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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Mechanism of the Human Voice + +Author: Emil Behnke + +Contributor: Mrs. Emil Behnke + +Release Date: January 8, 2010 [EBook #30889] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MECHANISM OF THE HUMAN VOICE *** + + + + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + +<hr class="full" /> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 320px;"><a name="pl_i" id="pl_i"></a> +<a href="images/plate_i.jpg"> +<img src="images/plate_i_th.jpg" width="320" height="550" alt=" +General view of vocal organ" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> I.</p> + +<h2 class="top15">THE MECHANISM</h2> +<p class="c">OF THE</p> +<h1>HUMAN VOICE.</h1> + +<p class="curwen smcap">(Curwen's Edition, 5263.)</p> + +<p class="c">BY</p> + +<h2>EMIL BEHNKE,</h2> + +<p class="c"><i>Late Lecturer on Vocal Physiology at the Tonic Sol-fa College,<br /> +Teacher of Voice Production.</i></p> + +<p class="c smcap">Edited, with a New Chapter on "Voice Failure,"<br /> +by Mrs. EMIL BEHNKE.</p> + +<hr class="short" /> +<p class="c">FIFTEENTH EDITION.</p> +<hr class="short1" /> + +<p class="c">LONDON:<br /> +J. CURWEN & SONS <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span>, 24 BERNERS STREET, W.<br /> +Price 1s. 6d.; <span class="smcap">Cloth</span> 2s. 6d.</p> + + +<table summary="contents" +cellspacing="0" +cellpadding="5" +style="text-align:center; +border:double gray 3px; +margin-top: 15%;padding:3%;"> +<tr><td> +<a href="#PREFACE_TO_THE_NINTH_EDITION"><b>Preface To The Ninth Edition.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PREFACE_TO_THE_THIRD_EDITION"><b>Preface To The Third Edition.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PREFACE_TO_THE_SECOND_EDITION"><b>Preface To The Second Edition.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PREFACE_TO_THE_FIRST_EDITION"><b>Preface To The First Edition.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#CONTENTS"><b>Contents.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#PLATES"><b>Plates.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#INDEX"><b>Index.</b></a><br /> +<a href="#FOOT"><b>Footnotes.</b></a><br /> +</td></tr> +</table> + + +<hr class="short15" /> +<p class="c"> +TO<br /> +MY DEAR WIFE<br /> +THIS ESSAY<br /> +IS<br /> +AFFECTIONATELY<br /> +DEDICATED<br /> +</p> +<hr class="short" /> + + +<h3><a name="PREFACE_TO_THE_NINTH_EDITION" id="PREFACE_TO_THE_NINTH_EDITION"></a>PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION.</h3> +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="nind">A ninth edition of this book having been called for, I +take the opportunity to return my sincere thanks for the +many kind expressions concerning its usefulness which +have reached me since the lamented death of its author, +my dear husband.</p> + +<p>In carrying on his work, both my daughter and +myself have felt the benefit of the clear and concise +instructions the book contains.</p> + +<p>We have also proved with our pupils the absolute truth +and value of the <span class="smcap">Behnke System of Voice Training</span>, by +means of which we have obtained results most gratifying +to ourselves, and surprising to the pupils, whether +speakers or singers.</p> + +<p>I hope that the new chapter on "Voice Failure," which +I have added by Mr. Curwen's desire, may be of some +use in preventing breakdown of voice, from which so +many students suffer.</p> + +<p class="r">K. BEHNKE.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">18, Earl's Court Square</span>, S.W.</p> + + + +<h3><a name="PREFACE_TO_THE_THIRD_EDITION" id="PREFACE_TO_THE_THIRD_EDITION"></a>PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.</h3> +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="nind">A <span class="smcap">third</span> edition of this little book has now become +necessary, and I must again express my gratitude for +the continued commendations bestowed upon my work +both in the press and in private letters.</p> + +<p>In response to many solicitations, I have added to +this edition a few hints on teaching, deduced from +physiological facts, which may prove useful by stimulating +the advance of thought in a new direction.</p> + +<p>These hints are extracts from a series of articles on +"Science and Singing" which I had the pleasure of +writing in the <i>Edinburgh St. Cecilia Magazine</i>; and I +am indebted to the Editor, Mr. A. C. Miller, for kindly +permitting me to reproduce them here.</p> + + + +<h3><a name="PREFACE_TO_THE_SECOND_EDITION" id="PREFACE_TO_THE_SECOND_EDITION"></a>PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="nind">T<span class="smcap">he</span> favourable reception and rapid sale of a large first +edition has stimulated me to revise this little book, and +without alteration of my original scheme of practical +utility, to somewhat enlarge on one or two points which +appeared to demand further elucidation.</p> + +<p>In this, as in the former edition, I have received great +assistance from my friend Mr. Lennox Browne, the +eminent throat surgeon, who, by ever patiently discussing +with me debatable points, and by giving me access +to cases, interesting from a physiological point of view, +both at the Central Throat and Ear Hospital, Gray's +Inn Road, and in his extensive private practice, has +afforded me opportunities of increasing my knowledge +and experience which would not have arisen otherwise. +I feel it a pleasure as well as a duty publicly to acknowledge +my indebtedness to him, which I have, many +times before, expressed in private.</p> + +<p>My best thanks are also due to Mr. J. Spencer +Curwen, for the help he has rendered me in many ways.</p> + +<p>And finally, it would indeed be ungrateful on my +part, if I did not place on record the obligation under +which I consider myself to my reviewers for the +uniformly favourable notice they have so kindly taken +of my first effort, and for several useful hints of which +I have duly taken advantage.</p> + +<p>One objection has been made which strikes at the +very root of the plan upon which I have proceeded in +my little volume, and to which, therefore, I beg leave +to say a few words in reply. A learned writer in the +<i>Athenæum</i> finds fault with me for making use of popular +instead of scientific terms, which, he says, may be the +cause to the reader of great confusion if he refers to +other works, and he adds that "Back Ring-Pyramid +Muscle" is almost as hard a mouthful as "Crico-Arytenoideus +posticus." I have asked several non-scientific +friends of good general education to read this +sentence to me, and they succeeded very well with +"Back Ring-Pyramid Muscle," while they utterly collapsed +when coming to "Crico-Arytenoideus posticus."</p> + +<p>This is, however, in my humble opinion, of minor +importance. The great point is, that my terms—which +by the way are not inventions, but simply translations—convey +a meaning to the general reader, and the +originals do not. This is a fact which I dared not +ignore, because my essay is intended for the people and +not for men of science. As I have taken care also, for +the sake of those who might wish to consult other and +more learned books than mine, to give the terms +generally used by physiologists by the side of my translations, +I do not think there is anything that could +ever confuse my readers.</p> + +<p>I conscientiously believe that these are good and +weighty reasons for the plan I adopted in the first +edition, and trust my reviewers, as well as my readers, +will accept them as a sufficient justification of the +same practice in the present volume.</p> + +<p class="r">E. B.</p> + +<p class="date"><i>February, 1881.</i></p> + + + +<h3><a name="PREFACE_TO_THE_FIRST_EDITION" id="PREFACE_TO_THE_FIRST_EDITION"></a>PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="nind">T<span class="smcap">he</span> number of books bearing more or less directly +on the Theory of Voice Production which have been +published during the last few years is very large, and +shows clearly the extraordinary interest taken in this +subject, not only by professional singers and speakers, +but also by the general public. If I am now about to +add another contribution to this already extensive +literature, it is simply because amongst all the many +excellent works on the Human Voice there is not one +which brings before the reader the whole subject from +beginning to end. The student who really wishes to +get a clear understanding of the matter is obliged to +wade through a variety of scientific books, and to pick +up here and there, by means of very hard reading, such +little scraps of information as, with much labour and +waste of time, he can extract from books which were, in +most instances, never written for the purpose for which +he consults them.</p> + +<p class="top5">To supply this generally-admitted want I have +written these pages, in which I have endeavoured, to +the best of my ability, to place before the reader in a +simple and comprehensive form the Physiology of the +Human Voice. I have, as far as possible, discarded all +scientific terms, and it has been my aim to treat my +subject in so simple and direct a manner as really to +enlighten my readers instead of bewildering them. A +treatise like this can, under no circumstances, be light +reading; and I ask those who are truly anxious for +information to give me patient study, accompanied by +careful reference to the diagrams. For students who +enter upon a perusal of these pages in such a spirit, +this essay is specially intended; and if I have succeeded +in making plain to such as these a really complicated +subject, then my highest ambition will be satisfied.</p> + +<p class="r">E. B.</p> + +<p class="date"><i>April, 1880.</i></p> + + + +<h3><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h3> + + +<table summary="toc" +cellspacing="2" +cellpadding="0" +style="font-weight:bold;"> +<tr><td> </td><td align="right" colspan="2" +class="smcap">Pages</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#INTRODUCTION">Introduction</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td><td>-7</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#THE_VOCAL_ORGAN_AS_A_MUSICAL">The vocal organ as a musical instrument</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td><td>-61</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#DIFFERENCES_OF_THE_VOICEBOX_OR">Differences of the voice-box, or larynx, in children, women, and men </a></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td><td>-68</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#MOVEMENTS_OF_THE_VOICEBOX_OR">Movements of the voice-box, or larynx, which can be seen or felt</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td><td>-72</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#THE_LARYNGOSCOPE_AND_HOW_TO">The laryngoscope, and how to use it</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td><td>-79</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#THE_TEACHINGS_OF_THE">The teachings of the laryngoscope</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td><td>-105</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#APPENDIX_TO_THE_THIRD_EDITION">Appendix—Hints on teaching</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td><td>-125</td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#APPENDIX_TO_THE_NINTH_EDITION">Appendix To The Ninth Edition—Voice Failure</a></td><td colspan="2" align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#APPENDIX_TO_THE_TENTH_EDITION">Appendix To The Tenth Edition—Does Diaphragmatic Breathing Apply Equally To Women As To Men?