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diff --git a/31430.txt b/31430.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1c3725e --- /dev/null +++ b/31430.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2336 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Church of England Magazine - Volume 10, +No. 263, January 9, 1841, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Church of England Magazine - Volume 10, No. 263, January 9, 1841 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2010 [EBook #31430] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHURCH OF ENGLAND MAGAZINE, JAN 9, 1841 *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was +produced from scanned images of public domain material +from the Google Print project.) + + + + + + + + + + THE + CHURCH OF ENGLAND MAGAZINE. + + + UNDER THE + SUPERINTENDENCE + OF + CLERGYMEN + + [Illustration] + + OF THE UNITED + CHURCH OF ENGLAND + AND + IRELAND. + + + "HER FOUNDATIONS ARE UPON THE HOLY HILLS." + + + Vol. X. No. 263. + JANUARY 9, 1841. + Price 11/2_d._ + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + THE CHRISTIAN'S OBLIGATION TO SEEK THE SPIRITUAL BENEFIT + OF OTHERS 17 + + SACRED PHILOSOPHY.--CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE NATURAL THEOLOGY + OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM 19 + + THE SECURITY OF GOD'S PEOPLE: A SERMON 25 + + THE GLORY OF THE SAVIOUR'S TRANSFIGURATION 29 + + THE CABINET 31 + + POETRY.--LAYS OF PALESTINE 32 + + MISCELLANEOUS 32 + + + + +THE CHRISTIAN'S OBLIGATION TO SEEK THE SPIRITUAL BENEFIT OF OTHERS. + +By the Rev. Thomas Bissland, M.A., + _Rector of Hartley Maudytt, Hants._ + + +There are some hearts little, if at all, impressed by the solemn +requirements of the Almighty; so dead, in fact, to everything which +relates not to the objects of time and sense, that they are unaffected +by the scenes of vice and of the misery which is its consequence, +every where presented to their notice. It is not until the mind is +under the gracious influence of the Spirit of God, that men feel any +anxiety to stop the torrent of evil, and endeavour to become the +humble instruments of converting the sinner and saving his soul. Many, +in fact, who feel deeply interested in their neighbours' temporal +comforts and prosperity, feel little anxious to supply their spiritual +wants; and to this may be traced the opposition which is not +unfrequently made, even by professing Christians, to institutions +which have a direct tendency to improve the moral and spiritual +condition of the human race. + +Now there are many reasons which induce a truly converted man to +labour for the spiritual benefit of others. First, there is the +dishonour which men, in an unconverted state, cast upon God. This +feeling operated on the mind of the psalmist, when he exclaimed (Ps. +cxix. 53), "Horror hath taken hold of me, because of the wicked who +forsake thy law." For when men forsake God's law, they declare that +they are little impressed with a sense of the divine majesty and +infinite goodness of the Almighty; that they are not anxious to know +his will; that his threatenings alarm them not; that his promises in +no way affect their hearts; that, in fact, they are not desirous of +that favour which rests upon those only who walk in the path of his +commandments. The psalmist's zeal and jealousy for the glory of God +were fully manifested by his anxiety to erect a house, in some +respects suitable for the divine worship; by his earnest expressions, +that the divine glory should be made known throughout the world, as +when he exclaims "Tell it out among the heathen, that the Lord +reigneth;" and this holy desire rendered every action, by which there +was the most slight appearance of dishonour being cast upon Jehovah, +abominable in his sight. When he reflected on his own departure from +the law of his God, on those acts which had caused the enemies of the +truth to blaspheme, he was indeed filled with horror. The language +uttered, when from the depths he supplicated the divine forgiveness, +powerfully demonstrates the agony of his soul--convinces us that his +repentance was sincere, and that he was anxious that in every action +of his life he might for the future glorify that Being whose gracious +hand had conducted him through his earthly pilgrimage--whose favour +had raised him to the throne of Israel--the light of whose countenance +had cheered him in many a dark and dreary hour--and whose comforts had +refreshed his soul, when in the multitude of the thoughts within him +he became dispirited and perplexed. The first and great commandment +is, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart." The +psalmist loved God, and on this account he was desirous that he should +be had in reverence of all his intelligent creatures. He loved God; +he was seized with horror when he beheld myriads uninfluenced by this +principle, living in disobedience to this first commandment. + +Sin is too often viewed by us merely with respect to its baneful +influence on the happiness of society. It is condemned by us, and it +is punished by us, not so much as it is the transgression of the law +of God, as it has a tendency to produce evil in the world. And hence +there are many offenders in God's sight who by their conduct cast +dishonour upon his name, who yet maintain a fair and respectable +character when weighed in the world's balance, nay, even are regarded +with reverence and esteem. We punish the murderer, the thief, the +robber, the perjured person. It is right that we should do so. The +welfare of society demands it. But do we punish the man who lives in +adultery, in drunkenness, in sensuality? Do we punish the man who is a +swearer, a gambler, a blasphemer, who habitually neglects the +sanctuary of the Lord, and does his own pleasure on the sabbath-day? +Human laws take no cognizance of these crimes. They are, however, as +dishonourable to God as others which are punished by man. They are +quite as detrimental to man's best interests; and fearful must be the +account rendered for their commission before that equitable tribunal, +where the children of men must answer for all their offences against +the majesty of heaven. + +But there is a second reason why the true Christian will labour for +the conversion of others, namely, the reflection that the sinner is +ensuring his own destruction while he is at enmity against God; and +this induced Jeremiah to exclaim (ix. 1), "O that my head were waters, +and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep day and night for +the slain of the daughter of my people." How strong is the +expression--"_the slain_." The prophet knew full well the misery of +transgressing God's law. Tremendous, indeed, is the reflection, that +the path of sin inevitably leads to the regions of darkness--those +regions where there is "weeping and gnashing of teeth," where "their +worm dieth not, and the fire is not quenched." Whence is it, then, +that, without any apparent concern, we behold myriads of immortal +creatures fast hastening to these regions of destruction? Whence is it +that there is so much apathy, lukewarmness, and indifference to a +brother's eternal welfare. Is it not too often, perhaps, that there is +a latent scepticism which induces us to disbelieve the solemn +declaration of the Omnipotent--even when he swears by himself--that +every jot and tittle of his threatenings shall be accomplished? Surely +were it not for some such spirit, we should never rest satisfied with +the feeble efforts we may have made to lead the sinner back to his +offended God; we should esteem no sacrifice too great, whether of +time, or influence, or money, or talent, which could in any way +promote a brother's spiritual welfare. But we are too apt to forget, +if not to disbelieve, the solemn declarations of the bible; and +forgetfulness to all practical results is as pernicious as downright +infidelity. The man who forgets God is as little influenced by his law +as the fool, who in his heart says there is no God at all. Now, this +forgetfulness paralyzes our energies, damps our zeal, checks our +benevolence. We do not consider that sinners are heaping up wrath +against the day of wrath; and, though they may now enjoy an unhallowed +prosperity, and now in an unbridled licentiousness derive happiness +from the indulgence of fleshly lusts, yet that these war against the +soul, against its present peace, and its ultimate felicity, and that +ruin and destruction inevitably await them. Were our spirit that of +the psalmist, or that of the prophet referred to, our feelings would +be more lively, our endeavours to promote the good of mankind be more +energetic. Looking not every one to his own, but on his brothers' +good, we should be anxious to direct their feet into the way of peace. + +How beautifully was this spirit manifested by St. Paul, when he +exhorted the converts of Philippi to be followers of himself--"For +many walk," says he, "of whom I have told you often, and now tell you +even weeping, that they are the enemies of the cross of Christ; whose +end is destruction, whose God is their belly, and whose glory is in +their shame; who mind earthly things." The apostle, indeed, appears to +have been influenced by the same anxiety as the psalmist and the +prophet; for the glory of the Redeemer, as well as the eternal welfare +of their souls, was dear to his heart, and he could not refrain from +weeping when he viewed the dishonour cast upon his adorable Lord by +these enemies of his cross; when he beheld them following divers lusts +and pleasures, even boasting of their recklessness of God's judgments; +and when he carried his thoughts forward to that day when the terrors +of the Lord would fall on all the children of disobedience, or those +who neglected the great salvation. This spirit is, in fact, no bad +test whereby we may try the state of our hearts and affections. If we +are really desirous for the advancement of God's glory, and deeply +interested in the welfare of our fellow-creatures, our feelings will +be very similar to those of the holy men of God referred to. We shall +not view, without the very deepest concern, that inattention which is +everywhere paid to the solemn requirements of the Almighty; we shall +at least make the attempt to stop the sinner in his career of guilt +and folly, that his soul may be saved from destruction in the day of +the Lord. + +Melancholy is the reflection, indeed, that neither God's invitations +on the one hand, nor his threatenings on the other, appear to affect +their hearts; they are neither constrained by love nor fear. "Wide is +the gate, and broad is the way that leadeth to destruction, and many +there be that go in thereat." + +There was one that wept over the rebellion of man, and one infinitely +greater than David, or Jeremiah, or St. Paul--and that one was the +ever-adorable Saviour; who, beholding the guilty race of man +altogether gone out of the way, descended from the mansions of glory, +became a partaker of human impurity, and opened through his blood a +new and living way, whereby the guilty sinner might return in peace to +his God. How touching the description of the evangelist--"And when he +came near, he beheld the city and wept over it, saying, If thou hadst +known, even thou, at least in this thy day, the things which belong +unto thy peace, but now they are hid from thine eyes." Jesus wept at +the grave of Lazarus, for Lazarus was his friend; he sympathised +deeply with Martha and Mary, for he loved them as he did their +brother; but far more bitter were the tears he shed, when he reflected +on the waywardness of that people whom he would have gathered to +himself; the guilt of that city which had killed the prophets; when he +thought of those days of divine vengeance, when its enemies should +cast a trench about it, and compass it round, and keep it in on every +side, and should lay it even with the ground, and its children within +it. And did not this feeling operate when, even amidst the agonies of +a crucifixion, his mind rested on the sufferings of others, and not on +his own? "Daughters of Jerusalem! weep not for me, but weep for +yourselves and for your children." And shall we not, in this as in +every other respect, seek to imitate our adorable Lord? Shall we not +feel deeply interested in the spiritual welfare of our fellow-men? If +we do not, it is, alas! a fearful, a decisive proof, that the flame of +holy love, of devoted zeal, has not been kindled in our bosom; that we +do not feel the importance of that salvation which is offered us so +freely in the gospel; that we are not duly impressed with a dread of +that woe unspeakable, that shall be the portion of those whose souls +shall be for ever lost. + + + + +SACRED PHILOSOPHY. + +CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE NATURAL THEOLOGY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. + +By Robert Dickson, M.D., F.L.S. + +No. XI. Pt. 1. + + "Lo! the oak that hath so long a nourishing + From the time that it 'ginneth first to spring, + And hath so long a life, as we may see, + Yet at the last wasted is the tree." + + CHAUCER. + + +While the actions which lead to the various effects on the external +appearance of a tree, described in the former paper, are going on, +many important changes occur in the internal parts, producing +alterations not less admirable, whether in respect of the tree itself, +or of the ends to which it may be rendered subservient. The base of an +exogenous tree is not merely widened by the superposition of annual +layers of wood over the first shoot, by which it gains greater +mechanical power to support the extending head of wide-spreading +branches, but the central portion is, in most cases, progressively +rendered more and more solid by the deposition in it of various +secretions prepared by the leaves, and transmitted from them through +the medullary rays into this part as their ultimate resting-place. + +The fibres descending from the developing buds on the stem, and +passing between the plates of cellular tissue, which constitute