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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Adequate Preparation for the Teacher of
+Biological Sciences in Secondary Schools, by James Daley McDonald
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Adequate Preparation for the Teacher of Biological Sciences in Secondary Schools
+
+Author: James Daley McDonald
+
+Release Date: January 13, 2010 [EBook #30957]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEACHER OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness, Ritu Aggarwal and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
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+
+
+                     ADEQUATE PREPARATION FOR THE
+                    TEACHER OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
+                         IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
+
+
+                           J. Daley McDonald
+
+
+    Submitted to the School of Education of the University of
+    California in partial fulfillment of the minor requirements
+    for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
+
+                             November 15th
+                                 1921
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+  Introduction                                                     3
+    Retarding factors in improvement                               4
+  Qualifications in subject matter                                 5
+    Scope of Biology                                               6
+    Values and relations of Biology                                7
+    Adaptation of course to community conditions                  10
+    Freedom from textbook slavery                                 11
+    Materials and laboratory equipment                            12
+    Historical setting                                            13
+    Spirit of research                                            14
+  Qualifications in method                                        16
+    Factors determining correct method                            16
+    History of scientific method                                  17
+    Problem method                                                17
+    Accuracy and logical constructive thinking                    18
+    Teacher's final method necessarily unique                     19
+  Summary of necessary qualifications                             19
+  Opportunity for adequate preparation                            20
+    Lack of professional course                                   20
+    Requirements of Teachers Recommendation in Zoology            21
+    Courses not adapted for teacher-preparation                   22
+    Professional course the goal                                  23
+    Suggested modifications of present courses                    24
+    Course in special methods                                     25
+    Practice teaching                                             27
+  Bibliography                                                    29
+
+
+
+
+The use of the term _preparation_ herein is intended to indicate
+partially the limitation of the problem attempted. The following
+discussion will be concerned only with such attributes of the
+successful teacher as are the direct result, or at least greatly
+enhanced by thorough preparation. A sufficiently comprehensive and
+difficult problem remains after still further restriction of the field
+so as to include only subject matter and the method of biological
+science.
+
+It is scarcely necessary to make the statement that the standards of
+preparation and the facilities for meeting these standards have been
+enormously improved within the past few years. Evidence of this is
+found in the changes recently made in the curricula of and the
+requirements for graduation from the California State Teachers
+Colleges. Neither is it necessary to say that improvement must
+continue. Such problems are evolutionary. Notwithstanding that
+requirements for teachers certificates have been raised the country
+over, the universities are not generally making very rapid strides in
+affording opportunities for better preparation in subject-matter and
+special methods. In corroboration, witness the recent criticisms of
+the departmental courses in special methods now given in universities
+generally (Swift, 1918; Taylor, 1918). The length of time or the
+number of units of work required for certification may be increased
+but that does not insure a finer _quality_ of preparation.
+
+In attempting to explain the slow pace of improvement in the quality
+of preparation for the teaching of science, one becomes involved in a
+cycle. Science had its development in the college and university
+whence it diffused slowly into the secondary schools, and finally
+slightly into the elementary grades. The differences between the aims
+of college science and secondary school science were and still are not
+taken sufficiently into account. As an inevitable result there are to
+be found in the curricula of high schools too many science courses
+that are mere dilutions of the college type, with no modification of
+purpose, and just enough change in method and subject matter to bring
+them partially within the power of understanding of the less mature
+mind. This situation in turn reflected upon the higher institutions of
+learning in such a way that it seemed that they were giving adequate
+training of the correct type. And such would have been the case had
+the college course in the particular science been planned for the
+express purpose of being diluted to suit secondary school needs. But
+it will be generally conceded that such courses never have existed.
+
+Another retarding factor in the evolution of the problem has been the
+subordination of special training in subject matter to other really
+less important qualifications, in the selection of teachers. The table
+given below, compiled from statistics gathered in one of the States
+during 1916, shows sufficient justification for the above statement.
+And not only has the preparation in subject matter been too little
+considered in choosing teachers, but also in the administration of
+schools specially intended for teacher-training. An educator of high
+standing in California is credited with making the criticism of the
+Normal Schools of the State; that they attempt to teach a person how
+to teach intelligently something about which he knows nothing. When
+teachers have adequate preparation in subject matter as well as in
+methods, and when they are employed to teach only those subjects for
+which they are fitted, then the problem of maintaining a high standard
+of teaching will be well nigh solved.
+
+      Subject  | Prepared & | Not prepared | Prepared and | Total
+               |  teaching  |  & teaching  | not teaching |
+    -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+-------
+    Physiology |     19     |       8      |      57      |   84
+    -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+-------
+    Botany     |     71     |      39      |      74      |  184
+    -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+-------
+    Zoology    |      9     |      20      |       5      |   34
+    -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+-------
+    Agriculture|     63     |      14      |      84      |  161
+    -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+-------
+
+
+
+
+                    Preparation in Subject Matter
+
+
+Before facing the problem of preparation for the teaching of
+biological sciences in the secondary schools, there must be a clear
+conception of the aims and legitimate purposes of these sciences in
+the high school. We are fortunate in having the aims of biology
+clearly and concisely stated by the Commission on the Reorganization
+of Secondary Education of the N.E.A. ("Reorganization of Science in
+Secondary Schools", U.S. Dep't. Interior, Bureau of Education,
+Bulletin 26, 1920). These aims will not be considered in their
+entirety but only in so far as they bear directly on the problems
+that follow. Before proceeding further, for simplification we will
+assume that the teacher is assigned to teach biological sciences only.