</a></td><td colspan="2" align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#INDEX">Index.</a></td><td colspan="2" align="right"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#INDEX_TO_VOICE_FAILURE">Index To "Voice Failure</a></td> +<td colspan="2" align="right"><a href="#INDEX_TO_VOICE_FAILURE">146</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><a href="#FOOT">Footnotes.</a></td></tr> +</table> + + +<h3><a name="PLATES" id="PLATES"></a>PLATES.</h3> + + + +<table summary="toc" +cellspacing="0" +cellpadding="5" +style="font-weight:bold;"> +<tr><td colspan="2"> </td><td align="right" class="smcap">Pages</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_i">I.</a></td><td> General view of vocal organ</td><td><a href="#pl_i"><i>facing title</i></a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_ii">II.</a></td><td> The Lungs</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_iii">III.</a></td><td> The Chest</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_iv">IV.</a></td><td> Chest capacity--Methods of breathing</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_v">V.</a></td><td> Side view of the Larynx</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_vi">VI.</a></td><td> Front view of the Larynx</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_vii">VII.</a></td><td> Larynx, Side view showing interior</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_viii">VIII.</a></td><td> Larynx, Side view, muscles, &c.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_ix">IX.</a></td><td> Larynx, Side view, interior of left half</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_x">X.</a></td><td> The Glottis in three states</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_xi">XI.</a></td><td> Larynx, Section viewed from above</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_48">48</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_xii">XII.</a></td><td> Larynx, Section viewed from behind</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Sketch of Laryngoscope designed by Dr. Foulis</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_xiii">XIII.</a></td><td> Laryngoscopic Image--Breathing</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_xiv">XIV.</a></td><td> + + " + + + " + + Upper thick register</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_xv">XV.</a></td><td> + + " + + + " + + Upper thin register</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right"><a href="#pl_xvi">XVI.</a></td><td> + + " + + + " + + Small register</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td></tr> +<tr><td> </td><td>Diagram of compass of the registers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr> +</table> + + + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Page 1]</a></span></p> + + + + +<h3><a name="INTRODUCTION" id="INTRODUCTION"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="nind">W<span class="smcap">e</span> are living in an age which is singularly poor in +fine voices, both male and female, and with regard to +the tenors of the present time there is this additional +misfortune, that, as a rule, their voices do not last, but +are often worn out in a very few years; in many +instances while their owners are still under training, +and before they have had an opportunity of making +their appearance in public. If we remember that there +was a time when most beautiful and highly cultivated +voices were so plentiful that even in comparatively small +towns there were to be found Opera Companies consisting +of excellent singers, we may well ask ourselves how +this remarkable change for the worse has come about. +People have attempted to account for it in various +ways. Up to the middle of the last century women +were forbidden by Ecclesiastical Law to take part in +Church music. The voices of boys being available only +for a very short time, means were taken to prevent +their voices from breaking, and thus a class of male<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span> +soprani and contralti was created, who made their first +appearance in Rome in the beginning of the 17th century, +and to these singers the education of the female +voices was soon almost exclusively entrusted. In the +middle of the last century, however, when women were +permitted to participate in Church music, there was no +longer any occasion to procure artificial female voices, +and these singers gradually died out, though there were +still some of them living and teaching in the beginning +of the present century. According to Rossini, who +certainly was eminently qualified to give an opinion on +the subject, the decline of vocal art in these latter +years is mainly due to the disappearance of this class +of singers, and if it be true that henceforth the training +of female voices was undertaken by tenors, who, +being of course unable to give a true pattern to their +pupils, treated the female organ according to their own +very different registers, then it can easily be understood +that many voices must have been ruined by the +process, and the scarcity of distinguished female singers +would thus be satisfactorily accounted for. But I fail +to see in what way the disappearance of male soprani +and contralti could possibly have affected tenors and +basses.</p> + +<p>Again, it is asserted that the way in which modern +composers write vocal music is the cause of the evil. +Certain it is that in the compositions of the old Italian<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span> +masters the voice is studied, and nothing introduced +which is hurtful or disadvantageous. Awkward intervals +are avoided, no fatigue is caused, and everything is +eminently <i>singable</i>; but the music is not always expressive +of the sense of the words, which were clearly considered +to be of minor importance. With our modern +(and especially with the German) composers, it is just +the opposite, their chief aim being thoroughly to enter, +not only into the spirit of their text, but even into +the slightest shade, the minutest detail of it, so as to +make the music, as it were, a translation of their words +into a higher kind of language. What, on the other +hand, is possible or impossible for the voice is, since +the time of Beethoven, but rarely considered; many +composers, even the most distinguished ones, having +evidently little knowledge of the most beautiful of instruments, +for which they are nevertheless continually +writing.</p> + +<p>When one of the greatest living masters introduced +the harp into his works, he wrote for it just as though +it were a piano—<i>i.e.</i>, as though it were to be played +upon with the thumb and four fingers. But it so +happens that on that instrument the fourth finger is +never used. Consequently, when it came to the point +harpists could not play that gentleman's compositions: +they had first to re-write them. Here the composer, +of course, was found out immediately, and he or any<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> +other man would have the same fate if he attempted to +write for an instrument the properties of which he did +not fully understand. But with the human voice the +case is different. Every musician believes himself to be +competent to write for it, though he may possibly be +wholly unacquainted with its many peculiarities. It is +to be feared, therefore, that modern composers must be +held largely responsible for the sad state of affairs concerning +vocal art at the present time, and well might +they learn a lesson from Mozart, who, in spite of his +genius, first carefully studied the human voice, and +then wrote for it.</p> + +<p>Another explanation of the decline of singing is +this, that the gradual and very considerable rise of +pitch during the last 150 years is at the bottom of all +the mischief, as the vocal organ is unable to bear +the strain to which it is subjected. With regard to +tenors, however, the great evil is, that with very few +exceptions, such as the celebrated Frenchman, Roger, +they disregard, or at any rate did disregard for a considerable +period, the falsetto register, singing everything, +however high, in chest voice. I am afraid it cannot be +said even that they have been beguiled into this serious +mistake by the imperceptible rise of pitch just mentioned, +but the truth is that they have committed this +fatal blunder knowingly and wilfully, because they saw +that it would pay. In support of this statement I will<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> +quote a few lines from the publication called "The Opera +and the Art of Singing," by Glogg-ner-Castelli:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In the field of singing a new man arose, who, in +spite of great personal attributes, worked destructively +for the future, and whose influence upon the later manner +of singing is seldom truly recognized. I mean the singer +Duprez. Hissed off at first in Paris, he turned to Italy, +where he stayed several years, and then returned to the +French capital. When he came to use his magnificent +vocal resources, as he did in the Fourth Act of <i>Tell</i>, +where he brought out the high C in the chest voice with +all the might of his colossal organ, it was all over with +the fame of all his predecessors. Nourrit, till then the +favourite of the Parisians, a distinguished tenor singer, +recognized the rival's power. His day was over, and in +despair over his lost and irrecoverable glory, he flung +himself from an upper window upon the pavement, and +so made an end of his life. Duprez may justly be +considered one of the greatest dramatic singers of our +time, and the main features of his method soon spread +themselves all over Europe. After hearing of Duprez, +and how the chest register could be cultivated even into +the highest regions of the voice, the public were no +longer contented with the use of the falsetto. Soon it +became impossible to be engaged as an "heroic tenor" +without at least possessing the high B♭ in the chest +tone. The singers found it a more thankful task to +humour the taste of the public than to pay extra +regard to the intentions of the composer; for often +Meyerbeer himself indicates, by a <i>pp</i>, his design that +the falsetto and not the chest tone should be employed. +That every tenor singer, whether such high pressure<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> +suited his natural compass or not, strove to screw his +voice up and 'make effect' was very natural; for art +goes after bread, and a high C with the chest voice +often realizes an income of thousands to its fortunate +possessor. Roger has made a laudable exception; his +beautiful use of the falsetto certainly produces a more +agreeable effect than the forced chest tones so unnatural +to the organ of many a singer. How widespread is +this mistaken notion, that the use of the falsetto is +entirely contrary to art, we hear frequently enough in +the expressions of individuals when some unlucky tenor +happens to get caught on one of these tabooed falsetto +tones. Thus the school founded by Duprez, important +in itself, has called into life a manner of singing, the +ruinous consequences of which we can see daily."