely, who being here by the providence and
+guidance of the Ruler of all strengthened and increased the church of
+the Lord." A statement of Eusebius in regard to the persecution of
+Severus in 202 (_H.E._ vi. 3) would render it likely that Clement left
+Alexandria on that occasion. It is conjectured that he went to his old
+pupil Alexander, who was at that time bishop of Flaviada in Cappadocia,
+and that when his pupil was raised to the see of Jerusalem Clement
+followed him there. The letter implies that he was known to the
+Antiochians, and that it was likely he would be still better known. Some
+have conjectured that he returned to Alexandria, but there is not the
+shadow of evidence for such conjecture. Alexander, writing to Origen (c.
+216), mentions Clement as dead (Eus. _H.E._ vi. 14, 9).
+
+  Eusebius and Jerome give us lists of the works which Clement left
+  behind him. Photius has also described some of them. They are as
+  follows:--(1) [Greek: Pros Hellenas logos o protreptikos], _A
+  Hortatory Address to the Greeks_. (2) [Greek: O Paidagogos], _The
+  Tutor_, in three books. (3) [Greek: Stromateis], or _Patch-work_, in
+  eight books. (4) [Greek: Tis o sozomenos plousios]; _Who is the Rich
+  Man that is Saved?_ (5) Eight books of [Greek: Hypotyposeis],
+  _Adumbrations or Outlines._ (6) _On the Passover._ (7) _Discourses on
+  Fasting._ (8) _On Slander._ (9) _Exhortation to Patience, or to the
+  Newly Baptized._ (10) The [Greek: Kanon ekklesiastikos], the _Rule of
+  the Church, or to those who Judaize_, a work dedicated to Alexander,
+  bishop of Jerusalem.
+
+  Of these, the first four have come down to us complete, or nearly
+  complete. The first three form together a progressive introduction to
+  Christianity corresponding to the stages through which the [Greek:
+  mystes] passed at Eleusis--purification, initiation, revelation. The
+  _Hortatory Address to the Greeks_ is an appeal to them to give up the
+  worship of their gods, and to devote themselves to the worship of the
+  one living and true God. Clement exhibits the absurdity and immorality
+  of the stories told with regard to the pagan deities, the cruelties
+  perpetrated in their worship, and the utter uselessness of bowing down
+  before images made by hands. He at the same time shows the Greeks that
+  their own greatest philosophers and poets recognized the unity of the
+  divine Being, and had caught glimpses of the true nature of God, but
+  that fuller light had been thrown on this subject by the Hebrew
+  prophets. He replies to the objection that it was not right to abandon
+  the customs of their forefathers, and points them to Christ as their
+  only safe guide to God.
+
+  The _Paedagogue_ is divided into three books. In the first Clement
+  discusses the necessity for and the true nature of the Paedagogus, and
+  shows how Christ as the Logos acted as Paedagogus, and still acts. In
+  the second and third books Clement enters into particulars, and
+  explains how the Christian following the Logos or Reason ought to
+  behave in the various circumstances of life--in eating, drinking,
+  furnishing a house, in dress, in the relations of social life, in the
+  care of the body, and similar concerns, and concludes with a general
+  description of the life of a Christian. Appended to the _Paedagogue_
+  are two hymns, which are, in all probability, the production of
+  Clement, though some have conjectured that they were portions of the
+  church service of that time. [Greek: stromateis] were bags in which
+  bedclothes ([Greek: stromata]) were kept. The phrase was used as a
+  book-title by Origen and others, and is equivalent to our
+  "miscellanies." It is difficult to give a brief account of the varied
+  contents of the book. Sometimes Clement discusses chronology,
+  sometimes philosophy, sometimes poetry, entering into the most minute
+  critical and chronological details; but one object runs through all,
+  and this is to show what the true Christian Gnostic is, and what is
+  his relation to philosophy. The work was in eight books. The first
+  seven are complete. The eighth now extant is really an incomplete
+  treatise on logic. Some critics have rejected this book as spurious,
+  since its matter is so different from that of the rest. Others,
+  however, have held to its genuineness, because in a Patch-work or Book
+  of Miscellanies the difference of subject is no sound objection, and
+  because Photius seems to have regarded our present eighth book as
+  genuine (Phot. cod. iii. p. 89b, Bekker).
+
+  The treatise _Who is the Rich Man that is Saved?_ is an admirable
+  exposition of the narrative contained in St Mark's Gospel x. 17-31.
+  Here Clement argues that wealth, if rightly used, is not unchristian.
+
+  The _Hypotyposes_[1] in eight books, have not come down to us.
+  Cassiodorus translated them into Latin, freely altering to suit his
+  own ideas of orthodoxy. Both Eusebius and Photius describe the work.
+  It was a short commentary on all the books of Scripture, including
+  some of the apocryphal works, such as the Epistle of Barnabas and the
+  Revelation of Peter. Photius speaks in strong language of the impiety
+  of some opinions in the book (_Bibl._ cod. 109, p. 89 a Bekker), but
+  his statements are such as to prove conclusively that he must have had
+  a corrupt copy, or read very carelessly, or grossly misunderstood
+  Clement. Notes in Latin on the first epistle of Peter, the epistle of
+  Jude, and the first two of John have come down to us; but whether they
+  are the translation of Cassiodorus, or indeed a translation of
+  Clement's work at all, is a matter of dispute.
+
+  The treatise on the Passover was occasioned by a work of Melito on the
+  same subject. Two fragments of this treatise were given by Petavius,
+  and are contained in the modern editions.
+
+  We know nothing of the work called _The Ecclesiastical Canon_ from any
+  external testimony. Clement himself often mentions the [Greek:
+  ekklesiastikos kanon], and defines it as the agreement and harmony of
+  the law and the prophets with the covenant delivered at the appearance
+  of Christ (_Strom._ vi. cap. xv. 125, p. 803, P.). No doubt this was
+  the subject of the treatise. Jerome and Photius call the work
+  _Ecclesiastical Canons_, but this seems to be a mistake.
+
+  Of the other treatises mentioned by Eusebius and Jerome nothing is
+  known. A fragment of Clement, quoted by Antonius Melissa, is most
+  probably taken from the treatise on slander.
+
+  Besides the treatises mentioned by Eusebius, fragments of treatises on
+  Providence and the Soul have been preserved. Mention is also made of a
+  work by Clement on the Prophet Amos, and another on Definitions.
+
+  In addition to these Clement often speaks of his intention to write on
+  certain subjects, but it may well be doubted whether in most cases, if
+  not all, he intended to devote separate treatises to them. Some have
+  found an allusion to the treatise on the Soul already mentioned. The
+  other subjects are Marriage ([Greek: gamikos logos]), Continence, the
+  Duties of Bishops, Presbyters, Deacons and Widows, Prophecy, the Soul,
+  the Transmigration of the Soul and the Devil, Angels, the Origin of
+  the World, First Principles and the Divinity of the Logos, Allegorical
+  Interpretations of Statements made with regard to God's anger and
+  similar affections, the Unity of the Church, and the Resurrection.
+
+  Two works are incorporated in the editions of Clement which are not
+  mentioned by himself or any ancient writer. They are [Greek: Ek ton
+  Theodoton kai tes anatolikes kaloumenes didaskalias kata tous
+  Oualentinou chronous epitomai], and [Greek: Ek ton prophetikon
+  eklogai]. The first, if it is the work of Clement, must be a book
+  merely of excerpts, for it contains many opinions which Clement
+  opposed. Mention is made of Pantaenus in the second, and some have
+  thought it more worthy of him than the first. Others have regarded it
+  as a work similar to the first, and derived from Theodorus.
+
+Clement occupies a profoundly interesting position in the history of
+Christianity. He is the first to bring all the culture of the Greeks and
+all the speculations of the Christian heretics to bear on the exposition
+of Christian truth. He does not attain to a systematic exhibition of
+Christian doctrine, but he paves the way for it, and lays the first
+stones of the foundation. In some respects Justin anticipated him. He
+also was well acquainted with Greek philosophy, and took a genial view
+of it; but he was not nearly so widely read as Clement. The list of
+Greek authors whom Clement has quoted occupies upwards of fourteen of
+the quarto pages in Fabricius's _Bibliotheca Graeca_. He is at home
+alike in the epic and the lyric, the tragic and the comic poets, and his
+knowledge of the prose writers is very extensive. Some, however, of the
+classic poets he appears to have known only from anthologies; hence he
+was misled into quoting as from Euripides and others verses which were
+written by Jewish forgers. He made a special study of the philosophers.
+Equally minute is his knowledge of the systems of the Christian
+heretics. And in all cases it is plain that he not merely read but
+thought deeply on the questions which the civilization of the Greeks and
+the various writings of poets, philosophers and heretics raised. But it
+was in the Scriptures that he found his greatest delight. He believed
+them to contain the revelation of God's wisdom to men. He quotes all the
+books of the Old Testament except Ruth and the Song of Solomon, and
+amongst the sacred writings of the Old Testament he evidently included
+the book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Solomon and Ecclesiasticus. He is
+equally full in his quotations from the New Testament, for he quotes
+from all the books except the epistle to Philemon, the second epistle of
+St Peter, and the epistle of St James, and he quotes from _The Shepherd
+of Hermas_, and the epistles of Clemens Romanus and of Barnabas, as
+inspired. He appeals also to many of the lost gospels, such as those of
+the Hebrews, of the Egyptians and of Matthias.
+
+Notwithstanding this adequate knowledge of Scripture, the modern
+theologian is disappointed to find very little of what he deems
+characteristically Christian. In fact Clement regarded Christianity as a
+philosophy. The ancient philosophers sought through their philosophy to
+attain to a nobler and holier life, and this also was the aim of
+Christianity. The difference between the two, in Clement's judgment, was
+that the Greek philosophers had only glimpses of the truth, that they
+attained only to fragments of the truth, while Christianity revealed in
+Christ the absolute and perfect truth. All the stages of the world's
+history were therefore preparations leading up to this full revelation,
+and God's care was not confined to the Hebrews alone. The worship of the
+heavenly bodies, for instance, was given to man at an early stage that
+he might rise from a contemplation of these sublime objects to the
+worship of the Creator. Greek philosophy in particular was the
+preparation of the Greeks for Christ. It was the schoolmaster or
+paedagogue to lead them to Christ. Plato was Moses atticizing. Clement
+varies in his statement how Plato got his wisdom or his fragments of the
+Reason. Sometimes he thinks that they came direct from God, like all
+good things, but he is also fond of maintaining that many of Plato's
+best thoughts were borrowed from the Hebrew prophets; and he makes the
+same statement in regard to the wisdom of the other philosophers. But
+however this may be, Christ was the end to which all that was true in
+philosophies pointed. Christ himself was the Logos, the Reason. God the
+Father was ineffable. The Son alone can manifest Him fully. He is the
+Reason that pervades the universe, that brings out all goodness, that
+guides all good men. It was through possessing somewhat of this Reason
+that the philosophers attained to any truth and goodness; but in
+Christians he dwells more fully and guides them through all the
+perplexities of life. Photius, probably on a careless reading of
+Clement, argued that he could not have believed in a real incarnation.
+But the words of Clement are quite precise and their meaning
+indisputable. The real difficulty attaches not to the Second Person, but
+to the First. The Father in Clement's mind becomes the Absolute of the
+philosophers, that is to say, not the Father at all, but the Monad, a
+mere point devoid of all attributes. He believed in a personal Son of
+God who was the Reason and Wisdom of God; and he believed that this Son
+of God really became incarnate though he speaks of him almost invariably
+as the Word, and attaches little value to his human nature. The object
+of his incarnation and death was to free man from his sins, to lead him
+into the path of wisdom, and thus in the end elevate him to the position
+of a god. But man's salvation was to be gradual. It began with faith,
+passed from that to love, and ended in full and complete knowledge.
+There could be no faith without knowledge. But the knowledge is
+imperfect, and the Christian was to do many things in simple obedience
+without knowing the reason. But he has to move upwards continually until
+he at length does nothing that is evil, and he knows fully the reason
+and object of what he does. He thus becomes the true Gnostic, but he can
+become the true Gnostic only by contemplation and by the practice of
+what is right. He has to free himself from the power of passion. He has
+to give up all thoughts of pleasure. He must prefer goodness in the
+midst of torture to evil with unlimited pleasure. He has to resist the
+temptations of the body, keeping it under strict control, and with the
+eye of the soul undimmed by corporeal wants and impulses, contemplate
+God the supreme good, and live a life according to reason. In other
+words, he must strive after likeness to God as he reveals himself in his
+Reason or in Christ. Clement thus looks entirely at the enlightened
+moral elevation to which Christianity raises man. He believed that
+Christ instructed men before he came into the world, and he therefore
+viewed heathenism with kindly eye. He was also favourable to the pursuit
+of all kinds of knowledge. All enlightenment tended to lead up to the
+truths of Christianity, and hence knowledge of every kind not evil was
+its handmaid. Clement had at the same time a strong belief in evolution
+or development. The world went through various stages in preparation for
+Christianity. The man goes through various stages before he can reach
+Christian perfection. And Clement conceived that this development took
+place not merely in this life, but in the future through successive
+grades. The Jew and the heathen had the gospel preached to them in the
+world below by Christ and his apostles, and Christians will have to pass
+through processes of purification and trial after death before they
+reach knowledge and perfect bliss.