+Even then the field is quite comprehensive, for besides instruction in
+general biology, there will be courses of a more advanced type, in
+Zoology, Botany, Physiology, and often Bacteriology, Sanitation, or
+Agriculture. However, with preparation in the fundamentals necessary
+for biology a teacher should be able to conduct such courses without
+difficulty. Thus the problem is sufficiently inclusive if it concerns
+preparation for biology alone.
+
+The brief literal translation of the word _biology_, science of life,
+is full explanation of its scope. A course in the subject is not
+Zoology, nor Botany, nor Bacteriology, nor Physiology--but rather all
+of these in one. Biology should logically follow the nature study of
+the elementary grades. The course must be so planned that it will give
+the pupils the maximum of serviceable fundamentals and at the same
+time be a basis for further study in advanced courses, if he desires
+to continue; but such that he will miss none of the essentials if he
+does not. Since science is the product of mature minds, the
+culmination of knowledge, then in this course for adolescents, the
+"ology" must not be too greatly stressed lest the essential part, the
+"bios" be obscured. The goal then is a course in which a study of
+plant life, a study of bacteria in relation to human welfare, a study
+of animal life, and the biology of the human, are all incorporated
+with well balanced emphasis. This is the type of course recommended by
+the Commission on Reorganization for the ninth or tenth year pupils,
+so is the end toward which preparation should be made.
+
+The next question concerns what constitutes adequate preparation for
+the direction of studies of animate nature. First and foremost is a
+realization of the aims, or better, the values, and relations of
+biology. It is a socializing subject and must be so taught--man is
+social. Biology affects man vitally, directly his behavior follows
+natural laws, and indirectly by illustration and comparison brings him
+to a better understanding biologic laws underlying the organization of
+society. By way of illustration we need only to cite the struggle for
+existence and the division of labor with their far reaching influence
+in determining the course of evolution. It would be impossible, I
+believe, to teach biology so poorly that it did not have some
+socializing value; but it comes very near to being done in some cases,
+there is little doubt.
+
+A paramount aim is the improvement of living conditions, both as it
+concerns measures for group sanitation and factors in the health of
+the individual. This should be the almost exclusive aim in those parts
+of the course dealing with bacteria and disease, and the biology of
+man, or physiology and eugenics. Biology has many applications in our
+economic life. It is the very foundation of agriculture. The lumber
+industry is beginning to find that there are biologic laws. The
+Government of the United States some time ago established a Bureau of
+Fisheries for the purpose of studying the biological problems involved
+in the continuance and furtherance of our extensive fisheries
+industry.
+
+So far as the individual is concerned, biology should train him to
+observe life phenomena accurately and to form logical conclusions,
+through the use of problems. This ability is a valuable asset whatever
+his life work may be. Also, if it is the right kind of a course, and
+well taught, it will enrich the life of the boy or girl through the
+aesthetic appeal of plants and animals, and so make possible a sincere
+appreciation and enjoyment of nature. In addition, the study of
+biology should make clear to the pupil the important part that the
+intensive study of the various biological sciences has played in the
+whole marvelous scientific progress of the past centuries.
+
+Along with these values certain relations of biology must be well
+understood if it is to be well taught. These relations may be
+conveniently segregated into five groups, 1) relations to world
+problems, 2) to problems of the state, 3) to the community, 4) to the
+school curriculum, and 5) to individual pupils. To world problems
+biology bears many relations, for example, it is fundamental in the
+analysis of immigration problems, especially those phases concerning
+health, over-population, and the probable hereditary effects of
+assimilation through hybridization. State problems of health
+protection, conservation of game and forests, control of rodents and
+other crop pests, and others can only be solved after gaining a
+thorough knowledge of the underlying natural laws, and acting in
+accordance with them. How inadequate a game conservation law of closed
+season, without regard to the breeding habits of the animal concerned!
+Again, State regulations regarding the care of mentally deficient,
+especially in the prevention of intermarriage, must be given
+consideration from the biological as well as the ethical point of
+view.
+
+As we consider the smaller group unit so the relations of biology to
+that group become more special. A biology course may be readily
+standardized for national problems, but for any given community the
+course must be somewhat unique. A course planned for a rural
+population would not be fitted for a school in an overcrowded section
+of a city. Where there are differences in social and biological
+problems there also must be fitting adaptive changes in the course in
+biology. In addition to these community relations, the teacher must
+keep in mind the relations between the biology course and the other
+courses in the curriculum of the school. Such a question as this
+should arise in the mind of the teacher; how may my work be made to
+correlate with that of Domestic Science? The possibilities are many,
+there is the field of dietetics, scientific determination of the best
+methods of sweeping methods by bacterial culture methods, and the role
+of bacteria, yeasts and molds in the culinary arts constitute a few of
+them. How about cooperation with the English Department? Certainly
+every bit of written work, every oral recitation, should measure up to
+standards of ability in expression as well as to standards of
+attainment in the mastery of certain scientific information. This
+cooperation has been carried out to great mutual benefit in some
+schools. These illustrations are sufficient to illustrate, though the
+teacher should not overlook any department of the school.