</p></div> + +<p>But whatever may be the true reason or reasons, +the fact that we have very few singers of eminence +as compared with former ages, and that vocal art in +general has gone down, is undisputed, and men have +set themselves to remedy the evil by trying to ascertain +the actual process by which the voice is produced, +thinking that if they could but find this out there +would be a true scientific basis upon which to found +a way of teaching singing—or as I should rather say, +of training voices—which would be sure and unerring.</p> + + +<p class="top5">The experiments of the great physiologist Johannes +Müller are well known, and they have been followed +up by others. But they were made upon dissected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span> +larynges, and as various teachers of singing started the +most conflicting theories as to how the process shown +by Müller was carried on in the living subject, and +treated the voices of their pupils accordingly, these +investigations have perhaps on the whole done more +harm than good. Science was made responsible for the +blunders of those who attempted to be guided by it. +And thus it has happened that when at a later period +further trials were made, but this time upon the living +subject, and in the act of singing, they were received +with indifference and distrust. Only very lately teachers +of vocal music have begun to find out that here are +facts put before them which cannot be gainsaid, and +that if these investigations do nothing else, they at any +rate make them acquainted with the exact nature of the +vocal organ, and what it will bear and what it will not +bear.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="THE_VOCAL_ORGAN_AS_A_MUSICAL" id="THE_VOCAL_ORGAN_AS_A_MUSICAL"></a>THE VOCAL ORGAN AS A MUSICAL +INSTRUMENT.</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="nind">"P<span class="smcap">hysiologists</span>," says Dr. Witkowski,<a name="FNanchor_A_1" id="FNanchor_A_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_A_1" class="fnanchor">[A]</a> "are quite at +issue when they endeavour to determine what kind of +instrument the vocal organ resembles; indeed, Galien +compares it to a flute, Magendie to a hautboy, Despiney +to a trombone, Diday to a hunting-horn, Savart to a +bird-catcher's call, Biot to an organ-pipe, Malgaigne to +the little instrument used by the exhibitors of Punch, +and Ferrein to a spinet or harpsichord. The last-named +compared the lips of the glottis to the strings +of a violin; hence was given the name <i>Vocal Cords</i>, +which they have since retained. The current of air +was the bow, the exertion of the chest and lungs the +hand which carried the bow, the thyroid cartilages the +<i>points d'appui</i>, the arytenoids the pegs, and lastly, the +muscles inserted in them the power which tensed or +relaxed the cords."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p> + +<p>It must be admitted that the human voice bears more +resemblance to a reed instrument than to any other; +but when the comparison is pushed to its legitimate +consequences it is found to break down. We cannot +resist the conclusion that the vocal organ is infinitely +superior to any instrument made by human hands. Its +mechanism is so wonderful as to excite the profoundest +admiration, and the more we continue to study it the +more we marvel at the wisdom of the Divine Maker who +planned it. I shall, therefore, speak of it simply as a +wind instrument composed of—</p> + +<table summary="bellows" +cellpadding="0" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr style="line-height:30px;"><td>1.—</td><td><span class="lg">THE BELLOWS</span>.</td></tr> + +<tr style="line-height:30px;"><td> </td><td>Represented by the <span class="smcap">Lungs</span>. Pl. I (Frontispiece), <span class="smcap">L</span>.</td></tr> + +<tr style="line-height:30px;"><td>2.—</td><td><span class="lg">THE WINDPIPE</span>. Pl. I, w.</td></tr> + +<tr style="line-height:30px;"><td>3.—</td><td><span class="lg">THE VOICEBOX</span> <span class="smcap">or</span> <span class="lg">LARYNX</span>. Pl. I, v.</td></tr> + +<tr style="line-height:30px;"><td>4.—</td><td><span class="lg">THE RESONATOR</span>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td> </td><td>Represented by (<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">The Upper Part of the<br /> +Throat</span>, or <span class="smcap">Pharynx</span>, <a href="#pl_i">pl. I</a>, <span class="smcap">P</span>; (<i>b</i>) <span class="smcap">The Mouth</span>,<br /> +<a href="#pl_i">pl. I</a>, <span class="smcap">M</span>; (<i>c</i>) <span class="smcap">The Nose</span>, <a href="#pl_i">pl. I</a>, <span class="smcap">N</span>.</td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 367px;"><a name="pl_ii" id="pl_ii"></a> +<a href="images/plate_ii.jpg"> +<img src="images/plate_ii_th.jpg" width="367" height="550" alt="image not available" /></a> +</div> + +<table summary="lungs" +cellpadding="5" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"><b>P<span class="smcap">late</span> II.</b></td></tr> + +<tr><td colspan="4" style="text-align:center;">THE LUNGS</td></tr> + +<tr class="smcap"><td>R.</td><td>Right Lung.</td><td>L.</td><td>Left Lung.</td></tr> + +<tr class="smcap"><td>W.</td><td>Windpipe (Trachea).</td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> + +<tr class="smcap"><td>V.</td><td>Voicebox (Larnyx).</td><td colspan="2"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="c sml">The top part of the left Lung is represented as partly cut away +in order to show the ramifications of the Bronchial Tubes.</p> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 342px;"> +<a name="pl_iii" id="pl_iii"></a> +<img src="images/plate_iii.jpg" width="342" height="435" alt="image not available" /> +</div> + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> III.</p> + +<p class="c">THE CHEST.</p> + +<ul +style="margin-left:25%;"> +<li>B B. B<span class="smcap">reast</span> B<span class="smcap">one.</span></li> +<li>C C. C<span class="smcap">ollar</span> B<span class="smcap">ones.</span></li> +<li><span class="smcap">1 to 11.</span> R<span class="smcap">ibs.</span> (The twelfth not visible.)</li> +<li>M (curved dotted line). M<span class="smcap">idriff (Diaphragm).</span></li> +<li>L L. L<span class="smcap">ungs.</span> H. H<span class="smcap">eart.</span></li> +<li>W. W<span class="smcap">indpipe (Trachea).</span></li> +</ul> + + +<p>The Lungs are enclosed in the chest, which they fit +exactly, and of which they occupy by far the largest +portion, leaving but a small space for the heart. They +consist of two halves (<a href="#pl_ii">pl. II</a>, <span class="smcap">R</span>, <span class="smcap">L</span>), each roughly resembling +the upper part of a sugar-loaf somewhat flattened<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> +and hollowed out at the bottom. The left shows two +and the right three distinct flaps or lobes. They are +only connected by means of the windpipe (<a href="#pl_ii">pl. II</a>, <span class="smcap">W</span>) and +its branches.</p> + +<p><b>The Chest</b> (<a href="#pl_iii">pl. III</a>) is an air-tight chamber, which is +narrower above than below. It is formed by the spine +at the back, twelve ribs (<a href="#pl_iii">pl. III</a>, 1 to 11, the twelfth not +visible on the drawing), with their inner and outer +muscles on either side, the breast-bone (<a href="#pl_iii">pl. III</a>, <span class="smcap">B B</span>) in +front, the root of the neck at the top, and the midriff +or diaphragm (<a href="#pl_i">pl. I</a>, <span class="smcap">M</span>) at the bottom.</p> + +<p><b>The Midriff</b> (<a href="#pl_iii">pl. III</a>, <span class="smcap">M</span>) is a muscular and movable +partition by which the lungs are separated from the +abdomen. It is arched upwards like an inverted basin, +but when its muscular fibres contract it flattens and +descends, thus increasing the capacity of the chest at +the expense of that of the abdomen.</p> + +<p><b>The Function of the Lungs</b> is, as everybody knows, +respiration, which may be considered from a mechanical +or a chemical point of view. In this little work we are +only concerned with the mechanical part of the subject. +If we examine the lungs of a calf, which are very similar +to those of a human being, we find that they are soft +and elastic to the touch, giving out when pressed a +peculiar whizzing sound. We may increase their +volume by blowing into them through the windpipe, +so as to make them double their original size, and then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span> +tie up the windpipe. On re-opening the windpipe the +air escapes, and the lungs are gradually reduced to +their former bulk. Now, by drawing a deep breath we +produce the same result in ourselves as by blowing into +the lungs of the calf; by holding the breath we produce +the same result as by tying up the windpipe—that is to +say, we keep the lungs in a state of expansion; and by +releasing the breath we are, as it were, untying the +windpipe, leaving the lungs to dwindle down gradually +to their former size.</p> + +<p>There is one very material point, however, in which +the analogy ceases. It is this: we keep the air in the +inflated calf's lungs by tying up the windpipe, and the +corresponding act in ourselves would be to hold our +breath by muscular contraction of the outlet in the +throat. This is precisely what we do in straining, and +in lifting heavy weights, &c.; but it should <i>never</i> be +done in breathing for vocal purposes. Here it must, on +the contrary, be our endeavour to train, to the highest +possible degree, the powerful muscles of the chest and +of the abdomen, instead of throwing the labour intended +for them upon the comparatively weak and delicate +muscles governing the outlet of the windpipe.</p> + +<p>To make the way in which respiration is carried on +clearer still, I quote the following interesting and lucid +account from Huxley's "Elementary Physiology," fourth +edition, p. 104. He compares the breathing apparatus<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> +to "a sort of bellows without a valve," in which the +chest and the lungs represent the body of the bellows, +while the windpipe is the pipe; "and the effect of the +respiratory movement is just the same as that of the +approximation and separation of the handles of the +bellows, which drive out and draw in the air through +the pipe. There is, however, one difference between +the bellows and the respiratory apparatus, of great +importance in the theory of respiration, though frequently +overlooked, and that is, that the sides of the +bellows can be brought close together so as to force out +all, or nearly all, the air which they contain, while the +walls of the chest, when approximated as much as +possible, still enclose a very considerable cavity; so +that even after the most violent expiratory effort, a +very large quantity of air is left in the lungs."