+
+The beliefs of Clement have caused considerable difference of opinion
+among modern scholars. He sought the truth from whatever quarter he
+could get it, believing that all that is good comes from God, wherever
+it be found. He belongs therefore to no school of philosophers. He calls
+himself an Eclectic. He was in the main a Neoplatonist, drawing from
+that school his doctrines of the Monad and his strong tendency towards
+mysticism. For his moral doctrine he borrowed freely from Stoicism.
+Aristotelian features may be found but are quite subordinate. But
+Clement always regards the articles of the Christian creed as the axioms
+of a new philosophy. Daehne had tried to show that he was Neoplatonic,
+and Reinkens has maintained that he was essentially Aristotelian. His
+mode of viewing Christianity does not fit into any classification. It is
+the result of the period in which he lived, of his wide culture and the
+simplicity and noble purity of his character.
+
+It is needless to say that his books well deserve study; but the study
+is not smoothed by simplicity of style. Clement professed to despise
+rhetoric, but was himself a rhetorician, and his style is turgid,
+involved and difficult. He is singularly simple in his character. In
+discussing marriage he refuses to use any but the plainest language. A
+euphemism is with him a falsehood. But he is temperate in his opinions;
+and the practical advices in the second and third books of the
+_Paedagogue_ are remarkably sound and moderate. He is not always very
+critical, and he is passionately fond of allegorical interpretations,
+but these were the faults of his age.
+
+All early writers speak of Clement in the highest terms of laudation,
+and he certainly ought to have been a saint in any Church that reveres
+saints. But Clement is not a saint in the Roman Church. He was a saint
+up till the time of Benedict XIV., who read Photius on Clement, believed
+him, and struck the Alexandrian's name out of the calendar. But many
+Roman Catholic writers, though they yield a practical obedience to the
+papal decision, have adduced good reason why it should be reversed
+(Cognat, p. 451).
+
+  EDITIONS.--The standard edition of the collected works will be that of
+  O. Staehlin (first vol. containing _Protrepticus_ and _Paedagogus_,
+  Leipzig, 1905). Separate editions of _Strom_. vii., Hort and Major
+  (1902); _Q.D.S._, Barnard in _Texts and Studies_, v. 2 (1897); W.
+  Dindorf's edition in 4 vols. (Oxford, 1869) is little more than a
+  reprint of the text of Bishop Potter, 1715. For the _Fragments_ see
+  Zahn, _Forschungen zur Gesch. des neut. Kanons_, part iii., or Harnack
+  and Preuschen, _Gesch. der altch. Litt._, vol. i.
+
+  LITERATURE.--A copious bibliography will be found in Harnack,
+  _Chronologie_, vol. ii., or in Bardenhewer, _Gesch. der altk. Lit._
+  Either of these will supply the names of works upon Clement's biblical
+  text, his use of Stoic writers, his quotations from heathen writers,
+  and his relation to heathen philosophy. A valuable book is de Faye,
+  _Clem. d'Alex_. (1898). For his theological position see Harnack,
+  _Dogmengeschichte_; Hort, _Six Lectures on the Ante-Nicene Fathers_;
+  Westcott, "Clem, of Alex." in _Dict. Christ. Biog._; Bigg, _Christian
+  Platonists of Alex._ (1886). A book on Clement's relation to Mysticism
+  is wanted.    (C. Bi.; J. D.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Zahn thinks we have part of them in the _Adumbrationes Clem.
+    Alex. in epistolas canonicas_ (Codex Lindum, 96, sec. ix.). They were
+    perhaps intended as a completion of the preceding course.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENT, FRANCOIS (1714-1793), French historian, was born at Beze, near
+Dijon, and was educated at the Jesuit College at Dijon. At the age of
+seventeen he entered the society of the Benedictines of Saint Maur, and
+worked with such intense application that at the age of twenty-five he
+was obliged to take a protracted rest. He now resided in Paris, where he
+wrote the 11th and 12th vols. of the _Histoire litteraire de la France_,
+and edited (with Dom Brial) the 12th and 13th vols. of the _Recueil des
+historiens des Gauls et de la France_. The king appointed him on the
+committee which was engaged in publishing charters, diplomas and other
+documents connected with French history (see Xavier Charmes, _Le Comite
+des travaux historiques et scientifiques_, vol. i., 1886, passim); and
+the Academy of Inscriptions chose him as a member (1785). Dom Clement
+also revised the _Art de verifier les dates_, edited in 1750 by Dom
+Clemencet. Three volumes with the Indexes appeared from 1783 to 1792. He
+was engaged in preparing another volume including the period before the
+Christian era, when he died suddenly of apoplexy, at the age of
+sixty-nine. The work was afterwards brought down from 1770 to 1827 by
+Julien de Courcelles and Fortia d'Urban.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENT, JACQUES (1567-1589), murderer of the French king Henry III.,
+was born at Sorbon in the Ardennes, and became a Dominican friar. Civil
+war was raging in France, and Clement became an ardent partisan of the
+League; his mind appears to have become unhinged by religious
+fanaticism, and he talked of exterminating the heretics, and formed a
+plan to kill Henry III. His project was encouraged by some of the heads
+of the League; he was assured of temporal rewards if he succeeded, and
+of eternal bliss if he failed. Having obtained letters for the king, he
+left Paris on the 31st of July 1589, and reached St Cloud, the
+headquarters of Henry, who was besieging Paris. On the following day he
+was admitted to the royal presence, and presenting his letters he told
+the king that he had an important and confidential message to deliver.
+The attendants then withdrew, and while Henry was reading the letters
+Clement mortally wounded him with a dagger which had been concealed
+beneath his cloak. The assassin was at once killed by the attendants who
+rushed in, and Henry died early on the following day. Clement's body
+was afterwards quartered and burned. This deed, however, was viewed with
+far different feelings in Paris and by the partisans of the League, the
+murderer being regarded as a martyr and extolled by Pope Sixtus V.,
+while even his canonization was discussed.
+
+  See E. Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, tome vi. (Paris, 1904).
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENTI, MUZIO (c. 1751-1832), Italian pianist and composer, was born
+at Rome between 1750 and 1752. His father, a jeweller, encouraged his
+son's early musical talent. Buroni and Cordicelli were his first
+masters, and at the age of nine Clementi's theoretical and practical
+studies had advanced to such a degree that he was able to win the
+position of organist at a church. He continued his studies under
+Santarelli and Carpani, and at the age of fourteen wrote a mass which
+was performed in public. About 1766 Beckford, the author of _Vathek_,
+persuaded Clementi to follow him to England, where the young composer
+lived in retirement at one of the country seats of his protector in
+Dorsetshire until 1770. In that year he first appeared in London, where
+his success both as composer and pianist was rapid and brilliant. In
+1777 he was for some time employed as conductor of the Italian opera,
+but he soon afterwards left London for Paris. Here also his concerts
+were crowded by enthusiastic audiences, and the same success accompanied
+Clementi on a tour about the year 1780 to southern Germany and Austria.
+At Vienna, which he visited between 1781 and 1782, he was received with
+high honour by the emperor Joseph II., in whose presence he met Mozart,
+and fought a kind of musical duel with him. His technical skill proved
+to be equal if not superior to that of his rival, who on the other hand
+infinitely surpassed him by the passionate beauty of his interpretation.
+It is worth noting that one of the finest of Clementi's sonatas, that in
+B flat, shows an exactly identical opening theme with Mozart's overture
+to the _Flauto Magico_.
+
+In May 1782 Clementi returned to London, where for the next twelve years
+he continued his lucrative occupations of fashionable teacher and
+performer at the concerts of the aristocracy. He took shares in the
+pianoforte business of a firm which went bankrupt in 1800. He then
+established a pianoforte and music business of his own, under the name
+of Clementi & Co. Other members were added to the firm, including
+Collard and Davis, and the firm was ultimately taken over by Messrs
+Collard alone. Amongst his pupils on the pianoforte during this period
+may be mentioned John Field, the composer of the celebrated _Nocturnes_.
+In his company Clementi paid, in 1804, a visit to Paris, Vienna, St
+Petersburg, Berlin and other cities. While he was in Berlin, Meyerbeer
+became one of his pupils. He also revisited his own country after an
+absence of more than thirty years. In 1810 Clementi returned to London,
+but refused to play again in public, devoting the remainder of his life
+to composition. Several symphonies belong to this time, and were played
+with much success at contemporary concerts, but none of them seem to
+have been published. His intellectual and musical faculties remained
+unimpaired until his death, on the 9th of March 1832, at Evesham,
+Worcester.
+
+Of Clementi's playing in his youth, Moscheles wrote that it was "marked
+by a most beautiful _legato_, a supple touch in lively passages, and a
+most unfailing _technique_." Mozart may be said to have closed the old
+and Clementi to have founded the newer school of _technique_ on the
+piano. Amongst Clementi's compositions the most remarkable are sixty
+sonatas for pianoforte, and the great collection of _Etudes_ called
+_Gradus ad Parnassum_.
+
+
+
+
+CLEMENTINE LITERATURE, the name generally given to the writings which at
+one time or another were fathered upon Pope Clement I. (q.v.), commonly
+called Clemens Romanus, who was early regarded as a disciple of St
+Peter. Thus they are for the most part a species of the larger
+pseudo-Petrine genus. Chief among them are: (1) The so-called Second
+Epistle; (2) two Epistles on Virginity; (3) the _Homilies_ and
+_Recognitions_; (4) the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (q.v.); and (5) five
+epistles forming part of the Forged Decretals (see DECRETALS). The
+present article deals mainly with the third group, to which the title
+"Clementine literature" is usually confined, owing to the stress laid
+upon it in the famous Tuebingen reconstruction of primitive Christianity,
+in which it played a leading part; but later criticism has lowered its
+importance as its true date and historical relations have been
+progressively ascertained. (1) and (2) became "Clementine" only by
+chance, but (3) was so originally by literary device or fiction, the
+cause at work also in (4) and (5). But while in all cases the suggestion
+of Clement's authorship came ultimately from his prestige as writer of
+the genuine Epistle of Clement (see CLEMENT I.), both (3) and (4) were
+due to this idea as operative on Syrian soil; (5) is a secondary
+formation based on (3) as known to the West.
+
+(1) _The "Second Epistle of Clement."_--This is really the earliest
+extant Christian homily (see APOSTOLIC FATHERS). Its theme is the duty
+of Christian repentance, with a view to obedience to Christ's precepts
+as the true confession and homage which He requires. Its special charge
+is "Preserve the flesh pure and the seal (i.e. baptism) unstained"
+(viii. 6). But the peculiar way in which it enforces its morals in terms
+of the Platonic contrast between the spiritual and sensuous worlds, as
+archetype and temporal manifestation, suggests a special local type of
+theology which must be taken into account in fixing its _provenance_.
+This theology, the fact that the preacher seems to quote the _Gospel
+according to the Egyptians_ (in ch. xii. and possibly elsewhere) as if
+familiar to his hearers, and indeed its literary affinities generally,
+all point to Alexandria as the original home of the homily, at a date
+about 120-140 (see _Zeit. f. N. T. Wissenschaft_, vii. 123 ff). Neither
+Corinth (as Lightfoot) nor Rome (as Harnack, who assigns it to Bishop
+Soter, c. 166-174) satisfies all the internal conditions, while the
+Eastern nature of the external evidence and the homily's quasi-canonical
+status in the Codex-Alexandrinus strongly favour an Alexandrine origin.
+
+(2) _The Two Epistles to Virgins_, i.e. to Christian celibates of both
+sexes. These are known in their entirety only in Syriac, and were first
+published by Wetstein (1752), who held them genuine. This view is now
+generally discredited, even by Roman Catholics like Funk, their best
+recent editor (_Patres Apost._, vol. ii.). External evidence begins with
+Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 15) and Jerome (_Ad Jovin._ i. 12); and the
+silence of Eusebius tells heavily against their existence before the 4th
+century, at any rate as writings of Clement. The Monophysite Timothy of
+Alexandria (A.D. 457) cites one of them as Clement's, while Antiochus of
+St Saba (c. A.D. 620) makes copious but unacknowledged extracts from
+both in the original Greek. There is no trace of their use in the West.