+
+Relations to class and to individual will be considered in conjunction
+with teaching methods.
+
+The values and interrelations of biology have been discussed at some
+length because they must serve as criteria in deciding what
+constitutes adequate preparation.
+
+The comprehensiveness and vital nature of the subject, biology,
+present at once an inspiration and an element of fear to the
+conscientious teacher. They cause him to regard in utter amazement,
+the applicant for a position who in answer to question replies "No, I
+have never taken any courses in biological Science, but I can easily
+prepare myself to teach it, if need be." The impossibility of such
+impromptu development of skill in the teaching of biology will become
+more apparent as we proceed.
+
+Besides a full appreciation of the aims and relations of the subject,
+the teacher must be able to construct a course especially adapted in
+content to the peculiar needs of the particular community. This
+follows from what was said of relations in a previous paragraph. The
+development of such a course demands sufficient knowledge of economics
+and sociology to make possible a correct analysis of local conditions
+and so find what is required. The course to fulfill the requirements
+will necessarily be to some extent new, and just to such extent may
+the teacher feel something of the inspiration of the pioneer. Relative
+values must be established; emphasis must be properly placed--life of
+distant regions should not be taught except as local material may not
+be available to illustrate some very essential point, yet too often a
+carefully pickled grasshopper is transported from Florida to
+California, there to be dissected by some unfortunate high school lad.
+Not only must the larger divisions of the course be carefully balanced
+and tested for value, but each lesson must justify its induction into
+it. It is at this point that the relation to the individual is the
+chief criterion.
+
+Each lesson of the series that makes up the course must justify its
+place by having some rather direct bearing upon the life of the
+individual pupil. The core of the lesson must be either the pupils
+problem or one in which his interest can be readily stimulated. Herein
+is the value of the project method of science teaching, the problem is
+sure to be of interest to the pupil since he himself chooses it. Other
+questions to which the lesson must give satisfactory answer are; Why
+this particular lesson, at all? What relation does it bear to the
+preceding and following lessons? Is it of real value to the pupil in
+his living? What biological phenomenon does it teach? Is it the best
+problem to illustrate that particular phenomenon? What generalizations
+and practical applications can the _pupil_ make?
+
+The organization of a course in biology which is fitted to the needs
+of a certain community, the conditions of a particular class of
+pupils, and to the needs of the individual pupils so far as possible,
+requires that the teacher have an extensive knowledge of the subject
+matter as a background freeing him from the necessity of dependence on
+a textbook. Anyway, a biology teacher conducting the right sort of a
+course, will see that the textbook is only an incidental, if used at
+all. A continuation of set assignments in most textbooks would dampen
+the ardor of pupils generally. Besides, few localities have textbooks
+fitted to their specific needs. One that does have is New York City.
+In fact it has two, "Elementary Biology" by Peabody & Hunt, and "Civic
+Biology" by Hunter. These both have a large sale throughout the United
+States, But, of course, in most localities they can be used only to
+furnish supplementary reading, since _portions_ only will be adapted
+to the conditions of the restricted locality. The fundamental life
+processes are the same the world over, but varying environmental
+conditions necessitates a variation in emphasis, in application, and
+in the choice of problems which make up the course. If the teacher is
+well prepared in subject matter, there is little use for a laboratory
+manual except as it may suggest new methods and new experimental
+materials. Students of the high school age should never be compelled
+to follow a set laboratory outline with detailed instructions for
+procedure; it will kill every whit of initiative. The teacher must be
+so prepared, then, that he is able to steer a free course, employing
+books for reference and supplementary reading almost exclusively. He
+will cause the student to realize that the books are the result of
+_human_ effort and therefor not infallible, and that they must always
+take second place to first hand observation and experiment. The study
+of animate nature, with endless opportunity for observation and
+experiment on every hand, permits little excuse for such method as is
+illustrated by "Be prepared to recite on the next three pages in the
+book, tomorrow, and read experiment 37 so that you wont have to waste
+any time in getting started with the laboratory work".
+
+Somewhere in the course of preparation the teacher must have obtained
+a thorough knowledge of laboratory apparatus and supplies. The
+selection of types of apparatus best fitted to the course, and the
+knowledge of where to buy are both necessary. Also judgement must be
+exercised in purchase for few are the places where funds are adequate
+for the ideal equipment of a laboratory. The money value of every
+piece of apparatus must be balanced against its relative usefulness in
+the successful culmination of the course. Besides this there must be a
+knowledge of the various uses to which the available apparatus may be
+put. A great deal depends on the ingenuity of the teacher in the
+adaptation of even comparatively simple apparatus. In connection with
+the laboratory part (and this should be the major part) of the course,
+there arises the question of field work and excursions. Laboratory is
+at best merely a substitute for the great out-of-doors, so the more
+work that can be done in the field the better. Aside from exploration
+to discover what parts of the particular locality will yield the
+largest fund of valuable biological information, the problem here is
+mainly one of method.