the +medullary rays, and the cells of which have a horizontal direction, +are but the basis of the vegetable fabric. The stem of an exogenous +plant has been compared to a piece of linen, of which the weft is +composed of cellular tissue, and the warp of fibrous and vascular +tissue--crossing each other. Now, after the portion is once formed, +which is woven every year by the wondrous machinery set to work for +this purpose, it receives no fresh texture, yet each fibre remains a +conducting tube to transmit the sap upwards, or, in the course of +time, becomes charged with various principles, prepared, as already +stated, by the leaves, and returned to the central part by that +apparatus or system of canals for their transit inwards, the medullary +rays, and at last are obstructed, so that no passage of fluid is +effected through the inner layers of wood. But for every layer that is +thus blocked up, a new one, which will continue pervious, is formed +exterior to those already existing, so that a constant provision is +made for carrying on the vital processes; to accomplish which, a free +channel from the points of the roots to the surface of the leaves is +absolutely necessary. The outer strata, produced by a tree of +considerable age, are observed to be thinner than those formed at an +earlier period, and become successively thinner and thinner, so that +ultimately, if accident should not have previously caused it, the +death of the tree is inevitable. The portions which are obstructed +constitute the _duramen_ or heartwood, the pervious portion the +_alburnum_ or sapwood. The original tissue is colourless; but +according to the nature of the secretions deposited in it, the +heartwood is either of a deeper colour, sometimes party-coloured, or +at least of a much greater specific gravity than the sapwood. The +removal of the juices by any solvent restores the wood to its +primitive hue, and renders it again light. The difference of weight of +a cubic foot of wood depends not merely on the different quantity of +vegetable tissue compressed into a given space, in the first +construction of the tree, but also on the quantity and quality of the +secretions ultimately lodged in it. The same species of tree will +present a difference in this respect, according to the country or +situation where it grew, and also according to the character of the +seasons during the time it flourished. According to the nature of the +tree, if placed in favourable circumstances in reference to soil and +weather, it invariably prepares and lodges in the stem those +principles which it was designed to elaborate--the oak preparing +tannin--the sugar-maple preparing its saccharine juice. That the +primary object of these was some advantage to the tree itself can +scarcely be doubted, but the secondary applications of which they are +capable, give reason to suppose that these also were contemplated in +their formation. The consideration of the means by which they are +formed, and the direct consequences of their formation on the air, by +abstracting certain elements from it, and supplying others, belong to +the subject of leaves; it is the object of the present paper to view +them as formed, and to show their amazing utility. + +The mechanical properties of the stems of trees, both exogenous and +endogenous, render them extremely serviceable to mankind. The uses to +which a single species of plant may be put are numerous and important, +of which the reed (arundo phragmites) is an example, for after the +root has assisted in binding and consolidating the soil, the stem is +susceptible of the most varied applications[A]. + +In a low state of civilization the palm, or a palm-like grass, +supplies all that man requires; of the former of which, the _Mauritia +flexuosa_, or sago-palm of the Oronooko, and still more the _cocos +nucifera_, or cocoa-nut palm; and of the latter, the bamboo (_bambusa +arundinacea_, and other species) are proofs. The bamboo suffices for +all the needs of the humbler Chinese; even their paper, as well as +their abodes, are made of it; and from the materials furnished by the +cocoa-nut tree, not merely food, as shall be afterwards noticed, but +larger and more elegant houses, with all their appurtenances, are +constructed at Goa and other places. The obligations of the Guaraons +to the _Mauritia flexuosa_ cannot be expressed[B]. In proportion as +man rises in civilization, the importance of timber becomes greater, +being a material for which no adequate substitute can be found. It +combines lightness with strength, elasticity with firmness, and +possesses in many instances a durability rivalling, or even +surpassing, that of the rocks yielded to us by the solid substance of +the globe. The adaptation of timber to the numerous wants of civil +life is too familiar to require exposition; but in addition to all the +ends it serves in these points, we have an interesting view presented +to us in considering what a vast quantity of timber is required for +the construction of our shipping, from the countless boats and small +craft employed in our coasting trade up to the larger ships, which are +so many floating towns or communities. These conduce to the +accomplishment of objects of the most momentous nature. Were it not +for our shipping we should still be in the condition described by the +Romans, as Britons cut off from the rest of the world.--But by their +means we now visit without restraint, + + "Earth's farthest verge, and ocean's wildest shore,"[C] + +and though, in times past, they have been too often used as engines +fraught with destruction, directed by man against his fellow man, let +us hope that they may be required in future only to convey in amicable +interchange the produce of one country to another, or to bear to his +destination the missionary bent on extending the blessings of that +religion whose spirit is "peace on earth, good will among the children +of men[D]." + +As a means of supplying fuel, without which man must remain constantly +in the savage state, wood is of inestimable value. In the process of +combustion, the elements of the trees enter into new combinations, +evolving both light and heat, which at once maintain life and render +it a state of enjoyment and usefulness. For this purpose in Britain, +we chiefly employ fossil fuel, stored up in the secret places of the +earth, and, therefore, we attach less importance to recent wood; but +other parts of the world are not so favourably situated, and to the +inhabitants of these places fresh, or but lately felled, wood is +necessary for their existence. Even in France, though partially +possessed of coal, it is estimated that the quantity of wood employed +to supply heat, whether for comfort, cooking, or in manufactures which +require a high temperature, amounts to seven-tenths of the entire +consumption. The superiority of wood fuel, whether fossil or recent, +over every other material resorted to with a like intention, shall be +shown in a subsequent part of this paper. I therefore pass on at +present to demonstrate the utility of vegetable substances in +affording the means of subsistence to man and animals. + +In the observations I am about to make, it is impossible to avoid +anticipating some of the remarks which belong to the subject of fruits +and seeds as articles of food, since the same principles of nutriment +are found in the stems of certain plants as are deposited in the +fruits or seeds of others. + +Though man is omnivorous, and can subsist either on animal or +vegetable food--an arrangement which fits him to dwell in any part of +the habitable globe,--yet he is subject, with regard to the actual +material of his diet, in a remarkable manner, to the influence of +climate, since a particular kind of aliment, which is very appropriate +in one country is improper in another; thus, as we advance from the +equator towards the poles, the necessity for animal food becomes +greater, till, in the very north, it is the sole article of +subsistence. Animal food, from containing nitrogen, is more +stimulating, and, therefore, less suitable for hot climates, where, on +the contrary, saccharine, mucilaginous, and starchy materials are +preferred; hence, in the zone of the tropics, we find produced in +abundance rice, maize, millet, sago, salep, arrowroot, potatoes, the +bread-fruit, banana, and other watery, or mucilaginous fruits. +Quitting this zone, we enter that which produces wheat, and here, +where the temperature is lower, providence has united with the starch +of this grain a peculiar principle (gluten), possessing all the +properties of animal matter, and yielding nitrogen and ammonia in its +decomposition[E]. Thus, by a gradual and almost insensible transition, +nature furnishes to man the food which is most appropriate for him in +each region. In the subtropical zone vegetable diet is still +preferred, but, in chemical constitution, the favourite articles +approximate animal substances. This holds also in the temperate zone, +not only in respect of wheat, but also in the chesnut, which is almost +the sole means of subsistence in some of the mountainous regions of +France, Italy, and Spain, though, instead of the gluten of wheat, this +seed contains albumen, the relation of which to animal food is even +closer than that of gluten. In reviewing the geographical distribution +of the cereal grains[F], we find that starch nearly pure is produced +in the greatest abundance in the hottest parts of the world, +particularly in rice and maize; it becomes associated in the +subtropical regions with an equivalent for animal food; and in still +colder regions, where wheat fails, oats and barley take its place. +These, though possessed of less gluten than wheat, are, nevertheless, +more heating, and, therefore, better calculated for northern +latitudes. The inhabitants of Scotland and Lapland, with their oaten +and barley or rye bread, are thus as thoroughly provided with the best +food, as the Hindoo with his rice or Indian corn[G]. + +It would be impossible to enumerate the plants which furnish starch in +large proportion, but a few may be given as illustrative of the above +positions. The chemical analysis of those proximate principles of +plants which are mere combinations of water with carbon +(hydro-carbonates or hydrates of carbon) has been already given, but +must here be repeated:-- + + 100 parts consist of + | Water. | Carbon. + Gum (pure gum-arabic) | 58.6 | 41.4 + Sugar (pure crystallized) | 57.15 | 42.85 + Starch | 56.00 | 44.00 + Lignin | 50.00 | 50.00 + +These are so many mutually convertible products, of which gum may be +looked upon as the basis; indeed gum is that organizable product which +exists most universally in the proper juices of plants. "There are +some instances in which sugar appears to be the first organic compound +formed by the combination of the external elements, as when abundantly +existing in the ascending sap of trees--the maple, for example. Starch +may be considered as little else than gum divided into minute +portions, each of which is enclosed in a membraneous cell (and +containing some incidental particles, which, when starch is burnt, +leave about .23 per cent. of residuum, consisting entirely of +phosphates); and, in this state, it appears to answer very important +ends in the vegetable economy. It is remarked by Decandolle, that, +'while gum itself may be considered the nutrient principle of +vegetation, diffused freely through the structure of the plant, and +constantly in action, starch is apparently the same substance, stored +up in such a manner as not to be readily soluble in the circulating +fluids,' thus forming a reservoir of nutritious matter, which is to be +consumed, like the fat of animals (which it closely resembles in +structure), in supporting the plant at particular periods[H]." + +This view explains the fact of starch being found accumulated in +amazing quantity in some plants, more particularly at certain periods +of their existence, as in the cases I am now to cite. The fertility of +some palm-trees is very great, and to furnish nutriment to the +flowers, fruit, and seeds, an enormous supply of starch is needed; +accordingly, in these we find the stem a complete storehouse of this +essential principle. Thus the several palms and palm-like plants, +which yield sago, such as the _sagus Rumphii_, _cycas circinalis_, _C. +revoluta_, _corypha umbraculifera_, _caryota urens_, and _phoenix +farinifera_--trees which are mostly confined within the tropics, at +the moment when the spadices or sheaths containing the bunches of +flowers are visible but not unfolded, furnish an immense portion of +the food of the natives. The _sagus Rumphii_, which abounds in the +islands of the Indian Archipelago, and though one of the humblest of +the palm tribe, seldom exceeding thirty feet in height, is yet, except +the gomuto, the thickest and largest, alone yields a quantity of +nutritious matter far exceeding that of all other cultivated plants, +inasmuch as a tree in its fifteenth year produces 600 lbs. of sago, +which word, in the language of the Papuas, signifies _bread_, being +the staple food of the islanders. To obtain it, the tree must be cut +down, and the stem divided into pieces, from which the flour is beaten +and washed out[I]. After being cut down, the vegetative power still +remains in the root, which again forms a trunk, and this proceeds +through its different stages, until it is again subjected to the axe, +and made to yield its alimentary contents for the service of man. Nor +is the extraordinary productiveness of a single tree the only point +worthy of notice, for, being endogenous plants, devoid of branches, an +unusual number of them can grow in a small space. Mr. Craufurd +calculates that an English acre could contain four hundred and +thirty-five sago trees, which would yield one hundred and twenty +thousand five hundred pounds avoirdupois of starch, being at the rate +of more than eight thousand pounds yearly. Besides the farina or meal, +every tree cut down furnishes, in its terminal bud, a luxury which is +as much prized