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diff --git a/31316-8.txt b/31316-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..81ac88c --- /dev/null +++ b/31316-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5247 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Coming of Evolution, by John W. (John +Wesley) Judd + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Coming of Evolution + The Story of a Great Revolution in Science + + +Author: John W. (John Wesley) Judd + + + +Release Date: February 18, 2010 [eBook #31316] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMING OF EVOLUTION*** + + +E-text prepared by Brownfox and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed +Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations. + See 31316-h.htm or 31316-h.zip: + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31316/31316-h/31316-h.htm) + or + (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31316/31316-h.zip) + + + + + +The Cambridge Manuals of Science and Literature + +THE COMING OF EVOLUTION + + + + + + + +Cambridge University Press +London: Fetter Lane, E.C. +C. F. Clay, Manager + +[Illustration] + +Edinburgh: 100, Princes Street +London: H. K. Lewis, 136, Gower Street, W.C. +Berlin: A. Asher and Co. +Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus +New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons +Bombay and Calcutta: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. + +All rights reserved + + + +[Illustration: Charles Darwin] + + +THE COMING OF EVOLUTION + +The Story of a Great Revolution in Science + +by + +JOHN W. JUDD +C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. + +Formerly Professor of Geology and +Dean of the Royal College of Science + + + + + + + +Cambridge: +at the University Press +1910 + +Cambridge: +Printed by John Clay, M.A. +At the University Press + + + _With the exception of the coat of arms at the foot, the design + on the title page is a reproduction of one used by the earliest + known Cambridge printer, John Siberch, 1521_ + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAP. PAGE + + I. Introductory 1 + + II. Origin of the Idea of Evolution 5 + + III. The Development of the Idea of Evolution to the + Inorganic World 14 + + IV. The Triumph of Catastrophism over Evolution 20 + + V. The Revolt of Scrope and Lyell against Catastrophism 33 + + VI. _The Principles of Geology_ 55 + + VII. The Influence of Lyell's Works 68 + +VIII. Early Attempts to establish the Doctrine of Evolution + for the Organic World 82 + + IX. Darwin and Wallace: The Theory of Natural Selection 95 + + X. _The Origin of Species_ 115 + + XI. The Influence of Darwin's Works 136 + + XII. The Place of Lyell and Darwin in History 149 + + Notes 160 + + Index 165 + + +PLATES + +Charles Darwin _Frontispiece_ + +G. Poulett Scrope _to face p. 35_ + +Charles Lyell " " 41 + +Alfred R. Wallace " " 110 + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTRODUCTORY + + +When the history of the Nineteenth Century--'the Wonderful Century,' as +it has, not inaptly, been called--comes to be written, a foremost place +must be assigned to that great movement by which evolution has become +the dominant factor in scientific progress, while its influence has been +felt in every sphere of human speculation and effort. At the beginning +of the Century, the few who ventured to entertain evolutionary ideas +were regarded by their scientific contemporaries, as wild visionaries or +harmless 'cranks'--by the world at large, as ignorant 'quacks' or +'designing atheists.' At the end of the Century, evolution had not only +become the guiding principle of naturalists, but had profoundly +influenced every branch of physical science; at the same time, +suggesting new trains of thought and permeating the language of +philologists, historians, sociologists, politicians--and even of +theologians. + +How has this revolution in thought--the greatest which has occurred in +modern times--been brought about? What manner of men were they who were +the leaders in this great movement? What the influences that led them to +discard the old views and adopt new ones? And, under what circumstances +were they able to produce the works which so profoundly affected the +opinions of the day? These are the questions with which I propose to +deal in the following pages. + +It has been my own rare good fortune to have enjoyed the friendship of +all the great leaders in this important movement--of Huxley, Hooker, +Scrope, Wallace, Lyell and Darwin--and, with some of them, I was long on +terms of affectionate intimacy. From their own lips I have learned of +incidents, and listened to anecdotes, bearing on the events of a +memorable past. Would that I could hope to bring before my readers, in +all their nobility, a vivid picture of the characteristics of the men to +whom science and the world owe so much! + +For it is not only by their intellectual greatness that we are +impressed. Every man of science is proud, and justly proud, of the +grandeur of character, the unexampled generosity, the modesty and +simplicity which distinguished these pioneers in a great cause. It is +unfortunately true, that the votaries of science--like the cultivators +of art and literature--have sometimes so far forgotten their high +vocation, as to have been more careful about the priority of their +personal claims than of the purity of their own motives--they have +sometimes, it must be sadly admitted, allowed self-interest to obscure +the interests of science. But in the story we have to relate there are +no 'regrettable incidents' to be deplored; never has there occurred any +event that marred the harmony in this band of fellow-workers, striving +towards a great ideal. So noble, indeed, was the great central +figure--Charles Darwin--that his senior Lyell and all his juniors were +bound to him by the strongest ties of admiration, respect and affection; +while he, in his graceful modesty, thought more of them than of himself, +of the results of their labours rather than of his own great +achievement. + +It is not, as sometimes suggested, the striking out of new ideas which +is of the greatest importance in the history of science, but rather the +accumulation of observations and experiments, the reasonings based upon +these, and the writings in which facts and reasonings are presented to +the world--by which a merely suggestive hypothesis becomes a vivifying +theory--that really count in making history. + +Talking with Matthew Arnold in 1871, he laughingly remarked to me 'I +cannot understand why you scientific people make such a fuss about +Darwin. Why it's all in Lucretius!' On my replying, 'Yes! Lucretius +guessed what Darwin proved,' he mischievously rejoined 'Ah! that only +shows how much greater Lucretius really was,--for he divined a truth, +which Darwin spent a life of labour in groping for.' + +Mr Alfred Russel Wallace has so well and clearly set forth the essential +difference between the points of view of the cultivators of literature +and science in this matter, that I cannot do better than to quote his +words. They are as follows:-- + + 'I have long since come to see that no one deserves either + praise or blame for the _ideas_ that come to him, but only for + the _actions_ resulting therefrom. Ideas and beliefs are + certainly not voluntary acts. They come to us--we hardly know + _how_ or _whence_, and once they have got possession of us we + cannot reject them or change them at will. It is for the common + good that the promulgation of ideas should be free--uninfluenced + by either praise or blame, reward or punishment.' + + 'But the _actions_ which result from our ideas may properly be + so treated, because it is only by patient thought and work that + new ideas, if good and true, become adopted and utilized; while, + if untrue or if not adequately presented to the world, they are + rejected or forgotten[1].'[A] + +_Ideas_ of Evolution, both in the Organic and the Inorganic world, +existed but remained barren for thousands of years. Yet by the labours +of a band of workers in last century, these ideas, which were but the +dreams of poets and the guesses of philosophers, came to be the accepted +creed of working naturalists, while they have profoundly affected +thought and language in every branch of human enterprise. + +[A] For References see the end of the volume. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +ORIGIN OF THE IDEA OF EVOLUTION + + +In all ages, and in all parts of the world, we find that primitive man +has delighted in speculating on the birth of the world in which he +lives, on the origin of the living things that surround him, and +especially on the beginnings of the race of beings to which he himself +belongs. In a recent very interesting essay[2], the author of _The +Golden Bough_ has collected, from the records of tradition, history and +travel, a valuable mass of evidence concerning the legends which have +grown out of these speculations. Myths of this kind would appear to fall +into two categories, each of which may not improbably be associated with +the different pursuits followed by the uncivilised races of mankind. + +Tillers of the soil, impressed as they must have been by the great +annual miracle of the outburst of vegetable life as spring returns, +naturally adopted one of these lines of speculation. From the dead, +bare ground they witnessed the upspringing of all the wondrous beauty of +the plant-world, and, in their ignorance of the chemistry of vegetable +life, they imagined that the herbs, shrubs and trees are all alike built +up out of the materials contained in the soil from which they grow. The +recognition of the fact that animals feed on plants, or on one another, +led to the obvious conclusion that the _ultimate_ materials of animal, +as well as of vegetable, structures were to be sought for in the soil. +And this view was confirmed by the fact that, when life ceases in plants +or animals, all alike are reduced to 'dust' and again become a part of +the soil--returning 'earth to earth.' In groping therefore for an +explanation of the origin of living things, what could be more natural +than the supposition that the first plants and animals--like those now +surrounding us--were made and fashioned from the soil, dust or +earth--all had been 'clay in the hands of a potter.' The widely diffused +notion that man himself must have been moulded out of _red_ clay is +probably accounted for by the colour of our internal organs. + +Thus originated a large class of legendary stories, many of them of a +very grotesque character. Even in many mediaeval sculptures, in this +country and on the continent, the Deity is represented as moulding with +his hands the semblance of a human figure out of a shapeless lump of +clay. + +But among the primitive hunters and herdsmen a very different line of +speculation appears to have originated, for by their occupations they +were continually brought into contact with an entirely different class +of phenomena. They could not but notice that the creatures which they +hunted or tended, and slew, presented marked resemblances to +themselves--in their structures, their functions, their diseases, their +dispositions, and their habits. When dogs and horses became the servants +and companions of men, and when various beasts and birds came to be kept +as pets, the mental and even the moral processes characterising the +intelligence of these animals must have been seen by their masters to be +identical in kind with those of their own minds. Do we not even at the +present day compare human characteristics with those of animals, the +courage of the lion, the cunning of the fox, the fidelity of the dog, +and the parental affection of the bird? And the men, who depended for +their very existence on studying the ways of various animals, could not +have been less impressed by these qualities than are we. + +Mr Frazer has shown how, from such considerations, the legends +concerning the relations of certain tribes of men with particular +species of animals have arisen, and thus the cults of 'sacred animals' +and of 'totemism' have been gradually developed. From comparisons of +human courage, sagacity, swiftness, strength or perseverance, with +similar qualities displayed by certain animals, it was an easy +transition to the idea that such characteristics were derived by +inheritance. + +In the absence of any exact knowledge of anatomy and physiology, the +resemblances of animals to themselves would quite outbulk the +differences in the eyes of primitive men, and the idea of close +relationship in blood does not appear to have been regarded with +distaste. In their origin and in their destiny, no distinction was drawn +between man and what we now designate as the 'lower' animals. Primitive +man not only feels no repugnance to such kinship:-- + + 'But thinks, admitted to that equal sky, + His faithful dog shall hear him company[3].' + +It should perhaps be remembered, too, that, in the breeding of domestic +animals, the great facts of heredity and variation could not fail to +have been noticed, and must have given rise to reflection and +speculation. The selection of the best animals for breeding purposes, +and the consequent improvement of their stock, may well have suggested +the transmutation of one kind of animal into a different kind, just as +the crossing of different kinds of animals seems to have suggested the +possible existence of centaurs, griffins and other monstrous forms. + +How early the principles of variation and heredity, and even the +possibility of improving breeds by selection, must have been appreciated +by early men is illustrated by the old story of the way in which the +wily Jacob made an attempt--however futile were the means he adopted--to +cheat his employer Laban[4]. + +Yet, in spite of observed tendencies to variation among animals and +plants, early man must have been convinced of the existence of distinct +kinds ('species') in both the vegetable and animal worlds; he recognised +that plants of definite kinds yielded particular fruits, and that +different kinds of animals did not breed promiscuously with one another, +but that, pairing each with its own kind, all gave rise to like +offspring, and thus arose the idea of distinct 'species' of plants and +animals. + +It must be remembered, however, that for a long time 'the world' was +believed to be limited to a few districts surrounding the Eastern +Mediterranean, and the kinds or 'species' of animals and plants were +supposed to number a few scores or at most hundreds. This being the +case, the sudden stocking of 'the world' with its complement of animals +and plants would be thought a comparatively simple operation, and the +violent destruction of the whole a scarcely serious result. Even the +possibility of the preservation of pairs of all the different species, +in a ship of moderate dimensions, was one that was easily entertained +and was not calculated to awaken either surprise or incredulity. + +But how different is the problem as it now presents itself to us! In the +year 1900 Professor S. H. Vines of Oxford estimated that the number of +'species' of plants that have been described could be little short of +200,000, and that future studies, especially of the lower microscopic +forms, would probably bring that number up to 300,000[5]. Last year, Mr +A. E. Shipley of Cambridge, basing his estimate on the earlier one of Dr +Günther, came to the conclusion that the number of described animals +must also exceed 300,000[6]. On the lowest estimate then we must place +the number of known species of plants and animals, living on the globe, +as 600,000! And if we consider the numbers of new forms of plants and +animals that every year are being described by naturalists--about 1500 +plants and 1200 animals--if we take into account the inaccessible or as +yet unvisited portions of the earth's surface, the very imperfectly +known depths of the sea, and, in addition to these, the almost infinite +varieties of minute and microscopic forms, I think every competent judge +would consider _a million_ as being probably an estimate below, rather +than above, the number of 'species' now existing on the earth! + +While some of these species are very widely distributed over the earth's +surface, or in the waters of the oceans, seas, lakes and rivers, there +are others which are as strikingly limited in their range. Many of the +myriad forms of insect-life pass their whole existence, and are +dependent for food, on a particular species of plant. Not a few animals +and plants are parasitical, and can only live in the interior or on the +outside of other plants and animals. + +It will be seen from these considerations that in attempting to decide +between the two hypotheses of the _origin_ of species--the only ones +ever suggested--namely the fashioning of them out of dead matter, or +their descent with modification from pre-existing forms, we are dealing +with a problem of much greater complexity than could possibly have been +imagined by the early speculators on the subject. + +The two strongly contrasted hypotheses to which we have referred are +often spoken of as 'creation' and 'evolution.' But this is an altogether +illegitimate use of these terms. By _whatever method_ species of plants +or animals come into existence, they may be rightly said to be +'created.' We speak of the existing plants and animals as having been +created, although we well know them to have been 'evolved' from seeds, +eggs and other 'germs'--and indeed from those excessively minute and +simple structures known as 'cells.' Lyell and Darwin, as we shall +presently see, though they were firmly convinced that species of plants +and animals were slowly developed and not suddenly manufactured, wrote +constantly and correctly of the 'creation' of new forms of life. + +The idea of 'descent with modification,' derived from the early +speculations of hunters and herdsmen, is really a much nobler and more +beautiful conception of 'creation' than that of the 'fashioning out of +clay,' which commended itself to the primitive agriculturalists. + +Lyell writing to his friend John Herschel, who like himself believed in +the derivation of new species from pre-existing ones by the action of +secondary causes, wrote in 1836:-- + + When I first came to the notion, ... of a succession of + extinction of species, and creation of new ones, going on + perpetually now, and through an indefinite period of the past, + and to continue for ages to come, all in accommodation to the + changes which must continue in the inanimate and habitable + earth, the idea struck me as the grandest which I had ever + conceived, so far as regards the attributes of the Presiding + Mind[7].' + +And Darwin concludes his presentment of the doctrine of evolution in the +_Origin of Species_ in 1859 with the following sentence:-- + + 'There is a grandeur in this view of life, with its several + powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a + few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone + cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple + a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have + been, and are being, evolved[8].' + +Compare with these suggestions the ideas embodied in the following +lines--ideas of which the crudeness cannot be concealed by all the +witchery of Milton's immortal verse:-- + + 'The Earth obey'd, and straight, + Op'ning her fertile womb, teem'd at a birth + Innumerous living creatures, perfect forms, + Limb'd and full grown. Out of the ground up rose + As from his lair, the wild beast, where he wons + In forest wild, in thicket, brake, or den; + Among the trees they rose, they walk'd; + The cattle in the fields and meadows green: + Those rare and solitary, these in flocks + Pasturing at once, and in broad herds upsprung. + The grassy clods now calv'd; now half appear'd + The tawny lion, pawing to get free + His hinder parts, then springs, as broke from bonds, + And rampant shakes his brinded mane[9].' + +Can anyone doubt for a moment which is the grander view of +'Creation'--that embodied in Darwin's prose, or the one so strikingly +pictured in Milton's poetry? + +We see then that the two ideas of the method of creation, dimly +perceived by early man, have at last found clear and definite expression +from these two authors--Milton and Darwin. It is a singular coincidence +that these two great exponents of the rival hypotheses were both +students in the same University of Cambridge and indeed resided in the +same foundation--and that not one of the largest of that +University--namely Christ's College. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF EVOLUTION TO THE INORGANIC WORLD + + +We have seen in the preceding chapter that, with respect to the origin +of plants and animals--including man himself--two very distinct lines of +speculation have arisen; these two lines of thought may be expressed by +the terms 'manufacture'--literally making by hand, and 'development' or +'evolution,'--a gradual unfolding from simpler to more complex forms. +Now with respect to the _inorganic_ world two parallel hypotheses of +'creation' have arisen, like those relating to _organic_ nature; but in +the former case the determining factor in the choice of ideas has been, +not the avocations of the primitive peoples, but the nature of their +surroundings. + +The dwellers in the valleys of the Euphrates and Tigris could not but be +impressed by the great and destructive floods to which those regions +were subject; and the inhabitants of the shores and islands of the +Aegean Sea, and of the Italian peninsula, were equally conversant with +the devastations wrought by volcanic outbursts and earthquake shocks. As +great districts were seen to be depopulated by these catastrophies, +might not some even more violent cataclysm of the same kind actually +destroy all mankind, with the animals and plants, in the comparatively +small area then known as 'the world'? The great flood, of which all +these nations appear to have retained traditions, was regarded as only +the last of such destructive cataclysms; and, in this way, there +originated the myth of successive destructions of the face of the earth, +each followed by the creation of new stocks of plants and animals. This +is the doctrine now known as 'Catastrophism,' which we find prevalent in +the earliest traditions and writings of India, Babylonia, Syria and +Greece. + +But in ancient Egypt quite another class of phenomena was conspicuously +presented to the early philosophers of the country. Instead of sudden +floods and terrible displays of volcanic and earthquake violence, they +witnessed the annual gentle rise and overflowings of their grand river, +with its beneficent heritage of new soil; and they soon learned to +recognise that Egypt itself--so far as the delta was concerned--was 'the +gift of the Nile.' + +From the contemplation of these phenomena, the Egyptian sages were +gradually led to entertain the idea that all the features of the +earth--as they knew it--might have been similarly produced through the +slow and constant action of the causes now seen in operation around +them. This idea was incorporated in a myth, which was suggested by the +slow and gradual transformation of an egg into a perfect, growing +organism. The birth of the world was pictured as an act of incubation, +and male and female deities were invented to play the part of parents to +the infant world. By Pythagoras, who resided for more than twenty years +in Egypt, these ideas were introduced to the Greek philosophers, and +from that time 'Catastrophism' found a rival in the new doctrine which +we shall see has been designated under the names of 'Continuity,' +'Uniformitarianism' or 'Evolution.' How, from the first crude notions of +evolution, successive thinkers developed more just and noble conceptions +on the subject, has been admirably shown by Professor Osborn in his +_From the Greeks to Darwin_ and by Mr Clodd in his _Pioneers of +Evolution_. + +Poets, from Empedocles and Lucretius to Goethe and Tennyson, have sought +in their verses to illustrate the beauty of evolutionary ideas; and +philosophers, from Aristotle and Strabo to Kant and Herbert Spencer, +have recognised the principle of evolution as harmonising with, and +growing out of, the highest conceptions of science. Yet it was not till +the Nineteenth Century that any serious attempts were made to establish +the hypothesis of evolution as a definite theory, based on sound +reasoning from careful observation. + +It is true that there were men, in advance of their age, who in some +cases anticipated to a certain extent this work of establishing the +doctrine of evolution on a firm foundation. Thus in Italy, the earliest +home of so many sciences, a Carmelite friar, Generelli, reasoning on +observations made by his compatriots Fracastoro and Leonardo da Vinci in +the Sixteenth Century, Steno and Scilla in the Seventeenth, and Lazzaro +Moro and Marsilli in the Eighteenth Century, laid the foundations of a +rational system of geology in a work published in 1749 which was +characterised alike by courage and eloquence. In France, the illustrious +Nicolas Desmarest, from his study of the classical region of the +Auvergne, was able to show, in 1777, how the river valleys of that +district had been carved out by the rivers that flow in them. Nor were +there wanting geologists with similar previsions in Germany and +Switzerland. + +But none of these early exponents of geological theory came so near to +anticipating the work of the Nineteenth Century as did the illustrious +James Hutton, whose 'Theory of the Earth,' a first sketch of which was +published in 1785, was a splendid exposition of evolution as applied to +the inorganic world. Unfortunately, Hutton's theory was linked to the +extravagancies of what was known at that day as 'Vulcanism' or +'Plutonism,' in contradistinction to the 'Neptunism' of Werner. Hutton, +while rejecting the Wernerian notion of "the aqueous precipitation of +basalt," maintained the equally fanciful idea that the consolidation of +all strata--clays, sandstones, conglomerates, limestones and even +rock-salt--must be ascribed to the action of heat, and that even the +formation of chalk-flints and the silicification of fossil wood were due +to the injection of molten silica! + +What was still more unfortunate in Hutton's case was that, in his +enthusiasm, he used expressions which led to his being charged with +heresy and even with being an enemy of religion. His writings were +further so obscure in style as often to lead to misconception as to +their true meaning, while his great work--so far as the fragment which +was published goes--contained few records of original observations on +which his theory was based. + +Dr Fitton has pointed out very striking coincidences between the +writings of Generelli and those of Hutton, and has suggested that the +latter may have derived his views from the eloquent Italian friar[10]. +But for this suggestion, I think that there is no real foundation. +Darwin and Wallace, as we shall see later, were quite unconscious of +their having been forestalled in the theory of Natural Selection by Dr +Wells and Patrick Matthew; and Hutton, like his successor Lyell, in all +probability arrived, quite independently, and by different lines of +reasoning, at conclusions identical with those of Generelli and +Desmarest. + +Although, as we shall see, Hutton failed to greatly influence the +scientific thought of his day, yet all will now agree with Lyell that +'Hutton laboured to give fixed principles to geology, as Newton had +succeeded in doing to astronomy[11]'; and with Zittel that '_Hutton's +Theory of the Earth_ is one of the masterpieces in the history of +geology[12].' + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE TRIUMPH OF CATASTROPHISM OVER EVOLUTION + + +There is no fact in the history of science which is more certain than +that those great pioneers of Evolution in the Inorganic +world--Generelli, Desmarest and Hutton--utterly failed to recommend +their doctrines to general acceptance; and that, at the beginning of +last century, everything in the nature of evolutionary ideas was almost +universally discredited--alike by men of science and the world at large. + +The causes of the neglect and opprobrium which befel all evolutionary +teachings are not difficult to discover. The old Greek philosophers saw +no more reason to doubt the possibility of creation by evolution, than +by direct mechanical means. But, on the revival of learning in Europe, +evolution was at once confronted by the cosmogonies of Jewish and +Arabian writers, which were incorporated in sacred books; and not only +were the ideas of the sudden making and destruction of the world and all +things in it regarded as revealed truth, but the periods of time +necessary for evolution could not be admitted by those who believed the +beginning of the world to have been recent, and its end to be imminent. +Thus 'Catastrophic' ideas came to be regarded as _orthodox_, and +evolutionary ones as utterly irreligious and damnable. + +There are few more curious facts in the history of science than the +contrast between the reception of the teaching of the Saxon professor +Werner, and those of Hutton, the Scotch philosopher, his great rival. +While the enthusiastic disciples of the former carried their master's +ideas everywhere, acting with missionary zeal and fervour, and teaching +his doctrines almost as though they were a divine revelation, the +latter, surrounded by a few devoted friends, saw his teachings +everywhere received with persistent misrepresentation, theological +vituperation or contemptuous neglect. Even in Edinburgh itself, one of +Werner's pupils dominated the teaching of the University for half a +century, and established a society for the propagation of the views +which Hutton so strongly opposed. + +When it is remembered that Hutton wrote at a time when 'heresy-hunting' +in this country had been excited to such a dangerous extent, through the +excesses of the French Revolution, that his contemporary, Priestley, had +been hounded from his home and country for proclaiming views which at +that time were regarded as unscriptural, it becomes less difficult to +understand the prejudice that was excited against the gentle and modest +philosopher of Edinburgh. + +We have employed the term 'Catastrophism' to indicate the views which +were prevalent at the beginning of last century concerning the origin of +the rock-masses of the globe and their fossil contents. These views were +that at a number of successive epochs--of which the age of Noah was the +latest--great revolutions had taken place on the earth's surface; that +during each of these cataclysms all living things were destroyed; and +that, after an interval, the world was restocked with fresh assemblages +of plants and animals, to be destroyed in turn and entombed in the +strata at the next revolution. + +Whewell, in 1830, contrasted this teaching with that of Hutton and Lyell +in the following passage:--'These two opinions will probably for some +time divide the geological world into two sects, which may perhaps be +designated the "Uniformitarians" and the "Catastrophists." The latter +has undoubtedly been of late the prevalent doctrine.' It is interesting +to note, as showing the confidence felt in their tenets by the +'Catastrophists' of that day, that Whewell adds 'We conceive that Mr +Lyell will find it a harder task than he imagines to overturn the +established belief[13]!' + +Some authors have suggested that the doctrine taught by Generelli, +Desmarest and Hutton, and later by Scrope and Lyell, for which Whewell +proposed the somewhat cumbrous term 'Uniformitarianism,' but which was +perhaps better designated by Grove in 1866 as 'Continuity[14],' was +distinct from, and subsidiary to, Evolution--and this view could claim +for a time the support of a very great authority. + +In 1869, Huxley delivered an address to the Geological Society, in which +he postulated the existence of 'three more or less contradictory systems +of geological thought,' under the names of 'Catastrophism,' +'Uniformitarianism' and 'Evolution.' In this essay, distinguished by all +his wonderful lucidity and forceful logic, Huxley sought to establish +the position that evolution is a doctrine, distinct from and _in advance +of_ that of uniformitarianism, and that Hutton and Playfair--'and to a +less extent Lyell'--had acted unwisely in deprecating the extension of +Geology into enquiries concerning 'the beginning of things[15].' + +But there is no doubt that Huxley at a later period was led to qualify, +and indeed to largely modify, the views maintained in that address. In a +footnote to an essay written in April 1887, he asserts 'What I mean by +"evolutionism" is consistent and thoroughgoing uniformitarianism'; and +in the same year he wrote in his _Reception of the Origin of +Species_[16]: 'Consistent uniformitarianism postulates evolution, as +much in the organic as in the inorganic world[17].' + +It is not difficult to trace the causes of this change in the attitude +of mind with which Huxley regarded the doctrine of 'uniformitarianism.' +He assures us 'I owe more than I can tell to the careful study of the +_Principles of Geology_[18],' and again 'Lyell was for others as for me +the chief agent in smoothing the road for Darwin[19].' From the perusal +of the letters of Lyell, published in 1881, Huxley learned that the +author of the _Principles of Geology_ had, at a very early date, been +convinced that evolution was true of the organic as well as of the +inorganic world--though he had been unable to accept Lamarckism, or any +other hypothesis on the subject that had, up to that time, been +suggested. There can be little doubt, however, that a chief influence in +bringing about the change in Huxley's views was his intercourse with +Darwin--who was, from first to last, an uncompromising 'uniformitarian.' + +We are fully justified, then, in regarding the teaching of Hutton and +Lyell (to which Whewell gave the name of 'uniformitarianism') as being +identical with evolution. The cockpit in which the great battle between +catastrophism and evolution was fought out, as we shall see in the +sequel, was the Geological Society of London, where doughty champions of +each of the rival doctrines met in frequent combat and long maintained +the struggle for supremacy. + +Fitton has very truly said that 'the views proposed by Hutton failed to +produce general conviction at the time; and several years elapsed before +any one showed himself publicly concerned about them, either as an enemy +or a friend[20].' Sad is it to relate that, when notice was at last +taken of the memoir on the 'Theory of the Earth,' it was by bitter +opponents--such 'Philistines' (as Huxley calls them) as Kirwan, De Luc +and Williams, who declared the author to be an enemy of religion. Not +only did Hutton, unlike the writers of other theories of the earth, omit +any statement that his views were based on the Scriptures, but, carried +away by the beauty of the system of continuity which he advocated, he +wrote enthusiastically 'the result of this physical enquiry is that we +find no vestige of a beginning--no prospect of an end[21].' This was +unjustly asserted to be equivalent to a declaration that the world had +neither beginning nor end; and thus it came about that Wernerism, +Neptunism and Catastrophism were long regarded as synonymous with +Orthodoxy, while Plutonism and 'Uniformitarianism' were looked upon with +aversion and horror as subversive of religion and morality. + +Almost simultaneously with the foundation of the Wernerian Society of +Edinburgh (in 1807) was the establishment in London of the Geological +Society. Originating in a dining club of collectors of minerals, the +society consisted at first almost exclusively of mineralogists and +chemists, including Davy, Wollaston, Sir James Hall, and later, Faraday +and Turner. The bitter but barren conflict between the Neptunists and +the Plutonists was then at its height, and it was, from the first, +agreed in the infant society to confine its work almost entirely to the +collection of facts, eschewing theory. During the first decade of its +existence, it is true, the chief papers published by the society were on +mineralogical questions; but gradually geology began to assert itself. +The actual founder and first president of the society, Greenough, had +been a pupil of Werner, and used all his great influence to discourage +the dissemination of any but Wernerian doctrines--foreign geologists, +like Dr Berger, being subsidised to apply the Wernerian classification +and principles to the study of British rocks. Thus, in early days, the +Geological Society became almost as completely devoted to the teaching +of Wernerian doctrines as was the contemporary society in Edinburgh. + +Dr Buckland used to say that when he joined the Geological Society in +1813, 'it had a very _landed_ manner, and only admitted the professors +of geology in Oxford and Cambridge on sufferance.' + +But, gradually, changes began to be felt in this aristocratic body of +exclusive amateurs and wealthy collectors of minerals. William Smith, +'the Father of English Geology'--though he published little and never +joined the society--exercised a most important influence on its work. By +his maps, and museum of specimens, as well as by his communications, so +freely made known, concerning his method of 'identifying strata by their +organic remains,' many of the old geologists, who were not aware at the +time of the source of their inspiration, were led to adopt entirely new +methods of studying the rocks. In this way, the accurate mineralogical +and geognostical methods of Werner came to be supplemented by the +fruitful labours of the stratigraphical palaeontologist. The new school +of geologists included men like William Phillips, Conybeare, Sedgwick, +Buckland, De la Beche, Fitton, Mantell, Webster, Lonsdale, Murchison, +John Phillips and others, who laid the foundations of British +stratigraphical geology. + +But these great geological pioneers, almost without exception, +maintained the Wernerian doctrines and were firm adherents of +Catastrophism. The three great leaders--the enthusiastic Buckland, the +eloquent Sedgwick, and the indefatigable Conybeare--were clergymen, as +were also Whewell and Henslow, and they were all honestly, if +mistakenly, convinced that the Huttonian teaching was opposed to the +Scriptures and inimical to religion and morality. Buckland at Oxford, +and Sedgwick at Cambridge, made geology popular by combining it with +equestrian exercise; and Whewell tells us how the eccentric Buckland +used to ride forth from the University, with a long cavalcade of mounted +students, holding forth with sarcasm and ridicule concerning 'the +inadequacy of existing causes[22].' + +And Sedgwick at Cambridge was no less firmly opposed to evolutionary +doctrine, eloquently declaiming at all times against the unscriptural +tenets of the Huttonians. + +I cannot better illustrate the complete neglect at that time by leading +geologists in this country of the Huttonian teaching than by pointing to +the Report drawn up in 1833, by Conybeare, for the British Association, +on 'The Progress, Actual State and Ulterior Prospects of Geological +Science[23].' This valuable memoir of 47 pages opens with a sketch of +the history of the science, in which the chief Italian, French and +German investigators are referred to, but the name of Hutton is not even +mentioned! + +And if positive evidence is required of the contempt which the early +geologists felt for Hutton and his teachings, it will be found in the +same author's introduction to that classical work, the _Outlines of +Geology_ (1822), in which he says of Hutton, after praising his views +on granite veins and "trap rocks":-- + + 'The wildness of many of his theoretical views, however, went + far to counterbalance the utility of the additional facts which + he collected from observation. He who could perceive in geology + nothing but the _ordinary_ operation of actual causes, carried + on in the same manner through infinite ages, without the trace + of a beginning or the prospect of an end, must have surveyed + them through the medium of a preconceived hypothesis alone[24].' + +John Playfair, the brilliant author of the _Illustrations of the +Huttonian Theory_, died in 1819; under happier conditions his able work +might have done for Inorganic Evolution what his great master failed to +accomplish; but the dead weight of prejudice and the dread of anything +that seemed to savour of infidelity was, at the time of the great +European struggle against revolutionary France, too great to be removed +even by his lucid statements and eloquent advocacy. James Hall and +Leonard Horner, two faithful disciples of Hutton, who had joined the +infant Geological Society, forsook it early, the former leaving it on +account of the quarrel with the Royal Society, the latter retaining his +fellowship and interest, but going to live at Edinburgh. Greenough, 'The +Objector General,' as he was called, was left, fanatically opposing any +attempt to stem the current that had set so strongly in favour of +Wernerism and Neptunism, and the Catastrophic doctrines which all +thought to be necessary conclusions from them. The great heroic workers +of that day--while they were laying well and truly the foundations of +historical geology--were, one and all, indifferent to, or violently +opposed to, the Huttonian teaching. Neither Fitton nor John Phillips, +who at a later date showed sympathy with evolutionary doctrines, were +the men to fight the battle of an unpopular cause. + +Attempts have been made by both Playfair and Fitton to explain how it +was that Hutton's teaching failed to arrest the attention it deserved. +The former justly asserted that the world was tired of the performances +issued under the title of 'theories of the earth'; and that the +condensed nature of Hutton's writings, with their 'embarrassment of +reasoning and obscurity of style[25]' are largely responsible for the +neglect into which they fell. + +Fitton, in 1839, wrote in the _Edinburgh Review_, 'The original work of +Hutton (in two volumes) is in fact so scarce that no very great number +of our readers can have seen it. No copy exists at present in the +libraries of the Royal Society, the Linnean, or even the Geological +Society of London[26]!' He also points out that Hutton's work, and even +the more lucid _Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory_, were almost +unknown on the continent, owing to the isolation of Great Britain during +the war; and he even suggests that the popularity of Playfair in this +country may have not improbably led to the neglect of the original work +of Hutton[27]. + +On the continent, indeed, the authority of Cuvier was supreme, and in +his _Essay on the Theory of the Earth_, prefixed to his _Opus +magnum_--the _Ossemens Fossiles_--the great naturalist threw the whole +weight of his influence into the scale of Catastrophism. He maintained +that a series of tremendous cataclysms had affected the globe--the last +being the Noachian deluge--and that the floods of water that overspread +the earth, during each of these events, had buried the various groups of +animals, now extinct, that had been successively created. + +If anything had been wanted in England to support and confirm the views +that were then supposed to be the only ones in harmony with the +Scriptures, it was found in the great authority of Cuvier. As Zittel +justly says, Cuvier's theory of 'World-Catastrophies'--'which afforded a +certain scientific basis for the Mosaic account of the "Flood," was +received with special cordiality in England, for there, more than in any +other country, theological doctrines had always affected geological +conceptions[28].' Britain, which had produced the great philosopher, +Hutton, had now become the centre of the bitterest opposition to his +teachings! + +But 'the darkest hour of night is that which precedes the dawn,' and +while the forces of reaction in this country appeared to be triumphant +over Hutton's teaching, there was in preparation, to use the words of +Darwin, a 'grand work' ... 'which the future historian will recognise as +having produced a revolution in natural science.' + + + + +CHAPTER V + +THE REVOLT OF SCROPE AND LYELL AGAINST CATASTROPHISM + + +The year 1797, in which the illustrious Hutton died, leaving behind him +the noble fragments of a monumental work, was signalised by the birth of +two men, who were destined to bring about the overthrow of +Catastrophism, and to establish, upon the firm foundation of reasoned +observation, the despised doctrine of Uniformitarianism or Evolution--as +outlined by Generelli, Desmarest and Hutton. These two men were George +Poulett Thomson (who afterwards took the name of Scrope) and Charles +Lyell. Both of them were, from their youth upwards, brought under the +strongest influences of the prevalent anti-evolutionary teachings; but +both emancipated themselves from the effects of these teachings, being +led gradually by their geological travels and observations, not only to +reject their early faith, but to become the champions of Evolution. + +There was a singular parallel between the early careers of these two +men. Both were the sons of parents of ample means, and were thus freed +from the distractions of a business or profession, while throughout life +they alike remained exempt from family cares. Each of them received the +ordinary education of the English upper classes--Scrope at Harrow, and +Lyell at Salisbury, in a school conducted by a Winchester master on +public-school lines. In due course, the two young men proceeded to the +University--Scrope to Cambridge, to come under the influence of the +sagacious and eloquent Sedgwick, and Lyell to Oxford, to catch +inspiration from the enthusiastic but eccentric Buckland. On the opening +up of the continent, by the termination of the French wars, each of the +young men accompanied his family in a carriage-tour (as was the fashion +of the time) through France, Switzerland and Italy; and both utilised +the opportunities thus afforded them, to make long walking excursions +for geological study. They both returned again and again to the +continent for the purpose of geological research, and in the year 1825, +at the age of 28, found themselves associated as joint-secretaries of +the Geological Society. By this time they had arrived at similar +convictions concerning the causes of geological phenomena--convictions +which were in direct opposition to the views of their early teachers, +and equally obnoxious to all the leaders of geological thought in the +infant society which they had joined. + +[Illustration: G Poulett Scrope] + +It is interesting to note that each of these two young geologists +arrived independently, _as the result of their own studies and +observations_, at their conclusions concerning the futility of the +prevailing catastrophic doctrines. This I am able to affirm, not only +from their published and unpublished letters, but from frequent +conversations I had with them in their later years. + +Scrope, who was slightly the elder of the two friends, spent a +considerable time in that wonderful district of France--the Auvergne--in +the year 1821, and though he had not seen the map and later memoirs of +Desmarest, he pourtrayed the structure of the country in a series of +very striking panoramic views, and was led, independently of the great +French observer, to the same conclusions as his concerning the volcanic +origin of the basalts and the formation of the valleys by river-action. +Scrope was at that time equally ignorant of the views propounded both by +Generelli and by Hutton. + +By April 6th, 1822, Scrope had completed his masterly work _The Geology +and Extinct Volcanoes of Central France_, and had despatched it to +England. It would be idle to speculate now as to what might have been +the effect of that work--so full of the results of accurate observation, +and so suggestive in its reasoning--had it been published at that time. +It is quite possible that much of the credit now justly assigned to +Lyell, would have belonged to his friend. Unfortunately, however, +Scrope, instead of seeing his work through the press, determined first +to make another tour in Italy. He arrived at Naples just in time to +witness and describe the grandest eruption of Vesuvius in modern times, +that of October 1822. What he witnessed then--the blowing away of the +whole upper part of the mountain and the formation of a vast crater 1000 +feet deep--made a profound impression on Scrope's mind. His interest +thus strongly aroused concerning igneous phenomena, Scrope continued his +travels and observations on the volcanic rocks of the peninsula of Italy +and its islands, and was thus led to a number of important conclusions +in theoretical geology, which he embodied in a work, published in 1825, +entitled _Considerations on Volcanos: the probable causes of their +phenomena, the laws which determine their march, the disposition of +their products, and their connexion with the present state and past +history of the globe; leading to the establishment of a New Theory of +the Earth_. + +It is only right to point out that, in calling this book a _new_ 'Theory +of the Earth,' Scrope had no intention of comparing it with Hutton's +great work, with which he was at that time altogether unacquainted. +Nevertheless, his conclusions, though independently arrived at, were +almost identical with those of the great Scotch philosopher. But Scrope +made the same mistake as Hutton had done before him. He allowed his +theoretical conclusions to precede, instead of following upon an account +of the observations on which they were based. Scrope's book is certainly +one of the most original and suggestive contributions ever made to +geological science; but the very speculative character of a large +portion of the work led to the neglect of the really valuable hypotheses +and acute observations which it contained. In the preface, however, the +author gives a most striking and complete summary of the doctrine of +Evolution as opposed to Catastrophism, in the inorganic world, as will +be shown by the following extracts:-- + + Geology has for its business a knowledge of the processes which + are in continual or occasional operation within the limits of + our planet, and the application of these laws to explain the + appearances discovered by our Geognostical researches, so as + from these materials to deduce conclusions as to the past + history of the globe. + + The surface of the globe exposes to the eye of the Geognost + abundant evidence of a variety of changes which appear to have + succeeded one another during an incalculable lapse of time. + + These changes are chiefly, + + I. Variations of level between different constituent parts of + the solid surface of the globe. + + II. The destruction of former rocks, and their reproduction + under another form. + + III. The production of rocks _de novo_ upon the earth's surface. + + Geologists have usually had recourse for the explanation of + these changes to the supposition of sundry violent and + extraordinary catastrophes, cataclysms, or general revolutions + having occurred in the physical state of the earth's surface. + + As the idea imparted by the term Cataclysm, Catastrophe, or + Revolution, is extremely vague, and may comprehend any thing you + choose to imagine, it answers for the time very well as an + explanation; that is, it stops further inquiry. But it has also + the disadvantage of effectually stopping the advance of science, + by involving it in obscurity and confusion. + + If, however, in lieu of forming guesses as to what may have been + the possible causes and nature of these changes, we pursue that, + which I conceive the only legitimate path of geological inquiry, + and begin by examining the laws of nature which are actually in + force, we cannot but perceive that numerous physical phenomena + are going on at this moment on the surface of the globe, by + which various changes are produced in its constitution and + external characters; changes extremely analogous to those of + earlier date, whose nature is the main object of geological + inquiry. + + These processes are principally, + + I. The Atmospheric phenomena. + + II. The laws of the circulation and residence of Water on the + exterior of the globe. + + III. The action of Volcanos and Earthquakes. + + The changes effected before our eyes, by the operation of these + causes, in the constitution of the crust of the earth are + chiefly-- + + I. The Destruction of Rocks. + + II. The Reproduction of others. + + III. Changes of Level. + + IV. The Production of New Rocks from the interior of the globe + upon its surface. + + Changes which in their general characters bear so strong an + analogy to those which are suspected to have occurred in the + earlier ages of the world's history, that, until the processes + which give rise to them have been maturely studied under every + shape, and then applied with strict impartiality to explain the + appearances in question; and until, after a long investigation, + and with the most liberal allowances for all possible + variations, and an unlimited series of ages, they have been + found wholly inadequate to the purpose, it would be the height + of absurdity to have recourse to any gratuitous and unexampled + hypothesis for the solution of these analogous facts[29]. + +It was not till 1826, four years after the completion of the work, that +Scrope managed to publish his book on the Auvergne, and to tear himself +away from the speculative questions by which he had become obsessed. No +one could be more candid than he was in acknowledging the causes of his +failure to impress his views upon his contemporaries. Writing in 1858, +he said of his _Considerations on Volcanos_:-- + + 'In that work unfortunately were included some speculations on + theoretic cosmogony, which the public mind was not at that time + prepared to entertain. Nor was this my first attempt at + authorship, sufficiently well composed, arranged or even + printed, to secure a fair appreciation for the really sound and, + I believe, original views on many points of geological interest + which it contained. I ought, no doubt, to have begun with a + description of the striking facts which I was prepared to + produce from the volcanic regions of Central France and Italy, + in order to pave the way for a favourable reception, or even a + fair hearing, of the theoretical views I had been led from these + observations to form[30].' + +He adds that 'this obvious error was pointed out in a very friendly +manner' in a notice of the memoir on _The Geology of Central France_, +which was contributed by Lyell to the _Quarterly Review_ in 1827[31]. + +Scrope's geological career however--though one of so much promise--was +brought to a somewhat abrupt termination. In 1821 he had married the +last representative and heiress of the Scropes, the old Earls of +Wiltshire, and soon afterwards he settled down at the family seat of +Castle Combe, eventually devoting his attention almost exclusively to +social and political questions. From 1833 to 1868, when he retired from +Parliament, he was member for Stroud; and though he seldom took part in +the debates, he became famous as a writer of political tracts, thus +acquiring the sobriquet of 'Pamphlet Scrope.' He himself used to relate +an amusing incident at his own expense. His great friend Lord +Palmerston, on being greeted with the question, 'Have you read my last +pamphlet?' replied mischievously, 'Well Scrope, I hope I have!' + +It is sad to relate that, owing to a carriage accident, Scrope's wife +became a confirmed invalid and he had no child to succeed to the estate. +Though cut off by other duties from the geological world, Scrope +maintained his correspondence with his old friend Lyell, and, as we +shall see in the sequel, was able to render him splendid service by the +luminous though discriminating reviews of the _Principles of Geology_ in +the _Quarterly Review_. Throughout his life, however, Scrope preserved a +love of geology, and occasionally contributed to the literature of the +science; and in his closing years, when unable to travel himself, he +gave to others the means of carrying on the researches in which he had +from the first been so deeply interested. + + * * * * * + +Fortunately for science, Lyell's devotion to geological study was not, +like Scrope's, interrupted by the claims made upon him by social and +political questions. Feeling though he did, with his friend, the deepest +sympathy in all liberal movements, and being especially interested in +the reform of educational methods, his geological work always had the +first claim on his time and attention, and nothing was allowed to +interfere with his scientific labours. + +[Illustration: Cha Lyell] + +Charles Lyell was the eldest son of a Scottish laird, whose forbears, +after making a fortune in India, had purchased the estate of Kinnordy in +Strathmore, on the borders of the Highlands. Lyell's father was a man +of culture, a good classical scholar, a translator and commentator on +Dante, and a cryptogamic botanist of some reputation. + +Lyell's mother, an Englishwoman from Yorkshire, was a person of great +force of character; this she showed when, on coming to Kinnordy, she +found drunkenness so prevalent among the lairds of this part of +Scotland, as to cause a fear on her part, that her husband might be +drawn into the dangerous society: she therefore induced him, when their +son Charles was only three months old, to abandon their Scottish home, +and settle in the New Forest of Hampshire. Thus it came about that the +future geologist, though born in Scotland, became, by education, habits +and association, English. + +Charles Lyell's attention was first drawn to geology by seeing the +quartz-crystals and chalcedony exposed in the broken chalk-flints, which +he, as a boy of ten, used to roll down, in company with his +school-fellows, from the walls of Old Sarum. Like Charles Darwin, too, +he became an ardent and enthusiastic collector of insects, and grew to +be a tall and active young fellow, a keen sportsman, with only one +drawback--a weakness of the eyes which troubled him through all his +after life. + +It was when at the age of seventeen he went to Oxford and came under the +influence of Dr Buckland that Lyell first became deeply engrossed in +geology. + +Lyell used to tell many amusing stories of the oddities of his old +teacher and friend Buckland. In his lectures, both in the University and +on public platforms, Buckland would keep his audience in roars of +laughter, as he imitated what he thought to be the movements of the +iguanodon or megatherium, or, seizing the ends of his long clerical +coat-tails, would leap about to show how the pterodactyle flew. Lyell +became greatly attached to Buckland, who used to take him privately on +geological expeditions. On one of these occasions, they were dining at +an inn, where a gentleman at another table became greatly scandalised by +Buckland's conversation and manners. The professor, seeing this, became +more outrageous than ever, and on parting with Lyell for the night took +the candle and placed it between his teeth, so as to illuminate the +mouth-cavity exclaiming, 'There Lyell, practise this long enough and you +will be able to do it as well as I do.' When Buckland had retired, the +stranger revealed himself to Lyell as an old friend of his father's, +adding 'I hope you will never be seen in the company of that buffoon +again.' 