+Thus their Syrian origin is manifest, the more so that in the Syriac MS.
+they are appended to the New Testament, like the better-known epistles
+of Clement in the Codex Alexandrinus. Indeed, judging from another
+Syriac MS. of earlier date, which includes the latter writings in its
+canon, it seems that the Epistles on Virginity gradually replaced the
+earlier pair in certain Syrian churches--even should Lightfoot be right
+in doubting if this had really occurred by Epiphanius's day (_S. Clement
+of Rome_, i. 412).
+
+Probably these epistles did not originally bear Clement's name at all,
+but formed a single epistle addressed to ascetics among an actual circle
+of churches. In that case they, or rather it, may date from the 3rd
+century in spite of Eusebius's silence, and are not pseudo-Clementine in
+any real sense. It matters little whether or not the false ascription
+was made before the division into two implied already by Epiphanius (c.
+A.D. 375). Special occasion for such a hortatory letter may be discerned
+in its polemic against intimate relations between ascetics of opposite
+sex, implied to exist among its readers, in contrast to usage in the
+writer's own locality. Now we know that spiritual unions, prompted
+originally by highstrung Christian idealism as to a religious fellowship
+transcending the law of nature in relation to sex, did exist between
+persons living under vows of celibacy during the 3rd century in
+particular, and not least in Syria (cf. the case of Paul of Samosata, c.
+265, and the Synod of Ancyra in Galatia, c. 314). It is natural, then,
+to see in the original epistle a protest against the dangers of such
+spiritual boldness (cf. "Subintroductae" in Herzog-Hauck's
+_Realencyklopaedie_), prior perhaps to the famous case at Antioch just
+noted. Possibly it is the feeling of south Syria or Palestine that here
+expresses itself in remonstrance against usages prevalent in north
+Syria. Such a view finds support also in the New Testament canon implied
+in these epistles.
+
+(3)[a] _The Epistle of Clement to James_ (the Lord's brother). This was
+originally part of (3)[b], in connexion with which its origin and date
+are discussed. But as known to the West through Rufinus's Latin version,
+it was quoted as genuine by the synod of Vaison (A.D. 442) and
+throughout the middle ages. It became "the starting point of the most
+momentous and gigantic of medieval forgeries, the Isidorian Decretals,"
+"where it stands at the head of the pontifical letters, extended to more
+than twice its original length." This extension perhaps occurred during
+the 5th century. At any rate the letter in this form, along with a
+"second epistle to James" (on the Eucharist, church furniture, &c.),
+dating from the early 6th century, had separate currency long before the
+9th century, when they were incorporated in the _Decretals_ by the
+forger who raised the Clementine epistles to five (see Lightfoot,
+_Clement_, i. 414 ff.).
+
+(3)[b] _The "Homilies" and "Recognitions_"--"The two chief extant
+Clementine writings, differing considerably in some respects in
+doctrine, are both evidently the outcome of a peculiar speculative type
+of Judaistic Christianity, for which the most characteristic name of
+Christ was 'the true Prophet.' The framework of both is a narrative
+purporting to be written by Clement (of Rome) to St James, the Lord's
+brother, describing at the beginning his own conversion and the
+circumstances of his first acquaintance with St Peter, and then a long
+succession of incidents accompanying St Peter's discourses and
+disputations, leading up to a romantic recognition of Clement's father,
+mother and two brothers, from whom he had been separated since
+childhood. The problems discussed under this fictitious guise are with
+rare exceptions fundamental problems for every age; and, whatever may be
+thought of the positions maintained, the discussions are hardly ever
+feeble or trivial. Regarded simply as mirroring the past, few, if any,
+remains of Christian antiquity present us with so vivid a picture of the
+working of men's minds under the influence of the new leaven which had
+entered into the world" (Hort, _Clem. Recog._, p. xiv.).
+
+The indispensable preliminary to a really historic view of these
+writings is some solution of the problem of their mutual relations. The
+older criticism assumed a dependence of one upon the other, and assigned
+one or both to the latter part of the 2nd century. Recent criticism,
+however, builds on the principle, which emerges alike from the external
+and internal evidence (see Salmon in the _Dict. of Christian
+Biography_), that both used a common basis. Our main task, then, is to
+define the nature, origin and date of the parent document, and if
+possible its own literary antecedents. Towards the solution of this
+problem two contributions of prime importance have recently been made.
+The earlier of these is by F.J.A. Hort, and was delivered in the form of
+lectures as far back as 1884, though issued posthumously only in 1901;
+the other is the elaborate monograph of Dr Hans Waitz (1904).
+
+_Criticism._--(i.) _External Evidence as to the Clementine Romance._ The
+evidence of ancient writers really begins, not with Origen,[1] but with
+Eusebius of Caesarea, who in his _Eccl. Hist._ iii. 38, writes as
+follows: "Certain men have quite lately brought forward as written by
+him (Clement) other verbose and lengthy writings, containing dialogues
+of Peter, forsooth, and Apion, whereof not the slightest mention is to
+be found among the ancients, for they do not even preserve in purity the
+stamp of the Apostolic orthodoxy." Apion, the Alexandrine grammarian
+and foe of Judaism, whose criticism was answered by Josephus, appears
+in this character both in _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_, though mainly
+in the former (iv. 6-vii. 5). Thus Eusebius implies (1) a spurious
+Clementine work containing matter found also in our _Homilies_ at any
+rate; and (2) its quite recent origin. Next we note that an extract in
+the _Philocalia_ is introduced as follows: "Yea, and Clement the Roman,
+a disciple of Peter the Apostle, after using words in harmony with these
+on the present problem, in conversation with his father at Laodicea in
+the _Circuits_, speaks a very necessary word for the end of arguments
+touching this matter, viz. those things which seem to have proceeded
+from _genesis_ (= astrological destiny), in the fourteenth book." The
+extract answers to _Recognitions_, x. 10-13, but it is absent from our
+_Homilies_. Here we observe that (1) the extract agrees this time with
+_Recognitions_, not with _Homilies_; (2) its framework is that of the
+Clementine romance found in both; (3) the tenth and last book of
+_Recognitions_ is here parallel to book xiv. of a work called _Circuits_
+(_Periodoi_).
+
+This last point leads on naturally to the witness of Epiphanius (c.
+375), who, speaking of Ebionites or Judaizing Christians of various
+sorts, and particularly the Essene type, says (_Haer._ xxx. 15) that
+"they use certain other books likewise, to wit, the so-called _Circuits_
+of Peter, which were written by the hand of Clement, falsifying their
+contents, though leaving a few genuine things." Here Ephiphanius simply
+assumes that the Ebionite _Circuits of Peter_ was based on a genuine
+work of the same scope, and goes on to say that the spurious elements
+are proved such by contrast with the tenor of Clement's "encyclic
+epistles" (i.e. those to virgins, (2) above); for these enjoin virginity
+(celibacy), and praise Elijah, David, Samson, and all the prophets,
+whereas the Ebionite _Circuits_ favour marriage (even in Apostles) and
+depreciate the prophets between Moses and Christ, "the true Prophet."
+"In the _Circuits_, then, they adapted the whole to their own views,
+representing Peter falsely in many ways, as that he was daily baptized
+for the sake of purification, as these also do; and they say that he
+likewise abstained from animal food and meat, as they themselves also
+do." Now all the points here noted in the _Circuits_ can be traced in
+our _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_, though toned down in different
+degrees.
+
+The witness of the Arianizing _Opus Imperfectum in Matthaeum_ (c. 400) is
+in general similar. Its usual form of citation is "Peter in Clement"
+(_apud Clementem_). This points to "Clement" as a brief title for the
+Clementine _Periodoi_, a title actually found in a Syriac MS. of A.D. 411
+which contains large parts of _Recognitions_ and _Homilies_, and twice
+used by Rufinus, e.g. when he proposes to inscribe his version of the
+_Recognitions_ "Rufinus _Clemens_." Rufinus in his preface to this
+work--in which for the first time we meet the title
+_Recognition(s)_--observes that there are two editions to which the name
+applies, two collections of books differing in some points but in many
+respects containing the same narrative. This he remarks in explanation of
+the order of his version in some places, which he feels may strike his
+friend Gaudentius as unusual, the inference being that the other edition
+was the better-known one, although it lacked "the transformation of Simon"
+(i.e. of Clement's father into Simon's likeness), which is common to the
+close both of our _Recognitions_ and _Homilies_, and so probably belonged
+to the _Circuits_. We may assume, too (e.g. on the basis of our Syriac
+MS.), that the Greek edition of the _Recognition(s)_ actually used by
+Rufinus was much nearer the text of the _Periodoi_ of which we have found
+traces than we should imagine from its Latin form.
+
+So far we have no sure trace of our _Homilies_ at all, apart from the
+Syriac version. Even four centuries later, Photius, in referring to a
+collection of books called both _Acts of Peter_ and the _Recognition of
+Clement_, does not make clear whether he means _Homilies_ or
+_Recognitions_ or either. "In all the copies which we have seen (and
+they are not a few) after those different epistles (viz. 'Peter to
+James' and 'Clement to James,' prefixed, the one in some MSS. the other
+in others) and titles, we found without variation the same treatise,
+beginning, I, Clement, &c." But it is not clear that he had read more
+than the opening of these MSS. The fact that different epistles are
+prefixed to the same work leads him to conjecture "that there were two
+editions made of the _Acts of Peter_ (his usual title for the
+collection), but in course of time the one perished and that of Clement
+prevailed." This is interesting as anticipating a result of modern
+criticism, as will appear below. The earliest probable reference to our
+_Homilies_ occurs in a work of doubtful date, the pseudo-Athanasian
+_Synopsis_, which mentions "Clementines, whence came by selection and
+rewriting the true and inspired form." Here too we have the first sure
+trace of an expurgated recension, made with the idea of recovering the
+genuine form assumed, as earlier by Epiphanius, to lie behind an
+unorthodox recension of Clement's narrative. As, moreover, the extant
+_Epitome_ is based on our _Homilies_, it is natural to suppose it was
+also the basis of earlier orthodox recensions, one or more of which may
+be used in certain Florilegia of the 7th century and later. Nowhere do
+we find the title _Homilies_ given to any form of the Clementine
+collection in antiquity.
+
+(ii.) _The Genesis of the Clementine Literature._ It has been needful to
+cite so much of the evidence proving that our _Homilies_ and
+_Recognitions_ are both recensions of a common basis, at first known as
+the _Circuits of Peter_ and later by titles connecting it rather with
+Clement, its ostensible author, because it affords data also for the
+historical problems touching (a) the contents and origin of the primary
+Clementine work, and (b) the conditions under which our extant
+recensions of it arose.
+
+(a) _The Circuits of Peter_, as defined on the one hand by the epistle
+of Clement to James originally prefixed to it and by patristic evidence,
+and on the other by the common element in our _Homilies_ and
+_Recognitions_, may be conceived as follows. It contained accounts of
+Peter's teachings and discussions at various points on a route beginning
+at Caesarea, and extending northwards along the coast-lands of Syria as
+far as Antioch. During this tour he meets with persons of typically
+erroneous views, which it was presumably the aim of the work to refute
+in the interests of true Christianity, conceived as the final form of
+divine revelation--a revelation given through true prophecy embodied in
+a succession of persons, the chief of whom were Moses and the prophet
+whom Moses foretold, Jesus the Christ. The prime exponent of the
+spurious religion is Simon Magus. A second protagonist of error, this
+time of Gentile philosophic criticism directed against fundamental
+Judaism, is Apion, the notorious anti-Jewish Alexandrine grammarian of
+Peter's day; while the role of upholder of astrological fatalism
+(_Genesis_) is played by Faustus, father of Clement, with whom Peter and
+Clement debate at Laodicea. Finally, all this is already embedded in a
+setting determined by the romance of Clement and his lost relatives,
+"recognition" of whom forms the _denouement_ of the story.
+
+There is no reason to doubt that such, roughly speaking, were the
+contents of the Clementine work to which Eusebius alludes slightingly,
+in connexion with that section of it which had to his eye least
+verisimilitude, viz. the dialogues between Peter and Apion. Now Eusebius
+believed the work to have been of quite recent and suspicious origin.