as that of the _areca oleracea_, or cabbage palm of the +West Indies, and which is eaten either raw as a salad, or cooked. +Further, the leaves afford so excellent a material for covering +houses, that even in those hot and humid parts of the world, where +decomposition goes on so rapidly, it does not require to be renewed +oftener than once in seven years. + +The _Mauritia flexuosa_, or fan palm of the Oronooco, is of still +greater utility to the natives of South America. It is a social palm, +abounding in the marshes, and having a geographical range of very vast +extent. The whole northern portion of South America, east of the +Cordilleras, appears to be possessed of this gorgeous palm; from the +mouth of the Oronooco to the river Amazon, and through the whole of +Guiana, through Surinam and the northern part of Brazil, and in very +various places along the river Amazon, even to its source on the +eastern declivity of the Cordilleras, this palm is found, constituting +forests of greater or less extent. Its smooth grey stem rising often +100 feet, forms groups that, in the northern part of Brazil, resemble +the pallisades of some gigantic fortress. The produce of these lofty +cylinders is very great, not merely of sago, which is procured only +when the process of flowering is about to occur, but many trees being +cut down before this event, a juice is obtained from them, which +forms, by fermentation, a sweet wine; while those that flower, after +which no good sago can be got, furnish an extraordinary quantity of +fruit, hanging in bunches many feet in length, which is as agreeable +as ripe apples, the taste of which it resembles. The other products of +this tree are numerous[J]. + +It would lead beyond just limits, were we to notice in detail, the +plants which yield starch suitable for food, only after undergoing a +process of art, by which an acrid principle is driven off, and a +bland, wholesome substance remains behind. Such is the Janipha (or +Jatropha) Manihot, which yields the Mandiocca, Tapioca, or Cassava, an +article not only of great consumption in, but also of considerable +export from, Brazil (see Spix and Martius' Travels, and Lib. of Enter. +Knowledge, Vegt. Sub. Food of Man, p. 152), which, when raw, is +poisonous both to man and cattle, though it becomes safe and agreeable +by the application of heat. So likewise the large tubers of several +_Arums_, such as _A. Macrorhizon_, _A. Colocasia_, _Caladium acre_, +and which are cultivated with great care in tropical and subtropical +countries, particularly in the Sandwich and South Sea islands. All of +these excite inflammation and swelling of the mouth and tongue, even +to the danger of suffocation, but which are disarmed of their +virulence, and converted into an article of daily consumption, by +fire. Even yams and sweet potatoes, which are naturally mild, are less +articles of consumption in the south sea islands, than the Tarro, as +these tubers of the _arums_ are designated. + +I omit all other plants to fix attention on the potatoe, which is not +only the source of the purest starch of all, but has many interesting +points connected with its history and habitudes, peculiarly connected +with my subject. No plant has contributed more to banish those famines +which were formerly of so frequent occurrence in Europe, and all the +dire train of suffering and disease consequent upon them. Yet did it, +in many instances, require royal edicts to induce some nations to +cultivate what is now regarded as one of the prime blessings of +Providence, from nearly one end of the earth to the other; the potatoe +being raised from Hammerfest, in Lapland, lat. 71 deg. north, through all +Europe, the plains of India, in China, Japan, the south-sea islands, +New Holland, even to New Zealand. What renders it so peculiarly +valuable is, that in the seasons when the corn crop fails, that of +potatoes is generally more abundant; thus furnishing a substitute for +the other, which proves defective from atmospheric conditions, which +have little influence over the potatoe, placed as it is underground, +and secure against extremes of temperature. The potatoe is not a root, +as commonly supposed, but an underground collection of buds, having a +quantity of starch accumulated around them, for their nourishment when +they begin to grow. The quantity of starch varies greatly with the +kind of potatoe cultivated, the mode of cultivation, the time of +setting, and above all, with the season of the year when the analysis +is made. Potatoes in general, afford from one-fifth to one-seventh +their weight of dry starch[K]; besides some other nutritive materials. +The quantity of starch seems to be at its maximum in the winter months; +as 100 pounds of potatoes yield in August about 10 lbs., in October +nearly 15 lbs., in November to March 17 lbs., in April 133/4 lbs., and +in May 10 lbs. Nor is the quantity of starch alone diminished in +spring, but the nitrogen which belongs to some of the other nutritive +principles, likewise suffers a deduction; as fresh, not dried +potatoes, contain 0.0037 per cent. of azote, while potatoes ten months +old contain only 0.0028, causing a sensible difference in their power +of imparting nourishment. The starch is withdrawn from the tubers of +the potatoe, precisely in the same way that it is transferred from the +root, stem, or seeds of other plants, for the service of the young +shoot; but the mode in which it is accomplished is but of recent +discovery, and constitutes one of the most beautiful instances of +design which the whole vegetable kingdom can unfold; "that man's +scepticism must be incurable who does not perceive, and acknowledge, +that the means now to be detailed were created for the express +accomplishment of the ends[L]." + +Starch has been described above as consisting of a multitude of little +cells or vesicles, having an envelope, insoluble in water, formed of a +kind of organized membrane, and containing within it a substance which +is soluble in water, termed amidin. This soluble material is the +nutritive element on which the young shoot, proceeding from every eye +or bud of the potatoes, is to subsist, till it has developed roots, +and unfolded its leaves to prepare additional alimentary substance. +But if this soluble material be enclosed in an insoluble membrane, how +are the contents to be made available for the growth of the plant? It +is true, indeed, that water of the temperature of 160 deg. Fahr. can +rupture this tegument, as occurs in the process of boiling potatoes; +but the water diffused through the earth in the neighbourhood of the +growing tuber, never reaches such a height. How then is the difficulty +obviated? This is effected by a secretion called _diastase_ which is +found in the tubers in the immediate vicinity of the eyes or buds. "It +is stored up in that situation for the purpose of being conveyed, by +the vessels connected with the bud, into the substance of the tuber, +when the demand for nutrition is occasioned by the development of the +shoot. It is probable that the secretion of _diastase_ takes place in +every instance in which starch previously deposited is to be +re-absorbed[M]." It is not to be found before grains or tubers begin +to sprout, yet, "such is its energy, that one part of it is sufficient +to render soluble the interior portion of two thousand parts of +starch, and to convert it into sugar[N]." Strong as is the analogy +between starch and gum, yet _diastase_ does not convert gum into +sugar; the one being as completely soluble as the other, its +intervention is clearly unnecessary. Neither does it act on sugar. It +is found, and exerts its powers, only where it is required. Nor does +it come into play one moment before the necessity for it occurs. While +the potatoe is in its state of winter repose, and no vegetative +process going on, the elements of which the _diastase_ is formed, are +equally quiescent, but no sooner does the season recur when an +augmented temperature rouses the slumbering energy of the tuber, than +this potent principle exhibits its efficacy, and changes the insoluble +starch into the nutritious sugar. Who, that can read, or reading +reflect and ponder on these things, but must conclude that the laws +which regulate the whole actions were impressed upon their subjects by +a Creator infinite in design, in wisdom, and in power? If such insight +into his doings are permitted to us now, what may we not hope for when +we no longer "see as through a glass darkly[O]?" + +The insolubility of the starch in cold water, affords a convenient +means of separating the flour from the other materials, by which it +may be abstracted from the tubers when in the greatest abundance, and +be preserved unchanged for the use of man. This is done by simply +rasping down the potatoes over a seirce, and passing a current of +water over the raspings. The water passes through the seirce milky +from the starch suspended in it. The starch is allowed to fall to the +bottom, and is two or three times washed with pure water; it is then +allowed to dry[P]. If this process be followed in the winter months, +when the quantity of starch is greatest, the result is, a sixth +portion of the weight of the potatoes employed, in a condition fit not +only for immediate use, but capable of preservation for years. "To +those who live solely, or even principally, on potatoes, it must be of +immense importance to have the nutritious part preserved when in its +greatest perfection, instead of leaving it exposed to injury, +decomposition, or decay[Q]." + +It is unnecessary to enlarge upon the sources of starch and its +obvious utility to mankind. Previous to its being consumed by the +plant in which it is amassed, it is by various means, but chiefly by +diastase, transformed into sugar. Following this natural transition, I +shall next consider sugar as an article of diet. In temperate +climates, sugar is regarded as a luxury, one indeed which is nearly +indispensable, but in tropical countries it is a universal article of +subsistence, partly as real sugar, and partly, and more generally, as +it occurs in the cane. It is inconceivable what enormous quantities of +the sugar-cane is consumed in this way; vast ship-loads arrive daily +in the market at Manilla, and in Rio Janiero; in the Sandwich Islands +and other places, every child is seen going about with a portion of +sugar-cane in the hand. It has been called "the most perfect +alimentary substance in nature," and the results, in the appearance of +the negroes, during the cane-harvest, notwithstanding the increased +severe toils of that season, seem to confirm the statement. They +almost invariably become plump, and sleek, and scarcely take any other +food while the harvest lasts; even the sickly revive, and often +recover their health. + +The chief source of sugar is large grass (_saccharum officinarum_), of +which there are several varieties, differing essentially in +productiveness, but the best of which is the Otaheita cane, the stem +of which is higher, thicker, and more succulent than the Creole cane, +and which yields not only one-third more of juice than the Creolian +cane on the same space of land; but from the thickness of its stem, +and the tenacity of its ligneous fibres, it furnishes much more fuel. +One variety was known in India, in China, and all the islands of the +Pacific ocean, from the most remote antiquity; it was planted in +Persia, in Chorasan, as early as the fifth century of our era, in +order to obtain from it solid sugar. The Arabs carried this reed--so +useful to the inhabitants of hot and temperate countries--to the +shores of the Mediterranean. In 1306, its cultivation was yet unknown +in Sicily, but was already common in the island of Cyprus, at Rhodes, +and in the Morea. A hundred years after it enriched Calabria, Sicily, +and the coasts of Spain. From Sicily the Infant Henry transplanted the +cane to Madeira; and from Madeira it passed to the Canary islands. It +was thence transplanted to St. Domingo, in 1513, and has since spread +to the continent of South America, and to the West Indies, whence the +chief supply for Europe is obtained. + +The vast circuit which it has described in these successive +transplantations attest the sense which mankind had of the benefits it +bestowed in its course. The introduction of the Otaheita cane is +another proof of the obligations which modern times are under to +navigation, as we owe this plant to the voyages of Bougainville, Cook, +and Bligh[R]. + +The sugar-cane requires for its perfection, a temperature of +considerable elevation, and succeeds best where the mean temperature +is 24 deg. or 25 deg. (of the centigrade thermometer), yet it will +prosper, though with less produce, where it only reaches 19 deg. or 20 +deg. (centigrade). Its cultivation extends from the verge of the ocean, +where the canes are often washed by the waves[S], to localities on the +mountains 3,000 feet above the sea; and even in the extensive plains +of Mexico and Colombia, where, from the reflection of the sun's rays +the heat is greatly increased, to 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, though the mean +temperature of the city of Mexico be only 17 deg. (centigrade), yet sugar +is procured at 6,600 feet. + +The fertility and productiveness of the sugar-cane is immense, second +only to the sago-palms. "The first sugar-canes planted with care on a +virgin soil, yield a harvest during twenty to twenty-five years, after +which they must be replanted every three years." In the island of +Cuba, instances are known of a sugar-plantation existing for +forty-five years. To procure new plants, the tedious process of sowing +seeds is not necessary. The practice is followed of taking cuttings, +and the stools, or scions, which spring from the joints (_nodi_) of +the old plant, are fit to be separated in fourteen days; these, in the +course of a year, are so well grown that they may be cut down, and +submitted to the sugar-mill. An English acre under culture for sugar, +in Java, yields 1285 pounds avoirdupois of refined sugar, and the +produce at Cuba is nearly the same. + +Let not the thought arise, on the perusal of these statements, that +the gifts of Providence are distributed with partiality, as nothing +could be more unfounded. Independent of the destruction of the +plantations which tropical hurricanes so often occasion, an insect of +the locust kind, more particularly in the East Indies, produces such +fearful devastation as to realize the scene described by the prophet +Joel--"A fire devoureth before them, and behind them a flame burneth: +the land is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a +desolate wilderness; yea, and nothing shall escape them[T]." From such +visitations, northern latitudes are generally exempt, and the constant +struggle which man has had to maintain with the elements and a +churlish soil, has so whetted his faculties as to render the return +for his labour not only more certain, but even more abundant[U]. + +As if to shew that "the earth full of the riches of the Lord," in +parts of the world where the low temperature is an obstacle to the +profitable cultivation of the sugar-cane, a substitute is found for it +in the _acer saccharinum_, or sugar-maple, which presents the great +peculiarity of the ascending sap being charged with sugar to such a +degree as to be then fit for the manufacture of this valuable +substance. There results from this circumstance a most important +advantage to the inhabitants of the northern regions, where this tree +grows, that the juice is extracted early in spring, a time when the +rigour of the season condemns the labourer to inactivity. Besides, the +sugar-maple grows spontaneously, and requires no care, till it is fit +for tapping; and when deprived of its juice, and incapable of yielding +more sugar, its wood is applicable to a far greater number and variety +of uses than the bruised cane, since as fuel the maple is most +valuable; and its ashes yield, from their richness in the alkaline +principle, four-fifths of the potash exported to Europe from Boston +and New York. The timber of the sugar-maple is also highly prized, +both for common and ornamental purposes--as the beautiful bird's-eye +maple is obtained from this tree. + +"The sugar-maple begins a little north of Lake St. John, in Canada, +near 48 deg. of north lat., which, in the rigour of its winter, +corresponds to 68 deg. of Europe. It is nowhere more abundant than +between 46 deg. and 43 deg. of north lat., which space comprises Canada, +New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, the states of Vermont and New Hampshire, and +the district of Maine. Farther south, it is common only in Genessee, +in the state of New York, and in the upper parts of Pennsylvania. It +is estimated by Dr. Rush, that in the northern part of these two +states, there are 10,000,000 acres which produce these trees in the +proportion of thirty to an acre. The process of making maple-sugar is +commonly begun in February, or in the beginning of March, while the +cold continues intense, and the ground is still covered with snow. The +sap begins to be in motion at this season, two months before the +general revival of vegetation. The sap continues to flow for six +weeks; after which it becomes less abundant, less rich in saccharine +matter, and sometimes even incapable of crystallization. In this case +it is consumed in the state of molasses; or exposed for three or four +days to the sun, when it is converted into vinegar by the acetous +fermentation: a kind of beer is also made of it. The amount of sugar +produced by each tree in a year varies from different causes. The +yearly product varies from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. for each tree[V]." The sap +is most abundant from young trees, but less charged with sugar. The +average produce is five per cent. of sugar. The richer the sap is in +saccharine matter, it is so much the more profitable to extract it, as +in such a case it is nearly pure from all mucilaginous matter, or free +acid, and may be consolidated by the action of cold alone by merely +freezing it, thus rendering boiling unnecessary. + +Sugar exists in many other plants, such as the beet-root, from which +it is extracted; and also the stem of the maize, or Indian corn, is +charged with an extraordinary quantity of sugar, and it may either be +brought to the state of a honey-like sugar, or the juice pressed out +of the stalk, and fermented, forming the _pulque de mahio_, or _pulque +de Flaolli_, in Mexico[W]. + +Gum has been already stated to be the basis of all the other +organizable products, and it is found not only in almost all plants, +but in nearly all parts of them. In a pure or nearly isolated state, +it exists chiefly in the inner bark of vascular and especially +exogenous trees, and is preserved in the interior with the greatest +care: its escape externally results either from disease, as in the +case of plum and cherry-trees, from the puncture of insects, cracks in +the bark, or by artificial incisions. The death of the tree soon +follows the loss of this important juice, and thousands of trees of +the genus acacia are annually sacrificed in different parts of Africa +to procure the gum-arabic of commerce. It is only in a few genera and +tribes of trees, that it exists in so concentrated a state as to +assume the solid form on exposure to the air, but in some of these the +quantity is amazing. Hot countries are the chief abodes of such trees. +Thus, besides the immense quantity obtained from the acacias, the +_anacardium occidentale_ (cashew-nut tree) in America, has furnished +from a single tree a mass weighing forty-two pounds. Gum is mawkish, +insipid, and generally unpalatable, yet highly nutritive; and the +Africans, during the harvest of gum at Senegal, live entirely upon it, +eight ounces being the daily allowance for each man. In general they +become plump on this fare; and such should be the result, if the +calculation be correct, which assigns as great nutritive power to four +ounces of gum as to one pound of bread. This concentration of +nourishment renders gum a peculiarly suitable food for lengthened +journeys through the deserts, as it occupies small compass, and a +little suffices to stay the cravings of hunger. Thus, upwards of a +thousand persons may occupy more than two months in a journey from +Abyssinia to Cairo without any other kind of food[X]. Its bland, +demulcent properties fit it to correct the acrimony of the secretions +formed under the influence of a tropical sun and torrid air, with a +scanty and irregular supply of water. Plants, likewise, are preserved +in a vegetative and living state, mid sandy and arid wastes, by the +quantity of gum stored up in them. Hence succulent plants, such as +cacti and others, may be found in the steppes and sandy plains of +South America, verdant and healthy, though no rain may fall to convey +fresh sap into them for months, or even a year. In the form of +mucilage, _i. e._, gum in a state of solution, it is found in a very +large number of plants, and thus contributes to the maintenance of man +and animals. In these it is generally associated with some other +principles, which render it either more palatable or more easily +digested. A very large number of our esculent vegetables owe their +nutritive properties to the gummy matters with which they abound, and +the favour with which they are regarded to the other matters united +with it. Those which have a bitter principle are very excellent, when +this is in small proportion; and as, in most of them, the gummy matter +is prepared first, requiring for its formation only a moderate degree +of light and heat, while the bitter, or other principle, is added at a +later period, under the influence of stronger light; such plants, when +young, are tender and agreeable; nay, even very poisonous plants, when +very young, are wholesome and pleasant, which, at a more advanced +season, are virose and disagreeable. Thus, the peasantry of France and +Piedmont eat the young crowfoots (ranunculus) and poppies, after +boiling them, and find them safe and nourishing. The same result +follows exclusion of light, as in the process of blanching, by which +means celery, sea-kale, and other vegetables, are rendered esculent, +which in the wild state are poisonous or repulsive. In northern +latitudes, the light being intense for a short time only, many plants +are used there which, in the southern, are dangerous or destructive, +such as hemlock and monkshood. A moderate degree of bitterness is a +very useful accompaniment of the gum, which alone is cloying and even +oppressive to the stomach. The presence of a bitter principle in many +lichens promotes their digestion, and thus even the tough and leathery +ones, called tripe of the rocks, can be eaten, and sustain life amid +great privations and sufferings. The rein-deer moss (_cludonia +rangiferina_) is another lichen of great utility: it is not much +employed as human food, but it is the main support of the rein-deer +for a great portion of the year, and thus renders Lapland a fit abode +for man. + +A peculiar modification of gum constitutes _pectine_ or vegetable +jelly; and this occurs in fruits, such as the orange, currant, and +gooseberry, &c., also in many of the algae or sea-weeds, which are, or +ought to be, much employed as a delicate article of nourishment. The +edible swallow's nest, so greatly esteemed by the Chinese, is an alga, +gathered by the birds. The Ceylon moss (_Gigartina lichenoides_), and +the carrageen or Irish moss (_Chondrus crispus_), with many others, +might be made to contribute largely to the subsistence of man. Not +merely earth, from its fruitful bosom, but the vast ocean, offer their +rich produce to nourish and sustain the only intelligent occupant of +the globe, who should ever remember the declaration of the psalmist, +"O Lord! how manifold are thy works! in wisdom hast thou made them +all: the earth is full of thy riches; so is the great and wide sea!" +(Ps. civ.) + +FOOTNOTES: + +[A] The Greeks used to say that reeds had contributed to subjugate a +people, by furnishing arrows; to soften their manner, by the charm of +music; and to develop their intelligence, by offering them the +instruments proper for the formation of letters.--_Humboldt's Personal +Narrative._ + +"The reed presents itself as an object of peculiar veneration, when we +reflect that it formed the earliest instrument by which human ideas, +and all the charms of literature and science were communicated, and +which has handed down to us the light of religion and the glow of +genius from the remotest ages."--_Drummond's First Steps to Botany._ + +[B] "The Guaraons, a free and independent people, dispersed in the +Delta of the Oronooko, owe their independence to the nature of their +country; for it is well known that, in order to raise their abodes +above the surface of the waters, at the period of the great +inundations, they support them on the cut trunks of the mangrove tree, +and of the _Mauritia flexuosa_."--_Humboldt, Personal Narrative_, +vol. iii. p. 277. The same people make bread of the medullary flour of +this palm, which it yields in great abundance, if cut down just before +going to flower.--_Ibid._, vol. iii. p. 278. To these circumstances +Thomson alludes:-- + + "Wide o'er his isles the branching Oronooque + Rolls a brown deluge, and the native driven + To dwell aloft on life-sufficing trees, + At once his home, his robe, his food, his arms." + +[C] The connection of navigation with the progress of civilization is +most intimate, as may be understood from the following passage:-- + +"Among the circumstances which have contributed to retard the progress +of civilization in Africa, one of the most important and influential +is the compact and undivided form of the African continent, and the +natural barriers which render access to the greater regions of the +interior so remarkably difficult. It has been observed by Professor +Ritter, that the civilization of countries is greatly influenced by +their geographical forms, and by the relation which their interior +spaces bear to the extent of coast. While all Asia is five times as +large as Europe, and Africa more than three times as large, the +littoral margins of these larger continents bear no similar proportion +to their respective areas. Asia has seven thousand seven hundred +geographical miles of coast; Europe four thousand three hundred, and +Africa only three thousand five hundred. To every thirty-seven square +miles of continent in Europe, there is one mile of coast; in Africa, +only one mile of coast to one hundred and fifty square miles of +continent. Therefore the relative extension of coast is four times as +great in Europe as in Africa. Asia is in the middle between these two +extremes. To every one hundred and five square miles, it has one mile +of coast. The calculation of geographical spaces occupied by different +parts of the two last-mentioned continents, is still more striking. +The ramifications of Asia, excluded from the continental trapezium, +make about one hundred and fifty-five thousand square miles of that +whole quarter, or about one-fifth part. The ramifications of the +continental triangle of Europe form one-third part of the whole, or +even more. In Asia the stock is much greater in proportion to the +branches, and thence the more highly advanced culture of the branches +has remained, for the most part, excluded from the interior spaces. In +Europe, on the other hand, from the different relation of its spaces, +the condition of the external parts had much greater influence on that +of the interior. Hence the higher culture of Greece and Italy +penetrated more easily into the interior, and gave to the whole +continent one harmonious character of civilization, while Asia +contains many separate regions which may be compared, individually, to +Europe, and each of which could receive only its peculiar kind of +culture from its own branches. Africa, deficient in these endowments +of nature, and wanting both separating gulfs, and inland seas, could +obtain no share in the expansion of that fruitful tree, which, having +driven its roots deeply in the heart of Asia, spread its branches and +blossoms over the western and southern tracts of the same continent, +and expanded its crown over Europe. In Egypt alone it possessed a +river-system, so formed as to favor the development of similar +productions. Die Erdkunde von Aslen, von Carl Ritter. 