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diff --git a/31105.txt b/31105.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1554390 --- /dev/null +++ b/31105.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9437 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Elements of Agriculture, by George E. Waring + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Elements of Agriculture + A Book for Young Farmers, with Questions Prepared for the Use of Schools + +Author: George E. Waring + +Release Date: January 27, 2010 [EBook #31105] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE *** + + + + +Produced by Steven Giacomelli, Brownfox and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images produced by Core Historical +Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) + + + + + + +TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES + +Most pages of the book include at the bottom a number of questions for +the student to consider. These have been retained in this version and +enclosed in square brackets. + +Some corrections to typographical errors have been made. These are +recorded at the end of the text. + + * * * * * + + + + +G. E. WARING, JR. + +Consulting Agriculturist. + +ACCURATE ANALYSES OF SOILS, MANURES, AND +CROPS PROCURED. FARMS VISITED, +TREATMENT RECOMMENDED, +ETC. + + +Letters of advice on analyses will be written for those who require +them, for $25 each. + +Letters on other branches of the subject, inclosing a suitable fee, will +receive prompt attention. + + +OFFICE, 143 FULTON-STREET, NEW YORK, (UP STAIRS. +POST-OFFICE ADDRESS, RYE, N. Y. + + +DR. CHARLES ENDERLIN, + +ANALYTICAL AND CONSULTING + +Chemist, + +84 WALKER-STREET, +NEW YORK. + + +ANALYSIS OF MINERALS, SOILS,--ORGANIC ANALYSIS, ETC. + + +D. APPLETON & COMPANY + +HAVE IN COURSE OF PREPARATION, + +THE + +EARTHWORKER; + +OR, + +Book of Husbandry. + +BY G. E. WARING, JR. + +AUTHOR OF THE "ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE." + + +This book is intended as a sequel to the Elements of Agriculture, being +a larger and more complete work, containing fuller directions for the +treatment of the different kinds of soils, for the _preparation of +manures_, and especially for the drainage of lands, whether level, +rolling, hilly, or springy. Particular attention will be paid to the use +of analysis. The feeding of different animals, and the cultivation of +the various crops, will be described with care. + +The size of the work will be about 400 pp. 8vo., and it will probably be +published January 1st, 1856. Price $1. Orders sent to the publishers, or +to the author, at Rye, N. Y., will be supplied in the order in which +they are received. + + + + +ELEMENTS + +OF + +AGRICULTURE + + + + +Extract from a letter to the author from Prof. Mapes, editor of the +_Working Farmer_: + + * * * "After a perusal of your manuscript, I feel authorized in + assuring you that, for the use of young farmers, and schools, + your book is superior to any other elementary work extant. JAMES + J. MAPES." + + * * * * * + +Letter from the Editor of the N. Y. Tribune: + + MY FRIEND WARING, + + If all who need the information given in your _Elements of + Agriculture_ will confess their ignorance as frankly as I do, + and seek to dispel it as promptly and heartily, you will have + done a vast amount of good by writing it. * * * * * I have found + in every chapter important truths, which I, as a + would-be-farmer, needed to know, yet which I _did not_ know, or + had but a confused and glimmering consciousness of, before I + read your lucid and straightforward exposition of the bases of + Agriculture as a science. I would not have my son grow up as + ignorant of these truths as I did for many times the price of + your book; and, I believe, a copy of that book in every family + in the Union, would speedily add at least ten per cent. per acre + to the aggregate product of our soil, beside doing much to stem + and reverse the current which now sets so strongly away from the + plow and the scythe toward the counter and the office. Trusting + that your labors will be widely regarded and appreciated, + + I remain yours truly, + HORACE GREELEY. + + New York, June 23, 1854. + + + + +THE +ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE: + +A Book for Young Farmers, + +WITH QUESTIONS PREPARED FOR THE USE OF +SCHOOLS. + +BY + +GEO. E. WARING, JR., +CONSULTING AGRICULTURIST. + +The effort to extend the dominion of man over nature is the most healthy +and most noble of all ambitions.--BACON. + +NEW YORK: +D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, +346 & 348 BROADWAY. + +M DCCC LIV. + + + + +Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by + +GEO. E. WARING, JR., + +in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the +Southern District of New York. + + + + +TO + +MY FRIEND AND TUTOR, + +PROF. JAMES J. MAPES, + +THE PIONEER OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE IN AMERICA, + +This Book + +IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED + +BY HIS PUPIL, + + THE AUTHOR. + + + + +TO THE STUDENT. + + +This book is presented to you, not as a work of science, nor as a dry, +chemical treatise, but as a plain statement of the more simple +operations by which nature produces many results, so common to our +observation, that we are thoughtless of their origin. On these results +depend the existence of man and the lower animals. No man should be +ignorant of their production. + +In the early prosecution of the study, you will find, perhaps, nothing +to relieve its tediousness; but, when the foundation of agricultural +knowledge is laid in your mind so thoroughly that you know the character +and use of every stone, then may your thoughts build on it fabrics of +such varied construction, and so varied in their uses, that there will +be opened to you a new world, even more wonderful and more beautiful +than the outward world, which exhibits itself to the senses. Thus may +you live two lives, each assisting in the enjoyment of the other. + +But you may ask the _practical_ use of this. "The world is made up of +little things," saith the proverb. So with the productive arts. The +steam engine consists of many parts, each part being itself composed of +atoms too minute to be detected by our observation. The earth itself, in +all its solidity and life, consists entirely of atoms too small to be +perceived by the naked eye, each visible particle being an aggregation +of thousands of constituent elements. The crop of wheat, which the +farmer raises by his labor, and sells for money, is produced by a +combination of particles equally small. They are not mysteriously +combined, nor irregularly, but each atom is taken from its place of +deposit, and carried to its required location in the living plant, by +laws as certain as those which regulate the motion of the engine, or the +revolutions of the earth. + +It is the business of the practical farmer to put together these +materials, with the assistance of nature. He may learn her ways, assist +her action, and succeed; or he may remain ignorant of her operations, +often counteract her beneficial influences, and often fail. + +A knowledge of the _inner_ world of material things about us will +produce pleasure to the thoughtful, and profit to the practical. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + +SECTION FIRST. + +THE PLANT. + + PAGE. + +CHAPTER I.--Introduction, 11 + + " II.--Atmosphere, 15 + + " III.--Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen, 23 + + " IV.--Inorganic Matter, 29 + + " V.--Growth, 40 + + " VI.--Proximate division of Plants, 43 + + " VII.--Location of the Proximates, and variations in the + Ashes of Plants, 52 + + " VIII.--Recapitulation, 56 + + +SECTION SECOND. + +THE SOIL. + +CHAPTER I.--Formation and Character of the Soil, 65 + + " II.--Uses of Organic Matter, 77 + + " III.--Uses of Inorganic Matter, 84 + + +SECTION THIRD. + +MANURES. + +CHAPTER I.--Character and varieties of Manure, 93 + + " II.--Excrements of Animals, 96 + + " III.--Waste of Manure, 101 + + " IV.--Absorbents, 109 + + " V.--Composting Stable Manure, 118 + + " VI.--Different kinds of Animal Excrement, 126 + + " VII.--Other Organic Manures, 136 + + " VIII.--Mineral Manures, 149 + + " IX.--Deficiencies of Soils, means of Restoration, etc., 155 + + " X.--Atmospheric Fertilizers, 197 + + " XI.--Recapitulation, 203 + + +SECTION FOURTH. + +MECHANICAL CULTIVATION. + +CHAPTER I.--Mechanical Character of the Soil, 209 + + " II.--Under-draining, 211 + + " III.--Advantages of Under-draining, 217 + + " IV.--Sub-soil Plowing, 232 + + " V.--Plowing and other modes of Pulverizing the Soil, 239 + + " VI.--Rolling, Mulching, Weeding, etc., 245 + + +SECTION FIFTH. + +ANALYSIS. + +CHAPTER I.--Nature of Analysis, 259 + + " II.--Tables of Analysis, 264 + + +THE PRACTICAL FARMER, 279 + +EXPLANATION OF TERMS, 287 + + + + +SECTION FIRST. + +THE PLANT. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +INTRODUCTION. + + +[What is the object of cultivating the soil? + +What is necessary in order to cultivate with economy? + +Are plants created from nothing?] + +The object of cultivating the soil is to raise from it a crop of +_plants_. In order to cultivate with economy, we must _raise the largest +possible quantity with the least expense, and without permanent injury +to the soil_. + +Before this can be done we must study the character of plants, and learn +their exact composition. They are not _created_ by a mysterious power, +they are merely made up of matters already in existence. They take up +water containing food and other matters, and discharge from their roots +those substances that are not required for their growth. It is necessary +for us to know what kind of matter is required as food for the plant, +and where this is to be obtained, which we can learn only through such +means as shall separate the elements of which plants are composed; in +other words, we must _take them apart_, and examine the different pieces +of which they are formed. + +[What must we do to learn the composition of plants? + +What takes place when vegetable matter is burned? + +What do we call the two divisions produced by burning? + +Where does organic matter originate? Inorganic? + +How much of chemistry should farmers know?] + +If we burn any vegetable substance it disappears, except a small +quantity of earthy matter, which we call _ashes_. In this way we make an +important division in the constituents of plants. One portion dissipates +into the atmosphere, and the other remains as ashes. + +That part which burns away during combustion is called _organic matter_; +the ashes are called _inorganic matter_. The organic matter has become +air, and hence we conclude that it was originally obtained from air. The +inorganic matter has become earth, and was obtained from the soil. + +This knowledge can do us no good except by the assistance of chemistry, +which explains the properties of each part, and teaches us where it is +to be found. It is not necessary for farmers to become chemists. All +that is required is, that they should know enough of chemistry to +understand the nature of the materials of which their crops are +composed, and how those materials are to be used to the best advantage. + +This amount of knowledge may be easily acquired, and should be possessed +by every person, old or young, whether actually engaged in the +cultivation of the soil or not. All are dependent on vegetable +productions, not only for food, but for every comfort and convenience of +life. It is the object of this book to teach children the first +principles of agriculture: and it contains all that is absolutely +necessary to an understanding of the practical operations of +cultivation, etc. + +[Is organic matter lost after combustion? + +Of what does it consist? + +How large a part of plants is carbon?] + +We will first examine the _organic_ part of plants, or that which is +driven away during combustion or burning. This matter, though apparently +lost, is only changed in form. + +It consists of one solid substance, _carbon_ (or charcoal), and three +gases, _oxygen_, _hydrogen_ and _nitrogen_. These four kinds of matter +constitute nearly the whole of most plants, the ashes forming often less +than one part in one hundred of their dry weight. + +[What do we mean by gas? + +Does oxygen unite with other substances? + +Give some instances of its combinations] + +When wood is burned in a close vessel, or otherwise protected from the +air, its carbon becomes charcoal. All plants contain this substance, it +forming usually about one half of their dry weight. The remainder of +their organic part consists of the three gases named above. By the word +gas, we mean _air_. Oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, when pure, are always +in the form of air. Oxygen has the power of uniting with many +substances, forming compounds which are different from either of their +constituents alone. Thus: oxygen unites with _iron_ and forms oxide of +iron or _iron-rust_, which does not resemble the gray metallic iron nor +the gas oxygen; oxygen unites with carbon and forms carbonic acid, which +is an invisible gas, but not at all like pure oxygen; oxygen combines +with hydrogen and forms water. All of the water, ice, steam, etc., are +composed of these two gases. We know this because we can artificially +decompose, or separate, all water, and obtain as a result simply oxygen +and hydrogen, or we can combine these two gases and thus form pure +water; oxygen combines with nitrogen and forms nitric acid. These +chemical changes and combinations take place only under certain +circumstances, which, so far as they affect agriculture, will be +considered in the following pages. + +As the organic elements of plants are obtained from matters existing in +the atmosphere which surrounds our globe, we will examine its +constitution. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +ATMOSPHERE. + + +[What is atmospheric air composed of? + +In what proportions? + +What is the use of nitrogen in air? + +Does the atmosphere contain other matters useful to vegetation? + +What are they?] + +Atmospheric air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen. Their proportions +are, one part of oxygen to four parts of nitrogen. Oxygen is the active +agent in the combustion, decay, and decomposition of organized bodies +(those which have possessed animal or vegetable life, that is, organic +matter), and others also, in the breathing of animals. Experiments have +proved that if the atmosphere consisted of pure oxygen every thing would +be speedily destroyed, as the processes of combustion and decay would be +greatly accelerated, and animals would be so stimulated that death would +soon ensue. The use of the nitrogen in the air is to _dilute_ the +oxygen, and thus reduce the intensity of its effect. + +Besides these two great elements, the atmosphere contains certain +impurities which are of great importance to vegetable growth; these are, +_carbonic acid, water, ammonia, etc._ + + +CARBONIC ACID. + +[What is the source of the carbon of plants? + +What is carbonic acid? + +What is its proportion in the atmosphere? + +Where else is it found? + +How does it enter the plant? + +What are the offices of leaves?] + +Carbonic acid is in all probability the only source of the carbon of +plants, and consequently is of more importance to vegetation than any +other single sort of food. It is a gas, and is not, under natural +circumstances, perceptible to our senses. It constitutes about 1/2500 of +the atmosphere, and is found in combination with many substances in +nature. Marble, limestone and chalk, are carbonate of lime, or carbonic +acid and lime in combination; and carbonate of magnesia is a compound of +carbonic acid and magnesia. This gas exists in combination with many +other mineral substances, and is contained in all water not recently +boiled. Its supply, though small, is sufficient for the purposes of +vegetation. It enters the plant in two ways--through the roots in the +water which goes to form the sap, and at the leaves, which absorb it +from the air in the form of gas. The leaf of the plant seems to have +three offices: that of absorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere--that +of assisting in the chemical preparation of the sap--and that of +evaporating its water. If we examine leaves with a microscope we shall +find that some have as many as 170,000 openings, or mouths, in a square +inch; others have a much less number. Usually, the pores on the under +side of the leaf absorb the carbonic acid. This absorptive power is +illustrated when we apply the lower side of a cabbage leaf to a wound, +as it draws strongly--the other side of the leaf has no such action. +Young sprouts may have the power of absorbing and decomposing carbonic +acid. + +[What parts of roots absorb food? + +How much of their carbon may plants receive through their roots? + +What change does carbonic acid undergo after entering the plant? + +In what parts of the plant, and under what influence, is carbonic acid +decomposed?] + +The roots of plants terminate at their ends in minute spongioles, or +mouths for the absorption of fluids containing nutriment. In these +fluids there exist greater or less quantities of carbonic acid, and a +considerable amount of this gas enters into the circulation of the +plants and is carried to those parts where it is required for +decomposition. Plants, under favorable circumstances, may thus obtain +about one-third of their carbon. + +Carbonic acid, it will be recollected, consists of _carbon and oxygen_, +while it supplies only _carbon_ to the plant. It is therefore necessary +that it be divided, or decomposed, and that the carbon be retained while +the oxygen is sent off again into the atmosphere, to reperform its +office of uniting with carbon. This decomposition takes place in the +_green_ parts of plants and only under the influence of daylight. It is +not necessary that the sun shine directly on the leaf or green shoot, +but this causes a _more rapid_ decomposition of carbonic acid, and +consequently we find that plants which are well exposed to the sun's +rays make the most rapid growth. + +[Explain the condition of different latitudes. + +Does the proportion of carbonic acid in the atmosphere remain about the +same?] + +The fact that light is essential to vegetation explains the conditions +of different latitudes, which, so far as the assimilation of carbon is +concerned, are much the same. At the Equator the days are but about +twelve hours long. Still, as the growth of plants is extended over eight +or nine months of the year, the duration of daylight is sufficient for +the requirements of a luxuriant vegetation. At the Poles, on the +contrary, the summer is but two or three months long; here, however, it +is daylight all summer, and plants from continual growth develop +themselves in that short time. + +It will be recollected that carbonic acid constitutes but about 1/2500 +of the air, yet, although about one half of all the vegetable matter in +the world is derived from this source, as well as all of the carbon +required by the growth of plants, its proportion in the atmosphere is +constantly about the same. In order that we may understated this, it +becomes necessary for us to consider the means by which it is formed. +Carbon, by the aid of fire, is made to unite with oxygen, and always +when bodies containing carbon are burnt _with the presence of +atmospheric air_, the oxygen of that air unites with the carbon, and +forms carbonic acid. The same occurs when bodies containing carbon +_decay_, as this is simply a slower _burning_ and produces the same +results. The respiration (or breathing) of animals is simply the union +of the carbon of the blood with the oxygen of the air drawn into the +lungs, and their breath, when thrown out, always contains carbonic acid. +From this we see that the reproduction of this gas is the direct effect +of the destruction of all organized bodies, whether by fire, decay, or +consumption by animals. + +[Explain some of the operations in which this reproduction +takes place. + +How is it reproduced?] + +Furnaces are its wholesale manufactories. Every cottage fire is +continually producing a new supply, and the blue smoke issuing from the +cottage-chimney, as described by so many poets, possesses a new beauty, +when we reflect that besides indicating a cheerful fire on the hearth, +it contains materials for making food for the cottager's tables and new +faggots for his fire. The wick of every burning lamp draws up the carbon +of the oil to be made into carbonic acid at the flame. All matters in +process of combustion, decay, fermentation, or putrefaction, are +returning to the atmosphere those constituents, which they obtained from +it. Every living animal, even to the smallest insect, by respiration, +spends its life in the production of this material necessary to the +growth of plants, and at death gives up its body in part for such +formation by decay. + +Thus we see that there is a continual change from the carbon of plants +to air, and from air back to plants, or through them to animals. As each +dollar in gold that is received into a country permanently increases its +amount of circulating medium, and each dollar sent out permanently +decreases it until returned, so the carbonic acid sent into the +atmosphere by burning, decay, or respiration, becomes a permanent stock +of constantly changeable material, until it shall be locked up for a +time, as in a house which may last for centuries, or in an oak tree +which may stand for thousands of years. Still, at the decay of either of +these, the carbon which they contain must be again resolved into +carbonic acid. + +[What are the coal-beds of Pennsylvania? + +What are often found in them?] + +The coal-beds of Pennsylvania are mines of carbon once abstracted from +the atmosphere by plants. In these coal-beds are often found fern +leaves, toads, whole trees, and in short all forms of organized matter. +These all existed as living things before the great floods, and at the +breaking away of the barriers of the immense lakes, of which our present +lakes were merely the deep holes in their beds, they were washed away +and deposited in masses so great as to take fire from their chemical +changes. It is by many supposed that this fire acting throughout the +entire mass (without the presence of air _to supply oxygen_ except on +the surface) caused it to become melted carbon, and to flow around those +bodies which still retained their shapes, changing them to coal without +destroying their structures. This coal, so long as it retains its +present form, is lost to the vegetable kingdom, and each ton that is +burned, by being changed into carbonic acid, adds to the ability of the +atmosphere to support an increased amount of vegetation. + +[Explain the manner in which they become coal. + +How does the burning of coal benefit vegetation? + +Is carbon ever permanent in any of its forms? + +What enables it to change its condition?] + +Thus we see that, in the provisions of nature, carbon, the grand basis, +on which all organized matter is founded, is never permanent in any of +its forms. Oxygen is the carrier which enables it to change its +condition. For instance, let us suppose that we have a certain quantity +of charcoal; this is nearly pure carbon. We ignite it, and it unites +with the oxygen of the air, becomes carbonic acid, and floats away into +the atmosphere. The wind carries it through a forest, and the leaves of +the trees with their millions of mouths drink it in. By the assistance +of light it is decomposed, the oxygen is sent off to make more carbonic +acid, and the carbon is retained to form a part of the tree. So long as +that tree exists in the form of wood, the carbon will remain unaltered, +but when the wood decays, or is burned, it immediately takes the form of +carbonic acid, and mingles with the atmosphere ready to be again taken +up by plants, and have its carbon deposited in the form of vegetable +matter. + +[Give an instance of such change. + +How do plants and animals benefit each other? + +Describe the experiment with the glass tube.] + +The blood of animals contains carbon derived from their food. This +unites with the oxygen of the air drawn into the lungs and forms +carbonic acid. Without this process, animals could not live. Thus, while +by the natural operation of breathing, they make carbonic acid for the +uses of the vegetable world, plants, in taking up carbon, throw off +oxygen to keep up the life of animals. There is perhaps no way in which +we can better illustrate the changes of form in carbon than by +describing a simple experiment. + +Take a glass tube filled with oxygen gas, and put in it a lump of +charcoal, cork the ends of the tube tightly, and pass through the corks +the wires of an electrical battery. By passing a stream of electrical +fluid over the charcoal it may be ignited, when it will burn with great +brilliancy. In burning it is dissolved in the oxygen forming carbonic +acid, and disappears. It is no more lost, however, than is the carbon of +wood which is burned in a stove; although invisible, it is still in the +tube, and may be detected by careful weighing. A more satisfactory proof +of its presence may be obtained by _decomposing_ the carbonic acid by +drawing the wires a short distance apart, and giving a _spark_ of +electricity. This immediately separates the oxygen from the carbon which +forms a dense black smoke in the tube. By pushing the corks together we +may obtain a wafer of charcoal of the same weight as the piece +introduced. In this experiment we have changed carbon from its solid +form to an invisible gas and back again to a solid, thus fully +representing the continual changes of this substance in the destruction +of organic matter and the growth of plants. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +HYDROGEN, OXYGEN AND NITROGEN. + + +HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. + +[What is water composed of? + +If analyzed, what does it yield? + +How do plants obtain their hydrogen and oxygen?] + +Let us now consider the three gases, _hydrogen_, _oxygen_ and +_nitrogen_, which constitute the remainder of the organic part of +plants. + +Hydrogen and oxygen compose _water_, which, if analyzed, yields simply +these two gases. Plants perform such analysis, and in this way are able +to obtain a sufficient supply of these materials, as their sap is +composed chiefly of water. Whenever vegetable matter is destroyed by +burning, decay, or otherwise, its hydrogen and oxygen unite and form +water, which is parted with usually in the form of an invisible vapor. +The atmosphere of course contains greater or less quantities of watery +vapor arising from this cause and from the evaporation of liquid water. +This vapor condenses, forming rains, etc. + +Hydrogen and oxygen are never taken into consideration in manuring +lands, as they are so readily obtained from the water constituting the +sap of the plant, and consequently should not occupy our attention in +this book. + + +NITROGEN. + +[If vegetable matter be destroyed, what becomes of these +constituents? + +What is the remaining organic constituent? + +Why is it worthy of close attention? + +Do plants appropriate the nitrogen of the atmosphere?] + +_Nitrogen_, the only remaining _organic_ constituent of vegetable +matter, is for many reasons worthy of close attention. + +1. It is necessary to the growth and perfection of all cultivated +plants. + +2. It is necessary to the formation of animal muscle. + +3. It is often deficient in the soil. + +4. It is liable to be easily lost from manures. + +Although about four fifths of atmospheric air are pure nitrogen, it is +almost certain that plants get no nutriment at all from this source. It +is all obtained from some of its compounds, chiefly from the one called +ammonia. Nitric acid is also a source from which plants may obtain +nitrogen, though to the farmer of less importance than ammonia. + + +AMMONIA. + +[What is the principal source from which they obtain nitrogen? + +What is ammonia? + +How is it formed? + +Where does it always exist? + +How do plants take up ammonia?] + +_Ammonia_ is composed of nitrogen and hydrogen. It has a pungent smell +and is familiarly known as _hartshorn_. The same odor is perceptible +around stables and other places where animal matter is decomposing. All +animal muscle, certain parts of plants, and other organized substances, +consist of compounds containing nitrogen. When these compounds undergo +combustion, or are in any manner decomposed, the nitrogen which they +contain usually unites with hydrogen, and forms ammonia. In consequence +of this the atmosphere always contains more or less of this gas, arising +from the decay, etc., which is continually going on all over the world. + +This ammonia in the atmosphere is the capital stock to which all plants, +not artificially manured, must look for their supply of nitrogen. As +they can take up ammonia only through their roots, we must discover +some means by which it may be conveyed from the atmosphere to the soil. + +[Does water absorb it? + +What is _spirits of hartshorn_? + +Why is this power of water important in agriculture? + +What instance may be cited to prove this?] + +Water may be made to absorb many times its bulk of this gas, and water +with which it comes in contact will immediately take it up. Spirits of +hartshorn is merely water through which ammonia has been passed until it +is saturated.[A] This power of water has a direct application to +agriculture, because the water constituting rains, dews, &c., absorbs +the ammonia which the decomposition of nitrogenous matter had sent into +the atmosphere, and we find that all rain, snow and dew, contain +ammonia. This fact may be chemically proved in various ways, and is +perceptible in the common operations of nature. Every person must have +noticed that when a summer's shower falls on the plants in a flower +garden, they commence their growth with fresh vigor while the blossoms +become larger and more richly colored. This effect cannot be produced by +watering with spring water, unless it be previously mixed with ammonia, +in which case the result will be the same. + +Although ammonia is a gas and pervades the atmosphere, few, if any, +plants can take it up, as they do carbonic acid, through their leaves. +It must all enter through the roots in solution in the water which goes +to form the sap. Although the amount received from the atmosphere is of +great importance, there are few cases where artificial applications are +not beneficial. The value of farm-yard and other animal manures, depends +chiefly on the ammonia which they yield on decomposition. This subject, +also the means for retaining in the soil the ammoniacal parts of +fertilizing matters, will be fully considered in the section on manures. + +[Can plants use more ammonia than is received from the +atmosphere? + +On what does the value of animal manure chiefly depend? + +What changes take place after ammonia enters the plant? + +May the same atom of nitrogen perform many different offices?] + +After ammonia has entered the plant it may be decomposed, its hydrogen +sent off, and its nitrogen retained to answer the purposes of growth. +The changes which nitrogen undergoes, from plants to animals, or, by +decomposition, to the form of ammonia in the atmosphere, are as varied +as those of carbon and the constituents of water. The same little atom +of nitrogen may one year form a part of a plant, and the next become a +constituent of an animal, or, with the decomposed dead animal, may form +a part of the soil. If the animal should fall into the sea he may become +food for fishes, and our atom of nitrogen may form a part of a fish. +That fish may be eaten by a larger one, or at death may become food for +the whale, through the marine insect, on which it feeds. After the +abstraction of the oil from the whale, the nitrogen may, by the +putrefaction of his remains, be united to hydrogen, form ammonia, and +escape into the atmosphere. From here it may be brought to the soil by +rains, and enter into the composition of a plant, from which, could its +parts speak as it lies on our table, it could tell us a wonderful tale +of travels, and assure us that, after wandering about in all sorts of +places, it had returned to us the same little atom of nitrogen which we +had owned twenty years before, and which for thousands of years had been +continually going through its changes. + +[Is the same true of the other constituents of plants? + +Is any atom of matter ever lost?] + +The same is true of any of the organic or inorganic constituents of +plants. They are performing their natural offices, or are lying in the +earth, or floating in the atmosphere, ready to be lent to _any_ of their +legitimate uses, sure again to be returned to their starting point. + +Thus no atom of matter is ever lost. It may change its place, but it +remains for ever as a part of the capital of nature. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[A] By _saturated_, we mean that it contains all that it is capable of +holding. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +INORGANIC MATTER. + + +[What are ashes called? + +How many kinds of matter are there in the ashes of plants? + +Into what three classes may they be divided? + +What takes place when alkalies and acids are brought together?] + +We will now examine the ashes left after burning vegetable substances. +This we have called inorganic matter, and it is obtained from the soil. +Organic matter, although forming so large a part of the plant, we have +seen to consist of four different substances. The inorganic portion, on +the contrary, although forming so small a part, consists of no less than +_nine_ or _ten_ different kinds of matter.[B] These we will consider in +order. In their relations to agriculture they may be divided into +_three_ classes--_alkalies_, _acids_, and _neutrals_.[C] + +[Is the character of a compound the same as that of its +constituents? + +Give an instance of this. + +Do neutrals combine with other substances? + +Name the four alkalies found in the ashes of plants.] + +Alkalies and acids are of opposite properties, and when brought together +they unite and neutralize each other, forming compounds which are +neither alkaline nor acid in their character. Thus, carbonic acid (a +gas,) unites with lime--a burning, caustic substance--and forms marble, +which is a hard tasteless stone. Alkalies and acids are characterized +by their desire to unite with each other, and the compounds thus formed +have many and various properties, so that the characters of the +constituents give no indication of the character of the compound. For +instance, lime causes the gases of animal manure to escape, while +sulphate of lime (a compound of sulphuric acid and lime) produces an +opposite effect, and prevents their escape. + +The substances coming under the signification of neutrals, are less +affected by the laws of combination, still they often combine feebly +with other substances, and some of the resultant compounds are of great +importance to agriculture. + + +ALKALIES. + +The alkalies which are found in the ashes of plants are four in number; +they are _potash_, _soda_, _lime_ and _magnesia_. + + +POTASH. + +[How may we obtain potash from ashes? + +What are some of its agricultural uses?] + +When we pour water over wood ashes it dissolves the _potash_ which they +contain, and carries it through in solution. This solution is called +_ley_, and if it be boiled to dryness it leaves a solid substance from +which pure potash may be made. Potash left exposed to the air absorbs +carbonic acid and becomes carbonate of potash, or _pearlash_; if another +atom of carbonic acid be added, it becomes super-carbonate of potash, or +_salaeratus_. Potash has many uses in agriculture. + +1. It forms a constituent of nearly all plants. + +2. It unites with silica (a neutral), and forms a compound which water +can dissolve and carry into the roots of plants; thus supplying them +with an ingredient which gives them much of their strength.[D] + +3. It is a strong agent in the decomposition of vegetable matter, and is +thus of much importance in preparing manures. + +4. It roughens the smooth round particles of sandy soils, and prevents +their compacting, as they are often liable to do. + +5. It is also of use in killing certain kinds of insects, and, when +artificially applied, in smoothing the bark of fruit trees. + +The source from which this and the other inorganic matters required are +to be obtained, will be fully considered in the section on manures. + + +SODA. + +[Where is soda found most largely? + +What is Glauber's salts? + +What is washing soda? + +What are some of the uses of lime?] + +_Soda_, one of the alkalies contained in the ashes of plants, is very +much the same as potash in its agricultural character. Its uses are the +same as those of potash--before enumerated. Soda exists very largely in +nature, as it forms an important part of common salt, whether in the +ocean or in those inland deposits known as rock salt. When combined with +sulphuric acid it forms sulphate of soda or _Glauber's salts_. In +combination with carbonic acid, as carbonate of soda, it forms the +common washing soda of the shops. It is often necessary to render soils +fertile. + + +LIME. + +_Lime_ is in many ways important in agriculture: + +1. It is a constituent of plants and animals. + +2. It assists in the decomposition of vegetable matter in the soil. + +3. It corrects the acidity[E] of sour soils. + +4. As chloride or sulphate of lime it is a good absorbent of fertilizing +gases. + +[How is caustic lime made? + +How much carbonic acid is thus liberated? + +How does man resemble Sinbad the sailor?] + +In nature it usually exists in the form of carbonate of lime: that is, +as marble, limestone, and chalk--these all being of the same +composition. In manufacturing caustic (or quick) lime, it is customary +to burn the carbonate of lime in a kiln; by this means the carbonic acid +is thrown off into the atmosphere and the lime remains in a pure or +caustic state. A French chemist states that every cubic yard of +limestone that is burned, throws off _ten thousand_ cubic yards of +carbonic acid, which may be used by plants. This reminds us of the story +of Sinbad the sailor, where we read of the immense _genie_ who came out +of a very small box by the sea-shore, much to the surprise of Sinbad, +who could not believe his eyes, until the _genie_ changed himself into a +cloud of smoke and went into the box again. Sinbad fastened the lid, and +the _genie_ must have remained there until the box was destroyed. + +Now man is very much like Sinbad, he lets the carbonic acid out from the +limestone (when it expands and becomes a gas); and then he raises a +crop, the leaves of which drink it in and pack the carbon away in a very +small compass as vegetable matter. Here it must remain until the plant +is destroyed, when it becomes carbonic acid again, and occupies just as +much space as ever. + +The burning of limestone is a very prolific source of carbonic acid. + + +MAGNESIA. + +[What do you know about magnesia? + +What is phosphoric acid composed of? + +With what substance does it form its most important compound?] + +_Magnesia_ is the remaining alkali of vegetable ashes. It is well known +as a medicine, both in the form of calcined magnesia, and, when mixed +with sulphuric acid, as epsom salts. + +Magnesia is necessary to nearly all plants, but too much of it is +poisonous, and it should be used with much care, as many soils already +contain a sufficient quantity. It is often found in limestone rocks +(that class called _dolomites_), and the injurious effects of some kinds +of lime, as well as the barrenness of soils made from dolomites, may be +attributed entirely to the fact that they contain too much magnesia. + + +ACIDS. + +PHOSPHORIC ACID. + +_Phosphoric acid._--This subject is one of the greatest interest to the +farmer. Phosphoric acid is composed of phosphorus and oxygen. The end +of a loco-foco match contains phosphorus, and when it is lighted it +unites with the oxygen of the atmosphere and forms phosphoric acid; this +constitutes the white smoke which is seen for a moment before the +sulphur commences burning. Being an acid, this substance has the power +of combining with any of the alkalies. Its most important compound is +with lime. + +[Will soils, deficient in phosphate of lime, produce good +crops? + +From what source do plants obtain their phosphorus?] + +_Phosphate of lime_ forms about 65 per cent. of the dry weight of the +bones of all animals, and it is all derived from the soil through the +medium of plants. As plants are intended as food for animals, nature has +provided that they shall not attain their perfection without taking up a +supply of phosphate of lime as well as of the other earthy matters; +consequently, there are many soils which will not produce good crops, +simply because they are deficient in phosphate of lime. It is one of the +most important ingredients of manures, and its value is dependent on +certain conditions which will be hereafter explained. + +Another use of phosphoric acid in the plant is to supply it with a small +amount of _phosphorus_, which seems to be required in the formation of +the seed. + + +SULPHURIC ACID. + +[What is sulphuric acid composed of? + +What is plaster? + +What is silica? + +Why is it necessary to the growth of plants? + +What compounds does it form with alkalies?] + +_Sulphuric acid_ is important to vegetation and is often needed to +render soils fertile. It is composed of sulphur and oxygen, and is made +for manufacturing purposes, by burning sulphur. With lime it forms +_sulphate of lime_, which is gypsum or 'plaster.' In this form it is +often found in nature, and is generally used in agriculture. Other +important methods for supplying sulphuric acid will be described +hereafter. It gives _to_ the plant a small portion of _sulphur_, which +is necessary to the formation of some of its parts. + + +NEUTRALS. + +SILICA. + +[How can you prove its existence in corn stalks? + +What instance does Liebig give to show its existence in grass? + +How do we supply silicates? + +Why does grain lodge? + +What is the most important compound of chlorine?] + +This is sand, the base of flint. It is necessary for the growth of all +plants, as it gives them much of their strength. In connection with an +alkali it constitutes the hard shining surface of corn stalks, straw, +etc. Silica unites with the alkalies and forms compounds, such as +_silicate of potash_, _silicate of soda, etc._, which are soluble in +water, and therefore available to plants. If we roughen a corn stalk +with sand-paper we may sharpen a knife upon it. This is owing to the +hard particles of silica which it contains. Window glass is silicate of +potash, rendered insoluble by additions of arsenic and litharge. + +Liebig tells us that some persons discovered, between Manheim and +Heidelberg in Germany, a mass of melted glass where a hay-stack had been +struck by lightning. They supposed it to be a meteor, but chemical +analysis showed that it was only the compound of silica and potash which +served to strengthen the grass. + +There is always _enough_ silica in the soil, but it is often necessary +to add an alkali to render it available. When grain, etc., lodge or fall +down from their own weight, it is altogether probable that they are +unable to obtain from the soil a sufficient supply of the soluble +silicates, and some form of alkali should be added to the soil to unite +with the sand and render it soluble. + + +CHLORINE. + +[Of what use is chloride of lime? + +What is oxide of iron? + +What is the difference between the _per_oxide and the _prot_oxide of +iron?] + +_Chlorine_ is an important ingredient of vegetable ashes, and is often +required to restore the balance to the soil. It is not found alone in +nature, but is always in combination with other substances. Its most +important compound is with sodium, forming _chloride of sodium_ (or +common salt). Sodium is the base of soda, and common salt is usually the +best source from which to obtain both soda and chlorine. Chlorine unites +with lime and forms _chloride of lime_, which is much used to absorb the +unpleasant odors of decaying matters, and in this character it is of use +in the treatment of manures. + + +OXIDE OF IRON. + +_Oxide of iron_, one of the constituents of ashes, is common iron rust. +_Iron_ itself is naturally of a grayish color, but when exposed to the +atmosphere, it readily absorbs oxygen and forms a reddish compound. It +is in this form that it usually exists in nature, and many soils as well +as the red sandstones are colored by it. It is seldom, if ever, +necessary to apply this as a manure, there being usually enough of it in +the soil. + +This red oxide of iron, of which we have been speaking, is called by +chemists the _peroxide_. There is another compound which contains less +oxygen than this, and is called the _protoxide of iron_, which is +poisonous to plants. When it exists in the soil it is necessary to use +such means of cultivation as shall expose it to the atmosphere and allow +it to take up more oxygen and become the peroxide. The black scales +which fly from hot iron when struck by the blacksmith's hammer are +protoxide of iron. + +The _peroxide of iron_ is a very good absorbent of ammonia, and +consequently, as will be hereafter described, adds to the fertility of +the soil. + +[What can you say of the oxide of manganese? + +How do you classify the inorganic constituents?] + +OXIDE OF MANGANESE, though often found in small quantities in the ashes +of cultivated plants, cannot be considered indispensable. + +Having now examined all of the materials from which the ashes of plants +are formed,[F] we are enabled to classify them in a simple manner, so +that they may be recollected. They are as follows:-- + +ALKALIES. ACIDS. NEUTRALS. + +Potash. Sulphuric acid. Silica. +Soda. Phosphoric " Chlorine. +Lime. Oxide of Iron. +Magnesia. " Manganese. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[B] Bromine, iodine, etc., are sometimes detected in particular plants, +but need not occupy the attention of the farmer. + +[C] This classification is not strictly scientific, but it is one which +the learner will find it well to adopt. These bodies are called neutrals +because they have no decided alkaline or acid character. + +[D] In some soils the _fluorides_ undoubtedly supply plants with soluble +silicates, as _fluoric acid_ has the power of dissolving silica. Thus, +in Derbyshire (England), where the soil is supplied with fluoric acid, +grain is said never to lodge. + +[E] Sourness. + +[F] There is reason to suppose that _alumina_ is an essential +constituent of many plants. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +GROWTH. + + +[Of what does a perfect young plant consist? + +How must the food of plants be supplied? + +Can carbon and earthy matter be taken up at separate stages of growth, +or must they both be supplied at once?] + +Having examined the materials of which plants are made, it becomes +necessary to discover how they are put together in the process of +growth. Let us therefore suppose a young wheat-plant for instance to be +in condition to commence independent growth. + +It consists of roots which are located in the soil; leaves which are +spread in the air, and a stem which connects the roots and leaves. This +stem contains sap vessels (or tubes) which extend from the ends of the +roots to the surfaces of the leaves, thus affording a passage for the +sap, and consequently allowing the matters taken up to be distributed +throughout the plant. + +[What seems to be nature's law with regard to this? + +What is the similarity between making a cart and raising a crop? + +In the growth of a young plant, what operations take place about the +same time?] + +It is necessary that the materials of which plants are made should be +supplied in certain proportions, and at the same time. For instance, +carbon could not be taken up in large quantities by the leaves, unless +the roots, at the same time, were receiving from the soil those mineral +matters which are necessary to growth. On the other hand, no +considerable amount of earthy matter could be appropriated by the roots +unless the leaves were obtaining carbon from the air. This same rule +holds true with regard to all of the constituents required; Nature +seeming to have made it a law that if one of the important ingredients +of the plant is absent, the others, though they may be present in +sufficient quantities, cannot be used. Thus, if the soil is deficient in +potash, and still has sufficient quantities of all of the other +ingredients, the plant cannot take up these ingredients, because potash +is necessary to its life. + +If a farmer wishes to make a cart he prepares his wood and iron, gets +them all in the proper condition, and then can very readily put them +together. But if he has all of the _wood_ necessary and no _iron_, he +cannot make his cart, because bolts, nails and screws are required, and +their place cannot be supplied by boards. This serves to illustrate the +fact that in raising plants we must give them every thing that they +require, or they will not grow at all. + +In the case of our young plant the following operations are going on at +about the same time. + +The leaves are absorbing carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and the +roots are drinking in water from the soil. + +[What becomes of the carbonic acid? + +How is the sap disposed of? + +What does it contain? + +How does the plant obtain its carbon? + +Its oxygen and hydrogen? + +Its nitrogen? + +Its inorganic matter?] + +Under the influence of daylight, the carbonic acid is decomposed; its +oxygen returned to the atmosphere, and its carbon retained in the plant. + +The water taken in by the roots circulates through the sap vessels of +the plant, and, from various causes, is drawn up towards the leaves +where it is evaporated. This water contains the _nitrogen_ and the +_inorganic matter_ required by the plant and some carbonic acid, while +the water itself consists of _hydrogen_ and _oxygen_. + +Thus we see that the plant obtains its food in the following manner:-- + +CARBON.--In the form of _carbonic acid_ from the atmosphere, and from + that contained in the sap, the oxygen being returned to the + air. + +OXYGEN } From the elements of the water constituting the sap. + & } +HYDROGEN.} + +NITROGEN.--From the soil (chiefly in form of ammonia). It is carried + into the plant through the roots in solution in water. + +INORGANIC} From the soil, and only _in solution_ in water. +MATTER. } + +[What changes does the food taken up by the plant undergo?] + +Many of the chemical changes which take place in the interior of the +plant are well understood, but they require too much knowledge of +chemistry to be easily comprehended by the young learner, and it is not +absolutely essential that they should be understood by the scholar who +is merely learning the _elements_ of the science. + +It is sufficient to say that the food taken up by the plant undergoes +such changes as are required for its growth; as in animals, where the +food taken into the stomach, is digested, and formed into bone, muscle, +fat, hair, etc., so in the plant the nutritive portions of the sap are +resolved into wood, bark, grain, or some other necessary part. + +The results of these changes are of the greatest importance in +agriculture, and no person can call himself a _practical farmer_ who +does not thoroughly understand them. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +PROXIMATE DIVISION OF PLANTS, ETC. + + +We have hitherto examined what is called the _ultimate_ division of +plants. That is, we have looked at each one of the elements separately, +and considered its use in vegetable growth. + +[Of what do wood, starch and the other vegetable compounds +chiefly consist? + +Are their small ashy parts important? + +What are these compounds called? + +Into how many classes may proximate principles be divided? + +Of what do the first class consist? The second? + +What vegetable compounds do the first class comprise?] + +We will now examine another division of plants, called their _proximate +division_. We know that plants consist of various substances, such as +wood, gum, starch, oil, etc., and on examination we shall discover that +these substances are composed of the various _organic_ and _inorganic_ +ingredients described in the preceding chapters. They are made up almost +entirely of _organic_ matter, but their ashy parts, though very small, +are (as we shall soon see) sometimes of great importance. + +These compounds are called _proximate principles_,[G] or _vegetable +proximates_. They may be divided into two classes. + +The first class are composed of _carbon_, _hydrogen_, and _oxygen_. + +The second class contain the same substances and _nitrogen_. + +[Are these substances of about the same composition? + +Can they be artificially changed from one to another? + +Give an instance of this. + +Is the ease with which these changes take place important? + +From what may the first class of proximates be formed?] + +The first class (those compounds not containing nitrogen) comprise the +wood, starch, gum, sugar, and fatty matter which constitute the greater +part of all plants, also the acids which are found in sour fruits, etc. +Various as are all of these things in their characters, they are +entirely composed of the same ingredients (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen), +and usually combined in about the _same proportion_. There may be a +slight difference in the composition of their _ashes_, but the organic +part is much the same in every case, so much so, that they can often be +artificially changed from one to the other. + +As an instance of this, it may be recollected by those who attended the +Fair of the American Institute, in 1834, that Prof. Mapes exhibited +samples of excellent sugar made from the juice of the cornstalk, starch, +linen, and woody fibre. + +The ease with which these proximates may be changed from one to the +other is their most important agricultural feature, and should be +clearly understood before proceeding farther. It is one of the +fundamental principles on which the growth of both vegetables depends. + +The proximates of the first class constitute usually the greater part of +all plants, and they are readily formed from the carbonic acid and water +which in nature are so plentifully supplied. + +[Why are those of the second class particularly important to +farmers? + +What is the general name under which they are known? + +What is the protein of wheat called? + +Why is flour containing much gluten preferred by bakers? + +Can protein be formed without nitrogen? + +If plants were allowed to complete their growth without a supply of this +ingredient, what would be the result?] + +The _second class_ of proximates, though forming only a small part of +the plant, are of the greatest importance to the farmer, being the ones +from which _animal muscle_[H] is made. They consist, as will be +recollected, of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and _nitrogen_, or of _all_ of +the organic elements of plants. They are all of much the same character, +though each kind of plant has its peculiar form of this substance, which +is known under the general name of _protein_. + +The protein of wheat is called _gluten_--that of Indian corn is +_zein_--that of beans and peas is _legumin_. In other plants the protein +substances are _vegetable albumen_, _casein_, etc. + +Gluten absorbs large quantities of water, which causes it to swell to a +great size, and become full of holes. Flour which contains much gluten, +makes light, porous bread, and is preferred by bakers, because it +absorbs so large an amount of water. + +[What is the result if a field be deficient in nitrogen?] + +The protein substances are necessary to animal and vegetable life, and +none of our cultivated plants will attain maturity (complete their +growth), unless allowed the materials required for forming this +constituent. To furnish this condition is the object of nitrogen given +to plants as manure. If no _nitrogen_ is supplied the protein +substances cannot be formed, and the plant must cease to grow. + +When on the contrary _ammonia_ is given to the soil (by rains or +otherwise), it furnishes nitrogen, while the carbonic acid and water +yield the other constituents of protein, and a healthy growth continues, +provided that the soil contains the _mineral_ matters required in the +formation of the ash, in a condition to be useful. + +The wisdom of this provision is evident when we recollect that the +protein substances are necessary to the formation of muscle in animals, +for if plants were allowed to complete their growth without a supply of +this ingredient, our grain and hay might not be sufficiently well +supplied with it to keep our oxen and horses in working condition, while +under the existing law plants must be of nearly a uniform quality (in +this respect), and if a field is short of nitrogen, its crop will not be +large, and of a very poor quality, but the soil will produce good plants +as long as the nitrogen lasts, and then the growth must cease.[I] + + +ANIMALS. + +That this principle may be clearly understood, it may be well to explain +more fully the application of the proximate constituents of plants in +feeding animals. + +[Of what are the bodies of animals composed? + +What is the office of vegetation? + +What part of the animal is formed from the first class of proximates? + +From the second? + +Which contains the largest portions of inorganic matter, plants or +animals? + +Must animals have a variety of food, and why?] + +Animals are composed (like plants) of organic and inorganic matter, and +every thing necessary to build them up exists in plants. It seems to be +the office of the vegetable world to prepare the gases in the +atmosphere, and the minerals in the earth for the uses of animal life, +and to effect this plants put these gases and minerals together in the +form of the various _proximates_ (or compound substances) which we have +just described. + +In animals the compounds containing _no nitrogen_ comprise the fatty +substances, parts of the blood, etc., while the protein compound, or +those which _do contain nitrogen_, form the muscle, a part of the bones, +the hair, and other portions of the animal. + +Animals contain a larger proportion of inorganic matter than plants do. +Bones contain a large quantity of phosphate of lime, and we find other +inorganic materials performing important offices in the system. + +In order that animals may be perfectly developed, they must of course +receive as food all of the materials required to form their bodies. They +cannot live if fed entirely on one ingredient. Thus, if _starch_ alone +be eaten by the animal, he might become _fat_, but his strength would +soon fail, because his food contains nothing to keep up the vigor of his +_muscles_. If on the contrary the food of an animal consisted entirely +of _gluten_, he might be very strong from a superior development of +muscle, but would not be fat. Hence we see that in order to keep up the +proper proportion of both fat and muscle in our animals (or in +ourselves), the food must be such as contains a proper proportion of the +two kinds of proximates. + +[Why is grain good for food? + +On what does the value of flour depend? + +Is there any relation between the ashy part of plants and those of +animals? + +How may we account for unhealthy bones and teeth?] + +It is for this reason that grain, such as wheat for instance, is so good +for food. It contains both classes of proximates, and furnishes material +for the formation of both fat and muscle. The value of _flour_ depends +very much on the manner in which it is manufactured. This will be soon +explained. + +[What is a probable cause of consumption? + +What is an important use of the first class of proximates? + +What may lungs be called? + +Explain the production of heat during decomposition. + +Why is the heat produced by decay not perceptible?] + +Apart from the relations between the _proximate principles_ of plants, +and those of animals, there exists an important relation between their +_ashy_ or _inorganic_ parts; and, food in order to satisfy the demands +of animal life, must contain the mineral matter required for the +purposes of that life. Take bones for instance. If phosphate of lime is +not always supplied in sufficient quantities by food, animals are +prevented from the formation of healthy bones. This is particularly to +be noticed in teeth. Where food is deficient of phosphate of lime, we +see poor teeth as a result. Some physicians have supposed that one of +the causes of consumption is the deficiency of phosphate of lime in +food. + +[Why is the heat produced by combustion apparent? + +Explain the production of heat in the lungs of animals? + +Why does exercise augment the animal heat? + +Under what circumstances is the animal's own fat used in the production +of heat?] + +The first class of proximates (starch, sugar, gum, etc.), perform an +important office in the animal economy aside from their use in making fat. +They constitute the _fuel_ which supplies the animal's fire, and gives him +his _heat_. The lungs of men and other animals may be called delicate +_stoves_, which supply the whole body with heat. But let us explain this +matter more fully. If wood, starch, gum, or sugar, be burned in a stove, +they produce heat. These substances consist, as will be recollected, of +carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and when they are destroyed in any way +(provided they be exposed to the atmosphere), the hydrogen and oxygen unite +and form water, and the carbon unites with the oxygen of the air and forms +carbonic acid, as was explained in a preceding chapter. This process is +always accompanied by the liberation of _heat_, and the _intensity_ of this +heat depends on the _time_ occupied in its _production_. In the case of +decay, the chemical changes take place so slowly that the heat, being +conducted away as soon as formed, is not perceptible to our senses. In +combustion (or burning) the same changes take place with much greater +rapidity, and the same _amount_ of heat being concentrated, or brought out +in a far shorter time, it becomes intense, and therefore apparent. In the +lungs of animals the same law holds true. The blood contains matters +belonging to this carbonaceous class, and they undergo in the lungs the +changes which have been described under the head of combustion and decay. +Their hydrogen and oxygen unite, and form the moisture of the breath, while +their carbon is combined with the oxygen of the air drawn into the lungs, +and is thrown out as carbonic acid. The same consequence--heat--results in +this, as in the other cases, and this heat is produced with sufficient +rapidity for the animal necessities. When an animal exercises violently, +his blood circulates with increased rapidity, thus carrying carbon more +rapidly to the lungs. The breath also becomes quicker, thus supplying +increased quantities of oxygen. In this way the decomposition becomes more +rapid, and the animal is heated in proportion. + +Thus we see that food has another function besides that of forming +animal matter, namely to supply heat. When the food does not contain a +sufficient quantity of starch, sugar, etc., to answer the demands of +the system the _animal's own fat_ is carried to the lungs, and there +used in the production of heat. This important fact will be referred to +again. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[G] By _proximate principle_, we mean that combination of vegetable +elements which is known as a vegetable product, such as _wood_, etc. + +[H] _Muscle_ is _lean meat_, it gives to animals their strength and +ability to perform labor. + +[I] This, of course, supposes that the soil is fertile in other +respects. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +LOCATION OF THE PROXIMATES AND VARIATIONS IN THE ASHES OF PLANTS. + + +[Of what proximate are plants chiefly composed? + +What is the principal constituent of the potato root? + +Of the carrot and turnip? + +What part of the plant contains usually the most nutriment?] + +Let us now examine plants with a view to learning the _location_ of the +various plants. + +The stem or trunk of the plant or tree consists almost entirely of +_woody fibre_; this also forms a large portion of the other parts except +the seeds, and, in some instances, the roots. The roots of the potato +contain large quantities of _starch_. Other roots such as the _carrot_ +and _turnip_ contain _pectic acid_,[J] a nutritious substance resembling +starch. + +It is in the _seed_ however that the more nutritive portions of most +plants exist, and here they maintain certain relative positions which +it is well to understand, and which can be best explained by reference +to the following figures, as described by Prof. Johnston:-- + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +"Thus _a_ shows the position of the oil in the outer part of the +seed--it exists in minute drops, inclosed in six-sided cells, which +consists chiefly of gluten; _b_, the position and comparative quantity +of the starch, which in the heart of the seed is mixed with only a small +proportion of gluten; _c_, the germ or chit which contains much +gluten."[K] + +[Is the composition of the inorganic matter of different parts +of the plant the same, or different? + +What is the difference between the ash of the straw and that of the +grain of wheat?] + +The location of the _inorganic_ part of plants is one of much interest, +and shows the adaptation of each part to its particular use. Take a +wheat plant, for instance--the stalk, the leaf, and the grain, show in +their ashes, important difference of composition. The stalk or straw +contains three or four times as large a proportion of ash as the grain, +and a no less remarkable difference of composition may be noticed in +the ashes of the two parts. In that of the straw, we find a large +proportion of silica and scarcely any phosphoric acid, while in that of +the grain there is scarcely a trace of silica, although phosphoric acid +constitutes more than one half of the entire weight. The leaves contain +a considerable quantity of lime. + +[What is the reason for this difference? + +In what part of the grain does phosphoric acid exist most largely?] + +This may at first seem an unimportant matter, but on examination we +shall see the use of it. The straw is intended to support the grain and +leaves, and to convey the sap from the roots to the upper portions of +the plant. To perform these offices, _strength_ is required, and this is +given by the _silica_, and the woody fibre which forms so large a +proportion of the stalk. The silica is combined with an alkali, and +constitutes the glassy coating of the straw. While the plant is young, +this coating is hardly apparent, but as it grows older, as the grain +becomes heavier, (verging towards ripeness), the silicious coating of +the stalk assumes a more prominent character, and gives to the straw +sufficient strength to support the golden head. The straw is not the +most important part of the plant as _food_, and therefore requires but +little phosphoric acid. + +[Why is Graham flour more wholesome than fine flour? + +Are the ashes of all plants the same in their composition?] + +The grain, on the contrary, is especially intended as food, and +therefore must contain a large proportion of phosphoric acid--this +being, as we have already learned, necessary to the formation of +bone--while, as it has no necessity for strength, and as silica is not +needed by animals, this ingredient exists in the grain only in a very +small proportion. It may be well to observe that the phosphoric acid of +grain exists most largely in the hard portions near the shell, or bran. +This is one of the reasons why Graham flour is more wholesome than fine +flour. It contains all of the nutritive materials which render the grain +valuable as food, while flour which is very finely bolted[L] contains +only a small part of the outer portions of the grain (where the +phosphoric acid, protein and fatty matters exist most largely). The +starchy matter in the interior of the grain, which is the least capable +of giving strength to the animal, is carefully separated, and used as +food for man, while the better portions, not being ground so finely, are +rejected. This one thing alone may be sufficient to account for the +fact, that the lives of men have become shorter and less blessed with +health and strength, than they were in the good old days when a stone +mortar and a coarse sieve made a respectable flour mill. + +Another important fact concerning the ashes of plants is the difference +of their composition in different plants. Thus, the most prominent +ingredient in the ash of the potato is _potash_; of wheat and other +grains, _phosphoric acid_; of meadow hay, _silica_; of clover, _lime_; +of beans, _potash_, etc. In grain, _potash_ (or _soda_), etc., are among +the important ingredients. + +[Of what advantage are these differences to the farmer? + +Of what are plants composed?] + +These differences are of great importance to the practical farmer, as by +understanding what kind of plants use the most of one ingredient, and +what kind requires another in large proportion, he can regulate his +crops so as to prevent his soil from being exhausted more in one +ingredient than in the others, and can also manure his land with +reference to the crop which he intends to grow. The tables of analyses +in the fifth section will point out these differences accurately. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[J] This pectic acid gelatinizes food in the stomach, and thus renders +it more digestible. + +[K] See Johnston's Elements, page 41. + +[L] Sifted through a fine cloth called a bolting cloth. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +RECAPITULATION. + + +We have now learned as much about the plant as is required for our +immediate uses, and we will carefully reconsider the various points with +a view to fixing them permanently in the mind. + +Plants are composed of _organic_ and _inorganic_ matter. + +[What is organic matter? Inorganic? + +Of what does organic matter consist? Inorganic? + +How do plants obtain their organic food? + +How their inorganic? + +How is ammonia supplied? Carbonic acid?] + +Organic matter is that which burns away in the fire. Inorganic matter is +the ash left after burning. + +The organic matter of plants consists of three gases, oxygen, hydrogen +and nitrogen, and one solid substance carbon (or charcoal). The +inorganic matter of plants consists of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, +sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine, silica, oxide of iron, and +oxide of manganese. + +Plants obtain their organic food as follows:--Oxygen and hydrogen from +water, nitrogen from some compound containing nitrogen (chiefly from +ammonia), and carbon from the atmosphere where it exists as carbonic +acid--a gas. + +They obtain their inorganic food from the soil. + +The water which supplies oxygen and hydrogen to plants is readily +obtained without the assistance of manures. + +Ammonia is obtained from the atmosphere, by being absorbed by rain and +carried into the soil, and it enters plants through their roots. It may +be artificially supplied in the form of animal manure with profit. + +Carbonic acid is absorbed from the atmosphere by leaves, and decomposed +in the green parts of plants under the influence of daylight; the carbon +is retained, and the oxygen is returned to the atmosphere. + +[When plants are destroyed by combustion or decay, what +becomes of their constituents? + +How does the inorganic matter enter the plant? + +Are the alkalies soluble in their pure forms? + +Which one of them is injurious when too largely present? + +How may sulphuric acid be supplied? + +Is phosphoric acid important? + +How must silica be treated? + +From what source may we obtain chlorine?] + +When plants are destroyed by decay, or burning, their organic +constituents pass away as water, ammonia, carbonic acid, etc., ready +again to be taken up by other plants. + +The inorganic matters in the soil can enter the plant only when +dissolved in water. _Potash_, _soda_, _lime_, and _magnesia_, are +soluble in their pure forms. Magnesia is injurious when present in too +large quantities. + +_Sulphuric_ acid is often necessary as a manure, and is usually most +available in the form of sulphate of lime or plaster. It is also +valuable in its pure form to prevent the escape of ammonia from +composts. + +_Phosphoric_ acid is highly important, from its frequent deficiency in +worn-out soils. It is available only under certain conditions which will +be described in the section on manures. + +_Silica_ is the base of common sand, and must be united to an alkali +before it can be used by the plant, because it is insoluble except when +so united. + +_Chlorine_ is a constituent of common salt (chloride of sodium), and +from this source may be obtained in sufficient quantities for manurial +purposes. + +[What is the difference between _per_oxide and _prot_oxide of +iron? + +How must the food of plants be supplied? + +What takes place after it enters the plant? + +What name is given to the compounds thus formed? + +How are proximates divided? + +Which class constitutes the largest part of the plant? + +Of what are animals composed, and how do they obtain the materials from +which to form their growth?] + +_Oxide of iron_ is iron rust. There are two oxides of iron, the +_peroxide_ (red) and the _protoxide_ (black). The former is a +fertilizer, and the latter poisons plants. + +_Oxide of manganese_ is often absent from the ashes of our cultivated +plants. + +The food of plants, both organic and inorganic, must be supplied in +certain proportions, and at the time when it is required. In the plant, +this food undergoes such chemical changes as are necessary to growth. + +The compounds formed by these chemical combinations are called +_proximates_. + +Proximates are of two classes, those not containing nitrogen, and those +which do contain it. + +The first class constitute nearly the whole plant. + +The second class, although small in quantity, are of the greatest +importance to the farmer, as from them all animal muscle is made. + +Animals, like plants, are composed of both organic and inorganic matter, +and their bodies are obtained directly or indirectly from plants. + +[What parts of the animal belong to the first class of +proximates? + +What to the second? + +What is necessary to the perfect development of animals? + +Why are seeds valuable for working animals? + +What other important use, in animal economy, have proximates of the +first class? + +Under what circumstances is animal fat decomposed?] + +The first class of proximates in animals comprise the fat, and like +tissues. + +The second class form the muscle, hair, gelatine of the bones, etc. + +In order that they may be perfectly developed, animals must eat both +classes of proximates, and in the proportions required by their natures. + +They require the phosphate of lime and other inorganic food which exist +in plants. + +Seeds are the best adapted to the uses of working animals, because they +are rich in all kinds of food required. + +Aside from their use in the formation of _fat_, proximates of the first +class are employed in the lungs, as fuel to keep up animal heat, which +is produced (as in fire and decay) by the decomposition of these +substances. + +When the food is insufficient for the purposes of heat, the animal's own +fat is decomposed, and carried to the lungs as fuel. + +The stems, roots, branches, etc., of most plants consist principally of +_woody fibre_. + +Their seeds, and sometimes their roots, contain considerable quantities +of _starch_. + +[Name the parts of the plant in which the different proximates +exist. + +State what you know about flour. + +Do we know that different plants have ashes of different composition?] + +The _protein_ and the _oils_ of most plants exist most largely in the +_seeds_. + +The location of the proximates, as well as of the inorganic parts of the +plant, show a remarkable reference to the purposes of growth, and to the +wants of the animal world, as is noticed in the difference between the +construction of the straw and that of the kernel of wheat. + +The reason why the fine flour now made is not so healthfully nutritious +as that which contained more of the coarse portions, is that it is +robbed of a large proportion of protein and phosphate of lime, while it +contains an undue amount of starch, which is available only to form fat, +and to supply fuel to the lungs. + +Different plants have ashes of different composition. Thus--one may take +from the soil large quantities of potash, another of phosphoric acid, +and another of lime. + +By understanding these differences, we shall be able so to regulate our +rotations, that the soil may not be called on to supply more of one +ingredient than of another, and thus it may be kept in balance. + +[How are farmers to be benefited by such knowledge?] + +The facts contained in this chapter are the _alphabet of agriculture_, +and the learner should not only become perfectly familiar with them, but +should also clearly understand the _reasons_ why they are true, before +proceeding further. + + + + +SECTION SECOND. + +THE SOIL. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +FORMATION AND CHARACTER OF THE SOIL. + + +[What is a necessary condition of growth?] + +In the foregoing section, we have studied the character of plants and +the laws which govern their growth. We learned that one necessary +condition for growth is a fertile soil, and therefore we will examine +the nature of different soils, in order that we may understand the +relations between them and plants. + +[What is a fixed character of soils? + +How is the chemical character of the soil to be ascertained? + +What do we first learn in analyzing a soil? + +How do the proportions of organic or inorganic parts of soils compare +with those of plants? + +Of what does the organic part of soils consist?] + +The soil is not to be regarded as a mysterious mass of dirt, whereon +crops are produced by a mysterious process. Well ascertained scientific +knowledge has proved beyond question that all soils, whether in America +or Asia, whether in Maine or California, have certain fixed properties, +which render them fertile or barren, and the science of agriculture is +able to point out these characteristics in all cases, so that we can +ascertain from a scientific investigation what would be the chances for +success in cultivating any soil which we examine. + +The soil is a great chemical compound, and its chemical character is +ascertained (as in the case of plants) by analyzing it, or taking it +apart. + +We first learn that fertile soils contain both organic and inorganic +matter; but, unlike the plant, they usually possess much more of the +latter than of the former. + +In the plant, the organic matter constitutes the most considerable +portion of the whole. In the soil, on the contrary, it usually exists in +very small quantities, while the inorganic portions constitute nearly +the whole bulk. + +[Can the required proportion be definitely indicated? + +From what source is the inorganic part of soils derived? + +Do all soils decompose with equal facility? + +How does frost affect rocks? + +Does it affect soils in the same way?] + +The organic part of soils consists of the same materials that constitute +the organic part of the plants, and it is in reality decayed vegetable +and animal matter. It is not necessary that this organic part of the +soil should form any particular proportion of the whole, and indeed we +find it varying from one and a half to fifty, and sometimes, in peaty +soils, to over seventy per cent. All fertile soils contain some organic +matter, although it seems to make but little difference in fertility, +whether it be ten or fifty per cent. + +The inorganic part of soils is derived from the crumbling of rocks. Some +rocks (such as the slates in Central New York) decompose, and crumble +rapidly on being exposed to the weather; while granite, marble, and +other rocks will last for a long time without perceptible change. The +_causes_ of this crumbling are various, and are not unimportant to the +agriculturist; as by the same processes by which his soil was formed, he +can increase its depth, or otherwise improve it. This being the case, we +will in a few words explain some of the principal pulverizing agents. + +1. The action of frost. When water lodges in the crevices of rocks, and +_freezes_, it expands, and bursts the rock, on the same principle as +causes it to break a pitcher in winter. This power is very great, and by +its assistance, large cannon may be burst. Of course the action of frost +is the same on a small scale as when applied to large masses of matter, +and, therefore, we find that when water freezes in the _pores_[M] of +rocks or stones, it separates their particles and causes them to +crumble. The same rule holds true with regard to stiff clay soils. If +they are _ridged_ in autumn, and left with a rough surface exposed to +the frosts of winter, they will become much lighter, and can afterwards +be worked with less difficulty. + +[What is the effect of water on certain rocks? + +How are some rocks affected by exposure to the atmosphere? Give an +instance of this.] + +2. The action of water. Many kinds of rock become so soft on being +soaked with water, that they readily crumble. + +3. The chemical changes of the constituents of the rock. Many kinds of +rock are affected by exposure to the atmosphere, in such a manner, that +changes take place in their chemical character, and cause them to fall +to pieces. The red kellis of New Jersey (a species of sandstone), is, +when first quarried, a very hard stone, but on exposure to the +influences of the atmosphere, it becomes so soft that it may be easily +crushed between the thumb and finger. + +[What is the similarity between the composition of soils and +the rocks from which they were formed? + +What does feldspar rock yield? Talcose slate? Marls? + +Does a soil formed entirely from rock contain organic matter? + +How is it affected by the growth of plants?] + +Other actions, of a less simple kind, exert an influence on the +stubbornness of rocks, and cause them to be resolved into soils.[N] Of +course, the composition of the soil must be similar to that of the rock +from which it was formed; and, consequently, if we know the chemical +character of the rock, we can tell whether the soil formed from it can +be brought under profitable cultivation. Thus feldspar, on being +pulverized, yields potash; talcose slate yields magnesia; marls yield +lime, etc. + +The soil formed entirely from rock, contains, of course, no organic +matter.[O] Still it is capable of bearing plants of a certain class, and +when these die, they are deposited in the soil, and thus form its +organic portions, rendering it capable of supporting those plants which +furnish food for animals. Thousands of years must have been occupied in +preparing the earth for habitation by man. + +As the inorganic or mineral part of the soil is usually the largest, we +will consider it first. + +As we have stated that this portion is formed from rocks, we will +examine their character, with a view to showing the different qualities +of soils. + +[What is the general rule concerning the composition of rocks? + +Do these distinctions affect the fertility of soils formed from them? + +What do we mean by the mechanical character of the soil? + +Is its fertility indicated by its mechanical character?] + +As a general rule, it may be stated that _all rocks are either +sandstones, limestones, or clays; or a mixture of two or more of these +ingredients_. Hence we find that all mineral soils are either _sandy_, +_calcareous_, (limey), or _clayey_; or consist of a mixture of these, in +which one or another usually predominates. Thus, we speak of a sandy +soil, a clay soil, etc. These distinctions (sandy, clayey, loamy, etc.) +are important in considering the _mechanical_ character of the soil, but +have little reference to its fertility. + +By _mechanical_ character, we mean those qualities which affect the ease +of cultivation--excess or deficiency of water, ability to withstand +drought, etc. For instance, a heavy clay soil is difficult to +plow--retains water after rains, and bakes quite hard during drought; +while a light sandy soil is plowed with ease, often allows water to pass +through immediately after rains, and becomes dry and powdery during +drought. Notwithstanding those differences in their mechanical +character, both soils may be very fertile, or one more so than the +other, without reference to the clay and sand which they contain, and +which, to _our observation_, form their leading characteristics. The +same facts exist with regard to a loam, a calcareous (or limey) soil, or +a vegetable mould. Their mechanical texture is not essentially an index +to their fertility, nor to the manures required to enable them to +furnish food to plants. It is true, that each kind of soil appears to +have some general quality of fertility or barrenness which is well known +to practical men, yet this is not founded on the fact that the clay or +the sand, or the vegetable matter, enter more largely into the +constitution of plants than they do when they are not present in so +great quantities, but on certain other facts which will be hereafter +explained. + +[What is a sandy soil? A clay soil? A loamy soil? A marl? A +calcareous soil? A peaty soil?] + +As the following names are used to denote the character of soils, in +ordinary agricultural description, we will briefly explain their +application: + +A _Sandy soil_ is, of course, one in which sand largely predominates. + +_Clay soil_, one where _clay_ forms a large proportion of the soil. + +_Loamy soil_, where sand and clay are about equally mixed. + +_Marl_ contains from five to twenty per cent. of carbonate of lime. + +_Calcareous soil_ more than twenty per cent. + +_Peaty soils_, of course, contain large quantities of organic matter.[P] + + +[How large a part of the soil may be used as food by plants? + +What do we learn from the analyses of barren and fertile soils?] + +We will now take under consideration that part of the soil on which +depends its ability to supply food to the plant. This portion rarely +constitutes more than five or ten per cent. of the entire soil, +sometimes less--and it has no reference to the sand, clay, and vegetable +matters which they contain. From analyses of many fertile soils, and of +others which are barren or of poorer quality, it has been ascertained +that the presence of certain ingredients is necessary to fertility. This +may be better explained by the assistance of the following table: + + ---------------------------+--------------+-------------+---------- + In one hundred pounds. | Soil fertile | Good | Barren. + | without | wheat soil. | + | manure. | | + ---------------------------+--------------+-------------+---------- + Organic matter, | 9.7 | 7.0 | 4.0 + Silica (sand), | 64.8 | 74.3 | 77.8 + Alumina (clay), | 5.7 | 5.5 | 9.1 + Lime, | 5.9 | 1.4 | .4 + Magnesia, | .9 | .7 | .1 + Oxide of iron, | 6.1 | 4.7 | 8.1 + Oxide of manganese, | .1 | | .1 + Potash, | .2 | 1.7 | + Soda, | .4 | .7 | + Chlorine, | .2 | .1 | + Sulphuric acid, | .2 | .1 | + Phosphoric acid, | .4 | .1-1/2 | + Carbonic acid, | 4.0 | | + Loss during the analysis | 1.4 | 3.6-1/2 | .4 + +--------------+-------------+---------- + |100.0 |100.0 |100.0 + ---------------------------+--------------+-------------+---------- + +[What can you say of the soils represented in the table of +analyses? + +What proportion of the fertilizing ingredients is required? + +If the soil represented in the third column contained all the +ingredients required except potash and soda, would it be fertile? + +What would be necessary to make it so? + +What is the reason for this? + +What are the offices performed by the inorganic part of soils?] + +The soil represented in the first column might still be fertile with +less organic matter, or with a larger proportion of clay (alumina), and +less sand (silica). These affect its _mechanical_ character; but, if we +look down the column, we notice that there are small quantities of lime, +magnesia, and the other constituents of the ashes of plants (except ox. +of manganese). It is not necessary that they should be present in the +soil in the exact quantity named above, but _not one must be entirely +absent, or greatly reduced in proportion_. By referring to the third +column, we see that these ingredients are not all present, and the soil +is barren. Even if it were supplied with all but one or two, potash and +soda for instance, it could not support a crop without the assistance of +manures containing these alkalies. The reason for this must be readily +seen, as we have learned that no plant can arrive at maturity without +the necessary supply of materials required in the formation of the ash, +and these materials can be obtained only from the soil; consequently, +when they do not exist there, it must be barren. + +The inorganic part of soils has two distinct offices to perform. The +clay and sand form a mass of material into which roots can penetrate, +and thus plants are supported in their position. These parts also absorb +heat, air and moisture to serve the purposes of growth, as we shall see +in a future chapter. The minute portions of soil, which comprise the +acids, alkalies, and neutrals, furnish plants with their ashes, and are +the most necessary to the fertility of the soil. + + +GEOLOGY. + +[What is geology? + +Is the same kind of rock always of the same composition? + +How do rocks differ?] + +The relation between the inorganic part of soils and the rocks from +which it was formed, is the foundation of Agricultural Geology. Geology +may be briefly named the _science of rocks_. It would not be proper in +an elementary work to introduce much of this study, and we will +therefore simply state that the same kind of rock is of the same +composition all over the world; consequently, if we find a soil in New +England formed from any particular rock, and a soil from the same rock +in Asia, their natural fertility will be the same in both localities. +Some rocks consist of a mixture of different kinds of minerals; and +some, consisting chiefly of one ingredient, are of different degrees of +_hardness_. Both of these changes must affect the character of the soil, +but it may be laid down as rule that, _when the rocks of two locations +are exactly alike, the soils formed from them will be of the same +natural fertility, and in proportion as the character of rocks changes, +in the same proportion will the soils differ_. + +[What rule may be given in relation to soils formed from the +same or different rocks? + +Are all soils formed from the rocks on which they lie? + +What instances can you give of this?] + +In most districts the soil is formed from the rock on which it lies; but +this is not always the case. Soils are often formed by deposits of +matter brought by water from other localities. Thus the alluvial banks +of rivers consist of matters brought from the country through which the +rivers have passed. The river Nile, in Egypt, yearly overflows its +banks, and deposits large quantities of mud brought from the uninhabited +upper countries. The prairies of the West owe a portion of their soil to +deposits by water. Swamps often receive the washings of adjacent hills; +and, in these cases, their soil is derived from a foreign source. + +We might continue to enumerate instances of the relations between soils +and the sources whence they originated, thus demonstrating more fully +the importance of geology to the farmer; but it would be beyond the +scope of this work, and should be investigated by scholars more advanced +than those who are studying merely the _elements_ of agricultural +science. + +The mind, in its early application to any branch of study, should not +be charged with intricate subjects. It should master well the +_rudiments_, before investigating those matters which should _follow_ +such understanding. + +[In what light will plants and soils be regarded by those who +understand them?] + +By pursuing the proper course, it is easy to learn all that is necessary +to form a good foundation for a thorough acquaintance with the subject. +If this foundation is laid thoroughly, the learner will regard plants +and soils as old acquaintances, with whose formation and properties he +is as familiar as with the construction of a building or simple machine. +A simple spear of grass will become an object of interest, forming +itself into a perfect plant, with full development of roots, stem, +leaves, and seeds, by processes with which he feels acquainted. The soil +will cease to be mere dirt; it will be viewed as a compound substance, +whose composition is a matter of interest, and whose care is productive +of intellectual pleasure. The commencement of study in any science must +necessarily be wearisome to the young mind, but its more advanced stages +amply repay the trouble of early exertions. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[M] The spaces between the particles. + +[N] In very many instances the crevices and seams of rocks are permeated +by roots, which, by decaying and thus inducing the growth of other +roots, cause these crevices to become filled with organic matter. This, +by the absorption of moisture, may expand with sufficient power to burst +the rock. + +[O] Some rocks contain sulphur, phosphorus, etc., and these may, +perhaps, be considered as organic matter. + +[P] These distinctions are not essential to be learned, but are often +convenient. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +USES OF ORGANIC MATTER. + + +[What proportion of organic matter is required for fertility? + +How does the soil obtain its organic matter? + +How does the growth of clover, etc., affect the soil?] + +It will be recollected that, in addition to its mineral portions, the +soil contains organic matter in varied quantities. It may be fertile +with but one and a half per cent. of organic matter, and some peaty +soils contain more than fifty per cent. or more than one half of the +whole. + +The precise amount necessary cannot be fixed at any particular sum; +perhaps five parts in a hundred would be as good a quantity as could be +recommended. + +The soil obtains its organic matter in two ways. First, by the decay of +roots and dead plants, also of leaves, which have been brought to it by +wind, etc. Second, by the application of organic manures. + +[When organic matter decays in the soil, what becomes of it? + +Is charcoal taken up by plants? + +Are humus and humic acid of great practical importance?] + +When a crop of clover is raised, it obtains its carbon from the +atmosphere; and, if it be plowed under, and allowed to decay, a portion +of this carbon is deposited in the soil. Carbon constitutes nearly the +whole of the dry weight of the clover, aside from the constituents of +water; and, when we calculate the immense quantity of hay, and roots +grown on an acre of soil in a single season, we shall find that the +amount of carbon thus deposited is immense. If the clover had been +removed, and the roots only left to decay, the amount of carbon +deposited would still have been very great. The same is true in all +cases where the crop is removed, and the roots remain to form the +organic or vegetable part of the soil. While undergoing decomposition, a +portion of this matter escapes in the form of gas, and the remainder +chiefly assumes the form of carbon (or charcoal), in which form it will +always remain, without loss, unless driven out by fire. If a bushel of +charcoal be mixed with the soil now, it will be the same bushel of +charcoal, neither more nor less, a thousand years hence, unless some +influence is brought to bear on it aside from the growth of plants. It +is true that, in the case of the decomposition of organic matter in the +soil, certain compounds are formed, known under the general names of +_humus_ and _humic acid_, which may, in a slight degree, affect the +growth of plants, but their practical importance is of too doubtful a +character to justify us in considering them. The application of manures, +containing organic matter, such as peat, muck, animal manure, etc., +supplies the soil with carbon on the same principle, and the decomposing +matters also generate[Q] carbonic acid gas while being decomposed. The +agricultural value of carbon in the soil depends (as we have stated), +not on the fact that it enters into the composition of plants, but on +certain other important offices which it performs, as follows:-- + +[On what does the agricultural value of the carbon in the soil +depend? + +Why does it make the soil more retentive of manure? + +What is the experiment with the barrels of sand?] + +1. It makes the soil more retentive of manures. + +2. It causes it to appropriate larger quantities of the fertilizing +gases of the atmosphere. + +3. It gives it greater power to absorb moisture. + +4. It renders it warmer. + +1. Carbon (or charcoal) makes the soil retentive of manures, because it +has in itself a strong power to absorb, and retain[R] fertilizing +matters. There is a simple experiment by which this power can be shown. + +Ex.--Take two barrels of pure beach sand, and mix with the sand in one +barrel a few handfuls of charcoal dust, leaving that in the other pure. +Pour the brown liquor of the barn-yard through the pure sand, and it +will pass out at the bottom unaltered. Pour the same liquor through the +barrel, containing the charcoal, and pure water will be obtained as a +result. The reason for this is that the charcoal retains all of the +impurities of the liquor, and allows only the water to pass through. +Charcoal is often employed to purify water for drinking, or for +manufacturing purposes. + +[Will charcoal purify water? + +If a piece of tainted meat, or a fishy duck be buried in a rich garden +soil, what takes place? + +What is the reason of this? + +How does charcoal overcome offensive odors? + +How can you prove that charcoal absorbs the _mineral_ impurities of +water?] + +A rich garden-soil contains large quantities of carbonaceous matter; +and, if we bury in such a soil a piece of tainted meat or a fishy duck, +it will, in a short time, be deprived of its odor, because the charcoal +in the soil will entirely absorb it. + +Carbon absorbs gases as well as the impurities of water; and, if a +little charcoal be sprinkled over manure, or any other substance, +emitting offensive odors, the gases escaping will be taken up by the +charcoal, and the odor will cease. + +It has also the power of absorbing _mineral_ matters, which are +contained in water. If a quantity of salt water be filtered through +charcoal, the salt will be retained, and the water will pass through +pure. + +We are now able to see how carbon renders the soil retentive of manures. + +1st. Manures, which resemble the brown liquor of barn-yards, have their +fertilizing matters taken out, and retained by it. + +[How does charcoal in the soil affect the manures applied? + +Why does charcoal in the soil cause it to appropriate the gases of the +atmosphere? + +What fertilizing gases exist in the atmosphere? + +How are they carried to the soil? + +Does the carbon retain them after they reach the soil? + +What can you say of the air circulating through the soil? + +How does carbon give the soil power to absorb moisture?] + +2d. The gases arising from the decomposition (_rotting_) of manure are +absorbed by it. + +3d. The soluble mineral portions of manure, which might in some soils +leach down with water, are arrested and retained at a point at which +they can be made use of by the roots of plants. + +2. Charcoal in the soil causes it to appropriate larger quantities of +the fertilizing gases of the atmosphere, on account of its power, as +just named, to absorb gases. + +The atmosphere contains results, which have been produced by the +breathing of animals and by the decomposition of various kinds of +organic matter, which are exposed to atmospheric influences. These gases +are chiefly ammonia and carbonic acid, both of which are largely +absorbed by water, and consequently are contained in rain, snow, etc., +which, as they enter the soil, give up these gases to the charcoal, and +they there remain until required by plants. Even the air itself, in +circulating through the soil, gives up fertilizing gases to the carbon, +which it may contain. + +3. Charcoal gives to the soil power to absorb moisture, because it is +itself one of the best absorbents in nature; and it has been proved by +accurate experiment that peaty soils absorb moisture with greater +rapidity, and part with it more slowly than any other kind. + +[How does it render it warmer? + +Is the heat produced by the decomposition of organic matter perceptible +to our senses? + +Is it so to the growing plant? + +What is another important part of the organic matter in the soil?] + +4. Carbon in the soil renders it warmer, because it darkens its color. +Black surfaces absorb more heat than light ones, and a black coat, when +worn in the sun, is warmer than one of a lighter color. By mixing carbon +with the soil, we darken its color, and render it capable of absorbing a +greater amount of heat from the sun's rays. + +It will be recollected that, when vegetable matter decomposes in the +soil, it produces certain gases (carbonic acid, etc.), which either +escape into the atmosphere, or are retained in the soil for the use of +plants. The production of these gases is always accompanied by _heat_, +which, though scarcely perceptible to our senses, is perfectly so to the +growing plant, and is of much practical importance. This will be +examined more fully in speaking of manures. + +[How is it obtained by the soil? + +What offices does the organic matter in the soil perform?] + +Another important part of the organic matter in the soil is that which +contains _nitrogen_. This forms but a very small portion of the soil, +but it is of the greatest importance to vegetables. As the nitrogen in +food is of absolute necessity to the growth of animals, so the nitrogen +in the soil is indispensable to the growth of cultivated plants. It is +obtained by the soil in the form of ammonia (or nitric acid), from the +atmosphere, or by the application of animal matter. In some cases, +manures called _nitrates_[S] are used; and, in this manner, nitrogen is +given to the soil. + +We have now learned that the organic matter in the soil performs the +following offices:-- + +Organic matter thoroughly decomposed is _carbon_, and has the various +effects ascribed to this substance on p. 79. + +Organic matter in process of decay produces carbonic acid, and sometimes +ammonia in the soil; also its decay causes heat. + +Organic matter containing _nitrogen_, such as animal substances, etc., +furnish ammonia, and other nitrogenous substances to the roots of +plants. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Q] Produce. + +[R] By absorbing and retaining, we mean taking up and holding. + +[S] Nitrates are compounds of nitric acid (which consists of nitrogen +and oxygen), and alkaline substances. Thus nitrate of potash +(saltpetre), is composed of nitric acid and potash: nitrate of soda +(cubical nitre), of nitric acid and soda. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +USES OF INORGANIC MATTER. + + +[What effect has clay besides the one already named? + +How does it compare with charcoal for this purpose?] + +The offices performed by the inorganic constituents of the soil are many +and important. + +These, as well as the different conditions in which the bodies exist, +are necessary to be thoroughly studied. + +Those parts which constitute the larger proportion of the soil, namely +the clay, sand, and limy portions, are useful for purposes which have +been named in the first part of this section, while the _clay_ has an +additional effect in the absorption of ammonia. + +For this purpose, it is as effectual as charcoal, the gases escaping +from manures, as well as those existing in the atmosphere, and in +rain-water, being arrested by clay as well as charcoal.[T] + +[What particular condition of inorganic matter is requisite +for fertility? + +What is the fixed rule with regard to this? + +What is the condition of the alkalies in most of their combinations? Of +the acids? + +What is said of phosphate of lime?] + +The more minute ingredients of the soil--those which enter into the +construction of plants--exist in conditions which are more or less +favorable or injurious to vegetable growth. The principal condition +necessary to fertility is _capacity to be dissolved_, it being (so far +as we have been able to ascertain) a fixed rule, as was stated in the +first section, that _no mineral substance can enter into the roots of a +plant except it be dissolved in water_. + +The _alkalies_ potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, are in nearly all of +their combinations in the soil sufficiently soluble for the purposes of +growth. + +The _acids_ are, as will be recollected, sulphuric and phosphoric. These +exist in the soil in combination with the alkalies, as sulphates and +phosphates, which are more or less soluble under natural circumstances. +Phosphoric acid in combination with lime as phosphate of lime is but +slightly soluble; but, when it exists in the compound known as +_super_-phosphate of lime, it is much more soluble, and consequently +enters into the composition of plants with much greater facility. This +matter will be more fully explained in the section on manures. + +[How may silica be rendered soluble? + +What is the condition of chlorine in the soil? + +Do peroxide and protoxide of iron affect plants in the same way? + +How would you treat a soil containing protoxide of iron? + +On what does the usefulness of all these matters in the soil depend?] + +The _neutrals_, silica, chlorine, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese, +deserve a careful examination. Silica exists in the soil usually in the +form of _sand,_ in which it is, as is well known, perfectly insoluble; +and, before it can be used by plants, which often require it in large +quantities, it must be made soluble, which is done by combining it with +an alkali. + +For instance, if the silica in the soil is insoluble, we must make an +application of an alkali, such as potash, which will unite with the +silica, and form the silicate of potash, which is in the exact condition +to be dissolved and carried into the roots of plants. + +Chlorine in the soil is probably always in an available condition. + +Oxide of iron exists, as has been previously stated, usually in the form +of the _per_oxide (or red oxide). Sometimes, however, it exists in the +form of the _prot_oxide (or black oxide), which is poisonous to plants, +and renders the soil unfertile. By loosening the soil in such a manner +as to admit air and water, this compound takes up more oxygen, which +renders it a peroxide, and makes it available for plants. The oxide of +manganese is probably of little consequence. + +The usefulness of all of these matters in the soil depends on their +_exposure_; if they are in the _interior_ of particles, they cannot be +made use of; while, if the particles are so pulverized that their +constituents are exposed, they become available, because water can +immediately attack to dissolve, and carry them into roots. + +[What is one of the chief offices of plowing and hoeing? + +Is the subsoil usually different from the surface soil? + +What circumstances have occasioned the difference? In what way?] + +This is one of the great offices of plowing and hoeing; the _lumps_ of +soil being thereby more broken up and exposed to the action of +atmospheric influences, which are often necessary to produce a fertile +condition of soil, while the trituration of particles reduces them in +size. + + +SUBSOIL. + +[May the subsoil be made to resemble the surface soil? + +May all soils be brought to the highest state of fertility? + +On what examination must improvement be based? + +What is the difference between the soil of some parts of Massachusetts +and that of the Miami valley?] + +The subsoil is usually of a different character from the surface soil, +but this difference is more often the result of circumstances than of +formation. The surface soil from having been long cultivated has been +more opened to the influences of the air than is the case with the +subsoil, which has never been disturbed so as to allow the same action. +Again the growth of plants has supplied the surface soil with roots, +which by decaying have given it organic matter, thus darkening its +color, rendering it warmer, and giving greater ability to absorb heat +and moisture, and to retain manures. All of these effects render the +surface soil of a more fertile character than it was before vegetable +growth commenced; and, where frequent cultivation and manures have been +applied, a still greater benefit has resulted. In most instances the +subsoil may by the same means be gradually improved in condition until +it equals the surface soil in fertility. The means of producing this +result, also farther accounts of its advantages, will be given under the +head of _Cultivation_ (Sect. IV.) + + +IMPROVEMENT. + +From what has now been said of the character of the soil, it must be +evident that, as we know the _causes_ of fertility and barrenness, we +may by the proper means improve the character of all soils which are not +now in the highest state of fertility. + +Chemical analysis will tell us the _composition_ of a soil, and an +examination, such as any farmer may make, will inform us of its +deficiencies in _mechanical_ character, and we may at once resort to the +proper means to secure fertility. In some instances the soil may contain +every thing that is required, but not in the necessary condition. For +instance, in some parts of Massachusetts, there are nearly _barren_ +soils which show by analysis precisely the same chemical composition as +the soil of the Miami valley of Ohio, one of the most _fertile_ in the +world. The cause of this great difference in their agricultural +capabilities, is that the Miami soil has its particles finely +pulverized; while in the Massachusetts soil the ingredients are combined +within particles (such as pebbles, etc.), where they are out of the +reach of roots. + +[Why do soils of the same degree of fineness sometimes differ +in fertility? + +Can soils always be rendered fertile with profit? + +Can we determine the cost before commencing the work? + +What must be done before a soil can be cultivated understandingly? + +What must be done to keep up the quality of the soil?] + +In other cases, we find two soils, which are equally well pulverized, +and which appear to be of the same character, having very different +power to support crops. Chemical analysis will show in these instances a +difference of composition. + +All of these differences may be overcome by the use of the proper means. +Sometimes it could be done at an expense which would be justified by the +result; and, at others, it might require too large an outlay to be +profitable. It becomes a question of economy, not of ability, and +science is able to estimate the cost. + +Soil cannot be cultivated understandingly until it has been subjected to +such an examination as will tell us exactly what is necessary to render +it fertile. Even after fertility is perfectly restored it requires +thought and care to maintain it. The ingredients of the soil must be +returned in the form of manures as largely as they are removed by the +crop, or the supply will eventually become too small for the purposes of +vegetation. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[T] It is due to our country, as well as to Prof. Mapes and others, who +long ago explained this absorptive power of clay and carbon, to say that +the subject was perfectly understood and practically applied in America +a number of years before Prof. Way published the discovery in England as +original. + + + + +SECTION THIRD. + +MANURES. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +CHARACTER AND VARIETIES OF MANURES. + + +[What must a farmer know in order to avoid failures? + +Can this be learned entirely from observation? + +What kind of action have manures? + +Give examples of each of these. + +May mechanical effects be produced by chemical action? + +How does potash affect the soil?] + +To understand the science of _manures_ is the most important branch of +practical farming. No baker would be called a good practical baker who +kept his flour exposed to the sun and rain. No shoemaker would be called +a good practical shoemaker, who used morocco for the soles of his shoes, +and heavy leather for the uppers. No carpenter would be called a good +practical carpenter, who tried to build a house without nails, or other +fastenings. So with the farmer. He cannot be called a good practical +farmer if he keeps the materials, from which he is to make plants, in +such a condition, that they will have their value destroyed, uses them +in the wrong places, or tries to put them together without having every +thing present that is necessary. Before he can avoid failures _with +certainty_, he must know what manures are composed of, how they are to +be preserved, where they are needed, and what kinds are required. True, +he may from observation and experience, _guess_ at results, but he +cannot _know_ that he is right until he has learned the facts above +named. In this section of our work, we mean to convey some of the +information necessary to this branch of _practical farming_. + +We shall adopt a classification of the subject somewhat different from +that found in most works on manures, but the _facts_ are the same. The +action of manures is either _mechanical_ or _chemical_, or a combination +of both. For instance: some kinds of manure improve the mechanical +character of the soil, such as those which loosen stiff clay soils, or +others which render light sandy soils compact--these are called +_mechanical_ manures. Some again furnish food for plants--these are +called _chemical_ manures. + +Many mechanical manures produce their effects by means of chemical +action. Thus _potash_ combines chemically with sand in the soil. In so +doing, it roughens the surfaces of the particles of sand, and renders +the soil less liable to be compacted by rains. In this manner, it acts +as a _mechanical_ manure. The compound of sand and potash,[U] as well as +the potash alone, may enter into the composition of plants, and hence it +is a _chemical_ manure. In other words, potash belongs to both classes +described above. + +It is important that this distinction should be well understood by the +learner, as the words "mechanical" and "chemical" in connection with +manures will be made use of throughout the following pages. + +[What are absorbents? + +What kind of manure is charcoal?] + +There is another class of manures which we shall call _absorbents_. +These comprise those substances which have the power of taking up +fertilizing matters, and retaining them for the use of plants. For +instance, _charcoal_ is an absorbent. As was stated in the section on +soils, this substance is a retainer of all fertilizing gases and many +minerals. Other matters made use of in agriculture have the same effect. +These absorbents will be spoken of more fully in their proper places. + +TABLE. + +MECHANICAL MANURES are those which improve the mechanical condition of + soils. + +CHEMICAL " are those which serve as food for plants. + +ABSORBENTS are those substances which absorb and retain + fertilizing matters. + +[Into what classes may manures be divided? + +What are organic manures? + +Inorganic? Atmospheric?] + +Manures may be divided into three classes, viz.: _organic_, _inorganic_, +and _atmospheric_. + +ORGANIC manures comprise all _animal_ and _vegetable_ matters which are +used to fertilize the soil, such as dung, muck, etc. + +INORGANIC manures are those which are of a purely _mineral_ character, +such as lime, ashes, etc. + +ATMOSPHERIC manures consist of those organic manures which are in the +form of gases in the atmosphere, and which are absorbed by rains and +carried to the soil. These are of immense importance. The ammonia and +carbonic acid in the air are atmospheric manures. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[U] Silicate of potash. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +EXCREMENTS OF ANIMALS. + + +[Of what is animal excrement composed? + +Explain the composition of the food of animals. + +What does hay contain? + +To what does Liebig compare the consumption of food by animals, and +why?] + +The first organic manure which we shall examine, is animal _excrement_. + +This is composed of those matters which have been eaten by the animal as +food, and have been thrown off as solid or liquid manure. In order that +we may know of what they consist, we must refer to the composition of +food and examine the process of digestion. + +The food of animals, we have seen to consist of both organic and +inorganic matter. The organic part may be divided into two classes, _i. +e._, that portion which contains nitrogen--such as gluten, albumen, +etc., and that which does not contain nitrogen--such as starch, sugar, +oil, etc. + +The inorganic part of food may also be divided into _soluble_ matter and +_insoluble_ matter. + + +DIGESTION AND ITS PRODUCTS. + +[Of what does that part of dung consist which resembles soot? + +What else does the dung contain? + +In what manner does the digested part of food escape from the body?] + +Let us now suppose that we have a full-grown ox, which is not increasing +in any of his parts, but only consumes food to keep up his respiration, +and to supply the natural wastes of his body. To this ox we will feed a +ton of hay which contains organic matter, with and without nitrogen, and +soluble and insoluble inorganic substances. Now let us try to follow it +through its changes in the animal, and observe its destination. Liebig +compares the consumption of food by animals to the imperfect burning of +wood in a stove, where a portion of the fuel is resolved into gases and +ashes (that is, it is completely burned), and another portion, which is +not thoroughly burned, passes off as _soot_. In the animal action in +question, the food undergoes changes which are similar to this burning +of wood. A part of the food is _digested_ and taken up by the blood, +while another portion remains undigested, and passes the bowels as solid +dung--corresponding to soot. This part of the dung then, we see is +merely so much of the food as passes through the system without being +materially changed. Its nature is easily understood. It contains organic +and inorganic matter in nearly the same condition as they existed in the +hay. They have been rendered finer and softer, but their chemical +character is not materially altered. The dung also contains small +quantities of nitrogenous matter, which _leaked out_, as it were, from +the stomach and intestines. The digested food, however, undergoes +further changes which affect its character, and it escapes from the body +in three ways--_i. e._, through the lungs, through the bladder, and +through the bowels. It will be recollected from the first section of +this book, p. 22, that the carbon in the blood of animals, unites with +the oxygen of the air drawn into the lungs, and is thrown off in the +breath as carbonic acid. The hydrogen and oxygen unite to form a part of +the water which constitutes the moisture of the breath. + +[Explain the escape of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. + +What becomes of the nitrogenous parts? + +How is the _soluble_ ash of the digested food parted with? + +The insoluble? + +If any portions of the food are not returned in the dung, how are they +disposed of?] + +That portion of the organic part of the hay which has been taken up by +the blood of the ox, and which does not contain nitrogen (corresponding +to the _first_ class of proximates, as described in Sect. I), is emitted +through the lungs. It consists, as will be recollected, of carbon, +hydrogen and oxygen, and these assume, in respiration, the form of +carbonic acid and water. + +The organic matter of the digested hay, in the blood, which contains +nitrogen (corresponding to the _second_ class of proximates, described +in Sect. I), goes to the _bladder_, where it assumes the form of urea--a +constituent of urine or liquid manure. + +We have now disposed of the imperfectly digested food (dung), and of the +_organic_ matter which was taken up by the blood. All that remains to be +examined is the inorganic or mineral matter in the blood, which would +have become _ashes_, if the hay had been burned. The _soluble_ part of +this inorganic matter passes into the bladder, and forms the _inorganic +part of urine_. The _insoluble_ part passes the bowels, in connection +with the dung. + +[How is their place supplied? + +Is food put out of existence when it is fed to animals? + +What does the solid dung contain? Liquid manure? The breath?] + +If any of the food taken up by the blood is not returned as above +stated, it goes to form fat, muscle, hair, bones, or some other part of +the animal, and as he is not growing (not increasing in weight) an +equivalent amount of the body of the animal goes to the manure to take +the place of the part retained.[V] + +We now have our subject in a form to be readily understood. We learn +that when food is given to animals it is not _put out of existence_, but +is merely _changed in form_; and that in the impurities of the breath, +we have a large portion of those parts of the food which plants obtain +from air and from water; while the solid and liquid excrements contain +all that was taken by the plants from the soil and manures. + +The SOLID DUNG contains the undigested parts of the food, the + _insoluble_ parts of the ash, and the nitrogenous + matters which have _escaped_ from the digestive organs. + +"LIQUID MANURE" the nitrogenous or _second class_ of proximates of the + digested food, and the _soluble_ parts of the ash. + +THE BREATH contains the _first class_ of proximates, those which contain + carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but _no nitrogen_.[W] + +FOOTNOTES: + +[V] This account of digestion is not, perhaps, strictly accurate in a +physiological point of view, but it is sufficiently so to give an +elementary understanding of the character of excrements as manures. + +[W] The excrements of animals contain more or less of sulphur, and +sometimes small quantities of phosphorus. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +WASTE OF MANURE. + + +[What are the first causes of loss of manure? + +What is _evaporation_?] + +The loss of manure is a subject which demands most serious attention. +Until within a few years, little was known about the true character of +manures, and consequently, of the importance of protecting them against +loss. + +The first causes of waste are _evaporation_ and _leaching_. + + +EVAPORATION. + +[Name a solid body which evaporates. + +What takes place when a dead animal is exposed to the atmosphere for a +sufficient time? + +What often assist the evaporation of solids?] + +Evaporation is the changing of a solid or liquid body to a vapory form. +Thus common smelling salts, a solid, if left exposed, passes into the +atmosphere in the form of a gas or vapor. Water, a liquid, evaporates, +and becomes a vapor in the atmosphere. This is the case with very many +substances, and in organic nature, both solid and liquid, they are +liable to assume a gaseous form, and become mixed with the atmosphere. +They are not destroyed, but are merely changed in form. + +As an instance of this action, suppose an animal to die and to decay on +the surface of the earth. After a time, the flesh will entirely +disappear, but is not lost. It no longer exists as the flesh of an +animal, but its carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, still exist in +the air. They have been liberated from the attractions which held them +together, and have passed away; but (as we already know from what has +been said in a former section) they are ready to be again taken up by +plants, and pressed into the service of life. + +The evaporation of liquids may take place without the aid of any thing +but heat; still, in the case of solids, it is often assisted by decay +and combustion, which break up the bonds that hold the constituents of +bodies together, and thus enable them to return to the atmosphere, from +which they were originally derived. + +[What is the cause of odor? + +When we perceive an odor, what is taking place? + +Why do manures give off offensive odors? + +How may we detect ammonia escaping from manure?] + +It must be recollected that every thing, which has an _odor_ (or can be +smelled), is evaporating. The odor is caused by parts of the body +floating in the air, and acting on the nerves of the nose. This is an +invariable rule; and, when we perceive an odor, we may be sure that +parts of the material, from which it emanates, are escaping. If we +perceive the odor of an apple, it is because parts of the volatile oils +of the apple enter the nose. The same is true when we smell hartshorn, +cologne, etc. + +Manures made by animals have an offensive odor, simply because volatile +parts of the manure escape into the air, and are therefore made +perceptible. All organic parts in turn become volatile, assuming a +gaseous form as they decompose. + +We do not see the gases rising, but there are many ways by which we can +detect them. If we wave a feather over a manure heap, from which ammonia +is escaping, the feather having been recently dipped in manure, white +fumes will appear around the feather, being the muriate of ammonia +formed by the union of the escaping gas with the muriatic acid. Not only +ammonia, but also carbonic acid, and other gases which are useful to +vegetation escape, and are given to the winds. Indeed it may be stated +in few words that all of the organic part of _plants_ (all that was +obtained from the air, water, and ammonia), constituting more than nine +tenths of their dry weight, may be evaporated by the assistance of decay +or combustion. The organic part of _manures_ may be lost in the same +manner; and, if the process of decomposition be continued long enough, +nothing but a mass of mineral matter will remain, except perhaps a small +quantity of carbon which has not been resolved into carbonic acid. + +[What remains after manure has been long exposed to +decomposition? + +What gaseous compounds are formed by the decomposition of manures?] + +The proportion of solid manure lost by evaporation (made by the +assistance of decay), is a very large part of the whole. Manure cannot +be kept a single day in its natural state without losing something. It +commences to give out an offensive odor immediately, and this odor is +occasioned, as was before stated, by the loss of some of its fertilizing +parts. + +Animal manure contains, as will be seen by reference to p. 100, all of +the substances contained in plants, though not always in the correct +relative proportions to each other. When decomposition commences, the +carbon unites with the oxygen of the air, and passes off as carbonic +acid; the hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water (which evaporates), +and the _nitrogen is mostly resolved into ammonia, which escapes into +the atmosphere_. + +[Describe fire-fanging. + +What takes place when animal manure is exposed in an open barn-yard? + +What does liquid manure lose by evaporation?] + +If manure is thrown into heaps, it often ferments so rapidly as to +produce sufficient heat to set fire to some parts of the manure, and +cause it to be thrown off with greater rapidity. This may be observed in +nearly all heaps of animal excrement. When they have lain for some time +in mild weather, gray streaks of _ashes_ are often to be seen in the +centre of the pile. The organic part of the manure having been _burned_ +away, nothing but the ash remains,--this is called _fire-fanging_. + +Manures kept in cellars without being mixed with refuse matter are +subject to the same losses. + +When kept in the yard, they are still liable to be lost by evaporation. +They are here often saturated with water, and this water in its +evaporation carries away the ammonia, and carbonic acid which it has +obtained from the rotting mass. The evaporation of the water is rapidly +carried on, on account of the great extent of surface. The whole mass is +spongy, and soaks the liquids up from below (through hollow straws, +etc.), to be evaporated at the surface on the same principle as causes +the wick of a lamp to draw up the oil to supply fuel for the flame. + +LIQUID MANURE containing large quantities of nitrogen, and forming much +ammonia, is also liable to lose all of its organic part from evaporation +(and fermentation), so that it is rendered as much less valuable as is +the solid dung.[X] + +[When does the waste of exposed manure commence? + +What does economy of manure require? + +What is the effect of leaching? + +Give an illustration of leaching.] + +From these remarks, it may be justly inferred that a very large portion +of the _value_ of solid and liquid manure as ordinarily kept is lost by +evaporation in a sufficient length of time, depending on circumstances, +whether it be three months or several years. The wasting commences as +soon as the manure is dropped, and continues, except in very cold +weather, until the destruction is complete. Hence we see that true +economy requires that the manures of the stable, stye, and +poultry-house, should be protected from evaporation (as will be +hereafter described), as soon as possible after they are made. + + +LEACHING. + +The subject of _leaching_ is as important in considering the _inorganic_ +parts of manures as evaporation is to the organic, while leaching also +affects the organic gases, they being absorbed by water in a great +degree. + +A good illustration of leaching is found in the manufacture of potash. +When water is poured over wood-ashes, it dissolves their potash which +it carries through in solution, making ley. If ley is boiled to dryness, +it leaves the potash in a solid form, proving that this substance had +been dissolved by the water and removed from the insoluble parts of the +ashes. + +[How does water affect decomposing manures? + +Does continued decomposition continue to prepare material to be leached +away? + +How far from the surface of the soil may organic constituents be carried +by water?] + +In the same way water in passing through manures takes up the soluble +portions of the ash as fast as liberated by decomposition, and carries +them into the soil below; or, if the water runs off from the surface, +they accompany it. In either case they are lost to the manure. There is +but a small quantity of ash exposed for leaching in recent manures; but, +as the decomposition of the organic part proceeds, it continues to +develope it more and more (in the same manner as burning would do, only +slower), thus preparing fresh supplies to be carried off with each +shower. In this way, while manures are largely injured by evaporation, +the soluble inorganic parts are removed by water until but a small +remnant of its original fertilizing properties remains. + +[What arrests their farther progress? + +What would be the effect of allowing these matters to filter downwards? + +What does evaporation remove from manure? Leaching?] + +It is a singular fact concerning leaching, that water is able to carry +no part of the organic constituents of vegetables more than about +thirty-four inches below the surface in a fertile soil. They would +probably be carried to an unlimited distance in pure sand, as it +contains nothing which is capable of arresting them; but, in most soils, +the clay and carbon which they contain retain all of the ammonia; also +nearly all of the matters which go to form the inorganic constituents of +plants within about the above named distance from the surface of the +soil. If such were not the case, the fertility of the earth must soon be +destroyed, as all of those elements which the soil must supply to +growing plants would be carried down out of the reach of roots, and +leave the world a barren waste, its surface having lost its elements of +fertility, while the downward filtration of these would render the water +of wells unfit for our use. Now, however, they are all retained near the +surface of the soil, and the water issues from springs comparatively +pure. + +EVAPORATION removes from manure-- + + Carbon, in the form of carbonic acid. + + Hydrogen and oxygen, in the form of water. + + Nitrogen, in the form of ammonia. + +LEACHING removes from manure-- + + The soluble and most valuable parts of the ash in solution in + water, besides carrying away some of the named above forms of + organic matter. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[X] It should be recollected that every bent straw may act as a syphon, +and occasion much loss of liquid manure. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +ABSORBENTS. + + +[What substances are called absorbents? + +What is the most important of these? + +What substances are called charcoal in agriculture? + +How is vegetable matter rendered useful as charcoal?] + +Before considering farther the subject of animal excrement, it is +necessary to examine a class of manures known as _absorbents_. These +comprise all matters which have the power of absorbing, or soaking up, +as it were, the gases which arise from the evaporation of solid and +liquid manures, and retaining them until required by plants. + +The most important of these is undoubtedly _carbon_ or charcoal. + + +CHARCOAL. + +_Charcoal_, in an agricultural sense, means all forms of carbon, whether +as peat, muck, charcoal dust from the spark-catchers of locomotives, +charcoal hearths, river and swamp deposits, leaf mould, decomposed spent +tanbark or sawdust, etc. In short, if any vegetable matter is decomposed +with the partial exclusion of air (so that there shall not be oxygen +enough supplied to unite with all of the carbon), a portion of its +carbon remains in the exact condition to serve the purposes of charcoal. + +[What is the first-named effect of charcoal? The second? +Third? Fourth? + +Explain the first action.] + +The offices performed in the soil by carbonaceous matter were fully +explained in a former section (p. 79, Sect. 2), and we will now examine +merely its action with regard to manures. When properly applied to +manures, in compost, it has the following effects: + +1. It absorbs and retains the fertilizing gases evaporating from +decomposing matters. + +2. It acts as a _divisor_, thereby reducing the strength (or intensity) +of powerful manures--thus rendering them less likely to injure the roots +of plants; and also increases their bulk, so as to prevent _fire +fanging_ in composts. + +3. It in part prevents the leaching out of the soluble parts of the ash. + +4. It keeps the compost moist. + +The first-named office of charcoal, _i. e._, absorbing and retaining +gases, is one of the utmost importance. It is this quality that gives to +it so high a position in the opinion of all who have used it. As was +stated in the section on soils, carbonaceous matter seems to be capable +of absorbing every thing which may be of use to vegetation. It is a +grand purifier, and while it prevents offensive odors from escaping, it +is at the same time storing its pores with food for the nourishment of +plants. + +[Explain its action as a divisor. + +How does charcoal protect composts against injurious action of rains? + +How does it keep them moist?] + +2d. In its capacity as a _divisor_ for manures, charcoal should be +considered as excellent in all cases, especially to use with strongly +concentrated (or heating) animal manures. These, when applied in their +natural state to the soil, are very apt to injure young roots by the +violence of their action. When mixed with a divisor, such manures are +_diluted_, made less active, and consequently less injurious. In +composts, manures are liable, as has been before stated, to become +burned by the resultant heat of decomposition; this is called _fire +fanging_, and is prevented by the liberal use of divisors, because, by +increasing the bulk, the heat being diffused through a larger mass, +becomes less intense. The same principle is exhibited in the fact that +it takes more fire to boil a cauldron of water than a tea-kettle full. + +3d. Charcoal has much power to arrest the passage of mineral matters in +solution; so much so, that compost heaps, well supplied with muck, are +less affected by rains than those not so supplied. All composts, +however, should be kept under cover. + +4th. Charcoal keeps the compost moist from the ease with which it +absorbs water, and its ability to withstand drought. + +[What source of carbon is within the reach of most farmers? + +What do we mean by muck? + +Of what does it consist? + +How does it differ in quality?] + +With these advantages before us, we must see the importance of an +understanding of the modes for obtaining charcoal. Many farmers are so +situated that they can obtain sufficient quantities of charcoal dust. +Others have not equal facilities. Nearly all, however, can obtain +_muck_, and to this we will now turn our attention. + + +MUCK, AND THE LIME AND SALT MIXTURE. + +[What is the first step in preparing muck for decomposition? + +With what proportion of the lime and salt mixture should it be +composted? + +Why should this compost be made under cover? + +What is this called after decomposition? + +Why should we not use muck immediately after taking it from the swamp?] + +By _muck_, we mean the vegetable deposits of swamps and rivers. It +consists of decayed organic substances, mixed with more or less earth. +Its principal constituent is _carbon_, in different degrees of +development, which has remained after the decomposition of vegetable +matter. Muck varies largely in its quality, according to the amount of +carbon which it contains, and the perfection of its decomposition. The +best muck is usually found in comparatively dry locations, where the +water which once caused the deposit has been removed. Muck which has +been long in this condition, is usually better decomposed than that +which is saturated with water. The muck from swamps, however, may soon +be brought to the best condition. It should be thrown out, if possible, +at least one year before it is required for use (a less time may +suffice, except in very cold climates) and left, in small heaps or +ridges, to the action of the weather, which will assist in pulverizing +it, while, from having its water removed, its decomposition goes on more +rapidly. + +After the muck has remained in this condition a sufficient length of +time, it may be removed to the barn-yard and composted with the lime and +salt mixture (described on page 115) in the proportion of one cord of +muck to four bushels of the mixture. This compost ought to be made under +cover, lest the rain leach out the constituents of the mixture, and thus +occasion loss; at the end of a month or more, the muck in the compost +will have been reduced to a fine pulverulent mass, nearly equal to +charcoal dust for application to animal excrement. When in this +condition it is called _prepared_ muck, by which name it will be +designated in the following pages. + +Muck should not be used immediately after being taken from the swamp, as +it is then almost always _sour_, and is liable to produce sorrel. Its +_sourness_ is due to _acids_ which it contains, and these must be +rectified by the application of an alkali, or by long exposure to the +weather, before the muck is suitable for use. + + +LIME AND SALT MIXTURE. + +[What proportions of lime and salt are required for the +decomposing mixture? + +Explain the process of making it. + +Why should it be made under cover?] + +The lime and salt mixture, used in the decomposition of muck, is made in +the following manner: + +RECIPE.