+This points to a date about the last quarter of the 3rd century; and the
+prevailing doctrinal tone of the contents, as known to us, leads to the
+same result. The standpoint is that of the peculiar Judaizing or Ebonite
+Christianity due to persistence among Christians of the tendencies known
+among pre-Christian Jews as Essene. The Essenes, while clinging to what
+they held to be original Mosaism, yet conceived and practised their
+ancestral faith in ways which showed distinct traces of syncretism, or
+the operation of influences foreign to Judaism proper. They thus
+occupied an ambiguous position on the borders of Judaism. Similarly
+Christian Essenism was syncretist in spirit, as we see from its
+best-known representatives, the Elchasaites, of whom we first hear about
+220, when a certain Alcibiades of Apamea in Syria (some 60 m. south of
+Antioch) brought to Rome the _Book of Helxai_--the manifesto of their
+distinctive message (Hippol., _Philos._ ix. 13)--and again some twenty
+years later, when Origen refers to one of their leaders as having lately
+arrived at Caesarea (Euseb. vi. 38). The first half of the 3rd century
+was marked, especially in Syria, by a strong tendency to syncretism,
+which may well have stirred certain Christian Essenes to fresh
+propaganda. Other writings than the _Book of Helxai_, representing also
+other species of the same genus, would take shape. Such may have been
+some of the pseudo-apostolic _Acts_ to which Epiphanius alludes as in
+use among the Ebionites of his own day: and such was probably the
+nucleus of our Clementine writings, the _Periodoi_ of Peter.
+
+Harnack (_Chronologie_, ii. 522 f.), indeed, while admitting that much
+(e.g. in _Homilies_, viii. 5-7) points the other way, prefers the view
+that even the _Circuits_ were of Catholic origin (Chapman, as above, says
+Arian, soon after 325), regarding the syncretistic Jewish-Christian
+features in it as due either to its earlier basis or to an instinct to
+preserve continuity of manner (e.g. absence of explicit reference to
+Paul). Hort, on the contrary, assumes as author "an ingenious Helxaite ...
+perhaps stimulated by the example of the many Encratite _Periodoi_" (p.
+131), and writing about A.D. 200.
+
+Only it must not be thought of as properly Elchasaite, since it knew no
+baptism distinct from the ordinary Christian one. It seems rather to
+represent a later and modified Essene Christianity, already
+half-Catholic, such as would suit a date after 250, in keeping with
+Eusebius's evidence. Confirmation of such a date is afforded by the
+silence of the Syrian _Didascalia_, itself perhaps dating from about
+250, as to any visit of Simon Magus to Caesarea, in contrast to the
+reference in its later form, the _Apostolical Constitutions_ (c.
+350-400), which is plainly coloured (vi. 9) by the Clementine story. On
+the other hand, the _Didascalia_ seems to have been evoked partly by
+Judaizing propaganda in north Syria. If, then, it helps to date the
+_Periodoi_ as after 250, it may also suggest as place of origin one of
+the large cities lying south of Antioch, say Laodicea (itself on the
+coast about 30 m. from Apamea), where the Clementine story reaches its
+climax. The intimacy of local knowledge touching this region implied in
+the narrative common to _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_ is notable, and
+tells against an origin for the _Periodoi_ outside Syria (e.g. in Rome,
+as Waitz and Harnack hold, but Lightfoot disproves, _Clem._ i. 55 f.,
+64,100, cf. Hort, p. 131). Further, though the curtain even in it fell
+on Peter at Antioch itself (our one complete MS. of the _Homilies_ is
+proved by the _Epitome_, based on the _Homilies_, to be here abridged),
+the interest of the story culminates at Laodicea.
+
+If we assume, then, that the common source of our extant Clementines
+arose in Syria, perhaps c. 265,[2] had it also a written source or
+sources which we can trace? Though Hort doubts it, most recent scholars
+(e.g. Waitz, Harnack) infer the existence of at least one source,
+"Preachings (_Kerygmata_) of Peter," containing no reference at all to
+Clement. Such a work seems implied by the epistle of Peter to James and
+its appended adjuration, prefixed in our MSS. to the _Homilies_ along
+with the epistle of Clement to James. Thus the later work aimed at
+superseding the earlier, much as Photius suggests (see above). It was,
+then, to these "Preachings of Peter" that the most Ebionite features,
+and especially the anti-Pauline allusions under the guise of Simon still
+inhering in the _Periodoi_ (as implied by _Homilies_ in particular),
+originally belonged. The fact, however, that these were not more
+completely suppressed in the later work, proves that it, too, arose in
+circles of kindred, though largely modified, Judaeo-Christian sentiment
+(cf. _Homilies_, vii., e.g. ch. 8). The differences of standpoint may be
+due not only to lapse of time, and the emergence of new problems on the
+horizon of Syrian Christianity generally, but also to change in locality
+and in the degree of Greek culture represented by the two works. A
+probable date for the "Preachings" used in the _Periodoi_ is c. 200.[3]
+
+If the home of the _Periodoi_ was the region of the Syrian Laodicea, we
+can readily explain most of its characteristics. Photius refers to the
+"excellences of its language and its learning"; while Waitz describes
+the aim and spirit of its contents as those of an apology for
+Christianity against heresy and paganism, in the widest sense of the
+word, written in order to win over both Jews (cf. _Recognitions_, i.
+53-70) and pagans, but mainly the latter. In particular it had in view
+persons of culture, as most apt to be swayed by the philosophical
+tendencies in the sphere of religion prevalent in that age, the age of
+neo-Platonism. It was in fact designed for propaganda among religious
+seekers in a time of singular religious restlessness and varied inquiry,
+and, above all, for use by catechumens (cf. _Ep. Clem._ 2, 13) in the
+earlier stages of their preparation for Christian baptism. To such its
+romantic setting would be specially adapted, as falling in with the
+literary habits and tastes of the period; while its doctrinal
+peculiarities would least give offence in a work of the aim and
+character just described.
+
+As regards the sources to the narrative part of the _Periodoi_, it is
+possible that the "recognition" _motif_ was a literary commonplace. The
+account of Peter's journeyings was no doubt based largely on local
+Syrian tradition, perhaps as already embodied in written _Acts of Peter_
+(so Waitz and Harnack), but differing from the Western type, e.g. in
+bringing Peter to Rome long before Nero's reign. As for the allusions,
+more or less indirect, to St Paul behind the figure of Simon, as the
+arch-enemy of the truth--allusions which first directed attention to the
+Clementines in the last century--there can be no doubt as to their
+presence, but only as to their origin and the degree to which they are
+so meant in _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_. There is certainly "an
+application to Simon of words used by or of St Paul, or of claims made
+by or in behalf of St Paul" (Hort), especially in _Homilies_ (ii. 17 f.,
+xi. 35, xvii. 19), where a consciousness also of the double reference
+must still be present, though this does not seem to be the case in
+_Recognitions_ (in Rufinus's Latin.) Such covert reference to Paul must
+designedly have formed part of the _Periodoi_, yet as adopted from its
+more bitterly anti-Pauline basis, the "Preachings of Peter" (cf.
+_Homilies_, ii. 17 f. with _Ep. Pet. ad Jac. 2_), which probably shared
+most of the features of Ebionite Essenism as described by Epiphanius
+xxx. 15 f. (including the qualified dualism of the two kingdoms--the
+present one of the devil, and the future one of the angelic
+Christ--which appears also in the _Periodoi_, cf. _Ep. Clem. ad Jac. 1
+fin._).
+
+(b) That the _Periodoi_ was a longer work than either our _Homilies_ or
+_Recognitions_ is practically certain; and its mere bulk may well, as
+Hort suggests (p. 88), have been a chief cause of the changes of form.
+Yet _Homilies_ and _Recognitions_ are abridgments made on different
+principles and convey rather different impressions to their readers.
+"The _Homilies_ care most for doctrine," especially philosophical
+doctrine, "and seem to transpose very freely for doctrinal purposes"
+(e.g. matter in xvi.-xix. is placed at the end for effect, while xx.
+1-10 gives additional emphasis to the _Homilies_' theory of evil,
+perhaps over against Manichaeism). "The _Recognitions_ care most for the
+story," as a means of religious edification, "and have preserved the
+general framework much more nearly." They arose in different circles:
+indeed, save the compiler of the text represented by the Syriac MS. of
+411 A.D., "not a single ancient writer shows a knowledge of both books
+in any form." But Hort is hardly right in suggesting that, while
+_Homilies_ arose in Syria, _Recognitions_ took shape in Rome. Both
+probably arose in Syria (so Lightfoot), but in circles varying a good
+deal in religious standpoint.[4] _Homilies_ was a sort of second
+edition, made largely in the spirit of its original and perhaps in much
+the same locality, with a view to maintaining and propagating the
+doctrines of a semi-Judaic Christianity (cf. bk. vii.), as it existed a
+generation or two after the _Periodoi_ appeared. The _Recognitions_, in
+both recensions, as is shown by the fact that it was read in the
+original with general admiration not only by Rufinus but also by others
+in the West, was more Catholic in tone and aimed chiefly at commending
+the Christian religion over against all non-Christian rivals or gnostic
+perversions. That is, more than one effort of this sort had been made to
+adapt the story of Clement's _Recognitions_ to general Christian use.
+Later the _Homilies_ underwent further adaptation to Catholic feeling
+even before the _Epitome_, in its two extant forms, was made by more
+drastic methods of expurgation. One kind of adaptation at least is
+proved to have existed before the end of the 4th century, namely a
+selection of certain discourses from the _Homilies_ under special
+headings, following on _Recognitions_, i.-iii., as seen in a Syriac MS.
+of A.D. 411. As this MS. contains transcriptional errors, and as its
+archetype had perhaps a Greek basis, the _Recognitions_ may be dated c.
+350-375[5] (its Christology suggested to Rufinus an Arianism like that
+of Eunomius of Cyzicus, c. 362), and the _Homilies_ prior even to 350.
+But the different circles represented by the two make relative dating
+precarious.
+
+_Summary._--The Clementine literature throws light upon a very obscure
+phase of Christian development, that of Judaeo-Christianity, and proves
+that it embraced more intermediate types, between Ebionism proper and
+Catholicism, than has generally been realized. Incidentally, too, its
+successive forms illustrate many matters of belief and usage among
+Syrian Christians generally in the 3rd and 4th centuries, notably their
+apologetic and catechetical needs and methods. Further, it discusses, as
+Hort observes, certain indestructible problems which much early
+Christian theology passes by or deals with rather perfunctorily; and it
+does so with a freshness and reality which, as we compare the original
+3rd-century basis with the conventional manner of the _Epitome_, we see
+to be not unconnected with origin in an age as yet free from the
+trammels of formal orthodoxy. Again it is a notable specimen of early
+Christian pseudepigraphy, and one which had manifold and far-reaching
+results. Finally the romance to which it owed much of its popular
+appeal, became, through the medium of Rufinus's Latin, the parent of the
+late medieval legend of Faust, and so the ancestor of a famous type in
+modern literature.
+
+  LITERATURE.--For a full list of this down to 1904 see Hans Waitz, "Die
+  Pseudoklementinen" (_Texte u. Untersuchungen zur Gesch. der altchr.
+  Literatur, neue Folge_, Bd. x. Heft 4), and A. Harnack, _Chronologie
+  der altchr. Litteratur_ (1904), ii. 518 f. In English, besides Hort's
+  work, there are articles by G. Salmon, in _Dict. of Christ. Biog._, C.
+  Bigg, _Studia Biblica_, ii., A.C. Headlam, _Journal of Theol.
+  Studies_, iii.    (J. V. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Dr Armitage Robinson, in his edition of the _Philocalia_
+    (extracts made c. 358 by Basil and Gregory from Origen's writings),
+    proved that the passage cited below is simply introduced as a
+    parallel to an extract of Origen's; while Dom Chapman, in the
+    _Journal of Theol. Studies_, iii. 436 ff., made it probable that the
+    passages in Origen's _Comm. on Matthew_ akin to those in the _Opus
+    Imperf. in Matth._ are insertions in the former, which is extant only
+    in a Latin version. Subsequently he suggested (_Zeitsch. f. N.T.
+    Wissenschaft_, ix. 33 f.) that the passage in the _Philocalia_ is due
+    not to its authors but to an early editor, since it is the only
+    citation not referred to Origen.
+
+  [2] While Hort and Waitz say c. 200, Harnack says c. 260. The reign
+    of Gallienus (260-268) would suit the tone of its references to the
+    Roman emperor (Waitz, p. 74), and also any polemic against the
+    Neoplatonic philosophy of revelation by visions and dreams which it
+    may contain.