2. Band. +Einleitung. Sec.24, 25. Berlin, 1832."--_Pritchard, Researches into the +Physical History of Mankind. Third Edit._ Vol. ii., p. 354. + +[D] "Was it not for the manifestation of this brighter era, and the +realization of its promised blessings, that all else which preceded it +was overruled by divine Providence, as subservient and preparatory? +All things being now ready, there began to spring up in the bosom of +the British churches, a wide and simultaneous sense of the solemn +responsibility under which they had been laid by the events of +Providence, to avail themselves of so favorable an opening for the +diffusion of the gospel throughout the eastern world. Men, qualified +to undertake the high commission, must be sent across the ocean--and +have not the toils, and perils, and successes, of Vasco de Gama, and +other navigators, opened up a safe and easy passage? That their +labours might pervade the country, and strike a deep and permanent +root into the soil, they must be delivered from the caprices of savage +tyranny, and the ebullitions of heathen rage; and have not our Clives +and our Wellingtons wrested the rod of power from every wilful despot; +and our Hastings and our Wellesleys thrown the broad shield of British +justice and British protection alike over all? In order that they +might the more effectually adapt their communications to the +peculiarities of the people, they must become acquainted with the +learned language of the country, and through it, with the real and +original sources of all the prevailing opinions and observances, +sacred and civil. And have not our Joneses and our Colebrookes +unfolded the whole, to prove subservient to the cause of the Christian +philanthropist? In this way have our navigators, our warriors, our +statesmen, and our literati, been unconsciously employed, under an +over-ruling Providence, as so many pioneers, to prepare the way for +our Swartzes, our Buchanans, our Martins, and our Careys."--_Duff's +India and India Missions._ + +[E] The relative proportions of starch and gluten in rice, wheat, and +other seeds, not only confirm the views respecting design, in +determining their geographical distribution, but merit notice, as +influencing their nutritive qualities, and fitness or unfitness as +food in different countries. + + -----------------------------+---------+-------- + | Starch. | Gluten. + +---------+-------- + Wheat, according to Proust | 74.5 | 12.5 + ---- -- Vogel | 68.0 | 24.0 + Winter wheat -- Davy | 77.0 | 19.0 + Spring wheat | 70.0 | 24.0 + Spelt -- Vogel | 74.0 | 22.0 + Barley -- Davy | 79.0 | 6.0 + Rye -- Do. | 61.0 | 5.0 + Oats -- Do. | 59.0 | 6.0 + Rice Carolina -- Vogel | 85.07 | 3.60 + Maize -- Bizio | 80.92 | 0. + Tartarian buckwheat | 52.29 | 10.47 + -----------------------------+---------+-------- + +Not only do the relative proportions of starch and gluten vary in the +same seed when grown in different countries, but even when grown in +the same country, according to the kind of manure put on the soil, a +point of great importance to agriculturists, when known and attended +to. + +[F] See "Church of England Magazine," vol. vii. p. 52-3-4. + +[G] "I have been informed by Sir Joseph Banks, that the Derbyshire +miners, in winter, prefer oat-cakes to wheaten bread, finding that +this kind of nourishment enables them to support their strength and +perform their labour better. In summer they say oat-cake heats them, +and they then consume the finest wheaten bread they can +procure."--_Sir H. Dacy's Agricultural Chemistry, 5th edit., p. 143._ + +The propriety and advantage of this practice is established by the +recent investigations of Boussingault, who found that oats contain +more than double the quantity of nitrogen which exists in any of the +other cereal grains.--_See Annales de Chimie et de Physique, tom. +lxvii. p. 408-21._ + +[H] Carpenter's "General and Comparative Physiology," p. 272 and Dr. +Prout's "Bridgewater Treatise," book iii. + +[I] See Forrest's "Voyage to the Moluccas;" Craufurd's "Indian +Archipelago, or Library of Entertaining Knowledge, Vegetable +Substances, Food of Man," p. 171. + +[J] "In the season of inundations, these clumps of the _Mauritia_, +with their leaves in the form of a fan, have the appearance of a +forest rising from the bosom of the waters. The navigator in +proceeding along the channel of the delta of the Oronooco at night, +sees with surprize the summits of the palm-trees illuminated by large +fires. These are the habitations of the Guaraons (see Sir W. Raleigh's +Brevis Descript. Guianae, 1594, tab. 4), which are suspended from the +trunks of trees. These tribes hang up mats in the air, which they fill +with earth, and kindle on a layer of moist clay the fire necessary for +their household wants. They have owed their liberty and their +political independence for ages, to the quaking and swampy soil which +they pass over in the time of drought, and on which they alone know +how to walk in security to their solitude in the delta of the +Oronooco, to their abodes on the trees, where religious enthusiasm +will probably never lead any American Stylites (_see_ Mosheim's Church +History). This tree, the tree of life of the missionaries, not only +affords the Guaraons a safe dwelling during the risings of the +Oronooco, but its shelly fruit, its farinaceous pith, its juice, +abounding in saccharine matter, and the fibres of its leaves, furnish +them with food, wine, and thread proper for making cords and weaving +hammocks. It is curious to observe in the lowest degree of human +civilization, the existence of a whole tribe depending on one single +species of palm-tree, similar to those insects which feed on one and +the same flower, or on one and the same part of a plant."--_Humboldt, +Person. Narrative_, vol. v. p. 728. + +[K] Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, p. 133.--According to Mr. Knight +the best potatoes, such as the Irish apple, possess much greater +specific gravity than the inferior sorts, and this variety yields +nearly 20 per cent. of starch; while five pounds of the variety called +Captain Hart, yields 12 ounces of starch, and the Moulton White nearly +as much, the Purple Red give only 81/2, the Ox Noble 81/4. There is much +more profit in cultivating the former than the latter sorts; but even +the best kinds degenerate, and new sorts must be procured, as if to +stimulate the ingenuity of man, by preventing his enjoying the gifts +of God, without constant exertion, and observation of the laws which +the Creator has impressed upon his productions. See the Observations +of Thomas Andrew Knight, and the experiments now making by Mr. Maund, +of Bromsgrove. + +[L] Duncan. Sacred Philosophy of the Seasons. + +[M] Carpenter's Physiology. + +[N] Thomson's Chemistry of Organic Bodies: Vegetables, p. 667. + +[O] Vere magna et longe pulcherrima sunt etiam illa profundissima +sapientia hic exstructa opera tua, O Jehovah! quae non nisi bene +armatis nostris oculis patent! Qualia autem erunt denique illa, quae +sublato hoc speculo, remota mortalitatis caligine daturus es tuis Te +vere sincero Pectore colentibus? Eheu qualia! Hedwig. + +[P] Thomson's Chemistry. Vegetables, p. 630. + +[Q] On the Culture and Uses of Potatoes, by sir John Sinclair, bart. +This is a subject becoming every year of greater moment, and attention +to it a national benefit. The reduction of bulk alone, facilitating +the transport from one place to another, is an essential gain. The +produce, from a certain number of acres of this valuable esculent, may +be greatly augmented by planting the potatoes whole, at a great +distance between each, and hoeing freely between them--_See Knight's +Papers in Horticultural Transactions, and Payen et Chevalier, Traite +de la Pomme de Terre. Paris, 1826, p. 17._ + +[R] Humboldt. Personal Narrative, vol. iv. p. 84. + +[S] "Among the plants cultivated by man, the sugar-cane, the plantain +(_musa_), the mammee-apple (_mammea_), and alligator-pear-tree +(_laurus persea_) alone have the property of the cocoa-nut-tree, that +of being watered alike with fresh and salt water. This circumstance is +favorable to their migrations; and if the sugar-cane of the shore +yield a syrup that is a little brackish, it is believed at the same +time to be better fitted for the distillation of spirit, than the +juice produced from the canes of the interior."--_Humboldt._ + +[T] "The quantity of these insects is incredible to all who have not +themselves witnessed their astonishing numbers; the whole earth is +covered with them for the space of several leagues. The noise they +make in browsing on the trees and herbage may be heard at a great +distance, and resembles that of an army in secret. The Tartars +themselves are a less destructive enemy than these little animals. One +would imagine that fire had followed their progress. Wherever their +myriads spread, the verdure of the country disappears; trees and +plants stripped of their leaves and reduced to their naked boughs and +stems cause the dreary image of winter to succeed in an instant to the +rich scenery of spring. When these clouds of locusts take their +flight, to surmount any obstacles, or to traverse more rapidly a +desert soil, the heavens may literally be said to be obscured by +them." + +[U] "As the native of a northern country, little favoured by nature, I +shall observe that the Marche of Brandebourg, for the most part sandy, +nourishes, under an administration favourable to the progress of +agricultural industry, on a surface only one-third that of Cuba, a +population nearly double."--_Humboldt, P. N._, vol. vii. p. 156. + +[V] Loudon's Arboretum Britannicum, vol. i., p. 412. + +[W] For an interesting account of sugar, see Humboldt, Nova Genera et +Species Plantarum, vol. i., p. 243. + +[X] Haselquist's Voyage. + + + + +THE SECURITY OF GOD'S PEOPLE: + +A SERMON, + +By the Venerable C. J. Hoare, M.A., + _Archdeacon and Prebendary of Winchester._ + +Romans viii. 28. + + "And we know that all things work together for good to + them that love God." + + +Amongst the observations most frequently heard in the world, is that +made on the undeserved prosperity of the wicked, and the many +seemingly uncalled-for trials of the righteous. Experience will indeed +tell us, that neither of these opposite conditions is uninterrupted; +neither is it all sunshine in the most prosperous worldly lot; nor is +it all gloom--far from it--in the Christian's portion on earth. +Experience will also go further, and will abundantly prove the saying +of the wise man, that "the prosperity of fools shall destroy them." +Such success has a tendency first to deceive, then to corrupt, and +lastly to betray men into utter destruction. But the text will lead us +still further; it will teach us, that the trials of the righteous +preserve them--yea, work for good; and that "all things," and, +therefore, even the greatest trials, "work together for good to them +that love God." + +The text represents them as workmen. They work together for good; +they are constantly at work for that purpose, whether as instruments +in God's hands, or as in a degree self-moving for that end; they are +constructing as it were a building, or they are laying a foundation; +and that which they lay--that which all things befalling a Christian +are ever laying for him--is a ground for his substantial, necessary, +and eternal benefit. "We know that all things work together for good +to them that love God." + +This, then, it will be, with God's blessing, my humble endeavour to +show in the following discourse: first, premising the sense of the +word "good," in all just and reasonable acceptation; next, showing +more fully how all things may be thus said to "work for good to them +that love God;" finally, pointing out some of the many things which +will be found by experience to work in this very manner. + +I. The term "_good_," it must be said in the first place, is very +different, both in the language of the bible and in the estimation of +the truly wise, from what it usually represents in the language and +opinion of the world. The bible teaches us to view all things in their +consequences, and in their real and essential nature. View things in +their consequences, in their final end and issue, if you would view +them at all justly or wisely. Ease, and health, and worldly wealth, +and success may be good, just as the plentiful feast is good, provided +a man has temperance and soundness of constitution properly to partake +of it; but, if he is likely to indulge to a surfeit, or if every +morsel is food to some mortal disorder, and every cup adds strength to +a fever that is raging in his veins, no one in reason would call such +an entertainment good to such a man. And just so with the good things +of this present life: the Christian does not unreasonably deny that +prosperity is pleasing, health desirable, friends and relations deeply +attaching to us, and the smiles of social endearment or public favour +greatly captivating; but neither does he, like the world, consider +them to be necessarily all they seem to be, good to all persons, and +under all circumstances; he does not forget that earthly and bodily +good is just what it becomes in the use of it; that many times the use +can hardly be separated from the abuse; that lawful things, when +unlawfully or idolatrously used, are just as evil as unlawful +ones--nay, rather, that for a few comparatively who have perished from +a hardened course of forbidden pleasure, multitudes have been for ever +lost by allowed indulgences. Till he sees, then, the application made, +and the resulting consequences of any worldly boon, he does not call +the possessor happy, nor the possession good, nor very eagerly or +supremely does he desire