</p> + +<p><b>Respiration</b>, consequently, consists of two acts—namely, +inspiration and expiration. Inspiration may be +produced in three different ways—(1) By pushing the +chest forward and flattening the midriff, so as to compel +the lungs to <i>descend</i> and to increase in volume in order +to fill the empty space created by this movement; +(2) by extending the ribs <i>sideways</i>; and (3) by <i>drawing +up</i> the upper parts of the chest—namely, the collar +bones (<a href="#pl_iii">pl. III</a>, <span class="smcap">C C</span>) and the shoulder blades. In +scientific works the first is called diaphragmatic or +abdominal,<a name="FNanchor_B_2" id="FNanchor_B_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_B_2" class="fnanchor">[B]</a> the second lateral or costal, and the third<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> +clavicular or scapular breathing. As, however, these +terms convey no meaning to the general reader, I prefer +to speak of—(1) Midriff Breathing; (2) Rib Breathing; +(3) Collar-bone Breathing. In taking a full, deep +inspiration, midriff breathing and rib breathing take place +almost together and assist each other—that is to say, the +midriff contracts and flattens, and immediately afterwards +the ribs extend sideways; with this difference, however, +that in men the action of the midriff takes a larger +share in the work than the ribs, while in woman, on +the contrary, the movement of the ribs is greater than +that of the midriff.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>By way of illustrating this curious difference of breathing in +men and women, the following anecdote, which has the recommendation +of being strictly true, may perhaps amuse the reader. +Some time ago a troupe of "Female Minstrels," calling themselves, +I believe, "The American Amazons," made a tour through this +country. Their faces were blackened in the orthodox fashion, and +they were in male attire, wearing tight-fitting garments of a +peculiar kind. Two friends, both medical men, went to hear +them (or perhaps to see them, I am not sure which), when Mr. +A remarked that two of the performers were men. Mr. B did not +see it, even when the individuals were pointed out to him, and +asked his friend for the reasons for his opinion. "Why," said +Mr. A, "I see it by their abdominal breathing!" And sure +enough Mr. B now saw it too, and there was no mistake about it;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> +for in the two suspected individuals the abdomen was evidently +moving in respiration, while in all the others no movement was +perceptible excepting that of their chests.</p></div> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 350px;"> +<a name="pl_iv" id="pl_iv"></a> +<img src="images/plate_iv.png" width="350" height="264" alt="image not available" /> +</div> + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> IV.</p> + +<p class="hang">DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE VARYING CAPACITY +OF THE CHEST, ACCORDING TO THE METHOD IN +WHICH THE LUNG IS INFLATED.</p> + +<p class="hang">From Mr. Lennox Browne's "Medical Hints on the Production and +Management of the Singing Voice," by permission of Messrs +Chappell and Co.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The front outline A of the shaded figure represents the chest +after full expiration; the black continuous line A gives the increase +in size of the chest, and the descent of the diaphragm, indicated +by the curved transverse lines, in full abdominal respiration. The +dotted line C shows the retraction of the diaphragm and of the +abdominal muscles in forced clavicular inspiration. The varying +thickness of the line B indicates the fact of healthy breathing in a +man being more abdominal than in woman. The outlines of +forced inspiration in both sexes are remarkably similar.</p></div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span></p> + +<p>The combined forms of midriff and rib breathing +are the right method of inspiration, while collar-bone +breathing is absolutely wrong, and should never be +made use of. The reasons of this are not far to seek. +The lower part of each lung is large and broad, while +the upper part is cone-shaped, and very much smaller. +It is self-evident, therefore, that by downward and sideways +expansion (enlarging the <i>lower</i> part of the lungs) +you will inhale a much greater quantity of air than by +drawing up the collar-bones. This consideration alone +should suffice to prove the utter falseness of collar-bone +breathing. Collar-bone breathing has also the additional +disadvantage of causing much fatigue, because +all the parts surrounding the upper region of the lungs +are hard and unyielding, so that a great amount of +resistance has to be overcome (the "<i>lutte vocale</i>" of +French authors), while the very opposite is the case +with the lower part of the lungs.</p> + +<p>Mr. Lennox Browne, who was, I believe, the first to +direct the attention of English readers to this matter, +says,<a name="FNanchor_C_3" id="FNanchor_C_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_C_3" class="fnanchor">[C]</a> "Clavicular [collar-bone] breathing is a method +of respiration totally vicious, and to be avoided. By it +the whole lower part of the chest is flattened and +drawn in, instead of being distended; consequently the +lower or larger part of the lungs is not inflated. It is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> +a method never exercised by nature in a state of health, +but only when, from disease, either the abdominal or +chest muscles cannot act; and it is the method least +efficacious in filling, as it is the one calculated to most +fatigue the chest; for it compresses the vessels and +nerves of the throat, and this leads to engorgement and +spasmodic action of the muscles."</p> + +<p>We may well pause here and give another moment +to the consideration of this most important subject. +The lungs, as we have seen, are the bellows of our vocal +organ; they supply the air which is the motive power +on which the voice depends. Without air no tone can +be produced. Nay, more, life itself must cease without +it. Breathing goes on regularly while the voice is +silent; but in speaking and singing both inspiration +and expiration have to be regulated according to the +nature of the phrases to be spoken or sung. If the +speaker does not know how to take breath and how to +control the expiration, his delivery will of necessity be +jerky and uncertain. But in the singer it is even more +important that he should be able to fill his lungs well, +and, having done this, to have absolute command over +his expiration; because while the speaker can arrange +his sentences, his speed, and his breathing-places very +much at his own pleasure, the singer is bound by the +music before him. It must, therefore, be his aim to +cultivate a proper method of breathing with the object<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> +of first getting, with the least possible fatigue, the +largest possible amount of air in the most scrupulously +careful manner, so as to prevent even the smallest +fraction of it from being wasted. Yet how seldom is +breathing systematically practised as an indispensable +preliminary to the production of tone! I have no +hesitation in saying that the subject is, in many +instances, dismissed with a few general observations. +Pupils, of course, take breath somehow, and +teachers are glad to leave this uninteresting part of the +business, and to proceed to the cultivation of the +voice.</p> + +<p>It may be as well to add that what has been said so +far about right and wrong methods of breathing is not +by any means mere theory, but that any one can convince +himself of the truth of the rules laid down by +making a few experiments with the spirometer, an +instrument for measuring the breathing power of the +chest by indicating on a dial the exact number of cubic +inches of air expelled from the lungs. This breathing +power will be found to vary according to the way in +which the inspiration has been accomplished. In my +own case, for instance, the spirometer should register, +according to the table of comparative height and +breathing power compiled by John Hutchinson, 230 +cubic inches. Having suffered from severe attacks of +bleeding from the lungs, my maximum with midriff<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> +and rib breathing is only 220, but with collar-bone +breathing I barely reach 180!</p> + +<p>During the Summer Session of the Tonic Sol-fa +College I carefully tested the breathing capacity of ten +students, and found that there was an average excess +of midriff and rib breathing over collar-bone breathing +to the extent of 25 cubic inches: the least amount of +their increased power was 12 cubic inches, and the +greatest was 45! I imagine that these figures are more +eloquent than any words, and I think it superfluous to +make any further comment on them.</p> + +<p>I am strongly of opinion that breathing exercises, +especially in the case of intending public singers, should +always be carried on with a spirometer,<a name="FNanchor_D_4" id="FNanchor_D_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_D_4" class="fnanchor">[D]</a> because that +instrument enables us with the greatest accuracy to +check results which otherwise can only be guessed at.</p> + +<p>If this suggestion were acted upon we should certainly +no longer be distressed by that intolerable and never-ceasing +tremolo which now so frequently mars many, +in other respects, fine voices. It is a curious, and at +first sight unaccountable, circumstance that this great +fault is specially noticeable amongst French singers. +But at the Conservatoire de Musique in Paris students +are deliberately taught the wrong method of inspiration; +for, as we gather from the "Méthode de Chant +du Conservatoire de Musique," they are told to "flatten +[or draw in] the abdomen" and to "bulge out the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span> +chest." Thus the mystery is at once cleared up, +because the tremolo arises almost invariably from a +weakness of the muscles of the midriff or diaphragm, to +which attention has already been called in these pages. +Owing to the abdomen being drawn in, the midriff +never properly contracts; the muscles are not sufficiently +exercised, and consequently have not power +enough to resist the pressure that is brought to bear +upon them in singing. They tremble, and this trembling +being communicated to the lungs, which are resting +upon them, the stream of air they give forth, loses +its evenness and continuity, with the result I have just +stated. It will be seen from the above explanation +that this tremolo, one of the greatest vices besetting +modern singing, and which has hitherto been held by +many to be incurable, may be got rid of completely, +though perhaps not very quickly, by the simple remedy +of lung gymnastics on the right principle. The tremolo +may certainly also arise from weakness of some muscles +in the voicebox or larynx, by which the tension of the +vocal ligaments is diminished and increased in rapid +alternation. But this is a case for a medical man, +which does not fall within my province to discuss, +though I am justified in saying, on the authority of Mr. +Lennox Browne,<a name="FNanchor_E_5" id="FNanchor_E_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_E_5" class="fnanchor">[E]</a> that even in many of these cases the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> +effect is clearly attributable to faulty breathing, since +there is seldom any local disease of the larynx; while +exercise on a right method of breathing will cure the +spasmodic action of the laryngeal muscles with but +little or no medical treatment.</p> + +<p class="top5">I need scarcely add that there is yet another kind of +tremolo, which, being absolutely under the control of +the performer, is one of the chief ornaments of song, +and to which the observations just made in no way +apply.