+
+  [3] Even Waitz agrees to this, though he argues back to a yet earlier
+    anti-Pauline (rather than anti-Marcionite) form, composed in
+    Caesarea, c. 135.
+
+  [4] Dom Chapman maintains that the _Recognitions_ (c. 370-390,) even
+    attack the doctrine of God in the _Homilies_ or their archetype.
+
+  [5] Dom Chapman (ut supra, p. 158) says during the Neoplatonist
+    reaction under Julian 361-363, to which period he also assigns the
+    _Homilies_.
+
+
+
+
+CLEOBULUS, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, a native and tyrant of
+Lindus in Rhodes. He was distinguished for his strength and his handsome
+person, for the wisdom of his sayings, the acuteness of his riddles and
+the beauty of his lyric poetry. Diogenes Laertius quotes a letter in
+which Cleobulus invites Solon to take refuge with him against
+Peisistratus; and this would imply that he was alive in 560 B.C. He is
+said to have held advanced views as to female education, and he was the
+father of the wise Cleobuline, whose riddles were not less famous than
+his own (Diogenes Laertius i. 89-93).
+
+  See F.G. Mullach, _Fragmenta Philosophorum Graecorum_, i.
+
+
+
+
+CLEOMENES ([Greek: Kleomenes]), the name of three Spartan kings of the
+Agiad line.
+
+
+CLEOMENES I. was the son of Anaxandridas, whom he succeeded about 520
+B.C. His chief exploit was his crushing victory near Tiryns over the
+Argives, some 6000 of whom he burned to death in a sacred grove to which
+they had fled for refuge (Herodotus vi. 76-82). This secured for Sparta
+the undisputed hegemony of the Peloponnese. Cleomenes' interposition in
+the politics of central Greece was less successful. In 510 he marched to
+Athens with a Spartan force to aid in expelling the Peisistratidae, and
+subsequently returned to support the oligarchical party, led by
+Isagoras, against Cleisthenes (q.v.). He expelled seven hundred families
+and transferred the government from the council to three hundred of the
+oligarchs, but being blockaded in the Acropolis he was forced to
+capitulate. On his return home he collected a large force with the
+intention of making Isagoras despot of Athens, but the opposition of
+the Corinthian allies and of his colleague Demaratus caused the
+expedition to break up after reaching Eleusis (Herod. v. 64-76;
+Aristotle, _Ath. Pol._ 19, 20). In 491 he went to Aegina to punish the
+island for its submission to Darius, but the intrigues of his colleague
+once again rendered his mission abortive. In revenge Cleomenes accused
+Demaratus of illegitimacy and secured his deposition in favour of
+Leotychides (Herod. vi. 50-73). But when it was discovered that he had
+bribed the Delphian priestess to substantiate his charge he was himself
+obliged to flee; he went first to Thessaly and then to Arcadia, where he
+attempted to foment an anti-Spartan rising. About 488 B.C. he was
+recalled, but shortly afterwards, in a fit of madness, he committed
+suicide (Herod. vi. 74, 75). Cleomenes seems to have received scant
+justice at the hands of Herodotus or his informants, and Pausanias (iii.
+3, 4) does little more than condense Herodotus's narrative. In spite of
+some failures, largely due to Demaratus's jealousy, Cleomenes
+strengthened Sparta in the position, won during his father's reign, of
+champion and leader of the Hellenic race; it was to him, for example,
+that the Ionian cities of Asia Minor first applied for aid in their
+revolt against Persia (Herod. v. 49-51).
+
+  For the chronology see J. Wells, _Journal of Hellenic Studies_ (1905),
+  p. 193 ff., who assigns the Argive expedition to the outset of the
+  reign, whereas nearly all historians have dated it in or about 495
+  B.C.
+
+
+CLEOMENES II. was the son of Cleombrotus I., brother and successor of
+Agesipolis II. Nothing is recorded of his reign save the fact that it
+lasted for nearly sixty-one years (370-309 B.C.).
+
+
+CLEOMENES III., the son and successor of Leonidas II., reigned about
+235-219 B.C. He made a determined attempt to reform the social condition
+of Sparta along the lines laid down by Agis IV., whose widow Agiatis he
+married; at the same time he aimed at restoring Sparta's hegemony in the
+Peloponnese. After twice defeating the forces of the Achaean League in
+Arcadia, near Mount Lycaeum and at Leuctra, he strengthened his position
+by assassinating four of the ephors, abolishing the ephorate, which had
+usurped the supreme power, and banishing some eighty of the leading
+oligarchs. The authority of the council was also curtailed, and a new
+board of magistrates, the _patronomi_, became the chief officers of
+state. He appointed his own brother Eucleidas as his colleague in
+succession to the Eurypontid Archidamus, who had been murdered. His
+social reforms included a redistribution of land, the remission of
+debts, the restoration of the old system of training ([Greek: agoge])
+and the admission of picked perioeci into the citizen body. As a general
+Cleomenes did much to revive Sparta's old prestige. He defeated the
+Achaeans at Dyme, made himself master of Argos, and was eventually
+joined by Corinth, Phlius, Epidaurus and other cities. But Aratus, whose
+jealousy could not brook to see a Spartan at the head of the Achaean
+league called in Antigonus Doson of Macedonia, and Cleomenes, after
+conducting successful expeditions to Megalopolis and Argos, was finally
+defeated at Sellasia, to the north of Sparta, in 222 or 221 B.C. He took
+refuge at Alexandria with Ptolemy Euergetes, but was arrested by his
+successor, Ptolemy Philopator, on a charge of conspiracy. Escaping from
+prison he tried to raise a revolt, but the attempt failed and to avoid
+capture he put an end to his life. Both as general and as politician
+Cleomenes was one of Sparta's greatest men, and with him perished her
+last hope of recovering her ancient supremacy in Greece.
+
+  See Polybius ii. 45-70, v. 35-39, viii. 1; Plutarch, _Cleomenes;
+  Aratus_, 35-46; _Philopoemen_, 5, 6; Pausanias ii. 9; Gehlert, _De
+  Cleomene_ (Leipzig, 1883); Holm, _History of Greece_, iv. cc. 10, 15.
+     (M. N. T.)
+
+
+
+
+CLEON (d. 422 B.C.), Athenian politician during the Peloponnesian War,
+was the son of Cleaenetus, from whom he inherited a lucrative tannery
+business. He was the first prominent representative of the commercial
+class in Athenian politics. He came into notice first as an opponent of
+Pericles, to whom his advanced ideas were naturally unacceptable, and in
+his opposition somewhat curiously found himself acting in concert with
+the aristocrats, who equally hated and feared Pericles. During the dark
+days of 430, after the unsuccessful expedition of Pericles to
+Peloponnesus, and when the city was devastated by the plague, Cleon
+headed the opposition to the Periclean regime. Pericles was accused by
+Cleon of maladministration of public money, with the result that he was
+actually found guilty (see Grote's _Hist. of Greece_, abridged ed.,
+1907, p. 406, note 1). A revulsion of feeling, however, soon took place.
+Pericles was reinstated, and Cleon now for a time fell into the
+background. The death of Pericles (429) left the field clear for him.
+Hitherto he had only been a vigorous opposition speaker, a trenchant
+critic and accuser of state officials. He now came forward as the
+professed champion and leader of the democracy, and, owing to the
+moderate abilities of his rivals and opponents, he was for some years
+undoubtedly the foremost man in Athens. Although rough and unpolished,
+he was gifted with natural eloquence and a powerful voice, and knew
+exactly how to work upon the feelings of the people. He strengthened his
+hold on the poorer classes by his measure for trebling the pay of the
+jurymen, which provided the poorer Athenians with an easy means of
+livelihood. The notorious fondness of the Athenians for litigation
+increased his power; and the practice of "sycophancy" (raking up
+material for false charges; see SYCOPHANT), enabled him to remove those
+who were likely to endanger his ascendancy. Having no further use for
+his former aristocratic associates, he broke off all connexion with
+them, and thus felt at liberty to attack the secret combinations for
+political purposes, the oligarchical clubs to which they mostly
+belonged. Whether he also introduced a property-tax for military
+purposes, and even held a high position in connexion with the treasury,
+is uncertain. His ruling principles were an inveterate hatred of the
+nobility, and an equal hatred of Sparta. It was mainly through him that
+the opportunity of concluding an honourable peace (in 425) was lost, and
+in his determination to see Sparta humbled he misled the people as to
+the extent of the resources of the state, and dazzled them by promises
+of future benefits.
+
+In 427 Cleon gained an evil notoriety by his proposal to put to death
+indiscriminately all the inhabitants of Mytilene, which had put itself
+at the head of a revolt. His proposal, though accepted, was, fortunately
+for the credit of Athens, rescinded, although, as it was, the chief
+leaders and prominent men, numbering about 1000, fell victims. In 425,
+he reached the summit of his fame by capturing and transporting to
+Athens the Spartans who had been blockaded in Sphacteria (see PYLOS).
+Much of the credit was probably due to the military skill of his
+colleague Demosthenes; but it must be admitted that it was due to
+Cleon's determination that the Ecclesia sent out the additional force
+which was needed. It was almost certainly due to Cleon that the tribute
+of the "allies" was doubled in 425 (see DELIAN LEAGUE). In 422 he was
+sent to recapture Amphipolis, but was outgeneralled by Brasidas and
+killed. His death removed the chief obstacle to an arrangement with
+Sparta, and in 421 the peace of Nicias was concluded (see PELOPONNESIAN
+WAR).
+
+The character of Cleon is represented by Aristophanes and Thucydides in
+an extremely unfavourable light. But neither can be considered an
+unprejudiced witness. The poet had a grudge against Cleon, who had
+accused him before the senate of having ridiculed (in his _Babylonians_)
+the policy and institutions of his country in the presence of foreigners
+and at the time of a great national war. Thucydides, a man of strong
+oligarchical prejudices, had also been prosecuted for military
+incapacity and exiled by a decree proposed by Cleon. It is therefore
+likely that Cleon has had less than justice done to him in the portraits
+handed down by these two writers.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--For the literature on Cleon see C.F. Hermann, _Lehrbuch
+  der griechischen Antiquitaeten_, i. pt. 2 (6th ed. by V. Thumser,
+  1892), p. 709, and G. Busolt, _Griechische Geschichte_, iii. pt. 2
+  (1904), p. 988, note 3. The following are the chief authorities:--(a)
+  _Favourable to Cleon_.--C.F. Ranke, _Commentatio de Vita Aristophanis_
+  (Leipzig, 1845); J.G. Droysen, _Aristophanes_, ii., introd. to the
+  _Knights_ (Berlin, 1837); G. Grote, _Hist. of Greece_, chs. 50, 54; W.
+  Oncken, _Athen und Hellas_, ii. p. 204 (Leipzig, 1866); H.
+  Mueller-Struebing, _Aristophanes und die historische Kritik_ (Leipzig,
+  1873); J.B. Bury, _Hist. of Greece_, i. (1902). (b)
+  _Unfavourable_.--J.F. Kortuem, _Geschichtliche Forschungen_ (Leipzig,
+  1863), and _Zur Geschichte hellenischen Staatsverfassungen_
+  (Heidelberg, 1821); F. Passow, _Vermischte Schriften_ (Leipzig,
+  1843); C. Thirlwall, _Hist. of Greece_, ch. 21; E. Curtius, _Hist. of
+  Greece_ (Eng. tr.) iii. p. 112; J. Schvarcz, _Die Demokratie_ (Leipzig,
+  1882); H. Delbrueck, _Die Strategie des Perikles_ (Berlin, 1890); E.
+  Meyer, _Forschungen zur alten Geschichte_, ii. p. 333 (Halle, 1899).
+  The balance between the two extreme views is fairly held by J. Beloch,
+  _Die attische Politik seit Perikles_ (Leipzig, 1884), and _Griechische
+  Geschichte_, i. p. 537; and by A. Holm, _Hist. of Greece_, ii. (Eng.
+  tr.), ch. 23, with the notes.