it either for himself or others. + +But, again, the things _really and essentially good_ in their very +nature and inseparable qualities are those which, in the estimation of +the mere world, are held in no account whatsoever. What the bible +chiefly esteems, and the world wholly neglects, are spiritual +blessings,--the good things of the soul of man, "the precious things +of heaven, even of the everlasting hills." Those precious things, the +goodwill of him who is the great I AM--the peace of God which passeth +all understanding--the luxury of promoting the good of man and the +glory of God;--still more, the pardon of sin, through faith in the +atonement of Jesus Christ--a gradual advancement in true holiness--a +growing fitness and longing desire for the future blessedness of the +saints, and a final admission and "abundant entrance into the +everlasting kingdom of our Lord and Saviour," the "inheritance +incorruptible, undefiled, and that fadeth not away;"--these are truly +to the world but as a dream, a fancy, a cunningly-devised fable; but, +to the mind of the Christian, stand for everything truly and +substantially good. They are in all his plans first and foremost, and +nearest and dearest to his heart. They are as necessary to him in his +calculation and account of human happiness, as profit and pleasure are +to his neighbours around. "Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, nor the +heart conceived, the things which God hath prepared for them that love +him." But God hath revealed to _him_ by his Spirit, these very things, +as his chief good, his measure of all true happiness. Wealth may be +good, health still better, kindly affections and attached friends the +best of earthly boons; but the favour of God, the acquisition of his +image, the means of grace, and the hope of glory, are to him sovereign +and above all. While many ask, amidst the increase of their corn, and +wine, and oil, "Who will show us any good?" he exclaims, "Lord, lift +thou up the light of thy countenance upon me"--"in thy presence is the +fulness of joy; at thy right hand are pleasures for evermore." He +weighs well the nature, and "remembers the end" of all that is called +good, and so "does not amiss." + +II. For, secondly, he finds that, while we so do, and so consider, +"all things work together for good to _those that love God_." There +is, first, on the mind of the Christian that secret influence in the +very disposition of love to God, which will _of itself_ turn to good +every thing that comes from the God whom we love, and the Saviour on +whom we fully and implicitly rely. And there is, secondly, a full +disposition on the part of _our heavenly Father_ so to order and +direct every event which befals his loving and attached children, as +shall be found at last to have answered the ends of sovereign wisdom +and divine mercy. + +In the first instance, the tendency, _on our own part_, of love to the +great and good God will be this, namely, to turn all that befals us to +an instrument of good. As, in the healthy body, food of very different +descriptions may yet all turn to nourishment, and minister to health +and bodily strength; so, in the healthy mind, purified and +strengthened by the grace of God's Holy Spirit, every thing that meets +it is converted to its advantage, and adds in some way to its +improvement and its happiness. There is ever a colour cast upon +outward circumstances from the complexion of the inward soul. The vain +man, on his part, the ambitious, the sensual, the gainful, well know +how to turn all to the advancement of their sinful objects; and no +less does the good man turn all to the enlargement of his goodness, +and the lover of his God to the increase and exercise of that love. +Viewing every thing in the glass, or by the lamp of God's word, he +ingeniously, so to speak, finds in every thing a reason for loving and +fearing, serving and obeying God. Every event works for his good, +because he is resolved it shall do so; and every result satisfies, +pleases, rejoices him, because he is persuaded it ought to do so. +Loving God, he has a confidence that he is beloved of God; and then, +feeling himself in a world made by God, and proceeding forward under +his guidance and permission, he never will believe that any thing +falls out in it but what is intended to make him both good and happy. +Happy then he will be, if God intends he should be so; and holy he +will be encouraged to become, under the consciousness that God intends +his holiness. + +Dispositions like these will indeed work for their possessor even upon +the hardest materials, and will, by the very force of a new and +spiritual nature, convert all into "servants to righteousness unto +holiness." Faith will be a hand, bringing together the events of life +and the framer and guide of all life and all existence; and the result +will be a solemn and heart-satisfying conviction, that "all things +work together for good to them that love God." + +Nor, next, will such a faith prove to be groundless; for surely there +is a _power engaged_, there is a pledge in the gospel, a sure word of +promise, and even of covenant, that all things shall be ours;--"All +are yours, and ye are Christ's, and Christ is God's." The trial of our +faith lies indeed very much upon this one point. Can we, for a moment, +believe that God permits all the disorder and confusion which appears +to us in the world--the prosperity of wickedness, the trials and +adversity of the righteous, in order to raise a doubt on our minds +whether he be not absent all the while--whether he bears or not any +share in the world he created, or in all those moving causes that owe +their activity and life to himself alone? God is surely present; he is +powerfully operating; he is the supreme controller, and the almighty +director; he is fully aware of those adverse appearances, and is no +less deeply engaged in the final issue of all events, to render them +consistent with the ends of justice and mercy, than as if we saw him +at work with our bodily eyes: or, as if we then could fully know the +mind of the Lord, or be his counsellors to instruct him. + +The expressions of scripture are too strong, and too agreeable to the +very nature of God and of his works, to make us doubt for a moment of +his providential care and unceasing watchfulness. "He is not far from +every one of us; for in him we live, and move, and have our being." To +the true disciple saith Christ himself, "The very hairs of your head +are all numbered;" and yet more strongly, "If a man love me, he will +keep my words; and my Father will love him, and we will come unto him, +and make our abode with him." Promises, these, which have been ever +realized in the history of the saints in all ages who have walked with +God--Enoch, Noah, Abraham, and the patriarch Jacob--none more tried +than he--yet we read _his_ testimony to "the God, which fed me all my +life-long unto this day; the angel which redeemed me from all evil." + +Keeping in view the notion of what is truly good for this state of +trial, and for the soul as well as for the body, there is no time and +no extent to which we shall not find the promise sure, and the +fulfilment exact, where God is pledged for the supply of his servants +that trust in him: his eye is ever open, his ear ever attentive unto +them. The petition he denies is able to operate as powerfully and as +favourably on their behalf as that which he grants; merciful alike in +the gift which he bestows and which he withholds, and wise alike in +the evil which he permits, and which he restrains. + +There is nothing more important to the believer's faith, than to +apprehend that there is no uncertainty, nothing imperfect or weak in +the dispensations of God, as they respect the final issue of the +Christian's trials. Either God is wholly absent and forgetful of his +daily wants, or else he is wholly and for ever at work on his behalf. +If he were wholly absent, well might his servants doubt that, after +all their endeavours to that end, they should be able to turn to good +all the events of this mortal life. If _he_ do not temper the trials +of his servants, how in truth shall they overcome them? If _he_ do not +controul their enemies, how shall they ever escape them? Figure to +yourself any place, or time, or circumstance, where God is not, or +where he _can_ be spared from the concerns of his people, either +temporal or spiritual: but, if none can be imagined or assigned, then +is it but justly and essentially true, that, by his especial order and +his immediate appointment, "all things work together for good to them +that love God." + +III. But we may proceed, lastly, to show, in a practical manner, _some +of those very things_ which shall thus work together for good. Take +the most unpromising and most unfavourable case, for instance, that of +_great prosperity_. None will deny it to be a case of many others the +most trying to the graces of the true Christian. Yet even shall the +temptations arising from worldly honours and successes, to a man armed +with the love of God, work together for good. Graces rarely exercised +in exalted stations, shall be found to shine the more conspicuously in +his instance. The grace of humility, and tenderness of spirit, shall +be the more eminently illustrated in that station, where, too often, +there is only pride and hardness of heart. If he be found, in a sober, +self-denying spirit, setting little value on those things so commonly +called good amongst mankind--using this world without abusing +it--shall not the grace of God be more abundantly magnified? When not +overcome, as Agar feared he might be, saying, "lest I be full, and +say, who is the Lord?"--but rather, when led by fulness to more +gratitude, and by a lofty station to deeper humility, and to a more +lowly submission to God, and meekness to man--how will he by such +prosperity as this testify to the reality of Christian principles: how +will he, in giving freely where he has freely received, esteeming even +his highest gains as loss for Christ's sake, and returning upon others +all that mercy which has been exercised towards himself, prove that +_he_ has not received the grace of God in vain; but that even +prosperity has "worked together for good to them that love God." + +Or, suppose the case of _deep adversity_--suppose the Christian +stripped, like Job, of great honours and possessions at a single +stroke; betrayed and sold like Joseph, even by brethren, into bondage +and exile; or lying like Lazarus at the gate of the rich man, diseased +in body, and suing for the crumbs from off his table; or suppose him, +as St. Paul himself, in peril of foes, and even doubtful of friends; +in weariness and painfulness oft, in hunger and thirst, in cold and +nakedness. These last were exactly the circumstances under which the +very text was indited by the apostle himself: he saw, what you may +see, that trials like these, when tempered by the presence of the God +he loved, were good, not, I would say, in proportion to their weight, +but according to the patience which they exercised, the faith they +strengthened, the experience of divine support they afforded, the hope +they brightened, the crown they were preparing; yea, the exceeding and +eternal weight of glory which they must eventually be working out. The +apostle had "heard of the patience of Job," and had "seen the end of +the Lord, that the Lord is very pitiful, and of tender mercy." The +trials of Joseph had even led that servant of God, by degrees of +painful progress, to the honour of a prince, and a chain of gold. The +"evil things" of Lazarus--good they might have been called--had led +him to still higher honours, and had prepared him to be carried by +angels into Abraham's bosom. Every individual circumstance of this +nature, as it passed in review before the apostle in the text, had led +irresistibly to the conclusion he so strongly expresses. Could he +distrust the same arm, disbelieve the same promises; or rather saying +with David--"Our fathers trusted in thee, and were delivered," would +he not add--I will trust as they did; I will be "in subjection to the +Father of spirits, and live?" Let me feel only the "profit, that I may +be partaker of his holiness;" and then, "though no affliction for the +present is joyous, but grievous," it shall surely hereafter yield the +peaceable fruit of true righteousness; and "all things," adversity +itself, "shall work together for _my_ good." + +_Temptation_, verily, shall be among the "things working together for +good to them that love God." Such indeed is our state of trial upon +earth, that every successive arrival at our doors comes to us in some +shape or other of temptation to sin. But take the strongest and most +pressing incitements to the corruptions of the heart, and the evil of +our nature. Even of _these_ must it not be said, that the temptation, +and the tempter himself, may be turned into a worker for good, when +that promise is brought forward, and brought home to the heart, "God +is faithful, who will not suffer you to be tempted above what ye are +able, but will with the temptation also make a way to escape, that ye +may be able to bear it?" Another apostle had a like meaning when he +said, "My brethren, count it all joy when ye fall into divers +temptations." Every enemy opposed to the Christian warrior affords +him fresh opportunity for a sure victory in the strength of Christ. +Every obstacle in his path is that which faith regards as a trial +prepared for his soul; but hope and joy carry him over, to the glory +of his sovereign Upholder. In evil company, which he seeks not, his +courage is honourably put to the test, and abides it; amidst a world +of licentiousness and excess, which he desires not to approach, he +still trusts, through grace, that he shall not be found wanting. In a +season of provocation his meekness is tried, and it prevails; and in +the moment of fear, and the threats of alarm, "his heart standeth +fast, trusting in the Lord;" "nay, in all these things he is more than +conqueror through him that