</p> + +<p class="top5">In addition to the involuntary tremolo there are a +number of other afflictions, "Clergymen's sore throat" +amongst them, which are admitted by eminent medical +authorities to be due to collar-bone breathing, and +which may be entirely cured by proper lung gymnastics, +or, in other words, by breathing exercises on the right +principle; that is to say, by calling into play the +muscles of the abdomen and of the lower part of the +chest. This is a subject which is little understood by +singers and public speakers, many of whom would be +amazed at the sometimes most wonderful results produced +by such simple means. I will therefore quote +a case in point which came under my notice quite +recently, and which will give the reader an idea of the +importance of proper breathing:</p> + +<p>Mr. X, a tall thin young man, engaged in evan<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>gelistic +work, suffered from a "weakness of voice," +which he found a great hindrance to his success. He +therefore consulted Mr. Lennox Browne, who at once +told him that he had no disease of any kind, and sent +him to me for a course of breathing exercises. I found +that Mr. X chiefly spoke in a child's voice, over which, +moreover, he had very little control; and when I requested +him to take a deep inspiration, he drew in his +abdomen, bulged out his chest, and raised his collar-bones. +The spirometer only registered 200 cubic +inches instead of 260, which, according to Hutchinson's +table, was his mean.</p> + +<p>My course was, therefore, plain. I made him stand +in an easy natural position, neither allowing him to +bulge out his chest, nor to draw in the abdomen, and +then instructed him how to acquire some control over +his midriff and the lower muscles of the chest. It may +be observed here, in passing, that we can, in a state of +health, contract and relax these muscles at will, just +as easily as we can bend a finger, and that this power, +when lost through disuse, can be regained with little +difficulty. In Mr. X's case this process was particularly +speedy, with the result of increasing his breathing +power in two lessons by 60 cubic inches. In one +additional week I could dismiss him with a full sonorous +man's voice, in place of the uncertain child's squeak +with which he came to me. It is no exaggeration to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> +say that this young man left me with a <i>new</i> voice, and +if people had heard him when he first came to me, +behind a screen, and again after the last lesson, they +would certainly not have believed that they were listening +to the same person. What Mr. X and his friends +think of his case may be seen from the following +letter which he wrote me on July 6th, 1880:—"Now +that a week has passed since the last lesson I had from +you, I write to bear testimony to the wonderful benefit +to my voice obtained through the very short course I +took. My friends are quite astonished at the marked +difference, and I beg you will accept my most sincere +thanks," &c.</p> + +<p>Many similar cases might be mentioned, but the one +just quoted is sufficient, and I will sum the matter up +with a few remarks which Mr. Lennox Browne made +as chairman at my lecture at the Aldersgate Street +Literary Institution, on October 9th, 1880. He then +said that, in his medical experience, he found that +persons who suffered from their voices generally owed +their ailments to bad habits of using the voice, and not +to any defect in the larynx or resonance chamber. In +several cases lately he had sent such patients to Herr +Behnke, who had given them lessons in correct breathing, +and who had thereby, and without any medicine, +galvanism, or other aid, restored their voices in a +remarkably short time.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span></p> + +<p>From what has been said above about midriff and +rib breathing <i>versus</i> collar-bone breathing, the folly of +tight-lacing, or, indeed, of in any way interfering with +the freedom of the waist, will be at once apparent. +We pride ourselves upon our civilization; we make a +boast of living in the age of science; physiology is now +taught, or at least talked of, in almost every school; +the laws of health are proclaimed in lectures and +lessons innumerable all over the country, and we laugh +at barbarous customs of other nations, such, for instance, +as that of Chinese women preventing the +growth of their feet by forcing them into boots of only +half their proper size. And yet our ladies wear instruments +of torture called corsets, altering the shape +of their bodies, and positively driving the lower ribs +<i>into the lungs</i>! Now which folly is the greater—that +of doubling up the toes, or of crippling the body in its +most vital parts? Let ladies answer the question, +and let them further most solemnly consider that the +girls of to-day are the mothers of to-morrow, and that +upon the measure of their own health and strength +depends the well-being of coming generations.</p> + +<p>It is only fair to add, that if the practice of interfering +with the freedom of the waist is reprehensible in +the case of ladies, it is, in one sense, still more so in +the case of the male sex, because, as has been shown +before, men depend more for their breathing upon the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> +action of the abdominal muscle than women. They +should, therefore, neither wear tight-fitting vests, nor +suspend their pantaloons by means of waistbands, +belts, or buckles. Loose garments and braces are the +proper thing, though the latter are commonly, but +erroneously, considered to be injurious. <i>Abdominal</i> +belts may be worn with advantage by persons of either +sex requiring their support; but these are very +different from stays or waist-bands. I find that an +enterprising firm is advertising corsets for gentlemen (!), +and a woodcut may be seen in some papers representing +a young Adonis laced up in regular ladies' fashion, +so that, if it were not for his luxurious moustache, one +would certainly take the drawing to be meant for a +woman. It is almost impossible to imagine that a +man could ever make such a fool of himself; on the +other hand, it is clear that these advertisements would +not continue to appear if they did not bring customers. +But these poor creatures do not deserve to be called +men, and I am sincerely sorry for them.</p> + +<p>With regard to the question whether inspiration +should take place through the mouth or through the +nostrils, I must enter my most decided protest against +making it a practice to inhale through the mouth. +There are, of course, occasions when this is unavoidable, +as, for instance, where the singer has rapidly +to take what is called a "half breath." But complete<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> +inflation, or, "full breath," is not the work of a +moment; it takes time, and must be done gradually, +steadily, and without the slightest interruption. This +should <i>always</i> be done through the nostrils. The mouth +was never intended for breathing, while the nose is +specially and admirably adapted for this purpose. Not +only can the lungs be well and quickly filled through +this channel, but it is so cunningly devised that it acts +at the same time as a "respirator," both purifying and +warming the air before it touches the more delicate +parts of the vocal organ. On the other hand, when +inhaled through the mouth, the air carries with it, sometimes +right into the voicebox, dust and other impurities, +and its temperature is not materially altered. The consequence +is that the throat and voicebox, when heated +by singing or talking, or by hot rooms, are often +exposed to cold, raw, and foggy winter air, and serious +derangements of the respiratory organs are the natural +consequence. If, moreover, this pernicious habit of +breathing be once contracted, we shall soon also sleep +with open mouths, thus parching our throats, and +sowing the seeds of many a serious disorder.</p> + +<p>On this point I quote a few lines from Dr. Louis +Elsberg,<a name="FNanchor_F_6" id="FNanchor_F_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_F_6" class="fnanchor">[F]</a> professor of laryngology in the University +of New York: "The natural mode of quiet breathing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> +is through the nose; mouth-breathing is an acquirement. +A new-born infant would choke to death if +you closed its nose; it does not immediately know +how to get air into the lungs through the mouth until +after, by depressing the tongue, you have once made +a passage for it."</p> + +<p>George Catlin, the celebrated traveller among +American Indians, became so thoroughly convinced +that the difference between the healthy condition and +physical perfection of these people in their primitive +state, especially their sound teeth and good lungs, and +the deplorable mortality, the numerous diseases and +deformities in <i>civilized</i> communities, is mainly due to +the habit, common among the latter, of breathing +through the mouth, especially during sleep, that he +wrote a book entitled "Malrespiration and its Effects +upon the Enjoyment and Life of Man." In this book +he says, "If I were to endeavour to bequeath to +posterity the most important motto which human +language can convey, it should be in three words, +'Shut your mouth.' In the social transactions of life +this might have its beneficial results as the most +friendly cautionary advice, or be received as the +grossest of insults; but where I would print and +engrave it, in every nursery and on every bedpost in +the universe, its meaning could not be mistaken, and +obeyed, its importance would soon be realized."<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span></p> + +<p>He also says, "It is one of the misfortunes of civilization +that it has too many amusing and exciting things +for the mouth to say, and too many delicious things +for it to taste, to allow of its being closed during the +day. The mouth therefore has too little reserve for +the protection of its natural purity of expression, and +too much exposure for the protection of its garniture; +but, <i>do keep your mouth shut</i> when you <i>read</i>, when you +<i>write</i>, when you <i>listen</i>, when you <i>are in pain</i>, when you +are <i>walking</i>, when you are <i>running</i>, when you are +<i>riding</i>, and <i>by all means when you are angry</i>! There +is <i>no person</i> but who will find and acknowledge <i>improvement</i> +in <i>health</i> and <i>enjoyment</i> from even a temporary +attention to this advice."</p> + +<p>Again he says, "There is a proverb, as old and +unchangeable as their hills, amongst North American +Indians, 'My son, if thou wouldst be wise, open first +thy eyes; thy ears next, and last of all thy mouth, that +thy words may be words of wisdom, and give no advantage +to thine adversary.' This might be adopted with +good effect in <i>civilized</i> life; he who would <i>strictly adhere</i> +to it would be sure to reap its benefits in his <i>waking</i> +hours, and would <i>soon find</i> the habit running into his +hours of <i>rest</i>, into which he would <i>calmly</i> enter; dismissing +the nervous anxieties of the day, as he firmly +closed his teeth and his lips, only to be opened <i>after</i> +his eyes and his ears in the morning, the rest of <i>such</i><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> +sleep would bear him daily and hourly proof of its +value."