+
+The teacher to be at his best must be somewhat of a naturalist. Upon
+his fund of interesting stories about the animals and plants that the
+children all know, will depend very largely the appeal of the work to
+the pupil. Something of the spirit that distinguished John Muir as the
+great naturalist is an inestimable asset to the teacher. If it is not
+among his natal blessings, he need not be completely discouraged for
+it can be acquired to some degree at least. Besides the advantage just
+mentioned, the fauna and flora must be sufficiently well known so that
+_choice_ is possible for laboratory experiment and illustrative
+purposes.
+
+In order to present any subject well, its historical aspect enters
+into consideration. The influence of individuals, of governments, of
+religion, and of the social ideals have all had their share in
+determining the present status of the subject. Science as it now is,
+is the result of growth, it has undergone evolution, and is at
+present evolving. This will be thoroughly understood by the teacher of
+science, and this understanding will determine in part the method of
+presentation. In the history of the development of science there are
+many men well worthy of hero worship. It is hard to find more
+inspirational characters than those of Pasteur, and Lazear; men who
+devoted (in latter instance, sacrificed life) their lives to service
+for humanity. In the life and work of Charles Darwin we find a
+splendid example of painstaking search for the truth. The records of
+the rocks, (Paleontology, the nature-written history of biology) will
+often come to the rescue of the teacher in clearing up the
+presentation of the difficult problems of evolution. The historic
+attitude must be "put over" to the pupil too, for _he_ must know his
+world as the result of the evolutionary process, and as still in the
+process of evolution.
+
+Even at the risk of adverse criticism I desire to include among the
+qualifications of a good teacher the spirit of research. This spirit
+can be acquired by specialization in one of the fields of biological
+science, followed by some actual research work.
+
+Research in science is fundamental. It has three aims or ends, 1)
+discovery of facts thus increasing the sum total of knowledge. This is
+science for science sake. 2) Individual development. And, 3) Social
+service. These last two aims are most important to the teacher. So,
+his problem for investigation should have some practical bearing, and
+should be of his own choosing, not pointedly suggested by the
+professor in charge as is too often the case. If the research student
+is given a problem which is some minor part of a larger problem being
+investigated by his professor it will preclude the very thing the
+prospective teacher needs, namely practice in recognizing, analyzing,
+and solving a problem in its entirety and solely on his own resources.
+Being a mere helper is probably not the best way to secure such
+ability. Investigation may be broadening and developing to the
+individual or it may prove to be quite the reverse, but that lies
+within the control of the individual. Research for the teacher must
+emphasize equally actual additions to knowledge and personal attitude.
+It must not be an end in itself but a means to an end. The attitude of
+the investigator is essential to the understanding of children for the
+child is first of all an investigator. His questions, "what? why? how?
+when?" prove this beyond doubt. What is this but a search for truth,
+causal factors, and interrelations? Education uses this wholesome
+curiosity as a foundation principle, so the teacher must exhibit a
+sympathetic understanding of this universal attribute of children. No
+better summary of a discussion of the values of research can be found
+for our purposes than that by G. W. A. Luckey. It follows.
+
+    "In order that teaching may be intelligent and in harmony
+    with the laws of nature there must be a deeper and clearer
+    knowledge of human growth and development. The teacher must
+    know the nature of the individual to be taught and the ends
+    to be reached in proper nurture. This can not be gained
+    through the study of books alone, but may come through
+    properly directed research in the workshop of life."
+
+    One of the aims of present day education is "to develop a
+    man, the best man possible under the conditions; to assist
+    nature through nurture; to enable the individual to find
+    himself and to evolve naturally and rapidly to the highest
+    levels and even to rise above them. According to this
+    conception ... the initiative must come from within. The aim
+    of the teacher should be to develop a self-sustaining,
+    self-directing, altruistic individual keenly alive to the
+    interests of humanity. Such an ideal is progressive,
+    scientific, and fits one through studies of yesterday and
+    today to live the best and truest life tomorrow. To see and
+    appreciate this ideal, research is necessary."
+
+The last requirement to be considered in this discussion, is a good
+foundation in Physics and Chemistry. Biological science is not
+entirely separable from physical science, for a majority of life
+phenomena, in final analysis can be explained only in terms of
+physical science. Physiology has for its very foundation Physics and
+Chemistry. Among the newest of the sciences is Biochemistry, the
+chemistry of life; and within its limits are some of the most
+promising fields of research. No argument is necessary, a knowledge of
+physical science is indispensable in the interpretation of life
+phenomena, and the understanding of biological processes.
+
+
+
+
+                        PREPARATION in METHODS
+
+
+Method is more closely associated with personality and with native
+ability than is subject matter. So much more must preparation in this
+field be general in nature. It must mainly concern the general
+principles of the scientific method. Specific problems and minor
+details will have to be worked out in actual practice. The final
+method found most satisfactory by any teacher, will be to some extent
+unique, but will be largely determined by three factors; the aptitudes
+of the teacher, himself, the group that he is teaching, and lastly,
+the consideration of the individual pupil. Ability to adapt ones
+procedure so as to most nearly meet these requirements, will come
+about only through experience. Ability to profit by experience, the
+human attribute which makes possible the progress of civilization, is
+a no less valuable asset to a teacher than to any other member of
+society.