+
+
+
+
+CLEOPATRA, the regular name of the queens of Egypt in the Ptolemaic
+dynasty after Cleopatra, daughter of the Seleucid Antiochus the Great,
+wife of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes. The best known was the daughter of
+Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, born 69 (or 68) B.C. At the age of seventeen she
+became queen of Egypt jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy Dionysus,
+whose wife, in accordance with Egyptian custom, she was to become. A few
+years afterwards, deprived of all royal authority, she withdrew into
+Syria, and made preparation to recover her rights by force of arms. At
+this juncture Julius Caesar followed Pompey into Egypt. The personal
+fascinations of Cleopatra induced him to undertake a war on her behalf,
+in which Ptolemy lost his life, and she was replaced on the throne in
+conjunction with a younger brother, of whom, however, she soon rid
+herself by poison. In Rome she lived openly with Caesar as his mistress
+until his assassination, when, aware of her unpopularity, she returned
+at once to Egypt. Subsequently she became the ally and mistress of Mark
+Antony (see ANTONIUS). Their connexion was highly unpopular at Rome, and
+Octavian (see AUGUSTUS) declared war upon them and defeated them at
+Actium (31 B.C.). Cleopatra took to flight, and escaped to Alexandria,
+where Antony joined her. Having no prospect of ultimate success, she
+accepted the proposal of Octavian that she should assassinate Antony,
+and enticed him to join her in a mausoleum which she had built in order
+that "they might die together." Antony committed suicide, in the
+mistaken belief that she had already done so, but Octavian refused to
+yield to the charms of Cleopatra who put an end to her life, by applying
+an asp to her bosom, according to the common tradition, in the
+thirty-ninth year of her age (29th of August, 30 B.C.). With her ended
+the dynasty of the Ptolemies, and Egypt was made a Roman province.
+Cleopatra had three children by Antony, and by Julius Caesar, as some
+say, a son, called Caesarion, who was put to death by Octavian. In her
+the type of queen characteristic of the Macedonian dynasties stands in
+the most brilliant light. Imperious will, masculine boldness, relentless
+ambition like hers had been exhibited by queens of her race since the
+old Macedonian days before Philip and Alexander. But the last Cleopatra
+had perhaps some special intellectual endowment. She surprised her
+generation by being able to speak the many tongues of her subjects.
+There may have been an individual quality in her luxurious profligacy,
+but then her predecessors had not had the Roman lords of the world for
+wooers.
+
+  For the history of Cleopatra see ANTONIUS, MARCUS; CAESAR, GAIUS
+  JULIUS; PTOLEMIES. The life of Antony by Plutarch is our main
+  authority; it is upon this that Shakespeare's _Antony and Cleopatra_
+  is based. Her life is the subject of monographs by Stahr (1879, an
+  _apologia_), and Houssaye, _Aspasie, Cleopatre_, &c. (1879).
+
+
+
+
+CLEPSYDRA (from Gr. [Greek: klheptein], to steal, and [Greek: hudor],
+water), the chronometer of the Greeks and Romans, which measured time by
+the flow of water. In its simplest form it was a short-necked
+earthenware globe of known capacity, pierced at the bottom with several
+small holes, through which the water escaped or "stole away." The
+instrument was employed to set a limit to the speeches in courts of
+justice, hence the phrases _aquam dare_, to give the advocate speaking
+time, and _aquam perdere_, to waste time. Smaller clepsydrae of glass
+were very early used in place of the sun-dial, to mark the hours. But as
+the length of the hour varied according to the season of the year,
+various arrangements, of which we have no clear account, were necessary
+to obviate this and other defects. For instance, the flow of water
+varied with the temperature and pressure of the air, and secondly, the
+rate of flow became less as the vessel emptied itself. The latter defect
+was remedied by keeping the level of the water in the clepsydra uniform,
+the volume of that discharged being noted. Plato is said to have
+invented a complicated clepsydra to indicate the hours of the night as
+well as of the day. In the clepsydra or hydraulic clock of Ctesibius of
+Alexandria, made about 135 B.C., the movement of water-wheels caused the
+gradual rise of a little figure, which pointed out the hours with a
+little stick on an index attached to the machine. The clepsydra is said
+to have been known to the Egyptians. There was one in the Tower of the
+Winds at Athens; and the turret on the south side of the tower is
+supposed to have contained the cistern which supplied the water.
+
+  See Marquardt, _Das Privatleben der Roemer_, i. (2nd ed., 1886), p.
+  792; G. Bilfinger, _Die Zeitmesser der antiken Voelker_ (1886), and
+  _Die antiken Stundenangaben_ (1888).
+
+
+
+
+CLERESTORY, or CLEARSTORY (Ital. _chiaro piano_, Fr. _clairevoie_,
+_claire etage_, Ger. _Lichtgaden_), in architecture, the upper storey of
+the nave of a church, the walls of which rise above the aisles and are
+pierced with windows ("clere" being simply "clear," in the sense of
+"lighted"). Sometimes these windows are very small, being mere
+quatrefoils or spherical triangles. In large buildings, however, they
+are important objects, both for beauty and utility. The windows of the
+clerestories of Norman work, even in large churches, are of less
+importance than in the later styles. In Early English they became
+larger; and in the Decorated they are more important still, being
+lengthened as the triforium diminishes. In Perpendicular work the latter
+often disappears altogether, and in many later churches, as at Taunton,
+and many churches in Norfolk and Suffolk, the clerestories are close
+ranges of windows. The term is equally applicable to the Egyptian
+temples, where the lighting of the hall of columns was obtained over the
+stone roofs of the adjoining aisles, through slits pierced in vertical
+slabs of stone. The Romans also in their baths and palaces employed the
+same method, and probably derived it from the Greeks; in the palaces at
+Crete, however, light-wells would seem to have been employed.
+
+
+
+
+CLERFAYT (or CLAIRFAYT), FRANCOIS SEBASTIEN CHARLES JOSEPH DE CROIX,
+COUNT OF (1733-1798), Austrian field marshal, entered the Austrian army
+in 1753. In the Seven Years' War he greatly distinguished himself,
+earning rapid promotion, and receiving the decoration of the order of
+Maria Theresa. At the conclusion of the peace, though still under
+thirty, he was already a colonel. During the outbreak of the Netherlands
+in 1787, he was, as a Walloon by birth, subjected to great pressure to
+induce him to abandon Joseph II., but he resisted all overtures, and in
+the following year went to the Turkish war in the rank of lieutenant
+field marshal. In an independent command Clerfayt achieved great
+success, defeating the Turks at Mehadia and Calafat. In 1792, as one of
+the most distinguished of the emperor's generals, he received the
+command of the Austrian contingent in the duke of Brunswick's army, and
+at Croix-sous-Bois his corps inflicted a reverse on the troops of the
+French revolution. In the Netherlands, to which quarter he was
+transferred after Jemappes, he opened the campaign of 1793 with the
+victory of Aldenhoven and the relief of Maestricht, and on March 18th
+mainly brought about the complete defeat of Dumouriez at Neerwinden.
+Later in the year, however, his victorious career was checked by the
+reverse at Wattignies, and in 1794 he was unsuccessful in West Flanders
+against Pichegru. In the course of the campaign Clerfayt succeeded the
+duke of Saxe-Coburg in the supreme command, but was quite unable to make
+head against the French, and had to recross the Rhine. In 1795, now
+field marshal, he commanded on the middle Rhine against Jourdan, and
+this time the fortune of war changed. Jourdan was beaten at Hoechst and
+Mainz brilliantly relieved. But the field marshal's action in concluding
+an armistice with the French not being approved by Thugut, he resigned
+the command, and became a member of the Aulic Council in Vienna. He died
+in 1798. A brave and skilful soldier, Clerfayt perhaps achieved more
+than any other Austrian commander (except the archduke Charles) in the
+hopeless struggle of small dynastic armies against a "nation in arms."
+
+  See von Vivenot, _Thugut, Clerfayt, und Wuermser_ (Vienna, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+CLERGY (M.E. _clergie_, O. Fr. _clergie_, from Low Lat. form _clericia_
+[Skeat], by assimilation with O. Fr. _clergie_, Fr. _clerge_, from Low
+Lat. _clericatus_), a collective term signifying in English strictly the
+body of "clerks," i.e. men in holy orders (see CLERK). The word has,
+however, undergone sundry modifications of meaning. Its M.E. senses of
+"clerkship" and "learning" have long since fallen obsolete. On the other
+hand, in modern times there has been an increasing tendency to depart
+from its strict application to technical "clerks," and to widen it out
+so as to embrace all varieties of ordained Christian ministers. While,
+however, it is now not unusual to speak of "the Nonconformist clergy,"
+the word "clergyman" is still, at least in the United Kingdom, used of
+the clergy of the Established Church in contradistinction to "minister."
+As applied to the Roman Catholic Church the word embraces the whole
+hierarchy, whether its _clerici_ be in holy orders or merely in minor
+orders. The term has also been sometimes loosely used to include the
+members of the regular orders; but this use is improper, since monks and
+friars, as such, have at no time been _clerici_. The use of the word
+"clergy" as a plural, though the _New English Dictionary_ quotes the
+high authority of Cardinal Newman for it, is less rare than wrong; in
+the case cited "Some hundred Clergy" should have been "Some hundred of
+the Clergy."
+
+In distinction to the "clergy" we find the "laity" (Gr. [Greek: laos],
+people), the great body of "faithful people" which, in nearly every
+various conception of the Christian Church, stands in relation to the
+clergy as a flock of sheep to its pastor. This distinction was of early
+growth, and developed, with the increasing power of the hierarchy,
+during the middle ages into a very lively opposition (see ORDER, HOLY;
+CHURCH HISTORY; PAPACY; INVESTITURES). The extreme claim of the great
+medieval popes, that the priest, as "ruler over spiritual things," was
+as much superior to temporal rulers as the soul is to the body (see
+INNOCENT III.), led logically to the vast privileges and immunities
+enjoyed by the clergy during the middle ages. In those countries where
+the Reformation triumphed, this triumph represented the victory of the
+civil over the clerical powers in the long contest. The victory was,
+however, by no means complete. The Presbyterian model was, for instance,
+as sacerdotal in its essence as the Catholic; Milton complained with
+justice that "new presbyter is but old priest writ large," and declared
+that "the Title of Clergy St Peter gave to all God's people," its later
+restriction being a papal and prelatical usurpation (i.e. i Peter v. 3,
+for [Greek: kleros] and [Greek: kleron]).
+
+Clerical immunities, of course, differed largely at different times and
+in different countries, the extent of them having been gradually
+curtailed from a period a little earlier than the close of the middle
+ages. They consisted mainly in exemption from public burdens, both as
+regarded person and pocket, and in immunity from lay jurisdiction. This
+last enormous privilege, which became one of the main and most efficient
+instruments of the subjection of Europe to clerical tyranny, extended to
+matters both civil and criminal; though, as Bingham shows, it did not
+(always and everywhere) prevail in cases of heinous crime (_Origines
+Eccles._ bk. v.).
+
+This diversity of jurisdiction, and subjection of the clergy only to the
+sentences of judges bribed by their _esprit de corps_ to judge
+leniently, led to the adoption of a scale of punishments for the
+offences of clerks avowedly much lighter than that which was inflicted
+for the same crimes on laymen; and this in turn led to the survival in
+England, long after the Reformation, of the curious legal fiction of
+benefit of clergy (see below), used to mitigate the extreme harshness of
+the criminal law.
+
+
+
+
+CLERGY, BENEFIT OF, an obsolete but once very important feature in
+English criminal law. Benefit of clergy began with the claim on the part
+of the ecclesiastical authorities in the 12th century that every
+_clericus_ should be exempt from the jurisdiction of the temporal courts
+and be subject to the spiritual courts alone. The issue of the conflict
+was that the common law courts abandoned the extreme punishment of death
+assigned to some offences when the person convicted was a _clericus_,
+and the church was obliged to accept the compromise and let a secondary
+punishment be inflicted. The term "clerk" or _clericus_ always included
+a large number of persons in what were called minor orders, and in 1350
+the privilege was extended to secular as well as to religious clerks;
+and, finally, the test of being a clerk was the ability to read the
+opening words of verse 1 of Psalm li., hence generally known as the
+"neck-verse." Even this requirement was abolished in 1705. In 1487 it
+was enacted that every layman, when convicted of a clergyable felony,
+should be branded on the thumb, and disabled from claiming the benefit a
+second time. The privilege was extended to peers, even if they could not
+read, in 1547, and to women, partially in 1622 and fully in 1692. The
+partial exemption claimed by the Church did not apply to the more
+atrocious crimes, and hence offences came to be divided into clergyable
+and unclergyable. According to the common practice in England of working
+out modern improvements through antiquated forms, this exemption was
+made the means of modifying the severity of the criminal law. It became
+the practice to claim and be allowed the benefit of clergy; and when it
+was the intention by statute to make a crime really punishable with
+death, it was awarded "without benefit of clergy." The benefit of clergy
+was abolished by a statute of 1827, but as this statute did not repeal
+that of 1547, under which peers were given the privilege, a further
+statute was passed in 1841 putting peers on the same footing as commons
+and clergy.