'Oh! Sir,' said the startled undergraduate, 'that is my +professor at Oxford!' But Buckland did not always originate the fun, for +Lyell told me that, when the professor visited Kinnordy in his company, +he led him a long tramp under promise of showing him 'diluvium +intersected by whin dykes,' and, in the end, pointed to fields in a +boulder-clay country separated by gorse ('whin') hedges ('dykes'). + +Buckland, as shown by his _Vindiciae Geologicae_ (1820) and his +_Bridgewater Treatise_ (1836), was the most uncompromising of the +advocates for making all geological teaching subordinate to the literal +interpretation of the early chapters of Genesis; and in his _Reliquiae +Diluvianae_ (1823) he stoutly maintained the view that all the +superficial deposits of the globe were the result of the Noachian +deluge! He was indeed the great leader of the Catastrophists, and it is +not surprising to find Lyell, while still under his influence, scoffing +at 'the Huttonians[32].' + +That Buckland greatly influenced Lyell in his youth, especially by +inoculating him with his splendid enthusiasm for geology, there can be +no doubt; and Lyell, far as he departed in after life from the views of +his teacher, never forgot his indebtedness to the Oxford professor. Even +in 1832, in publishing the second edition of the first volume of his +_Principles_, he dedicated it to Buckland, as one 'who first instructed +me in the elements of geology, and by whose energy and talents the +cultivation of science in the country has been so eminently +promoted[33].' + +On leaving Oxford in 1819, at the age of twenty-two, Lyell joined the +Geological Society. What were the dominant opinions at that time on +geological theory among the distinguished men, who were there laying +the foundations of stratigraphical geology, we have already seen. Lyell, +in his frequent visits to the continent, became a friend of the +illustrious Cuvier, whose strong bias for Catastrophism was so forcibly +shown in his writings and conversation. + +What then, we may ask, were the causes which led Lyell to abandon the +views in which he had been instructed, and to become the great champion +of Evolutionism? + +It has often been assumed that Lyell was led by the study of Hutton's +works to adopt the Uniformitarian' doctrines. But there is ample +evidence that such was not the case. As late as the year 1839, Lyell +wrote of Hutton, 'Though I tried, I doubt whether I fairly read half his +writings, and skimmed the rest[34]'; and he emphatically assured Scrope +'Von Hoff has assisted me most[35].' + +The fact is certain that Lyell, quite independently, arrived at the same +conclusions as Hutton, _but by totally different lines of reasoning_. + +As early as 1817, when Lyell was only twenty years of age, he visited +the Norfolk coast and was greatly impressed by the evidence of the waste +of the cliffs about Cromer, Aldborough, and Dunwich; and three years +later we find him studying the opposite kind of action of the sea in the +formation of new land at Dungeness and Romney Marsh. All through his +life there may be seen the results of these early studies in a tendency +which he showed to _overrate marine action_; the chief defect in his +early views consisting in not fully realising the importance of that +subaerial denudation--of which Hutton was so great an exponent. But it +was in his native county of Forfarshire that Lyell found the most +complete antidote to the Catastrophic teachings. Buckland had taught him +that the 'till' of the country had been thrown down, just 4170 years +before, by the Noachian deluge: while Cuvier had asserted that the study +of freshwater limestones proved them to differ from any recent deposit +by their crystalline character, the absence of shells and the presence +of plant-remains, as well as by the occasional occurrence in them of +bands of flint. As the result of this, Cuvier and Brongniart had +declared that _the freshwater of the ancient world possessed properties +which are not observed in that of modern lakes_[36]. Lyell visited +Kinnordy from time to time between 1817 and 1824, and found on his +father's estate and other localities in Strathmore a number of small +lakes, lying in hollows of the boulder clay. These were being drained +and their deposits quarried for the purpose of 'marling' the land; the +excavations thus made showed that, under peat containing a boat hollowed +out of the trunk of a tree, there were calcareous deposits, sometimes 16 +to 20 feet in thickness, which passed into a rock, solid and +crystalline in character as the materials of the older geological +formations and containing the stems and fruits of the freshwater plant +_Chara_ (Stone wort). + +With the help of Robert Brown the botanist, and of analyses made by +Daubeny, with the advice of his life-long friend, Faraday, Lyell was +able to demonstrate that from the waters of the Forfarshire lakes, +containing the most minute proportions of calcareous salts, a limestone, +identical in all respects with those of the older rocks of the globe, +had been deposited, with excessive slowness, by the action of +plant-life[37]. He was thus enabled to supply a complete refutation of +the views put forward by Buckland and Cuvier. + +Thus while Hutton had been led to his conclusion concerning evolution in +the inorganic world, by studying the waste going on in the weathered +crags and the flooded rivers of his native land, Lyell's conversion to +the same views was mainly brought about by the study of changes due to +the action of the sea along the English coasts, and by studying the +evidence of constant, though slow, deposition of limestone-rocks, by the +seemingly most insignificant of agencies. + +Lyell however did not by any means neglect the study of the action of +rain and rivers. During his visits to Forfarshire, he had his initials +and the date cut by a mason on many portions of the rocky river-beds +about his home. Fifty years afterwards (in 1874) I visited with him the +several localities, to ascertain what amount of waste had resulted from +the constant flow of water over these hard rocks. It was in most cases +singularly small, the inscriptions being still visible, though deprived +of their sharpness; even the sandy detritus carried along by the +streams, being buoyed up by the water, had not been able in half a +century to wear away a thickness of half-an-inch of the hard rock. The +most singular result we noticed was, that the leaden small shot fired by +sportsmen, in the Highland tracts, whence these streams flowed, had +collected in great numbers in hollows formed by the young geologist's +inscriptions. + +By his father's request, Lyell after leaving Oxford studied for the bar, +but there is no doubt that his main interest was in geological study. He +had made the acquaintance of Dr Mantell, and carried on a number of +researches in the south of England either alone or with that +geologist[38]. Four years after joining the Geological Society, in which +he was a constant worker, he became one of the secretaries. This was in +1823 when he was only 26 years of age. His frequent visits to Paris and +to various parts of the continent enabled him to exchange ideas with +many foreign naturalists, and it is clear from his correspondence that +at this early period he had abandoned the Catastrophic doctrines of his +teachers and friends. + +Let us now consider the outside influences which were at work on Lyell's +mind in these early days. In the year 1818, the eminent palaeontologist +Blumenbach induced the University of Göttingen to offer a prize for an +essay on '_The investigation of the changes that have taken place in the +earth's surface conformation since historic times, and the applications +which can be made of such knowledge in investigating earth revolutions +beyond the domain of history._' A young German, Von Hoff, won the prize +by a most able book, displaying great erudition, entitled _The History +of those Natural Changes in the Earth's Surface, which are proved by +Tradition_. The first volume of this work appeared in 1822, and treated +of the results produced on the land by the action of the sea; the second +volume, published in 1824, dealt with the effects of volcanoes and +earthquakes. Von Hoff's learned work was confined to the collection of +data from classical and other early authors bearing on these subjects, +and to reasonings based on these records; for, unfortunately, he did not +possess the means necessary for travelling and making observations in +the districts described by him. Lyell acknowledges the great assistance +afforded to him by these two volumes of Von Hoff's work, but, unlike +that author, he was able to visit the various localities referred to, +and to draw his own conclusions as to the nature of the changes which +must have taken place. It is pleasant to be able to relate that the +debt which he owed to Von Hoff was fully repaid by Lyell; for the +learned German's third volume appeared after the issue of the +_Principles of Geology_, and as Zittel assures us 'its influence on Von +Hoff is quite apparent in the third volume of his work[39].' + +At this period, too, Lyell had the advantage of travelling both on the +continent and in various parts of Great Britain with the eminent French +geologist, Constant Prevost, who had shown his courage by opposing some +of the catastrophic teachings of the illustrious Cuvier himself. + +Still more important to Lyell were the opportunities he enjoyed for +comparing his conclusions with those of Scrope, who had joined the +Geological Society in 1824, and became a joint secretary with Lyell in +the following year. From both of them, in their old age, I heard many +statements concerning the closeness and warmth of their friendship, and +the constant interchange of ideas which took place between them at this +time. + +From Scrope, Lyell heard of the occurrence of great beds of freshwater +limestone in the Auvergne, on a far grander scale than in Strathmore, +with many other facts concerning the geology of Central France, which so +greatly excited him as in the end to alter all his plans concerning the +publication of his own book. As soon as Scrope's great work on Auvergne +was published, Lyell undertook the preparation of a review for the +_Quarterly_--and this review was a very able and discriminating +production. + +Although Lyell did not derive his views concerning terrestrial evolution +directly from Hutton, as is sometimes supposed, there were two respects +in which he greatly profited when he came to read Hutton's work at a +later date. + +In the first place, he was very deeply impressed by the necessity of +avoiding the _odium theologicum_, which had been so strongly, if +unintentionally, aroused by Hutton, of whom he wrote, 'I think he ran +unnecessarily counter to the feelings and prejudices of the age. This is +not courage or manliness in the cause of Truth, nor does it promote +progress. It is an unfeeling disregard for the weakness of human nature, +for it is our nature (for what reason heaven knows), but as _it is_ +constitutional in our minds, to feel a morbid sensibility on matters of +religious faith, I conceive that the same right feeling which guards us +from outraging too violently the sentiments of our neighbours in the +ordinary concerns of the world and its customs, should direct us still +more so in this[40].' + +In the second place, Lyell was warned by the fate of Hutton's writings +that it was hopeless to look for success in combatting the prevailing +geological theories, unless he cultivated a literary style very +different from that of the _Theory of the Earth_. Lyell's father had to +a great extent guided his son's classical studies, and at Oxford, where +Lyell took a good degree in classics, he practised diligently both prose +and poetic composition. Lyell once told me that his tutor Dalby +(afterwards a Dean) had put Gibbon's _Decline and Fall of the Roman +Empire_ into his hand with certain passages marked as 'not to be read.' +When he had studied the whole work (of course including the marked +passages) he said he conceived a profound admiration for the author's +literary skill--and this feeling he retained throughout his after life. +It is not improbable, indeed, that Lyell learned from Gibbon that a +'frontal attack' on a fortress of error is much less likely to succeed +than one of 'sap and mine.' Lyell was always most careful in the +composition of his works, sparing no pains to make his meaning clear, +while he aimed at elegance of expression and logical sequence in the +presentation of his ideas. The weakness of his eyes was a great +difficulty to him, throughout his life, and, when not employing an +amanuensis, he generally wrote stretched out on the floor or on a sofa, +with his eyes close to the paper. + +The relation of Lyell's views to those of Hutton, may best be described +in the words of his contemporary, Whewell, whose remarks written +immediately after the publication of the first volume of the +_Principles_, lose nothing in effectiveness from the evident, if +gentle, note of sarcasm running through them:-- + + 'Hutton for the purpose of getting his continents above water, + or manufacturing a chain of Alps or Andes, did not disdain to + call in something more than common volcanic eruptions which we + read of in newspapers from time to time. He was content to have + a period of paroxysmal action--an extraordinary convulsion in + the bowels of the earth--an epoch of general destruction and + violence, to usher in one of restoration and life. Mr Lyell + throws away all such crutches, he walks alone in the path of his + speculations; he requires no paroxysms, no extraordinary + periods; he is content to take burning mountains as he finds + them; and, with the assistance of the stock of volcanoes and + earthquakes now on hand, he undertakes to transform the earth + from any one of its geological conditions to any other. He + requires time, no doubt; he must not be hurried in his + proceedings. But, if we will allow him a free stage in the wide + circuit of eternity, he will ask no other favour; he will fight + his undaunted way through formations, transition and + flötz--through oceanic and lacustrine deposits; and does not + despair of carrying us triumphantly from the dark and venerable + schist of Skiddaw, to the alternating tertiaries of the Isle of + Wight, or even to the more recent shell-beds of the Sicilian + coasts, whose antiquity is but, as it were, of yester-myriad of + years[41].' + +Never, surely, did words written in a tone of banter constitute such +real and effective praise! + +But though it is certain that Lyell did not _derive_ his evolutionary +views from Hutton, yet when he came to write his historical introduction +to the _Principles_, he was greatly impressed by the proofs of genius +shown by the great Scotch philosopher, and equally by the brilliant +exposition of those views by Playfair in his _Illustrations_. To the +former he gave unstinted praise for the breadth and originality of his +views, and to the latter for the eloquence of his writings--adopting +quotations chosen from these last, indeed, as mottoes for his own work. + +It is only just to add that for the violent prejudices excited by some +of his contemporaries against Hutton's writings--as being directed +against the theological tenets of the day and therefore subversive of +religion--there is really no foundation whatever; and every candid +reader of the _Theory of the Earth_ must acquit its author of any such +design. The passage quoted on page 51 could only have been written by +Lyell at a time when he was still unacquainted with Hutton's works, and +was misled by common report concerning them. It is interesting to note, +however, that the passage occurs in a letter written in December 1827, +that is after the first draft of the _Principles of Geology_ had been +'delivered to the publisher,' and before the preparation of the +historical introduction, which would appear to have led to the first +perusal of Hutton's great work, and that of his brilliant illustrator, +Playfair. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +'THE PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY' + + +We have seen that as early as the year 1817, when he visited East +Anglia, Lyell began to experience vague doubts concerning the soundness +of the 'Catastrophist' doctrines, which had been so strongly impressed +upon him by Buckland. And these doubts in the mind of the undergraduate +of twenty years of age gradually acquired strength and definiteness +during his frequent geological excursions, at home and abroad, during +the next ten years. At what particular date the design was formed of +writing a book and attacking the predominant beliefs of his +fellow-geologists, we have no means of ascertaining exactly; but from a +letter written to his friend Dr Mantell, we find that at one time Lyell +contemplated publishing a book in the form of 'Conversations in +Geology[42],' without putting his name to it. This was probably +suggested by the manner in which Copernicus and Galileo sought to +circumvent theological opposition in the case of Astronomical Theory. + +But this plan appears to have been soon abandoned; and by the end of the +year 1827, when he had reached the age of thirty, Lyell had sent to the +printer the first manuscript of the _Principles of Geology_, proposing +that it should appear in the course of the following year in two octavo +volumes[43]. + +A great and sudden interruption to this plan occurred however, for just +at this time Lyell was engaged in writing his review for the _Quarterly_ +of Scrope's work on _The Geology of Central France_, and while doing +this his interest was so strongly aroused by the accounts of the +phenomena exhibited in the Auvergne, that he was led for a time to +abandon the task of seeing his own book through the press; and, having +induced Murchison and his wife to accompany him, set off on a visit to +that wonderful district. He also felt that, before completing the second +part of his book, he needed more information concerning the Tertiary +formations, especially in Italy. + +Lyell had been very early convinced of the supreme importance of travel +to the geologist. In a letter to his friend Murchison he said:--'We must +preach up travelling, as Demosthenes did "delivery" as the first, second +and third requisites for a modern geologist, in the present adolescent +state of the science[44].' + +And Professor Bonney has estimated that so far did he himself practise +what he preached, that no less than one fourth of the period of his +active life was spent in travel[45]. + +The joint excursion of Lyell and Murchison to the Auvergne was destined +to have great influence on the minds of these pioneers in geological +research; both became satisfied from their studies that, with respect to +the excavation of the valleys of the country, Scrope's conclusions were +irresistible; and in a joint memoir this position was stoutly maintained +by them. + +It is interesting to notice the impression made by these two great +geologists on one another during this joint expedition. + +Murchison wrote that he had seen in Lyell 'the most scrupulous and +minute fidelity of observation combined with close application in the +closet and ceaseless exertion in the field[46].' + +But I recollect that Lyell once told me how difficult Murchison found it +to restrain himself from impatience, when his companion's attention was +drawn aside by his entomological ardour. In an early letter, indeed, we +find that Murchison often expressed a wish that Lyell's sisters had been +with them to attend to the insect-collecting and thus leave Lyell free +for geological work[47]. + +On the other hand, Lyell informed me that Murchison had rendered him a +great service in showing how much a geologist could accomplish by +taking advantage of riding on horseback, and he declared in his letters +that he 'never had a better man to work with than Murchison'; +nevertheless he ridiculed his 'keep-moving-go-it-if-it-kills-you' system +as--quoting from the elder Matthews--he called it[48]. + +On parting from Murchison and his wife, after the Auvergne tour, Lyell +proceeded to Italy and for more than a year he was busy studying the +Tertiary deposits of Lombardy, the Roman states, Naples and Sicily, and +conferring with the Italian geologists and conchologists. Thus it came +about that he was not free to resume the task of seeing the _Principles_ +through the press till February 1829. + +Immediately after his return to England Lyell was compelled, with the +assistance of his companion Murchison, to defend their conclusions +concerning the excavations of valleys by rivers from a determined attack +of Conybeare, who was backed up by Buckland and Greenough; the old +geologists endeavoured to prove that the river Thames had never had any +part in the work of forming its valley[49]. It is interesting to find +that, on this occasion, Sedgwick, who was in the chair, was so far +influenced by the arguments brought forward by the young men, as to lend +some aid to those who had come to be called the 'Fluvialists,' in +contradistinction to the 'Diluvialists'; he went so far as to suggest +that, with regard to the floods which the Catastrophist invoked, it +would be wiser at present to 'doubt and not dogmatise[50].' + +To what extent the MS. of the _Principles_, sent to the publisher in +1827, was added to and altered two years later, we have no means of +knowing; but that the work was to a great extent rewritten would appear +from a letter sent to Murchison by Lyell, just before his return to +England. In it, he says:-- + +'My work is in part written, and all planned. It will not pretend to +give even an abstract of all that is known in geology, but it will +endeavour to establish _the principle of reasoning_ in the science; and +all my geology will come in as illustration of my views of those +principles, and as evidence strengthening the system necessarily arising +out of the admission of such principles, which, as you know, are neither +more nor less than that _no causes whatever_ have from the earliest time +to which we can look back to the present, ever acted, but those that are +_now acting_, and that they never acted with different degrees of energy +from that which they now exert'; but in 1833, in dedicating his third +volume to Murchison, he refers to the MS., completed in 1827, as a +'first sketch only of my _Principles of Geology_[51].' + +At one period, Lyell contemplated again delaying publication till he had +visited Iceland. In the end, however, after declining to act as +professor of geology in the new 'University of London' (University +College), he set himself down steadily to the task of seeing the book +through the press. It was at this time that Lyell experienced a singular +piece of good fortune, comparable with that which befel Darwin thirty +years afterwards, by his book falling into the hands of a very +sympathetic reviewer. John Murray, who had undertaken the publication of +the _Principles_, was also the publisher of the _Quarterly Review_, and +Lockhart, the editor of that publication, undertook that an early notice +of the book should appear, if the proof-sheets were sent to the +reviewer. Buckland and Sedgwick were successively approached on the +subject of reviewing Lyell's book, but both declined on the ground of +'want of time'; though I strongly suspect that their real motive in +refusing the task was a disinclination to attack--as they would +doubtless have felt themselves compelled to do--a valued personal +friend. Conybeare was, fortunately, thought to be out of the question, +as Lockhart said he 'promises and does not perform in the reviewing +line.' + +Very fortunately at this juncture, Lockhart, who was in the habit of +attending the Geological Society and listening to the debates (for as he +used to say to his friends whom he took with him from the Athenaeum, +'though I don't care for geology, yet I _do_ like to see the fellows +fight') thought of Scrope. Although he had practically retired from the +active work of the Geological Society at this time, Scrope was known as +an effective writer, and, happily for the progress of science, he +undertook the review of Lyell's book. + +Although, of course, Lyell had no voice in the choice of a reviewer for +the _Principles_, yet he could not fail to rejoice in the fact that it +had fallen to his friend, who so strongly sympathised with his views, to +introduce it to the public. While the book was being printed and the +review of it was in preparation, a number of letters passed between +Lyell and Scrope, and the latter, before his death, gave me the +carefully treasured epistles of his friend, with the drafts of some of +his replies. These letters, some of which have been published, throw +much light on the difficulties with which Lyell had to contend, and the +manner in which he strove to meet them. + +As we have already seen, many of the leaders in the Geological Society +at that day besides being strongly inclined to Wernerian and Cataclysmal +views, had an honest, however mistaken, dread lest geological research +should lead to results, apparently not in harmony with the accounts +given in Genesis of the Creation and the Flood. Lyell, as this +correspondence shows, was most anxious to avoid exciting either +scientific or theological prejudice. He wrote, 'I conceived the idea +five or six years ago' (that is in 1824 or 5) that 'if ever the Mosaic +geology could be set down without giving offence, it would be in an +historical sketch[52],' and 'I was afraid to point the moral ... about +Moses. Perhaps I should have been tenderer about the Koran[53].' He +further says 'full _half_ of my history and comments was cut out, and +even many facts, because either I, or Stokes, or Broderip, felt that it +was anticipating twenty or thirty years of the march of honest feeling +to declare it undisguisedly[54].' + +Under these circumstances the publication by Scrope of his two long +notices of the _Principles_ in the _Review_ which was regarded as the +champion of orthodoxy, was most opportune. A very clear sketch was given +in these reviews of the leading facts and the general line of argument; +and at the same time the allowing of prejudice or prepossession to +influence the judgment on such questions was very gently deprecated[55]. + +But Scrope's reviews did not by any means consist of an indiscriminate +advocacy of Lyell's views. In one respect--that of the great importance +of subaerial action as contrasted with marine action--Scrope's views +were at this time in advance of those of Lyell, and he called especial +attention to the direct effects produced by rain in the earth-pillars of +Botzen. These Lyell had not at the time seen, but took an early +opportunity of visiting. Scrope, too, was naturally much more +speculative in his modes of thought than Lyell, and argued for the +probably greater intensity in past times of the agencies causing +geological change, and for the legitimacy of discussing the mode of +origin of the earth. Lyell, like Hutton, argued that he saw '_no signs_ +of a beginning,' but his characteristic candour is shown when he +wrote:-- + +'All I ask is, that at any given period of the past, don't stop enquiry, +when puzzled, by a reference to a "beginning," which is all one with +"another state of nature," as it appears to me. But there is no harm in +your attacking me, provided you point out that it is the _proof_ I deny, +not the _probability_ of a beginning[56].' + +Lyell clearly foresaw the opposition with which his book would be met +and wisely resolved not to be drawn into controversy. He wrote:-- + +'I daresay I shall not keep my resolution, but I will try to do it +firmly, that when my book is attacked ... I will not go to the expense +of time in pamphleteering. I shall work steadily on Vol. II, and +afterwards, if the work succeeds, at edition 2, and I have sworn to +myself that I will not go to the expense of giving time to combat in +controversy. It is interminable work[57].' + +In order to maintain this resolve, Lyell, the moment the last sheet of +the volume was corrected, set off for a four months' tour in France and +Spain. While absent from England, he heard little of what was going on +in the scientific world; but, on his return, Lyell was told by Murray +that in the three months before the _Quarterly Review_ article appeared, +650 copies of the volume, out of the 1500 printed, had been sold, and he +anticipated the disposal of many more, when the review came out. This +expectation was realised and led to the issue of a second edition of the +first volume, of larger size and in better type. + +Lyell, from the first, had seen that it would be impossible to avoid the +conclusion that the principles which he was advancing with respect to +the inorganic world must be equally applicable to the organic world. At +first he only designed to touch lightly on this subject, in the +concluding chapters of his first volume, and to devote the second volume +to the application of his principles to the interpretation of the +geological record. He, however, found it impossible to include the +chapters on changes in the organic world in the first volume and then +decided to make them the opening portion of the second volume. + +It is evident, however, that as the work progressed, the interest of the +various questions bearing on the origin of species grew in his mind. +While Lyell found it impossible to accept the explanation of origin +suggested by Lamarck, he was greatly influenced by the arguments in +favour of evolution advanced by that naturalist; and as he wrote chapter +after chapter on the questions of the modification and variability of +species, on hybridity, on the modes of distribution of plants and +animals, and their consequent geographical relations, and discussed the +struggle of existence going on everywhere in the organic world, in its +bearings on the question of 'centres of creation,' he found the second +volume growing altogether beyond reasonable limits. His intense interest +in this part of his work is shown by his remark, 'If I have succeeded so +well with inanimate matter, surely I shall make a lively thing when I +have chiefly to talk of living beings[58]?' + +By December 1831, Lyell had come to the resolution to publish the +chapters of his work which dealt with the changes going on in the +organic world as a volume by itself. This second volume of the +_Principles_ he gracefully dedicated to his friend Broderip, who had +rendered him such valuable assistance in all questions connected with +Natural History. + +This volume appeared in January 1832, at the same time that a second +edition of the first volume was also issued. The reception of the second +volume by the public appears to have been not less favourable than that +of the first. + +In March 1831, Lyell had accepted the Professorship of Geology in King's +College, London. In addition to his desire to aid in the work of +scientific education, in which he had always taken so great an interest, +Lyell seems to have felt that the task of presenting his views in a +popular form would be aided by his having to expound them to a +miscellaneous audience. For two years, these lectures were delivered, +and attracted much attention; the favourable impressions produced by +them on a man of the world have been recorded by Abraham Hayward, and on +more scientific thinkers by Harriet Martineau. + +The third volume of the _Principles_ was not completed till a second +edition of the second volume had been issued. This third volume, +appearing in May 1833, dealt with the classification of the Tertiary +strata, to which Lyell had devoted so much labour, studying conchology +under Deshayes, and visiting all the chief Tertiary deposits of Europe +for the collection of materials. The application of the principles +enunciated in the two earlier volumes to the unravelling of the past +history of the globe, constituted the chief task undertaken in this part +of the great work. But not a few controversial questions were dealt +with, and the famous 'metamorphic theory' was advanced in opposition to +the Wernerian hypothesis of 'primitive formations.' The volume was +appropriately dedicated to Murchison, who had been Lyell's companion in +the famous Auvergne excursion, which had produced such an effect on his +mind. + +Within a twelvemonth, a third edition of the whole work in four small +volumes was issued, and in the end no less than twelve editions of the +_Principles of Geology_ were issued, in addition to portions separately +published under the titles of _Manual_, _Elements_, and _Student's +Elements of Geology_, of all of which a number of editions have +appeared. Lyell was always the most painstaking and conscientious of +authors. He declared 'I must write what will be read[59],' and he spared +no labour in securing accuracy of statement combined with elegance of +diction. His father, a good classical and Italian scholar, had done much +towards assisting him to attain literary excellence, and at Oxford, +where he took a good degree in classics, he was greatly impressed by the +style of Gibbon's writings, and practised both prose and poetic +compositions with great diligence. + +Both Darwin and Huxley always maintained that the real charm and power +of Lyell's work are only to be found in the _first edition_[60]. As new +discoveries were made or more effective illustrations of his views +presented themselves to his mind, passage after passage in the work was +modified by the author or replaced by others; and the effects of these +constant changes--however necessary and desirable in themselves--could +not fail to be detrimental to the book as a work of art. He who would +form a just idea of the greatness of Lyell's masterpiece, must read the +first edition, of course bearing in mind, all the while, the state of +science at the time it was written. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE INFLUENCE OF LYELL'S WORKS + + +Although the _Principles of Geology_ was received by the public with +something like enthusiasm--due to the cogency of its reasoning and the +charm of its literary style--there were not wanting critics who attacked +the author on the ground of his heterodox views. It had come to be so +generally understood, that every expression of geological opinion +should, by way of apology, be accompanied by an attempt to 'harmonise' +it with the early chapters of Genesis, that the absence of any +references of this kind was asserted to be a proof of 'infidelity' on +the part of the author. + +But Lyell's sincere and earnest efforts to avoid exciting theological +prejudice, and the striking illustrations, which he gave in his +historical introduction, of the absurdities that had resulted from these +prejudices in the past, were not without effect. This was shown in a +somewhat remarkable manner in 1831, when, in response to an invitation +given to him, he consented to become a candidate for the Chair of +Geology at King's College, London, then recently founded. + +The election was in the hands of an Archbishop, two Bishops and two +Doctors of Divinity, and Lyell relates their decision, as communicated +to him, in the following words:-- + + 'They considered some of my doctrines startling enough, but + could not find that they were come by otherwise than in a + straightforward manner, and (as _I_ appeared to think) logically + deducible from the facts, so that whether the facts were true or + not, or my conclusions logical or otherwise, there was no reason + to infer that I had made my theory from any hostile feeling + towards revelation[61].' + +The appointment was, in the end, made with only one dissentient, and it +is pleasing to find that Conybeare, the most determined opponent of +Lyell's evolutionary views, was extremely active in his efforts in his +support. The result was equally honourable to all parties, and affords a +pleasing proof of the fact that in the half century which had elapsed +since the persecution of Priestley and Hutton, theological rancour must +have greatly declined. But while the reception of the _Principles of +Geology_ by the general public was of such a generally satisfactory +character, Lyell had to acknowledge that his reasoning had but little +effect in modifying the views of his distinguished contemporaries in +the Geological Society. + +The admiration felt for the author's industry and skill, in the +collection and marshalling of facts and of the observations made by him +in his repeated travels, were eloquently expressed by the generous +Sedgwick, as follows:-- + + 'Were I to tell "the author" of the instruction I received from + every chapter of his work, and of the delight with which I rose + from the perusal of the whole, I might seem to flatter rather + than to speak the language of sober criticism; but I should only + give utterance to my honest sentiments. His work has already + taken, and will long maintain a distinguished place in the + philosophic literature of this country[62].' + +Nevertheless, in the same address to the Geological Society, in which +these words were spoken, Sedgwick goes on to argue forcibly against the +doctrine of continuity, and to assert his firm belief in the occurrence +of frequent interruptions of the geological record by great convulsions. + +Whewell was equally enthusiastic with Sedgwick, concerning the value of +the body of facts collected by Lyell, declaring that he had established +a new branch of science, 'Geological Dynamics'; but he also believed +with Sedgwick, that the evolutionary doctrine was as obnoxious to true +science as he thought it was to Scripture. + +These were the views of all the great leaders of geological science at +that day, and in 1834, after the completion of the _Principles_, when a +great discussion took place in the Geological Society on the subject of +the effects ascribed by him to existing causes, Lyell says that +'Buckland, De la Beche, Sedgwick, Whewell, and some others treated them +with as much ridicule as was consistent with politeness in my +presence[63].' + +It is interesting to be able to infer from Lyell's accounts of these +days, that the sagacious De la Beche was beginning to weaken in his +opposition to evolutionary views, and that Fitton and John Phillips were +inclined to support him, but neither of them was ready to come forward +boldly as the champions of unpopular opinions. John Herschel, who +sympathised with Lyell in all his opinions, was absent at the Cape, +Scrope was absorbed in the stormy politics of that day, and it was not +till Darwin returned from his South American voyage in 1838, that Lyell +found any staunch supporter in the frequent lively debates at the +Geological Society. + +It is pleasing, however, to relate that this strong opposition to his +theoretical teachings, did not lessen the esteem, or interfere with the +friendship, felt for Lyell by his contemporaries. During all this time +he held the office of Foreign Secretary to the Society, and in 1835 was +elected President, retaining the office for two years. + +The general feeling of the old geologists with respect to Lyell's +opinions was very exactly expressed by Professor Henslow, when in +parting from young Darwin on his setting out on his voyage, he referred +to the recently published first volume of the _Principles_ in the +following terms:-- + +'Take Lyell's new book with you and read it by all means, for it is very +interesting, but do not pay any attention to it, except in regard to +facts, for it is altogether wild as far as theory goes.' + +(I quote the words as repeated to me by Darwin, in a conversation I had +with him on August 7th, 1880, of which I made a note at the time. Darwin +has himself referred to this conversation with Henslow in his +autobiography[64].) + +Except in a few cases, this was the attitude maintained by all the old +geologists who were Lyell's contemporaries. Even as late as 1895 we find +the amiable Prestwich protesting strongly against 'the _Fetish_ of +uniformity[65],' and I well remember about the same time being solemnly +warned by a geologist of the old school against 'poor old Lyell's fads.' + +It was not, indeed, till a new generation of geologists had arisen, +including Godwin-Austen, Edward Forbes, Ramsay, Jukes, Darwin, Hooker +and Huxley, that the real value and importance of Lyell's teaching came +to be recognised and acknowledged. + +The most important influence of Lyell's great work is seen, however, in +the undoubted fact that it inspired the men, who became the leaders in +the revolution of thought which took place a quarter of a century later +in respect to the organic world. Were I to assert that if the +_Principles of Geology_ had not been written, we should never have had +the _Origin of Species_, I think I should not be going too far: at all +events, I can safely assert, from several conversations I had with +Darwin, that he would have most unhesitatingly agreed in that opinion. + +Darwin's devotion to his 'dear master' as he used to call Lyell, was of +the most touching character, and it was prominently manifested in all +his geological conversations. In his books and in his letters he never +failed to express his deep indebtedness to his 'own true love' as he +called the _Principles of Geology_. In what was Darwin's own most +favourite work, the _Narrative of the Voyage of the Beagle_, he wrote +'To Charles Lyell, Esq., F.R.S., this second edition is dedicated with +grateful pleasure, as an acknowledgment that the chief part of whatever +scientific merit this Journal and the other works of the author may +possess, has been derived from studying the well-known, admirable +_Principles of Geology_.' + +How Lyell's first volume inspired Darwin with his passion for geological +research, and how his second volume was one of the determining causes in +turning his mind in the direction of Evolution, we shall see in the +sequel. In 1844, Darwin wrote to Leonard Horner how 'forcibly impressed +I am with the infinite superiority of the Lyellian School of Geology +over the continental,' he even says, 'I always feel as if my books came +half out of Lyell's brain'; adding 'I have always thought that the great +merit of the _Principles_ was that it altered the whole tone of one's +mind, and therefore that, when seeing a thing never seen by Lyell one +yet saw it partially through his eyes[66].' About the same time Darwin +wrote, 'I am much pleased to hear of the call for a new edition of the +_Principles_: what glorious good that work has done[67]!' And in the +_Origin of Species_ he gives his deliberate verdict on the book, +referring to it as 'Lyell's grand work on the _Principles of Geology_, +which the future historian will recognise as having produced a +revolution in Natural Science[68].' + +Darwin seemed always afraid, such was his sensitive and generous nature, +that he did not sufficiently acknowledge his indebtedness to Lyell. He +wrote to his friend in 1845: + + 'I have long wished not so much for your sake as for my own + feelings of honesty, to acknowledge more plainly than by mere + reference, how much I geologically owe you. Those authors, + however, who like you educate people's minds as well as teach + them special facts, can never, I should think, have full justice + done them except by posterity, for the mind thus insensibly + improved can hardly perceive its own upward ascent.' + +Very heartily, as I can bear witness from long intercourse with him, was +this deep affection of Darwin reciprocated by the man who was addressed +by him in his letters as 'Your affectionate pupil.' But a stranger who +conversed with Lyell would have thought that he was the junior and a +disciple; so profound was his reverence for the genius of Darwin. + +There can be no doubt that Lyell's extreme caution in statement, and his +candour in admitting and replying to objections, had much to do with his +acquirement of that authority with general, no less than with +scientific, readers, which he so long enjoyed. In his candour he +resembled his friend Darwin; but his caution was carried so far that, +even after full conviction had entered his mind on a subject, he would +still hesitate to avow that conviction. He was always obsessed by a +feeling that there still _might be_ objections, which he had not +foreseen and met, and therefore felt it unsafe to declare himself. No +doubt the peculiarly trying circumstances under which his work was +written--a seemingly hopeless protest against ideas held unswervingly by +teachers and fellow-workers--led to the creation in him of this habit of +mind. + +Darwin, with all his candour, was of a far more sanguine and optimistic +temperament than Lyell, and the difference between them, in this +respect, often comes out in their correspondence. + +Thus Darwin, from the horrors he had witnessed in South America, had +come to entertain a most fanatical hatred of slavery--his abhorrence of +which he used to express in most unmeasured terms. Lyell, in his travels +in the Southern United States, was equally convinced of the +undesirability of the institution; but he thought it just to state the +grounds on which it was defended, by those who had been his hosts in the +Slave-states. Even this, however, was too much for Darwin, and he felt +that he must 'explode' to his friend 'How could you relate so placidly +that atrocious sentiment' (it was of course only quoted by Lyell) 'about +separating children from their parents; and in the next page speak of +being distressed at the whites not having prospered: I assure you the +contrast made me exclaim out. But I have broken my intention (that is +not to write about the matter), so no more of this odious deadly +subject[69].' + +It was just the same in their mode of viewing scientific questions. Thus +in 1838, while they were in the midst of the fierce battle with the 'Old +Guard' at the Geological Society, Lyell wrote to his brother-in-arms as +follows:-- + + 'I really find, when bringing up my Preliminary Essays in + _Principles_ to the science of the present day, so far as I know + it, that the great outline, and even most of the details, stand + so uninjured, and in many cases they are so much strengthened + by new discoveries, especially by yours, that we may begin to + hope that the great principles there insisted on will stand the + test of new discoveries[70].' + +To which the younger and more ardent Darwin warmly replied:-- + + '_Begin to hope_: why, the _possibility_ of a doubt has never + crossed my mind for many a day. This may be very + unphilosophical, but my geological salvation is staked on it ... + it makes me quite indignant that you should talk of + _hoping_[71].' + +When talking with Lyell at this time about the opposition of the old +school of geologists to their joint views, Darwin said, 'What a good +thing it would be if every scientific man was to die at sixty years old, +as afterwards he would be sure to oppose all new doctrines[72].' + +In conversations that I had with him late in life, Darwin several times +remarked to me, that 'he had seen so many of his friends make fools of +themselves by putting forward new theoretical views in their old age, +that he had resolved quite early in life, never to publish any +speculative opinions after he was sixty.' But both in conversation and +in his writings he always maintained that Lyell was an exception to all +such rules, seeing that at last he adopted the theory of Natural +Selection in his old age, thus displaying the most 'remarkable candour.' + +All who had the pleasure of discussing geological questions with Lyell +will recognise the truth of the portrait drawn of his old friend by +Darwin, about a year before his own death. + +He says:-- + + 'His mind was characterised, as it appeared to me, by clearness, + caution, sound judgment, and a good deal of originality. When I + made a remark to him on Geology, he never rested until he saw + the whole case clearly, and often made me see it more clearly + than I had done before.' + +And he sums up his admiration of the 'dear old master' in the words + + 'The science of Geology is enormously indebted to Lyell--more + so, as I believe, than to any other man who ever lived[73].' + +Alfred Russel Wallace is scarcely less emphatic than Charles Darwin +himself in his expression of affection and admiration for Lyell, and his +indebtedness to the _Principles of Geology_. + +In his Autobiography, Wallace writes:-- + + 'With Sir Charles I soon felt at home, owing to his refined and + gentle manners, his fund of quiet humour, and his intense love + and extensive knowledge of natural science. His great liberality + of thought and wide general interests were also attractive to + me; and although when he had once arrived at a definite + conclusion, he held by it very tenaciously until a considerable + body of well-ascertained facts could be adduced against it, yet + he was always willing to listen to the arguments of his + opponents, and to give them careful and repeated + consideration[74].' + +Of the influence of the _Principles of Geology_ in leading him to +evolution, he wrote: + + 'Along with Malthus I had read, and been even more deeply + impressed by, Sir Charles Lyell's immortal _Principles of + Geology_; which had taught me that the inorganic world--the + whole surface of the earth, its seas and lands, its mountains + and valleys, its rivers and lakes, and every detail of its + climatic conditions--were and always had been in a continual + state of slow modification. Hence it became obvious that the + forms of life must have become continually adjusted to these + changed conditions in order to survive. The succession of fossil + remains throughout the whole geological series of rocks is the + record of the change; and it became easy to see that the extreme + slowness of these changes was such as to allow ample opportunity + for the continuous automatic adjustment of the organic to the + inorganic world, as well as of each organism to every other + organism in the same area, by the simple processes of "variation + and survival of the fittest." Thus was the fundamental idea of + the "origin of species" logically formulated from the + consideration of a series of well ascertained facts[75].' + +Nor were the two men (who, like Aaron and Hur so steadily sustained the +hands of Darwin in his long vigil), behind the two authors of Natural +Selection themselves in their devotion to Lyell. How touching is +Hooker's tribute of affection on the death of his friend, 'My loved, my +best friend, for well nigh forty years of my life. To me the blank is +fearful, for it never will, never can be filled up. The most generous +sharer of my own and my family's hopes, joys, and sorrows, whose +affection for me was truly that of a father and brother combined[76].' + +And Huxley speaking of Lyell, the day after his death said, 'Sir Charles +Lyell would be known in history as the greatest geologist of his time. +Some days ago I went to my venerable friend, and put before him the +results of the _Challenger_ expedition. Nothing could then have been +more touching than the conflict between the mind and the material body, +the brain clear and comprehending all; while the lips could hardly +express the views which the busy mind formed[77].' + +How well do I recollect my last visit to Lyell a day or two after this +farewell interview with Huxley, the glow of gratitude which lighted up +the noble features as with trembling lips he told me how 'Huxley had +repeated his whole Royal Institution lecture at his bedside.' + +Huxley was a most devoted student of Lyell. Speaking to his fellow +geologists in 1869 he said, 'Which of us has not thumbed every page of +the _Principles of Geology_[78]?' and writing in 1887 on the reception +of the _Origin of Species_, he said:-- + + 'I have recently read afresh the first edition of the + _Principles of Geology_; and when I consider that this + remarkable book had been nearly thirty years in everybody's + hands, and that it brings home to any reader of ordinary + intelligence a great principle and a great fact--the principle, + that the past must be explained by the present, unless good + cause be shown to the contrary; and the fact, that, so far as + our knowledge of the past history of life on our globe goes, no + such cause can be shown--I cannot but believe that Lyell, for + others, as for myself, was the chief agent in smoothing the road + for Darwin. For consistent uniformitarianism postulates + evolution as much in the organic as in the inorganic world. The + origin of a new species by other than ordinary agencies would be + a vastly greater 'catastrophe' than any of those which Lyell + successfully eliminated from sober geological speculation[79].' + +How strongly Lyell had become convinced, as early as 1832, of the truth +and importance of the doctrine of Evolution--in the _organic_ as well as +in the inorganic world--in spite of his emphatic rejection of the theory +of Lamarck, we shall show in the next chapter. It was this conviction, +as we shall see, which led to his friendly encouragement of Darwin in +his persevering investigations and to his constant solicitude that the +results of his friend's labours should not be lost through delay in +their publication. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +EARLY ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH THE DOCTRINE OF EVOLUTION FOR THE ORGANIC +WORLD + + +In studying the history of Evolutionary ideas, it is necessary to keep +in mind that there are two perfectly distinct lines of thought, the +origin and development of which have to be considered. + +_First._ The conviction that species are not immutable, but that, by +some means or other, new forms of life are derived from pre-existing +ones. + +_Secondly._ The conception of some process or processes, by which this +change of old forms into new ones may be explained. + +Buffon, Kant, Goethe, and many other philosophic thinkers, have been +more or less firmly persuaded of the truth of the first of these +propositions; and even Linnaeus himself was ready to make admissions in +this direction. It was impossible for anyone who was convinced of the +truth of the doctrine of continuity or evolution in the _inorganic_ +world, to avoid the speculation that the same arguments by which the +truth of that doctrine was maintained must apply also to the _organic_ +world. + +Hence we find that directly the _Principles of Geology_ was published, +thinkers, like Sedgwick and Whewell, at once taxed Lyell with holding +that 'the creation of new species is going on at the present day,' and +Lyell replied to the latter:-- + + 'It was impossible, I think, for anyone to read my work and not + to perceive that my notion of uniformity in the existing causes + of change always implied that they must for ever produce an + endless variety of effects, _both in the animate and inanimate + world_[80].' + +And to Sedgwick, Lyell wrote:-- + + 'Now touching my opinion,' concerning the creation of new + species at the present day, 'I have no right to object, _as I + really entertain it_, to your controverting it; at the same time + you will see, on reading my chapter on the subject, that I have + studiously avoided laying down the doctrine dogmatically as + capable of proof. I have admitted that we have only data for + _extinction_, and I have left it to be inferred, instead of + enunciating it even as my opinion, that the place of lost + species is filled up (as it was of old) from time to time by new + species. I have only ventured to say that had new mammalia come + in, we could hardly have hoped to verify the fact[81].' + +That Lyell was convinced of the truth of the doctrine of the evolution +of species is shown by his correspondence with friends and sympathisers +like Scrope and John Herschel. But he wrote: + + 'If I had stated ... the possibility of the introduction or + origination of fresh species being a natural, in + contradistinction to a miraculous process, I should have raised + a host of prejudices against me, which are unfortunately opposed + at every step to any philosopher who attempts to address the + public on these mysterious subjects[82].' + +That Lyell was justified in not increasing the difficulties which would +retard the reception of his views, by introducing matter, which he still +regarded as of a more or less speculative character, I think everyone +will be prepared to admit. Darwin had to contend with the same +difficulty in writing the _Origin of Species_. To have included the +question of the origin of mankind _prominently_ in that work would have +raised an almost insurmountable barrier to its reception. He says in his +autobiography, 'I thought it best, in order that no honourable man +should accuse me of concealing my views, to add that by the work "light +would be thrown on the origin of man and his history." It would have +been useless and injurious to the success of the book to have paraded, +without giving evidence, my conviction with respect to his origin[83].' + +Huxley and Haeckel have both borne testimony to the fact that Lyell, at +the time he wrote the _Principles_, was firmly convinced that new +species had originated by evolution from old ones. Indeed in a letter to +John Herschel in 1836 he goes very far in the direction of anticipating +the lines in which enquiries on the _method_ of evolution must proceed, +having even a prevision of the doctrine of _mimicry_, long afterwards +established by Bates and others. Lyell wrote:-- + + 'In regard to the origination of new species, I am very glad to + find that you think it probable that it may be carried on + through the intervention of intermediate causes. I left this + rather to be inferred, not thinking it worth while to offend a + certain class of persons by embodying in words what would only + be a speculation.... One can in imagination summon before us a + small part at least of the circumstances that must be + contemplated and foreknown, before it can be decided what powers + and qualities a new species must have in order to enable it to + endure for a given time, and to play its part in due relation to + all other beings destined to coexist with it, before it dies + out.... It may be seen that unless some slight additional + precaution be taken, the species about to be born would at a + certain era be reduced to too low a number. There may be a + thousand modes of ensuring its duration beyond that time; one, + for example, may be the rendering it more prolific, but this + would perhaps make it press too hard upon other species at other + times. Now if it be an insect it may be made in one of its + transformations to resemble a dead stick, or a leaf, or a + lichen, or a stone, so as to be somewhat less easily found by + its enemies; or if this would make it too strong, an occasional + variety of the species may have this advantage conferred on it; + or if this would be still too much, one sex of a certain + variety. Probably there is scarcely a dash of colour on the wing + or body of which the choice would be quite arbitrary, or which + might not affect its duration for thousands of years. I have + been told that the leaf-like expansions of the abdomen and + thighs of a certain Brazilian Mantis turn from green to yellow + as autumn advances, together with the leaves of plants among + which it seeks its prey. Now if species come in succession, such + contrivances must sometimes be made, and such relations + predetermined between species, as the Mantis, for example, and + plants not then existing, but which it was foreseen would exist + together with some particular climate at a given time. But I + cannot do justice to this train of speculation in a letter, and + will only say that it seems to me to offer a more beautiful + subject for reasoning and reflecting on, than the notion of + great batches of new species all coming in and afterwards going + out at once[84].' + +We have cited this very remarkable passage, as it affords striking +evidence of how deeply Lyell had thought on this great question at a +very early period. Nevertheless it is certain that when he wrote the +second volume of the _Principles_, he had not been able to satisfy +himself that any hypothesis of the _mode_ of evolution, that had up to +that time been suggested, could be regarded as satisfactory. + +The only serious attempt to _explain_ the derivation of new species from +old ones that came before Lyell was that of the illustrious Lamarck. + +Very noteworthy was the work of that old wounded French soldier, +afflicted in his later years as he was by blindness. By his early +labours, Lamarck had attained a considerable reputation as a botanist, +and later in life he turned his attention to zoology, and then to +palaeontology and geology. In zoology, he did for the study of +invertebrate animals what his great contemporary Cuvier was +accomplishing for the vertebrates; but, with regard to the origin of +species, he arrived at conclusions directly at variance with those of +his distinguished rival. + +We are indebted to Professor Osborn[85] for calling attention to that +remarkable, but little known work of Lamarck's--_Hydrogéologie_--published +in 1802, seven years before his _Philosophie Zoologique_ appeared. This +work is especially interesting as showing to how great an extent--as in +the case of Darwin, Wallace and others--it was geological phenomena which +played an important part in leading Lamarck to evolutionary convictions. +"In Geology," Professor Osborn writes, + + 'Lamarck was an ardent advocate of uniformity, as against the + Cataclysmal School. The main principles are laid down in his + _Hydrogéologie_, that all the revolutions of the earth are + extremely slow. "For Nature," he says, "time is nothing. It is + never a difficulty, she always has it at her disposal; and it is + for her the means by which she has accomplished the greatest as + well as the least results[86]."' + +On the subject of subaerial denudation (the action of rain and rivers in +wearing down the earth's surface), Lamarck's views were as clear and +definite as those of Hutton himself; though it is almost certain that he +could never have seen, or even heard of, the writings of the great +Scottish philosopher. On some other questions of geological dynamics, +however, it must be confessed that Lamarck's views and speculations were +rather crude and unsatisfactory. + +In his _Philosophie Zoologique_, published in the same year that Charles +Darwin was born (1809), Lamarck brought forward a great body of evidence +in favour of evolution, derived from his extensive knowledge of botany, +zoology and geology. He showed how complete was the gradation between +many forms ranked as species, and how difficult it was to say what forms +should be classed as 'varieties' and what as 'species.' + +But when he came to indicate a possible method by which one species +might be derived from another, he was less happy in his suggestions. He +recognised the value of the evidence derived from the study of the races +which have arisen among domestic animals, and from the crossing of +different forms. But his main argument was derived from the acknowledged +fact that use or disuse may cause the development or the partial atrophy +of organs--the case of the 'blacksmith's arm.' Unfortunately some of the +suggestions made by Lamarck, in this connexion--like that of the +elongation of the giraffe's neck to enable it to browse on high +trees--were of a kind that made them very susceptible to ridicule. His +theory was of course dependent on the admission that acquired characters +were transmitted from parents to children, and in the absence of any +suggestion of 'selection,' it did not appeal strongly to thinkers on +this question. + +Lyell first became acquainted with the writings of Lamarck in 1827. As +he was returning from the Oxford circuit for the last time--having now +resolved to give up law and devote himself to