+
+Balliet points out that science teaching has passed through three
+stages in the past generation. The first stage is characterized by the
+textbook method, occasionally supplemented by illustrative experiment,
+performed by the teacher. The second stage is characterized by
+individual laboratory experiment, a manual for a guide, and by a lack
+of application of the principles except for a few traditional cases.
+The third stage improves upon the second by leading the pupil, after
+formulating his generalizations, to apply them to the facts and
+phenomena of nature. "But", continues Balliet, "we must advance to a
+fourth stage. We must not only apply the generalizations, but make the
+_explanation_ of the facts and phenomena of nature--the interpretation
+of nature--the very goal of science teaching." All problems should be
+chosen then in the light of this last aim. The problems must be
+natural, not in any way artificial, and they should be those of the
+immediate environment of the pupil. To meet these obligations may be
+in some cases difficult, but it should not be impossible.
+
+In biological science there is a rich field permitting a considerable
+choice in method. There are observations, projects, experiments,
+excursions, individual reports, book readings, quizzes, and
+conferences. In a single well chosen problem or project nearly all of
+these will be employed. Biology lends itself ideally to the problem
+method of teaching. By using some every day problem of the pupil, his
+interest is assured. Even a seemingly simple problem if skilfully
+directed, will ramify into several fields of biology before its
+solution is completed. And the number of practicable problems is
+almost limitless, but not all are equally good for the purpose, so the
+teacher must often tactfully modify the pupils choice. Original
+choices are likely to be too complex for the pupil to solve at his
+stage of progress, so must be simplified, without his feeling that he
+has been interfered with, without causing a wane in his interest. It
+is clear that the real problem in the problem-method is the teacher's.
+Practically, it is quite impossible to handle _individual_ projects in
+large classes. In the writer's experience, he has had on the average
+80 different pupils per day in four separate classes. It is clearly
+beyond the power of any teacher to direct simultaneously eighty
+different projects, and it would be a physical impossibility to
+furnish the necessary laboratory apparatus. So, for this reason the
+teacher may find it necessary to divide, as diplomatically as
+possible, the classes into congenial groups, each with its problem, so
+that the total number of problems will be so limited that each one may
+be given adequate attention. It seems that such must be the limitation
+of the problem-method under the conditions prevailing in the public
+schools today.
+
+The procedure in solving a problem will consist of these steps in the
+order named, 1) understanding of the purpose, 2) the procedure or
+method of attack, 3) observation of results, 4) and the use of these
+in making some generalizations or arriving at some conclusions. Then
+there must follow a testing of these generalizations or conclusions by
+further experimentation. Accuracy must be the keynote of all work,
+accuracy in recording experiments, accuracy in observation, accuracy
+in drawing, which serves as a shortcut method of description. Neatness
+is very desireable but should never supercede thinking and
+understanding. If the problem has stimulated some accurate logical
+thinking on the part of the pupil, then time spent on it has been well
+spent. If, besides, it has yielded some valuable useable information,
+the solving of the problem has been a marked success. The laboratory
+method has been such an emancipation from the textbook slavery that
+there is some tendency to elevate it to an end in itself, whereas it
+must serve only as a very valuable _means_ to an end. "The ideal
+laboratory is only a reasonably good substitute for the out-of-doors."
+
+So far as preparation in the methods of science teaching is concerned,
+much good may be accomplished in teachers courses and in practice
+teaching. But it must necessarily be of a general nature, for the
+unique individual method, determined by the interaction of teacher and
+pupil and the reaction of both to subject matter can evolve only hand
+in hand with teaching experience.
+
+Before proceeding further it might be well, by way of summary, to
+remind ourselves that the minimum qualifications for a teacher of
+biology must include the following; a) a large fund of the most
+interesting and most valuable facts of biology, b) a full realization
+of the values and vital relations of biology to humanity, c) ability
+to develop a course meeting the unique needs of the community,
+d) familiarity with purchase and useability of laboratory equipment,
+e) knowledge of the history of science, f) spirit of and sympathy with
+research, g) a knowledge of physical science as related to biology,
+h) and knowledge of the laboratory method and its value in the
+promotion of accurate logical constructive thinking.
+
+
+
+
+                 OPPORTUNITY FOR ADEQUATE PREPARATION.
+
+
+What possibilities of making adequate preparation, are to be found in
+colleges and universities? And how much preparation is required by the
+Teacher's Recommendation or other standards of fitness? In search of
+the answers to our questions, we may study conditions at the
+University of California, for there is as good opportunity and
+standards are as high in this school as anywhere in the country. The
+quantity of preparation is fairly assured by the five-year requirement
+for the Teacher's Recommendation, but the quality of the preparation
+is not so certainly assured. With the possible exception of the
+Education Department, no department considers the training of teachers
+even nearly equal in importance to the production of specialists in
+the subject who shall devote their lives to research. The subject is
+regarded as an end in itself.
+
+If a person were directed to make preparation for the teaching of
+biology, he would be at a loss in searching for the Biology
+Department, or even a department that gave a good comprehensive course
+in biology. The subject as best taught in the secondary schools is
+subdivided into various components, each with its special aim. The
+prospective teacher has no carefully prepared course of study for his
+pursuit, as has the prospective doctor, engineer, or farmer. The state
+provides a specially adapted course of training for its veterinarians,
+those who care for its livestock. Why not a special course of high
+standard for those who plan to devote their lives to the direction of
+the formative years of its children? It is probably explained in large
+part by the failure to recognize teaching as a profession. The
+Schools of Education throughout the country have been insisting upon
+real professional training for teachers but other departments are
+deplorably slow in cooperating.