</p> + +<p>Catlin regards the habit of sleeping with the mouth +open the most pernicious of <i>all bad habits</i>. The horrors +of nightmare and snoring are, according to him, but +the <i>least</i> of its evil effects. He thinks "for the greater +portion of the thousands and tens of thousands of +persons suffering with weakness of lungs, with bronchitis, +asthma, indigestion, and other affections of the +digestive and respiratory organs," the correction of this +habit is a <i>panacea</i> for their ills!</p> + +<p>He insists that "<i>mothers</i> should be looked to as the +first and principal <i>correctors</i> of this most destructive +of human habits; ... and the united and simultaneous +efforts of the civilized world should be exerted +in the overthrow of a monster so destructive to the +good looks and life of man. Every physician should +advise his patients, and every boarding-school in existence +and every hospital should have its surgeon or +matron, and every regiment its officer, to make their +nightly and hourly 'rounds,' to force a <i>stop</i> to so unnatural, +disgusting, and dangerous a habit! Under the +working of such a system, mothers guarding and helping +the helpless, schoolmasters their scholars, hospital +surgeons their patients, generals their soldiers, and the +rest of the world protecting themselves, a few years +would show the glorious results in the bills of mor<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span>tality, +and the next generation would be a <i>regeneration</i> +of the human race."</p> + +<p><b>The Windpipe</b> (<a href="#pl_i">pl. I</a>, <span class="smcap">W</span>).—Having examined the +bellows of our vocal organ, we next notice the windpipe, +by means of which the air is carried into and out +of the lungs. It is an elastic tube kept open by 18 or +20 rings which do not quite meet at the back. It +enters the lungs by means of two smaller tubes, which +in their turn branch out very much like the roots of a +tree, until their ramifications end in the microscopic +cells of the lungs. The windpipe is capable of being +slightly elongated or shortened, and narrowed or +widened, and its interior is covered with a mucous +membrane, which, as its name implies, is continually +kept in a moist state.</p> + +<p><b>The Voicebox, or Larynx</b> (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>) may be described as +resembling a funnel, the upper part of which has been +bent into a triangular shape. Its front corner (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, +1) may be both seen and felt in the throat, and the +general position of the voicebox is thereby at once indicated. +The framework of the voicebox consists of five +parts. 1st. The Ring cartilage (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 2) is so named +on account of its general resemblance to a signet ring. +It is narrow in front, and has the part corresponding to +the seal behind; the upper border (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 8, 4) rises +very considerably towards the back, where it is about an +inch high. 2nd. Riding upon this, as it were, with its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span></p> + + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 255px;"> +<a name="pl_v" id="pl_v"></a> +<img src="images/plate_v.jpg" width="255" height="422" alt="image not available" /> +</div> + + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> V.</p> + +<p class="c">SIDE VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX.</p> + +<table summary="larynx" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td align="right">1.</td><td><span class="smcap">Front Corner of the Voicebox (Larynx).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">2.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Ring (Cricoid) Cartilage.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">3, 4. </td><td><span class="smcap">Upper Border of the Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">5.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Shield (Thyroid) Cartilage.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6, 7.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Upper Horns of the Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">8.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Right Lower Horn of the Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">9. </td><td><span class="smcap">Point where the Shield moves upon the Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Ring-Shield (Crico-thyroid) Aperture covered by Membrane.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">11.</td><td> <span class="smcap">Lid (Epiglottis).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">12. </td><td><span class="smcap">Windpipe (Trachea).</span></td></tr> +</table> + + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p> +<div class="illustration" style="width: 308px;"> +<a name="pl_vi" id="pl_vi"></a> +<img src="images/plate_vi.jpg" width="308" height="401" alt="image not available" /> +</div> + + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> VI.</p> + +<p class="c">FRONT VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX.</p> + +<table summary="front" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">1, 2.</td><td><span class="smcap">Upper Horns of the Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">3.</td><td><span class="smcap">Tongue (Hyoid) Bone.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">4, 5.</td><td><span class="smcap">Horns of the Tongue-Bone.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6, 7.</td><td><span class="smcap">Bands uniting the Shield with the Tongue-Bone.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">8, 9.</td><td><span class="smcap">Lid.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10, 11.</td><td><span class="smcap">Plates of the Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">12.</td><td><span class="smcap">Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">13.</td><td><span class="smcap">Elastic Band uniting the Shield with the Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">14.</td><td><span class="smcap">Windpipe.</span></td></tr> +</table> + + + + +<p class="nind"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span> +hollow part towards the back, is the Shield cartilage +(<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 5), which consists of two plates united in front at +an angle which forms the prominence referred to just +now as that corner of the triangular funnel (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 1) +which may be both seen and felt in the throat, and +which is commonly called the Adam's Apple. It protects +the interior and more delicate parts of the voice +apparatus, from which circumstance it derives its name +of shield cartilage. The plates of the shield have each +at the back two horns, the upper and the lower. With +the upper horns (<a href="#pl_vi">pl. VI</a>, 1, 2) the shield cartilage is +attached by means of bands (<a href="#pl_vi">pl. VI</a>, 6, 7) to the corresponding +projections (<a href="#pl_vi">pl. VI</a>, 4, 5) of the tongue-bone +(<a href="#pl_vi">pl. VI</a>, 3), which has the shape of a horseshoe. With +the lower horns (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 8), of which on our diagram we +can only see one, it moves upon the ring cartilage as +upon a hinge (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 9).</p> + + + + +<p>This is a very particular point, and I beg the reader +particularly to notice that if the shield cartilage (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, +5) were gradually drawn downwards and forwards, the +space which we now see between the shield and the +ring (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 10) would get smaller and smaller, until +at last it quite disappeared; and the distance between +the front of the shield (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 1) and the highest part +of the back of the ring (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 4) would be increased.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>I may observe here that authorities differ as to whether the +shield moves upon the ring, or the ring upon the shield, and that +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>some maintain the one is drawn down while the other is tipped +upward. It is sufficient for our purpose, however, that a movement +as upon a hinge takes place, whereby, as explained just now, +the distance between the front of the shield and the highest part +of the back of the ring is increased.</p></div> + +<p>3rd. <b>The Lid</b> (<a href="#pl_v">pl. V</a>, 11) is an elastic cartilage which +serves to close the voicebox in the act of swallowing, +in order to protect it against any intruding foreign +substances. The food we take has to pass over it, and +it sometimes happens, when the lid has not been pulled +down tight enough, that a particle of food enters the +voicebox, in which case we say it has "gone the wrong +way," and there is then no peace until the intruder +has been got rid of, generally by a violent fit of +coughing.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The lid, it is true, is not the only means of protection which the +voicebox possesses. Professor C. J. Eberth, for instance, mentions +(Archiv für pathol: Anatomie, vol. lxiii., p. 135, Berlin, 1868) the +case of a woman who, upon dissection, was found to be entirely +without the free upper part of the lid, which could alone cover the +voicebox. She had never experienced any difficulty in swallowing, +and it is therefore clear that with her the closing of some of the +parts immediately below was sufficient to prevent the food from +getting into the voicebox. But "the exception proves the rule," +and in spite of this and other similar cases, the fact remains that +the lid is obviously the first and most natural protector of the +voicebox.</p></div> + +<p>4th and 5th. We have thus far become acquainted +with three cartilages out of the five. Let us now remove +one plate of the shield, as though cutting it off<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> +with a knife (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, 1 and 2), in order that we may +look inside and see the remaining two cartilages which +have hitherto been hidden by it. These are—</p> + +<p><b>The Pyramids</b> (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, 1 and 2), so called because +of their shape. Their bases are triangular and hollowed +out; their sides taper upwards and terminate in points +which are bent slightly backwards, and they have each +two projections, one pointing forwards (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, 3) and +the other outwards and backwards (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, 4). It will +be convenient to have a special name for the projections +pointing outwards and backwards, which we will therefore +call the Levers.</p> + +<p>The Pyramids are attached with their hollow bases +to the borders of the ring (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, 5), and they are +capable of executing rotary movements with surprising +freedom and rapidity. Their inner sides may be made +to run parallel or to diverge. In addition to this they +can be drawn towards each other, or away from each +other, so that their summits may either be widely +separated or brought close together.