geological work +exclusively--he wrote to his friend Mantell as follows:-- + + 'I devoured Lamarck _en voyage_.... His theories delighted me + more than any novel I ever read, and much in the same way, for + they address themselves to the imagination, at least of + geologists who know the mighty inferences which would be + deducible were they established by observations. But though I + admire even his flights, and feel none of the _odium + theologicum_ which some modern writers in this country have + visited him with, I confess I read him rather as I hear an + advocate on the wrong side, to know what can be made of the case + in good hands. I am glad he has been courageous enough and + logical enough to admit that his argument, if pushed as far as + it must go, if worth anything, would prove that men may have + come from the Ourang-Outang. But after all, what changes species + may really undergo! How impossible will it be to distinguish and + lay down a line, beyond which some of the so-called extinct + species have never passed into recent ones. That the earth is + quite as old as he supposes, has long been my creed, and I will + try before six months are over to convert the readers of the + _Quarterly_ to that heterodox opinion[87].' + +Lyell was at that time at work on his review for the _Quarterly_ of +Scrope's _Central France_, and was also completing the 'first sketch' +of the _Principles_. But it is evident that as the result of continued +study of Lamarck's book, Lyell found it, in spite of its fascination, to +embody a theory which he could not but regard as unsound and not +calculated to prove a solution of the great mystery of evolution. +Accordingly when the second volume of the _Principles_ was issued in +1832, it was found to contain in its opening chapters a very trenchant +criticism of Lamarck's theory. + +It is only fair to remember, however, that in 1863, after Lyell had +accepted the theory of Natural Selection he wrote to Darwin: + + 'When I came to the conclusion that after all Lamarck was going + to be shown to be right, and that we must "go the whole orang" I + re-read his book, and remembering when it was written, I felt I + had done him injustice[88].' + +It is interesting also to notice that Darwin, like Lyell, gradually came +to entertain a higher opinion of the merit of Lamarck's works, than he +did on his first perusal of them. In 1844, Darwin wrote to Hooker, +'Heaven forfend me from Lamarck nonsense!' and in the same year he +speaks of Lamarck's book as 'veritable rubbish,' an 'absurd though +clever work[89].' When, after the publication of the _Origin of +Species_, Lyell referred to the _conclusions_ arrived at in that work as +similar to those of Lamarck, Darwin expressed something like +indignation, and he wrote to their 'mutual friend' Hooker, 'I have +grumbled a bit in my answer to him' (Lyell) 'at his _always_ classing my +book as a modification of Lamarck's, which it is no more than any author +who did not believe in the immutability of species[90].' In this case, +as is so frequently seen in the writings of Darwin, it is evident that +he attaches infinitely less importance to the establishment of the +_fact_ of the evolution of species, than to the demonstration of a +possible _mode of origin_ of that evolution. But that later in life +Darwin came to take a more indulgent view of the result of Lamarck's +labours is shown by a passage in his 'Historical Sketch' prefixed to the +_Origin_, in 1866. Lamarck, he says, 'first did the eminent service of +arousing attention to the probability of all change in the organic +world, as well as in the inorganic world, being the result of law and +not of miraculous interposition[91].' + +In the opinion of Dr Schwalbe and others there are indications in +Darwin's later writings that he had come into much closer relation with +the views of Lamarck, than was the case when he wrote the _Origin_[92]. + +It is interesting, however, to note that Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather +of Charles, published independently and contemporaneously, views on the +nature and causes of evolution in striking agreement with those of +Lamarck; but perhaps the poetical form, in which he chose to embody his +ideas, led to their receiving less attention than they deserved. + +As is now well known a number of writers during the earlier years of the +nineteenth century published statements in favour of evolutionary views, +and in several cases the theory of natural selection was more or less +distinctly outlined. In addition to Geoffroy and Isidore Saint Hilaire +and d'Omalius d'Halloy on the continent, a number of writers in this +country, such as Dr Wells, Mr Patrick Matthew, Dr Pritchard, Professor +Grant, Dean Herbert, all expressed views in favour of evolution, even, +in some cases, foreshadowing Natural Selection as the method. But these +authors attached so little importance to their suggestions, that they +did not even take the trouble to place them on permanent record, and it +is certain that neither Lyell nor Darwin was acquainted with their +writings at the time they were themselves working at the subject. + +There was indeed one work which, during the time that the _Origin of +Species_ was in preparation, attracted much popular attention. In 1844, +Robert Chambers, who was favourably known as the author of some +geological papers, wrote a book which excited a great amount of +attention--the well-known _Vestiges of Creation_. This work was a very +bold pronouncement of evolutionary views. Beginning with a statement of +the nebular hypothesis of Kant and Laplace, it discussed the question of +the origin of life--when life became possible on a cooling globe--and, +arguing strongly in favour of the view that all plants and animals, as +the conditions under which they existed change, had given rise to new +forms, better adapted to their environment, insisted that the whole +living creation had been gradually developed from the simplest types. + +Chambers published his book anonymously, being naturally afraid of the +prejudices that would be excited against him--especially in his own +country--by a work so outspoken, and it was not till after his death +that its authorship was definitely known. + +The _Vestiges of Creation_ met with very different receptions at the +hands of the general public and from the scientific world, at the time +it was published. The former were startled but captivated by its +fearless statements and suggestive lines of thought; while the latter +were repelled and incensed by the want of judgment, too frequently +shown, in accepting as indisputable, facts and experiments which really +rested on a very slender basis or none at all. So popular was the book, +however, that it passed through twelve editions, the last being +published after the appearance of the _Origin of Species_. + +It is interesting to read Darwin's judgment in later life on this once +famous book; he says:-- + + 'The work from its powerful and brilliant style, though + displaying in the earlier editions little accurate knowledge and + a great want of scientific caution, immediately had a very wide + circulation. In my opinion it has done excellent service in this + country in calling attention to the subject, in removing + prejudice, and in thus preparing the ground for the reception of + analogous views[93].' + +If we enquire what was the attitude of scientific naturalists towards +the doctrine of Evolution, immediately before the occurrence of the +events to be recorded in the next chapter, we shall find some diversity +of opinion to exist. The late Professor Newton, an eminent +ornithologist, has asserted that, at this period, many systematic +zoologists and botanists had begun to feel great 'searchings of heart' +as to the possibility of maintaining what were the generally prevalent +views concerning the reality and immutability of species. Huxley, +however, declared that he and many contemporary biologists were ready to +say 'to Mosaists and Evolutionists a plague to both your houses!' and +were disposed to turn aside from an interminable and fruitless +discussion, to labour in the fields of ascertainable fact[94]. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +DARWIN AND WALLACE: THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION + + +Charles Darwin was the grandson of Erasmus Darwin, who, as we have seen, +arrived independently at conclusions concerning the origin of species +very similar to those of Lamarck, and embodied his views in poems, +which, at the time of their publication, achieved a considerable +popularity. In the younger philosopher, however, imagination was always +kept in subjection by a determination to '_prove_ all things' and 'to +hold fast that which is good'; though, in other respects, there were not +wanting indications of the existence of hereditary characteristics in +the grandson. + +Born at Shrewsbury and educated in the public school of that town, +Charles Darwin from the first exhibited signs of individuality in his +ideas and his tastes. The rigid classical teaching of his school did not +touch him, but, with the aid of his elder brother, he surreptitiously +started a chemical laboratory in a garden tool-house. From his earliest +infancy he was a collector, first of trifles, like seals and franks, but +later of stones, minerals and beetles. + +At the outset, only the desire to possess new things animated him, then +a wish to put names to them, but, at a very early period, a passion +arose for learning all he could about them. Thus when only 9 or 10 years +of age, he had 'a desire of being able to know something about every +pebble in front of the hall-door,' and at 13 or 14, when he heard the +remark of a local naturalist, 'that the world would come to an end +before anyone would be able to explain how' a boulder (the 'bell-stone' +of local-fame) came to be brought from distant hills--the lad had such a +deep impression made on his mind, that he says in after life, 'I +_meditated_ over this wonderful stone[95].' + +At the age of 16, he was sent to Edinburgh University to prepare himself +for the work of a doctor--the profession of his father and grandfather. +But here his independence of character again asserted itself. He found +most of the lectures 'intolerably dull,' so he occupied himself with +other pursuits, making many friendships among the younger naturalists +and doing a little in the way of biological research himself. + +That he was not altogether destitute of ambition in the eyes of his +companions, however, is, I think, indicated by an amusing circumstance. +In the library of Charles Darwin, which is carefully preserved at +Cambridge, there is a copy of Jameson's _Manual of Mineralogy_, +published in 1821, which was evidently used by the young student in his +classwork at Edinburgh. In this a quizzical fellow-student has written +'Charles Darwin Esq., M.D., F.R.S.'--mischievously adding 'A.S.S.'! Even +for geology, the science to which in all his after life he became so +deeply devoted, young Darwin conceived the most violent aversion; and as +he listened to Jameson's Wernerian outpourings at Salisbury Crags, he +'determined never to attend to geology,' registering the terrible vow +'never as long as I lived to read a book on Geology, or in any way to +study the science[96].' + +As it became evident that Charles Darwin would never make a doctor, his +father, after two years' trial, sent him to Cambridge with the object of +his qualifying for a clergyman. But at Christ's College, in that +University, he again took his own line--which was not that of +divinity--riding, shooting and beetle-hunting being his chief delights. +Nevertheless, at Cambridge as at Edinburgh, he seems to have shown an +appreciation for good and instructive society, and in Henslow, the +judicious and amiable Professor of Botany, the young fellow found such +sympathy and kindly help that he came to be distinguished as 'the man +who walks with Henslow[97].' + +After achieving a 'pass degree,' Darwin went back to the University for +an extra term, and by the advice of Henslow began to 'think about' the +despised Science of Geology. He was introduced to that inspiring +teacher, Sedgwick, with whom he made a geological excursion into Wales; +but though he said he 'worked like a tiger' at geology, yet he, when he +got the chance of shooting on his uncle's estate, had to make the +confession, 'I should have thought myself mad to give up the first days +of partridge-shooting for geology or any other science[98].' + +There is a sentence in one of the letters written at this time which +suggests that, even at this early period in his geological career, +Darwin had begun to experience some misgivings concerning the +catastrophic doctrines of his teachers and contemporaries. He says:-- + + 'As yet I have only indulged in hypotheses, but they are such + powerful ones that I suppose, if they were put into action but + for one day, the world would come to an end[99].' + +Was he not poking fun at other hypotheses besides his own? + +Darwin's real scientific education began when, after some hesitation on +his father's part, he was allowed to accept the invitation, made to him +through his friend Henslow, to accompany, at his own expense, the +surveying ship _Beagle_ in a cruise to South America and afterwards +round the world. In the narrow quarters of the little 'ten-gun brig,' +he learned methodical habits and how best to economise space and time; +during his long expeditions on shore, rendered possible by the work of a +surveying vessel, he had ample opportunities for observing and +collecting; and, above all, the absence of the distractions from quiet +meditation, afforded by a long sea-voyage, proved in his case +invaluable. Very diligently did he work, accumulating a vast mass of +notes, with catalogues of the specimens he sent home from time to time +to Henslow. He had received no careful biological training, and Huxley +considered that the voluminous notes he made on zoological subjects were +almost useless[100]. Very different was the case, however, with his +geological notes. He had learned to use the blowpipe, and simple +microscope, as well as his hammer and clinometer; and the notes which he +made concerning his specimens, before packing them up for Cambridge, +were at the same time full, accurate and suggestive. + +Darwin has recorded in his autobiography the wonderful effect produced +on his mind by the reading of the first volume of Lyell's +_Principles_--an effect very different from that anticipated by +Henslow[101]. From that moment he became the most enthusiastic of +geologists, and never fails in his letters to insist on his preference +for geology over all other branches of science. Again and again we find +him recording observations that he thinks will 'interest Mr Lyell' and +he says in another letter:-- + + 'I am become a zealous disciple of Mr Lyell's views, as known in + his admirable book. Geologising in South America, I am tempted + to carry parts to a greater extent even than he does[102].' + +Before reaching home after his voyage, the duration of which was +fortunately extended from two to five years, he had sent home letters +asking to be elected a fellow of the Geological Society; and, +immediately on his arrival, he gave up his zoological specimens to +others and devoted his main energies for ten years to the working up of +his geological notes and specimens. + +It may seem strange that the grandson of Erasmus Darwin should in early +life have felt little or no interest in the question of the 'Origin of +Species,' but such was certainly the case. He tells us in his +autobiography that he had read his grandfather's _Zoonomia_ in his +youth, without its producing any effect on him, and when at Edinburgh he +says he heard his friend Robert Grant (afterwards Professor of Zoology +in University College, London) as they were walking together 'burst +forth in high admiration of Lamarck and his views on Evolution'--yet +Darwin adds 'I listened in silent astonishment, and as far as I can +judge without any effect on my mind[103].' + +The reason of this indifference towards his grandfather's works is +obvious. All through his life, Darwin, like Lyell, showed a positive +distaste for all speculation or theorising that was not based on a good +foundation of facts or observations. In this respect, the attitude of +Darwin's mind was the very opposite of that of Herbert Spencer--who, +Huxley jokingly said, would regard as a 'tragedy'--'the killing of a +beautiful theory by an ugly fact.' Darwin tells us himself that, while +on his first reading of _Zoonomia_ he 'greatly admired' it--evidently on +literary grounds--yet 'on reading it a second time after an interval of +ten or fifteen years, I was much disappointed; _the proportion of +speculation being so large to the facts given_.' Huxley who knew Charles +Darwin so well in later years said of him that:-- + + 'He abhors mere speculation as nature abhors a vacuum. He is as + greedy of cases and precedents as any constitutional lawyer, and + all the principles he lays down are capable of being brought to + the test of observation and experiment[104].' + +What then, we may ask, were the facts and observations which turned +Darwin's mind towards the great problem that came to be the work of his +after life? I think it is possible from the study of his letters and +other published writings to give an answer to this very interesting +question. + +In November 1832, Darwin returned to Monte Video, from a long journey in +the interior of the South American Continent, bringing with him many +zoological specimens and a great quantity of fossil bones, teeth and +scales, dug out by him with infinite toil from the red mud of the +Pampas--these fossils evidently belonging to the geological period that +immediately preceded that of the existing creation. The living animals +represented in his collection were all obviously very distinct from +those of Europe--consisting of curious sloths, anteaters, and +armadilloes--the so-called 'Edentata' of naturalists. And when young +Darwin came to examine and compare his _fossil_ bones, teeth and scales +he found that they too must have belonged to animals (megatherium, +mylodon, glyptodon, etc.) quite distinct from but of strikingly similar +structure to those now living in South America. What could be the +meaning of this wonderful analogy? If Cuvier and his fellow +Catastrophists were correct in their view that, at each 'revolution' +taking place on the earth's surface, the whole batch of plants and +animals was swept out of existence, and the world was restocked with a +'new creation,' why should the brand-new forms, at any particular +locality, have such a 'ghost-like' resemblance to those that had gone +before? It is interesting to note that, just at the same time, a similar +discovery was made with respect to Australia. In caves in that country, +a number of bones were found which, though evidently belonging to +'extinct' animals, yet must have belonged to forms resembling the +kangaroos and other 'pouched animals' (marsupials) now so distinctive of +that continent. But of this fact Darwin was not aware until after his +return to England in 1836. + +Among the objects sent from home, which awaited Darwin on his return to +Monte Video, was the second volume of Lyell's _Principles_, then newly +published; this book, while rejecting Lamarckism, was crowded with facts +and observations concerning variation, hybridism, the struggle for +existence, and many other questions bearing on the great problem of the +origin of species. I think there can be no doubt that from this time +Darwin came to regard the question of species with an interest he had +never felt before. + +It is of course not suggested that, at this early date, Darwin had +formed any definite ideas as to the _mode_ in which new species might +possibly arise from pre-existing ones or even that he had been converted +to a belief in evolution. Indeed in 1877 he wrote 'When I was on board +the _Beagle_ I believed in the permanence of species' yet he adds 'but +as far as I can remember _vague doubts_ occasionally flitted across my +mind.' Such 'vague doubts' could scarcely have failed to have arisen +when, as happened during all his journeys from north to south of the +South American Continent, he found the same curious correspondence +between existing and late fossil forms of life again and again +illustrated. + +But towards the end of the voyage, an even stronger element of doubt as +to the immutability of species was awakened in his mind. When he came to +study the forms of life existing in the Galapagos Islands, off the west +coast of South America, he was startled by the discovery of the +following facts. Each small island had its own 'fauna' or assemblage of +animals--this being very strikingly shown in the case of the reptiles +and birds. And yet, though the _species_ were different, there was +obviously a very wonderful 'family likeness' to one another between the +forms in the several islands and between them all and the animals living +in the adjoining portion of the continent. Surely this could not be +accidental, but must indicate relationships due to descent from common +ancestors! + +Charles Darwin returned to England in 1836, and at once made the +acquaintance of Lyell. He says in one place, 'I saw a great deal of +Lyell' and in another that 'I saw more of Lyell than of any other man, +both before and after my marriage.' In one of his letters he writes, +'You cannot conceive anything more thoroughly good natured than the +heart-and-soul manner in which he put himself in my place and thought +what would be best to do[105].' For two years Darwin was comparatively +free from the distressing malady which clouded so much of his after +life. And, during that time, he engaged very heartily with Lyell in +those combats at the Geological Society (of which he had become one of +the Secretaries) in which their joint views concerning the truth of +continuity or evolution in the inorganic world were defended against the +attacks of the militant catastrophists. Darwin, however, did not act on +the defensive alone, but brought forward a number of papers strongly +supporting his new friend's views. + +There can be little doubt that, while thus engaged, and in constant +friendly intercourse with Lyell, Darwin must have felt--like other +earnest thinkers on geology at that day--that the principles they were +advocating of 'continuity' in the inorganic world must be equally +applicable to the organic world--and thus that the question of evolution +would acquire a new interest for him. + +But it was undoubtedly the revision of the notes made on board the +_Beagle_, and the study of the specimens which had been sent home by him +from time to time, that produced the great determining influence on +Darwin's career. All through the voyage he had endeavoured, with as much +literary skill as he could command, to record with accuracy the +observations he made, and the conclusions to which, on careful +reflection, they seemed to point. And on his return to England, these +patiently written journals were revised and prepared for publication +forming that charming work _A Naturalist's Voyage. Journal of Researches +into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries visited during the +Voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle' round the world._ + +As Darwin, with the specimens before him, revised his notes, and +reconsidered the impressions made on his mind, the 'vague doubts' he had +entertained, from time to time, concerning the immutability of species, +would come back to him with new force and cumulative effect. 'I then +saw,' he says, 'how many facts indicated the common descent of species,' +and further, 'It occurred to me in 1837, that something might perhaps be +made out on this question by patiently accumulating and reflecting on +all sorts of facts which could possibly have any bearing on it.' In July +of that year, he opened his first note-book on the subject[106]--the +note-books being soon replaced by a series of portfolios, in which +extracts from the various works he read, facts obtained by +correspondence, the records of experiments and observation, and ideas +suggested by constant meditation were slowly accumulated for twenty +years. Mr Francis Darwin has published a series of extracts from the +note-book of 1837, which amply prove that by this time Charles Darwin +had become 'a convinced evolutionist[107].' + +Fifteen months after this 'systematic enquiry' began, Darwin happened to +read the celebrated work of Malthus _On Population_, for amusement, and +this served as a spark falling on a long prepared train of thought. The +idea that as animals and plants multiply in geometrical progression, +while the supplies of food and space to be occupied remain nearly +constant, and that this must lead to a 'struggle for existence' of the +most desperate kind, was by no means new to Darwin, for the elder De +Candolle, Lyell and others had enlarged upon it; yet the facts with +regard to the human race, so strikingly presented by Malthus, brought +the whole question with such vividness before him that the idea of +'Natural Selection' flashed upon Darwin's mind. This hypothesis cannot +be better or more succinctly stated than in Huxley's words. + + 'All _species_ have been produced by the development of + _varieties_ from common stocks: by the conversion of these, + first into _permanent races_ and then into _new species_, by the + process of _natural selection_, which process is essentially + identical with that artificial selection by which man has + originated the races of domestic animals--the _struggle for + existence_ taking the place of man, and exerting, in the case of + natural selection, that selective action which he performs in + artificial selection[108].' + +With characteristic caution, Darwin determined not to write down 'even +the briefest sketch' of this hypothesis, that had so suddenly presented +itself to his mind. His habit of thought was always to give the fullest +consideration and weight to any possible objection that presented itself +to his own mind or could be suggested to him by others. Though he was +satisfied as to the truth and importance of the principle of natural +selection, there is evidence that for some years he was oppressed by +difficulties, which I think would have seemed greater to him than to +anyone else. In my conversations with Darwin, in after years, it always +struck me that he attached an exaggerated importance to the merest +suggestion of a view opposed to that he was himself inclined to adopt; +indeed I sometimes almost feared to indicate a _possible_ different +point of view to his own, for fear of receiving such an answer as 'What +a very striking objection, how stupid of me not to see it before, I must +really reconsider the whole subject.' + +While a divinity student at Cambridge, Darwin had been much struck with +the logical form of the works both of Euclid and of Paley. The rooms of +the latter he seems to have actually occupied at Christ's College and +the works of the great divine were so diligently studied that their deep +influence remained with him in after life[109]. + +I think it must have been the remembrance of the arguments of Paley on +the 'proofs of design' in Nature, that seem in after life to have +haunted Darwin so that for long he failed to recognise fully that the +principle of natural selection accounted not only for the _adaptation_ +of an organism to its environment, but at the same time explains that +_divergence_, which must have taken place in species in order to give +rise to their wonderfully varied characters. + +It was not till long after he came to Down in 1842, he tells us in his +autobiography, that his mind freed itself from this objection. He +says:-- + + 'I can remember the very spot in the road, whilst in my + carriage, when to my joy the solution occurred to me,' + +and he compares the relief to his mind as resembling the effect produced +by 'Columbus and his egg[110].' Some may think the 'solution' of +Columbus was itself not a very satisfactory one; and I am inclined to +regard the difficulties of which Darwin records so sudden and dramatic a +removal as more imaginary than real! + +There can be no doubt that, as pointed out by the late Professor Alfred +Newton[111], there was among naturalists during the second quarter of +the nineteenth century a feeling of dissatisfaction with respect to +current ideas concerning the origin of species, accompanied in many +cases with one of expectation that a solution might soon be found. +Others, however, despairingly regarded it as 'the mystery of mysteries' +for which it was hopeless to attempt to find a key. There was, however, +one man, who simultaneously with Darwin was meditating earnestly on the +problem and who eventually reached the same goal. + +Alfred Russel Wallace was born thirteen years after Darwin, and a +quarter of a century after Lyell. He did not possess the moderate income +that permits of entire devotion to scientific research--an advantage, +the importance of which in their own cases, both Lyell and Darwin were +always so ready to acknowledge. Wallace, after working for a time as a +land-surveyor and then as a teacher, at the age of 26 set off with +another naturalist, H. W. Bates, on a collecting tour in South +America--hoping by the sale of specimens to cover the expenses of +travel. Like Lyell and Darwin, he was an enthusiastic entomologist, and +had conceived the same passion for travel. He had, as we have already +seen, been deeply impressed by reading the _Principles of Geology_, and +after spending four years in South America undertook a second collecting +tour, which lasted twice that time, in the Malay Archipelago. + +[Illustration: Alfred R. Wallace] + +Before leaving England in 1848, Wallace had read and been impressed by +reading the _Vestiges of Creation_, and there can be no doubt that from +that period the question of evolution was always more or less distinctly +present in his mind. While in Sarawak in the wet season, he tells us, 'I +was quite alone with one Malay boy as cook, and during the evenings and +wet days I had nothing to do but to look over my books and ponder over +the problem which was rarely absent from my thoughts.' He goes on to +say that by 'combining the ideas he had derived from his books that +treated of the distribution of plants and animals with those he obtained +from the great work of Lyell' he thought 'some valuable conclusions +might be reached[112].' Thus originated the very remarkable paper, _On +the Law which has regulated the Introduction of New Species_, the main +conclusion of which was as follows: 'Every species has come into +existence coincident both in space and time with a pre-existing closely +allied species.' As Wallace has himself said, 'This clearly pointed to +some kind of