+
+  For a full account of benefit of clergy see Pollock and Maitland,
+  _History of English Law_, vol. i. 424-440; also Stephen, _History of
+  the Criminal Law of England_, vol. i.; E. Friedberg, _Corpus juris
+  canonici_ (Leipzig, 1879-1881).
+
+
+
+
+CLERGY RESERVES, in Canada. By the act of 1791, establishing the
+provinces of Upper and Lower Canada, the British government set apart
+one-eighth of all the crown lands for the support of "a Protestant
+clergy." These reservations, after being for many years a
+stumbling-block to the economic development of the province, and the
+cause of much bitter political and ecclesiastical controversy, were
+secularized by the Canadian parliament in 1854, and the proceeds applied
+to other purposes, chiefly educational. Owing to the wording of the
+imperial act, the amount set apart is often stated as one-seventh, and
+was sometimes claimed as such by the clergy.
+
+
+
+
+CLERK[1] (from A.S. _cleric_ or _clerc_, which, with the similar Fr.
+form, comes direct from the Lat. _clericus_), in its original sense, as
+used in the civil law, one who had taken religious orders of whatever
+rank, whether "holy" or "minor." The word _clericus_ is derived from the
+Greek [Greek: klerikos], "of or pertaining to an inheritance," from
+[Greek: koeros], "lot," "allotment," "estate," "inheritance"; but the
+authorities are by no means agreed in which sense the root is connected
+with the sense of the derivative, some conceiving that the original idea
+was that the clergy received the service of God as their lot or portion;
+others that they were the portion of the Lord; while others again, with
+more reason as Bingham (_Orig. Eccl._ lib. i. cap. 5, sec. 9) seems to
+think, maintain that the word has reference to the choosing by lot, as
+in early ages was the case of those to whom public offices were to be
+entrusted.
+
+In the primitive times of the church the term canon was used as
+synonymous with clerk, from the names of all the persons in the service
+of any church having been inscribed on a roll, or [Greek: kanon], whence
+they were termed _canonici_, a fact which shows that the practice of the
+Roman Catholic Church of including all persons of all ranks in the
+service of the church, ordained or unordained, in the term clerks, or
+clergy, is at least in conformity with the practice of antiquity. Thus,
+too, in English ecclesiastical law, a clerk was any one who had been
+admitted to the ecclesiastical state, and had taken the tonsure. The
+application of the word in this sense gradually underwent a change, and
+"clerk" became more especially the term applied to those in minor
+orders, while those in "major" or "holy" orders were designated in full
+"clerks in holy orders," which in English law still remains the
+designation of clergymen of the Established Church. After the
+Reformation the word "clerk" was still further extended to include
+laymen who performed duties in cathedrals, churches, &c., e.g. the
+choirmen, who were designated "lay clerks." Of these lay clerks or
+choirmen there was always one whose duty it was to be constantly present
+at every service, to sing or say the responses as the leader or
+representative of the laity. His duties were gradually enlarged to
+include the care of the church and precincts, assisting at baptisms,
+marriages, &c., and he thus became the precursor of the later _parish
+clerk_. In a somewhat similar sense we find _bible clerk, singing
+clerk_, &c. The use of the word "clerk" to denote a person ordained to
+the ministry is now mainly legal or formal.
+
+The word also developed in a different sense. In medieval times the
+pursuit of letters and general learning was confined to the clergy, and
+as they were practically the only persons who could read and write all
+notarial and secretarial work was discharged by them, so that in time
+the word was used with special reference to secretaries, notaries,
+accountants or even mere penmen. This special meaning developed into
+what is now one of the ordinary senses of the word. We find,
+accordingly, the term applied to those officers of courts, corporations,
+&c., whose duty consists in keeping records, correspondence, and
+generally managing business, as _clerk of the market, clerk of the petty
+bag, clerk of the peace, town clerk_, &c. Similarly, a clerk also means
+any one who in a subordinate position is engaged in writing, making
+entries, ordinary correspondence, or similar "clerkly" work. In the
+United States the word means also an assistant in a commercial house, a
+retail salesman.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The accepted English pronunciation, "clark," is found in southern
+    English as early as the 15th century; but northern dialects still
+    preserve the e sound ("clurk"), which is the common pronunciation in
+    America.
+
+
+
+
+CLERKE, AGNES MARY (1842-1907), English astronomer and scientific
+writer, was born on the 10th of February 1842, and died in London on the
+20th of January 1907. She wrote extensively on various scientific
+subjects, but devoted herself more especially to astronomy. Though not a
+practical astronomer in the ordinary sense, she possessed remarkable
+skill in collating, interpreting and summarizing the results of
+astronomical research, and as a historian her work has an important
+place in scientific literature. Her chief works were _A Popular History
+of Astronomy during the 19th Century_, first edition 1885, fourth 1902;
+_The System of the Stars_, first edition 1890, second 1905; and
+_Problems in Astrophysics_, 1903. In addition she wrote _Familiar
+Studies in Homer_ (1892), _The Herschels and Modern Astronomy_ (1895),
+_Modern Cosmogonies_ (1906), and many valuable articles, such as her
+contributions to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. In 1903 she was elected
+an honorary member of the Royal Astronomical Society.
+
+
+
+
+CLERKENWELL, a district on the north side of the city of London,
+England, within the metropolitan borough of Finsbury (q.v.). It is so
+called from one of several wells or springs in this district, near which
+miracle plays were performed by the parish clerks of London. This well
+existed until the middle of the 19th century. Here was situated a
+priory, founded in 1100, which grew to great wealth and fame as the
+principal institution in England of the Knights Hospitallers of the
+Order of St John of Jerusalem. Its gateway, erected in 1504, and
+remaining in St John's Square, served various purposes after the
+suppression of the monasteries, being, for example, the birthplace of
+the _Gentleman's Magazine_ in 1731, and the scene of Dr Johnson's work
+in connexion with that journal. In modern times the gatehouse again
+became associated with the Order, and is the headquarters of the St
+John's Ambulance Association. An Early English crypt remains beneath the
+neighbouring parish church of St John, where the notorious deception of
+the "Cock Lane Ghost," in which Johnson took great interest, was
+exposed. Adjoining the priory was St Mary's Benedictine nunnery, St
+James's church (1792) marking the site, and preserving in its vaults
+some of the ancient monuments. In the 17th century Clerkenwell became a
+fashionable place of residence. A prison erected here at this period
+gave place later to the House of Detention, notorious as the scene of a
+Fenian outrage in 1867, when it was sought to release certain prisoners
+by blowing up part of the building. Clerkenwell is a centre of the
+watch-making and jeweller's industries, long established here; and the
+Northampton Polytechnic Institute, Northampton Square, a branch of the
+City Polytechnic, has a department devoted to instruction in these
+trades.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-EN-BEAUVAISIS, or CLERMONT-DE-L'OISE, a town of northern
+France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Oise, on the
+right bank of the Breche, 41 m. N. of Paris on the Northern railway to
+Amiens. Pop. (1906) 4014. The hill on which the town is built is
+surmounted by a keep of the 14th century, the relic of a fortress the
+site of which is partly occupied by a large penitentiary for women. The
+church dates from the 14th to the 16th centuries. The hotel-de-ville,
+built by King Charles IV., who was born at Clermont in 1294, is the
+oldest in the north of France. The most attractive feature of the town
+is the Promenade du Chatellier on the site of the old ramparts. Clermont
+is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a
+communal college and a large lunatic asylum. It manufactures felt and
+corsets, and carries on a trade in horses, cattle and grain.
+
+The town was probably founded during the time of the Norman invasions,
+and was an important military post, during the middle ages. It was
+several times taken and retaken by the contending parties during the
+Hundred Years' War, and the Wars of Religion, and in 1615 Henry II.,
+prince of Conde, was besieged and captured there by the marshal d'Ancre.
+
+COUNTS OF CLERMONT. Clermont was at one time the seat of a countship,
+the lords of which were already powerful in the 11th century. Raoul de
+Clermont, constable of France, died at Acre in 1191, leaving a daughter
+who brought Clermont to her husband, Louis, count of Blois and Chartres.
+Theobald, count of Blois and Clermont, died in 1218 without issue, and
+King Philip Augustus, having received the countship of Clermont from the
+collateral heirs of this lord, gave it to his son Philip Hurepel, whose
+daughter Jeanne, and his widow, Mahaut, countess of Dammartin, next held
+the countship. It was united by Saint Louis to the crown, and afterwards
+given by him (1269) to his son Robert, from whom sprang the house of
+Bourbon. In 1524 the countship of Clermont was confiscated from the
+constable de Bourbon, and later (1540) given to the duke of Orleans, to
+Catherine de' Medici (1562), to Eric, duke of Brunswick (1569), from
+whom it passed to his brother-in-law Charles of Lorraine (1596), and
+finally to Henry II., prince of Conde (1611). In 1641 it was again
+confiscated from Louis de Bourbon, count of Soissons, then in 1696 sold
+to Louis Thomas Amadeus of Savoy, count of Soissons, in 1702 to
+Francoise de Brancas, princesse d'Harcourt, and in 1719 to Louis-Henry,
+prince of Conde. From a branch of the old lords of Clermont were
+descended the lords of Nesle and Chantilly.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-FERRAND, a city of central France, capital of the department of
+Puy-de-Dome, 113 m. W. of Lyons on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906)
+town, 44,113; commune, 58,363. Clermont-Ferrand is situated on an
+eminence on the western border of the fertile plain of Limagne. On the
+north, west and south it is surrounded by hills, with a background of
+mountains amongst which the Puy-de-Dome stands out prominently. A small
+river, the Tiretaine, borders the town on the north. Since 1731 it has
+been composed of the two towns of Clermont and Montferrand, now
+connected by a fine avenue of walnut trees and willows, 2 m. in length,
+bordered on one side by barracks. The watering-place of Royat lies a
+little more than a mile to the west. Clermont has several handsome
+squares ornamented with fountains, the chief of which is a graceful
+structure erected by Bishop Jacques d'Amboise in 1515. The streets of
+the older and busier quarter of Clermont in the neighbourhood of the
+cathedral and the Place de Jaude, the principal square, are for the most
+part narrow, sombre and bordered by old houses built of lava; boulevards
+divide this part from more modern and spacious quarters, which adjoin
+it. To the south lies the fine promenade known as the Jardin Lecoq.
+
+The principal building is the cathedral, a Gothic edifice begun in the
+13th century. It was not completed, however, till the 19th century, when
+the west portal and towers and two bays of the nave were added,
+according to the plans of Viollet-le-Duc. The fine stained glass of the
+windows dates from the 13th to the 15th centuries. A monument of the
+Crusades with a statue of Pope Urban II. stands in the Cathedral square.
+The church of Notre-Dame du Port is a typical example of the Romanesque
+style of Auvergne, dating chiefly from the 11th and 12th centuries. The
+exterior of the choir, with its four radiating chapels, its jutting
+cornices supported by modillions and columns with carved capitals, and
+its mosaic decoration of black and white stones, is the most interesting
+part of the exterior. The rest of the church comprises a narthex
+surmounted by a tower, three naves and a transept, over which rises
+another tower. There are several churches of minor importance in the
+town. Among the old houses one, dating from the 16th century, was the
+birthplace of Blaise Pascal, whose statue stands in a neighbouring
+square. There is a statue of General Louis Charles Desaix de Veygoux in
+the Place de Jaude. Montferrand has several interesting houses of the
+15th and 16th centuries, and a church of the 13th, 14th and 15th
+centuries.
+
+Clermont-Ferrand is the seat of a bishopric and a prefecture and
+headquarters of the XIII. army corps; it has tribunals of first instance
+and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an
+exchange and a branch of the Bank of France. The town is the centre of
+an educational division (_academie_), and has faculties of science and
+of literature. It also has lycees and training colleges for both sexes,
+ecclesiastical seminaries, a preparatory school of medicine and
+pharmacy, schools of architecture, music, commerce and industry, museums
+of art and antiquities and natural history and a library. A great
+variety of industries is carried on, the chief being the manufacture of
+semolina and other farinaceous foods, confectionery, preserved fruit and
+jams, chemicals and rubber goods. Liqueurs, chicory, chocolate, candles,
+hats, boots and shoes, and woollen and linen goods are also made, and
+tanning is practised. Clermont is the chief market for the grain and
+other agricultural produce of Auvergne and Velay. Its waters are in
+local repute. On the bank of the Tiretaine there is a remarkable
+calcareous spring, the fountain of St Allyre, the copious deposits of
+which have formed a curious natural bridge over the stream.
+
+Clermont is identified with the ancient _Augustonemetum_, the chief town
+of the Arverni, and it still preserves some remains of the Roman period.