</p> + +<p><b>The Vocal Ligaments</b> are two ledges of elastic +tissue covered with a very delicate membrane. Each +one of them is connected along its whole length, on one +side, with the shield cartilage. The vocal ligaments +are attached by their hinder ends to those little projections +of the pyramids which point forwards (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, +3, 3), and by their front ends to the centre of the shield<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> +(<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, 6), where the two plates meet under a more or +less acute angle.</p> + + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 310px;"> +<a name="pl_vii" id="pl_vii"></a> +<a href="images/plate_vii.jpg"> +<img src="images/plate_vii.jpg" width="310" height="550" alt="image not available" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> VII.</p> + + +<p class="hang">SIDE VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, SHOWING +THE INTERIOR OF IT, THE RIGHT PLATE BEING +REMOVED.</p> + +<table summary="side" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">1, 2.</td><td><span class="smcap">Pyramids (Arytenoid Cartilages).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">3, 3.</td><td><span class="smcap">Front Projections of the Pyramids.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">4.</td><td><span class="smcap">Lever of the Right Pyramid.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">5.</td><td><span class="smcap">Upper Border of the Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6, 3, 3.</td><td><span class="smcap">Vocal Ligaments.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">7.</td><td><span class="smcap">Lid.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">8.</td><td><span class="smcap">Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">9.</td><td><span class="smcap">Left Upper Horn of the Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10.</td><td><span class="smcap">Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">11.</td><td><span class="smcap">Windpipe.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>These vocal ligaments are generally called the vocal cords, +but this term is misleading, as it implies strings like those, for +instance, of the violin, which are attached only at either end and +are free at every other point. This, however, as we have just +seen, is not the case, the "Cords" being free only along their +inner edges. The name "Vocal Bands," which German physiologists +have substituted for "Vocal Cords," does not mend the +matter, as it is open to exactly the same objections. The term +"Vocal Lips," also used by some writers, is, in my judgment, +the most unfortunate of all, because it conveys a totally wrong +idea of these parts, as will be seen from a description in another +chapter of their movements in the act of singing. I have, +therefore, sought for a word which, as a proper description of +the thing it is to designate, shall always call a correct image +to the reader's mind, and as I cannot find a better one than +"Ligament," I have adopted it. I shall consequently in these +pages always speak of the tone-producing element as the "Vocal +Ligaments."</p></div> + +<p>The vocal ligaments, having met, are struck by the +air blown against them from below, and being elastic +they yield, allowing themselves to be forced upwards. +A little air is thereby set free, and the pressure from +below diminished, in consequence of which the vocal +ligaments resume their former position, and even move +a little more downwards. The renewed pressure of +the air once more overcomes the resistance of the +vocal ligaments, which again recede as soon as another +escape of air has taken place, and this process<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> +is repeated in rapid and regular succession. In this +manner, and in this manner alone, is vocal tone produced, +whether it be called chest, falsetto, head, or +by any other name.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>There are still some writers who teach a different doctrine. +For instance, Miss Sabilla Novello, in her "Voice and Vocal Art," +embodied in the "Collegiate Vocal Tutor," published by Novello, +Ewer, and Co., says on p. 9, +that "The head voice results from +the upper [<i>i.e.</i>, the false] vocal cords" (these we shall see presently), +and on page 13, that the falsetto tones "are created +principally by the action of the trachea [windpipe] and not +by that of the vocal ligaments." Another writer, Mr. Rumney +Illingworth, in a paper "On the Larynx and its Physiology," +read before the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh, on March 3rd, +1879, and communicated to "The Students' Journal and Hospital +Gazette" (Vol. IV., No. 91, p. 151), says that "The falsetto +voice is produced by the laryngeal sacculi [the pockets of the +voicebox, which will be described further on] acting in the same +way as a hazel-nut can be made to act as a whistle, when +the kernel has been extracted through a small hole in the shell; +or as part of the cavity of the mouth acts in whistling." I +shall refer to these theories again as the opportunity for their +proper discussion arises; for the present I will quote a few +authorities on the subject.</p> + +<p>Dr. <span class="smcap">Carpenter</span>, in his "Human Physiology," eighth edition, +page 914, says, "The true theory of the voice may now be +considered as well established in regard to this essential particular +that the sound is the result of the vibrations of the +vocal cords," &c.</p> + +<p>Professor <span class="smcap">Marshall</span>, in his "Outlines of Physiology," page +255, says: "Experiments on living animals show that the vocal +cords are alone the essential organs for the production of voice, +for so long as these remain untouched, although all the other +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>parts in the interior of the larynx be destroyed, the animal is able +to emit vocal sounds.... The existence of an opening in the +larynx of a living animal, or of man, <i>above</i> the glottis [glottis +means the vibrating element of the voicebox] in no way prevents +the formation of vocal sound; such an opening if situated in the +trachea [windpipe] causes total loss of voice, but by simply +closing it, vocal sounds can again be produced. Such openings, +in man, are met with, either as the results of accidents, of suicidal +attempts, or of operations performed on the larynx or trachea for +the relief of disease."</p> + +<p>Dr. <span class="smcap">Tobold</span>, Professor in the University of Berlin, in his +"Laryngoscopie and Kehlkopf Krankheiten" (Laryngoscopy and +Diseases of the Larynx), p. 131, says, "Soft palate, lid, pockets, +and pocket-bands are not directly active in the production of +either chest or falsetto tones; they only modify the tone produced +in the glottis."</p> + +<p>Dr. <span class="smcap">Luschka</span>, Professor in the University of Tubingen, in his +great work "Der Kehlkopf des Menschen" (The Human Larynx), +says in the introduction: "Only the vocal cords, with the slit +they form, have specifically functional signification, in a narrower +sense, of a voice apparatus, as the parts of the larynx which +lie under and over them have no material and deciding influence +on the production of sound."</p> + +<p>I will bring my quotations to a close with the following, +which seeks to prove the contrary. Dr. <span class="smcap">C. B. Garrett</span> ("The +Human Voice," J. and J. Churchill, London, 1875, p. 17) says, +"It is recorded that the larynx of a blackbird was removed by +severing the windpipe just below it; that the poor 'thing continued +to <i>sing</i>, though in a feebler tone.' This proves that notes +can be formed <i>behind the instrument</i> and before the air reaches it." +This argument, however, is of no value, because it so happens +that birds have two larynges, one at the bottom and the other +at the top of the windpipe. Dr. Garrett seems not to have been +aware of this fact.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p> + +<p>The vocal ligaments in the adult male are, in a +state of rest, about three-quarters of an inch long, and +in the female about half an inch. I pointed out before +that the vocal ligaments are attached in front to the +shield (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, 6) and behind to the pyramids (pl. +VII, 3, 3). Let it now be borne in mind—1st, +That the pyramids, in their turn, are fastened to the +upper border of the ring cartilage; and 2nd, That by +drawing the shield downwards and forwards upon the +ring, the distance between the upper border of the +ring (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, 5) and the front of the shield (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>, +6) is increased, and it will be easily seen that this +movement must of necessity have the effect of stretching +the vocal ligaments.</p> + +<p>This drawing of the shield downwards and forwards +upon the ring is brought about by a pair of muscles +ascending on either side, in the shape of a fan, +from the ring to the shield cartilage (<a href="#pl_viii">pl. VIII</a>, 1, 2). +These muscles we name the "Ring-Shield Muscles." +In opposition to them there is another pair inside the +shield, running parallel with the vocal ligaments (pl. +IX, 1, 2, 3). They are attached (like the vocal +ligaments) in front to the shield cartilage and behind +to the pyramids. These muscles we will call the +"Shield-Pyramid Muscles." They counteract the ring-shield +muscles, and having overcome their resistance, +pull the shield cartilage up again, thereby, of course,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> +relaxing the vocal ligaments. The ring-shield muscles, +therefore, <i>stretch</i> the vocal ligaments and the shield-pyramid +muscles <i>relax</i> them. The shield-pyramid +muscles have an additional function—that of pressing +together the vocal ligaments, under certain circumstances, +thereby narrowing the opening between them. +They have therefore been, in these later days, called +the Sphincter<a name="FNanchor_G_7" id="FNanchor_G_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_G_7" class="fnanchor">[G]</a> muscle of the glottis. They have also +been called the Vocal Muscles, since they play so +important a part in the formation of all vocal tone +that a paralysis of them causes total loss of voice.</p> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 241px;"> +<a name="pl_viii" id="pl_viii"></a> +<img src="images/plate_viii.jpg" width="241" height="421" alt="image not available" /> +</div> + + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> VIII.</p> + + +<p class="c">SIDE VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX.</p> + + +<table summary="side" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">1, 2.</td><td><span class="smcap">Ring-Shield Muscle (Crico-Thyroideus).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">3.</td><td><span class="smcap">Lid.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">4.</td><td><span class="smcap">Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">5, 6.</td><td><span class="smcap">Upper Horns of the Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">7.</td><td><span class="smcap">Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">8.</td><td><span class="smcap">Windpipe.