evolution ... but the _how_ was still a secret.' + +This essay was published in the _Annals and Magazine of Natural History_ +in September 1855. It attracted much attention from Lyell and Darwin and +later from Huxley. One important result of it was that Darwin and +Wallace entered into friendly correspondence. But although Darwin in his +letters to Wallace informed him that he had been engaged for a long time +in collecting facts which bore on the question of the origin of species, +he gave no hint of the theory of natural selection he had conceived +seventeen years before--indeed his friends Lyell and Hooker appear at +that time to have been the only persons, outside his family circle, whom +he had taken into his confidence. + +In the spring of 1858, Wallace was at Ternate in the island of Celebes, +where he lay sick with fever, and as his thoughts wandered to the +ever-present problem of species, there suddenly recurred to his memory +the writings of Malthus, which he had read twelve years before. Then and +there, 'in a sudden flash of insight' the idea of natural selection +presented itself to his mind, and after a few hours' thought the chief +points were written down, and within a week the matter was 'copied on +thin letter-paper' and sent to Darwin by the next post, with a letter to +the following effect[113]. Wallace stated that the idea seemed new to +himself and he asked Darwin, if he also thought it new, to show it to +Lyell, who had taken so much interest in his former paper. Little did +Wallace think, in the absence of all knowledge on his part of Darwin's +own conclusions, what stir would be made by his paper when it arrived in +England! + +Wallace's essay was entitled _On the Tendency of Varieties to depart +indefinitely from the Original Type_, and it is a singularly lucid and +striking presentment, in small compass, of the theory of Natural +Selection. + +Had these two men been of less noble and generous nature, the history of +science might have been dishonoured by a painful discussion on a +question of priority. Fortunately we are not called upon for anything +like a judicial investigation of rival claims; for Darwin as soon as he +read the essay saw that--as Lyell had often warned him might be the +case--he was completely forestalled in the publication of his theory. +The letter and paper arrived at a sad time for Darwin--he was at the +moment very ill, there was 'scarlet fever raging in his family, to which +an infant son had succumbed on the previous day, and a daughter was ill +with diphtheria[114].' Darwin at once wrote hurriedly to Lyell enclosing +the essay and saying: + + 'I never saw a more striking coincidence; if Wallace had my MS. + sketch written out in 1842, he could not have made a better + short abstract! Even his terms now stand as heads of my + chapters. Please return me the MS., which he does not say he + wishes me to publish, but I shall, of course, at once write and + offer to send to any journal. So all my originality, whatever it + may amount to, will be smashed, though my book, if it ever have + any value, will not be deteriorated, as all the labour consists + in the application of the theory. I hope you will approve of + Wallace's sketch, that I may tell him what to say[115].' + +And Wallace--what was the line taken by him in the unfortunate +complication that had thus arisen? From the very first his action was +all that is generous and noble. Not only did he, from the first, +entirely acquiesce in the course taken by Lyell and Hooker, but, writing +in 1870, when the fame of Darwin's work had reached its full height, he +said:-- + + 'I have felt all my life and I still feel, the most sincere + satisfaction that Mr Darwin had been at work long before me, and + that it was not left for me to attempt to write _The Origin of + Species_. I have long since measured my own strength and know + well that it would be quite unequal to that task. For abler men + than myself may confess, that they have not that untiring + patience in accumulating, and that wonderful skill in using, + large masses of facts of the most varied kind,--that wide and + accurate physiological knowledge,--that acuteness in devising + and skill in carrying out experiments,--and that admirable style + of composition, at once clear, persuasive and + judicial,--qualities which in their harmonious combination mark + out Mr Darwin as the man, perhaps of all men now living, best + fitted for the great work he has undertaken and + accomplished[116].' + +And fifty years after the joint publication of the theory of Natural +Selection to the Linnean Society he said: + + '_I_ was then (as often since) the "young man in a hurry," _he_' + (Darwin) 'the painstaking and patient student, seeking ever the + full demonstration of the truth he had discovered, rather than + to achieve immediate personal fame[117].' + +And when he referred to the respective shares of Darwin and himself to +the credit of having brought forward the theory of natural selection, he +actually suggests as a fair proportion '_twenty years to one +week_'--those being the periods each had devoted to the subject[118]! + +Never surely was such a noble example of personal abnegation! We admire +the generosity, though we cannot accept the estimate, for do we not know +that, for at least half the period of Darwin's patient quest, Wallace +had spent in deeply pondering upon the same great question? + + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES + + +In the preceding chapter I have endeavoured to show how the hypothesis +of Natural Selection originated in the minds of its authors, and must +now invite attention to the way in which it was introduced to the world. +What has been said earlier with respect to the labours and writings of +Hutton, Scrope and Lyell may serve to indicate the great importance of +the _manner_ of presentment of new ideas--the logical force and literary +skill with which they are brought to the notice of scientific +contemporaries and the world at large. + +There are some striking passages in Darwin's naive 'autobiography and +letters' which indicate the beginnings of his ambition for literary +distinction. It must always be borne in mind in reading this +autobiography, however, that it was not intended by Darwin for +publication, but only for the amusement of the members of his own +family. But the charming and unsophisticated self-revelations in it will +always be a source of delight to the world. + +When making his first original observations among the volcanic cones and +craters of St Jago in the Cape-de-Verde Islands, he says 'It then first +dawned on me that I might perhaps write a book on the geology of the +different countries visited, and this made me thrill with delight[119].' +He tells us concerning his regular occupations on board the _Beagle_, +that 'during some part of the day, I wrote my Journal and took much +pains in describing carefully and vividly all that I had seen: and this +was good practice[120].' + +'Later in the voyage' he says 'FitzRoy' (the Captain of the _Beagle_) +'asked me to read some of my Journal and declared it would be worth +publishing, so here was a second book in prospect[121]!' + +Darwin's first published writings were the extracts from his letters +which Henslow read to the Philosophical Society of Cambridge, and those +which Sedgwick submitted to the Geological Society. At Ascension, on the +voyage home, a letter from Darwin's sisters had informed him of the +commendation with which Sedgwick had spoken to his father of these +papers, and he wrote fifty years afterwards: 'After reading this letter, +I clambered over the mountains of Ascension with a bounding step, and +made the volcanic rocks ring under my geological hammer.' When in 1839 +his charming _Journal of Researches_ was published he records that 'The +success of this my first literary child always tickles my vanity more +than that of any of my other books[122].' + +As a matter of fact, no one could possibly be more diffident and modest +about his actual literary performances than was Charles Darwin. I have +heard him again and again express a wish that he possessed 'dear old +Lyell's literary skill'; and he often spoke with the greatest enthusiasm +of the 'clearness and force of Huxley's style.' On one occasion he +mentioned to me, with something like sadness in his voice, that it had +been asserted 'there was a want of connection and continuity in the +written arguments,' and he told me that, while engaged on the _Origin_, +he had seldom been able to write, without interruption from pain, for +more than twenty minutes at a time! + +Charles Darwin never spoke definitely to me about the nature of the +sufferings that he so patiently endured. On the occasion of my first +visit to him at Down he wrote me a letter (dated August 25th, 1880) in +which, after giving the most minute and kindly directions concerning the +journey, he arranged that his dog-cart should bring me to the house in +time for a 1 o'clock lunch, telling me that to catch a certain train for +return, it would be necessary to leave his house a little before 4 +o'clock. But he added significantly:-- + + 'But I am bound to tell you that I shall not be able to talk + with you or anyone else for this length of time, however much I + should like to do so--but you can read newspaper or take a + stroll during part of the time.' + +His constant practice, whenever I visited him, either at Down or at his +brother's or daughter's house in London, was to retire with me, after +lunch, to a room where we could 'talk geology' for about three quarters +of an hour. At the end of that time, Mrs Darwin would come in smilingly, +and though no word was spoken by her, Darwin would at once rise and beg +me to read the newspaper for a time, or, if I preferred it, to take a +stroll in the garden; and after urging me to stay 'if I could possibly +spare the time,' would go away, as I understood to lie down. On his +return, about half an hour later, the discussion would be resumed where +it had been left off, without further remark. + +Mr Francis Darwin has told us that the nature and extent of his father's +sufferings--so patiently and uncomplainingly borne--were never fully +known, even to his own children, but only to the faithful wife who +devoted her whole life to the care of his health. As is well known, +Darwin seldom visited at other houses, besides those of immediate +relatives, or the hydropathic establishment at which he sought relief +from his illness. But he was in the habit of sometimes, when in London, +calling upon David Forbes the mineralogist (a younger brother of Edward +Forbes) then living in York Street, Portman Square. The bonds of union +between Charles Darwin and David Forbes were, first, that they had both +travelled extensively in South America, and secondly, that both were +greatly interested in methods of preserving and making available for +future reference all notes and memoranda collected from various sources. +David Forbes devoted to the purpose a large room with the most elaborate +system of pigeon-holes, about which he told me that Darwin was greatly +excited. He also mentioned to me that, on one or more occasions, while +Darwin was in his house, pains of such a violent character had seized +him that he had been compelled to lie down for a time and had occasioned +his host the greatest alarm. + +It must always therefore be remembered, in reading Darwin's works, what +were the sad conditions under which they were produced. It seems to be +doubtful to what extent his ill-health may be regarded as the result of +an almost fatal malady, from which he suffered in South America, or as +the effect of the constant and prolonged sea-sickness of which he was +the victim during the five years' voyage. But certain it is that his +work was carried on under no ordinary difficulties, and that it was only +by the exercise of the sternest resolution, in devoting every moment of +time that he was free from pain to his tasks, that he was able to +accomplish his great undertakings. + +I do not think, however, that any unprejudiced reader will regard +Darwin's literary work as standing in need of anything like an apology. +He always aims--and I think succeeds--at conveying his meaning in simple +and direct language; and in all his works there is manifest that +undercurrent of quiet enthusiasm, which was so strikingly displayed in +his conversation. It was delightful to witness the keen enjoyment with +which he heard of any new fact or observation bearing on the pursuits in +which he was engaged, and his generous nature always led him to attach +an exaggerated value to any discovery or suggestion which might be +brought to his knowledge--and to appraise the work of others above his +own. + +The most striking proof of the excellence and value of Darwin's literary +work is the fact that his numerous books have attained a circulation, in +their original form, probably surpassing that of any other scientific +writings ever produced--and that, in translations, they have appealed to +a wider circle of readers than any previous naturalist has ever +addressed! + +We have seen that the idea of Natural Selection 'flashed on' Darwin's +mind in October 1838, and although he was himself inclined to think that +his _complete_ satisfaction with it, as a solution of the problem of +the origin of species, was delayed to a considerably later date, yet I +believe that this was only the result of his over-cautious temperament, +and we must accept the date named as being that of the real birth of the +hypothesis. + +At this early date, too, it is evident that Darwin conceived the idea +that he might accomplish for the principle of evolution in the organic +world, what Lyell had done, in the _Principles_, for the inorganic +world. To cite his own words, 'after my return to England it appeared to +me that by following the example of Lyell in Geology, and by collecting +all facts which bore in any way on the variation of animals and plants +under domestication and nature, some light might perhaps be thrown on +the whole subject[123].' 'In June 1842,' he says, 'I first _allowed_ +myself' (how significant is the phrase!) 'the satisfaction of writing a +brief abstract of my theory in pencil in 35 pages[124].' + +For many years it was thought that this first sketch of Darwin's great +work had been lost. But after the death of Mrs Darwin in 1896, when the +house at Down was vacated, the interesting MS. was found 'hidden in a +cupboard under the stairs which was not used for papers of any value but +rather as an overflow of matters he did not wish to destroy[125].' By +the pious care of his son, this interesting MS.--hurriedly written and +sometimes almost illegible--has been given to the world, and it proves +how completely Darwin had, at that early date, thought out the main +lines of his future _opus magnum_. + +Darwin, however, had no idea of publishing his theory to the world until +he was able to support it by a great mass of facts and observations. +Lyell, again and again, warned him of the danger which he incurred of +being forestalled by other workers; while his brother Erasmus constantly +said to him, 'You will find that some one will have been before +you[126]!' + +The utmost that Darwin could be persuaded to do, however, was to enlarge +his sketch of 1842 into one of 230 pages. This he did in the summer of +1844. His manner of procedure seems to have been that, keeping to the +same general arrangement of the matter as he had adopted in his original +sketch, he elaborated the arguments and added illustrations. Each of the +35 pages of the pencilled sketch, as it was dealt with, had a vertical +line drawn across it and was thrown aside. While the 'pencilled sketch' +of 1842 was little better than a collection of memoranda, which, though +intelligible to the writer at the time, are sometimes difficult either +to decipher or to understand the meaning of, the expanded work of 1844 +was a much more connected and readable document, which Darwin caused to +be carefully copied out. The work was done in the summer months, while +he was absent from home, and unable therefore to refer to his abundant +notes--Darwin speaks of it, therefore, as 'done from memory.' + +The two sketches, as Mr Francis Darwin points out, were each divided +into two distinct parts, though this arrangement is not adopted in the +_Origin of Species_, as finally published. Charles Darwin on many +occasions spoke of having adopted the _Principles of Geology_ as his +model. That work as we have seen consisted of a first portion +(eventually expanded from one to two volumes), in which the general +principles were enunciated and illustrated, and a second portion +(forming the third volume), in which those principles were applied to +deciphering the history of the globe in the past. I think that Darwin's +original intention was to follow a similar plan; the first part of his +work dealing with the evidences derived from the study of variation, +crossing, the struggle for existence, etc., and the second to the proofs +that natural selection had really operated as illustrated by the +geological record, by the facts of geographical distribution, and by +many curious phenomena exhibited by plants and animals. Although this +plan was eventually abandoned--no doubt wisely--when the _Origin_ came +to be written, we cannot but recognise in it another illustration of the +great influence exercised by Lyell and his works on Darwin--an influence +the latter was always so ready to acknowledge. + +On the 5th July 1844, Darwin wrote a letter to his wife in which he +said, 'I have just finished my sketch of my species theory. If, as I +believe, my theory in time be accepted, even by one competent judge, it +will be a considerable step in science.' He goes on to request his wife, +'in case of my sudden death' to devote £400 (or if found necessary £500) +to securing an editor and publishing the work. As editor he says 'Lyell +would be the best, if he would undertake it,' and later, 'Lyell, +especially with the aid of Hooker (and if any good zoological aid), +would be best of all.' He then suggests other names from which a choice +might be made, but adds 'the editor must be a geologist as well as +naturalist.' Fortunately for the world Mrs Darwin was never called upon +to take action in accordance with the terms of this affecting +document[127]. + +It must be remembered that, at this time, Darwin was hard at work on the +three volumes of the _Geology of the Beagle_, and on the second and +revised edition of his _Journal of Researches_. This which he considered +his 'proper work' he stuck to closely, whenever his health permitted. He +had hoped to complete these books in three or four years, but they +actually occupied him for _ten_, owing to constant interruptions from +illness. His occasional neglect of this task, and indulgence in his +'species work,' as he called it, was always spoken of at this time by +Darwin as 'idleness.' And when the geological and narrative books were +finished, Darwin took up the systematic study of the Barnacles +(_Cirripedia_), both recent and fossil, and wrote two monumental works +on the subject. These occupied eight years, two out of which he +estimated were lost by interruptions from illness. So absorbed was he in +this work, that his children regarded it as the _necessary occupation_ +of a man,--and when a visitor in the house was seen not to be so +employed one of them enquired of their mother, 'When does Mr ---- do +_his_ Barnacles?' Huxley has left on record his view that in devoting so +long a time to the study of the Barnacles Darwin 'never did a wiser +thing,' for it brought him into direct contact with the principles on +which naturalists found 'species[128].' And Hooker has expressed the +same opinion. + +Daring these years of labour in geology and zoology--interrupted only by +the 'hours of idleness'--devoted to 'the species question,' Darwin, +though leading at Down almost the life of a hermit, was nevertheless in +frequent communication with two or three faithful friends who followed +his labours with the deepest interest. Cautious as was Darwin himself, +he found in his life-long friend Lyell, a still more doubting and +critical spirit, and it is clear from what Darwin says that he derived +much help by laying new ideas and suggestions before him. The year +before Darwin's death he wrote of Lyell, 'When I made a remark to him on +Geology, he never rested till he saw the whole case clearly, and often +made me see it more clearly than I had done before.' + +Lyell's father was a botanist of considerable repute, the friend of Sir +William Hooker and his distinguished son Dr (now Sir Joseph) Hooker. +While Darwin was writing his _Journal of Researches_, he handed the +proof-sheets to Lyell with permission to show them to his father, who +was a man of great literary judgment. The elder Lyell, in turn, showed +them to young Mr Hooker, who was then preparing to join Sir James Ross, +in his celebrated Antarctic voyage with H.M. ships _Erebus_ and +_Terror_. Hooker was then working hard to take his doctor's degree +before joining the expedition as surgeon, but he kept Darwin's +proof-sheets under his pillow, so as to get opportunities of reading +them 'between waking and rising.' Before leaving England, however, +Hooker in 1839 casually met and was introduced to Darwin, and thus +commenced a friendship which resulted in such inestimable benefits to +science. Before sailing with the Antarctic expedition the young surgeon +received from Charles Lyell, as a parting gift, 'a copy of Darwin's +_Journal_ complete'; and he tells us that the perusal stimulated in him +'an enthusiasm in the desire to travel and observe[129].' + +On Hooker's return from the voyage in 1843, a friendly letter from +Darwin commenced that remarkable correspondence, which will always +afford the best means of judging of the development of ideas in Darwin's +mind. Hooker's wide knowledge of plants--especially of all questions +concerning their distribution--was of invaluable assistance to Darwin, +at a time when his attention was more particularly absorbed by geology +and zoology, while botany had not as yet received much attention from +him. Hooker's experience, gained in travel, his sound judgment and +balanced mind made him a judicious adviser, while his caution and +candour fitted him to become a trenchant critic of new suggestions, +scarcely inferior in that respect to Lyell. + +Darwin does not appear to have made the acquaintance of Huxley till a +considerably later date; but we find the great comparative anatomist had +in 1851 already become so deeply impressed by Darwin, that he said in +writing to a friend he 'might be anything if he had good health[130].' +Huxley used to visit Darwin at Down occasionally, and I have often heard +the latter speak of the instruction and pleasure he enjoyed from their +intercourse. + +For many years of his life, Darwin used to come to London and stay with +his brother or daughter for about a week at a time, and on these +occasions--which usually occurred about twice in the year I believe--he +would meet Lyell to 'talk Geology,' Hooker for discussions on Botany, +and Huxley for Zoology. + +For twenty years Darwin had 'collected facts on a wholesale scale, more +especially with respect to domesticated productions, by printed +enquiries, by conversations with skilful breeders and gardeners, and by +extensive reading.' 'When,' he added, 'I see the list of books of all +kinds which I read and abstracted, including whole series of Journals +and Transactions, I am surprised at my industry[131].' In September 1854 +the Barnacle work was finished and 10,000 specimens sent out of the +house and distributed, and then he devoted himself to arranging his +'huge pile of notes, to observing and experimenting in relation to the +transmutation of species.' + +It was early in 1856 when this work had been completed, that, again +urged by Lyell, he actually commenced writing his book. It was planned +as a work on a considerable scale and, if finished, would have reached +dimensions three or four times as great as did eventually the _Origin of +Species_. Working steadily and continuously he had got as far as Chapter +X, completing more than one half the book, when as he says Wallace's +letter and essay came 'like a bolt from the blue.' + +Oppressed by illness, anxiety and perplexity, as we have seen that +Darwin was at the time, he fortunately consented to leave +matters--though with great reluctance--in the hands of his friends +Lyell and Hooker. They took the wise course of reading Wallace's paper +at the Linnean Society on July 1st, 1858, at the same time giving +extracts from Darwin's memoir written in 1844, and the abstract of a +letter written by Darwin in 1857 to the distinguished American botanist, +Asa Gray. This solution of the difficulty happily met with the complete +approval of Wallace; and, as the result of the episode, Darwin came to +the conclusion that it would not be wise to defer full publication of +his views, until the extensive work on which he was engaged could be +finished, but an 'abstract' of them must be prepared and issued with as +little delay as possible. + +For a time there was hesitation, as Darwin's correspondence with Lyell +and Hooker shows, between the two plans of sending this 'abstract' to +the Linnean Society in a series of papers or of making it an independent +book. But Darwin entertained an invincible dislike to submitting his +various conclusions to the judgment of the Council of a Society, and, in +the end, the preparation of the 'Abstract' in the form of a book of +moderate size, was decided on. This was the origin of Darwin's great +work. + +The sickness at Down had led to the abandonment of the house for a time, +and, three weeks after the reading of the joint paper at the Linnean +Society, we find Darwin temporarily established at Sandown, in the Isle +of Wight, where the writing of the _Origin of Species_ was commenced. +The work was resumed in September when the family returned to Down, and +from that time was pressed forward with the greatest diligence. + +For the first half of the book, the task before Darwin was to condense, +into less than one half their dimensions, the chapters he had already +written for the large work as originally projected. But for the second +half of the book, he had to expand directly from the essay of 1844. + +So closely did Darwin apply himself to the work, that, by the end of +March 28th, 1859, he was able to write to Lyell telling him that he +hoped to be ready to go to press early in May, and asking advice about +publication: he says, 'My Abstract will be about five hundred pages of +the size of your first edition of the _Elements of Geology_.' Lyell +introduced Darwin to John Murray, who had issued all his own works, and +the present representative of that publishing firm has placed on record +a very interesting account of the ever thoughtful and considerate +relations between Darwin and his publishers, which were maintained to +the end[132]. + +The MS. of the book seems to have been practically finished early in +May, and Darwin's health then broke down for a time, so completely that +he had to retire to a hydropathic establishment. By June 21st he was +able to write to Lyell 'I am working very hard, but get on slowly, for I +find that my corrections are terrifically heavy, and the work most +difficult to me. I have corrected 130 pages, and the volume will be +about 500. I have tried my best to make it clear and striking, but very +much fear that I have failed; so many discussions are and must be very +perplexing. _I have done my best._ If you had all my materials, I am +sure you would have made a splendid book. I long to finish, for I am +certainly worn out[133].' On September 10th the last proof was corrected +and the preparation of the index commenced. At the meeting of the +British Association in Aberdeen, Lyell made the important announcement +of the approaching publication of the great work. On November 24th the +book was issued, 1250 copies having been printed, and Darwin wrote to +Murray, 'I am infinitely pleased and proud at the appearance of my +child.' The edition was sold out in a day, and was followed early in the +next year by the issue of 3000 copies; and untold thousands have since +appeared. + +The writing of such a work as the _Origin of Species_, in so short a +time--especially taking into consideration the condition of its author's +health--was a most remarkable feat. It would, of course, not have been +possible but for the fact that Darwin's mind was completely saturated +with the subject, and that he had command of such an enormous body of +methodically arranged notes. He showed the greatest anxiety to convince +his scientific contemporaries, and at the same time to make his meaning +clear to the general reader. With the former object, both MS. and +printed proofs were submitted to the criticism of Lyell and Hooker; and +the latter end was obtained by sending the MS. to a lady friend, Miss G. +Tollet--she, as Darwin says 'being an excellent judge of style, is going +to look out errors for me.' Finally the proofs of the book were +carefully read by Mrs Darwin herself. + +The splendid success achieved by the work is a matter of history. Its +clearness of statement and candour in reasoning pleased the general +public; critics without any profound knowledge of natural history were +beguiled into the opinion that they _understood_ the whole matter! and, +according to their varying tastes, indulged in shallow objection or +slightly offensive patronage. The fully-anticipated, theological +vituperation was of course not lacking, but most of the 'replies' to +Darwin's arguments were 'lifted' from the book itself, in which +objections to his views were honestly stated and candidly considered by +the author. + +The best testimony to the profound and far-reaching character of the +scientific discussions of the _Origin of Species_ is found in the fact +that both Hooker and Huxley, in spite of their wide knowledge and long +intercourse with Darwin, found the work, so condensed were its +reasonings, a 'very hard book' to read, one on which it was difficult to +pronounce a judgment till after several perusals! + +It would be idle to speculate at the present day whether the cause of +Evolution would have been better served by the publication, as Darwin at +one time proposed, of a 'Preliminary Essay,' like that of 1844, or by +the great work, which had been commenced and half completed in 1858, +rather than by the 'abstract,' in which the theory of Natural Selection +was in the end presented to the world. Probably the more moderate +dimensions of the _Origin of Species_ made it far better suited for the +general reader; while the condensation which was necessitated did not in +the end militate against its influence with men of science. It will I +think be now generally conceded that the great success of this grand +work was fully deserved. A subject of such complexity as that which it +dealt with could only be adequately discussed in a manner that would +demand careful attention and thought on the part of the reader; and +Darwin's well-weighed words, carefully balanced sentences, and guarded +reservations are admirably adapted to the accomplishment of the +difficult task he had undertaken. The _Origin of Species_ has been read +by the millions with pleasure, and, at the same time, by the deepest +thinkers of the age with conviction. + +It is scarcely possible to refer to the literary style of Darwin's work +without a reference to a misconception arising from that very candid +analysis of his characteristics which he wrote for the satisfaction of +his family, but which has happily been given to the world by his son. In +his early life Darwin was exceedingly fond of music, and took such +delight in good literature, especially poetry, that when on his journeys +in South America he found himself able to carry only one book with him, +the work chosen was the poems of Milton--the former student of his own +Christ's College, Cambridge. But towards the end of his life, Darwin had +sadly to confess that he found that he had quite lost the capacity of +enjoying either music or the noblest works of literature. + +Some have argued that Darwin's scientific labours must have actually +proved destructive to his artistic and literary tastes, and have even +gone so far as to assert--in spite of numerous examples to the +contrary--that there is a natural antithesis between the mental +conditions that respectively favour scientific and artistic excellence. + +But I think there is a very simple explanation of the loss by Darwin of +his powers of enjoyment of music and poetry, a loss which he evidently +greatly deplored. His scientific undertaking was so gigantic, and, at +the same time, his health was so broken and precarious, that he felt his +only chance of success lay in utilizing, for the tasks before him, every +moment that he was free from acute suffering and retained any power of +working. Consequently, when the self-imposed task of each day was +completed, he found himself in a state of mental collapse. Now to +appreciate the beauties of fine music or the work of a great writer +certainly demands that the mind should be fresh and unjaded, whereas, at +the only times Darwin had for relaxation, he was quite unfitted for +these higher delights. We are not surprised then to learn that he sought +and found relief in listening to his wife's reading of some pleasant +novel or in the nightly game of backgammon, as the only means of resting +his wearied brain. + +No one who had the privilege of conversing with Darwin in his later +years can doubt of his having retained to the end the full possession of +his refined tastes as well as his great mental powers. His love for and +sympathy with every movement tending to progress--especially in the +scientific and educational world--his devotion to his friends, with no +little indulgence of indignation for what he thought false or mean in +others, these were his conspicuous characteristics, and they were +combined with a gentle playfulness and sense of humour, which made him +the most delightful and loveable of companions. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE INFLUENCE OF DARWIN'S WORKS + + +In two essays 'On the Coming of Age of the Origin of Species[134],' and +'On the Reception of the Origin of Species[135],' published in 1880 and +1887 respectively, Huxley has discussed the course of events following +the publication of Darwin's great work, he having the advantage of being +one of the chief actors in those events. There is a striking parallelism +between the manner that the _Principles of Geology_ had been received +thirty years earlier, and the way that the _Origin of Species_ was met, +both by Darwin's scientific contemporaries and the reading public. + +At the outset, as we have already intimated, Lyell and Darwin were +equally fortunate, in that each found a critic, in one of the chief +organs of public opinion, who was at the same time both competent and +sympathetic. The story of the lucky accident by which this came about in +Darwin's case has been told by Huxley himself[136]. + + 'The _Origin_ was sent to Mr Lucas, one of the staff of the + _Times_ writers at that time, in what was I suppose the + ordinary course of business. Mr Lucas, though an excellent + journalist, ... was as innocent of any knowledge of science as a + babe, and bewailed himself to an acquaintance on having to deal + with such a book. Whereupon, he was recommended to ask me to get + him out of the difficulty, and he applied to me accordingly, + explaining, however, that it would be necessary for him formally + to adopt anything I might be disposed to write, by prefacing it + with two or three paragraphs of his own.' + + 'I was too anxious to seize upon the opportunity thus offered of + giving the book a fair chance with the multitudinous readers of + the _Times_, to make any difficulty about conditions; and being + then very full of the subject, I wrote the article faster, I + think, than I ever wrote anything in my life, and sent it to Mr + Lucas who duly prefixed his opening sentences[137].' + +Many journalists, however, were less conscientious than Mr Lucas, and +most of the other early notices of the book were pretty equally divided +between undiscriminating praise of it as a novelty and foolish +reprobations of its 'wickedness.' + +It was fortunate that Darwin followed the strong advice given to him by +Lyell, and did not attempt to reply to the adverse criticisms; for the +only effect of these was to arouse curiosity and thus to increase the +circulation of the book. + +Although Darwin had wisely avoided the danger of exciting prejudice +against his work by definitely applying the theory of Natural Selection +to the case of man--simply remarking, in order to avoid the charge of +concealing his views, that 'light would be thrown on the origin of man +and his history'--yet friends and foes alike at once drew what was the +necessary corollary from the theory. It is as amusing, as it is +surprising at the present day, to recall the storm of prejudice which +was excited. At the British Association Meeting at Oxford in 1860, after +an American professor had indignantly asked the question, 'Are we a +fortuitous concourse of atoms?' as a comment on Darwin's views, Dr +Samuel Wilberforce, the Bishop of Oxford, ended a clever but flippant +attack on the _Origin_ by enquiring of Huxley, who was present as +Darwin's champion, if it 'was through his grandfather or his grandmother +that he claimed his descent from a monkey?' + +Huxley made the famous and well-deserved retort:-- + + 'I asserted--and I repeat--that a man has no reason to be + ashamed of having an ape for his grandfather. If there were an + ancestor whom I should feel ashamed in recalling, it would + rather be a _man_--a man of restless and versatile + intellect--who not content with success in his own sphere of + activity, plunges into scientific questions with which he has no + real acquaintance, only to obscure them by an aimless rhetoric, + and distract the attention of his hearers from the real point at + issue by eloquent digressions and skilled appeals to religious + prejudice[138].' + +The violent attack on Darwin's views by the once-famous Bishop of Oxford +was outdone, a few years later, by an even more absurd outburst on the +part of Benjamin Disraeli, who--after stigmatising Darwinism as the +question 'Is man an ape or an angel?'--declared magniloquently to the +episcopal chairman, 'My Lord, I am on the side of the angels!' + +But in spite of attacks like these and numerous bitter pasquinades and +comic cartoons--perhaps to some extent in consequence of them--Darwin's +views became widely known and eagerly discussed, so that the circulation +of the _Origin of Species_ went up by leaps and bounds. Nevertheless, as +Huxley said, 'years had to pass away before misrepresentation, ridicule +and denunciation, ceased to be the most notable constituents of the +multitudinous criticisms of his work which poured from the press.' + +Among his contemporary men of science Darwin could at first count few +converts. Hooker, whose candid and valuable criticisms of his friend's +work had been continued up to the very end during its composition, did +an eminent service to the cause of Evolution by publishing, almost +simultaneously with the _Origin of Species_, his splendid memoir on _The +Flora of Australia, its Origin, Affinities, and Distribution_, in which +similar views were, not obscurely, indicated. Of Lyell, Darwin's other +friend and counsellor, Huxley justly says: + + 'Lyell, up to that time a pillar of the antitransmutationists + (who regarded him, ever afterwards, as Pallas Athene may have + looked at Dian, after the Endymion affair), declared himself a + Darwinian, though not without putting in a serious _caveat_. + Nevertheless, he was a tower of strength and his courageous + stand for truth as against consistency, did him infinite + honour[139].' + +Huxley himself accepted the theory of Natural Selection--but not without +some important reservations--these, however, did not prevent him from +becoming its most ardent and successful champion. Darwin used to +acknowledge Huxley's great service to him in undertaking the defence of +the theory--a defence which his own hatred of controversy and the state +of his health made him unwilling to undertake--by laughingly calling him +'my general agent!' while Huxley himself in replying to the critics, +declared that he was 'Darwin's bulldog.' + +Although, at first, Darwin was able to enumerate less than a dozen +naturalists who were prepared to accept his views, while influential +leaders of thought in science--like Richard Owen in this country and +Louis Agassiz in America--were bitterly opposed to them, the theory +gradually obtained supporters especially among the younger cultivators +of botany, zoology and geology. + +It is evident that Darwin for some time regarded his 'abstract,' as he +called the _Origin of Species_, as only a temporary expedient--one to be +superseded by the publication of the much more extended work, designed +and commenced long before. Although the _Origin_ was only published late +in November 1859, and he was called upon immediately to prepare a +second edition, we find that on January 1st, 1860, Darwin began to +arrange his materials for dealing with the first great division of his +subject, 'the variation of animals and plants under domestication.' So +numerous and important were his notes and records of experiments, +however, that he soon found that to expand the whole of the 'abstract,' +on the same scale, would be an impossible task for any one man, however +able and diligent. Unwilling that the results of some of his special +researches should be lost, he wisely determined to issue them as +separate books. The first of these to appear was that on the +_Fertilisation of Orchids_, a beautiful illustration of the relation of +insects to flowers in producing crossing. He had been more than twenty +years working and experimenting on this subject, his interest in it +having been quickened by having read an almost forgotten book of the +botanist Sprengel. Almost at the same time, and in following years, he +wrote papers for the Linnean Society on dimorphic and trimorphic forms +of flowers, and their bearing on the question of cross-fertilisation. +These papers were the foundation of his well-known work, _The Different +Forms of Flowers on Plants of the same Species_. In the same way, a +paper read in 1864 to the Linnean Society was subsequently expanded into +_The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants_. + +Owing to delays caused by the preparation and publication of these books +and frequent interruptions from sickness, the work on variation did not +appear till 1868. It was a very extensive piece of work in two volumes, +and, at its end, Darwin tentatively propounded a hypothesis to account +for the facts of Heredity and Variation to which he gave the name of +'pangenesis.' + +Charles Darwin had reached the age of fifty, when he wrote the _Origin +of Species_. At a very early period in his career, he had resolved that +he would never start a new theory or revise an old one after he was +sixty; as he used laughingly to say, 'I have seen too many of my friends +make fools of themselves by doing that.' But as he approached this +'fatal age,' one more subject of a theoretical and highly controversial +nature remained to be dealt with, namely, the question of the +application of the theory of natural selection to man, both as regards +his physical structure and his intellectual and moral characteristics. + +Darwin tells us that in 1837 or '38, as soon as he had become 'convinced +that species were mutable productions,' he 'could not avoid the belief +that man must come under the same law[140].' From that time, he began +collecting facts bearing on the question. As each of his children was +born, he examined closely the signs of dawning intelligence, and made +notes of the manner in which new sensations and passions were exhibited +by them. His dog and other animals, for whom he always showed the +greatest fondness, were closely watched with the object of noting +correspondences between their mental and moral processes and their modes +of exhibiting them and our own; while visits were made by him to the +Zoological Gardens with the same object. By reading and correspondence +also, an enormous mass of notes was collected, and on February 4th, +1868, having seen his great work on Variation under Domestication +published, Darwin was able to make the entry in his diary, 'Began work +on Man.' + +As was usual with most of his works, Darwin underestimated the time +required to complete it. Through all the years 1867--'68, '69 and '70 we +find the entries in his diary 'working at _Descent of Man_,' and only +early in the year 1871 was the book finished. His original plan of +compressing his notes on the expression of the Emotions into a chapter +at the end of the book proved to be impracticable, and the material was +reserved for a new work. This work, _The Expression of the Emotions in +Man and Animals_, was commenced directly the _Descent of Man_ was out of +hand, a rough copy was finished by April 27th, 1871, but the last proofs +were not corrected till August 23rd, 1873. + +In dealing with the question of the origin of the human race, Darwin +was led to propound his views concerning Sexual selection, the results +of the preferences shown by males and females, respectively, not only +among mankind, but in various other animals. It was with respect to some +of the conclusions contained in this work that Wallace found himself +unable to follow Darwin. Wallace maintained that while man's body could +have been developed by Natural Selection, his intellectual and moral +nature must have had a different origin. He also declined to adopt the +theory of sexual selection, so far as it depends on preferences +exhibited by females for beauty in the males. Wallace, however, in some +respects has always been disposed to attach more importance to Natural +Selection, as the greatest, if not the only factor in evolution, than +Darwin himself. + +It will be seen that although Darwin had in all probability thought out +all his important theoretical conclusions before 1869, when he reached +the 'fatal age,' yet, owing to various delays, the books, in which he +embodied his views, had not all appeared till more than four years +later. + +Lyell, who was a convinced evolutionist before the publication of the +_Principles of Geology_, as is shown by his letters,--and the fact is +strongly insisted on both by Huxley and Haeckel[141],--was slow in +coming into _complete_ agreement with Darwin concerning the theory of +Natural Selection. While he followed his friend's investigations with +the deepest interest, his less sanguine nature led him often to despair +of the possibility of solving 'the mystery of mysteries.' As Darwin +wrote only a year before his own death, Lyell 'would advance all +_possible_ objections to my suggestions, and _even after these were +exhausted_ would long _remain dubious_[142].' It is evident from the +correspondence that Darwin was at times tempted to become impatient with +the friend, for whose advocacy of his views he so deeply longed. +Fourteen years after the publication of the _Origin of Species_, +however, Lyell, in his _Antiquity of Man_, gave in his adhesion to +Darwin's theory but, even then, not in the unqualified manner that the +latter desired. Yet I have reason to know that some years before his +death, Lyell was able to assure his friend of his _complete_ agreement, +and Darwin, six years after the loss of his friend, wrote, 'His candour +was highly remarkable. He exhibited this by becoming a convert to the +Descent theory, though he had gained much fame by opposing Lamarck's +views, _and this after he had grown old_.' Darwin adds that Lyell, +referring to the '_fatal_ age' of sixty, said 'he hoped that now he +might be allowed to live[143]!' + +When I first came into personal relations with Darwin, after the death +of Lyell in 1875, he was in the habit of deprecating any idea of his +writing on theoretical questions. He used to talk of 'playing with +plants and such things,' and undoubtedly derived the greatest pleasure +from his ingenious experimental researches. The result of this 'play' in +which Darwin took such delight is seen in his books on the _Power of +Movement in Plants_ and _Insectivorous Plants_; full of the records of +ingenious experiments and patient observation. + +It was a great relief to Darwin that his friend Wallace was able in 1871 +to undertake the preparation of a work on _The Geographical Distribution +of Animals_, for, on many points, the views held by Wallace on this +subject were more in accordance with Darwin's own, than were those of +Lyell and Hooker. Nevertheless, on all questions connected with the +geographical distribution of plants, and the causes by which they were +brought about, Darwin always expressed the fullest confidence in +Hooker's judgment, and the greatest satisfaction with his results. + +With regard to another great division of his work, that dealing with the +imperfection, but yet great value, of the geological record, Darwin was +always anxious, when I met him, to learn of any new discoveries. But he +felt that he had done all that was possible in his outline of the +subject in the _Origin_, and that he must leave to palaeontologists all +over the world the filling in of these outlines. So great was the +delight with which he used to hear of new discoveries in palaeontology, +that I often recall our conversations in these later days, when so many +interesting forms of extinct animal and vegetable life--veritable +'missing links'--are being discovered in all parts of the globe, and +wish that he could have known of them. They are indeed 'Facts for +Darwin.' + +Very happy indeed was Charles Darwin in the last years of his useful +life, in returning to his oldest 'love'--geology. In studying the action +of earthworms he found a geological study in which his rare powers of +ingenious experimentation could be employed with profit. His earliest +published memoir had dealt with the question, and for more than forty +years with dogged perseverance, he had laboured at it from time to time. +It was delightful to watch his pleasure as he examined what was going on +in the flower-pots full of mould in his study, and when his book was +published and favourably received, he rejoiced in it as 'the child of +his old age[144].' + +Charles Darwin's death took place rather more than twenty-two years +after the publication of the _Origin of Species_. Before he passed away, +he had the satisfaction of knowing that the doctrine of evolution had +come to be--mainly through his own great efforts--the accepted creed of +all naturalists and that even for the world at large it had lost its +imaginary terrors. As Huxley wrote a few days after our sad loss, 'None +have fought better, and none have been more fortunate, than Charles +Darwin. He found a great truth trodden underfoot, reviled by bigots, and +ridiculed by all the world; he lived long enough to see it, chiefly by +his own efforts, irrefragably established in science, inseparably +incorporated with the common thoughts of men, and only hated and feared +by those who would revile, but dare not. What shall a man desire more +than this[145]?' + +More than a quarter of a century has passed since these words were +written. How during that period the influence of Darwin's writings on +human thought has grown, in an accelerated ratio, will be seen by anyone +who will turn the pages of the memorial volume--_Darwin and Modern +Science_--published fifty years after the _Origin of Species_. Therein, +not only zoologists, botanists and geologists, but physicists, chemists, +anthropologists, psychologists, sociologists, philologists, +historians--and even politicians and theologians--are found testifying +to the important part which Darwin's great work has played, in +revolutionising ideas and moulding thought in connexion with all +branches of knowledge and speculation. + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE PLACE OF LYELL AND DARWIN IN HISTORY + + +From the account given in the foregoing pages, it will be seen +that--without detracting from the merits of their predecessors or the +value of the labours of their contemporaries--we must ascribe the work +of establishing on a firm foundation of observation and reasoning the +doctrine of evolution--both in the inorganic and the organic world--to +the investigations and writings of Lyell and Darwin. + +Lyell had to oppose the geologists of his day, who led by Buckland in +this country and by Cuvier on the continent, were almost, without +exception, hopelessly wedded to the doctrines of 'Catastrophism,' and +bitterly antagonistic to all ideas savouring of continuity or evolution. +And, in the same way, Darwin, at the outset, found himself face to face +with a similarly hostile attitude, on the part of biologists, with +respect to the mode of appearance of new species of plants and animals. + +While Darwin doubtless derived his inspiration, and much valuable aid, +from the _Principles of Geology_, and its gifted author, yet Lyell, with +all his clearness of vision, logical faculty and literary skill, did not +possess the strong faith and resolute courage--to say nothing of that +wonderful tenacity of purpose and power of research which were such +striking characteristics of Darwin--which would have enabled him to do +for the organic what he did for the inorganic world. If it be true, as +Darwin used to suggest, that the _Origin of Species_ might never have +been written had not Lyell first produced the _Principles of Geology_, I +believe it is no less certain that the crowning of Lyell's great +edifice, by the full application of his principles to the world of +living beings, could only have been accomplished by a man possessing, in +unique combination, the powers of observation, experiment, reasoning and +criticism, joined to unswerving determination, which distinguished +Darwin. + +Starting from Lyell's most advanced post, Darwin boldly advanced into +regions in which his friend was unable to lead, and indeed long +hesitated to follow. Together, for nearly forty years, the two +men--influencing one another 'as iron sharpeneth iron'--thought and +communed and worked, aided at all times by the wide knowledge and +judicious criticism of the sagacious Hooker; and together the fame of +these men will go down to posterity. + +There is a tendency, when a great man has passed from our midst, to +estimate his merits and labours with undiscriminating, and often perhaps +exaggerated, admiration; and this excessive praise is too often followed +by a reaction, as the result of which the idol of one generation becomes +almost commonplace to the next. A still further period is required +before the proper position of mental perspective is reached by us, and a +just judgment can be formed of the man's real place in history. The +reputations of both Lyell and Darwin have, I think, passed through both +these two earlier phases of thought, and we may have arrived at the +third stage. + +There was one respect in which both Lyell and Darwin failed to satisfy +many both of their contemporaries and successors. Lyell, like Hutton, +always deprecated attempts to go back to a 'beginning,' while Darwin, +who strongly supported Lyell in his geological views, was equally averse +to speculations concerning the 'origin of life on the globe.' +Scrope[146], and also Huxley[147] in his earlier days, held the opinion +that it was legitimate to assume or imagine a beginning, from which, +with ever diminishing energy, the existing 'comparatively quiet +conditions,' thought to characterise the present order of the world, +would be reached. Both Lyell and Darwin insisted that geology is a +historical science, and must be treated as such quite distinct from +Cosmogony. And in the end, Huxley accepted the same view[148]. +'Geology,' he asserted, 'is as much a historical science as +archaeology.' + +The sober historian has always had to contend against the traditional +belief that 'there were giants on the earth in those days!' The love of +the marvellous has always led to the ascription of past events to the +work of demigods who were not of like powers and passions with +ourselves. Hence the invention of those 'catastrophies'--in which the +reputations of deities as well as of men and women have often suffered. +It is the same tendency in the human mind which makes it so difficult to +conceive of all the changes in the earth's surface-features and its +inhabitants being due to similar operations to those still going on +around us. + +Lyell's views have constantly been misrepresented by the belief being +ascribed to him that 'the forces operating on the globe have never acted +with greater intensity than at the present day.' But his real position +in this matter was a frankly 'agnostic' one. 'Bring me evidence,' he +would have said, 'that changes have taken place on the globe, which +cannot be accounted for by agencies still at work _when operating +through sufficiently long periods of time_, and I will abandon my +position.' But such evidence was not forthcoming in his day, and I do +not think has ever been discovered since. Professor Sollas has very +justly said, 'Geology has no need to return to the catastrophism of its +youth; in becoming evolutional it does not cease to remain essentially +uniformitarian[149].' + +Alfred Russel Wallace, who has always been as stout a defender of the +views of Lyell as he has of those of Darwin, has given me his permission +to quote from a letter he wrote me in 1888. After referring to what he +regards as the weak and mistaken attacks on Lyell's teachings, 'which +have of late years been so general among geologists,' he says:-- + + 'I have always been surprised when men have advanced the view + that volcanic action _must_ have been greater when the earth was + hotter, and entirely ignore the numerous indications that both + subterranean and meteorological forces, even in Palaeozoic + times, were of the same order of magnitude as they are now--and + this I have always believed is what Lyell's teaching implies.' + +I believe that Mr Wallace's expression, adopted from the mathematicians, +'the same order of magnitude,' would have met with Lyell's complete +acquiescence. He was not so unwise as to suppose that, in the limited +periods of human history, we must necessarily have had experience--even +at Krakatoa or 'Skaptar Jokull'--of nature's greatest possible +convulsions, but he fought tenaciously against any admission of +'cataclysms' that would belong to a totally different category to those +of the present day. + +Apart from theological objections, the most formidable obstacle to the +reception of evolutionary ideas had always been the prejudice against +the admission of vast duration of past geological time. It was +unfortunate that, even when rational historical criticism had to a great +extent neutralised the effect of Archbishop Usher's chronology, the +mathematicians and physicists, assuming certain sources of heat in the +earth and sun could have been the only possible ones, tried to set a +limit to the time at the disposal of the geologist and biologist. +Happily the discovery of radio-activity and the new sources of heat +opened up by that discovery, have removed those objections, which were +like a nightmare to both Geology and Biology. + +Lyell used to relate the story of a man, who, from a condition of dire +poverty, suddenly became the possessor of vast wealth, and when +remonstrated with by friends on the inadequacy of a subscription he had +offered, the poor fellow exclaimed sadly, 'Ah! you don't know how hard +it is to get the chill of poverty out of one's bones.' + +Geologists and biologists alike have long been the victims of this +'chill of poverty,' with respect to past time. So long as physicists +insisted that one hundred millions, or forty millions, or even ten +millions of years, must be the limit of geological time, it was not +possible to avoid the conclusion stated by Lord Salisbury in 1894, 'Of +course, if the mathematicians are right the biologists cannot have what +they demand[150].' But now geologists and biologists may alike feel +that the liberty with respect to _space_, which is granted ungrudgingly +to the astronomer, is no longer withheld from them in regard to _time_. +We can say with old Lamarck:-- + + 'For Nature, Time is nothing. It is never a difficulty, she + always has it at her disposal; and it is for her the means by + which she has accomplished the greatest as well as the least + results. For all the evolution of the earth and of living + beings, Nature needs but three elements--Space, Time and + Matter[151].' + +Darwin, equally with Lyell, has suffered from a reaction following on +extravagant and uninformed praise of his work. The fields in which he +laboured single-handed, have yielded to hundreds of workers in many +lands an abundant harvest. New doctrines and improved methods of enquiry +have arisen--Mutationism, Mendelism, Weismannism, Neo-Lamarckism, +Biometrics, Eugenics and what not--are being diligently exploited. But +all of these vigorous growths have their real roots in Darwinism. If we +study Darwin's correspondence, and the successive essays in which he +embodied his views at different periods, we shall find, variation by +mutation (or _per saltum_), the influence of environment, the question +of the inheritance of acquired characters and similar problems were +constantly present to Darwin's ever open mind, his views upon them +changing from time to time, as fresh facts were gathered. + +No one could sympathise more fully than would Darwin, were he still with +us, in these various departures. He was compelled, from want of +evidence, to regard variations as spontaneous, but would have heartily +welcomed every attempt to discover the laws which govern them; and +equally would he have delighted in researches directed to the +investigation of the determining factors, controlling conditions and +limits of inheritance. The man who so carefully counted and weighed his +seeds in botanical experiments, could not but rejoice in the refined +mathematical methods now being applied to biological problems. + +Let us not 'in looking at the trees, lose sight of the wood.' Underlying +all the problems, some of them very hotly discussed at the present day, +there is the great central principle of Natural Selection--which if not +the sole factor in evolution, is undoubtedly a very important and potent +one. It is only necessary to compare the present position of the Natural +History sciences with that which existed immediately before the +publication of the _Origin of Species_, to realise the greatness of +Darwin's achievement. + +The fame of both Lyell and Darwin will endure, and their names will +remain as closely linked as were the two men in their lives, the two +devoted friends, whose remains found a meet resting-place, almost side +by side, in the Abbey of Westminster. Very touching indeed was it to +witness the marks of affection between these two great men; an affection +which remained undiminished to the end. Lyell was twelve years senior to +Darwin, and died seven years before his friend. During the last year of +Lyell's life, I spent the summer with him at his home in Forfarshire. +How well do I recollect the keenness with which--in spite of a +near-sightedness that had increased with age almost to blindness--he +still devoted himself to geological work. The 264 note-books, all +carefully indexed, were in constant use, and visits were made to all the +haunts of his youth, with the frequent pathetic appeal to me, 'You must +lend me your eyes.' In spite of age and weakness, he would insist on +clambering up the steepest hills to show me where he had found glacial +markings, and would eagerly listen to my report on them. But the _great_ +delight of those days was the arrival of a letter from Darwin! Lyell was +the recipient of many honours, and he declined many more, when he feared +that they might interfere with the work to which he had devoted his +life, but the distinction he prized most of all was that conferred on +him by his life-long friend, who used to address him as 'My dear old +Master,' and subscribe himself 'Your affectionate pupil.' + +During the seven years that elapsed after the death of Lyell, I saw +Darwin from time to time, for he loved to hear 'what was doing' in his +'favourite science.' On board the _Beagle_, before he had met the man +whose life and work were to be so closely linked with his own, he was in +the habit of specially treasuring up any 'facts that would interest Mr +Lyell'; in middle life he declared that 'when seeing a thing never seen +by Lyell, one yet saw it partially through his eyes[152]'; and never, I +think, did we meet after the friend was gone, without the oft repeated +query, 'What would Lyell have said to that?' + +These reminiscences of the past, in which I have ventured to indulge, +may not inappropriately conclude with a reference to the last interview +I was privileged to have with him, who was 'the noblest Roman of them +all!' On the occasion of his last visit to London, in December, 1881, +Charles Darwin wrote asking me to take lunch with him at his daughter's +house, and to have 'a little talk' on geology. Greatly was I surprised +at the vigour which he showed on that afternoon, for, contrary to his +usual practice, he did not interrupt the conversation to retire and rest +for a time, though I suggested the desirability of his doing so, and +offered to stay. His brightness and animation, which were perhaps a +little forced, struck me as so unusual that I laughingly suggested that +he was 'renewing his youth.' Then a slight shade passed over his +countenance--but only for a moment--as he told me that he had 'received +his warning.' The attack, to which his son has alluded, as being the +prelude to the end[153], had occurred during this visit to town; and he +intimated to me that he knew his heart was seriously affected. Never +shall I forget how, seeing my concern, he insisted on accompanying me to +the door, and how, with the ever kindly smile on his countenance, he +held my hand in a prolonged grasp, that I sadly felt might perhaps be +the last. And so it proved. + +And now all the world is united in the conviction which Darwin so +modestly expressed concerning his own career, 'I believe that I have +acted rightly in steadily following and devoting myself to science!' + +For has not that _devotion_ resulted in a complete reform of the +Natural-History Sciences! The doctrine of the 'immutability of +species'--like that of 'Catastrophism' in the inorganic world--has been +eliminated from the Biological sciences by Darwin, through his _steadily +following_ the clues found by him during his South American travels; and +continuity is now as much the accepted creed of botanists and zoologists +as it is of geologists. As a result of the labours of Darwin, new lines +of thought have been opened out, fresh fields of investigation +discovered, and the infinite variety among living things has acquired a +grander aspect and a special significance. Very justly, then, has Darwin +been universally acclaimed as 'the Newton of Natural History.' + + + + +NOTES + + +In the following references, L.L.L. indicates the "Life and Letters of +Sir Charles Lyell" by Mrs K. Lyell (1881), D.L.L. the "Life and Letters +of Charles Darwin" by F. Darwin (1887), M.L.D. "More Letters of Charles +Darwin" edited by F. Darwin and A. C. Seward (1903), and H.C.E. Huxley's +"Collected Essays." + +[1] The Darwin-Wallace Celebration, Linn. Soc. (1908), p. 10. + +[2] Darwin and Modern Science (1909), pp. 152-170. + +[3] Pope, Essay on Man, Ep. I. lines 111-2. + +[4] Genesis, Chap. XXX. verses 31-43. + +[5] Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1900 (Bradford), pp. 916-920. + +[6] _Ibid._ 1909 (Winnipeg), pp. 491-493. + +[7] L.L.L. Vol. I. p. 468. + +[8] Origin of Species, Chap. XV. end. + +[9] Milton, Paradise Lost, Bk. VII. lines 454-466. + +[10] Edinb. Rev. LXIX. (July 1839), pp. 446-465. + +[11] Principles of Geology, Vol. I. (1830), p. 61. + +[12] Zittel, Hist. of Geol. &c. Eng. transl. p. 72. + +[13] Quart. Rev. Vol. XLVIII. (March 1832), p. 126. + +[14] Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1866 (Nottingham). + +[15] H.C.E. Vol. VIII. p. 315. + +[16] _Ibid._ p. 190. + +[17] D.L.L. Vol. II. pp. 179-204. + +[18] H.C.E. Vol. V. p. 101. + +[19] D.L.L. Vol. II. p. 190. + +[20] Edinb. Rev. Vol. LXIX. (July 1839), p. 455 _note_. + +[21] 'Theory of the Earth,' Vol. II. p. 67. + +[22] L.L.L. Vol. I. p. 272. + +[23] Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1833 (Cambridge), pp. 365-414. + +[24] Outlines of the Geology of England and Wales, p. xliv. + +[25] Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory, p. iii. + +[26] Edinb. Rev. LXIX. (July 1839), p. 455 _note_. + +[27] _Ibid._ + +[28] Zittel, Hist. of Geol. &c. Eng. transl. p. 141. + +[29] Considerations on Volcanoes, &c. (1825), pp. iv-vi. + +[30] Volcanoes of Central France, 2nd Ed. (1858), p. vii. + +[31] See Quart. Rev. Vol. XXXVI. (Oct. 1827), pp. 437-485. + +[32] L.L.L. Vol. I. p. 46. + +[33] Principles of Geology, Vol. II. 2nd Ed. + +[34] L.L.L. Vol. II. pp. 47-8. + +[35] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 268. + +[36] Environs de Paris (1811), p. 56. + +[37] Trans. Geol. Soc. 2nd Ser. Vol. II. pp. 73-96. + +[38] See Mantell's Geology of the Isle of Wight and L.L.L. Vol. I. pp. +114-122. + +[39] Hist. of Geol. &c. Eng. transl. p. 188. + +[40] L.L.L. Vol. I. p. 173. + +[41] British Critic and Theological Review (1830), p. 7 of the review. + +[42] L.L.L. Vol. I. p. 177. + +[43] Preface to Vol. III. of the 'Principles' (1833), p. vii. + +[44] L.L.L. Vol. I. pp. 233-4. + +[45] Charles Lyell and Modern Geology (1898), p. 214. + +[46] Proc. Geol. Soc. Vol. I. p. 374. + +[47] L.L.L. Vol. I. p. 196. + +[48] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 197. + +[49] Proc. Geol. Soc. Vol. I. pp. 145-9. + +[50] L.L.L. Vol. I. p. 253. + +[51] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 234. + +[52] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 271. + +[53] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 270. + +[54] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 271. + +[55] Quart. Rev. Vol. XLIII. (Oct. 1830), pp. 411-469 and Vol. LIII. +(Sept. 1835), pp. 406-448. Both these reviews are by Scrope. The Review +of the 2nd Vol. of the 'Principles,' Q.R. Vol. XLVII. (March 1832), pp. +103-132 is by Whewell. + +[56] L.L.L. Vol. I. p. 270. + +[57] _Ibid._ Vol. I. pp. 260-1. + +[58] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 314. + +[59] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 165. + +[60] M.L.D. Vol. II. p. 232 and D.L.L. Vol. II. p. 190. + +[61] L.L.L. Vol. I. pp. 316-7. + +[62] Proc. Geol. Soc. Vol. I. pp. 302-3. + +[63] L.L.L. Vol. II. p. 41. + +[64] See also D.L.L. Vol. I. pp. 72-3. + +[65] Nineteenth Century, Oct. 1895, and Controverted Questions in +Geology (1895), pp. 1-18. + +[66] M.L.D. Vol. II. p. 117. + +[67] D.L.L. Vol. I. pp. 337-8 and p. 342. + +[68] Origin of Species, Chap. X. See also Darwin and Modern Science, pp. +337-385. + +[69] D.L.L. Vol. I. pp. 341-2. + +[70] L.L.L. Vol. II. p. 44. + +[71] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 296. + +[72] _Ibid._ p. 72. + +[73] _Ibid._ p. 71. + +[74] A. R. Wallace, 'My Life, &c.' (1905), Vol. I. p. 433. + +[75] The Darwin-Wallace Celebration, Linn. Soc. (1908), p. 118. + +[76] L.L.L. Vol. II. p. 459. + +[77] Report of lecture at Forrester's Hall. + +[78] H.C.E. Vol. VIII. p. 312. + +[79] D.L.L. Vol. II. p. 190. + +[80] L.L.L. Vol. II. pp. 2, 3. + +[81] _Ibid._ Vol. II. p. 36. + +[82] _Ibid._ Vol. II. p. 5. + +[83] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 94. + +[84] L.L.L. Vol. I. pp. 417-8. + +[85] H. F. Osborn, 'From the Greeks to Darwin' (1894), p. 165. + +[86] _Loc. cit._ pp. 467-469. + +[87] L.L.L. Vol. I. p. 168. + +[88] _Ibid._ Vol. II. p. 365. + +[89] D.L.L. Vol. II. pp. 23, 29, 39. + +[90] _Ibid._ Vol. III. p. 15 (see also pp. 11-14). + +[91] 'Origin of Species,' 6th Ed. (1875), p. xiv. + +[92] 'Darwin and Modern Science,' p. 125. + +[93] 'Origin of Species,' 6th Ed. (1875), pp. xvi, xvii. + +[94] M.L.D. Vol. I. p. 3. + +[95] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 41. + +[96] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 41. + +[97] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 52. + +[98] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 58. + +[99] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 58. + +[100] H.C.E. Vol. II. p. 271. + +[101] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 73. + +[102] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 263. + +[103] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 38. + +[104] H.C.E. Vol. II. p. 20. + +[105] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 275. + +[106] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 83. + +[107] _Ibid._ Vol. II. pp. 5-10. + +[108] H.C.E. Vol. II. p. 71. + +[109] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 47. + +[110] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 84. + +[111] Macmillan's Magazine, Feb. 1888, p. 241. + +[112] My Life, &c. Vol. I. p. 355. + +[113] Darwin-Wallace Celebration, Linn. Soc. (1908), pp. 6-7. + +[114] _Ibid._ pp. 14-16. + +[115] D.L.L. Vol. II. pp. 116-7. + +[116] 'Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection' (1871), +Preface, pp. iv, v. + +[117] Darwin-Wallace Celebration, Linn. Soc. (1908), p. 7. + +[118] _Ibid._ p. 7. + +[119] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 66. + +[120] _Ibid._ Vol. I. pp. 62-3. + +[121] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 66. + +[122] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 66. + +[123] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 83. + +[124] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 84. + +[125] 'The Foundations of the Origin of Species' (1909), p. xv. + +[126] Letter to A. R. Wallace, Christ's Coll. Mag. Vol. XXIII. (1909), +p. 229. + +[127] D.L.L. Vol. II. pp. 16-18. + +[128] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 347. + +[129] D.L.L. Vol. II. pp. 19-21. + +[130] Huxley's Life and Letters (1900), Vol. I. p. 94. + +[131] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 83. + +[132] Science Progress, Vol. III. (1908), pp. 537-542. + +[133] D.L.L. Vol. II. p. 160. + +[134] H.C.E. Vol. II. pp. 227-243. + +[135] D.L.L. Vol. II. pp. 179-204. + +[136] _Ibid._ Vol. II. p. 255. + +[137] The Review is republished in H.C.E. Vol. II. pp. 1-21. + +[138] Huxley's Life and Letters, Vol. I. pp. 179-189. + +[139] D.L.L. Vol. II. p. 185. + +[140] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 93. + +[141] See Haeckel's 'History of Creation.' + +[142] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 71. + +[143] _Ibid._ Vol. I. p. 72. + +[144] D.L.L. Vol. I. p. 98; Vol. III. pp. 217-218. + +[145] H.C.E. Vol. II. p. 247. + +[146] Quart. Rev. XLIII. pp. 464-467 and Vol. LIII. pp. 446-448. + +[147] H.C.E. Vol. VIII. p. 315. + +[148] H.C.E. Vol. V. p. 99. + +[149] The Age of the Earth and other Geological Studies, p. 322. + +[150] Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1894 (Oxford), p. 13. + +[151] 'Hydrogéologie,' p. 67. + +[152] M.L.D. Vol. II. p. 117. + +[153] D.L.L. Vol. III. p. 356. + + + + +INDEX + + +Adaptation, in relation to divergence of species, Darwin's recognition + of, 108, 109 + +Agriculturalists, ideas of creation, 5, 6 + +ARNOLD, MATTHEW, on Lucretius and Darwin, 3, 4 + +Auvergne, N. Desmarest on, 17; + Scrope on, 35; + visited by Lyell and Murchison, 56, 57; + their memoir on, 58 + + +'Beagle,' H.M.S., Darwin's voyage in, 98, 99; + narrative of, 106 + +BONNEY, T. G., estimate of amount of Lyell's travels by, 56, 57 + +Botanical works of Darwin, 141 + +_British Critic_, Whewell's review of Lyell in, 53 + +BRODERIP, W. J., aid given to Lyell by, 65; + Vol. II. of _Principles_ dedicated to, 65 + +BROWN, ROBERT, assistance to Lyell by, 47 + +BUCKLAND, Dr, on infant Geological Society, 26; + champion of 'Catastrophism' in England, 27; + his eccentricity, 42-44; + 'Equestrian Geology' of, 28; + influence on Lyell, 34, 44; + 2nd edition of Vol. I. of _Principles_ dedicated to, 44; + his opposition to Lyell, 71 + + +Cambridge, Darwin at, 97, 98 + +CANDOLLE, A. P. DE, on struggle for existence, 107 + +Catastrophism, origin of idea of, 14, 15; + defined, 22; + origin of term, 22; + connexion with orthodoxy, 21; + championed by Buckland, Sedgwick &c., 27; + by Cuvier, 31, 50, 102; + opposition by Lyell and Darwin to, 105 + +Centres of Creation, Lyell's views on, 65 + +CHAMBERS, ROBERT, publishes _Vestiges of Creation_, 92; + his reasons for anonymity, 93 + +Chemists, part played in early days of Geological Society by, 26 + +Christ's College, Cambridge, the home of Milton and Darwin, 13; + of Paley, 108 + +CLODD, E., his _Pioneers of Evolution_, 16 + +Continuity, term for Evolution suggested by Grove, 23 + +CONYBEARE, W. D., advocacy of Catastrophism, 27; + criticism of Hutton, 28; + misconception of Hutton, 29; + on formation of Thames Valley, 58; + friendship with Lyell, 69 + +Creation, legends of, 5-7; + use of term by Lyell and Darwin, 11; + contrast of their views with those of Milton, 12, 13 + +Criticisms of the _Principles of Geology_, 68, 69, 70, 71; + of the _Origin of Species_, 132-139 + +CUVIER, his strong support of Catastrophism, 31, 46, 50, 102 + + +DARWIN, CHARLES, nobility of character, 3; + his use of term 'Creation,' 11; + on grandeur of idea of Evolution, 12; + his devotion to Lyell and the _Principles of Geology_, 63, 73-75, 78; + his horror of slavery, 76; + opposition to Catastrophism, 77; + opinion of Lamarck's works, 90, 91: + on the _Vestiges of Creation_, 94; + his dislike for speculation, 101; + his optimism and courage, 77; + his birth and education, 95, 96; + life at Edinburgh, 97; + at Cambridge, 97, 98; + voyage in the 'Beagle,' 99, 100; + first awakening to the idea of Evolution, 102, 104; + work with Lyell at Geological Society, 105; + begins 'species work,' 106; + influence of Malthus's work on, 107; + intercourse with Wallace, 113; + action in respect to theory, 128, 129; + his first literary ambitions, 116; + difficulties of work caused by ill-health, 117, 118, 119; + his loss of appreciation for music and literature, and its cause, 134, + 135; + later writings on Evolution, 141, 144; + his declining years, 147, 158, 159; + his death, 147; + present position of his theory of Natural Selection, 155, 156, 159 + +DARWIN, ERASMUS, his independent conception of Lamarckism, 91, 92; + absence of influence on his grandson, 95, 101 + +DARWIN, ERASMUS (the younger), advice given to Charles on publication, 122 + +DARWIN, FRANCIS, edited _Life and Letters_ &c., 121; + extracts from C.D.'s note-books &c., and _Foundations of the Origin of + Species_, 123; + on his father's health, 118 + +DARWIN, Mrs, her care of her husband's health, 118; + read proofs of _Origin of Species_, 132 + +DAUBENY, C. G. B., assists Lyell in his researches, 47 + +DE LA BECHE, H., his attitude with respect to evolution, 71 + +DESHAYES, G. B., assists Lyell in conchological work, 66 + +DESMAREST, N., work in Auvergne, 17; + evolutionary views of, 17, 20 + + +Earthworms, Darwin's work on, 147 + +Edinburgh, Darwin's life at, 97; + Wernerian Society at, founded by Jameson, 21, 25 + +Egypt, idea of inorganic evolution originated in, 15 + +Entomology, influence of, on Lyell, 42, 57; + on Darwin, 96; + on Wallace, 110 + +'Equestrian Geology,' popularity of, at Oxford, 27; + at Cambridge, 28 + +Evolution, in _organic_ and _inorganic_ world, 14; + how ideas originated, 15-16, 82, 83; + revolution effected by, 1, 32, 159; + causes of opposition to, 20, 21, 155; + opposition of Sedgwick and Whewell, 83; + support of Herschel, 83 + +Euclid, influence on Darwin, 108 + + +FARADAY, M., assistance given to Lyell by, 47 + +FITTON, Dr, on supposed indebtedness of Hutton to Generelli, 18; + and of Lyell to Hutton, 18; + on causes of Hutton's failure to reform geology, 23, 25; + his attitude towards Lyell's views, 30, 71 + +Fluvialists, 58 + +FORBES, DAVID, intercourse with Darwin, 119 + +Fossil bones, discovery of, in South America first suggests to Darwin + mutability of species, 102 + +_Foundations of the Origin of Species_, 123 + +FRAZER, J. G., on legends of creation, 5, 7 + + +Galapagos Islands, influence of study of fauna on Darwin, 104 + +GENERELLI, advocacy of Evolution, 17, 20 + +Geographical distribution, Lyell on, 65; + Wallace on, 146 + +Geological Society, foundation of, 25; + early history, 26; + connexion of Lyell with, 44, 71: + of Darwin, 100, 105: + of Scrope, 50; + discussions on rival doctrines at, 24, 25, 29, 30, 60, 76, 77, 105 + +Geology, Darwin's interest in, 96, 99, 124, 147, 158 + +GIBBON, his influence on Lyell, 52, 67 + +GREENOUGH, G. B., founds Geological Society and first President, 26; + his strong support of Wernerism, 26, 29 + +GROVE, R., suggests term 'Continuity,' 23 + +GÜNTHER, Dr, his estimate of number of species of animals, 10 + + +HAECKEL, E., credits Lyell with early conviction of Evolution, 84 + +HENSLOW, J. S., friendship for and help of Darwin, 97, 98, 99; + opposition to Evolution, 27, 72 + +Heredity, early recognition of importance, 9 + +HERSCHEL, J., belief in Evolution, 12, 71; + correspondence with Lyell, 12, 83, 85 + +HOFF, C. VON, influence of his works on Lyell, 49 + +HOOKER, J. D., friendship with Lyell's father, 126; + voyage to Antarctic with Ross, 126; + introduction to Darwin, 126; + correspondence with, 127; + assistance to Darwin, 126; + advice to, 129; + on origin of Australian flora, 139; + friendship with Lyell, 79, 126 + +HUTTON, his _Theory of the Earth_, 17, 18, 19, 20; + rarity of the book, 30; + small influence of, 21; + supposed infidelity and persecution of, 21, 22, 25, 69; + Lyell's mistaken views on, 54; + difference of his theory from Lyell's, 53 + +HUXLEY, T. H., early views on distinction of Uniformitarianism and + Evolution, 23; + later view of identity, 23, 24; + influence of Darwin on, 24, 127, 144; + on 1st edition of Principles, 67, 80, 81; + argues for Lyell's belief in Evolution, 84; + reviews _Origin of Species_, 136, 137; + reply to Bishop of Oxford, 138; + defence of Darwinism, 140; + on Darwin's death, 147, 148; + on Lyell's death, 80 + +Hybridity, Lyell's discussion on, 65, 103 + +Hypotheses of Creation, twofold character of, 5-8 + + +Ideas _v._ Actions, Wallace on, 4 + +Independent discovery of Natural Selection by Wallace, 113; + Darwin's letter on, 113 + +Italian geologists, their anticipation of evolutionary ideas, 17 + + +JACOB, his frauds based on ideas of heredity and variation, 9 + +JAMESON, R., founds Wernerian Society 1807, 25; + influence on Darwin, 97 + +_Journal of Researches_, by Darwin, 106; + dedicated to Lyell, 72 + + +King's College, London, Lyell professor at, 65, 66 + +Kinnordy, Lyell at, 42, 43, 46 + +KIRWAN, DE LUC, and WILLIAMS, opposition to Hutton, 25 + + +LAMARCK, his _Hydrogéologie_, 87; + _Philosophie Zoologique_, 88; + Lyell's admiration of, 64, 89; + criticism of theory, 64, 90; + views of Darwin on, 90, 91; + on geological time, 155 + +Lectures by Lyell, 65, 66 + +Linnean Society, papers of Darwin and Wallace at, 112, 129, 130 + +Literature, Lyell and, 52, 67; + Darwin and, 116, 117, 120; + his loss of interest in, 134, 135 + +LOCKHART and _Quarterly Review_, 60 + +LUCRETIUS, belief in Evolution, 3, 4 + +LYELL, CHARLES, use of term 'Creation,' 11; + on grandeur of idea of Evolution, 12; + birth and ancestry, 41; + education, 34, 42; + influence of Buckland on, 34, 42-44; + on Cuvier, 46; + change of views not due to Hutton's works, 45; + but to travel and observation, 45; + in East Anglia, 45; + in Strathmore, 46, 47; + abandons career as barrister for geology, 48; + work with Dr Mantell, 48; + visits to Continent, 48; + influence of von Hoff's works, 49; + of Scrope, 50; + his remarks on Hutton's supposed heresies, 51, 54; + influence of Gibbon on his literary style, 52; + praise of Hutton and Playfair at later date, 53; + review of Scrope's book on Auvergne, 56; + visit to Auvergne with Murchison, 56; + advocacy of travel for geologists, 56; + journeys in Italy, 58; + Lyell on Murchison, 57; + Murchison on Lyell, 58; + Lyell's avoidance of controversy, 63; + differences of opinion with Scrope, 62, 63; + attention to literary style, 65; + professorship at King's College, London, 65, 69; + lectures, 66; + controversies at Geological Society, 71; + aid of Darwin in discussions, 71; + his friendship with Darwin, 73, 104, 105; + his extreme caution, 75-77; + candour in finally accepting Natural Selection, 77; + opposition to his views, 83, 84; + his belief in Evolution at an early date, 81, 84-86; + his anticipation of 'Mimicry,' 85, 86; + his action in Darwin-Wallace episode, 113, 129; + induces Darwin to commence writing his work, 128; + his attitude towards theory of Natural Selection, 139, 140, 145; + great influence of Lyell's works on Darwin and Evolution, 150; + misrepresentation of his views, 152-154; + his declining years, 157; + last hours, 80; + Hooker's tribute to his memory, 79, 80 + +LYELL, CHARLES (the elder), botanist and student of Dante, 41; + intercourse with the Hookers, 126 + + +MALTHUS, _On Population_, influence of work on Darwin, 107; + on Wallace, 112 + +Man, descent of, Darwin's work on, 142, 144; + Wallace's views on, 144 + +MANTELL, Lyell's researches with, 48; + correspondence with, 55, 89 + +MATTHEW, P., anticipation of theory of Natural Selection, 92 + +MILTON, description of creation, 13; + Darwin's early love of his poetry, 134; + at Christ's College, Cambridge, 13 + +Mimicry, doctrine of, Lyell's early recognition of importance, 85, 86 + +_Modern Science, Darwin and_, 148 + +MURCHISON, accompanies Lyell to Auvergne, 56; + opinion of Lyell, 57; + Lyell's opinion of, 57, 58; + 3rd Vol. of _Principles_ dedicated to, 66; + correspondence with, 59 + +MURRAY, JOHN, and _Quarterly Review_, 60; + publishes Lyell's works, 60; + publishes Darwin's works, 130; + his reminiscences of Darwin, 132 + +Music, Darwin's loss of power to appreciate, and its cause, 134, 135 + + +Natural Selection, theory of, defined by Huxley, 106; + forestalled by Wells, Matthew &c., 18, 19; + first conception of by Darwin, 107; + by Wallace, 112 + +'Neptunism' or 'Wernerism' and Catastrophism, 18 + +NEWTON, Professor A., on vague hopes of solution of 'species question' + before Darwin, 94, 109 + + +_Origin of Species_, first idea of, 121; + plan proposed to follow _Principles_, 123; + first sketch of 1842, enlarged draft of 1844, commencement of great + treatise on Evolution in 1856, interruption by arrival of + Wallace's papers, 128, 129; + the 'Abstract' or _Origin of Species_ commenced, 130; + finished, 131; + reception of, 132-139; + influence of, 1, 159 + +OSBORN, H. F., his _From the Greeks to Darwin_, 16; + on Lamarck, 87 + + +PALEY, his influence on Darwin, 108 + +PHILLIPS, JOHN, his attitude towards Lyell's views, 30, 71 + +Philosophers, on Evolution, 16, 82 + +PLAYFAIR, JOHN, his _Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory_, 29; + explains the causes of Hutton's failure, 30 + +'Plutonism,' 'Vulcanism,' or 'Huttonism,' 18 + +Poets and Evolution, 16 + +PRESTWICH, Sir J., opposition to Lyell's views, 72 + +PREVOST, CONSTANT, aid to Lyell, 50; + opposition to Cuvier, 50 + +PRIESTLEY, persecution of, 21, 69 + +_Principles of Geology_, first idea of, 55; + early draft sent to publisher in 1827, 56; + withdrawn and rewritten in 1830, 56; + issue of first volume, 63; + success, 64; + review by Scrope, 60-62; + decision to confine Vol. II. to Organic Evolution, 65; + 3rd volume, classification of Tertiaries and Metamorphic theory, 66; + later editions, 66; + _Elements, Manual and Student's elements_, 67; + success of work, 67; + Darwin's opinion on, 67; + of Huxley, 67, 80, 81; + Wallace on, 79; + criticisms of, 68, 69, 70, 71 + +PYTHAGORAS, his evolutionary ideas, 16 + + +_Quarterly Review_, articles by Lyell, 56, 89; + by Scrope, 60, 62 + + +Reviews, of the _Principles_ by Scrope, 56, 89; + by Whewell, 22, 53; + of the _Origin_ by Huxley, 136, 137 + + +SCROPE, G. POULETT, education, 34; + travels, 34; + work in Auvergne, 35; + in Italy, 35; + delay in publishing, 35; + work on volcanoes, 36; + his just views on Evolution, 37-39; + cause of want of recognition of his work, 39, 40; + devotion to politics, 40; + reviews of _Principles_, 41, 61; + correspondence with and influence on Lyell, 50, 61; + his differences of opinion from Lyell, 62, 63, 151; + effects of his review, 64 + +SEDGWICK, A., advocates Catastrophism, 27, 28; + opposition to Hutton, influence on Scrope, 34; + on Darwin, 98; + opposition to Lyell, 83; + weakening of opposition to, 58; + on _Principles_, 70, 71; + dislike to Evolution, 83 + +SHIPLEY, A. E., estimate of number of species of animals, 10 + +Slavery, views of Lyell and Darwin, 76 + +SMITH, W., influence of his teaching on Geological Society, 27 + +SOLLAS, W. J., on Evolution and Uniformitarianism, 152, 153 + +Species, origin of idea of, 9; + number of species of animals, 10; + of plants, 11 + +Struggle for existence, Lyell on, 103, 107; + de Candolle on, 107 + + +_Theory of the Earth_, Hutton's, 17; + Scrope's, 36 + +THOMPSON, G. P., _see_ Scrope, 33 + +Time geological, Lyell on, 154; + Lamarck on, 155 + +TOLLET, Miss G., aids Darwin in revising _Origin of Species_, 132 + + +Uniformitarianism, origin of the term, 14, 15, 22 + +Uniformity (or Continuity), Lyell's real views on, 62, 63; + misconceptions of his views on, 151, 152, 155 + +University of London, Lyell's connexion with, 59, 65 + + +Variation, early recognition of its importance, 9; + Lyell's discussion of, 64, 103; + Darwin's work on, 141 + +_Vestiges of Creation_, influence of, 93; + Darwin on, 94; + Wallace on, 110 + +VINES, S. H., estimate of number of species of plants, 10 + +Volcanoes, Scrope on, 36 + +Vulcanism, _see_ Plutonism &c., 18 + + +WALLACE, ALFRED RUSSEL, on ideas and actions, 4; + his early life, 110; + in South America, 110; + in Malay Archipelago, 110; + influence of _Principles_ on, 79, 110; + speculations at Sarawak, 111; + influence of Malthus on, 112; + conception of idea of Natural Selection, 111, 112; + ignorance of Darwin's views, 112; + statement on his relation to Darwin, 113, 114; + his magnanimity, 114; + on geographical distribution of animals, 146; + his defence of Lyell's principle of Uniformity, 153 + +WELLS, Dr, his anticipation of theory of Natural Selection, 92 + +WERNER, success of his teachings, 21, 26, 27; + his influence on early geologists, 26 + +Wernerian Society, founded, 1807, by Jameson, 21, 25 + +Wernerism, 18 + +WHEWELL, Dr, contrast of doctrines of Hutton and Lyell, 22, 53; + originates terms 'Catastrophism,' 'Uniformitarianism,' 22; + and 'Geological Dynamics,' 70; + reviews _Principles_, 53; + opposition to Evolution, 83 + +World, small part known to ancients, 9 + +Worms, Darwin's work on, 147 + + +ZITTEL, K. VON, on Hutton's work, 19; + on von Hoff and Lyell, 50 + +_Zoonomia_ of Erasmus Darwin, 101 + + + + +Cambridge: + +PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A. +AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS + + + + + + * * * * * + + + + + +Transcribers' note: + +General: Inconsistent capitalisation of Von in Von Hoff as in original +General: No period (full stop) after Mr, Mrs, Dr as in original +Page 24: ) added after 'uniformitarianism' to create matching pair +Pages 33, 171: Inconsistent spelling of Thomson/Thompson as in original. +Page 59: Missing anchor [50] added after dogmatise as this seemed the + most likely place +Page 80: " changed to ' after [76] to create matching pair +Page 89: his changed to His in his theories delighted me +Page 94: eniment corrected to eminent +Page 102: re-stocked standardised to restocked +Page 111: . added after September 1855 +Page 149: . added after plants and animals +Page 157: lifelong standardised to life-long +Page 167: Wernerianism standardised to Wernerism; index entry for + Herschel, J., correspondence with Lyell corrected from + non-existent page 183 to page 12 + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE COMING OF EVOLUTION*** + + +******* This file should be named 31316-8.txt or 31316-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/1/3/1/31316 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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