loved him." + +If his very _sins_ are in one sense his shame, and the source of his +bitter tears and saddest recollections, still those tears and +recollections shall prove among the workers for his good, if they lead +him more closely to the throne of mercy, and to the fountain of +eternal strength. If any experiences of past weakness make him more +watchful, sober, and diligent for the future--if they direct him to +the vulnerable points in his armour, to the "sin that easily besets +him"--if, in the very moment of his conscious frailty and +heart-overwhelming struggle, he is enabled to exclaim, "Rejoice not +over me, O mine enemy; though I fall I shall arise; though I sit in +darkness the Lord shall be a light unto me:" then shall he know that +"_all things_ work together for good to them that love God." + +I conclude with a single word of remark on the expression in the text, +"We _know_ that all things work together for good." It expresses the +_personal experience_ of the Christian. It answers to a similar +expression of the same apostle to the Philippians--"I know that this +shall turn to my salvation through your prayer, and the supply of the +spirit of Jesus Christ." But to whom is this knowledge vouchsafed? To +whom is it a safe and a sure conviction--an "earnest expectation and +hope," so "that in nothing we shall be ashamed?" Truly, to those only +who "_love God_"--to those who are "the called according to his +purpose." His purpose is our sanctification, and that we should be +"conformed to the image of his Son." To such truly, to such only does +that blessing apply, so frequently indeed, and but too rashly, +appropriated by many others, "All is for the best." + +Let the careless rather tremble, those as yet not effectually called +into the gospel vineyard, at such an appropriation of the text. To +them it may be only a savour of death unto death, a deadly security, a +hope that "_maketh_ ashamed, because the love of God is _not_ yet shed +abroad in their hearts." + +Gain rather in prayer, in secret meditation and much retirement from +the presence and the love of this world, the true love of God which is +in Christ Jesus our Lord. Then being first transformed yourself, you +will be enabled, by a divine power, to transform everything around +you; you will receive all things as from the hand of the Father whom +you love, the Benefactor and Friend whom you wish and aim to serve. +Your willing and noble obedience to him will render, then, prosperity +a new advantage to you by awakening your gratitude, and adversity a +blessing, by exercising and perfecting your patience. You will have a +fence around you, an armour of divine temper to fortify you in the +presence of every temptation, and to turn the very weapons of your +adversaries into your own instruments of victory, the trophies of your +triumph. Sin will have its struggles within you, but will not gain +dominion over you, while every deviation from God's righteous will is +mourned in secret, and restored through grace; and while it brings you +the more urgently and constantly to the foot of the cross, where hung +the Saviour whom you love, whose favour and forgiveness you implore; +and you shall be enabled to close the volume of your experience in the +concluding words of the chapter, and with the apostle himself: "Who +shall separate us from the love of Christ?... I am persuaded, that +neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, +nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any +other creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of God +which is Christ Jesus our Lord." + + + + +THE GLORY OF THE SAVIOUR'S TRANSFIGURATION.[Y] + + "And was transfigured before them, and his face did + shine as the sun, and his raiment was white as the + light." + + +There never existed in this world a person in whose life there was a +greater variety of incident than in the life of Jesus. He passed +through scenes of the most peculiar and diversified description, to +which we can find no parallel in the history of man, the effect of +which no ordinary mind could have borne. These were, in general, +connected with that lowliness and debasement to which he submitted for +the benefit of our sinful race; but occasionally, as at his birth, his +baptism, and transfiguration, there burst forth some bright rays of +glory from behind the dark cloud of his humanity, which proved his +possession of a nature that was divine. + +It may have a good effect in strengthening our gratitude for the +Saviour's mercy, to remember that every complexion of circumstance was +freely and voluntarily submitted to, not merely for his own +satisfaction or benefit, but principally for the good of man. Jesus +never lost sight of his representative character. He always remembered +those whose cause he had espoused: and, whether he was led by the +Spirit into the wilderness, to be tempted of the devil--or into the +garden of Gethsemane, to sustain his more fierce and violent +assaults--or to the mountain, to put on for a season the habiliments +of light and glory--his chief object and desire was to effect the +redemption, and to revive the hopes of weak and fallen man. + +We are now supplied by the Holy Spirit with a very brief account of +the transfiguration itself. Before, however, we make any remark upon +this description, or refer, as we desire to do, to the uses which this +transaction was intended to serve, we must direct our attention for a +few moments to the important preparation which the Saviour made for +it. And here there are, perhaps, many who may be disposed to ask, had +there not been sufficient preparation already? had not the Saviour +endured much physical fatigue in accomplishing the wearisome ascent of +the mountain? and had not the time, the place, and the spectators, +been carefully selected by himself? Let it however be remembered, that +in addition to all this, there was a necessary and absolutely +indispensable preliminary, not to be omitted even by the Son of God, +and that was prayer. It is said, by St. Luke, in the twenty-ninth +verse of his ninth chapter, that "as he prayed, the fashion of his +countenance was altered, and his raiment was white and glistering." +Let us learn from this, that not all the labour, mental or physical, +which we can possibly exert, can ever bring us into the enjoyment of +one momentary smile of God's countenance, if we neglect prayer. We may +diligently peruse the records of redeeming mercy which the sacred page +of scripture contains; we may place ourselves under the pastoral care +of some faithful and devoted minister of Jesus; we may enjoy the high +advantage of intercourse and communion with many spiritually-minded +followers of the Saviour; yet, after all, we shall find no benefit +from these distinguished privileges if we neglect to pray. How many +Christians there are, who often wish they had a Luther for their +minister, because they feel dissatisfied with their spiritual progress +under him to whose charge they may have been entrusted by the great +Head of the church! And yet the cause of this may be traced to their +own want of constant and of earnest prayer. Prayer is the key that +unlocks the holy place where Jesus meets his people at the mercy-seat, +to dispense the gifts which have been purchased by his precious blood. +And when the united petitions of ministers and people ascend in an +unceasing stream of sacred incense to a throne of grace, blessings may +be expected to descend in rich abundance on the church. + +But perhaps it may be considered that we have digressed from our +subject. We return, then, to the circumstance which more immediately +claims our attention. We are informed that Jesus was praying when he +was transfigured; nay, it is remarkable that St. Luke represents his +special object of ascending the mountain to have been in order to +devote himself to this sacred engagement. "It came to pass about an +eight days after these sayings, he took Peter, and John, and James, +and went up into a mountain to pray." Prayer was as much the Saviour's +duty, as it is the duty of any of his people. He had been expressly +commanded by his Father to ask of him to give him the heathen for his +inheritance, and the uttermost parts of the earth for his possession. +All his works, whilst he was tabernacling in the flesh, were +accompanied with prayer; and his present exaltation at the right hand +of his heavenly Father, instead of suspending, rather imparts a more +sublime intensity of fervour to his petitions. In vain had he shed his +blood without this; for his prayers are as essential for the salvation +of sinners, as his sufferings on the cross for their redemption; and +therefore the apostle, in the twenty-fifth verse of the seventh +chapter of the epistle to the Hebrews, connects the unlimited ability +of Jesus to save, not only with his having offered himself as a +sacrifice, but also with his ever living to make intercession for us. +O! how welcome and delightful must be the accents of supplication to +the ears of the Lord God of Sabaoth, when he withholds blessings, even +from his well-beloved Son, until he ask for them! And how necessary is +prayer, when Jesus cannot obtain blessings without it! There is a +reserve manifested by the Holy Spirit in this, as in other instances, +as to the contents of our Saviour's petitions. Most probably they had +some reference to that splendid scene in his earthly history, into +which he was about to enter. We may imagine him to have addressed his +heavenly Father in language somewhat similar to that which he employed +when he was about to devote himself as a spotless victim on the cross: +"Father, the hour is come; glorify thy Son, that thy Son also may +glorify thee. Father, I will that they also whom thou hast given me be +with me where I am, that they may behold my glory which thou hast +given me: for thou lovedst me before the foundation of the world." + +But we must pass on to the description which is given of the +transfiguration of Jesus. "His face did shine as the sun, and his +raiment was white as the light." On this we can say but little, for no +imagination can conceive, nor can words express the exact nature of +that splendid scene which is here so slightly glanced at. The Holy +Spirit has employed the most concise mode of description in order to +restrain our fancy within proper limits. We are, therefore, altogether +incompetent to expatiate on a subject so sublime, for we know nothing, +beyond what is written, of the glory which is associated with +spiritual bodies. When Paul was led to speak of a state of future +enjoyment, he could only express himself in the language of +conjecture, and say, "I reckon that the sufferings of this present +time are not worthy to be compared with the glory that shall be +revealed in us." And when, on another occasion, he was anxious to +comfort the church by a description of the resurrection-body into +which the Saviour shall change the vile bodies of his people, he could +only describe it by the use of words which merely implied a direct +contrast between what we now are and what we shall be. Our present +bodies are earthly, natural, mortal, and corruptible; our resurrection +bodies shall be celestial, spiritual, immortal, incorruptible: but +these latter expressions are only negations of the former; as to any +positive apprehension of the nature of glorified bodies, "it doth not +yet appear what we shall be." And there is much wisdom in this +reserve: there is enough told us upon the subject to encourage us to +persevere in our endeavours to attain to the joy that is set before +us, but not as much as would, in the meantime, render us too much +discontented with our present state. + +We must, however, carefully note that the Holy Spirit, in so far +describing the Saviour's transfiguration, has given a literal account +of a real transaction. There is no cunningly-devised fable here. There +was nothing visionary in the exhibition itself; there is nothing +fanciful in the description of it. Jesus was actually metamorphosed; +"his face did shine as the sun, and his raiment was white as the +light," and, as on all ordinary occasions in the days of his flesh he +was God manifest in the nature of man, so, during the continuance of +this splendid scene, he exhibited his human nature manifested in and +encompassed by the brightness and glory of his Godhead. + +But it may be profitable to inquire into some of the uses of this +great transaction, for such an occurrence could not have taken place +without some important object. It was intended to prepare the Saviour +for his approaching sufferings; to shew the interest which heaven +took in his sacrifice; to be a source of strength and comfort to the +church, by giving a type and specimen of that high degree of glory to +which the nature of man is destined to be exalted in consequence of +the Saviour's dying love. But the leading object of this event was to +give a representation of his second coming in majesty at the last day. +It is not by any gratuitous assumption that we maintain this, but on +the sure ground of strong scriptural testimony. We find St. Matthew +representing the Saviour as promising some of his disciples that they +should not taste of death till they saw him "coming in his kingdom;" +and in the parallel passage in the ninth chapter of St. Mark, he is +represented as saying that there were some standing with him who +should not see death until they had seen the kingdom of God "come with +power." Now the apostle Peter combines the substance of these two +declarations, in a manner which distinctly shews that he considered +them as having a reference to the future advent of the Redeemer. "We +have not followed cunningly-devised fables, when we made known unto +you the power and coming of our Lord Jesus Christ;" and he speaks of +"majesty," "honour," and "glory," which are the appendages of a +kingdom, and are to be the characteristics of the second advent of +Jesus, in contrast with the meanness, poverty, and degradation of his +first appearance in our world. Those, therefore, who say that