+The present name, derived from Clarus Mons and originally applied only
+to the citadel, was used of the town as early as the 9th century. During
+the disintegration of the Roman empire Clermont suffered as much perhaps
+from capture and pillage as any city in the country; its history during
+the middle ages chiefly records the struggles between its bishops and
+the counts of Auvergne, and between the citizens and their overlord the
+bishop. It was the seat of seven ecclesiastical councils, held in the
+years 535, 549, 587, 1095, 1110, 1124 and 1130; and of these the council
+of 1095 is for ever memorable as that in which Pope Urban II. proclaimed
+the first crusade. In the wars against the English in the 14th and 15th
+centuries and the religious wars of the 16th century the town had its
+full participation; and in 1665 it acquired a terrible notoriety by the
+trial and execution of many members of the nobility of Auvergne who had
+tyrannized over the neighbouring districts. The proceedings lasted six
+months, and the episode is known as _les Grands Jours de Clermont_.
+Before the Revolution the town possessed several monastic
+establishments, of which the most important were the abbey of Saint
+Allyre, founded, it is said, in the 3rd century by St Austremonius (St
+Stremoine), the apostle of Auvergne and first bishop of Clermont, and
+the abbey of St Andre, where the counts of Clermont were interred.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-GANNEAU, CHARLES SIMON (1846-   ), French Orientalist, the son of
+a sculptor of some repute, was born in Paris on the 19th of February 1846.
+After an education at the Ecole des Langues Orientales, he entered the
+diplomatic service as dragoman to the consulate at Jerusalem, and
+afterwards at Constantinople. He laid the foundation of his reputation by
+his discovery (in 1870) of the "stele" of Mesha (Moabite Stone), which
+bears the oldest Semitic inscription known. In 1874 he was employed by the
+British government to take charge of an archaeological expedition to
+Palestine, and was subsequently entrusted by his own government with
+similar missions to Syria and the Red Sea. He was made chevalier of the
+Legion of Honour in 1875. After serving as vice-consul at Jaffa from 1880
+to 1882, he returned to Paris as "secretaire-interprete" for oriental
+languages, and in 1886 was appointed consul of the first class. He
+subsequently accepted the post of director of the Ecole des Langues
+Orientales and professor at the College de France. In 1889 he was elected
+a member of the Academie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, of which he
+had been a correspondent since 1880. In 1896 he was promoted to be
+consul-general, and was minister plenipotentiary in 1906. He was the first
+in England to expose the famous forgeries of Hebrew texts offered to the
+British Museum by M.W. Shapira (q.v.) in 1883, and in 1903 he took a
+prominent part in the investigation of the so-called "tiara of
+Saitapharnes." This tiara had been purchased by the Louvre for 400,000
+francs, and exhibited as a genuine antique. Much discussion arose as to
+the perpetrators of the fraud, some believing that it came from southern
+Russia. It was agreed, however, that the whole object, except perhaps the
+band round the tiara, was of modern manufacture.
+
+  His chief publications, besides a number of contributions to journals,
+  are:--_Palestine inconnue_ (1886), _Etudes d'archeologie orientale_
+  (1880, &c.), _Les Fraudes archeologiques_ (1885), _Recueil
+  d'archeologie orientale_ (1885, &c.), _Album d'antiquites orientales_
+  (1897, &c.).
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-L'HERAULT, or CLERMONT DE LODEVE, a town of southern France in
+the department of Herault, 10 m. S.S.E. by rail of Lodeve. Pop. (1906)
+4731. The town is built on the slope of a hill which is crowned by an
+ancient castle and skirted by the Rhonel, a tributary of the Lergue. It
+has an interesting church of the 13th and 14th centuries. The chief
+manufacture is that of cloth for military clothing, and woollen goods,
+an industry which dates from the latter half of the 17th century.
+Tanning and leather-dressing are also carried on, and there is trade in
+wine, wool and grain. Among the public institutions are a tribunal of
+commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a board of
+trade-arbitration and a communal college. The town was several times
+taken and retaken in the religious wars of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-TONNERRE, the name of a French family, members of which played
+some part in the history of France, especially in Dauphine, from about
+1100 to the Revolution. Sibaud, lord of Clermont in Viennois, who first
+appears in 1080, was the founder of the family. His descendant, another
+Sibaud, commanded some troops which aided Pope Calixtus II. in his
+struggle with the anti-pope Gregory VIII.; and in return for this
+service it is said that the pope allowed him to add certain emblems--two
+keys and a tiara--to the arms of his family. A direct descendant, Ainard
+(d. 1349), called vicomte de Clermont, was granted the dignity of
+captain-general and first baron of Dauphine by his suzerain Humbert,
+dauphin of Viennois, in 1340; and in 1547 Clermont was made a county for
+Antoine (d. 1578), who was governor of Dauphine and the French king's
+lieutenant in Savoy. In 1572 Antoine's son Henri was created a duke, but
+as this was only a "brevet" title it did not descend to his son. Henri
+was killed before La Rochelle in 1573. In 1596 Henri's son, Charles
+Henri, count of Clermont (d. 1640), added Tonnerre to his heritage; but
+in 1648 this county was sold by his son and successor, Francois (d.
+1679).
+
+A member of a younger branch of Charles Henri's descendants was Gaspard
+de Clermont-Tonnerre (1688-1781). This soldier served his country during
+a long period, fighting in Bohemia and Alsace, and then distinguishing
+himself greatly at the battles of Fontenoy and Lawfeldt. In 1775 he was
+created duke of Clermont-Tonnerre, and made a peer of France; as the
+senior marshal (cr. 1747) of France he assisted as constable at the
+coronation of Louis XVI. in 1774. His son and successor, Charles Henri
+Jules, governor of Dauphine, was guillotined in July 1794, a fate which
+his grandson, Gaspard Charles, had suffered at Lyons in the previous
+year. A later duke, Aime Marie Gaspard (1779-1865), served for some
+years as a soldier, afterwards becoming minister of marine and then
+minister of war under Charles X., and retiring into private life after
+the revolution of 1830. Aime's grandson, Roger, duke of
+Clermont-Tonnerre, was born in 1842.
+
+Among other distinguished members of this family was Catherine (c.
+1545-1603), only daughter of Claude de Clermont-Tonnerre. This lady,
+_dame d'honneur_ to Henry II.'s queen, Catherine de' Medici, and
+afterwards wife of Albert de Gondi, due de Retz, won a great reputation
+by her intellectual attainments, being referred to as the "tenth muse"
+and the "fourth grace." One of her grandsons was the famous cardinal de
+Retz. Other noteworthy members of collateral branches of the family
+were: Francois (1629-1701), bishop of Noyon from 1661 until his death, a
+member of the French Academy, notorious for his inordinate vanity;
+Stanislas M. A., comte de Clermont-Tonnerre (q.v.); and Anne Antoine
+Jules (1740-1830), cardinal and bishop of Chalons, who was a member of
+the states-general in 1789, afterwards retiring into Germany, and after
+the return of the Bourbons to France became archbishop of Toulouse.
+
+
+
+
+CLERMONT-TONNERRE, STANISLAS MARIE ADELAIDE, COMTE DE (1757-1792),
+French politican, was born at Pont-a-Mousson on the 10th of October
+1757. At the beginning of the Revolution he was a colonel, with some
+reputation as a freemason and a Liberal. He was elected to the
+states-general of 1789 by the noblesse of Paris, and was the spokesman
+of the minority of Liberal nobles who joined the Third Estate on the
+25th of June. He desired to model the new constitution of France on that
+of England. He was elected president of the Constituent Assembly on the
+17th of August 1789; but on the rejection by the Assembly of the scheme
+elaborated by the first constitutional committee, he attached himself to
+the party of moderate royalists, known as _monarchiens_, led by P.V.
+Malouet. His speech in favour of reserving to the crown the right of
+absolute veto under the new constitution drew down upon him the wrath of
+the advanced politicians of the Palais Royal; but in spite of threats
+and abuse he continued to advocate a moderate liberal policy, especially
+in the matter of removing the political disabilities of Jews and
+Protestants and of extending the system of trial by jury. In January
+1790 he collaborated with Malouet in founding the Club des Impartiaux
+and the _Journal des Impartiaux_, the names of which were changed in
+November to the Societe des Amis de la Constitution Monarchique and
+_Journal de la Societe, &c._. in order to emphasize their opposition to
+the Jacobins (Societe des Amis de la Constitution). This club was
+denounced by Barnave in the Assembly (January 21st, 1791), and on the
+28th of March it was attacked by a mob, whereupon it was closed by order
+of the Assembly. Clermont-Tonnerre was murdered by the populace during
+the rising of the 9th and 10th of August 1792. He was an excellent
+orator, having acquired practice in speaking, before the Revolution, in
+the masonic lodges. He is a good representative of the type of the
+_grands seigneurs_ holding advanced and liberal ideas, who helped to
+bring about the movement of 1789, and then tried in vain to arrest its
+course.
+
+  See _Recueil des opinions de Stanislas de Clermont-Tonnerre_ (4 vols.,
+  Paris, 1791), the text of his speeches as published by himself; A.
+  Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Constituante_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1905).
+
+
+
+
+CLERUCHY (Gr. [Greek: klerouchia], from [Greek: kleros], a lot, [Greek:
+echein], to have), in ancient Greek history a kind of colony composed of
+Athenian[1] citizens planted, practically as a garrison, in a conquered
+country. Strictly, the settlers (cleruchs) were not colonists, inasmuch
+as they retained their status as citizens of Athens (e.g. _ho demos ho
+en Hphaistia_), and their allotments were politically part of Attic
+soil. These settlements were of three kinds: (1) where the earlier
+inhabitants were extirpated or expatriated, and the settlers occupied
+the whole territory; (2) where the settlers occupied allotments in the
+midst of a conquered people; and (3) where the inhabitants gave up
+portions of land to settlers in return for certain pecuniary
+concessions. The primary object (cf. the 4000 cleruchs settled in 506
+B.C. upon the lands of the conquered oligarchs of Euboea, known as the
+Hippobotae) was unquestionably military, and in the later days of the
+Delian League the system was the simplest precaution against
+disaffection on the part of the allies, the strength of whose resentment
+may be gathered from an inscription (Hicks and Hill, 101 [81]), which,
+in setting forth the terms of the second Delian Confederacy, expressly
+forbids the holding of land by Athenians in allied territory.
+
+A secondary object of the cleruchies was social or agrarian, to provide
+a source of livelihood to the poorer Athenians. Plutarch (_Pericles_,
+11) suggests that Pericles by this means rid the city of the idle and
+mischievous loafers; but it would appear that the cleruchs were selected
+by lot, and in any case a wise policy would not deliberately entrust
+important military duties to recognized wastrels. When we remember that
+in 50 years of the 5th century some 10,000 cleruchs went out, it is
+clear that the drain on the citizen population was considerable.
+
+It is impossible to decide precisely how far the state retained control
+over the cleruchs. Certainly they were liable to military service and
+presumably to that taxation which fell upon Athenians at home. That they
+were not liable for the tribute which members of the Delian League paid
+is clear from the fact that the assessments of places where cleruchs
+were settled immediately went down considerably (cf. the Periclean
+cleruchies, 450-445); indeed, this follows from their status as Athenian
+citizens, which is emphasized by the fact that they retained their
+membership of deme and tribe. In internal government the cleruchs
+adopted the Boul[=e] and Assembly system of Athens itself; so we read of
+Polemarchs, Archons Eponymi, Agoranomi, Strategi, in various places.
+With a measure of local self-government there was also combined a
+certain central authority (e.g. in the matter of jurisdiction, some
+case being tried by the Nautodicae at Athens); in fact we may assume
+that the more important cases, particularly those between a cleruch and
+a citizen at home, were tried before the Athenian dicasts. In a few
+cases, the cleruchs, e.g. in the case of Lesbos (427), were apparently
+allowed to remain in Athens receiving rent for their allotments from the
+original Lesbian owners (Thuc. iii. 50); but this represents the
+perversion of the original idea of the cleruchy to a system of reward
+and punishment.
+
+  See G. Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities of Athens and Sparta_
+  (Eng. trans., London, 1895), but note that Brea, wrongly quoted as an
+  example, is not a cleruchy but a colony (Hicks and Hill, 41 [29]);
+  A.H.J. Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek Constitutional Antiquities_
+  (London, 1896); for the Periclean cleruchs see PERICLES; DELIAN
+  LEAGUE.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It seems (Strabo, p. 635) that similar colonies were sent out by
+    the Milesians, e.g. to Leros.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 6, Slice 4, by Various
+
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