+
+In order to avoid becoming entangled in abstractions, we may choose a
+specific instance to show the difficulties in the way of securing the
+correct _kind_ of preparation, even though the quantity is guaranteed.
+The Zoology Department (I choose this department neither because it is
+worse nor better than any other, but because I am better acquainted
+with the content of its courses) makes the following requirements for
+the Teacher's Recommendation:
+
+  General Zoology
+  Invertebrate Zoology -- an advanced course which omits all
+                          consideration of insects, and all
+                          discussion of parasitic forms.
+  Vertebrate Zoology -- mainly a course in comparative morphology,
+                        which gives no field knowledge of California
+                        vertebrates, the most essential thing for
+                        the high school teacher.
+
+  and one subject from each of the following groups,
+
+  Group I
+    Comparative Anatomy.
+    Cytology -- basic principles must be understood by the teacher
+                but he should not have to spend one whole half year
+                to acquire them.
+    Embryology -- the above is also true for this course.
+
+  Group II.
+    Biology of Water Supplies -- this course is primarily for
+                                 sanitary engineers.
+    Protozoology -- All that is necessary of this could be
+                    incorporated in a general course.
+    Parasitology -- essential for health instruction and for
+                    illustration of certain biological principles.
+
+  Group III.
+    Experimental Zoology  } combination of these valuable.
+    Animal Behavior       }
+    Heredity, Evolution, and Eugenics -- this course is very essential
+                                         for _any_ teacher.
+
+  (Required in the fifth year, the Teachers' Course, some work in
+  research, and practice teaching.)
+
+Taken as a whole, the chief criticism to be made is that the subject
+has been so subdivided to insure no overlapping of courses, that it
+becomes necessary to take every course in order to obtain a well
+rounded preparation in the field. This requires more time than any
+individual can devote to it, for he must also have preparation in
+Botany, Physiology, and Bacteriology and Hygiene, and in these
+departments the arrangement of courses is essentially the same. The
+general course in Zoology is inadequate, for it is planned for an
+introduction to the more advanced courses and is careful not to steal
+too much from their fund of interesting information. The aim is to lay
+a thorough foundation rather than to discuss the more interesting
+facts and general principles of biology, though I am glad to believe
+that the present trend is decidedly in this latter direction.
+
+Here we find adequate preparation for a teacher of _Zoology_, but in
+no secondary school of the state will a teacher be employed for
+Zoology alone. In high schools the biological science curriculum the
+first course must be _Biology_, and it must be all-inclusive, for it
+is all of the biological science that the majority of the pupils will
+take. It would be a great step in advance if every school _required_
+even that much for graduation.
+
+Of the courses in Invertebrate Zoology and Vertebrate Zoology, it can
+be safely said that they overlook the importance of field work. Boys
+and girls sometimes have a surprisingly large superficial knowledge of
+the plants and animals of their vicinity, and this knowledge is of the
+sort obtained through observation of their ways in nature, that is, it
+is a _field_ knowledge. The teacher must be prepared to use this to
+the greatest possible extent, but how can this be expected if the
+teacher knows little if any more than the children about the habits of
+plants and animals. Such training would have to be obtained through
+some of the field work of the Museum of Vertebrate zoology. But no
+work in that department is required for the Teachers Recommendation. A
+knowledge, though not an intensive knowledge, of each of the subjects
+that make up the three groups included in the requirements is quite
+necessary but it is out of the question for a person to take them all
+unless he specialize in Zoology. Not all can be expected to major in
+Zoology, and those that do will find it necessary to omit much that is
+essential in the other departments of biological science. Each
+department should have a general course covering fully its field of
+work so that those majoring in some other department may in minimum
+time gain a fair knowledge of its field. It is very doubtful if such a
+course is given in any department at present.
+
+At present only a meagre view is had of the history of Biology, until
+the fifth year when it is given as seminar work. And at no time, in
+any course, are the aims and relations of biology presented in such a
+way as to be helpful to one attempting to plan the most valuable type
+of high school course. Graduate research has been sufficiently
+considered previously, and the teachers' course will be considered
+last.
+
+It will be conceded generally in thinking of the solution of the
+problem that the ideal arrangement would be a real teachers' course,
+at least five years in length. This could be comparatively easily
+accomplished by a slight modification of the departments concerned and
+their hearty cooperation with the Department of Education. The
+disregard for method on the part of the former and the failure to
+realize the importance of a thorough knowledge of subject matter by
+the latter, can are obstacles that can be easily overcome I am sure.
+The student would enter upon this course with the intention of
+becoming a teacher, just as does any student enter upon his
+professional course with the intention of becoming the professional
+man for which his training is preparing him. Few freshmen now come to
+the University of California with the intention of becoming teachers
+in the secondary schools, that I admit, but the reasons and the remedy
+for that are not for discussion here. Suffice it to say that when
+reward is adequate, then the profession will grow and come to be made
+up of the highest type of men and women.