--Take _three_ bushels of shell lime, _hot from the kiln_, or as +fresh as possible, and slake it with water in which _one_ bushel of salt +has been dissolved. + +Care must be taken to use only so much water as is necessary to dissolve +the salt, as it is difficult to induce the lime to absorb a larger +quantity. + +In dissolving the salt, it is well to hang it in a basket in the upper +part of the water, as the salt water will immediately settle towards the +bottom (being heavier), and allow the freshest water to be nearest to +the salt. In this way, the salt may be all dissolved, and thus make the +brine used to slake the lime. It may be necessary to apply the brine at +intervals of a day or two, and to stir the mass often, as the amount of +water is too great to be readily absorbed. + +This mixture should be made under cover, as, if exposed, it would obtain +moisture from rain or dew, which would prevent the use of all the +brine. Another objection to its exposure to the weather is its great +liability to be washed away by rains. It should be at least ten days old +before being used, and would probably be improved by an age of three or +four months, as the chemical changes it undergoes will require some time +to be completed. + +[Explain the character of this mixture as represented in the +diagram. (Black board.)] + +The character of this mixture may be best described by the following +diagram:-- + +We have originally-- + ++----------------------------------+ +| | + Lime-+ Salt + | consisting of + | +---Chlorine } Chloride + | | and } of + | | +-Sodium. } Sodium. + | | | --Carbonic acid + | | | and + | | | --Oxygen in the air. + +-Chloride of lime.-+ | + +-Carbonate of Soda. + [Y] + +The lime unites with the chlorine of the salt and forms _chloride of +lime_. + +The sodium, after being freed from the chlorine, unites with the oxygen +of the air and forms soda, which, combining with the carbonic acid of +the atmosphere, forms carbonate of soda. + +Chloride of lime and carbonate of soda are better agents in the +decomposition of muck than pure salt and lime; and, as these compounds +are the result of the mixture, much benefit ensues from the operation. + +When _shell_ lime cannot be obtained, Thomaston, or any other very pure +lime, will answer, though care must be taken that it do not contain much +magnesia. + + +LIME. + +[What effect has lime on muck? + +On what does the energy of this effect depend? + +Why should a compost of muck and lime be protected from rain?] + +Muck may be decomposed by the aid of other materials. _Lime_ is very +efficient, though not as much so as when combined with salt. The action +of lime, when applied to the muck, depends very much on its condition. +Air-slaked lime (carbonate of lime), and hydrate of lime, slaked with +water, have but a limited effect compared with lime freshly burned and +applied in a caustic (or pure) form. When so used, however, the compost +should not be exposed to rains, as this would have a tendency to make +_mortar_ which would harden it. + + +POTASH. + +[Is potash valuable for this use? + +From what sources may potash be obtained? + +In what proportion should ashes be applied to muck? Sparlings?] + +_Potash_ is a very active agent in decomposing vegetable matter, and may +be used with great advantage, especially where an analysis of the soil +which is to be manured shows a deficiency of potash. + +_Unleached_ wood ashes are generally the best source from which to +obtain this, and from five to twenty-five bushels of these mixed with +one cord of muck will produce the desired result.[Z] + +The sparlings (or refuse) of potash warehouses may often be purchased at +sufficiently low rates to be used for this purpose, and answer an +excellent end. They may be applied at the rate of from twenty to one +hundred pounds to each cord of muck. + + * * * * * + +By any of the foregoing methods, muck may be _prepared_ for use in +composting. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[Y] There is, undoubtedly, some of this lime which does not unite with +the chlorine; this, however, is still as valuable as any lime. + +[Z] _Leached_ ashes will not supply the place of these, as the leaching +has deprived them of their potash. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +COMPOSTING STABLE MANURE. + + +[What principles should regulate us in composting? + +In what condition is solid dung of value as a fertilizer? + +What do we aim to do in composting?] + +In composting stable manure in the most economical manner, the +evaporation of the organic parts and the leaching of the ashy (and +other) portions must be avoided, while the condition of the mass is such +as to admit of the perfect decomposition of the manure. + +Solid manures in their fresh state are of but very little use to plants. +It is only as they are decomposed, and have their nitrogen turned into +ammonia, and their other ingredients resolved into the condition +required by plants, that they are of much value as fertilizers. We have +seen that, if this decomposition takes place without proper precautions +being made, the most valuable parts of the manure would be lost. Nor +would it be prudent to keep manures from decomposing until they are +applied to the soil, for then they are not immediately ready for use, +and time is lost. By composting, we aim to save every thing while we +prepare the manures for immediate use. + + +SHELTER. + +[What is the first consideration for composts? + +Describe the arrangement of floor.] + +The first consideration in preparing for composting, is to provide +proper shelter. This may be done either by means of a shed or by +arranging a cellar under the stables, or in any other manner that may be +dictated by circumstances. It is no doubt better to have the manure shed +enclosed so as to make it an effectual protection; this however is not +absolutely necessary if the roof project far enough over the compost to +shelter it from the sun's rays and from driving rains. + +The importance of some protection of this kind, is evident from what has +already been said, and indeed it is impossible to make an economical use +of manures without it. The trifling cost of building a shed, or +preparing a cellar, is amply repaid in the benefit resulting from their +uses. + + +THE FLOOR. + +The _floor_ or foundation on which to build the compost deserves some +consideration. It may be of plank tightly fitted, a hard bed of clay, or +better, a cemented surface. Whatever material is used in its +construction (and stiff clay mixed with water and beaten compactly down +answers an excellent purpose), the floor must have such an inclination +as will cause it to discharge water only at one point. That is, one part +of the edge must be lower than the rest of the floor, which must be so +shaped that water will run towards this point from every part of it; +then--the floor being water-tight--all of the liquids of the compost may +be collected in a + + +TANK. + +[How should the tank be attached?] + +This _tank_ used to collect the liquids of the manure may be made by +sinking a barrel or hogshead (according to the size of the heap) in the +ground at the point where it is required, or in any other convenient +manner. + +In the tank a pump of cheap construction may be placed, to raise the +liquid to a sufficient height to be conveyed by a trough to the centre +of the heap, and there distributed by means of a perforated board with +raised edges, and long enough to reach across the heap in any direction. +By altering the position of this board, the liquid may be carried evenly +over the whole mass. + +The appearance of the apparatus required for composting, and the compost +laid up, may be better shown by the following figure. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2. + +_a_, tank; _b_, pump; _c_ & _g_, perforated board; _d_, muck; _e_, +manure; _f_, floor.] + +[How is the compost made?] + +The compost is made by laying on the floor ten or twelve inches of muck, +and on that a few inches of manure, then another heavy layer of muck, +and another of manure, continuing in this manner until the heap is +raised to the required height, always having a thick layer of muck at +the top. + +[What liquids are best for moistening the compost? + +How should they be applied? + +What are the advantages of this moistening? + +How does it compare with forking over?] + +After laying up the heap, the tank should be filled with liquid manure +from the stables, slops from the house, soap-suds, or other water +containing fertilizing matter, to be pumped over the mass. There should +be enough of the liquid to saturate the heap and filter through to fill +the tank twice a week, at which intervals it should be again pumped up, +thus continually being passed through the manure. This liquid should not +be changed, as it contains much soluble manure. Should the liquid +manures named above not be sufficient, the quantity may be increased by +the use of rain-water. That falling during the first ten minutes of a +shower is the best, as it contains much ammonia. + +The effects produced by frequently watering the compost is one of the +greatest advantages of this system. + +The soluble portions of the manure are equally diffused through every +part of the heap. + +Should the heat of fermentation be too great, the watering will reduce +it. + +When the compost is saturated with water, the air is driven out; and, as +the water subsides, _fresh_ air enters and takes its place. This fresh +air contains oxygen, which assists in the decomposition of the manure. + +In short, the watering does all the work of forking over by hand much +better and much more cheaply. + +[Why will the ammonia of manure thus made, not escape if it be +used as a top dressing? + +What are the advantages of preparing manures in this manner? + +What is the profit attending it?] + +At the end of a month or more, this compost will be ready for use. The +layers in the manure will have disappeared, the whole mass having become +of a uniform character, highly fertilizing, and ready to be immediately +used by plants. + +It may be applied to the soil, either as a top-dressing, or otherwise, +without fear of loss, as the muck will retain all of the gases which +would otherwise evaporate. + +The cost and trouble of the foregoing system of composting are trifling +compared with its advantages. The quantity of the manure is much +increased, and its quality improved. The health of the animals is +secured by the retention of those gases, which, when allowed to escape, +render impure the air which they have to breathe. + +The cleanliness of the stable and yard is much advanced as the effete +matters, which would otherwise litter them, are carefully removed to the +compost. + +As an instance of the profit of composting, it may be stated that Prof. +Mapes has decomposed ninety-two cords of swamp muck, with four hundred +bushels of the lime and salt mixture, and then composted it with eight +cords of _fresh_ horse dung, making one hundred cords of manure fully +equal to the same amount of stable-manure alone, which has lain one +year exposed to the weather. Indeed one cord of muck well decomposed, +and containing the chlorine lime and soda of four bushels of the +mixture, is of itself equal in value to the same amount of manure which +has lain in an open barn-yard during the heat and rain of one season, +and is then applied to the land in a _raw_ or undecomposed state. + +[In what other manners may muck be used in the preservation of +manures? + +How may liquid manure be made most useful?] + +The foregoing system of composting is the best that has yet been +suggested for making use of solid manures. Many other methods may be +adopted when circumstances will not admit of so much attention. It is a +common and excellent practice to throw prepared muck into the cellar +under the stables, to be mixed and turned over with the manure by swine. +In other cases the manures are kept in the yard, and are covered with a +thin layer of muck every morning. The principle which renders these +systems beneficial is the absorbent power of charcoal. + + +LIQUID MANURE. + +_Liquid manure_ from animals may, also, be made useful by the assistance +of prepared muck. Where a tank is used in composting, the liquids from +the stable may all be employed to supply moisture to the heap; but where +any system is adopted, not requiring liquids, the urine may be applied +to muck heaps, and then allowed to ferment. Fermentation is necessary in +urine as well as in solid dung, before it is very active as a manure. +Urine, as will be recollected, contains nitrogen and forms ammonia on +fermentation. + +[Describe the manner of digging out the bottoms of stalls.] + +It is a very good plan to dig out the bottoms of the stalls in a +circular or gutter-like form, three or four feet deep in the middle, +cement the ground, or make it nearly water-tight, by a plastering of +stiff clay, and fill them up with prepared muck. The appearance of a +cross section of the floor thus arranged would be as follows: + +[Illustration: Fig. 3.] + +The prepared muck in the bottom of the stalls would absorb the urine as +soon as voided, while yet warm with the animal heat, and receive heat +from the animal's body while lying down at night. This heat will hasten +the decomposition of the urea,[AA] and if the muck be renewed twice a +month, and that which is removed composted under cover, it will be found +a most prolific source of good manure. In Flanders, the liquid manure of +a cow is considered worth $10 per year, and it is not less valuable +here. As was stated in the early part of this section, the inorganic (or +mineral) matter contained in urine, is soluble, and consequently is +immediately useful as food for plants. + +By referring to the analysis of liquid and solid manure, in section V., +their relative value may be seen. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +DIFFERENT KINDS OF ANIMAL EXCREMENT. + + +The manures of different animals are, of course, of different value, as +fertilizers, varying according to the food, the age of the animals, etc. + + +STABLE MANURE. + +By stable manure we mean, usually, that of the horse, and that of +horned cattle. The case described in chap. 2 (of this section), was one +where the animal was not increasing in any of its parts, but returned, +in the form of manure, and otherwise, the equivalent of every thing +eaten. This case is one of the most simple kind, and is subject to many +modifications. + +[Is the manure of full-grown animals of the same quality as +that of other animals? + +Why does that of the growing animal differ? + +Why does not the formation of _fat_ reduce the quality of manure? + +What does _milk_ remove from the food?] + +The _growing_ animal is increasing in size, and as he derives his +increase from his food, he does not return in the form of manure as much +as he eats. If his bones are growing, he is taking from his food +phosphate of lime and nitrogenous matter; consequently, the manure will +be poorer in these ingredients. The same may be said of the formation of +the muscles, in relation to nitrogen. + +The _fatting_ animal, if full grown, makes manure which is as good as +that from animals that are not increasing in size, because the fat is +taken from those parts of the food which is obtained by plants from the +atmosphere, and from nature, (_i. e._ from the 1st class of proximates). +Fat contains no nitrogen, and, consequently, does not lessen the amount +of this ingredient in the manure. + +_Milch Cows_ turn a part of their food to the formation of milk, and +consequently, they produce manure of reduced value. + +[How do the solid and liquid manure of the horse and ox +compare? + +What occasions these differences?] + +The solid manure of the horse is better than that of the ox, while the +liquid manure of the ox is comparatively better than that of the horse. +The cause of this is that the horse has poorer digestive organs than the +ox, and consequently passes more of the valuable parts of his food, in +an undigested form, as dung, while the ox, from chewing the cud and +having more perfect organs, turns more of his food into urine than the +horse. + + +RECAPITULATION. + +FULL GROWN animals not } + producing milk, and full } make the best manure. + grown animals fattening } + +GROWING ANIMALS reduce the value of their manure, taking portions of +their food to form their bodies. + +MILCH COWS reduce the value of their manure by changing a part of their +food into milk. + +THE OX makes poor dung and rich urine. + +THE HORSE makes rich dung and poor urine.[AB] + + +NIGHT SOIL. + +[What is the most valuable manure accessible to the farmer? + +What is the probable value of the night soil yearly lost in the United +States? + +Of what does the manure of man consist?] + +The _best_ manure within the reach of the farmer is _night soil_, or +human excrement. There has always been a false delicacy about mentioning +this fertilizer, which has caused much waste, and great loss of health, +from the impure and offensive odors which it is allowed to send forth to +taint the air. + +The value of the night soil yearly lost in the United States is, +probably, about _fifty millions of dollars_ (50,000,000); an amount +nearly equal to the entire expenses of our National Government. Much of +the ill health of our people is undoubtedly occasioned by neglecting the +proper treatment of night soil. + +[Describe this manure as compared with the excrements of other +animals. + +Does the use of night soil produce disagreeable properties in plants?] + +That which directly affects agriculture, as treated of in this book, is +the value of this substance as a fertilizer. The manure of man consists +(as is the case with that of other animals) of those parts of his food +which are not retained in the increase of his body. If he be _growing_, +his manure is poorer, as in the case of the ox, and it is subject to all +the other modifications named in the early part of this chapter. His +food is usually of a varied character, and is rich in nitrogen, the +phosphates, and other inorganic constituents; consequently, his manure +is made valuable by containing large quantities of these matters. As is +the case with the ox, the _dung_ contains the undigested food, the +secretions (or leakings) of the digestive organs, and the insoluble +parts of the ash of the digested food. The _urine_, in like manner, +contains a large proportion of the nitrogen and the soluble inorganic +parts of the digested food. When we consider how much richer the _food_ +of man is than that of horned cattle, we shall see the superior value of +his _excrement_. + +Night soil has been used as a manure, for ages, in China, which is, +undoubtedly, one great secret of their success in supporting a dense +population, for so long a time, without impoverishing the soil. It has +been found, in many instances, to increase the productive power of the +natural soil three-fold. That is, if a soil would produce ten bushels of +wheat per acre, without manure, it would produce thirty bushels if +manured with night soil. + +Some have supposed that manuring with night soil would give disagreeable +properties to plants: such is not the case; their quality is invariably +improved. The color and odor of the rose become richer and more delicate +by the use of the most offensive night soil as manure. + +[What is the direct object of plants? + +What would result if this were not the case? + +How may night soil be easily prepared for use, and its offensive odor +prevented?] + +It is evident that this is the case from the fact that plants have it +for their direct object to make over and put together the refuse organic +matter, and the gases and the minerals found in nature, for the use of +animals. If there were no natural means of rendering the excrement of +animals available to plants, the earth must soon be shorn of its +fertility, as the elements of growth when once consumed would be +essentially destroyed, and no soil could survive the exhaustion. There +is no reason why the manure of man should be rejected by vegetation more +than that of any other animal; and indeed it is not, for ample +experience has proved that for most soils there is no better manure in +existence. + +A single experiment will suffice to show that night soil may be so kept +that there shall be no loss of its valuable gases, and consequently no +offensive odor arising from it, while it may be removed and applied to +crops without unpleasantness. All that is necessary to effect this +wonderful change in night soil, and to turn it from its disagreeable +character to one entirely inoffensive, is to mix with it a little +charcoal dust, prepared muck, or any other good absorbent--thus making +what is called poudrette. The mode of doing this must depend on +circumstances. In many cases, it would be expedient to keep a barrel of +the absorbent in the privy and throw down a small quantity every day. +The effect on the odor of the house would amply repay the trouble. + +[Should pure night soil be used as a manure? + +What precaution is necessary in preparing hog manure for use?] + +The manure thus made is of the most valuable character, and may be used +under any circumstances with a certainty of obtaining a good crop. It +should not be used unmixed with some absorbent, as it is of such +strength as to kill plants. + +For an analysis of human manure, see Section V. + + +HOG MANURE. + +_Hog Manure_ is very valuable, but it must be used with care. It is so +violent in its action that, when applied in a pure form to crops, it +often produces injurious results. It is liable to make cabbages +_clump-footed_, and to induce a disease in turnips called _ambury_ (or +fingers and toes). The only precaution necessary is to supply the stye +with prepared muck, charcoal-dust, leaf-mould, or any absorbent in +plentiful quantities, often adding fresh supplies. The hogs will work +this over with the manure; and, when required for use, it will be found +an excellent fertilizer. The absorbent will have overcome its injurious +tendency, and it may be safely applied to any crop. From the variety and +rich character of the food of this animal, his manure is of a superior +quality. + +[Why is the manure from butchers' hog-pens very valuable? + +How does the value of poultry manure compare with that of guano? + +How may it be protected against loss?] + +_Butchers' hog-pen manure_ is one of the best fertilizers known. It is +made by animals that live almost entirely on blood and other animal +refuse, and is very rich in nitrogen and the phosphates. It should be +mixed with prepared muck, or its substitute, to prevent the loss of its +ammonia, and as a protection against its injurious effect on plants. + + +POULTRY HOUSE MANURE. + +Next in value to night soil, among domestic manures, are the excrements +of poultry, pigeons, etc. Birds live on the nice bits of creation, +seeds, insects, etc., and they discharge their solid and liquid +excrements together. Poultry-dung is nearly equal in value to guano +(except that it contains more water), and it deserves to be carefully +preserved and judiciously used. It is as well worth twenty-five cents +per bushel as guano is worth fifty dollars a ton (at which price it is +now sold). + +Poultry-manure is liable to as much injury from evaporation and leaching +as is any other manure, and equal care should be taken (by the same +means) to prevent such loss. Good shelter over the roosts, and daily +sprinkling with prepared muck or charcoal-dust will be amply repaid by +the increased value of the manure, and its better action and greater +durability in the soil. The value of this manure should be taken into +consideration in calculating the profit of keeping poultry (as indeed +with all other stock). It has been observed by a gentleman of much +experience, in poultry raising, that the yearly manure of a hundred +fowls applied to previously unmanured land would produce _extra_ corn +enough to keep them for a year. This is probably a large estimate, but +it serves to show that this fertilizer is very valuable, and also that +poultry may be kept with great profit, if their excrements are properly +secured. + +The manure of pigeons has been a favorite fertilizer in some countries +for more than 2000 years. + +Market gardeners attach much value to rabbit-manure. + + +SHEEP MANURE. + +[What can you say of the manure of sheep?] + +The manure of sheep is less valuable than it would be, if so large a +quantity of the nitrogen and mineral parts of the food were not employed +in the formation of wool. This has a great effect on the richness of the +excrements, but they are still a very good fertilizer, and should be +protected from loss in the same way as stable manure. + + +GUANO. + +[Should the use of guano induce us to disregard other manures? + +Where and in what manner is the best guano deposited?] + +_Guano_ as a manure has become world renowned. The worn-out tobacco +lands of Virginia, and other fields in many parts of the country, which +seemed to have yielded to the effect of an ignorant course of +cultivation, and to have sunk to their final repose, have in many cases +been revived to the production of excellent crops, and have had their +value multiplied many fold by the use of guano. Although an excellent +manure, it should not cause us to lose sight of those valuable materials +which exist on almost every farm. Every ton of guano imported into the +United States is an addition to our national wealth, but every ton of +stable-manure, or poultry-dung, or night soil evaporated or carried away +in rivers, is equally a _deduction_ from our riches. If the imported +manure is to really benefit us, we must not allow it to occasion the +neglect and consequent loss of our domestic fertilizers. + +The Peruvian guano (which is considered the best) is brought from +islands near the coast of Peru. The birds which frequent these islands +live almost entirely on fish, and drop their excrements here in a +climate where rain is almost unknown, and where, from the dryness of the +air, there is but little loss sustained by the manure. It is brought to +this country in large quantities, and is an excellent fertilizer, +superior even to night soil. + +[How should it be prepared for use?] + +It should be mixed with an absorbent before being used, unless it is +plowed deeply under the soil, as it contains much ammonia which would be +lost from evaporation. It would probably also injure plants. The best +way to use guano, is in connection with sulphuric acid and bones, as +will be described hereafter. + +The composition of the various kinds of guano may be found in the +section on analysis. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[AA] The nitrogenous compound in the urine. + +[AB] Comparatively. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +OTHER ORGANIC MANURES. + + +The number of organic manures is almost countless. The most common of +these have been described in the previous chapters on the excrements of +animals. The more prominent of the remaining ones will now be +considered. As a universal rule, it may be stated that all organic +matter (every thing which has had vegetable or animal life) is capable +of fertilizing plants. + + +DEAD ANIMALS. + +[What are the chief fertilizing constituents of dead animals? + +What becomes of these when exposed to the atmosphere? + +How may this be prevented?] + +The bodies of animals contain much _nitrogen_, as well as valuable +quantities, the phosphates and other inorganic materials required in the +growth of plants. On their decay, the nitrogen is resolved into +_ammonia_,[AC] and the mineral matters become valuable as food for the +inorganic parts of plants. + +If the decomposition of animal bodies takes place in exposed situations, +and without proper precautions, the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere, +and much of the mineral portion is leached out by rains. The use of +absorbents, such as charcoal-dust, prepared muck, etc., will entirely +prevent evaporation, and will in a great measure serve as a protection +against leaching. + +If a dead horse be cut in pieces and mixed with ten loads of muck, the +whole mass will, in a single season, become a most valuable compost. +Small animals, such as dogs, cats, etc., may be with advantage buried by +the roots of grape-vines or trees. + + +BONES. + +[Of what do the bones of animals consist? + +What is gelatine? + +Describe the fertilizing qualities of fish.] + +The _bones_ of animals contain phosphate of lime and gelatine. The +gelatine is a nitrogenous substance, and produces ammonia on its +decomposition. This subject will be spoken of more fully under the head +of 'phosphate of lime' in the chapter on mineral manures, as the +treatment of bones is more directly with reference to the fertilizing +value of their inorganic matter. + + +FISH. + +In many localities near the sea-shore large quantities of fish are +caught and applied to the soil. These make excellent manure. They +contain much nitrogen, which renders them strongly ammoniacal on +decomposition. Their bones consist of phosphate and carbonate of lime; +and, being naturally soft, they decompose in the soil with great +facility, and become available to plants. The scales of fish contain +valuable quantities of nitrogen, phosphate of lime, etc., all of which +are highly useful. + +Refuse fishy matters from markets and from the house are well worth +saving. These and fish caught for manure may be made into compost with +prepared muck, etc.; and, as they putrefy rapidly, they soon become +ready for use. They may be added to the compost of stable manure with +great advantage. + +[Should these be applied as a top dressing to the soil? + +What are the fertilizing properties of woollen rags? + +What is the best way to use them?] + +Fish (like all other nitrogenous manures) should never be applied as a +top dressing, unless previously mixed with a good absorbent of ammonia, +but should when used alone be immediately plowed under to considerable +depth, to prevent the evaporation--and consequent loss--of their +fertilizing gases. + + +WOOLLEN RAGS, ETC. + +_Woollen rags, hair, waste of woollen factories_, etc., contain both +nitrogen and phosphate of lime; and, like all other matters containing +these ingredients, are excellent manures, but must be used in such a way +as to prevent the escape of their fertilizing gases. They decompose +slowly, and are therefore considered a _lasting_ manure. Like all +_lasting_ manures, however, they are _slow_ in their effects, and the +most advantageous way to use them is to compost them with stable manure, +or with some other rapidly fermenting substance, which will hasten their +decomposition and render them sooner available. + +Rags, hair, etc., thus treated, will in a short time be reduced to such +a condition that they may be immediately used by plants instead of lying +in the soil to be slowly taken up. It is better in all cases to have +manures act _quickly_ and give an immediate return for their cost, than +to lie for a long time in the soil before their influence is felt. + +[What is their value compared with that of farm-yard manure? + +How should old leather be treated? + +Describe the manurial properties of tanners' refuse. + +How should they be treated? + +Are horn piths, etc. valuable?] + +A pound of woollen rags is worth, as a manure, twice as much as is paid +for good linen shreds for paper making; still, while the latter are +always preserved, the former are thrown away, although considered by +good judges to be worth forty times as much as barn-yard manure. + +Old leather should not be thrown away. It decomposes very slowly, and +consequently is of but a little value; but, if put at the roots of young +trees, it will in time produce appreciable effects. + +_Tanners' and curriers' refuse_, and all other animal offal, including +that of the slaughter-house, is well worth attention, as it contains +more or less of those two most important ingredients of manures, +nitrogen and phosphate of lime. + +It is unnecessary to add that, in common with all other animal manures, +these substances must be either composted, or immediately plowed under +the soil. Horn piths, and horn shavings, if decomposed in compost, with +substances which ferment rapidly, make very good manure, and are worth +fully the price charged for them. + + +ORGANIC MANURES OF VEGETABLE ORIGIN. + +_Muck_, the most important of the purely vegetable manures, has been +already sufficiently described. It should be particularly borne in mind +that, when first taken from the swamp it is often _sour_, or _cold_, but +that if exposed for a long time to the air, or if well treated with +lime, unleached ashes, the lime and salt mixture, or any other alkali, +its acids will be _neutralized_ (or overcome), and it becomes a good +application to any soil, except peat or other soils already containing +large quantities of organic matter. In applying muck to the soil (as has +been before stated), it should be made a vehicle for carrying ammoniacal +manures. + + +SPENT TAN BARK. + +[Why is decomposed bark more fertilizing than that of decayed +wood?] + +_Spent tan bark_, if previously decomposed by the use of the lime and +salt mixture, or potash, answers all the purposes of prepared muck, but +is more difficult of decomposition. + +[How may bark be decomposed? + +Why should tan bark be composted with an alkali? + +Why is it good for mulching? + +Is sawdust of any value?] + +The bark of trees contains a larger proportion of inorganic matter than +the wood, and much of this, on the decomposition of the bark, becomes +available as manure. The chemical effect on the bark, of using it in +the tanning of leather, is such as to render it difficult to be rotted +by the ordinary means, but, by the use of the lime and salt mixture it +may be reduced to the finest condition, and becomes a most excellent +manure. It probably contains small quantities of nitrogen (obtained from +the leather), which adds to its value. Unless tan bark be composted with +lime, or some other alkali, it may produce injurious effects from the +_tannic acid_ which it is liable to contain. Alkaline substances will +neutralize this acid, and prevent it from being injurious. + +One great benefit resulting from the use of spent tan bark, is due to +its power of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. For this reason it +is very valuable for _mulching_[AD] young trees and plants when first +set out. + + +SAWDUST. + +[Why is sawdust a good addition to the pig-stye? + +What is the peculiarity of sawdust from the beech, etc.? + +What is a peculiarity of soot? + +Why may soot be used as a top dressing without losing its ammonia?] + +_Sawdust_ in its natural state is of very little value to the land, but +when decomposed, as may be done by the same method as was described for +tan bark, it is of some importance, as it contains a large quantity of +carbon. Its ash, too, which becomes available, contains soluble +inorganic matter, and in this way it acts as a direct manure. So far as +concerns the value of the ash, however, the bark is superior to sawdust. +Sawdust may be partially rotted by mixing it with strong manure (as hog +manure), while it acts as a _divisor_, and prevents the too rapid action +of this when applied to the soil. Some kinds of sawdust, such as that +from beech wood, form acetic acid on their decomposition, and these +should be treated with, at least, a sufficient quantity of lime to +correct the acid. + +_Soot_ is a good manure. It contains much carbon, and has, thus far, all +of the beneficial effects of charcoal dust. The sulphur, which is one of +its constituents, not only serves as food for plants, but, from its +odor, is a good protection against some insects. By throwing a handful +of soot on a melon vine, or young cabbage plant, it will keep away many +insects. + +Soot contains some ammonia, and as this is in the form of a _sulphate_, +it is not volatile, and consequently does not evaporate when the soot is +applied as a top dressing, which is the almost universal custom. + + +GREEN CROPS. + +[What plants are most used as green crops? + +What office is performed by the roots of green crops? + +How do such manures increase the organic matter of soils?] + +_Green crops_, to plow under, are in many places largely raised, and are +always beneficial. The plants most used for this purpose, in our +country, are clover, buckwheat, and peas. These plants have very long +roots, which they send deep in the soil, to draw up mineral matter for +their support. This mineral matter is deposited in the plant. The leaves +and roots receive carbonic acid and ammonia from the air, and from +water. In this manner they obtain their carbon. When the crop is turned +under the soil, it decomposes, and the carbon, as well as the mineral +ingredients obtained from the subsoil, are deposited in the surface +soil, and become of use to succeeding crops. The hollow stalks of the +buckwheat and pea, serve as tubes, in the soil, for the passage of air, +and thus, in heavy soils, give a much needed circulation of atmospheric +fertilizers. + +[What office is performed by the straw of the buckwheat and +pea? + +What treatment may be substituted for the use of green crops? + +Which course should be adopted in high farming? + +Why is the use of green crops preferable in ordinary cultivation? + +Name some other valuable manures.] + +Although green crops are of great benefit, and are managed with little +labor, there is no doubt but the same results may be more economically +produced. A few loads of prepared muck will do more towards increasing +the organic matter in the soil, than a very heavy crop of clover, while +it would be ready for immediate cultivation, instead of having to lie +idle during the year required in the production and decomposition of +the green crop. The effect of the roots penetrating the subsoil is, as +we have seen, to draw up inorganic matter, to be deposited within reach +of the roots of future crops. In the next section we shall show that +this end may be much more efficiently attained by the use of the +sub-soil plow, which makes a passage for the roots into the subsoil, +where they can obtain for themselves what would, in the other case, be +brought up for them by the roots of the green crop. + +The offices of the hollow straws may be performed by a system of ridging +and back furrowing, having previously covered the soil with leaves, or +other refuse organic material. + +In _high farming_, where the object of the cultivator is to make a +profitable investment of labor, these last named methods will be found +most expedient; but, if the farmer have a large quantity of land, and +can afford but a limited amount of labor, the raising of green crops, to +be plowed under in the fall, will probably be adopted. + +Before closing this chapter, it may be well to remark that there are +various other fertilizers, such as the _ammoniacal liquor of +gas-houses_, _soapers' wastes_, _bleachers' lye_, _lees of old oil +casks, etc._, which we have not space to consider at length, but which +are all valuable as additions to the compost heap, or as applications, +in a liquid form, to the soil. + +[What are the advantages arising from burying manure in its +green state? + +Which is generally preferable, this course, or composting? Why?] + +In many cases (when heavy manuring is practised), it may be well to +apply organic manures to the soil in a green state, turn them under, and +allow them to undergo decomposition in the ground. The advantages of +this system are, that the _heat_, resulting from the chemical changes, +will hasten the growth of plants, by making the soil warmer; the +carbonic acid formed will be presented to the roots instead of escaping +into the atmosphere; and if the soil be heavy, the rising of the gases +will tend to loosen it, and the leaving vacant of the spaces occupied by +the solid matters will, on their being resolved into gases, render the +soil of a more porous character. As a general rule, however, in ordinary +farming, where the amount of manure applied is only sufficient for the +supply of food to the crop, it is undoubtedly better to have it +previously decomposed--_cooked_ as it were, for the uses of the +plants--as they can then obtain the required amount of nutriment as fast +as needed. + + +ABSORPTION OF MOISTURE. + +It is often convenient to know the relative power of different manures +to absorb moisture from the atmosphere, especially when we wish to +manure lands that suffer from drought. The following results are given +by C. W. Johnson, in his essay on salt, (pp. 8 and 19). In these +experiments the animal manures were employed without any admixture of +straw. + + PARTS +1000 parts of horse dung, dried in a temperature + of 100 degrees, absorbed by exposure + for three hours, to air saturated + with moisture, of the temperature of + 62 degrees 145 +1000 parts of cow dung, under the same circumstances, + absorbed 130 +1000 parts pig dung 120 +1000 " sheep " 81 +1000 " pigeon " 50 +1000 " rich alluvial soil 14 +1000 " fresh tanner's bark 115 +1000 " putrified " 145 +1000 " refuse marine salt sold as manure 49-1/2 +1000 " soot 36 +1000 " burnt clay 29 +1000 " coal ashes 14 +1000 " lime 11 +1000 " sediment from salt pans 10 +1000 " crushed rock salt 10 +1000 " gypsum 9 +1000 " salt 4[AE] + +Muck is a most excellent absorbent of moisture, when thoroughly +decomposed. + + +DISTRIBUTION OF MANURES. + +The following table from Johnson, on manures, will be found convenient +in the distribution of manures. + +By its assistance the farmer will know how many loads of manure he +requires, dividing each load into a stated number of heaps, and placing +them at certain distances. In this manner manure may be applied evenly, +and calculation may be made as to the amount, per acre, which a certain +quantity will supply.[AF] + +---------+--------------------------------------------------------------------- +DISTANCE | +OF | +THE | NUMBER OF HEAPS IN A LOAD. +HEAPS. | +---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 +---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ +3 yards. |538 |269 |179 |134 |108 |89-1/2|77 |67 |60 |54 +3-1/2 do.|395 |168 |132 |99 |79 |66 |56-1/2|49-1/2|44 |39-1/2 +4 do. |303 |151 |101 |75-1/2|60-1/2|50-1/2|43-1/4|37-3/4|33-1/2|30-1/4 +4-1/2 do.|239 |120 |79-1/2|60 |47-3/4|39-3/4|34-1/4|30 |26-1/2|24 +5 do. |194 |97 |64-1/2|48-1/2|38-3/4|32-1/4|27-3/4|24-1/4|21-1/2|19-1/4 +5-1/2 do.|160 |80 |53-1/2|40 |32 |26-3/4|22-3/4|20 |17-3/4|16 +6 do. |131 |67 |44-3/4|33-1/2|27 |22-1/2|19-1/4|16-3/4|15 |13-1/2 +6-1/2 do.|115 |57-1/2|38-1/4|28-3/4|23 |19 |16-1/4|14-1/4|12-3/4|11-1/2 +7 do. |99 |49-1/2|33 |24-3/4|19-3/4|16-1/2|14 |12-1/4|11 |10 +7-1/2 do.|86 |43 |28-3/4|21-1/2|17-1/4|14-1/4|12-1/4|10-3/4| 9-1/2| 8-1/2 +8 do. |75-1/2|37-3/4|25-1/4|19 |15-3/4|12-1/2|10-3/4| 9-1/2| 8-1/2| 7-1/2 +8-1/2 do.|67 |33-1/2|22-1/4|16-3/4|13-1/2|11-1/4| 9-1/2| 8-1/2| 7-1/2| 6-3/4 +9 do. |60 |30 |20 |15 |12 |10 | 8-1/2| 7-3/4| 6-3/4| 6 +9-1/2 do.|53-1/2|26-3/4|18 |13-1/2|10-3/4| 9 | 7-3/4| 6-3/4| 6 | 5-1/4 +10 do. |48-1/2|24-1/4|16-1/4|12 | 9-3/4| 8 | 7 | 6 | 5-1/2| 4-3/4 +---------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------ + +_Example 1._--Required, the number of loads necessary to manure an acre +of ground, dividing each load into six heaps, and placing them at a +distance of 4-1/2 yards from each other? The answer by the table is 39-3/4. + +_Example 2._--A farmer has a field containing 5-1/2 acres, over which he +wishes to spread 82 loads of dung. Now 82 divided by 5-1/2, gives 15 loads +per acre; and by referring to the table, it will be seen that the +desired object may be accomplished, by making 4 heaps of a load, and +placing them 9 yards apart, or by 9 heaps at 6 yards, as may be thought +advisable. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[AC] Under some circumstances, _nitric acid_ is formed, which is equally +beneficial to vegetable growth. + +[AD] See the glossary at the end of the book. + +[AE] Working Farmer, vol. 1, p. 55. + +[AF] It is not necessary that this and the foregoing table should be +learned by the scholar, but they will be found valuable for reference by +the farmer. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +MINERAL MANURES. + + +[How many kinds of action have inorganic manures? + +What is the first of these? The second? Third? Fourth? + +Do all mineral manures possess all of these qualities?] + +The second class of manures named in the general division of the +subject, in the early part of this chapter, comprises those of a mineral +character, or _inorganic_ manures. + +These manures have four kinds of action when applied to the soil. + +1st. They furnish food for the inorganic part of plants. + +2d. They prepare matters already in the soil, for assimilation by roots. + +3d. They improve the mechanical condition of the soil. + +4th. They absorb ammonia. + +Some of the mineral manures produce in the soil only one of these +effects, and others are efficient in two or all of them. + +The principles to be considered in the use of mineral manures are +essentially given in the first two sections of this book. It may be +well, however, to repeat them briefly in this connection, and to give +the _reasons_ why any of these manures are needed, from which we may +learn what rules are to be observed in their application. + +[Relate what you know of the properties of vegetable ashes? + +How does this relate to the fertility of the soil? + +According to what two rules may we apply mineral manures? + +What course would you pursue to raise potatoes on a soil containing a +very little phosphoric acid and no potash?] + +1st. Those which are used as food by plants. It will be recollected that +the _ash_ left after burning plants, and which formed a part of their +structures, has a certain chemical composition; that is, it consists of +alkalies, acids, and neutrals. It was also stated that the ashes of +plants of the same kind are always of about the same composition, while +the ashes of different kinds of plants may vary materially. Different +parts of the same plant too, as we learned, are supplied with different +kinds of ash. + +For instance, _clover_, on being burned, leaves an ash containing +_lime_, as one of its principal ingredients, while the ash of _potatoes_ +contains more of _potash_ than of any thing else. + +In the second section (on soils), we learned that some soils contain +every thing necessary to make the ashes of all plants, and in sufficient +quantity to supply what is required, while other soils are either +entirely deficient in one or more ingredients, or contain so little of +them that they are unfertile for certain plants. + +[Would you manure it in the same way for wheat? + +Why?] + +From this, we see that we may pursue either one of two courses. After we +know the exact composition of the soil--which we can learn only from +correct analysis--we may manure it with a view either to making it +fertile for all kinds of plants or only for one particular plant. For +instance, we may find that a soil contains a very little phosphoric +acid, and no potash. If we wish to raise potatoes on such a soil, we +have only to apply potash (if the soil is good in other particulars), +which is largely required by this plant, though it needs but little +phosphoric acid; while, if we wish to make it fertile for wheat, and all +other plants, we must apply more phosphoric acid as well as potash. As a +universal rule, it may be stated that to render a soil fertile for any +particular plant, we must supply it (unless it already contains them) +with those matters which are necessary to _make_ the ash of that plant; +and, if we would render it capable of producing _all_ kinds of plants, +it must be furnished with the materials required in the formation of +_all kinds of vegetable ashes_. + +It is not absolutely necessary to have the soil analyzed before it can +be cultivated with success, but it is the _cheapest_ way. + +[How is the fertility of the soil to be maintained, if the +crops are _sold_? + +What rule is given for general treatment? + +Give an instance of matters in the soil that are to be rendered +available by mineral manures?] + +We might proceed from an analysis of the plant required (which will be +found in Section V.), and apply to the soil in the form of manure every +thing that is necessary for the formation of the ash of that plant. This +would give a good crop on _any_ soil that was in the proper _mechanical_ +condition, and contained enough organic matter; but a moment's +reflection will show that, if the soil contained a large amount of +potash, or of phosphate of lime, it would not be necessary to make an +application of more of these ingredients--at an expense of perhaps three +times the cost of an analysis. It is true that, if the crop is _sold_, +and it is desired to maintain the fertility of the soil, the full amount +of the ash must be applied, either before or after the crop is grown; +but, in the ordinary use of crops for feeding purposes, a large part of +the ash will exist in the excrements of the animals; so that the +judicious farmer will be able to manure his land with more economy than +if he had to apply to each crop the whole amount and variety required +for its ash. The best rule for practical manuring is probably to +_strengthen the soil in its weaker points, and prevent the stronger ones +from becoming weaker_. In this way, the soil may be raised to the +highest state of fertility, and be fully maintained in its productive +powers. + +2d. Those manures which render available matter already contained in the +soil. + +[How may silica be developed? + +How does lime affect soils containing coarse particles? + +How do mineral manures sometimes improve the mechanical texture of the +soil?] + +Silica (or sand), it will be recollected, exists in all soils; but, in +its pure state, is not capable of being dissolved, and therefore cannot +be used by plants. The alkalies (as has been stated), have the power of +combining with this silica, making compounds, which are called +_silicates_. These are readily dissolved by water, and are available in +vegetable growth. Now, if a soil is deficient in these soluble +silicates, it is well known that grain, etc., grown on it, not being +able to obtain the material which gives them strength, will fall down or +_lodge_; but, if such measures be taken, as will render the sand +soluble, the straw will be strong and healthy. Alkalies used for this +purpose, come under the head of those manures which develope the natural +resources of the soil. + +Again, much of the mineral matter in the soil is combined within +particles, and is therefore out of the reach of roots. Lime, among other +thing, has the effect of causing these particles to crumble and expose +their constituents to the demand of roots. Therefore, lime has for one +of its offices the development of the fertilizing ingredients of the +soil. + +3d. Those manures which improve the mechanical condition of the soil. + +The alkalies, in combining with sand, commence their action on the +surfaces of the particles, and roughen them--_rust_ them as it were. +This roughening of particles of the soil prevents them from moving among +each other as easily as they do when they are smooth, and thus keeps the +soil from being compacted by heavy rains, as it is liable to be in its +natural condition. In this way, the mechanical texture of the soil is +improved. + +It has just been said that _lime_ causes the pulverization of the +particles of the soil; and thus, by making it finer, improves its +mechanical condition. + +Some mineral manures, as plaster and salt, have the power of absorbing +moisture from the atmosphere; and this is a mechanical improvement to +dry soils. + +[Name some mineral manures which absorb ammonia?] + +4th. Those mineral manures which have the power of absorbing ammonia. + +_Plaster_, _chloride of lime_, _alumina_ (_clay_), etc., are large +absorbents of ammonia, whether arising from the fermentation of animal +manures or washed down from the atmosphere by rains. The ammonia thus +absorbed is of course very important in the vegetation of crops. + +Having now explained the reasons why mineral manures are necessary, and +the manner in which they produce their effects, we will proceed to +examine the various deficiencies of soils and the character of many +kinds of this class of fertilizers. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +DEFICIENCIES OF SOILS, MEANS OF RESTORATION, ETC. + + +As will be seen by referring to the analyses of soils on p. 72, they +may be deficient in certain ingredients, which it is the object of +mineral manures to supply. These we will take up in order, and endeavor +to show in a simple manner the best means of managing them in practical +farming. + + +ALKALIES. + +POTASH. + +[Do all soils contain a sufficient amount of potash? + +How may its deficiency have been caused? + +How may its absence be detected? + +Does barn-yard manure contain sufficient potash to supply its deficiency +in worn-out soils?] + +_Potash_ is often deficient in the soil. Its deficiency may have been +caused in two ways. Either it may not have existed largely in the rock +from which the soil was formed, and consequently is equally absent from +the soil itself, or it may have once been present in sufficient +quantities, and been carried away in crops, without being returned to +the soil in the form of manure until too little remains for the +requirements of fertility. + +In either case, its absence may be accurately detected by a skilful +chemist, and it may be supplied by the farmer in various ways. Potash, +as well as all of the other mineral manures, is contained in the +excrements of animals, but not (as is also the case with the others) in +sufficient quantities to restore the proper balance to soils where it is +largely deficient, nor even to make up for what is yearly removed with +each crop, except that crop (or its equivalent) has been fed to such +animals as return _all_ of the fertilizing constituents of their food in +the form of manure, and this be all carefully preserved and applied to +the soil. In all other cases, it is necessary to apply more potash than +is contained in the excrements of animals. + +[What is generally the most available source from which to +obtain this alkali? + +Will leached ashes answer the same purpose? + +How may ashes be used?] + +_Unleached wood ashes_ is generally the most available source from which +to obtain this alkali. The ashes of all kinds of wood contain potash +(more or less according to the kind--see analysis section V.) If the +ashes are _leached_, the potash is removed; and, hence for the purpose +of supplying it, they are worthless; but _unleached_ ashes are an +excellent source from which to obtain it. They may be made into compost +with muck, as directed in a previous chapter, or applied directly to the +soil. In either case the potash is available directly to the plant, or +is capable of uniting with the silica in the soil to form silicate of +potash. Neither potash nor any other alkali should ever be applied to +animal manures unless in compost with an absorbent, as they cause the +ammonia to be thrown off and lost. + +[From what other sources may potash be obtained? + +How may we obtain soda? + +In what quantities should pure salt be applied to the soil?] + +_Potash sparlings_, or the refuse of potash warehouses, is an excellent +manure for lands deficient in this constituent. + +_Potash marl_, such as is found in New Jersey, contains a large +proportion of potash, and is an excellent application to soils requiring +it. + +_Feldspar_, _kaolin_, and other minerals containing potash, are, in some +localities, to be obtained in sufficient quantities to be used for +manurial purposes. + +_Granite_ contains potash, and if it can be crushed (as is the case with +some of the softer kinds,) it serves a very good purpose. + + +SODA. + +[If applied in large quantities will it produce permanent +injury? + +In what quantities should salt be applied to composts? To asparagus?] + +_Soda_, the requirement of which is occasioned by the same causes as +create a deficiency of potash, and all of the other ingredients of +vegetable ashes, may be very readily supplied by the use of _common +salt_ (chloride of sodium), which consists of about one half sodium (the +base of soda). The best way to use salt is in the lime and salt mixture, +previously described, or as a direct application to the soil. If too +much salt be given to the soil it will kill any plant. In small +quantities, however, it is highly beneficial, and if _six bushels per +acre_ be sown broadcast over the land, to be carried in by rains and +dews, it will not only destroy many insects (grubs, worms, etc.), but +will, after decomposing and becoming chlorine and soda, prove an +excellent manure. Salt, even in quantities large enough to denude the +soil of all vegetation, is never _permanently_ injurious. After the +first year, it becomes resolved into its constituents, and furnishes +chlorine and soda to plants, without injuring them. One bushel of salt +in each cord of compost will not only hasten the decomposition of the +manures, but will kill all seeds and grubs--a very desirable effect. +While small quantities of salt in a compost heap are beneficial, too +much (as when applied to the soil) is positively injurious, as it +arrests decomposition; fairly _pickles_ the manures, and prevents them +from rotting. + +[What is generally the best way to use salt? + +What is nitrate of soda? + +What plants contain lime?] + +For _asparagus_, which is a marine plant, salt is an excellent manure, +and may be applied in almost unlimited quantities, _while the plants are +growing_, if used after they have gone to top, it is injurious. Salt has +been applied to asparagus beds in such quantities as to completely cover +them, and with apparent benefit to the plants. Of course large doses of +salt kill all weeds, and thus save labor and the injury to the asparagus +roots, which would result from their removal by hoeing. Salt may be used +advantageously in any of the foregoing manners, but should always be +applied with care. For ordinary farm purposes, it is undoubtedly most +profitable to use the salt with lime, and make it perform the double +duty of assisting in the decomposition of vegetable matter, and +fertilizing the soil. + +Soda unites with the silica in the soil, and forms the valuable +_silicate of soda_. + +_Nitrate of soda_, or cubical nitre, which is found in South America, +consists of soda and nitric acid. It furnishes both soda and nitrogen to +plants, and is an excellent manure. + + +LIME. + +The subject of _lime_ is one of most vital importance to the farmer; +indeed, so varied are its modes of action and its effects, that some +writers have given it credit for every thing good in the way of farming, +and have gone so far as to say that _all_ permanent improvement of +agriculture must depend on the use of lime. Although this is far in +excess of the truth (as lime cannot plow, nor drain, nor supply any +thing but _lime_ to the soil), its many beneficial effects demand for it +the closest attention. + +[Do all soils contain enough lime for the use of plants? + +What amount is needed for this purpose? + +What is its first-named effect on the soil? + +Its second? Third? Fourth? Fifth? + +How are acids produced in the soil?] + +As food for plants, lime is of considerable importance. All plants +contain lime--some of them in large quantities. It is an important +constituent of straw, meadow hay, leaves of fruit trees, peas, beans, +and turnips. It constitutes more than one third of the ash of red +clover. Many soils contain lime enough for the use of plants, in others +it is deficient, and must be supplied artificially before they can +produce good crops of those plants of which lime is an important +ingredient. The only way in which the exact quantity of lime in the soil +can be ascertained is by chemical analysis. However, the amount required +for the mere feeding plants is not large, (much less than one per +cent.), but lime is often necessary for other purposes; and setting +aside, for the present, its feeding action, we will examine its various +effects on the mechanical and chemical condition of the soil. + +1. It corrects acidity (sourness). + +2. It hastens the decomposition of the organic matter in the soil. + +3. It causes the mineral particles of the soil to crumble. + +4. By producing the above effects, it prepares the constituents of the +soil for assimilation by plants. + +5. It is _said_ to exhaust the soil, but it does so in a very desirable +manner, the injurious effects of which may be easily avoided. + +[How does lime correct them? + +How does it affect animal manures in the soil?] + +1. The decomposition of organic matter in the soil, often produces +acids which makes the land _sour_, and cause it to produce sorrel and +other weeds, which interfere with the healthy growth of crops. Lime is +an _alkali_, and if applied to soils suffering from sourness, it will +unite with the acids, and neutralize them, so that they will no longer +be injurious. + +2. We have before stated that lime is a decomposing agent, and hastens +the rotting of muck and other organic matter. It has the same effect on +the organic parts of the soil, and causes them to be resolved into the +gases and minerals of which they are formed. It has this effect, +especially, on organic matters containing _nitrogen_, causing them to +throw off ammonia; consequently, it liberates this gas from the animal +manures in the soil. + +3. Various inorganic compounds in the soil are so affected by lime, that +they lose their power of holding together, and crumble, or are reduced +to finer particles, while some of their constituents are rendered +soluble. One way in which this is accomplished is by the action of the +lime on the silica contained in these compounds, forming the silicate of +lime. This crumbling effect improves the mechanical as well as the +chemical condition of the soil. + +4. We are now enabled to see how lime prepares the constituents of the +soil for the use of plants. + +[Inorganic compounds? + +How does lime prepare the constituents of the soil for use? + +What can you say of the remark that lime exhausts the organic matter in +the soil?] + +By its action on the roots, buried stubble, and other organic matter in +the soil, it causes them to be decomposed, and to give up many of their +gaseous and inorganic constituents for the use of roots. In this manner +the organic matter is prepared for use more rapidly than would be the +case, if there were no lime present to hasten its decomposition. + +By the decomposing action of lime on the mineral parts of the soil (3), +they also are placed more rapidly in a useful condition than would be +the case, if their preparation depended on the slow action of +atmospheric influences. + +Thus, we see that lime, aside from its use directly as food for plants, +exerts a beneficial influence on both the organic and inorganic parts of +the soil. + +5. Many contend that lime _exhausts_ the soil. + +If we examine the manner in which it does so, we shall see that this is +no argument against its use. + +[How can lime exhaust the mineral parts of the soil? + +Must the matter taken away be returned to the soil?] + +It exhausts the organic parts of the soil, by decomposing them, and +resolving them into the gases and minerals of which they are composed. +If the soil do not contain a sufficient quantity of absorbent matter, +such as clay or charcoal, the gases arising from the organic matter are +liable to escape; but when there is a sufficient amount of these +substances present (as there always should be), these gases are all +retained until required by the roots of plants. Hence, although the +organic matter of manure and vegetable substances may be _altered in +form_, by the use of lime, it can escape (except in very poor soils) +only as it is taken up by roots to feed the crop, and such exhaustion is +certainly profitable; still, in order that the fertility of the soil may +be _maintained_, enough of organic manure should be applied, to make up +for the amount taken from the soil by the crop, after liberation for its +use by the action of the lime. This will be but a small proportion of +the organic matter contained in the crop, as it obtains the larger part +from the atmosphere. + +The only way in which lime can exhaust the inorganic part of the soil +is, by altering its condition, so that plants can use it more readily. +That is, it exposes it for solution in water. We have seen that +fertilizing matter cannot be leached out of a good soil, in any material +quantity, but can only be carried down to a depth of about thirty-four +inches. Hence, we see that there can be no loss in this direction; and, +as inorganic matter cannot evaporate from the soil, the only way in +which it can escape is through the structure of plants. + +[If this course be pursued, will the soil suffer from the use +of lime? + +Is it the lime, or its crop, that exhausts the soil? + +Is lime containing magnesia better than pure lime? + +What is the best kind of lime?] + +If lime is applied to the soil, and increases the amount of crops grown +by furnishing a larger supply of inorganic matter, of course, the +removal of inorganic substances from the soil will be more rapid than +when only a small amount of crop is grown, and the soil will be sooner +exhausted--not by the lime, but by the plants. In order to make up for +this exhaustion, it is necessary that a sufficient amount of inorganic +matter be supplied to compensate for the increased quantity taken away +by plants. + +Thus we see, that it is hardly fair to accuse the _lime_ of exhausting +the soil, when it only improves its character, and increases the amount +of its yield. It is the _crop_ that takes away the fertility of the soil +(the same as would be the case if no lime were used, only faster as the +crop is larger), and in all judicious cultivation, this loss will be +fully compensated by the application of manures, thereby preventing the +exhaustion of the soil. + +[Is the purchase of marl to be recommended? + +How is lime prepared for use? (Note.) + +Describe the burning and slaking of lime.] + +_Kind of lime to be used._ The first consideration in procuring lime for +manuring land, is to select that which contains but little, if any +_magnesia_. Nearly all stone lime contains more or less of this, but +some kinds contain more than others. When magnesia is applied to the +soil, in too large quantities, it is positively injurious to plants, and +great care is necessary in making selection. As a general rule, it may +be stated, that the best plastering lime makes the best manure. Such +kinds only should be used as are known from experiment not to be +injurious. + +_Shell lime_ is undoubtedly the best of all, for it contains no +magnesia, and it does contain a small quantity of _phosphate of lime_. +In the vicinity of the sea-coast, and near the lines of railroads, +oyster shells, clam shells, etc., can be cheaply procured. These may be +prepared for use in the same manner as stone lime.[AG] + +_The preparation of the lime_ is done by first burning and then slaking, +or by putting it directly on the land, in an unslaked condition, after +its having been burned. Shells are sometimes _ground_, and used without +burning; this is hardly advisable, as they cannot be made so fine as by +burning and slaking. As was stated in the first section of this book, +lime usually exists in nature, in the form of carbonate of lime, as +limestone, chalk, or marble (being lime and carbonic acid combined), and +when this is burned, the carbonic acid is thrown off, leaving the lime +in a pure or caustic form. This is called burned lime, quick-lime, lime +shells, hot lime, etc. If the proper quantity of water be poured on it, +it is immediately taken up by the lime, which falls into a dry powder, +called _slaked lime_. If _quick-lime_ were left exposed to the weather, +it would absorb moisture from the atmosphere, and become what is termed +_air slaked_. + +[What is air slaking? + +If slaked lime be exposed to the air, what change does it undergo? + +What is the object of slaking lime? + +How much carbonic acid is contained in a ton of carbonate of lime? + +How much lime does a ton of slaked lime contain? + +What is the most economical form for transportation?] + +When _slaked lime_ (consisting of lime and water) is exposed to the +atmosphere, it absorbs carbonic acid, and becomes carbonate of lime +again; but it is now in the form of a very fine powder, and is much more +useful than when in the stone. + +If quick-lime is applied directly to the soil, it absorbs first +moisture, and then carbonic acid, becoming finally a powdered carbonate +of lime. + +One ton of _carbonate of lime_ contains 11-1/4 cwt. of lime; the +remainder is carbonic acid. One ton of _slaked lime_ contains about 15 +cwt. of lime; the remainder is water. + +Hence we see that lime should be burned, and not slaked, before being +transported, as it would be unprofitable to transport the large quantity +of carbonic acid and water contained in carbonate of lime and slaked +lime. The quick-lime may be slaked, and carbonated after reaching its +destination, either before or after being applied to the land. + +[What is the best form for immediate action on the inorganic +matter in the soil? + +For most other purposes?] + +As has been before stated, much is gained by slaking lime with _salt +water_, thus imitating the lime and salt mixture. Indeed in many cases, +it will be found profitable to use all lime in this way. Where a direct +action on the inorganic matters contained in the soil is desired, it may +be well to apply the lime directly in the form of quick-lime; but, where +the decomposition of the vegetable and animal constituents of the soil +is desired, the correction of _sourness_, or the supplying of lime to +the crop, the mixture with salt would be advisable. + +_The amount of lime_ required _by plants_ is, as was before observed, +usually small compared with the whole amount contained in the soil; +still it is not unimportant. + + OF LIME. +25 bus. of wheat contain about 13 lbs. +25 " barley " 10-1/2 " +25 " oats " 11 " + 2 tons of turnips " 12 " + 2 " potatoes " 5 " + 2 " red clover " 77 " + 2 " rye grass " 30 "[AH] + +[What is the best guide concerning the quantity of lime to be +applied? + +What is said of the sinking of lime in the soil? + +What is plaster of Paris composed of? + +Why is it called plaster of Paris?] + +The amount of lime required at each application, and the frequency of +those applications, must depend on the chemical and mechanical condition +of the soil. No exact rule can be given, but probably the custom of each +district--regulated by long experience--is the best guide. + +_Lime sinks in the soil_; and therefore, when used alone, should always +be applied as a top dressing to be carried into the soil by rains. The +tendency of lime to settle is so great that, when cutting drains, it may +often be observed in a whitish streak on the top of the subsoil. After +heavy doses of lime have been given to the soil, and have settled so as +to have apparently ceased from their action, they may be brought up and +mixed with the soil by deeper plowing. + +_Lime should never be mixed with animal manures_, unless in compost with +muck, or some other good absorbent, as it is liable to cause the escape +of their ammonia. + + +PLASTER OF PARIS. + +_Plaster of Paris or Gypsum_ (sulphate of lime) is composed of sulphuric +acid and lime in combination. It is called 'plaster of Paris,' because +it constitutes the rock underlying the city of Paris. + +[Is it a constituent of plants? + +What else does it furnish them? + +How does it affect manure? + +How does it produce sorrel in the soil? + +How may the acidity be overcome?] + +It is a constituent of many plants. It also furnishes them with +sulphur--a constituent of the sulphuric acid which it contains. + +It is an excellent absorbent of ammonia, and is very useful to sprinkle +around stables, poultry houses, pig-styes, and privies, where it absorbs +the escaping gases, saving them for the use of plants, and purifying the +air, thus rendering stables, etc., more healthy than when not so +supplied. + +It has been observed that the extravagant use of plaster sometimes +induces the growth of _sorrel_. This is probably the case only where the +soil is deficient in lime. In such instances, the lime required by +plants is obtained by the decomposition of the plaster. The lime enters +into the construction of the plant, and the sulphuric acid remains +_free_, rendering the soil _sour_, and therefore in condition to produce +sorrel. In such a case, an application of _lime_ will correct the acid +by uniting with it and converting it into _plaster_. + + +CHLORIDE OF LIME. + +[What does chloride of lime supply to plants? + +How does it affect manures? + +How may it be used? + +How may magnesia be supplied, when wanting? + +What care is necessary concerning the use of magnesia?] + +_Chloride of lime_ is a compound of _lime and chlorine_. It furnishes +both of these constituents to plants, and it is an excellent absorbent +of ammonia and other gases arising from decomposition--hence its +usefulness in destroying bad odors, and in preserving fertilizing +matters for the use of crops. + +It may be used like plaster, or in the decomposition of organic matters, +where it not only hastens decay, but absorbs and retains the escaping +gases. It will be recollected that _chloride of lime_ is one of the +products of the _lime and salt mixture_. + +_Lime_ in combination with _phosphoric acid_ forms the valuable +_phosphate of lime_, of which so large a portion of the ash of grain, +and the bones of animals, is formed. This will be spoken of more at +length under the head of 'phosphoric acid.' + + +MAGNESIA. + +Magnesia is a constituent of vegetable ashes, and is almost always +present in the soil in sufficient quantities. When analysis indicates +that it is needed, it may be applied in the form of _magnesian lime_, or +_refuse epsom salts_, which are composed of sulphuric acid and magnesia +(sulphate of magnesia). + +The great care necessary concerning the use of magnesia is, not to apply +too much of it, it being, when in excess, as has been previously +remarked, injurious to the fertility of the soil. Some soils are +hopelessly barren from the fact that they contain too much magnesia. + + +ACIDS. + +SULPHURIC ACID. + +[What is sulphuric acid commonly called? + +How may it be used? + +How does it prevent the escape of ammonia?] + +_Sulphuric acid_ is a very important constituent of vegetable ashes, +especially of oats and the root-crops. + +It is often deficient in the soil, particularly where potatoes have been +long cultivated. One of the reasons why _plaster_ (sulphate of lime) is +so beneficial to the potato crop is undoubtedly that it supplies it with +sulphuric acid. + +Sulphuric acid is commonly known by the name of _oil vitriol_, and may +be purchased for agricultural purposes at a low price. It may be used in +a very dilute form (weakened by mixing it with a large quantity of +water) to the compost heap, where it will change the ammonia to a +sulphate as soon as formed, and thus prevent its loss, as the sulphate +of ammonia is not volatile; and, being soluble in water, is useful to +plants. Some idea of the value of this compound may be formed from the +fact that manufacturers of manures are willing to pay seven cents per +lb., or even more, for sulphate of ammonia, to insure the success of +their fertilizers. Notwithstanding this, many farmers persist in +throwing away hundreds of pounds of _ammonia_ every year, as a tax for +their ignorance (or indolence), while a small tax in _money_--not more +valuable, nor more necessary to their success--for the support of common +schools, and the better education of the young, is too often unwillingly +paid. + +[What is the effect of using too much sulphuric acid?] + +If a tumbler full of sulphuric acid (costing a few cents), be thrown +into the tank of the compost heap once a month, the benefit to the +manure would be very great. + +Where a deficiency of sulphuric acid in the soil is indicated by +analysis, it may be supplied in this way, or by the use of plaster or +refuse epsom salts. + +Care is necessary that _too much_ sulphuric acid be not used, as it +would prevent the proper decomposition of manures, and would induce a +growth of sorrel in the soil by making it _sour_. + +In many instances, it will be found profitable to use sulphuric acid in +the manufacture of super-phosphate of lime (as directed under the head +of 'phosphoric acid,') thus making it perform the double purpose of +preparing an available form of phosphate, and of supplying sulphur and +sulphuric acid to the plant. + + +PHOSPHORIC ACID. + +[How large a part of the ashes of grain consists of phosphoric +acid? + +Of what other substances does it form a leading ingredient? + +How many pounds of sulphuric acid are contained in one hundred bushels +of wheat?] + +We come now to the consideration of one of the most important of all +subjects connected with agriculture, that is, _phosphoric acid_. + +_Phosphoric acid_, forming about one half of the ashes of wheat, rye, +corn, buckwheat, and oats; nearly the same proportion of those of +barley, peas, beans and linseed; an important ingredient of the ashes of +potatoes and turnips; one quarter of the ash of milk and a large +proportion of the bones of animals, often exists in the soil in the +proportion of only about one or two pounds in a thousand. The +cultivation of our whole country has been such, as to take away the +phosphoric acid from the soil without returning it, except in very +minute quantities. Every hundred bushels of wheat sold contains (and +removes permanently from the soil) about _sixty pounds_ of phosphoric +acid. Other grains, as well as the root crops and grasses, remove +likewise a large quantity of it. It has been said by a contemporary +writer, that for each cow kept on a pasture through the summer, there is +carried off in veal, butter and cheese, not less than _fifty_ lbs. of +phosphate of lime (bone-earth) on an average. This would be _one +thousand lbs._ for twenty cows; and it shows clearly why old dairy +pastures become so exhausted of this substance, that they will no longer +produce those nutritious grasses, which are favorable to butter and +cheese-making. + +[How much phosphate of lime will twenty cows remove from a +pasture during a summer? + +What has this removal of phosphate of lime occasioned? + +How have the Genesee and Mohawk valleys been affected by this removal of +phosphoric acid?] + +That this removal of the most valuable constituent of the soil, has been +the cause of more exhaustion of farms, and more emigration, in search of +fertile districts, than any other single effect of injudicious farming, +is a fact which multiplied instances most clearly prove. + +It is stated that the Genesee and Mohawk valleys, which once produced an +average of _thirty-five_ or _forty bushels_ of wheat, per acre, have +since been reduced in their average production to _twelve and a half_ +bushels. Hundreds of similar cases might be stated; and in a large +majority of these, could the cause of the impoverishment be ascertained, +it would be found to be the removal of the phosphoric acid from the +soil. + +[How may this devastation be arrested? + +Is any soil inexhaustible? + +What is usually the best source from which to obtain phosphoric acid?] + +The evident tendency of cultivation being to continue this murderous +system, and to prey upon the vital strength of the country, it is +necessary to take such measures as will arrest the outflow of this +valuable material. This can never be fully accomplished until laws shall +be made preventing the wastes of cities and towns. Such laws have +existed for a long time in China, and have doubtlessly been the secret +of the long subsistence and present prosperity of the millions of people +inhabiting that country. + +We have, nevertheless, a means of restoring to fertility many of our +worn-out lands, and preserving our fertile fields from so rapid +impoverishment as they are now suffering. Many suppose that soils which +produce good crops, year after year, are inexhaustible, but time will +prove to the contrary. They may possess a sufficiently large stock of +phosphoric acid, and other constituents of plants, to last a long time, +but when that stock becomes so reduced, that there is not enough left +for the uses of full crops, the productive power of the soil will yearly +decrease, until it becomes worthless. It may last a long time, a +century, or even more, but as long as the system is--to _remove every +thing, and return nothing_,--the fate of the most fertile soil is +evident. + +The source mentioned, from which to obtain phosphoric acid, is the bones +of animals. These contain large quantities of _phosphate of lime_. They +are the receptacles which collect nearly all of the phosphates in crops, +which are fed to animals, and are not returned in their excrements. For +the grain, etc., sent out of the country, there is no way to be repaid +except by the importation of this material; but, all that is fed to +animals, or to human beings, may, if a proper use be made of their +excrement, and of their bones after death, be returned to the soil. With +the treatment of animal excrements we are already familiar, and we will +now turn our attention to the subject of + + +BONES. + +[Of what do dried bones consist? + +What is the organic matter of bones? + +The inorganic? + +What can you say of the use of whole bones?] + +_Bones_ consist, when dried, of about one third organic matter, and two +thirds inorganic matter. + +The organic matter consists chiefly of _gelatine_--a compound containing +_nitrogen_. + +The inorganic part is chiefly _phosphate of lime_. + +Hence, we see that bones are excellent, as both organic and mineral +manure. The organic part, containing nitrogen, forms _ammonia_, and the +inorganic part supplies the much needed _phosphoric acid_ to the soil. + +Liebig says that, as a producer of ammonia, 100 lbs. of dry bones are +equivalent to 250 lbs. of human urine. + +[How does the value of bone dust compare with that of broken +bones? + +What is the reason of the superiority of bone dust? + +How is bone-black made? + +Of what does it consist?] + +Bones are applied to the soil in almost every conceivable form. _Whole +bones_ are often used in very large quantities; their action, however, +is extremely slow, and it is never advisable to use bones in this form. + +Ten bushels of bones, finely ground, will produce larger results, during +the current ten years after application, than would ensue from the use +of one hundred bushels merely broken, not because the dust contains more +fertilizing matter than the whole bones, but because that which it does +contain is in a much more available condition. It ferments readily, and +produces ammonia, while the ashy parts are exposed to the action of +roots. + +[Should farmers burn bones before using them? + +How would you compost bones with ashes? + +In what way would you prevent the escape of ammonia?] + +_Bone-black._ If bones are burned in retorts, or otherwise protected +from the atmosphere, their organic matter will all be driven off, except +the carbon, which not being supplied with oxygen cannot escape. In this +form bones are called _ivory black_, or _bone-black_. It consists of the +inorganic matter, and the carbon of the bones. The nitrogen having been +expelled it can make no ammonia, and thus far the original value of +bones is reduced by burning; that is, one ton of bones contains more +fertilizing matter before, than after burning; but one ton of bone black +is more valuable than one ton of raw bones, as the carbon is retained in +a good form to act as an absorbent in the soil, while the whole may be +crushed or ground much more easily than before being burned. This means +of pulverizing bones is adopted by manufacturers, who replace the +ammonia in the form of guano, or otherwise; but it is not to be +recommended for the use of farmers, who should not lose the ammonia, +forming a part of bones, more than that of other manure. + +_Composting bones with ashes_ is a good means of securing their +decomposition. They should be placed in a water-tight vessel (such as a +cask); first, three or four inches of bones, then the same quantity of +strong unleached wood ashes, continuing these alternate layers until the +cask is full, and keeping them _always wet_. If they become too dry they +will throw off an offensive odor, accompanied by the escape of ammonia, +and consequent loss of value. In about one year, the whole mass of bones +(except, perhaps, those at the top) will be softened, so that they may +be easily crushed, and they are in a good condition for manuring. The +ashes are, in themselves, valuable, and this compost is excellent for +many crops, particularly for Indian corn. A little dilute sulphuric +acid, occasionally sprinkled on the upper part of the matter in the +cask, will prevent the escape of the ammonia. + +[What is the effect of boiling bones under pressure? + +How is super-phosphate of lime made? + +Describe the composition of phosphate of lime, and the chemical changes +which take place in altering it to super-phosphate of lime.] + +_Boiling bones under pressure_, whereby their gelatine is dissolved +away, and the inorganic matter left in an available condition, from its +softness, is a very good way of rendering them useful; but, as it +requires, among other things, a steam boiler, it is hardly probable that +it will be largely adopted by farmers of limited means. + +Any or all of these methods are good, but bones cannot be used with true +economy, except by changing their inorganic matter into + + +SUPER-PHOSPHATE OF LIME. + +_Super-phosphate of lime_ is made by treating phosphate of lime, or the +ashes of bones, with _sulphuric acid_. + +Phosphate of lime, as it exists in bones, consists of one atom of +phosphoric acid and three atoms of lime. It may be represented as + + { Lime +Phosphoric acid { Lime + { Lime + +By adding a proper quantity of sulphuric acid with this, it becomes +_super_-phosphate of lime; that is, the same amount of phosphoric acid, +with a smaller proportion of lime (or a _super_-abundance of phosphoric +acid), the sulphuric acid, taking two atoms of lime away from the +compound, combined with it making sulphate of lime (plaster). The +changes may be thus represented. + + {Phosphoric acid} Super-phosphate +Phosphate of lime {Lime } of lime. + {Lime} + {Lime} Sulphate of lime. + Sulphuric acid} + +Super-phosphate of lime may be made from whole bones, bone dust, +bone-black, or from the pure ashes of bones. + +[How should sulphuric acid be applied to whole bones? + +What is the necessity for so large an amount of water?] + +The process of making it from whole bones is slow and troublesome, as it +requires a long time for the effect to diffuse itself through the whole +mass of a large bone. When it is made in this way, the bones should be +_dry_, and the acid should be diluted in many times its bulk of water, +and should be applied to the bones (which may be placed in a suitable +cask, with a spiggot at the bottom), in quantities sufficient to cover +them, about once in ten days; and at the end of that time, one half of +the liquid should be drawn off by the spiggot. This liquid is a solution +of super-phosphate of lime, containing sulphate of lime, and may be +applied to the soil in a liquid form, or through the medium of a compost +heap. The object of using so much water is to prevent an incrustation of +sulphate of lime on the surfaces of the bones, this must be removed by +stirring the mass, which allows the next application of acid to act +directly on the phosphate remaining. The amount of acid required is +about 50 or 60 lbs. to each 100 lbs. of bones. The gelatine will remain +after the phosphate is all dissolved, and may be composted with muck, or +plowed under the soil, where it will form ammonia. + +[May less water be employed in making super-phosphate from +bone dust or crushed bones?] + +_Bone dust_, or _crushed bones_, may be much more easily changed to the +desired condition, as the surface exposed is much greater, and the acid +can act more generally throughout the whole mass. The amount of acid +required is the same as in the other case, but it may be used +_stronger_, two or three times its bulk of water being sufficient, if +the bones are finely ground or crushed--more or less water should be +used according to the fineness of the bones. The time occupied will also +be much less, and the result of the operation will be in better +condition for manure. + +Bones may be made fine enough for this operation, either by grinding, +etc., or by boiling under pressure, as previously described; indeed, by +whatever method bones are pulverized, they should always be treated with +sulphuric acid before being applied to the soil, as this will more than +double their value for immediate use. + +Bone-black is chiefly used by manufacturers of super-phosphate of lime, +who treat it with acid the same as has been directed above, only that +they grind the black very finely before applying the acid. + +[What other forms of bones may be used in making +super-phosphate of lime? + +Why is super-phosphate of lime a better fertilizer than phosphate of +lime? + +What can you say of the _lasting manures_?] + +_Bone ashes_, or bones burned to whiteness, may be similarly treated. +Indeed, in all of the forms of bones here described, the phosphate of +lime remains unaltered, as it is indestructible by heat; the differences +of composition are only in the admixture of organic constituents. + +_The reason why super-phosphate of lime is so much better than +phosphate_, may be easily explained. The _phosphate_ is very _slowly_ +soluble in water, and consequently furnishes food to plants slowly. A +piece of bone as large as a pea may lie in the soil for years without +being all consumed; consequently, it will be years before its value is +returned, and it pays no interest on its cost while lying there. The +_super-phosphate_ dissolves very _rapidly_ and furnishes food for plants +with equal facility; hence its much greater value as a manure. + +It is true that the _phosphate_ is the most _lasting_ manure; but, once +for all, let us caution farmers against considering this a virtue in +mineral manures, or in organic manures either, when used on soils +containing the proper absorbents of ammonia. They are _lasting_, only +in proportion as they are _lazy_. Manures are worthless unless they are +in condition to be immediately used. The farmer who wishes his manures +to _last_ in the soil, and to lose their use, may be justly compared +with the _miser_, who buries his gold and silver in the ground for the +satisfaction of knowing that he owns it. It is an old and a true saying +that "a nimble sixpence is better than a slow shilling." + + +IMPROVED SUPER-PHOSPHATE OF LIME. + +[What are the ingredients of the _improved_ super-phosphate of +lime?] + +To show the manner in which super-phosphate of lime is perfected, and +rendered the best manure for general uses, which has yet been made, +containing large quantities of phosphoric acid and a good supply of +ammonia,--hereby covering the two leading deficiencies in a majority of +soils, it may be well to explain the composition of the _improved +super-phosphate of lime_ invented by Prof. Mapes. + +This manure consists of the following ingredients in the proportions +named:-- + +100 lbs. bone-black (phosphate of lime and carbon). +56 " sulphuric acid. +36 " guano. +20 " sulphate of ammonia. + +[Explain the uses of these different constituents. + +What is nitrogenized phosphate?] + +The sulphuric acid has the before-mentioned effect on the bone-black, +and _fixes_ the ammonia of the guano by changing it to a sulphate. The +twenty pounds of sulphate of ammonia added increase the amount, so as to +furnish nitrogen to plants in sufficient quantities to give them energy, +and induce them to take up the super-phosphate of lime in the manure +more readily than would be done, were there not a sufficient supply of +ammonia in the soil. + +The addition of the guano, which contains all of the elements of +fertility, and many of them in considerable quantities, renders the +manure of a more general character, and enables it to produce very large +crops of almost any kind, while it assists in fortifying the soil in +what is usually its weakest point--phosphoric acid. + +Prof. Mapes has more recently invented a new fertilizer called +nitrogenized super-phosphate of lime, composed of the improved +super-phosphate of lime and blood, dried and ground before mixture, in +equal proportions. This manure, from its highly nitrogenous character, +theoretically surpasses all others, and probably will be found in +practice to have great value; its cost will be rather greater than +guano. + +We understand its manufacture will shortly be commenced by a company now +forming for that purpose. + +[What should be learned before purchasing amendments for the +soil? + +What do you know of silica?] + +Many farmers will find it expedient to purchase bones, or bone dust, and +manufacture their own super-phosphate of lime; others will prefer to +purchase the prepared manure. In doing so, it should be obtained of men +of known respectability, as manures are easily adulterated with +worthless matters; and, as their price is so high, that such deception +may occasion great loss. + +We would not recommend the application of any artificial manure, without +first obtaining an analysis of the soil, and knowing _to a certainty_ +that the manure is needed; still, when no analysis has been procured, it +may be profitable to apply such manures as most generally produce good +results--such as stable manure, night soil, the improved super-phosphate +of lime; or, if this cannot be procured, guano. + + +NEUTRALS. + +SILICA. + +_Silica_ (or sand) always exists in the soil in sufficient quantities +for the supply of food for plants; but, as has been often stated in the +preceding pages, not always in the proper condition. This subject has +been so often explained to the student of this book, that it is only +necessary to repeat here, that when the weakness of the straw or stalk +of plants grown on any soil indicates an inability in that soil to +supply the silicates required for strength, not more sand should be +added, but _alkalies_, to combine with the sand already contained in it, +and make _soluble silicates_ which are available to roots. + +Sand is often necessary to stiff clays, as a _mechanical_ manure, to +loosen their texture and render them easier of cultivation, and more +favorable to the distribution of roots, and to the circulation of air +and water. + + +CHLORINE. + +[How may chlorine be applied?] + +_Chlorine_, a necessary constituent of plants, and often deficient in +the soil (as indicated by analysis), may be applied in the form of salt +(chloride of sodium), or chloride of lime. The former may be dissolved +in the water used to slake lime, and the latter may, with much +advantage, be sprinkled around stables and other places where +fertilizing gases are escaping, and, after being saturated with ammonia, +applied to the soil, thus serving a double purpose. + + +OXIDE OF IRON. + +[How may the protoxide of iron be changed to peroxide?] + +Nearly all soils contain sufficient quantities of _oxide of iron_, or +iron rust, so that this substance can hardly be required as a manure. + +Some soils, however, contain the _prot_oxide of iron in such quantities +as to be injurious to plants,--see page 86. When this is the case, it is +necessary to plow the soil thoroughly, and use such other mechanical +means as shall render it open to the admission of air. The _prot_oxide +of iron will then take up more oxygen, and become the _per_oxide--which +is not only inoffensive, but is absolutely necessary to fertility. + + +OXIDE OF MANGANESE. + +This can hardly be called an essential constituent of plants, and is +never taken into consideration in manuring lands. + + +VARIOUS OTHER MINERAL MANURES. + +LEACHED ASHES. + +[Why are leached ashes inferior to those that have not been +leached? + +On what do the benefits of leached ashes depend? + +Can these ingredients be more cheaply obtained in another form? + +Why do unleached ashes, applied in the spring, sometimes cause grain to +lodge?] + +Among the mineral manures which have not yet been mentioned--not coming +strictly under any of the preceding heads, is the one known as _leached +ashes_. + +These are not without their benefits, though worth much less than +unleached ashes, which, besides the constituents of those which have +been leached, contain much potash, soda, etc. + +Farmers have generally overrated the value of leached ashes, because +they contain small quantities of available phosphate of lime, and +soluble silicates, in which most old soils are deficient. While we +witness the good results ensuing from their application, we should not +forget that the fertilizing ingredients of _thirty bushels_ of these +ashes may be bought in a more convenient form for _ten_ or _fifteen +cents_, or for less than the cost of spreading the ashes on the soil. In +many parts of Long Island farmers pay as much as eight or ten cents per +bushel for this manure, and thousands of loads of leached ashes are +taken to this locality from the river counties of New York, and even +from the State of Maine, and are sold for many times their value, +producing an effect which could be as well and much more cheaply +obtained by the use of small quantities of super-phosphate of lime and +potash. + +These ashes often contain a little charcoal (resulting from the +imperfect combustion of the wood), which acts as an absorbent of +ammonia. + +It is sometimes observed that _unleached_ ashes, when applied in the +spring, cause grain to lodge. When this is the case, as it seldom is, it +may be inferred that the potash which they contain causes so rapid a +growth, that the soil is not able to supply silicates as fast as they +are required by the plants, but after the first year, the potash will +have united with the silica in the soil, and overcome the difficulty. + + +OLD MORTAR. + +[What are the most fertilizing ingredients of old mortar?] + +_Old mortar_ is a valuable manure, because it contains nitrate of potash +and other compounds of nitric acid with alkalies. + +These are slowly formed in the mortar by the changing of the nitrogen of +the hair (in the mortar) into nitric acid, and the union of this with +the small quantities of _potash_, or with the _lime_ of the plaster. +Nitrogen, presented in other forms, as ammonia, for instance, may be +transformed into nitric acid, by uniting with the oxygen of the air, and +this nitric acid combines immediately with the alkalies of the +mortar.