the +transfiguration had a typical reference either to the effusion of the +Spirit on the day of pentecost, or to the destruction of Jerusalem, +are greatly in error. It was meant to be a specimen and earnest of our +Lord's appearance hereafter in glory, when he shall come to be admired +in all them that believe, and to establish his everlasting kingdom of +righteousness and peace in the earth. The use of a type is to arrest +and embody in a kind of visible indication the prominent features of +its antitype; and, accordingly, if we examine the leading +circumstances of the transfiguration, we shall find such a resemblance +between it and the second coming of our Saviour, as will clearly +establish such a relationship between these two events. Jesus appeared +in literal human nature on the mountain; so shall he come again, as +the Son of man, possessing the same nature with his people; for the +apostles were informed when he ascended, that the very same Jesus who +had been taken up from them into heaven should even so come in like +manner as they had seen him ascend into heaven. He appeared in glory, +and not in humility; such as he shall descend hereafter, when he shall +come with all his holy angels and sit upon the throne of his glory. As +he was visible on the mountain, so, when he shall come again, every +eye shall see him, and they also which pierced him; and all kindreds +of the earth shall wail because of him. As he was encompassed by a +cloud on the summit of Tabor, so shall he come hereafter in the clouds +of heaven, with power and great glory. As he stood in majesty upon the +mountain, so according to the declaration of the prophet, his feet +shall stand, when he comes again, upon the mount of Olives. And as +Moses and Elias appeared in glory with the Saviour, so shall he bring +his people with him on his return to our world, for, when Christ who +is our life shall appear, then shall we also appear with him in glory. + +Such we believe to have been the great primary object of this +interesting event. How full of consolation and encouragement must it +appear in this important view to every believer who is still +struggling with the infirmities and trials of his earthly pilgrimage. +It directs the attention of such to the crown of righteousness that +awaits him, and says, "Be ye stedfast, immoveable, always abounding in +the work of the Lord; forasmuch as ye know that your labour is not in +vain in the Lord." + +FOOTNOTE: + +[Y] From a scriptural small work, with the style and spirit of which +we are much pleased, "The Transfiguration," an exposition of Matt. +xvii. i. 8, by the rev. Daniel Bagot, B.D., minister of St. James' +chapel, Edinburgh, and chaplain to the right hon. the earl of +Kilmorry. Edinburgh, Johnstone: London, Whittaker, Nisbet: Dublin, +Curry, jun., Robertson. + + + + +THE CABINET. + + +NO SALVATION WITHOUT AN ATONEMENT.--But let me turn your attention to +the sad effect which a denial of the Saviour's Deity has upon the +prospects of man for eternity. It is a truth written, as with a +sunbeam, upon every page of scripture, that man is by nature a fallen, +a guilty, a condemned creature, obnoxious to the righteous judgment of +God. We are told, that "the heart is deceitful above all things, and +desperately wicked;"--that "all have sinned, and come short of the +glory of God:" Jehovah himself is represented as looking down from +heaven upon the children of men, to investigate their characters with +that omniscient ken by which he explores the utmost boundaries of the +illimitable universe, and pronouncing this solemn verdict--"There is +none righteous; no, not one:" and the apostle Paul, when reminding the +Ephesian church of their past unregenerate condition, says that they +were "children of wrath, even as others." If man, then, be in a guilty +and condemned state by nature, it is an awful and important question, +how shall he obtain pardon and justification with God, on account of +his past transgressions? and how shall his sinful and unholy nature be +sanctified and prepared for admission into the realms of everlasting +glory? Can personal repentance, on the part of the sinner, obliterate +the crime of which he has been guilty, so as to reinstate him into the +condition of a sinless and unfallen being? Unquestionably not. For +whatever act has been performed by God, or angels, or by man, must +remain for ever written upon the pages of eternity, never to be +erased; and, therefore, no subsequent repentance on the sinner's part, +no tears of sorrow or contrition, can ever blot out his past +transgressions; nor even could the united tears of angels erase the +record of those offences for which man is brought in guilty before +God! Can, then, subsequent obedience achieve the work of the sinner's +justification? This, alas! will prove as ineffectual as repentance; +for though we should render to God a perfect obedience for the +remainder of our lives, still the sin we have committed is sufficient +to procure our conviction and condemnation; for the wages of sin is +death! Shall we, then, have recourse to the abstract mercy of God, as +the foundation upon which to rest our hope of pardon? This is the +Unitarian's plea: "I believe," he says, "that God is merciful; and I +repose in his kindness, and trust he will have compassion on me." +Alas, my friends! it was bad enough that Mr. Porter should have +yesterday adopted the algebraic principle of neutralizing one text of +scripture by another; but to carry up this principle to a +contemplation of the character of God, and to bring it into collision +with the attributes of Jehovah, and thus to set his mercy against his +justice--his compassion against his truth--his grace against his +holiness, and thereby to neutralize and annihilate one class of +attributes by another, is a guilt that is direful, blasphemous, and +indescribable.--_From speech of the Rev. Daniel Bagot, at the Belfast +Unitarian [Socinian] discussion._ + + + + +POETRY. + + +LAYS OF PALESTINE. + +No. IX. + +(_For the Church of England Magazine._) + +By T. G. Nicholas. + + "She hath given up the ghost; her sun is gone down while + it was yet day."--Jer. xv. 9. + + "Turn us again, O Lord God of hosts, cause thy face to + shine, and we shall be saved."--Ps. lxxx. 19. + + + 'Tis eventide; the golden tints are dying + Along the horizon's glowing verge away; + Far in the groves the nightingale is sighing + Her requiem to the last receding ray; + And still thou holdest thy appointed way. + But Salem's light is quench'd.--Majestic sun! + Her beauteous flock hath wandered far astray, + Led by their guides the path of life to shun; + Her orb hath sunk ere yet his wonted course was run. + + In ages past all glorious was thy land, + And lovely were thy borders, Palestine! + The heavens were wont to shed their influence bland + On all those mountains and those vales of thine; + For o'er thy coasts resplendent then did shine + The light of God's approving countenance, + With rapturous glow of blessedness divine; + And, 'neath the radiance of that mighty glance, + Bask'd the wide-scatter'd isles o'er ocean's blue expanse. + + But there survives a tinge of glory yet + O'er all thy pastures and thy heights of green, + Which, though the lustre of thy day hath set, + Tells of the joy and splendour which hath been: + So some proud ruin, 'mid the desert seen + By traveller, halting on his path awhile, + Declares how once beneath the light serene + Of brief prosperity's unclouded smile, + Uprose in grandeur there some vast imperial pile. + + O Thou, who through the wilderness of old + Thy people to their promis'd rest did'st bring, + Hasten the days by prophet-bards foretold, + When roses shall again be blossoming + In Sharon, and Siloa's cooling spring + Shall murmur freshly at the noon-tide hour; + And shepherds oft in Achor's vale shall sing[Z] + The mysteries of that redeeming power + Which hath their ashes chang'd for beauty's sunniest bower.[AA] + + Thou had'st a plant of thy peculiar choice + A fruitful vine from Egypt's servile shore + Thou mad'st it in the smile of heav'n rejoice; + But the ripe clusters which awhile it bore + Now purple on the verdant hills no more, + The wild-boar hath upon its branches trod; + Yet once again thy choicest influence pour, + Transplant it from this dim terrestrial sod, + To adorn with deathless bloom the paradise of God. + + _Wadh. Coll. Oxon._ + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Z] Isaiah xv. 10. + +[AA] Isaiah lxi. 3. + + + + +MISCELLANEOUS. + + +INFLUENCE OF RELIGION ON A STATE.--Religious faith is necessarily and +unavoidably political in its influence and bearings, and eminently so. +Christians are generally well informed--and knowledge is power. They +have there in Christian countries, as citizens and subjects, directly +and indirectly, a large share of influence in the state. In most +Christian states, if not in all--for a state could hardly be called +Christian, if it were not so--Christianity is made a party of common +law, and, when occasion demands, is recognised as such by the judicial +tribunals. It is eminently so in Great Britain; it is so in America; +and generally throughout Europe. It is also, to a great extent, +established by constitutional law, and thus incorporated with the +political fabric, furnishing occasion for an extended code of special +statutes. The great principles of Christianity pervade the frame of +society, and its morals are made the standard. The second table of the +decalogue is adopted throughout as indispensable to the well-being of +the state; and a thousand forms of legislation are attempted to secure +the ends of the great and comprehensive Christian precept--"Thou shalt +love thy neighbour as thyself." More especially is it deemed the +highest perfection of civilized life and manners, in the code of +conventional politeness, to exemplify this latter divine injunction. +Otherwise life would be much less comfortable--hardly tolerable.--_A +Voice from America to England._ + +DUTY OF SUBJECTS.--We ought not only to look at the queen's duty, but +recollect also what is our own; for the prosperity of a nation +consists, not only in having a religious governor, but also an +obedient people. The events which have passed before our eyes during +the few last years, may serve, I think, to convince us of the truth of +such an inference. Can we look back on the loss of human lives, the +almost paralyzing alarm excited by the threats of an infuriated +populace, and the absolute destruction of property which took place +during the riots in the city of Bristol, and not see that all those +calamities sprung out of a want of obedience to the existing +authorities? Nor was that the only occurrence of the kind which has +taken place. What repeated acts of incendiarism have we as a nation +suffered from, as well as from the still more recent riots which have +arisen in our south-western and other counties? and may we not ask, +whence have those scenes of strife, discontent, and tumult, sprang, +but from the cause I have already referred to?--want of subjection and +obedience to the government of our kingdom. What were the scenes of +misery and horror which broke out from time to time, when internal +wars and insurrections so greatly depopulated our land? Cast your eye +up and down our country, and view the still remaining barrows--those +unsculptured, unlettered monuments, which cover the slain of our +people--and ask, are these Britons slain in their own land, a +Christian land, a land where (to remind you of the present privileges +of her constitution) we have a national established church, of sound +scriptural and protestant faith, and a preached gospel?[AB] + +FOOTNOTE: + +[AB] From "The Liturgy of the Church of England, Catechetically +explained, for the use of children, by Mrs. S. Maddock. 3 vols. +London: Houlston and Co." These volumes seem well adapted to explain +to those for whose use they have been published--the liturgy of our +church. The catechetical form in which the subject is treated, rather, +however, detracts from their value, and should the authoress be called +on for a new edition, we should advise her to publish in a different +form. + + +London: Published by JAMES BURNS, 17 Portman Street, Portman Square; +W. EDWARDS, 12 Ave-Maria Lane, St. Paul's; and to be procured, by +order, of all Booksellers in Town and Country. + + + PRINTED BY + JOSEPH ROGERSON, 24 NORFOLK STREET, STRAND, LONDON. + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +The masthead in the original referred to Vol. IX., although this issue +is in fact part of Vol. X. of this publication. This has been +corrected. + +A table of contents has been added for the convenience of the reader. + +Minor punctuation errors have been repaired. + +Archaic spelling is preserved as printed. Please note that both +Oronooco and Oronooko appear in the text as variable spellings. + +The following typographic errors have been fixed: + + Page 20--servicable amended to serviceable--"... both + exogenous and endogenous, render them extremely + serviceable to mankind." + + Page 21--organisable amended to organizable, for + consistency--"... indeed gum is that organizable product + which exists most universally ..." + + Page 23--productivenes amended to productiveness--"... + of which there are several varieties, differing + essentially in productiveness, ..." + + Page 23, fourth footnote--Hedwiz amended to + Hedwig--"Eheu qualia! Hedwig." + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Church of England Magazine - +Volume 10, No. 263, January 9, 1841, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHURCH OF ENGLAND MAGAZINE, JAN 9, 1841 *** + +***** This file should be named 31430.txt or 31430.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/4/3/31430/ + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Sam W. and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was +produced from scanned images of public domain material +from the Google Print project.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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