+
+The time of the Teachers Course is not far distant and it might be
+worth while to see what could be done without radical modifications in
+the curricula of the departments as they now are. For a working basis
+I would like to present the following skeleton programme, which seems
+practicable. In this schedule all preparation except that in subject
+matter and method is understood to be included in "electives". A major
+in Zoology is assumed. Each biological science department would have a
+course of similar plan built about its major as a core.
+
+  First year,
+    Geography or Geology
+    Aims of science and its human values.
+    Chemistry
+    Electives
+
+  Second year,
+    Zoology,
+    Physics,
+    Electives
+
+  Third year,
+    Zoology--advanced courses
+    Botany,
+    Physiology
+    Electives
+
+  Fourth year,
+    Zoology--advanced courses
+    Bacteriology, and Public Health
+    Electives
+
+  Fifth year,
+    Zoology--research
+    History of Science
+    Teachers' Course, correlated with and supplementary to
+          practice teaching.
+    Electives
+
+The reasons for selection and sequence of subjects in this schedule
+are fairly evident from what has gone before, but a few points will
+bear additional explanation.
+
+A course in the aims and values of science should be introductory, for
+in the absence of general knowledge concerning values, such as has
+grown up with other professions, the student must be given early in
+his work an enthusiasm for it and a sort of guide for future choice of
+subjects for study. The difference in aim between university and
+secondary school science must be clearly understood at the start. Too
+often, university courses accept science as an end in itself and it is
+taught from that point of view, whereas the prospective teacher must
+hold to his point of view, that to humanity generally science is only
+a very effective means to an end; it is just a faithful servant.
+
+The schedule just submitted may seem to be overbalanced with science
+courses, but it must be somewhat so, especially if courses are not to
+be completely reorganized. Science would not need to consume quite so
+large a part of the time if special courses were given for
+teachers--another argument for a high grade, strictly professional
+course.
+
+Duplication of teachers' courses in special methods would be
+eliminated for a single course for all of the departments of
+biological science would be sufficient. Biology is the hub, and not
+the separate biological sciences, in the courses in this field in the
+secondary schools. The methods concerned are _biological methods_,
+and therefore a single course for all prospective teachers of
+biological science regardless of the nature of their major work, is a
+logical procedure. Whether such a course is a success or a failure is
+largely dependent on the professor in charge. In the past there have
+been many failures, mainly because the person conducting it has never
+had secondary school experience, knows little or nothing of the
+problems, and has no sincere enthusiasm for the teaching of science to
+boys and girls below the university age.
+
+The course suggested would cover an entire year. At least that much
+time is required to give any direction or instruction that is worth
+while. The first half of the year might well be devoted to a digestion
+and correlation of all previous work, organizing it into a form easily
+useable in the work to follow. Questions of method, recitation,
+laboratory and field work, textbooks and reference books purchase and
+use of equipment, must be given consideration in some part of the
+course. An outline course, with the separate lessons that make it up
+should be worked out in detail, for some particular locality,
+preferably the one where practice teaching is to be done. This should
+then be carefully tested by the criteria of a good biology course, as
+pointed out by the best authorities, and by _common sense_. But why
+make this skeleton outline beforehand? Why be prepared in anything? It
+will be too late to prepare at the moment the problem has to be met.
+Few new teachers will find a well planned course awaiting their
+arrival in a new field, and without previous experience a new teacher
+is likely to build up a course without due respect to relative values
+which comes only with a perspective of a course in its entirety. To
+illustrate, in the course given by an inexperienced teacher there is
+too much chance of six weeks time being spent on the study of the
+grasshopper, with only four weeks left at the end of the school year
+to be devoted to the biology of the human. The mapping of a course, by
+way of practice, gives the prospective teacher practice in the
+exercise of judgment, with helpful constructive criticism.
+
+Practice teaching now becomes only the trying out of the course and
+accompanying methods. As, one practice teacher remarked when this plan
+was suggested "But, I might have to make my course all over." Such
+would often be the case. Any wide-awake teacher will change his course
+more or less from year to year. Even if the first plan were entirely
+discarded the energy and thought prompted by its making would not be
+lost. And now let us change the name given to those in charge of
+practice teachers. Advisor would be more fitting than _super_visor,
+for they should remain in the background except for rendering helpful
+service, and making constructive criticism in excess of destructive.
+
+In order for practice teaching to be effective there must be nothing
+of an artificial sort enter in. Conditions must be of the regular sort
+met every day in the teaching game. This statement seems superfluous,
+but a visit to some of the classes where practice teaching is being
+done will justify its insertion here. The practice teacher should not
+be handed over a laboratory properly equipped. Of course, the
+equipment should be available. The course should not be "ready-cut".
+The practice teacher must meet _all_ of the problems and this is
+cheating him out of a part of his fun. Through his solution of these
+problems there will be a two-fold benefit, for the _advisor_ too may
+profit by the ingenuity of the newcomer. Resignation should be
+requested of any advisor who has outgrown the ability to learn. It is
+most likely to be the "green" person, who will develop really new
+methods, or evolve a more fitting experiment, or turn a bit of
+apparatus to a new use. Above all, the practice teacher should be
+required to scout for living material--there will usually be an
+abundance all about him, and much that is of interest should find its
+way into the laboratory. Training in the use of living material can
+not be over emphasized.