[AI] + +The lime contained in the mortar may be useful in the soil for the many +purposes accomplished by other lime. + + +GAS HOUSE LIME. + +[How may gas-house lime be prepared for use? + +Why should it not be used fresh, from the gas house? + +On what do its fertilizing properties depend? + +What use may be made of its offensive odor?] + +_The refuse lime of gas works_, where it can be cheaply obtained, may be +advantageously used as a manure. It consists, chiefly, of various +compounds of sulphur and lime. It should be composted with earth or +refuse matter, so as to expose it to the action of air. It should never +be used fresh from the gas house. In a few months the sulphur will have +united with the oxygen of the air, and become sulphuric acid, which +unites with the lime and makes sulphate of lime (plaster), which form it +must assume, before it is of much value. Having been used to purify gas +made from coal, it contains a small quantity of ammonia, which adds to +its value. It is considered a profitable manure in England, at the price +there paid for it (forty cents a cartload), and, if of good quality, it +may be worth double that sum, especially for soils deficient in plaster, +or for such crops as are much benefited by plaster. Its price must, of +course, be regulated somewhat by the price of lime, which constitutes a +large proportion of its fertilizing parts. The offensive odor of this +compound renders it a good protection against many insects. + +The refuse _liquor of gas works_ contains enough ammonia to make it a +valuable manure. + + +SOAPERS' LEY AND BLEACHERS' LEY. + +[What use may be made of the refuse ley of soap-makers and +bleachers? + +What peculiar qualities does soapers' ley possess?] + +The refuse ley of soap factories and bleaching establishments contains +greater or less quantities of soluble silicates and alkalies (especially +soda and potash), and is a good addition to the tank of the compost +heap, or it may be used directly as a liquid application to the soil. +The soapers' ley, especially, will be found a good manure for lands on +which grain lodges. + +Much of the benefit of this manure arises from the soluble silicates it +contains, while its nitrogenous matter,[AJ] obtained from those parts of +the fatty matters which cannot be converted into soap, and consequently +remains in this solution, forms a valuable addition. Heaps of soil +saturated with this liquid in autumn, and subjected to the freezings of +winter, form an admirable manure for spring use. Mr. Crane, near Newark +(N. J.), has long used a mixture of spent ley and stable manure, applied +in the fall to trenches plowed in the soil, and has been most successful +in obtaining large crops. + + +IRRIGATION. + +[On what does the benefit arising from irrigation chiefly +depend? + +What kind of water is best for irrigation? + +How do under-drains increase the benefits of irrigation?] + +_Irrigation_ does not come strictly under the head of inorganic manures, +as it often supplies ammonia to the soil. Its chief value, however, in +most cases, must depend on the amount of mineral matter which it +furnishes. + +The word "irrigation" means simply _watering_. In many districts water +is in various ways made to overflow the land, and is removed when +necessary for the purposes of cultivation. All river and spring water +contains some impurities, many of which are beneficial to vegetation. +These are derived from the earth over, or through which, the water has +passed, and ammonia absorbed from the atmosphere. When water is made to +cover the earth, especially if its rapid motion be arrested, much of +this fertilizing matter settles, and is deposited on the soil. The water +which sinks into the soil carries its impurities to be retained for the +uses of plants. When, by the aid of under-drains, or in open soils, the +water passes _through_ the soil, its impurities are arrested, and become +available in vegetable growth. It is, of course, impossible to say +exactly what kind of mineral matter is supplied by water, as that +depends on the kind of rock or soil from which the impurities are +derived; but, whatever it may be, it is generally soluble and ready for +immediate use by plants. + +[What is the difference between water which only runs over the +surface of the earth, and that which runs out of the earth? + +Why should strong currents of water not be allowed to traverse the +soil?] + +Water which has run over the surface of the earth contains both ammonia +and mineral matter, while that which has arisen out of the earth, +contains usually only mineral matter. The direct use of the water of +irrigation as a solvent for the mineral ingredients of the soil, is one +of its main benefits. + +To describe the many modes of irrigation would be too long a task for +our limited space. It may be applied in any way in which it is possible +to cover the land with water, at stated times. Care is necessary, +however, that it do not wash more fertilizing matter from the soil than +it deposits on it, as would often be the case, if a strong current of +water were run over it. Brooks may be dammed up, and thus made to cover +a large quantity of land. In such a case the rapid current would be +destroyed, and the fertilizing matter would settle; but, if the course +of the brook were turned, so that it would run in a current over any +part of the soil, it might carry away more than it deposited, and thus +prove injurious. Small streams turned on to land, from the washing of +roads, or from elevated springs, are good means of irrigation, and +produce increased fertility, except where the soil is of such a +character as to prevent the water from passing away, in which case it +should be under-drained. + +Irrigation was one of the oldest means of fertility ever used by man, +and still continues in great favor wherever its effects have been +witnessed. + + +MIXING SOILS. + +[How are soils improved by mixing?] + +The _mixing of soils_ is often all that is necessary to render them +fertile, and to improve their _mechanical_ condition. For instance, +soils deficient in potash, or any other constituent, may have that +deficiency supplied, by mixing with them soil containing this +constituent in excess. + +It is very frequently the case, that such means of improvement are +easily availed of. While these chemical effects are being produced, +there may be an equal improvement in the mechanical character of the +soil. Thus stiff clay soils are rendered lighter, and more easily +workable, by an admixture of sand, while light blowy sands are +compacted, and made more retentive of manure, by a dressing of clay or +of muck. + +[Why may the same effect sometimes be produced by deep +plowing? + +What is absolutely necessary to economical manuring?] + +Of course, this cannot be depended on as a sure means of chemical +improvement, unless the soils are previously analyzed, so as to know +their requirements; but, in a majority of cases, the soil will be +benefited, by mixing with it soil of a different character. It is not +always necessary to go to other locations to procure the soil to be +applied, as the subsoil is often very different from the surface soil, +and simple deep plowing will suffice, in such cases, to produce the +required admixture, by bringing up the earth from below to mingle it +with that of a different character at the surface. + + * * * * * + +In the foregoing remarks on the subject of mineral manures, the writer +has endeavored to point out such a course as would produce the "greatest +good to the greatest number," and, consequently, has neglected much +which might discourage the farmer with the idea, that the whole system +of scientific agriculture is too expensive for his adoption. Still, +while he has confined his remarks to the more simple improvements on the +present system of management, he would say, briefly, that _no manuring +can be strictly economical that is not based on an analysis of the soil, +and a knowledge of the best means of overcoming the deficiencies +indicated, together with the most scrupulous care of every ounce of +evaporating or soluble manure_. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[AG] Marl is earth containing lime, but its use is not to be recommended +in this country, except where it can be obtained at little cost, as the +expenses of carting the _earth_ would often be more than the value of +the _lime_. + +[AH] The straw producing the grain and the turnip and potato tops +contain more lime than the grain and roots. + +[AI] See Working Farmer, vol. 2, p. 278. + +[AJ] Glycerine, etc. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +ATMOSPHERIC FERTILIZERS. + + +[Are the gases in the atmosphere manures? + +What would be the result if they were not so?] + +It is not common to look on the gases in the atmosphere in the light of +manures, but they are decidedly so. Indeed, they are almost the only +organic manure ever received by the uncultivated parts of the earth, as +well as a large portion of that which is occupied in the production of +food for man. + +If these gases were not manures; if there were no means by which they +could be used by plants, the fertility of the soil would long since have +ceased, and the earth would now be in an unfertile condition. That this +must be true, will be proved by a few moments' reflection on the facts +stated in the first part of this book. The fertilizing gases in the +atmosphere being composed of the constituents of decayed plants and +animals, it is as necessary that they should be again returned to the +form of organized matter, as it is that constituents taken from the +_soil_ should not be put out of existence. + + +AMMONIA. + +[How is ammonia used by plants? + +How may it be carried to the soil? + +How may the value of organic manures be estimated? + +What effects has ammonia beside supplying food to plants?] + +The _ammonia_ in the atmosphere probably cannot be appropriated by the +leaves of plants, and must, therefore, enter the soil to be assimilated +by roots. It reaches the soil in two ways. It is either arrested from +the air circulating through the soil, or it is absorbed by rains in the +atmosphere, and thus carried to the earth, where it is retained by clay +and carbon, for the uses of plants. In the soil, ammonia is the most +important of all organic manures. In fact, the value of organic manure +may be estimated, either by the amount of ammonia which it will yield, +or by its power of absorbing ammonia from other sources. + +The most important action of ammonia in the soil is the supply of +_nitrogen_ to plants; but it has other offices which are of consequence. +It assists in some of the chemical changes necessary to prepare the +matters in the soil for assimilation. Some argue that ammonia +_stimulates_ the roots of plants, and causes them to take up increased +quantities of inorganic matter. The discussion of this question would be +out of place here, and we will simply say, that it gives them such vigor +that they require increased amounts of ashy matter, and enables them to +take this from the soil. + +[To how great a degree can the farmer control atmospheric +fertilizers? + +What should be the condition of the soil? + +What substances are good absorbents in the soil? + +How may sandy soils be made retentive of ammonia?] + +Although, in the course of nature, the atmospheric fertilizers are +plentifully supplied to the soil, without the immediate attention of the +farmer, it is not beyond his power to manage them in such a manner as +to arrest a greater quantity. The precautions necessary have been +repeatedly given in the preceding pages, but it may be well to name them +again in this chapter. + +The condition of the soil is the main point to be considered. It must be +such as to absorb and retain ammonia--to allow water to pass _through_ +it, and be discharged _below_ the point to which the roots of crops are +searching for food--and to admit of a free circulation of air. + +The power of absorbing and retaining ammonia is not possessed by sand, +but it is a prominent property of clay, charcoal, and some other matters +named as absorbents. Hence, if the soil consists of nearly pure sand, it +will not make use of the ammonia brought to it from the atmosphere, but +will allow it to evaporate immediately after a shower. Soils in this +condition require additions of absorbent matters, to enable them to use +the ammonia received from the atmosphere. Soils already containing a +sufficient amount of clay or charcoal, are thus far prepared to receive +benefit from this source. + +[Why does under-draining increase the absorptive power of the +soil? + +How do plants obtain their carbonic acid? + +How does carbonic acid affect caustic lime in the soil?] + +The next point is to cause the water of rains to pass _through_ the +soil. If it lies on the surface, or runs off without entering the soil, +or even if it only enters to a slight depth, and comes in contact with +but a small quantity of the absorbents, it is not probable that the +fertilizing matters which it contains will all be abstracted. Some of +them will undoubtedly return to the atmosphere on the evaporation of the +water; but, if the soil contains a sufficient supply of absorbents, and +will allow all rain water to pass through it, the fertilizing gases will +all be retained. They will be filtered (or raked) out of the water. + +This subject will be more fully treated in Section IV. in connection +with under-draining. + +Besides the properties just described, the soil must possess the power +of admitting a free circulation of air. To effect this, it is necessary +that the soil should be well pulverized to a great depth. If, in +addition to this, the soil be such as to admit water to pass through, it +will allow that circulation of air necessary to the greatest supply of +ammonia. + + +CARBONIC ACID. + +[What power does it give to water? + +What condition of the soil is necessary for the reception of the largest +quantity of carbonic acid? + +May oxygen be considered a manure? + +What is the effect of the oxidation of the constituents of the soil?] + +Carbonic acid is received from the atmosphere, both by the leaves and +roots of plants. + +If there is caustic lime in the soil, it unites with it, and makes it +milder and finer. It is absorbed by the water in the soil, and gives it +the power of dissolving many more substances than it would do without +the carbonic acid. This use is one of very great importance, as it is +equivalent to making the minerals themselves more soluble. Water +dissolves carbonate of lime, etc., exactly in proportion to the amount +of carbonic acid which it contains. We should, therefore, strive to have +as much carbonic acid as possible in the water in the soil; and one way, +in which to effect this, is to admit to the soil the largest possible +quantity of atmospheric air which contains this gas. + +The condition of soil necessary for this, is the same as is required for +the deposit of ammonia by the same circulation of air. + + +OXYGEN. + +[How does it affect the protoxide of iron? + +How does it neutralize the acids in the soil? + +How does it affect its organic parts? + +How does it form nitric acid? + +How may it affect excrementitious matter of plants? + +What effect has it on the mechanical condition of the soil?] + +_Oxygen_, though not taken up by plants in its pure form, may justly be +classed among manures, if we consider its effects both chemical and +mechanical in the soil. + +1. By oxidizing or _rusting_ some of the constituents of the soil, it +prepares them for the uses of plants. + +2. It unites with the _prot_oxide of iron, and changes it to the +_per_oxide. + +3. If there are _acids_ in the soil, which make it sour and unfertile, +it may be opened to the circulation of the air, and the oxygen will +prepare some of the mineral matters contained in the soil to unite with +the acids and neutralize them. + +4. Oxygen combines with the carbon of organic matters in the soil, and +causes them to decay. The combination produces carbonic acid. + +5. It combines with the nitrogen of decaying substances and forms +_nitric acid_, which is serviceable as food for plants. + +6. It undoubtedly affects in some way the matter which is thrown out +from the roots of plants. This, if allowed to accumulate, and remain +unchanged, is often very injurious to plants; but, probably, the oxygen +and carbonic acid of the air in the soil change it to a form to be +inoffensive, or even make it again useful to the plant. + +7. It may also improve the _mechanical_ condition of the soil, as it +causes its particles to crumble, thus making it finer; and it roughens +the surfaces of particles, making them less easy to move among each +other. + +These properties of oxygen claim for it a high place among the +atmospheric fertilizers. + + +WATER. + +[Why may water be considered an atmospheric manure? + +What classes of action have manures? + +What are chemical manures? Mechanical?] + +_Water_ may be considered an atmospheric manure, as its chief supply to +vegetation is received from the air in the form of rain or dew. Its many +effects are already too well known to need farther comment. + +The means of supplying water to the soil by the deposit of _dew_ will be +fully explained in Section IV. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +RECAPITULATION. + + +Manures have two distinct classes of action in the soil, namely, +_chemical_ and _mechanical_. + +_Chemical_ manures are those which enter into the construction of +plants, or produce such chemical effects on matters in the soil as shall +prepare them for use. + +_Mechanical_ manures are those which improve the mechanical condition +of the soil, such as loosening stiff clays, compacting light sands, +pulverizing large particles, etc. + +[What are the three kinds of manures? + +What are organic manures, and what are their uses? Mineral? +Atmospheric?] + +Manures are of three distinct kinds, namely, _Organic_, _mineral_, and +_atmospheric_. + +_Organic_ manures comprise all vegetable and animal matters (except +ashes) which are used to fertilize the soil. Vegetable manures supply +carbonic acid, and inorganic matter to plants. Animal manures supply the +same substances and ammonia. + +_Mineral_ manures comprise ashes, salt, phosphate of lime, plaster, etc. +They supply plants with inorganic matter. Their usefulness depends on +their solubility. + +Many of the organic and mineral manures have the power of absorbing +ammonia arising from the decomposition of animal manures, as well as +that which is brought to the soil by rains--these are called absorbents. + +_Atmospheric_ manures consist of ammonia, carbonic acid, oxygen and +water. Their greatest usefulness requires the soil to allow the water of +rains to pass _through_ it, to admit of a free circulation of air among +its particles, and to contain a sufficient amount of absorbent matter to +arrest and retain all ammonia and carbonic acid presented to it. + +[What rule should regulate the application of manures? + +How must organic manures be managed? Atmospheric?] + +Manures should never be applied to the soil without regard to its +requirements. + +Ammonia and carbon are almost always useful, but mineral manures become +mere _dirt_ when applied to soils not deficient of them. + +The only true guide to the exact requirements of the soil is _chemical +analysis_; and this must always be obtained before farming can be +carried on with true economy. + +Organic manures must be protected against the escape of their ammonia +and the leaching out of their soluble parts. One cord of stable manure +properly preserved, is worth ten cords which have lost all of their +ammonia by evaporation, and their soluble parts by leaching--as is the +case with much of the manure kept exposed in open barn-yards. + +Atmospheric manures cost nothing, and are of great value when properly +employed. In consequence of this, the soil which is enabled to make the +largest appropriation of the atmospheric fertilizers, is worth many +times as much as that which allows them to escape. + + + + +SECTION FOURTH. + +MECHANICAL CULTIVATION. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +THE MECHANICAL CHARACTER OF SOILS. + + +[What is the first office of the soil? + +How does it hold water for the uses of the plant? + +How does it obtain a part of its moisture?] + +The mechanical character of the soil is well understood from preceding +remarks, and the learner knows that there are many offices to be +performed by the soil aside from the feeding of plants. + +1. It admits the roots of plants, and holds them in their position. + +2. By a sponge-like action, it holds water for the uses of the plant. + +3. It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere to supply the demands of +plants. + +[How may it obtain heat? + +What is the use of the air circulating among its particles? + +Could most soils be brought to the highest state of fertility? + +What is the first thing to be done? + +Should its color be darkened?] + +4. It absorbs heat from the sun's rays to assist in the process of +growth. + +5. It admits air to circulate among roots, and supply them with a part +of their food, while the oxygen of that air renders available the +minerals of the soil; and its carbonic acid, being absorbed by the water +in the soil, gives it the power of dissolving, and carrying into roots +more inorganic matter than would be contained in purer water. + +6. It allows the excrementitious matter thrown out by roots to be +carried out of their reach. + +All of these actions the soil must be capable of performing, before it +can be in its highest state of fertility. There are comparatively few +soils now in this condition, but there are also few which could not be +profitably rendered so, by a judicious application of the modes of +cultivation to be described in the following chapters. + +The three great objects to be accomplished are:-- + +1. To adopt such a system of drainage as will cause all of the water of +rains to pass _through_ the soil, instead of evaporating from the +surface. + +2. To pulverize the soil to a considerable depth. + +3. To darken its color, and render it capable of absorbing atmospheric +fertilizers. + +[Name some of the means used to secure these effects. + +Why are under-drains superior to open drains?] + +The means used to secure these effects are _under-draining, sub-soil and +surface-plowing, digging, applying muck, etc._ + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +UNDER-DRAINING. + + +The advantages of _under_-drains over _open_ drains are very great. + +When open drains are used, much water passes into them immediately from +the surface, and carries with it fertilizing parts of the soil, while +their beds are often compacted by the running water and the heat of the +sun, so that they become water-tight, and do not admit water from the +lower parts of the soil. + +The sides of these drains are often covered with weeds, which spread +their seeds throughout the whole field. Open drains are not only a great +obstruction to the proper cultivation of the land, but they cause much +waste of room, as we can rarely plow nearer than within six or eight +feet of them. + +There are none of these objections to the use of under-drains, as these +are completely covered, and do not at all interfere with the +cultivation of the surface. + +[With what materials may under-drains be constructed? + +Describe the tile.] + +Under drains may be made with brush, stones, or tiles. Brush is a very +poor material, and its use is hardly to be recommended. Small stones are +better, and if these be placed in the bottoms of the trenches, to a +depth of eight or ten inches, and covered with sods turned upside down, +having the earth packed well down on to them, they make very good +drains. + + +TILE DRAINING. + +The best under-drains are those made with tiles, or burnt clay pipes. +The first form of these used was that called the _horse-shoe tile_, +which was in two distinct pieces; this was superseded by a round pipe, +and we have now what is called the _sole tile_, which is much better +than either of the others. + +[Illustration: Fig. 4--Sole Tile.] + +[Why is the sole tile superior to those of previous +construction? + +How are these tiles laid? + +How may the trenches be dug?] + +This tile is made (like the horse-shoe and pipe tile) of common brick +clay, and is burned the same as bricks. It is about one half or three +quarters of an inch thick, and is so porous that water passes directly +through it. It has a flat bottom on which to stand, and this enables it +to retain its position, while making the drain, better than would be +done by the round pipe. The orifice through which the water passes is +egg-shaped, having its smallest curve at the bottom. This shape is the +one most easily kept clear, as any particles of dirt which get into the +drain must fall immediately to the point where even the smallest stream +of water runs, and are thus removed. An orifice of about two inches is +sufficient for the smaller drains, while the main drains require larger +tiles. + +These tiles are laid, so that their ends will touch each other, on the +bottoms of the trenches, and are kept in position by having the earth +tightly packed around them. Care must be taken that no space is left +between the ends of the tiles, as dirt would be liable to get in and +choke the drain. It is advisable to place a sod--grass side down--over +each joint, before filling the trench, as this more effectually protects +them against the entrance of dirt. There is no danger of keeping the +water out by this operation, as it will readily pass through any part of +the tiles. + +In _digging the trenches_ it is not necessary (except in very stony +ground) to dig out a place wide enough for a man to stand in, as there +are tools made expressly for the purpose, by which a trench may be dug +six or seven inches wide, and to any required depth. One set of these +implements consists of a long narrow spade and a hoe to correspond, such +as are represented in the accompanying figure. + +[Illustration: Fig. 5. + +Upton tool. + +Spade and hoe.] + +With these tools, and a long light crowbar, for hard soils, trenches may +be dug much more cheaply than with the common spade and pickaxe. Where +there are large boulders in the soil, these draining tools may dig under +them so that they will not have to be removed. + +When the trenches are dug to a sufficient depth, the bottoms must be +made perfectly smooth, with the required descent (from six inches to a +few feet in one hundred feet). Then the tiles may be laid in, so that +their ends will correspond, be packed down, and the trenches filled up. +Such a drain, if properly constructed, may last for ages. Unlike the +stone drain, it is not liable to be frequented by rats, nor choked up by +the soil working into it. + +The position of the tile may be best represented by a figure, also the +mode of constructing stone drains. + +[Why are small stones better than large stones in the +construction of drains? + +On what must the depth of under-drains depend?] + +It will be seen that the tile drain is made with much less labor than +the stone drain, as it requires less digging, while the breaking up of +the stone for the stone drain will be nearly, or quite as expensive as +the tiles. Drains made with large stones are not nearly so good as with +small ones, because they are more liable to be choked up by animals +working in them.[AK] + +[Illustration: Fig. 6. + +_a_--Tile drain trench. +_b_--Stone drain trench. +_c_--Sod laid on the stone.] + +[Describe the principle which regulates these relative depths +and distances. (Blackboard.) + +Which is usually the cheaper plan of constructing drains?] + +The _depth_ of the drains must depend on the distances at which they are +placed. If but _twenty_ feet apart, they need be but _three_ feet deep; +while, if they are _eighty_ feet apart, they must be _five_ feet deep, +to produce the same effect. The reason for this is, that the water in +the drained soil is not level, but is higher midway between the drains, +than at any other point. It is necessary that this highest point should +be sufficiently far from the surface not to interfere with the roots of +plants, consequently, as the water line between two drains is _curved_, +the most distant drains must be the deepest. This will be understood by +referring to the following diagram. + +[Illustration: Fig. 7. + +_aa_--5 feet drains, 80 ft. apart. _bb_--3 feet drains, 20 ft. apart.] + +The curved line represents the position of the water. + +In most soils it will be easier to dig one trench five feet deep, than +four trenches three feet deep, and the deep trenches will be equally +beneficial; but where the soil is very hard below a depth of three feet, +the shallow trenches will be the cheapest, and in such soils they will +often be better, as the hard mass might not allow the water to pass down +to enter the deeper drains. + +By following out these instructions, land may be cheaply, thoroughly, +and permanently drained. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[AK] It is probable that a composition of hydraulic cement and some +soluble material will be invented, by which a continuous pipe may be +laid in the bottoms of trenches, becoming porous as the soluble material +is removed by water. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +ADVANTAGES OF UNDER-DRAINING. + + +The advantages of under-draining are many and important. + +1. It entirely prevents drought. + +2. It furnishes an increased supply of atmospheric fertilizers. + +3. It warms the lower portions of the soil. + +4. It hastens the decomposition of roots and other organic matter. + +5. It accelerates the disintegration of the mineral matters in the soil. + +6. It causes a more even distribution of nutritious matters among those +parts of soil traversed by roots. + +7. It improves the mechanical texture of the soil. + +8. It causes the poisonous excrementitious matter of plants to be +carried out of the reach of their roots. + +9. It prevents grasses from running out. + +10. It enables us to deepen the surface soil. + +By removing excess of water-- + +11. It renders soils earlier in the spring. + +12. It prevents the throwing out of grain in winter. + +13. It allows us to work sooner after rains. + +14. It keeps off the effects of cold weather longer in the fall. + +15. It prevents the formation of _acetic_ and other organic acids, which +induce the growth of sorrel and similar weeds. + +16. It hastens the decay of vegetable matter, and the finer comminution +of the earthy parts of the soil. + +17. It prevents, in a great measure, the evaporation of water, and the +consequent abstraction of heat from the soil. + +18. It admits fresh quantities of water from rains, etc., which are +always more or less imbued with the fertilizing gases of the atmosphere, +to be deposited among the absorbent parts of soil, and given up to the +necessities of plants. + +19. It prevents the formation of so hard a crust on the surface of the +soil as is customary on heavy lands. + + * * * * * + +[How does under-draining prevent drought?] + +1. Under-draining _prevents drought_, because it gives a better +circulation of air in the soil; (it does so by making it more open). +There is always the same amount of water _in_ and _about_ the surface of +the earth. In winter, there is more in the soil than in summer, while in +summer, that which has been dried out of the soil exists in the +atmosphere in the form of a _vapor_. It is held in the vapory form by +_heat_, which acts as _braces_ to keep it distended. When vapor comes in +contact with substances sufficiently colder than itself, it gives up its +heat--thus losing its braces--contracts, and becomes liquid water. + +This may be observed in hundreds of common operations. + +[Why is there less water in the soil in summer than in winter, +and where does it exist? + +What holds it in its vapory form? + +How is it affected by cold substances? + +Describe the deposit of moisture on the outside of a pitcher in summer. + +What other instances of the same action can be named?] + +It is well known that a cold pitcher in summer robs the vapor in the +atmosphere of its heat, and causes it to be deposited on its own +surface. It looks as though the pitcher were _sweating_, but the water +all comes from the atmosphere, not, of course, through the sides of the +pitcher. + +If we breathe on a knife-blade, it condenses in the same manner the +moisture of the breath, and becomes covered with a film of water. + +Stone houses are damp in summer, because the inner surfaces of the +walls, being cooler than the atmosphere, cause its moisture to be +deposited in the manner described. By leaving a space, however, between +the walls and the plaster, this moisture is prevented from being +troublesome. + +[How does this principle affect the soil? + +Explain the experiment with the two boxes of soil.] + +Nearly every night in the summer season, the cold earth receives +moisture from the atmosphere in the form of dew. + +A cabbage, which at night is very cold, condenses water to the amount of +a gill or more. + +The same operation takes place in the soil. When the air is allowed to +circulate among its lower and _cooler_ particles, they receive moisture +from the same process of condensation. Therefore, when, by the aid of +under-drains, the lower soil becomes sufficiently open to admit of a +circulation of air, the deposit of atmospheric moisture will keep the +soil supplied with water at a point easily accessible to the roots of +plants. + +If we wish to satisfy ourselves that this is _practically_ correct, we +have only to prepare two boxes of finely pulverized soil, one, five or +six inches deep, and the other fifteen or twenty inches deep, and place +them in the sun at mid-day in summer. The thinner soil will be +completely dried, while the deeper one, though it may have been +perfectly dry at first, will soon accumulate a large amount of water on +those particles which, being lower and more sheltered from the sun's +heat than the particles of the thin soil, are made cooler. + +With an open condition of subsoil, then, such as may be secured by +under-draining, we entirely overcome drought. + +[How does under-draining supply to the soil an increased +amount of atmospheric fertilizers? + +How does it warm the lower parts of the soil?] + +2. Under-draining _furnishes an increased supply of atmospheric +fertilizers_, because it secures a change of air in the soil. This +change is produced whenever the soil becomes filled with water, and then +dried; when the air above the earth is in rapid motion, and when the +comparative temperature of the upper and lower soils changes. It causes +new quantities of the ammonia and carbonic acid which it contains to be +presented to the absorbent parts of the soil. + +3. Under-draining _warms the lower parts of the soil_, because the +deposit of moisture (1) is necessarily accompanied by an abstraction of +heat from the atmospheric vapor, and because heat is withdrawn from the +whole amount of air circulating through the cooler soil. + +When rain falls on the parched surface soil, it robs it of a portion of +its heat, which is carried down to equalize the temperature for the +whole depth. The heat of the rain-water itself is given up to the soil, +leaving the water from one to ten degrees cooler, when it passes out of +the drains, than when received by the earth. + +There is always a current of air passing from the lower to the upper end +of a well constructed drain; and this air is always cooler in warm +weather, when it issues from, than when it enters the drain. Its lost +heat is imparted to the soil. + +[How does it hasten the decomposition of roots and other +organic matter in the soil? + +How does it accelerate the disintegration of its mineral parts? + +Why is this disintegration necessary to fertility?] + +This heating of the lower soil renders it more favorable to vegetation, +partially by expanding the spongioles at the end of the roots, thus +enabling them to absorb larger quantities of nutritious matters. + +4. Under-draining _hastens the decomposition of roots and other organic +matters in the soil_, by admitting increased quantities of air, thus +supplying _oxygen_, which is as essential in decay as it is in +combustion. It also allows the resultant gases of decomposition to pass +away, leaving the air around the decaying substances in a condition to +continue the process. + +This organic decay, besides its other benefits, produces an amount of +heat perfectly perceptible to the smaller roots of plants, though not so +to us. + +5. Draining _accelerates the disintegration of the mineral matters in +the soil_, by admitting water and oxygen to keep up the process. This +disintegration is necessary to fertility, because the roots of plants +can feed only on matters dissolved from _surfaces_; and the more finely +we pulverize the soil, the more surface we expose. For instance, the +interior of a stone can furnish no food for plants; while, if it were +finely crushed, it might make a fertile soil. + +Any thing, tending to open the soil to exposure, facilitates the +disintegration of its particles, and thereby increases its fertility. + +[How does under-draining equalize the distribution of the +fertilizing parts of the soil? + +Why does this distribution lessen the impoverishment of the soil? + +How does under-draining improve the mechanical texture of the soil? + +How do drains affect the excrementitious matter of plants?] + +6. Draining _causes a more even distribution of nutritious matters among +those parts of soil traversed by roots_, because it increases the ease +with which water travels around, descending by its own weight, moving +sideways by a desire to find its level, or carried upward by attraction +to supply the evaporation at the surface. By this continued motion of +the water, soluble matter of one part of the soil may be carried to some +other part; and another constituent from this latter position may be +carried back to the former. Thus the food of vegetables is continually +circulating around among their roots, ready for absorption at any point +where it is needed, while the more open character of the soil enables +roots to occupy larger portions, making a more even drain on the whole, +and preventing the undue impoverishment of any part. + +7. Under-drains _improve the mechanical texture of the soil_; because, +by the decomposition of its parts, as previously described (4 and 5), it +is rendered of a character to be more easily worked; while smooth round +particles, which have a tendency to pack, are roughened by the oxidation +of their surfaces, and move less easily among each other. + +8. Drains _cause the excrementitious matter of plants to be carried out +of the reach of their roots_. Nearly all plants return to the soil those +parts of their food, which are not adapted to their necessities, and +usually in a form that is poisonous to plants of the same kind. In an +open soil, this matter may be carried by rains to a point where roots +cannot reach it, and where it may undergo such changes as will fit it to +be again taken up. + +[Why do they prevent grasses from running out?] + +9. By under-draining, _grasses are prevented from running out_, partly +by preventing the accumulation of the poisonous excrementitious matter, +and partly because these grasses usually consist of _tillering_ plants. + +These plants continually reproduce themselves in sprouts from the upper +parts of their roots. These sprouts become independent plants, and +continue to tiller (thus keeping the land supplied with a full growth), +until the roots of the _stools_ (or clumps of tillers), come in contact +with an uncongenial part of the soil, when the tillering ceases; the +stools become extinct on the death of their plants, and the grasses run +out. + +The open and healthy condition of soil produced by draining prevents the +tillering from being stopped, and thus keeps up a full growth of grass +until the nutriment of the soil is exhausted. + +10. Draining _enables us to deepen the surface-soil_, because the +admission of air and the decay of roots render the condition of the +subsoil such that it may be brought up and mixed with the surface-soil, +without injuring _its quality_. + +The second class of advantages of under-draining, arising in the removal +of the excess of water in the soil, are quite as important as those just +described. + +[How does the removal of water render soils earlier in spring? + +Why does it prevent the throwing out of grain in winter? + +Why does it enable us to work sooner after rains? + +Why does it keep off the effects of cold weather longer in the fall?] + +11. _Soils are, thereby, rendered earlier in spring_, because the water, +which rendered them cold, heavy, and untillable, is earlier removed, +leaving them earlier in a growing condition. + +12. _The throwing out of grain in winter_ is prevented, because the +water falling on the earth is immediately removed instead of remaining +to throw up the soil by freezing, as it always does from the upright +position taken by the particles of ice. + +13. _We are enabled to work sooner after rains_, because the water +descends, and is immediately removed instead of lying to be taken off by +the slow process of evaporation, and sinking through a heavy soil. + +14. _The effects of cold weather are kept off longer in the fall_, +because the excess of water is removed, which would produce an unfertile +condition on the first appearance of cold weather. + +The drains also, from causes already named (3), keep the soil warmer +than before being drained, thus actually lengthening the season, by +making the soil warm enough for vegetable growth earlier in spring, and +later in autumn. + +[How does it prevent lands from becoming sour? + +Why does it hasten the decay of roots, and the comminution of mineral +matters? + +How does it prevent the abstraction of heat from the soil?] + +15. _Lands are prevented from becoming sour by the formation of acetic +acid_, etc., because these acids are produced in the soil only when the +decomposition of organic matter is arrested by the _antiseptic_ +(preserving) powers of water. If the water is removed, the decomposition +of the organic matter assumes a healthy form, while the