+
+The course which I have outlined in the previous pages, is not
+satisfactory, but I firmly believe that it would be an improvement
+over the present situation. When tried out it would show many
+shortcomings, but by trial and improvement has our entire educational
+system evolved. Even an ideal professional course in use today would
+be obsolete tomorrow. It would be unfortunate were it not so, for
+growth involves ecdysis, and growth is the law of nature.
+
+
+
+
+                    Literature from which helpful
+             suggestions were received during the course
+                            of this work.
+
+
+  Bagley, W. C.    The training of teachers as a phase of democracy's
+                  educational programme. Ed. Adm. & Supervsn. vol.4
+                  no.1, Jan.'18.
+
+  Balliet, T. M. and Robinson, C. H.    Training of Science Teachers.
+                  N. E. A. Report, vol.54, 1916, pp.734-7.
+
+  Bessey, C. E.    Preparation of botanical teachers. Science, N.S.,
+                  vol.33, pp.633-9, 1911.
+
+  Boas, F. S.    Teachers and research. Contemp., vol.116, pp.426-431.
+                  1919.
+
+  Boggs, L. P.    Making Teachers. School & Soc., vol.7, pp.369-74.
+
+  Caldwell, W. O.    Preparation of the teacher of biology. School
+                  Sci. & Math., vol.16, pp.385-92.
+
+  Coulter, J. G.    The training of elementary science teachers.
+                  School Rev., vol.24, pp.26-30.
+
+  Curtis, C.B.    Secondary school science. Ed. Adm. & Supervsn.,
+                  vol.3, Nov.1917.
+
+  Dewey, J. D.    Democracy and Education.
+
+  Kent R. A.    University preparation of teachers for high schools.
+                  School Rev., vol.27, pp.172-85.
+
+  Lange, A. F.    Preparation of high school teachers from the
+                  standpoint of the university. U. C. A. Report, 1907,
+                  pp.718-23.
+
+  Lloyd, F. E. and Bigelow, M. A.    The teaching of biology. 1909.
+                  Longmans, Green & Co.
+
+  Luckey, G. W. A.    Essentials in the training of a teacher. School
+                  and Society, vol.1, pp.263-9.
+
+  McElroy, R. M.    Teaching teachers. Ind., vol.93, pp.525-.
+
+  Pillsbury, W. H.    Buffalo plan of teacher training. Elem. Sch. Jr.
+                  vol.21, pp.595-606.
+
+  Swift, F. H.    College courses in methods of teaching high school
+                  subjects. Sch. & Soc., vol.6, pp.691-9.
+
+  Taylor, W. S.    Project methods in teacher-training courses. Sch. &
+                  Soc., vol.8, pp.487-90.
+
+  Wieman, H. L.    Teaching the scientific method vs. teaching the
+                  facts of science. Sch. & Soc., vol.3, pp.243-5.
+
+  Williams, J.T.    Teacher training in colleges.  Sch. & Soc., vol.9,
+                  pp.105-9.
+
+  Winship, A. E.    Prepare rather than train for teaching. N. E. A.
+                  Report, 1918, pp.222-6.
+
+  ----    Research vs. teaching.  Sch. & Soc., vol.11, pp. 684-5.
+
+  ----    Research as a means of teacher training. Sch. & Soc., vol.3,
+                  pp.243-5.
+
+  ----    Reorganization of science in secondary schools. U. S. Dep't.
+                  Interior, Bureau Ed., Bull.26, 1920.
+
+  ----    Cardinal principles of secondary education. U. S. Dep't.
+                  Interior, Bureau Ed., Bull.35, 1918.
+
+
+             Twiss, G.R.--Principles of Science Teaching.
+                           Macmillan. 1917.
+
+
+
+
+                         TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+1. Passages in underlines are surrounded by _underscores_.
+
+2. Tables have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the
+closest paragraph break.
+
+3. The original pages included corrections made by hand which have
+been retained in this e-text.
+
+4. The following misprints have been corrected:
+    "intellegently" corrected to "intelligently" (page 5)
+    "basterial" corrected to "bacterial" (page 9)
+    "would would" corrected to "would" (page 11)
+    "natuer" corrected to "nature" (page 15)
+    "Abilty" corrected to "Ability" (page 17)
+    "Baillet" corrected to "Balliet" (page 17)
+    "taht" corrected to "that" (page 22)
+    "modificacations" corrected to "modifications" (page 24)
+    "succes" corrected to "success" (page 26)
+    "in" corrected to "In" at start of sentence (page 26)
+    "fialures" corrected to "failures" (page 26)
+    "toworrow" corrected to "tomorrow" (page 28)
+    "Teahcing" corrected to "Teaching" (page 30)
+
+5. Some of the punctuation errors, e.g., comma instead of period,
+extra period, etc. in the original have been silently corrected
+while those requiring interpretation have been left as such.
+
+6. The titles listed in the table of contents do not match with the
+headings in the original text. However, no changes have been made in
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+7. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
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+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Adequate Preparation for the Teacher
+of Biological Sciences in Secondary Schools, by James Daley McDonald
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