acids already +produced are neutralized by atmospheric influences, and the soil is +restored from sorrel to a condition in which it is fitted for the growth +of more valuable plants. + +16. _The decay of roots_, etc., is allowed to proceed, because the +preservative influence of too much water is removed. Wood, leaves, or +other vegetable matter kept continually under water, will last for ages; +while, if exposed to the action of the weather, as in under-drained +soils, they soon decay. + +The presence of too much water, by excluding the oxygen of the air, +prevents the _comminution of matters_ necessary to fertility. + +[How much heat does water take up in becoming vapor? + +Why does water sprinkled on a floor render it cooler? + +Why is not a cubic inch of vapor warmer than a cubic inch of water? + +Why does a wet cloth on the head make it cooler when fanned? + +How does this principle apply to the soil?] + +17. _The evaporation of water, and the consequent abstraction of heat +from the soil, is in a great measure prevented_ by draining the water +out at the _bottom_ of the soil, instead of leaving it to be dried off +from the surface. + +When water assumes the gaseous (or vapory) form, it takes up 1723 times +as much _heat_ as it contained while a liquid. A large part of this heat +is derived from surrounding substances. When water is sprinkled on the +floor, it cools the room; because, as it becomes a vapor, it takes heat +from the room. The reason why vapor does not feel hotter than liquid +water is, that, while it contains 1723 times as much heat, it is 1723 as +large. Hence, a cubic inch of vapor, into which we place the bulb of a +thermometer, contains no more heat than a cubic inch of water. The +principle is the same in some other cases. A sponge containing a +table-spoonful of water is just as _wet_ as one twice as large and +containing two spoonsful. + +If a wet cloth be placed on the head, and the evaporation of its water +assisted by fanning, the head becomes cooler--a portion of its heat +being taken to sustain the vapory condition of the water. + +The same principle holds true with the soil. When the evaporation of +water is rapidly going on, by the assistance of the sun, wind, etc., a +large quantity of heat is abstracted, and the soil becomes cold. + +When there is no evaporation taking place, except of water which has +been deposited on the lower portions of soil, and carried to the surface +by capillary attraction (as is nearly true on under-drained soils), the +loss of heat is compensated by that taken from the moisture in the +atmosphere by the soil, in the above-named manner. + +This cooling of the soil by the evaporation of water, is of very great +injury to its powers of producing crops, and the fact that under-drains +avoid it, is one of the best arguments in favor of their use. Some idea +may, perhaps, be formed of the amount of heat taken from the soil in +this way, from the fact that, in midsummer, 25 hogsheads of water may be +evaporated from a single acre in twelve hours. + +[When rains are allowed to _enter_ the soil, how do they +benefit it? + +How do under-drains prevent the formation of a crust on the surface of a +soil?] + +18. When not saturated with water the soil admits the water of rains, +etc., which bring with them _fertilizing gases from the atmosphere_, to +be deposited among the absorbent parts of soil, and given up to the +necessities of the plant. When this rain falls on lands already +saturated, it cannot enter the soil, but must run off from the surface, +or be removed by evaporation, either of which is injurious. The first, +because fertilizing matter is washed away. The second, because the soil +is deprived of necessary heat. + +19. _The formation of crust on the surface of the soil_ is due to the +evaporation of water, which is drawn up from below by capillary +attraction. It arises from the fact that the water in the soil is +saturated with mineral substances, which it leaves at its point of +evaporation at the surface. This soluble matter from below, often forms +a very hard crust, which is a complete shield to prevent the admission +of air with its ameliorating effects, and should, as far as possible, be +avoided. Under-draining is the best means of doing this, as it is the +best means of lessening the evaporation. + +The foregoing are some of the more important reasons why under-draining +is always beneficial. Thorough experiments have amply proved the truth +of the theory. + +[What kinds of soil are benefited by under-draining?] + +The _kinds of soil benefited by under-draining_ are nearly as unlimited +as the kinds of soil in existence. It is a common opinion, among +farmers, that the only soils which require draining are those which are +at times covered with water, such as swamps and other low lands; but the +facts stated in the early part of this chapter, show us that every kind +of soil--wet, dry, compact, or light--receives benefit from the +treatment. The fact that land is _too dry_, is as much a reason why it +should be drained, as that it is _too wet_, as it overcomes drought as +effectually as it removes the injurious effects of too much water. + +All soils in which the water of heavy rains does not immediately pass +down to a depth of at least _thirty inches_, should be under-drained, +and the operation, if carried on with judgment, would invariably result +in profit. + +[What do English farmers name as the profits of +under-draining? + +What stand has been taken by the English government with regard to +under-draining?] + +Of the precise _profits_ of under-draining this is not the place to +speak: many of the agricultural papers contain numerous accounts of its +success. It may be well to remark here, that many English farmers give +it, as their experience, that under-drains pay for themselves every +three years, or that they produce a perpetual profit of 33-1/3 per +cent., or their original cost. This is not the opinion of _theorists_ +and _book farmers_. It is the conviction of practical men, who know, +_from experience_, that under-drains are beneficial. + +The best evidence of the utility of under-draining is the position, with +regard to it, which has been taken by the English national government, +which affords much protection to the agricultural interests of her +people--a protection which in this country is unwisely and unjustly +withheld. + +In England a very large sum from the public treasury has been +appropriated as a fund for loans, on under-drains, which is lent to +farmers for the purpose of under-draining their estates, the only +security given being the increased value of the soil. The time allowed +for payments is twenty years, and only five per cent. interest is +charged. By the influence of this patronage, the actual wealth of the +kingdom is being rapidly increased, while the farmers themselves, can +raise their farms to any desired state of fertility, without immediate +investment. + +[How does under-draining affect the healthfulness of marshy +countries? + +Describe the sub-soil plow.] + +The best proof that the government has not acted injudiciously in this +matter is, that private capitalists are fast employing their money in +the same manner, and loans on under-drains are considered a very safe +investment. + +There is no doubt that we may soon have similar facilities for improving +our farms, and when we do, we shall find that it is unnecessary to move +West to find good soil. The districts nearer market, where the expense +of transportation is much less, may, by the aid of under-drains, and a +judicious system of cultivation, be made equally fertile. + +One very important, though not strictly agricultural, effect of thorough +drainage is its removal of certain local diseases, peculiar to the +vicinity of marshy or low moist soils. The health-reports in several +places in England, show that where _fever and ague_ was once common, it +has almost entirely disappeared since the general use of under-drains in +those localities. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +SUB-SOIL PLOWING. + + +[Describe the Mapes plow. + +Why is the motion in the soil of one and a half inches sufficient? + +How does the oxidation of the particles of the soil resemble the rusting +of cannon balls in a pile?] + +The _sub-soil plow_ is an implement differing in figure from the surface +plow. It does not turn a furrow, but merely runs through the subsoil +like a mole--loosening and making it finer by lifting, but allowing it +to fall back and occupy its former place. It usually follows the surface +plow, entering the soil to the depth of from twelve to eighteen inches +below the bottom of the surface furrow. + +The best pattern now made (the Mapes plow) is represented in the +following figure. + +[Illustration: Fig. 8. + +The Mapes plow and its mode of action. _a_--Shape of the foot of the +plow, _b_--Its effect on the soil.] + +The sub-soil plows first made raised the whole soil about eight inches, +and required very great power in their use often six, eight, or even ten +oxen. The Mapes plow, raising the soil but slightly, may be worked with +much less power, and produces equally good results. It may be run to its +full depth in most soils by a single yoke of oxen. + +Of course a motion in the soil of but one and a half inches is very +slight, but it is sufficient to move each particle from the one next to +it which, in dry soils, is all that is necessary. Whoever has examined a +pile of cannon-balls must have observed that at the points where they +touch each other, there is a little rust. In the soil, the same is often +the case. Where the particles touch each other, there is such a chemical +change produced as renders them fit for the use of plants. While these +particles remain in their first position, the changed portions are out +of the reach of roots; but, if, by the aid of the sub-soil plow, their +position is altered, these parts are exposed for the uses of plants. If +we hold in the hand a ball of dry clay, and press it hard enough to +produce the least motion among its particles, the whole mass becomes +pulverized. On the same principle, the sub-soil plow renders the compact +lower soil sufficiently fine for the requirements of fertility. + +[Why are the benefits of sub-soiling not permanent on wet +lands? + +Does sub-soiling overcome drought? + +How does it deepen the surface soil?] + +Notwithstanding its great benefits on land, which is sufficiently dry, +sub-soiling cannot be recommended for wet lands; for, in such case, the +rains of a single season would often be sufficient to entirely overcome +its effects by packing the subsoil down to its former hardness. + +On lands not overcharged with water, it is productive of the best +results, it being often sufficient to turn the balance between a gaining +and a losing business in farming. + +It increases nearly every effect of under-draining; especially does it +overcome drought, by loosening the soil, and admitting air to circulate +among the particles of the subsoil and deposit its moisture on the +principle described in the chapter on under-draining. + +It deepens the surface-soil, because it admits roots into the subsoil +where they decay and leave carbon, while the circulation of air so +affects the mineral parts, that they become of a fertilizing character. +The deposit of carbon gives to the subsoil the power of absorbing, and +retaining the atmospheric fertilizers, which are more freely presented, +owing to the fact that the air is allowed to circulate with greater +freedom. As a majority of roots decay in the surface-soil, they there +deposit much mineral matter obtained from the subsoil. + +[Why is the retention of atmospheric manures ensured by +sub-soiling? + +Why are organic manures plowed deeply under the soil, less liable to +evaporation than when deposited near the surface? + +How does sub-soiling resemble under-draining in relation to the +tillering of grasses? + +When the subsoil consists of a thin layer of clay on a sandy bed, what +use may be made of the sub-soil plow?] + +The retention of atmospheric manures is more fully ensured by the +better exposure of the clayey portions of the soil. + +Those manures which are artificially applied, by being plowed under to +greater depths, are less liable to evaporation, as, from the greater +amount of soil above them, their escape will more probably be arrested; +and, from the greater prevalence of roots, they are more liable to be +taken up by plants. + +The subsoil often contains matters which are deficient in the +surface-soil. By the use of the sub-soil plow, they are rendered +available. + +Sub-soiling is similar to under-draining in continuing the tillering of +grasses, and in getting rid of the poisonous excrementitious matter of +plants. + +When the subsoil is a thin layer of clay on a sandy bed (as in some +plants of Cumberland Co. Maine), the sub-soil plow, by passing through +it, opens a passage for water, and often affords a sufficient drainage. + +[To how great a depth will the roots of plants usually occupy +the soil? + +What is the object of loosening the soil? + +How are these various effects better produced in deep than in shallow +soils?] + +If plants will grow better on a soil six inches deep than on one of +three inches, there is no reason why they should not be benefited in +proportion, by disturbing the soil to the whole depth to which roots +will travel--which is usually more than two feet. The minute rootlets +of corn and most other plants, will, if allowed by cultivation, occupy +the soil to the depth or thirty-four inches, having a fibre in nearly +every cubic inch of the soil for the whole distance. There are very few +cultivated plants whose roots would not travel to a depth of thirty +inches or more. Even the onion sends its roots to the depth of eighteen +inches when the soil is well cultivated. + +The object of loosening the soil is to admit roots to a sufficient depth +to hold the plant in its position--to obtain the nutriment necessary to +its growth--to receive moisture from the lower portions of the +soil--and, if it be a bulb, tuber, or tap, to assume the form requisite +for its largest development. + +It must be evident that roots, penetrating the soil to a depth of two +feet, anchor the plant with greater stability than those which are +spread more thinly near the surface. + +The roots of plants traversing the soil to such great distances, and +being located in nearly every part, absorb mineral and other food, in +solution in water, only through the _spongioles at their ends_. +Consequently, by having these ends in _every part_ of the soil, it is +_all_ brought under contribution, and the amount supplied is greater, +while the demand on any particular part may be less than when the whole +requirements of plants have to be supplied from a depth of a few inches. + +[May garden soils be profitably imitated in field culture?] + +The ability of roots, to assume a natural shape in the soil, and grow to +their largest sizes, must depend on the condition of the soil. If it is +finely pulverized to the whole depth to which they ought to go, they +will be fully developed; while, if the soil be too hard for penetration, +they will be deformed or small. Thus a carrot may grow to the length of +two and a half feet, and be of perfect shape, while, if it meet in its +course at a depth of eight or ten inches a _cold, hard_ subsoil, its +growth must be arrested, or its form injured. + +Roots are turned aside by a hard sub-soil, as they would be if received +by the surface of a plate of glass. + +Add to this the fact that cold, impenetrable subsoils are _chemically_ +uncongenial to vegetation, and we have sufficient evidence of the +importance, and in many cases the absolute necessity of sub-soiling and +under-draining. + +It is unnecessary to urge the fact that a garden soil of two feet is +more productive than a field soil of six inches; and it is certain that +proper attention to these two modes of cultivation will in a majority of +cases make a garden of the field--more than doubling its value in ease +of working, increased produce, certain security against drought, and +more even distribution of the demands on the soil--while the outlay will +be immediately repaid by an increase of crops. + +[Is the use of the sub-soil plow increasing? + +Will its use ever injure crops?] + +The subsoil will be much improved in its character the first year, and a +continual advancement renders it in time equal to the original +surface-soil, and extending to a depth of two feet or more. + +The sub-soil plow is coming rapidly into use. There are now in New +Jersey more foundries casting sub-soil plows than there were sub-soil +plows in the State six years ago. The implement has there, as well as in +many other places, ceased to be a curiosity; and the man who now objects +to its use, is classed with him who shells his corn on a shovel over a +half-bushel, instead of employing an improved machine, which will enable +him to do more in a day than he can do in the "good old way" in a week. + +Had we space, we might give many instances of the success of +sub-soiling, but the agricultural papers of the present day (at least +one of which every farmer should take) have so repeatedly published its +advantages, that we will not do so. + +In no case will its use be found any thing but satisfactory, except in +occasional instances where there is some chemical difficulty in the +subsoil, which an analysis will tell us how to overcome. + +As was before stated, its use on wet lands is not advisable until they +have been under-drained, as excess of water prevents its effects from +being permanent. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +PLOWING AND OTHER MODES OF PULVERIZING THE SOIL. + + +[May the satisfaction attending labor be increased by an +understanding of the natural laws which regulate our operations? + +On what depends the kind of plow to be used?] + +The advantages of pulverizing the soil, and the _reasons_ why it is +necessary, are now too well known to need remark. Few farmers, when they +plow, dig, or harrow, are enabled to give substantial reasons for so +doing. If they will reflect on what has been said in the previous +chapters, concerning the supply of mineral food to the plant by the +soil, and the effect of air and moisture about roots, they will find +more satisfaction in their labor than it can afford when applied without +thought. + + +PLOWING. + +[What is a general rule with regard to this? + +Should deep plowing be immediately adopted? Why? + +Why is this course of treatment advisable for garden culture?] + +The kind of plow used in cultivating the surface-soil must be decided +by the kind of soil. This question the practical, _observing_ farmer +will be able to solve. + +As a general rule, it may be stated that the plow which runs the +_deepest_, with the same amount of force, is the best. + +We might enter more fully into this matter but for want of space. + +The advantages of _deep plowing_ cannot be too strongly urged. + +The statement that the _deeper_ and the _finer_ the soil is rendered, +the more productive it will become, is in every respect true, and which +no single instance will contradict. + +It must not be inferred from this, that we would advise a farmer, who +has always plowed his soil to the depth of only six inches, to double +the depth at once. Such a practice in some soils would be highly +injurious, as it would completely bury the more fertile and better +cultivated soil, and bring to the top one which contains no organic +matter, and has never been subject to atmospheric influences. This +would, perhaps, be so little fitted for vegetation that it would +scarcely sustain plants until their roots could reach the more fertile +parts below. Such treatment of the soil (turning it upside down) is +excellent in _garden_ culture, where the great amount of manures +applied is sufficient to overcome the temporary barrenness of the soil, +but it is not to be recommended for all _field_ cultivation, where much +less manure is employed. + +[How should field plowing be conducted? + +How does such treatment affect soils previously limed? + +How may it sometimes improve sandy or clay soils?] + +The course to be pursued in such cases is to _plow one inch deeper each +year_. By this means the soil maybe gradually deepened to any desired +extent. The amount of uncongenial soil which will thus be brought up, is +slight, and will not interfere at all with the fertility of the soil, +while the elevated portion will become, in one year, so altered by +exposure, that it will equal the rest of the soil in fertility. + +Often where lime has been used in excess, it has sunk to the subsoil, +where it remains inactive. The slight deepening of the surface plowing +would mix this lime with the surface-soil, and render it again useful. + +When the soil is light and sandy, resting on a heavy clay subsoil, or +clay on sand, the bringing up of the mass from below will improve the +texture of the soil. + +As an instance of the success of deep plowing, we call to mind the case +of a farmer in New Jersey, who had a field which had yielded about +twenty-five bushels of corn per acre. It had been cultivated at ordinary +depths. After laying it out in eight step lands (24 feet), he plowed it +at all depths from five to ten inches, on the different lands, and +sowed oats evenly over the whole field. The crop on the five inch soil +was very poor, on the six inch rather better, on the seven inch better +still, and on the ten inch soil it was as fine as ever grew in New +Jersey; it had stiff straw and broad leaves, while the grain was also +much better than on the remainder of the field. + +[What kind of soils are benefited by fall plowing?] + +There is an old anecdote of a man who died, leaving his sons with the +information that he had buried a pot of gold for them, somewhere on the +farm. They commenced digging for the gold, and dug over the whole farm +to a great depth without finding the gold. The digging, however, so +enriched the soil that they were fully compensated for their +disappointment, and became wealthy from the increased produce of their +farm. + +Farmers will find, on experiment, that they have gold buried in their +soil, if they will but dig deep enough to obtain it. The law gives a man +the ownership of the soil for an indefinite distance from the surface, +but few seem to realize that there is _another farm_ below the one they +are cultivating, which is quite as valuable as the one on the surface, +if it were but properly worked. + +_Fall plowing_, especially for heavy lands, is a very good means of +securing the action of the frosts of winter to pulverize the soil. If it +be a stiff clay, it may be well to throw the soil up into ridges (by +ridging and back furrowing), so as to expose the largest possible amount +of surface to the freezing and thawing of winter. Sandy soils should not +be plowed in the fall, as it renders them too light. + + +DIGGING MACHINES. + +[What is the digging machine?] + +A recent invention has been made in England, known as the digging +machine or rotary spade, which--although from having too much gearing +between the power and the part performing the labor, it is not adapted +to general use--has given such promise of future success, that Mr. Mechi +(an agricultural writer of the highest standing) has said that "the plow +is doomed." This can hardly be true, for the varied uses to which it may +be applied, will guarantee its continuance in the favor of the farmer. + +Already, in this country, Messrs. Gibbs & Mapes, have invented a digging +machine of very simple construction, which seems calculated to serve an +excellent purpose, even in the hands of the farmer of limited means. + +Its friends assert that, with one pair of oxen, it will dig perfectly +three feet wide, and for a depth of fifteen inches. An experiment with +an unperfected machine, in the presence of the writer, seemed to justify +their hopes. + +This machine thoroughly pulverizes the soil to a considerable depth, and +for smooth land must prove far superior to the plow. + + +THE HARROW AND CULTIVATOR. + +[Why is the harrow a defective implement? + +Why is the cultivator superior to the harrow?] + +The _harrow_, an implement largely used in all parts of the world, to +pulverize the soil, and break clods, has become so firmly rooted in the +affections of farmers, that it must be a very long time before they can +be convinced that it is not the best implement for the use to which it +is devoted. It is true that it pulverizes the soil for a depth of two or +three inches, and thus much improves its appearance, benefiting it, +without doubt, for the earliest stages of the growth of plants. Its +action, however, is very defective, because, from the _wedge_ shape of +its teeth, it continually acts to _pack_ the soil; thus--although +favorable for the germination of the seed--it is not calculated to +benefit the plant during the later stages of its growth, when the roots +require the soil to be pulverized to a considerable depth. + +The _cultivator_ may be considered an _improved harrow_. The principal +difference between them being, that while the teeth of the harrow are +pointed at the lower end, those of the cultivator are shaped like a +small double plow, being large at the bottom and growing smaller +towards the top. They lift the earth up, instead of pressing it +downwards, thus loosening instead of compacting the soil. + +Many styles of cultivators are now sold at agricultural warehouses. A +very good one, for field use, may be made by substituting the cultivator +teeth for the spikes in an old harrow frame. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +ROLLING, MULCHING, WEEDING, ETC. + + +ROLLING. + +[Name some of the benefits of rolling?] + +_Rolling_ the soil with a large roller, arranged to be drawn by a team, +is in many instances a good accessory to cultivation. By its means, the +following results are obtained:-- + +1. The soil at the surface is pulverized without the compacting of the +lower parts, the area of contact being large. + +2. The stones on the land are pressed down so as to be out of the way of +the scythe in mowing. + +3. The soil is compacted around seeds after sowing in such a manner as +to exclude light and to _touch_ them in every part, both of which are +essential to their germination and to the healthfulness of the plants. + +[Under what circumstances should the roller be used?] + +4. The soil is so compacted at the surface, that it is less frequented +by _grubs_, etc., than when it is more loose. + +5. When the soil is smoothed in this manner, there is less surface +exposed for the evaporation of water with its cooling effect. + +6. Light sandy lands, by being rolled in the fall, are rendered more +compact, and the loosening effects of frequent freezing and thawing are +avoided. + +Although productive of these various effects, rolling should be adopted +only with much care, and should never be applied to very heavy lands, +except in dry weather when lumpy after plowing, as its tendency in such +cases would be to render them still more difficult of cultivation. Soils +in which air does not circulate freely, are not improved by rolling, as +it presses the surface-particles still more closely together, and +prevents the free admission of the atmosphere. + +If well _under-drained_, a large majority of soils would doubtless be +benefited by a judicious use of the roller.[AL] + + +MULCHING. + +[What is mulching? + +What are some of its benefits?] + +_Mulching_ (called Gurneyism in England) consists in covering the soil +with salt hay, litter, seaweed, leaves, spent tanbark, chips, or other +refuse matter. + +Every farmer must have noticed that, if a board or rail, or an old +brush-heap be removed in spring from soil where grass is growing, the +grass afterwards grows in those places much larger and better than in +other parts of the field. + +This improvement arises from various causes. + +1. The evaporation of water from the soil is prevented during drought by +the shade afforded by the mulch; and it is therefore kept in better +condition, as to moisture and temperature, than when evaporation goes on +more freely. This condition is well calculated to advance the chemical +changes necessary to prepare the matters--both organic and mineral--in +the soil for the use of plants. + +2. By preventing evaporation, we partially protect the soil from losing +ammonia resultant from decaying organic matter. + +3. A heavy mulch breaks the force of rains, and prevents them from +compacting the soil, as would be the result, were no such precaution +taken. + +4. Mulching protects the surface-soil from freezing as readily as when +exposed, and thus keeps it longer open for the admission of air and +moisture. When unprotected, the soil early becomes frozen; and all water +falling, instead of entering as it should do, passes off on the surface. + +[Why does mulching take the place of artificial watering? + +Why is the late sowing of oats beneficial? + +From what arises the chief benefit of top dressing the soil with manure +in autumn?] + +5. The throwing out of winter grain is often prevented, because this is +due to the freezing of the surface-soil. + +6. Mulching prevents the growth of some weeds, because it removes from +them the fostering heat of the sun. + +Many of the best nursery-men keep the soil about the roots of young +trees mulched continually. One of the chief arguments for this treatment +is, that it prevents the removal of the moisture from the soil and the +consequent loss of heat. Also that it keeps up a full supply of water +for the uses of the roots, because it keeps the soil cool, and causes a +deposit of dew. + +7. It also prevents the "baking" of the soil, or the formation of a +crust. + +It is to be recommended in nearly all cases to sow oats very thinly over +land intended for winter fallow after the removal of crops, as they will +grow a little before being killed by the frost, when they will fall +down, thus affording a very beneficial mulch to the soil. + +When farmers spread manure on their fields in the fall to be plowed +under in the spring, they benefit the land by the mulching more than by +the addition of fertilizing matter, because they give it the protecting +influence of the straw, etc., while they lose much of the ammonia of +their manure by evaporation. The same mulching might be more cheaply +done with leaves, or other refuse matter, and the ammonia of the manure +made available by composting with absorbents. + +[Why is snow particularly beneficial?] + +It is an old and true saying that "snow is the poor man's manure." The +reason why it is so beneficial is, chiefly, that it acts as a most +excellent mulch. It contains no more ammonia than rain-water does; and, +were it not for the fact that it protects the soil against loss of heat, +and produces other benefits of mulching, it would have no more +advantageous effect. The severity of winters at the North is partially +compensated by the long duration of snow. + +It is a well known fact that when there is but little snow in cold +countries, wheat is very liable to be _winter killed_. The same +protection is afforded by artificial mulching. + +This treatment is peculiarly applicable to the cultivation of flowers, +both in pots and in beds out of doors. It is almost indispensable to the +profitable production of strawberries, and many other garden crops, such +as asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Many say that the best treatment for trees +is to put stones about their roots. This is simply _mulching_ them, and +might be done more cheaply by the use of leaves, copying the action of +nature in forests;[AM] for, unless these stones be removed in spring, +they will sink and compact the soil in part during open weather. + + +WEEDING. + +[What are some of the uses of weeds? Their disadvantages?] + +If a farmer were asked--what is the use of _weeds_? he might make out +quite a list of their benefits, among which might be some of the +following:-- + +1. They shade tender plants, and in a measure serve as a mulch to the +ground. + +2. Some weeds, by their offensive odor, drive away many insects. + +3. They may serve as a green crop to be plowed into the soil, and +increase its organic matter. + +4. _They make us stir the soil_, and thus increase its fertility. + +Still, while thinking out these excuses for weeds, he would see other +and more urgent reasons why they should not be allowed to grow. + +1. They occupy the soil to the disadvantage of crops. + +2. They exclude light and heat from cultivated plants, and thus +interfere with their growth. + +3. They take up mineral and other matters from the soil, and hold them +during the growing season, thus depriving crops of their use. + +It is not necessary to argue the injury done by weeds. Every farmer is +well convinced that they should be destroyed, and the best means of +accomplishing this are of the greatest importance. + +[How may we protect ourselves against their increase? + +Why is it especially important for this purpose to maintain the balance +of the soil?] + +In the first place, we should protect ourselves against their increase. +This may be done:-- + +By decomposing all manures in compost, whereby the seeds contained will +be killed by the heat of fermentation; or, if one bushel of salt be +mixed through each cord of compost (as before recommended), it will kill +seeds as well as grubs,-- + +By hoeing, or, otherwise, destroying growing weeds before they mature +their seeds, and + +By keeping the soil in the best chemical condition. + +This last point is one of much importance. It is well known that soils +deficient in potash, will naturally produce one kind of plants, while +soils deficient in phosphoric acid will produce plants of another +species, etc. Many soils produce certain weeds which would not grow on +them if they were made chemically perfect, as indicated by analysis. It +is also believed that those weeds, which naturally grow on the most +fertile soils, are the ones most easily destroyed. There are exceptions +(of which the Thistle is one), but this is given as a general rule. + +[How much salt may be used with advantage? + +Why is the scuffle-hoe superior to the common hoe?] + +By careful attention to the foregoing points, weeds may be kept from +increasing while those already in the soil may be eradicated in various +ways, chiefly by mechanical means, such as hoeing, plowing, etc.[AN] + +Prof. Mapes says that six bushels of salt annually sown broadcast over +each acre of land, will destroy very many weeds as well as grubs and +worms. + +The _common hoe_ is a very imperfect tool for the purpose of removing +weeds, as it prepares a better soil for, and replants in a position to +grow, nearly as many weeds as it destroys. + +The _scuffle-hoe_ (or push-hoe) is much more effective, as, when worked +by a man walking backwards, and retiring as he works, it leaves nearly +all of the weeds on the surface of the soil to be killed by the sun. +When used in this way, the earth is not trodden on after being hoed--as +is the case when the common hoe is employed. This treading, besides +compacting the soil, covers the roots of many weeds, and causes them to +grow again. + +[How may much labor be saved in removing weeds? + +What is the Langdon horse-hoe? + +Describe the _universal_ cultivator?] + +Much of the labor of weeding usually performed by men, might be more +cheaply done by horses. There are various implements for this purpose, +some of which are coming, in many parts of the country, into very +general use. + +One of the best of these is the _Langdon Horse Hoe_, which is a +shovel-shaped plow, to be run one or two inches deep. It has a wing on +each side to prevent the earth from falling on to the plants in the +rows. At the rear, or upper edge, is a kind of rake or comb, which +allows the earth to pass through, while the weeds pass over the comb and +fall on the surface of the soil, to be killed by the heat of the sun. It +is a simple and cheap tool, and will perform the work of twenty men with +hoes. The hand hoe will be necessary only in the rows. + + +CULTIVATOR. + +The _cultivator_, which was described in the preceding chapter, and of +which there are various patterns in use, is excellent for weeding, and +for loosening the soil between the rows of corn, etc. The one called +the _universal_ cultivator, having its side bars made of iron, curved so +that at whatever distance it is placed the teeth will point _straight +forward_, is a much better tool than those of the older patterns, which +had the teeth so arranged that when set for wide rows, they pointed +towards the clevis. It is difficult to keep such a cultivator in its +place, while the "_universal_" is as difficult to move out of a straight +line. + + +IMPROVED HORSE-HOE. + +[What is the improved horse-hoe?] + +The _improved horse-hoe_ is a combination of the "Langdon" horse hoe and +the cultivator, and is the best implement, for many purposes, that has +yet been made.[AO] + +[Illustration: Fig. 9] + + +HARVESTING MACHINES. + +Until within a comparatively short period, but little attention has been +paid to the production of machines for harvesting the various crops. + +During the past few years, however, many valuable inventions have +appeared. Among these we notice Ketchum's mower, Hussey's mower and +reaper, and Wagener's grain and grass seed harvester. The latter machine +gathers only the grain and seeds of the crop, leaving the straw to be +plowed under the soil, thus maintaining its supply of soluble silicates, +and increasing its amount of organic matter. After taking the seed heads +from the standing straw and grasses, it thrashes them, blows out the +chaff, separates the different kinds of seeds, and discharges them into +bags ready for market. It consists of a car containing the machinery; to +this may be attached any required number of horses. The inventor affirms +that it has harvested the grain of two acres in one hour, performing the +work with accuracy.[AP] + + * * * * * + +There is much truth in the following proverbs: + +"A garden that is well kept, is kept easily." + +"You must conquer weeds, or weeds will conquer you." + +[What are the two great rules in mechanical cultivation?] + +It is almost impossible to give a _recapitulation_ of the matters +treated in this section, as it is, itself, but an outline of subjects +which might occupy our whole book. The scholar and the farmer should +understand every principle which it contains, as well as they understand +the multiplication table; and their application will be found, in every +instance, to produce the best results. + +The two great rules of mechanical cultivation are-- + +THOROUGH UNDER-DRAINING. + +DEEP AND FREQUENT DISTURBANCE OF THE SOIL. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[AL] Field rollers should be made in sections, for ease of turning. + +[AM] The beneficial effects of mulching is so great as to lead us to the +conclusion that it has other means of action than those mentioned in +this book. Future experiments may lead to more knowledge on this +subject. + +[AN] It is possible that the excrementitious matter thrown out by some +plants may be sufficiently destructive to other kinds to exterminate +them from the soil--thus, farmers in Maine say that a single crop of +turnips will entirely rid the soil of _witch grass_. This is, +undoubtedly, the effect of the excrementitious matter of the turnips. +This subject is one of practical importance, and demands close +investigation by farmers, which may lead to its being reduced to a +system. + +[AO] The improved horse-hoe is made and sold by Ruggles, Nourse & Mason, +of Worcester, Mass., and Quincy Hall, Boston. + +[AP] This machine is more fully noticed in the advertising pages. + + + + +SECTION FIFTH. + +ANALYSIS. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + + +[Why does true practical economy require that the soil should +be analyzed?] + +At the present time, when such marked improvements have been, and are +still being made, in the practice of agriculture, the farmer cannot be +too strongly advised to procure an analysis of his soil, and for obvious +reasons. + +It has been sufficiently proved that the plant draws from the soil +certain kinds of mineral matter, in certain proportions; also, that if +the soil do not contain the constituents required, the plants cannot +obtain them, and consequently cannot grow. Furthermore, in proportion to +the ability of the soil to supply these materials, in exactly the same +proportion will it, when under good treatment, produce good and +abundant crops. + +[Can each farmer make his own analyses? + +Why will not travelling chemists answer the purpose? + +How must an analysis be used?] + +All admit the value and the necessity of manures; they are required to +make up deficiencies in the soil, and consequently, they must supply to +it the matters which are wanting. In order to know what is wanting, we +must know the composition of the soil. This can be learned only by +accurate chemical analysis. Such an analysis every farmer must possess +before he can conduct his operations with _true practical economy_. + +An important question now arises as to whether each farmer can make his +own analyses. He cannot do so without long study and practice. The late +Prof. Norton said that, at least _two years'_ time would be necessary to +enable a man to become competent to make a reliable analysis. When we +reflect that a farmer may never need more than five or six analyses, we +shall see that the time necessary to learn the art would be much more +valuable than the cost of the analyses (at $5 or $10 each), setting +aside the cost of apparatus, and the fact that while practising in the +laboratory, he must not use his hands for any labor that would unfit +them for the most delicate manipulations. + +Neither will _travelling_ chemists be able to make analyses as +accurately and as cheaply as those who work in their own laboratories, +where their apparatus is not liable to the many injuries consequent on +frequent removal. The cost of sending one hundred samples of soil to a +distant chemist, would be much less than the expense of having his +apparatus brought to the town where his services are required. + +[How may a farmer obtain the requisite knowledge? + +When are the services of a consulting agriculturist required?] + +_The way in which an analysis should be used_ is a matter of much +importance. To a man who knows nothing of chemistry (be he ever so +successful a farmer), an analysis, as received from a chemist, would be +as useless and unintelligible as though it were written in Chinese; +while, if a chemist who knew nothing of farming, were to give him advice +concerning the application of manures, he would be led equally astray, +and his course would be any thing but _practical_. It is necessary that +chemical and practical knowledge should be combined, and then the value +of analysis will be fully demonstrated. The _amount_ of knowledge +required is not great, but it must be _thorough_. The information +contained in this little book is sufficient, but it would be folly for a +man to attempt to use an analysis from reading it once hurriedly over. +It must be studied and thought on with great care, before it can be of +material assistance. The evenings of one winter, devoted to this +subject, will enable a farmer to understand the application of analysis +to practical farming, especially if other and more compendious works +are also read. A less time could hardly be recommended. + +[Is there any doubt as to the practical value of analysis? + +How should samples of soil for analysis be selected?] + +Where this attention cannot be given to the subject, the services of a +Consulting Agriculturist should be employed to advise the treatment +necessary to render fertile the soil analyzed. + +Every farmer, however, should learn enough of the principles of +agriculture to be able to use an analysis, when procured, without such +assistance.[AQ] + +Nearly all scientific men (all of the highest merit) are unanimous in +their conviction of the _practical_ value of an analysis of soils; and a +volume of instances of their success, with hardly a single failure, +might be published. + +Prof. Mapes says, in the _Working Farmer_, that he has given advice on +hundreds of different soils, and _not a single instance_ can be found +where he has failed to produce a profit greater than the cost of +analysis and advice. Dr. T. C. Jackson, of Boston, the late Prof. +Norton, of Yale College, and others, have had universal success in this +matter. + +Analysis must be considered the only sure road to economical farming. + +_To select samples of soil for analysis_, take a spadeful from various +parts of the field--going to exactly the depth to which it has been +plowed--until, say a wheel-barrow full, has been obtained. Mix this +well together, and send about a quart or a pint of it (free from stones) +to the chemist. This will represent all of that part of the farm which +has been subject to the same cultivation, and is of the same mechanical +character. If there are marked differences in the kinds of soil, +separate analyses will be necessary. + +[Give an instance of the success of treatment according to +analysis?] + +When an analysis is obtained, a regular debtor and creditor account may +be kept with the soil; and the farmer may know by the composition of the +ashes of his crops, and the manures supplied, whether he is maintaining +the fertility of his soil. + +Prof. Mapes once purchased some land which could not produce corn at +all, and by applying only such manures as analysis indicated to be +necessary, at a cost of less than $2 per acre, he obtained the first +year over _fifty bushels of shelled corn per acre_. The land has since +continued to improve, and is as fertile as any in the State. It has +produced in one season a sufficient crop of cabbages to pay the expense +of cultivation, and over $250 per acre besides, though it was apparently +_worthless_ when he purchased it. + +These are strong facts, and should arouse the farmers of the whole +country to their true interests. Let them not call the teachings of +science "book-farming," but "prove all things--hold fast that which is +good." + +FOOTNOTES: + +[AQ] See Author's card in the front of the book. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +TABLES OF ANALYSIS. + +ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF CROPS. + + +No. I. + +------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+-------- + | Wheat. | Wheat | Rye. | Rye + | | Straw. | | Straw. +------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+-------- +Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 20 | 60 | 24 | 40 +------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+-------- +Silica (_sand_) | 16 | 654 | 5 | 645 +Lime | 28 | 67 | 50 | 91 +Magnesia | 120 | 33 | 104 | 24 +Peroxide of Iron | 7 | 13 | 14 | 14 +Potash | 237 | 124 | 221 | 174 +Soda | 91 | 2 | 116 | 3 +Chlorine | | 11 | | 5 +Sulphuric Acid | 3 | 58 | 10 | 8 +Phosphoric Acid | 498 | 31 | 496 | 38 +------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+-------- + +No. II. + +------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------- + | Corn. | Corn | Barley. | Barley + | | Stalks. | | Straw. +------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------- +Ashes in 1000 dry parts. | 15 | 44 | 28 | 61 +------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------- +Silica (_sand_) | 15 | 270 | 271 | 706 +Lime | 15 | 86 | 26 | 95 +Magnesia | 162 | 66 | 75 | 32 +Peroxide of Iron | 3 | 8 | 15 | 7 +Oxide of Manganese | | | | 1 +Potash | 261 | 96 | 136 | 62 +Soda | 63 | 277 | 81 | 6 +Chlorine | 2 | 20 | 1 | 10 +Sulphuric Acid | 23 | 5 | 1 | 16 +Phosphoric Acid | 449 | 171 | 389 | 31 +------------------------------+---------+-----------+---------+--------- + +No. III. + +------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+---------- + | Oats. | Oat | Buck | Potatoes. + | | Straw. | Wheat. | +------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+---------- +Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 20 | 51 | 21 | 90 +------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+---------- +Silica (_sand_) | 7 | 484 | 7 | 42 +Lime | 60 | 81 | 67 | 21 +Magnesia | 99 | 38 | 104 | 53 +Peroxide of Iron | 4 | 18 | 11 | 5 +Potash | {262} | 191 | 87 | 557 +Soda | { } | 97 | 201 | 19 +Chlorine | 3 | 32 | | 43 +Sulphuric Acid | 104 | 33 | 22 | 137 +Phosphoric Acid | 438 | 27 | 500 | 126 +Organic Matter | | | | 750 + | | | | Water. +------------------------+-----------+--------+--------+--------- + +No. IV. + +------------------------+---------+--------+----------+-------- + | Peas. | Beans. | Turnips. | Turnip + | | | | Tops. +------------------------+---------+--------+----------+-------- +Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 25 | 27 | 76 | 170 +------------------------+---------+--------+----------+-------- +Silica (_sand_) | 5 | 12 | 71 | 8 +Lime | 53 | 58 | 128 | 233 +Magnesia | 85 | 80 | 48 | 31 +Peroxide of Iron | 10 | 6 | 9 | 8 +Potash | 361 | 336 | 398 | 286 +Soda | 91 | 106 | 108 | 54 +Chlorine | 23 | 7 | 37 | 160 +Sulphuric Acid | 44 | 10 | 131 | 125 +Phosphoric Acid | 333 | 378 | 67 | 93 +Organic Matter | | |870 Water.| +------------------------+---------+--------+----------+-------- + +No. V. + +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------- + | Flax. | Linseed. | Meadow | Red + | | | Hay. | Clover. +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------- +Ashes in 1000 dry parts | 50 | 46 | 60 | 75 +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------- +Silica (_sand_) | 257 | 75 | 344 | 48 +Alumina (_clay_) | 37? | | | +Lime | 148 | 83 | 196 | 371 +Magnesia | 44 | 146 | 78 | 46 +Peroxide of Iron | 36? | 9 | 7 | 2 +Potash | 117 | 240 | 236 | 267 +Soda | 118 | 45 | 19 | 71 +Chlorine | 29 | 2 | 28 | 48 +Sulphuric Acid | 32 | 23 | 29 | 60 +Phosphoric Acid | 130 | 365 | 58 | 88 +--------------------------+--------+----------+--------+---------- + +No. VI. + +Amount of Inorganic Matter removed from the soil by ten bushels of +grains, etc., and by the straw, etc., required in their +production--estimated in pounds: + +-------------------+--------+-----------+----------+---------- + | | 1200 lbs. | | 1620 lbs. + | Wheat. | Wheat | Rye. | Rye + | | Straw. | | Straw. +-------------------+--------+-----------+----------+---------- +Potash | 2.86 | 8.97 | 2.51 | 11.34 +Soda | 1.04 | .12 | 1.33 | .20 +Lime | .34 | 4.84 | .56 | 5.91 +Magnesia | 1.46 | 2.76 | 1.18 | 1.58 +Oxide of Iron | .08 | .94 | .15 | .88 +Sulphuric Acid | .03 | 4.20 | .11 | .05 +Phosphoric Acid | 6.01 | 2.22 | 5.64 | 2.49 +Chlorine | | .79 | | .30 +Silica | .14 | 47.16 | .05 | 42.25 +-------------------+--------+-----------+----------+---------- +Pounds carried off | 12 | 72 | 11-1/2 | 66 +-------------------+--------+-----------+----------+---------- + +No. VII. + +-------------------+-------+----------+-------+---------- + | | 1620 lbs.| | 700 lbs. + | Corn. | Corn | Oats. | Oat + | | Stalks. | | Straw. +-------------------+-------+----------+-------+---------- +Potash | 2.78 | 6.84 | 1.69 | 12.08 +Soda | | 19.83 | | +Lime | .12 | 6.02 | .39 | 3.39 +Magnesia | 1.52 | 4.74 | .64 | 1.59 +Oxide of Iron | | .57 | .02 | .78 +Sulphuric Acid | | .36 | .66 | 1.41 +Phosphoric Acid | 4.52 | 12.15 | 2.80 | 1.07 +Chlorine | | 1.33 | .02 | 1.36 +Silica | .06 | 19.16 | .18 | 20.32 +-------------------+-------+----------+-------+---------- +Pounds carried off | 9 | 71 | 6-1/2| 42 +-------------------+-------+----------+-------+---------- + +No. VIII. + +-------------------+--------+---------+----------+---------- + | Buck | | 660 lbs. | 2000 lbs. + | Wheat. | Barley. | Barley | Flax. + | | | Straw. | +-------------------+--------+---------+----------+---------- +Potash | 1.01 | 1.90 | 2.57 | 11.78 +Soda | 2.13 | 1.18 | .23 | 11.82 +Lime | .78 | .96 | 3.88 | 11.85 +Magnesia | 1.20 | 1.00 | 1.31 | 9.38 +Oxide of Iron | .14 | .20 | .90 | 7.32 +Sulphuric Acid | .25 | .01 | .66 | 3.19 +Phosphoric Acid | 5.40 | 5.35 | 1.25 | 13.05 +Chlorine | | .01 | .40 | 2.90 +Silica | .09 | 3.90 | 28.80 | 25.71 +-------------------+--------+---------+----------+---------- +Pounds carried off | 11 | 14 | 40 | 100 +-------------------+--------+---------+----------+---------- + +No. IX. + +--------------------+----------+----------+----------+--------- + | | 1120 lbs.| |1366 lbs. + | Beans. | Bean | Field | Pea + | | Straw. | Peas. | Straw. +--------------------+----------+----------+----------+--------- +Potash | 5.54 | 36.28 | 5.90 | 3.78 +Soda | 1.83 | 1.09 | 1.40 | +Lime | 98.98 | 13.60 | .81 | 43.93 +Magnesia | .28 | 4.55 | 1.30 | 5.50 +Oxide of Iron | .10 | .20 | .15 | 1.40 +Sulphuric Acid | .16 | .64 | .64 | 5.43 +Phosphoric Acid | 7.80 | 5.00 | 5.50 | 3.86 +Chlorine | .13 | 1.74 | .23 | .08 +Silica | .18 | 4.90 | .7 | 16.02 +--------------------+----------+----------+----------+--------- +Pounds carried off | 17 | 68 | 16 | 80 +--------------------+----------+----------+----------+--------- + +No. X. + +--------------------+------------+----------+-------------+----------- + | | 635 lbs. | | 2000 lbs. + | 1 Ton | Turnip | 1 Ton | Red + | Turnips. | Tops. | Potatoes. | Clover. +--------------------+------------+----------+-------------+----------- +Potash | 7.14 | 4.34 | 27.82 | 31.41 +Soda | .86 | .84 | .93 | 8.34 +Lime | 2.31 | 3.61 | 1.03 | 43.77 +Magnesia | .91 | .48 | 2.63 | 5.25 +Oxide of Iron | .23 | .13 | .26 | .23 +Sulphuric Acid | 2.30 | 1.81 | 6.81 | 7.05 +Phosphoric Acid | 1.29 | 1.31 | 6.25 | 10.28 +Chlorine | .61 | 2.35 | 2.13 | 5.86 +Silica | 1.36 | .13 | 2.14 | 5.81 +--------------------+------------+----------+-------------+----------- +Pounds carried off | 17 | 15 | 50 | 118 +--------------------+------------+----------+-------------+----------- + +No. XI. + +----------------------------------+----------+----------- + | 2000 lbs.| 2000 lbs. + | Meadow | Cabbage + | Hay. | Water 9-10 +----------------------------------+----------+----------- +Potash | 18.11 | 5.25 +Soda | 1.35 | 9.20 +Lime | 22.95 | 9.45 +Magnesia | 6.75 | 2.70 +Oxide of Iron | 1.69 | .25 +Sulphuric Acid | 2.70 | 9.60 +Phosphoric Acid | 5.97 | 5.60 +Chlorine | 2.59 | 2.60 +Silica | 37.89 | .35 +----------------------------------+----------+----------- +Pounds carried off | 100 | 45 +----------------------------------+----------+----------- + +No. XII. + +Composition of Ashes, leached and unleached, showing their manurial +value: + +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- + | Oak | Oak | Beech | Beech + |unleached. | leached. |unleached. | leached. +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- +Potash | 84 | -- | 158 | -- +Soda | 56 | -- | 29 | -- +Lime | 750 | 548 | 634 | 426 +Magnesia | 45 | 6 | 113 | 70 +Oxide of Iron | 6 | -- | 8 | 15 +Sulphuric Acid | 12 | -- | 14 | -- +Phosphoric Acid | 35 | 8 | 31 | 57 +Chlorine | | | 2 | +-------------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---------- + +No. XIII. + +------------------+-----------+------------+------------ + | Birch | Seaweed | Bituminous + | leached. | unleached. | Coal + | | | unleached. +------------------+-----------+------------+------------ +Potash | -- | 180 | 2 +Soda | -- | 210 | 2 +Lime | 522 | 94 | 21 +Magnesia | 30 | 99 | 2 +Oxide of Iron | 5 | 3 | 40 +Sulphuric Acid | -- | 248 | 9 +Phosphoric Acid | 43 | 52 | 2 +Chlorine | -- | 98 | 1 +------------------+-----------+------------+------------ + +No. XIV. + +TOBACCO. + +Analysis of the ash of the PLANT [Will & Fresedius]-- + +Potash 19.55 +Soda 0.27 +Magnesia 11.07 +Lime 48.68 +Phosphoric Acid 3.66 +Sulphuric Acid 3.29 +Oxide of Iron 2.99 +Chloride of Sodium 3.54 +Loss 6.95 + ------ + 100.00 + +Analysis of the ash of the ROOT [Berthier]-- + +Soluble Matter 12.3 +Insoluble 87.7 + +The Soluble parts consist of nearly-- + +Carbonic Acid 10.0 +Sulphuric Acid 10.3 +Muriatic Acid (Chlorine, &c.) 18.26 +Potash and Soda 61.44 + ------ + 100.00 + +No. XV. + +Composition of some of the more common Compounds of Acids and Alkalies. + +--------------------------------------+----------------+------------------ + 100 Parts of | Contain of the | Contain of the + | Alkalies | Acids +--------------------------------------+----------------+------------------ +Carbonate of Potash (Pearlash) | Potash 68.09 | Carbonic 31.91 +Bi-Carbonate of Potash (Saleratus) | do. 51.62 | Carbonic 48.38 +Nitrate of Potash (Saltpetre) | do. 46.56 | Nitric 53.44 +Silicate of Potash | do. 50.54 | Silicic 49.46 +Carbonate of Soda | Soda 58.58 | Carbonic 41.42 +Bi-Carbonate of Soda (Common Soda)[AR]| do. 41.42 | Carbonic 58.58 +Nitrate of Soda | do. 36.60 | Nitric 63.40 +Sulphate of Soda (Glauber Salts)[AR] | do. 19.38 | Sulphuric 24.85 +Silicate of Soda | do. 40.37 | Silicic 59.63 +Carbonate of Lime (Limestone) | Lime 56.29 | Carbonic 43.71 +Sulphate of Lime (Plaster Paris)[AR] | do. 32.90 | Sulphuric 46.31 +Sulphate of Lime (Burned) | do. 41.53 | Sulphuric 58.47 +Phosphate of Lime | do. 54.48 | Phosphoric 45.52 +Super-Phosphate of Lime | do. 28.52 | Phosphoric 71.48 +Silicate of Lime | do. 38.15 | Silicic 61.85 +Carbonate of Magnesia | Magnesia 48.31 | Carbonic 51.69 +Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom Salts)[AR]| do. 16.70 | Sulphuric 32.40 +Silicate of Alumina | Alumina 17.05 | Silicic 72.95 +Sulphate of Iron (Green Vitriol)[AR] | Oxide of | Sulphuric 31.03 + | Iron 27.19 | +--------------------------------------+----------------+------------------ + +No. XVI. + +Proximate Analyses of Crops, showing the amount of the different Organic +Compounds contained in Grain, Roots, Hay, etc.--estimated in pounds: + +--------------------------+--------+---------+---------+----------+-------- + | Water. | Husk or | Starch, | Gluten, | Fatty + | | Woody | Gum and | Albumen, | Matter. + | | Fibre. | Sugar. | Legumin. | + +--------+---------+---------+----------+-------- + 10 Bushels. | | | | | +Wheat 600 lbs. | 90 | 90 | 330 | 87 | 18 +Barley 515 lbs. | 77 | 77 | 309 | 70 | 13 +Oats 425 lbs. | 68 | 85 | 255 | 70 | 25 +Rye 520 lbs. | 62 | 78 | 312 | 65 | 18 +Indian Corn 600 lbs. | 84 | 36 | 420 | 72 | 42 +Buck Wheat 425 lbs. | 64 | 106 | 212 | 34 | 2? +Beans 640 lbs. | 90 | 61 | 256 | 166 | 16 +Peas 640 lbs. | 90 | 58 | 320 | 154 | 14 + | | | | | + 2000 lbs. | | | | | +Potatoes | 1500 | 80 | 360 | 40 | 6 +Turnips | 1760 | 40 | 180[AS]| 30 | 6 +Carrots | 1700 | 60 | 200[AS]| 30 | 8 +Mangold Wurtzel | 1700 | 40 | 220[AS]| 40 | ? +Meadow Hay | 280 | 600 | 800 | 140 | 70 +Clover Hay | 280 | 500 | 800 | 186 | 80 +Pea Straw | 250 | 500 | 900 | 246 | 30 +Rye Straw | 270 | 900 | 760 | 26 | ? +Corn Stalks | 240 | 500 | 1040 | 60 | 34 +100 lbs. Fine Wheat Flour | 10 | | 79 | 11 | +100 lbs. Wheat Bran | 13 | | 55 | 19 | 5 +--------------------------+--------+---------+---------+----------+-------- + +No. XVII. + +Amount of Ash left after burning 1000 lbs. of various plants, ordinarily +dry-- + +Wheat 20 its straw 50 +Barley 30 " 50 +Oats 40 " 60 +Rye 20 " 40 +Indian Corn 15 " 50 +Pea 30 " 50 +Bean 30 +Meadow Hay 50 to 100 +Clover " 90 +Rye Grass " 95 +Potato 8 to 15 +Turnip 5 to 8 +Carrot 15 to 20 +-------------------------------------------------------------- + +No. XVIII. + +MANURES. + +HORSE MANURE. + +Solid Dung-- +Combustible Matter 19.68 +Ash 3.07 +Water 77.25 + ------ + 100.00 + +Composition of the Ash-- + +Silica 62.40 +Potash 11.30 +Soda 1.98 +Oxide of Iron 1.17 +Lime 4.63 +Magnesia 3.84 +Oxide of Manganese 2.13 +Phosphoric Acid 10.49 +Sulphuric Acid 1.89 +Chlorine 0.03 +Loss 0.14 + ------ + 100.00 + +No. XIX. + +NIGHT SOIL. + +Solid (Ash)-- + Earthy Phosphates and a trace of Sulphate of Lime 100 + Sulphate of Soda and Potash, and Phosphate of Soda 8 + Carbonate of Soda 8 + Silica 16 + Charcoal and Loss 18 + --- + 150 + +Urine + Urea[AT] 30.10 + Uric Acid 1.00 + Sal Ammoniac[AT] 1.50 + Lactic Acid, etc. 17.14 + Mucus .32 + Sulphate of Potash 3.71 + Sulphate of Soda 3.16 + Phosphate of Ammonia[AT] 1.65 + Earthy Phosphates 3.94 + Salt (Chloride of Sodium) 4.45 + Silica 0.03 + ------ + 67.00 +Water 933.00 + ------ + 1000.00 + +No. XX. + +COW MANURE. + +Solid (Ash)-- + Phosphates 20.9 + Peroxide of Iron 8.8 + Lime 1.5 + Sulphate of Lime (Plaster) 3.1 + Chloride of Potassium trace + Silica 63.7 + Loss 2.0 + ----- + 100.0 + +No. XXI. + +COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE URINE OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS. + + Solid Matter. + Organic. Inorganic. Total. +Man 23.4 7.6 31 +Horse 27. 33. 60 +Cow 50. 20. 70 +Pig 56. 18. 74 +Sheep 28. 12. 40 + +No. XXII. + +GUANO. + +Water 6.40 +Ammonia 2.71 +Uric Acid 34.70 +Oxalic Acid, etc. 26.79 + Fixed Alkaline Salts. +Sulphate of Soda 2.94 +Phosphate of Soda .48 +Chloride of Sodium (salt) .86 + Earthy Salts. +Carbonate of Lime 1.36 +Phosphates 19.24 + Foreign Matter. +Silicious grit and sand 4.52 + ------ + 100.00 + +For the analysis of fertile and barren soils, see page 72. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[AR] Contain a large amount of Water. + +[AS] Pectic Acid. + +[AT] Supply Ammonia. + + + + +THE PRACTICAL FARMER. + + +Who is the _practical farmer_? Let us look at two pictures and decide. + +Here is a farm of 100 acres in ordinary condition. It is owned and +tilled by a hard-working man, who, in the busy season, employs one or +two assistants. The farm is free from debt, but it does not produce an +abundant income; therefore, its owner cannot afford to purchase the best +implements, or make other needed improvements; besides, he don't +_believe_ in such things. His father was a good solid farmer; so was his +grandfather; and so is he, or thinks he is. He is satisfied that 'the +good old way' is best, and he sticks to it. He works from morning till +night; from spring till fall. In the winter, he _rests_, as much as his +lessened duties will allow. During this time, he reads little, or +nothing. Least of all does he read about farming. He don't want to learn +how to dig potatoes out of a book. Book farming is nonsense. Many other +similar ideas keep him from agricultural reading. His house is +comfortable, and his barns are quite as good as his neighbors', while +his farm gives him a living. It is true that his soil does not produce +as much as it did ten years ago; but prices are better, and he is +satisfied. + +Let us look at his premises, and see how his affairs are managed. First, +examine the land. Well, it is good fair land. Some of it is a little +springy, but is not to be called _wet_. It will produce a ton and a half +of hay to the acre--it used to produce two tons. There are some stones +on the land, but not enough in his estimation to do harm. The plowed +fields are pretty good; they will produce 35 bushels of corn, 13 bushels +of wheat, or 30 bushels of oats per acre, when the season is not dry. +His father used to get more; but, somehow, the _weather_ is not so +favorable as it was in old times. He has thought of raising root crops, +but they take more labor than he can afford to hire. Over, in the back +part of the land there is a muck-hole, which is the only piece of +_worthless_ land on the whole farm. + +Now, let us look at the barns and barn-yards. The stables are pretty +good. There are some wide cracks in the siding, but they help to +ventilate, and make it healthier for the cattle. The manure is thrown +out of the back windows, and is left in piles under the eaves on the +sunny side of the barn. The rain and sun make it nicer to handle. The +cattle have to go some distance for water; and this gives them exercise. +All of the cattle are not kept in the stable; the fattening stock are +kept in the various fields, where hay is fed out to them from the stack. +The barn-yard is often occupied by cattle, and is covered with their +manure, which lies there until it is carted on to the land. In the shed +are the tools of the farm, consisting of carts, plows--not deep plows, +this farmer thinks it best to have roots near the surface of the soil +where they can have the benefit of the sun's heat,--a harrow, hoes, +rakes, etc. These tools are all in good order; and, unlike those of his +less prudent neighbor, they are protected from the weather. + +The crops are cultivated with the plow, and hoe, as they have been since +the land was cleared, and as they always will be until this man dies. + +Here is the 'practical farmer' of the present day. Hard working, out of +debt, and economical--of dollars and cents, if not of soil and manures. +He is a better farmer than two thirds of the three millions of farmers +in the country. He is one of the best farmers in his town--there are but +few better in the county, not many in the State. He represents the +better class of his profession. + +With all this, he is, in matters relating to his business, an unreading, +unthinking man. He knows nothing of the first principles of farming, and +is successful by the _indulgence_ of nature, not because he understands +her, and is able to make the most of her assistance. + +This is an unpleasant fact, but it is one which cannot be denied. We do +not say this to disparage the farmer, but to arouse him to a realization +of his position and of his power to improve it. + +But let us see where he is wrong. + +He is wrong in thinking that his land does not need draining. He is +wrong in being satisfied with one and a half tons of hay to the acre +when he might easily get two and a half. He is wrong in not removing as +far as possible every stone that can interfere with the deep and +thorough cultivation of his soil. He is wrong in reaping less than his +father did, when he should get more. He is wrong in ascribing to the +weather, and similar causes, what is due to the actual impoverishment of +his soil. He is wrong in not raising turnips, carrots, and other roots, +which his winter stock so much need, when they might be raised at a cost +of less than one third of their value as food. He is wrong in +considering worthless a deposit of muck, which is a mine of wealth if +properly employed. He is wrong in _ventilating_ his stables at the cost +of _heat_. He is wrong in his treatment of his manures, for he loses +more than one half of their value from evaporation, fermentation, and +leaching. He is wrong in not having water at hand for his cattle--their +exercise detracts from their accumulation of fat and their production of +heat, and it exposes them to cold. He is wrong in not protecting his +fattening stock from the cold of winter; for, under exposure to cold, +the food, which would otherwise be used in the formation of _fat_, goes +to the production of the animal heat necessary to counteract the +chilling influence of the weather, p. 50. He is wrong in allowing his +manure to lie unprotected in the barn-yard. He is wrong in not adding to +his tools the deep surface plow, the subsoil plow, the cultivator, and +many others of improved construction. He is wrong in cultivating with +the plow and hoe, those crops which could be better or more cheaply +managed with the cultivator or horse-hoe. He is wrong in many things +more, as we shall see if we examine all of his yearly routine of work. +He is right in a few things; and but a few, as he himself would admit, +had he that knowledge of his business which he could obtain in the +leisure hours of a single winter. Still, he thinks himself a _practical_ +farmer. In twenty years, we shall have fewer such, for our young men +have the mental capacity and mental energy necessary to raise them to +the highest point of practical education, and to that point they are +gradually but surely rising. + +Let us now place this same farm in the hands of an educated and +understanding cultivator; and, at the end of five years, look at it +again. + +He has sold one half of it, and cultivates but fifty acres. The money +for which the other fifty were sold has been used in the improvement of +the farm. The land has all been under-drained, and shows the many +improvements consequent on such treatment. The stones and small rocks +have been removed, leaving the surface of the soil smooth, and allowing +the use of the sub-soil plow, which with the under-drains have more than +doubled the productive power of the farm. Sufficient labor is employed +to cultivate with improved tools, extensive root crops, and they +invariably give a large yield. The grass land produces a yearly average +of 2-1/2 tons of hay per acre. From 80 to 100 bushels of corn, 30 +bushels of wheat, and 45 bushels of oats are the average of the crops +reaped. The soil has been analyzed, and put in the best possible +condition, while it is yearly supplied with manures containing every +thing taken away in the abundant crops. The analysis is never lost sight +of in the regulation of crops and the application of manures. The +_worthless_ muck bed was retained, and is made worth one dollar a load +to the compost heap, especially as the land requires an increase of +organic matter. A new barn has been built large enough to store all of +the hay produced on the farm. It has stables, which are tight and warm, +and are well ventilated _above_ the cattle. The stock being thus +protected from the loss of their heat, give more milk, and make more fat +on a less amount of food than they did under the old system. Water is +near at hand, and the animals are not obliged to over exercise. The +manure is carefully composted, either under a shed constructed for the +purpose with a tank and pump, or is thrown into the cellar below, where +the hogs mix it with a large amount of muck, which has been carted in +after being thoroughly decomposed by the lime and salt mixture. + +They are thus protected against all loss, and are prepared for the +immediate use of crops. No manures are allowed to lie in the barn-yard, +but they are all early removed to the compost heap, where they are +preserved by being mixed with carbonaceous matter. In the tool shed, we +find deep surface-plows, sub-soil plows, cultivators, horse-hoes, +seed-drills, and many other valuable improvements. + +This farmer takes one or more agricultural papers, from which he learns +many new methods of cultivation, while his knowledge of the _reasons_ of +various agricultural effects enables him to discard the injudicious +suggestions of mere _book farmers_ and uneducated dreamers. + +Here are two specimens of farmers. Neither description is over-drawn. +The first is much more careful in his operations than the majority of +our rural population. The second is no better than many who may be found +in America. + +We appeal to the common sense of the reader of this work to know which +of the two is the _practical farmer_--let him imitate either as his +judgment shall dictate. + +FINIS. + + + + +EXPLANATION OF TERMS. + + +ABSORB--to soak in a liquid or a gas. + +ABSTRACT--to take from. + +ACID--sour; a sour substance. + +AGRICULTURE--the art of cultivating the soil. + +ALKALI--the direct opposite of an _acid_, with which it has a tendency + to unite. + +ALUMINA--the base of clay. + +ANALYSIS--separating into its primary parts any compound substance. + +CARBONATE--a compound, consisting of carbonic acid and an alkali. + +CAUSTIC--burning. + +CHLORIDE--a compound containing chlorine. + +CLEVIS--that part of a plow by which the drawing power is attached. + +DECOMPOSE--to separate the constituents of a body from their + combinations, forming new kinds of compounds. + +DIGESTION--the decomposition of food in the stomach and intestines of + animals (agricultural). + +DEW--deposit of the insensible vapor of the atmosphere on cold bodies. + +EXCREMENT--the matter given out by the organs of plants and animals, + being those parts of their food which they are unable to assimilate. + +FERMENTATION--a kind of decomposition. + +GAS--air--aeriform matter. + +GURNEYISM--see _Mulching_. + +INGREDIENT--component part. + +INORGANIC--mineral, or earthy. + +MOULDBOARD--that part of a surface plow which turns the sod. + +MULCHING--covering the soil with litter, leaves, or other refuse matter. + See p. 247. + +NEUTRALIZE--To overcome the characteristic properties of. + +ORGANIC MATTER--that kind of matter which at times possesses an + organized (or living) form, and at others exists as a gas in the + atmosphere. + +OXIDE--a compound of oxygen with a metal. + +PHOSPHATE--a compound of phosphoric acid with an alkali. + +PROXIMATE--an organic compound, such as wood, starch, gum, etc.; a + product of life. + +PUNGENT--pricking. + +PUTREFACTION--rotting. + +SATURATE--to _fill_ the pores of any substance, as a sponge with water, + or charcoal with ammonia. + +SILICATE--a compound of silica with an alkali. + +SOLUBLE--capable of being dissolved. + +SOLUTION--a liquid containing another substance dissolved in it. + +SATURATED SOLUTION--one which contains as much of the foreign substance + as it is capable of holding. + +SPONGIOLES--the mouths at the ends of roots. + +SULPHATE--a compound of sulphuric acid with an alkali. + +VAPOR--gas. + + + + +KETCHUM'S + +PATENT MOWING MACHINES + +[Illustration] + +=The greatest Improvement ever made for Simplicity, Durability, and Ease +of Action.= + + +It is now beyond a question, from the complete triumph over all other +machines this season, that this is the _only_ successful Grass Cutter +known. It is in fact the _only_ machine that has ever cut _all kinds of +grass_ without _clogging_ or _interruption_. More than 1000 have been +sold the present season under the following warranty, and not in a +single instance have we been called on to take one back. + +(Warranty:) That said machines are capable of Cutting and Spreading, +with one span of horses and driver, from ten to fifteen acres per day, +_of any kind of grass, heavy or light, wet or dry, lodged or standing_, +and do it as well as is done with a scythe by the best mowers. + +The price of our machine, with two sets of knives and extras, is $110, +cash, delivered on board of cars or boat, free of charge. + +HOWARD & CO., +Manufacturers and Proprietors, Buffalo, N. Y. + +_Buffalo_, Aug. 1, 1853. + + +RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & Co., Manufacture Ketchum's Mower for New + England. + +WARDER & BROKAW, Springfield, Ohio; for Southern Ohio and Kentucky. + +SEYMOUR & MORGAN, Brockport, N. Y.; for Michigan and Illinois. + + + + +NEW AND USEFUL WORKS. + +JUST PUBLISHED BY + +_D. APPLETON & COMPANY_ + + +A new and much, enlarged edition of + +=DR. URE'S= + +DICTIONARY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND MINES. + +Containing a clear Exposition of their principles and practice. +Illustrated with nearly 1,600 engravings. Complete in two large 8vo. +volumes; counts over 2,000 pages. Price $5.00. + + This new edition is nearly a quarter of a century in advance of + any previous one. + + It contains one third more matter than the latest previous one. + + The statistics, inventions, and improvements, are all brought + down to the present time. + + The results of the London Exhibition on the respective subjects + of which the Dictionary treats, are presented with great fulness + and accuracy. + + The numerous errors in the typography of the London edition have + been corrected in this. + + +=SIR CHARLES LYELL'S= + +PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY; + +Or, the Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants, considered as +illustrative of Geology. A new and much enlarged edition. Illustrated +with maps, plates, and wood-cuts. 1 vol. 8vo., of 850 pages. Price +$2.25. + + +=SIR CHARLES LYELL'S= + +MANUAL OF ELEMENTARY GEOLOGY; + +Or, the Ancient Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants, as illustrated +by Geological Monuments. A new and greatly enlarged edition. Illustrated +with 500 wood-cuts. 1 vol. 8vo. Price $1.75. + + [***] The author of these works, stands in the very front rank + of scientific men, and his works upon the science to which he + has devoted his great powers and his indefatigable study, are + the standard books upon these subjects. + + +=APPLETON'S= + +MODERN ATLAS OF THE EARTH. + +With an Alphabetical Index of the Latitudes and Longitudes of 18,000 +places. Thirty-four beautifully engraved and colored maps, with +Temperature Scales. 4to. size, bound in 1 vol., royal 8vo. Price $3.50. + + This is the only complete portable Modern Atlas yet published. + The maps are engraved on steel, and executed with great + clearness, distinctness and accuracy. The delineations of + mountainous districts, the sources of rivers and boundary lines, + have been made with great care. It is designed for the table of + the Student and the office of the Professional Man, and is + issued in a very finished and elegant style, and embraces + extensive details of all the important parts of the Earth. + + + + +_D. APPLETON AND CO.'S PUBLICATIONS._ + +Popular Science. + +The Chemistry of Common Life. + +BY JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, M.A., F.R.S.S. L. & E., &c. + +Author of "Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," a "Catechism +of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology," &c. + + +ADVERTISEMENT. + + The common life of man is full of wonders, Chemical and + Physiological. Most of us pass through this life without seeing + or being sensible of them, though every day our existence and + our comforts ought to recall them to our minds. One main cause + of this is, that our schools tell us nothing about them--do not + teach those parts of modern learning which would fit us for + seeing them. What most concerns the things that daily occupy our + attention and cares, are in early life almost sedulously kept + from our knowledge. Those who would learn any thing regarding + them, must subsequently teach themselves through the help of the + press: hence the necessity for a Popular Chemical Literature. + + It is with a view to meet this want of the Public, and at the + same time to supply a Manual for the Schools, that the present + work has been projected. It treats, in what appears to be their + natural order, of THE AIR WE BREATHE and THE WATER WE DRINK, in + their relations to human life and health--THE SOIL WE CULTIVATE + AND THE PLANT WE REAR, as the sources from which the chief + sustenance of all life is obtained--THE BREAD WE EAT AND THE + BEEF WE COOK, as the representatives of the two grand divisions + of human food--THE BEVERAGES WE INFUSE, from which so much of + the comfort of modern life, both savage and civilized, is + derived--THE SWEETS WE EXTRACT, the history of which presents so + striking an illustration of the economical value of chemical + science--THE LIQUORS WE FERMENT, so different from the sweets in + their action on the system, and yet so closely connected with + them in chemical history--THE NARCOTICS WE INDULGE IN, as + presenting us with an aspect of the human constitution which, + both chemically and physiologically, is more mysterious and + wonderful than any other we are acquainted with--THE ODOURS WE + ENJOY AND THE SMELLS WE DISLIKE; the former because of the + beautiful illustration it presents of the recent progress of + organic chemistry in its relations to comforts of common life, + and the latter because of its intimate connection with our most + important sanitary arrangements--WHAT WE BREATHE FOR and WHY WE + DIGEST, as functions of the body at once the most important to + life, and the most purely chemical in their nature--THE BODY WE + CHERISH, as presenting many striking phenomena, and performing + many interesting chemical functions not touched upon in the + discussion of the preceding topics--and lastly, THE CIRCULATION + OF MATTER, as exhibiting in one view the end, purpose, and + method of all the changes in the natural body, in organic + nature, and in the mineral kingdom, which are connected with and + determine the existence of life. + + It has been the object of the Author in this Work to exhibit the + present condition of chemical knowledge and of matured + scientific opinion upon the subjects to which it is devoted. The + reader will not be surprised, therefore, should he find in it + some things which differ from what is to be found in other + popular works already in his hands or on the shelves of his + library. + + The Work is being published in 5 or 6 NUMBERS, price 25 cents + each, in the following order, forming 1 vol. 12mo. of about 400 + pages. + + 1. The AIR we Breathe and + 2. The WATER we Drink. + 3. The SOIL we Cultivate and + 4. The PLANT we Rear. + 5. The BREAD we Eat and + 6. The BEEF we Cook. + 7. The BEVERAGES we Infuse. + 8. The SWEETS we Extract. + 9. The LIQUORS we Ferment. + 10. The NARCOTICS we Indulge in. + 11. The ODOURS we Enjoy and + 12. The SMELLS we Dislike. + 13. What we BREATHE and BREATHE FOR, and + 14. What, How, and Why we DIGEST + 15. The BODY we Cherish, and + 16. The CIRCULATION of MATTER, a Recapitulation. + + + + +WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, THE HORSE, & DOG. + +_Published by D. Appleton, & Co._ + + +THE FARMER'S HAND-BOOK + +Being a Full and Complete Guide for the Farmer and Emigrant. +Comprising--The Clearing of Forest and Prairie Lands; Gardening; Farming +Generally; Farriery; The Management and Treatment of Cattle; Cookery; +The Construction of Dwellings; Prevention and Cure of Disease; with +copious Tables, Recipes, Hints, &c., &c. By JOSIAH T. MARSHALL. One +volume, 12mo., illustrated with numerous wood engravings. Neatly bound. +Price $1; paper cover, 62-1/2 cents. + + "One of the most useful books we ever saw."--_Boston Post._ + + +RURAL ECONOMY, + +In its relations with Chemistry, Physics, and Meteorology; or, Chemistry +applied to Agriculture. By J. B. BOUISSANGAULT. Translated, with Notes, +etc., by George Law, Agriculturist. 12mo, over 500 pages, $1 50. + + "The work is the fruit of a long life of study and experiment, + and its perusal will aid the farmer greatly in obtaining a + practical and scientific knowledge of his profession."--_American + Agriculturist._ + + +THE FARMER'S MANUAL: + +A Practical Treatise on the Nature and Value of Manures, founded from +Experiments on various Crops, with a brief account of the most Recent +Discoveries in Agricultural Chemistry. By F. FALKNER and the Author of +"British Husbandry." 12mo, 50 cts. + + +THE FARMER'S TREASURE: + +Containing "Falkner's Farmer's Manual," and "Smith's Productive +Farming," bound together. 12mo, 75 cents. + + +STABLE ECONOMY: + +A Treatise on the Management of Horses, in relation to Stabling, +Grooming, Feeding, Watering, and Working. By JOHN STEWART, Veterinary +Surgeon. With Notes and Additions, adapting it to American Food and +Climate, by A. B. ALLEN. 12mo, illustrated with 23 Engravings, $1. + + "No one should build a stable or own a horse without consulting + the excellent directions for stabling and using the horse, in + this book of Stewart's. It is an invaluable _vade mecum_ for all + who have the luxury of a stable."--_Eve. Mirror._ + + +THE HORSE'S FOOT; AND HOW TO KEEP IT SOUND. + +With Illustrations by WILLIAM MILES, Esq., from the Third London +Edition, with 23 plates. Price 25 cents. + +This work has received the unqualified recommendation of the Quarterly, +the Edinburgh, and the Reviews generally, of England. The price of the +English copy is $3. + + "It should be in the hands of every owner or friend of the + horse." + + +DOGS: THEIR ORIGIN AND VARIETIES. + +Directions as to their general Management. With numerous original +anecdotes. Also Complete Instructions as to Treatment under Disease. By +H. D. RICHARDSON. Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings. 1 vol. +12mo, 25 cts. paper cover, 38 cts. cloth. + + This is not only a cheap, but one of the best works ever + published on the Dog. + + +THE BOOK OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE: + +A Cyclopaedia of Six Thousand Practical Receipts, and Collateral +Information in the Arts, Manufactures, and Trades; including Medicine, +Pharmacy, and Domestic Economy, designed as a compendious Book of +Reference for the Manufacturer, Tradesman, Amateur, and Heads of +Families. By ARNOLD JAMES COOLEY, Practical Chemist. Illustrated with +numerous Wood Engravings. Forming one handsome volume, 8vo, of 464 +pages. Price $2 25, bound. + + +TREATISE ON THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING: + +ADAPTED TO NORTH AMERICA, WITH A VIEW TO THE IMPROVEMENT OF COUNTRY +RESIDENCES-- + +Comprising Historical Notices and General Principles of the Art, Directions for + Laying Out Grounds and Arranging Plantations, the Description and + Cultivation of Hardy Trees, Decorative Accompaniments of the + House and Grounds, the Formation of pieces of Artificial + Water, Flower Gardens, etc., with remarks on Rural + Architecture. A new edition, enlarged, + revised and newly illustrated. + +By A. J. DOWNING, author of "Designs for Cottage Residences," etc. + +A new and improved edition, 8vo., illustrated, $3 50. + + "Insult not Nature with absurd expense, + Nor spoil her simple charms by vain pretense; + Weigh well the subject, be with caution bold, + Profuse of genius, not profuse of gold." + +RIKER, THORPE & CO., 129 Fulton st., New York. + +"There is no work extant which can be compared in ability to Downing's +volume on this subject. It is not overlaid with elaborate and learned +disquisition, like the English works, but it is truly +practical."--_Louisville Journal._ + +"Mr. Downing's works have been greatly influential in recommending among +us that life which has always seemed to us the perfection of human +existence--the life of men of education, living upon and cultivating +their own farms."--_Cour. and Enq._ + +"The principles he lays down are not only sound, but are developed on a +uniform system, which is not paralleled in any English work."--_Prof. +Lindley's Chronicle, London._ + + +=RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & CO.=, + +_MANUFACTURERS AT WORCESTER_, + +And Wholesale and Retail Dealers in + +AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES, + +=Garden, Field and Flower Seeds=, + +FRUIT AND ORNAMENTAL TREES, SHRUBS, ROSES, VINES AND PLANTS, + +GUANO, BONE DUST, PHOSPHATES, POUDRETTE, &c. + +Also, Agricultural and Horticultural Publications, and Agents for +Principal Nurseries, + +AT THE + +QUINCY HALL + +=AGRICULTURAL WAREHOUSE AND SEED STORE=, + +OVER QUINCY MARKET, SOUTH MARKET ST., + +=BOSTON, MASS.= + + + + +WAGENER'S AMERICAN SEED + +=HARVESTER.= + + +HIGHEST PREMIUMS AWARDED + +=At the World's Fair Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations, 1853.= + +ALSO BY THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE, NEW YORK. + +VARIOUS OTHER APPROBATIONS HAVE BEEN RECEIVED. + +This Machine consists of a simple frame and box mounted on wheels, in +front of which is a cylinder, set with spiral knives, acting in concert +with curved spring teeth, in combination with a straight knife, which +forms a perfect shear, and severs the head from the stalk; the heads are +at the same time discharged into the box. The teeth being made to spring +and vibrate, not a particle of clover, however stalky or thick, can +possibly escape being cut, or allow the teeth to become clogged. The +Cylinder and Knives are protected by an adjustible guard plate, thus +allowing only the heads to pass to the Knives, retaining the head, and +the head only--thus leaving the stalk to enrich the soil. The machine is +so constructed that it can be made adjustible to the height of the +Clover and Timothy. + +To be seen at the Crystal Palace. Price of the machines moderate. + + The Farmer will find that by this process, he may save two crops + of Timothy per year. When the seed is ripe the tops can be + clipped, and the straw left until fall to mature. You now have + your seed and hay in two crops of equal value; in case of + clover, you mow the first crop for hay, the second for seed; you + in both cases get better seed and hay with less labor and + expense than grain crops, at the same time leaving the soil + clothed with a coat of straw, for the coming season, which will + increase the value of the soil for crops, make fine pastures and + fine stock, while it fits the land for fine grain. In this way + lands in our states have been raised in production from five to + twenty-five or thirty bushels of wheat per acre, in the course + of a few years. + + This is within the reach of every farmer, without money or + labor, as organic matter accumulates from the atmosphere and is + deposited in the soil. + +Manufactured and for sale by the Patentee and Proprietor, + +JEPTHA A. WAGENER. +_Office 348 West Twenty-Fourth Street, New York._ + +All orders for Machines this season should be sent in immediately, in +order to have them in readiness for harvest time. + +=Price of Machines, $100 and $110, two sizes, at the Manufactory.= + +--> Rights of States and Counties on favorable terms. + + "Wagener's Clover and Timothy Seed Harvester has been in + successful operation two seasons, and has received the premium + at the World's Fair and at the Fair of the American Institute, + and various other testimonials of superior value. They are + manufactured and for sale by the inventor, Jeptha A. Wagener, at + 348 West 24th street, New York."--_U. S. Journal._ + +The Grain Harvester is in course of preparation, and will soon be +offered for sale. + + + + +THE WORKING FARMER, + +PUBLISHED ON THE FIRST OF EACH MONTH, + +At 143 Fulton St., (upper side,) a few doors east of Broadway, New York. + + +TERMS. + +One year, _payable in advance_, $1 00 +Clubs of six subscribers, 5 00 +Clubs of twelve subscribers, 10 00 +Clubs of twenty-five subscribers, 20 00 +Single copies, 10 +Volume one, in paper cover, 50 +Volumes two, three, four and five, in paper cover, each 1 00 + +Postage on the WORKING FARMER, _if paid at the Subscriber's Post +Office_, is, for + +Any distance within the United States, 3000 miles and under, _one cent_ +for each paper. If paid at a Subscriber's Post Office, _in advance_, +1-3/4 cents per quarter, or 7 cents per year. + +Postage on bound volumes in _paper covers, if pre-paid at the New York +Post Office_, + + Vol. I. | Vols. II., III., IV & V. +Any distance within United cts. | cts. +States, 3000 miles and under 22 | 26 each volume. + +If not pre-paid at the New York Post Office, double the above rates will +be charged. + +Subscriptions must commence with the year, namely, March; or the even +half year, September; and for not less than one year. + +Remittances can be made, from such States as have no small paper +circulation, in gold dollars, Post Office stamps, or the bills of other +States. + +=ADVERTISEMENTS.= + +Five lines, one dollar each insertion, and in the same ratio for more +lengthy advertisements. + +Post-paid Letters, addressed to the Publisher, will meet with prompt +attention. + +FRED'K McCREADY, +143 Fulton street, upper side, a few doors east of Broadway. + + +MAPES' + +IMPROVED + +SUPER + +PHOSPHATE OF LIME + +160 lbs. + +FREDK. McCREADY + +WHOLESALE AGT. 143 FULTON STREET, + +KEEP DRY. N.Y. + +SEVERAL IMITATIONS of this celebrated fertilizer having been introduced +among the dealers since the introduction of the _Improved +Super-Phosphate of Lime_, I beg to state that all manufactured under the +recipe of Prof. J. J. Mapes, is + +MARKED ON THE BAGS AS ABOVE, + +and each bag contains his certificate of having been made under his +superintendence. + +--> Orders for the above fertilizer by mail, from strangers, should be +accompanied with the money, a draft, or proper references. The bags +contain exactly 160 lbs., which at two and a half cents per pound, +amounts to four dollars. + +FRED'K McCREADY, 143 Fulton street, New York. + + + + +[Illustration] + +THE UNIVERSAL CULTIVATOR, + +Described on page 254, + +Is represented in the above cut. It is manufactured by us, and is sold +by all implement dealers. + + +OUR + +IMPROVED HORSE HOE, + +Of which a cut may be seen on p. 254, + +Is now manufactured at our establishment, and is sold throughout the +Union. It is the best implement for weeding, etc. ever made. + + +THE SOD AND SUB-SOIL PLOW, + +(Sometimes called the MICHIGAN PLOW,) + +Consists of two plows on the same beam. The first inverts the sod to the +depth of a few inches, and the hindmost plow brings up the lower soil, +depositing it on the inverted sod. + +FOR DEEP TILLAGE, especially on prairie land, this is superior to any of +its competitors. + +RUGGLES, NOURSE, MASON & CO. +Worcester, Mass., and Quincy Hall, Boston. + + + + +TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES + +Page 8 Page number added for tables of analysis +Page 22 Period added after "great brilliancy" +Page 33 seashore standardised to sea-shore; genii standardised to genie +Page 39 No footnote anchor was in place. Anchor added after "are + formed," as this seemed most reasonable in context. +Page 52 quanties corrected to quantities; nutricious corrected to + nutritious +Page 53 Footnote marker added for "See Johnston's Elements, page 41." +Page 55 ? added after "in their composition" in footer +Page 74 Removed second "the" in "is the the foundation of Agricultural + Geology." +Page 142 pigstye standardised to pig-stye +Page 144 plough standardised to plow +Pages 145, 211 subsoil plow standardised to sub-soil plow [Note that in + line with the more common usage in this work, the phrases + sub-soil plow and sub-soiling have retained their hyphens] +Page 148 Removed second n in mannures +Page 152 postash corrected to potash +Page 157 suplying corrected to supplying +Page 167 carbonia corrected to carbonic +Page 174 buck-wheat standardised to buckwheat +Pages 196, 232, 234, 235, 237, 238, 241 sub-soil standardised to subsoil +Page 204 ? Added after Mineral in the question section +Page 211 water tight standardised to water-tight +Page 223 Second 6. changed to 7. +Page 232 oxydation standardised to oxidation +Page 266 Period added after lbs in 1620 lbs rye straw +Page 272 Title No. XVI. added to table +Page 273 10,000 corrected to 100.00 +Page 290 accurracy corrected to accuracy +Page 292 Number of pages unclear. 464 Guessed. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Elements of Agriculture, by George E. 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