</span></td></tr> +</table> + + + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 237px;"> +<a name="pl_ix" id="pl_ix"></a> +<img src="images/plate_ix.jpg" width="237" height="359" alt="image not available" /> +</div> +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> IX.</p> + +<p class="c">SIDE VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, SHOWING +THE INTERIOR OF THE LEFT HALF.</p> + + +<table summary="interior" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">1, 2, 3.</td><td><span class="smcap">Shield-Pyramid Muscle (Thyro-Arytenoideus).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">4, 5.</td><td><span class="smcap">Ring-Pyramid Muscle (Crico-Arytenoideus).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6.</td><td><span class="smcap">Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">7.</td><td><span class="smcap">Left Upper Horn.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">8.</td><td><span class="smcap">Pyramid.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">9.</td><td><span class="smcap">Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10.</td><td><span class="smcap">Windpipe.</span></td></tr> +</table> + + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It may be observed here that it is impossible to imitate, in +the dead subject, the contraction of the vocal muscles. All +conclusions, therefore, drawn from experiments upon exsected +larynges, with regard to tone-production in living man are +necessarily quite untrustworthy, and cannot for one moment be +admitted as evidence against observations made upon singers with +the laryngoscope.</p></div> + +<p>These two pairs of muscles, then, namely the ring-shield +muscles (<a href="#pl_viii">pl. VIII</a>, 1, 2) and the shield-pyramid +muscles (<a href="#pl_ix">pl. IX</a>, 1, 2, 3) by stretching, slackening, +and compressing the vocal ligaments, mainly govern +the pitch of the tones produced by their vibrations. +The ring-shield muscles receive some assistance in +stretching the vocal ligaments from another quarter, of +which we shall speak later on.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p> + +<p>We have now had a look at the vocal ligaments, +and we have seen by what means they are put on +the stretch. As, however, in a state of repose these +ligaments diverge behind, they must be brought +parallel to each other before they are ready for the +production of sound. Let us, therefore, in order to +explain how this is done, imagine that we have cut +off that part of the pyramids which is standing out +above the vocal ligaments (<a href="#pl_vii">pl. VII</a>), and let us now +have a look at these parts from above. You see the +ligaments (<a href="#pl_x">pl. X</a> <span class="smcap">A</span>, 1, 2), a section of the pyramids +(<a href="#pl_x">pl. X</a> <span class="smcap">A</span>, 3, 4), and uniting these an elastic band (pl. +X<span class="smcap">A</span>, 5). The space between these parts is commonly +called the Glottis, but as this appellation belongs +more properly to the vocal ligaments, it is manifestly +wrong to give the same name to the <i>space</i> which they +inclose. This space should be distinguished as the +"<i>Chink</i> of the Glottis" or the "Vocal Chink."</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>I have been blamed for making this distinction in the face of +almost universal usage. But I can point to the great anatomist +Professor Luschka as having set the example, and while it is true +that in most physiological works "Glottis" is used for the <i>slit</i> between +the vocal ligaments, yet the appellations "Rima glottidis" +and "Aperture of the glottis" are also employed for the same +thing. Medical men, moreover, speak of "Spasm of the glottis," +and singing masters of the "Shock of the glottis," which terms +are clearly quite meaningless when applied to a space.</p></div> + +<p>Dr. Garrett says, on page 12 of the book quoted +before, that "The upper portion of the larynx above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span> +the false vocal cords is termed the glottis." He might +as well say, "The upper portion of the face above the +nose is termed the mouth." I really should not notice +so astounding a statement were it not made by one +signing himself an M.D., and published by so eminent +a firm of Medical publishers as Messrs. J. and A. +Churchill.</p> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 406px;"><a name="pl_x" id="pl_x"></a> +<img src="images/plate_x.jpg" width="406" height="178" alt="image not available" /> +</div> +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> X.</p> + +<table summary="plate_x" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td>A. <span class="smcap">Glottis in Repose.</span></td><td> B. <span class="smcap">Glottis in Respiration.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<table summary="plate_x" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">C.</td><td><span class="smcap">Glottis in the Production of Sound.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">A. 1, 2.</td><td><span class="smcap">Vocal Ligaments.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">3, 4.</td><td><span class="smcap">Section of the Pyramids.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">5.</td><td><span class="smcap">Elastic Band.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6, 7.</td><td><span class="smcap">Levers of the Pyramids.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p>On plate XI you see all parts in a state of rest. To the levers of the +pyramids (<a href="#pl_xi">pl. XI</a>, 1, 2) a pair of muscles is attached, the bases of +which are fixed upon the back of the ring cartilage below (<a href="#pl_xi">pl. XI</a>, 3, 6, +3). The action of these "Back Ring-Pyramid Muscles" (<a href="#pl_xi">pl. XI</a>, 4, 1 and 5, +2) is to contract as soon as we<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span> take breath, thereby drawing +together the pyramids <i>behind</i> and separating them <i>in front</i>, at the +same time stretching the elastic band behind (<a href="#pl_x">pl. X</a>, <span class="smcap">A</span>, 5). By this +movement the chink of the glottis is thrown <i>wide open</i> into the shape +depicted on <a href="#pl_x">pl. X</a>, <span class="smcap">B</span>. During expiration these relax, the elastic band +contracts, and the vocal chink resumes the shape as on <a href="#pl_xi">pl. XI</a>. These +movements go on from the beginning of our lives to the end, whether we +are asleep or awake, with more or less vigour, according as we take a +slight or a deep inspiration. The back ring-pyramid muscles (<a href="#pl_xi">pl. XI</a>, 4, +1 and 5, 2), have consequently the all-important function of keeping +open the gate through which the air we breathe enters the lungs. They +have, therefore, been poetically called the "Guardians of the Portal of +Life." By their action of pulling the pyramids backwards, they also +assist the ring-shield muscles (<a href="#pl_viii">pl. VIII</a>, 1, 2) in stretching the vocal +ligaments.</p> + +<p class="top5">In opposition to these "Opening Muscles" there is +another pair rising from the side borders of the ring +(<a href="#pl_xi">pl. XI</a>, 3, 3) which are fastened to the front part of +the levers of the pyramids (<a href="#pl_xi">pl. XI</a>, 1, 2), serving to +draw together their front projections to which the +vocal ligaments are attached, and which are thereby +brought parallel with each other.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span></p> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 495px;"><a name="pl_xi" id="pl_xi"></a> +<a href="images/plate_xi.jpg"> +<img src="images/plate_xi_th.jpg" width="495" height="550" alt="image not available" /></a> +</div> +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> XI.</p> + +<p class="c">VIEW OF A SECTION OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, +FROM ABOVE.</p> + +<table summary="above" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">1, 2.</td><td><span class="smcap">Section of the Pyramids with Vocal Ligaments and Elastic Band.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">3, 6, 3.</td><td><span class="smcap">Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">7.</td><td><span class="smcap">Pyramid Muscle (Arytenoideus Transversus).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">8, 9, 10.</td><td><span class="smcap">Shield.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">11.</td><td><span class="smcap">Bands by means of which the Pyramids are attached to the Ring.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">4 & 5.</td><td><span class="smcap">Back Ring-Pyramid Muscles (Posterior Crico-Arytenoidei).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">1, 3 & 2, 3.</td><td><span class="smcap">Side Ring-Pyramid Muscles (Lateral Crico-Arytenoidei).</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="sml">N<span class="smcap">ote.</span>—The shield-pyramid muscles (Thyro-Arytenoidei) +which run parallel with the vocal ligaments are, for the sake +of clearness, omitted from this diagram.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p> + +<p>These "Side Ring-Pyramid Muscles" (<a href="#pl_xi">pl. XI</a>, 3, 1 +and 3, 2; see also <a href="#pl_ix">pl. IX</a>, 5, 4) are assisted by a single +muscle uniting the pyramids behind the elastic band +which we have already noticed. This muscle we will +call the "Pyramid Muscle" (<a href="#pl_xi">pl. XI</a>, 7). By the +united action of the muscles which have just been +described the vocal chink is thrown in the shape +shown on <a href="#pl_x">pl. X</a>, C, and the vocal ligaments are now +in a proper position for the production of tone.</p> + +<p class="top5">Before proceeding any farther it will be well if we +once more glance at the muscles with which we have +become acquainted, so that we may be quite sure +about their functions.</p> + + +<p class="c lg">MUSCLES:</p> + +<p class="c">I. <span class="smcap">Governing the Shape of the Vocal Chink.</span></p> + +<table summary="front" +cellpadding="8" +cellspacing="0" +style="text-align:center;line-height:25px;"> +<tr valign="top"><td>The Back Ring-Pyramid<br />Muscles</td> +<td><span style="font-size:225%;">]<span style="margin-left: -.1em;">-</span></span></td> +<td><span class="lg">OPENING</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">The Vocal Chink.</span></td></tr> +</table> + + +<p class="c"><span class="smcap">These are opposed by</span>—</p> + +<table summary="front" +cellpadding="8" +cellspacing="0" +style="line-height:25px;"> +<tr valign="middle"><td> +The Side Ring-Pyramid<br /> +Muscles, and the Pyramid<br /> +Muscles, assisted by the<br /> +Shield-Pyramid Muscles</td> +<td><span style="font-size:250%;">]<span style="margin-left: -.1em;">-</span></span></td> +<td style="text-align:center;"><span class="lg">CLOSING</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">The Vocal Chink.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="c">II. <span class="smcap">Governing the Pitch of the Tones.</span></p> + +<table summary="front" +cellpadding="8" +cellspacing="0" +style="line-height:25px;"> +<tr><td>The Ring-Shield Muscles,<br /> +assisted by the Back Ring-Pyramid<br /> +Muscles</td> +<td><span style="font-size:250%;">]<span style="margin-left: -.1em;">-</span></span></td> +<td style="text-align:center;"> +<span class="lg">STRETCHING</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">The Vocal Ligaments.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="c"><span class="smcap">These are opposed by</span>—</p> + +<table summary="front" +cellpadding="8" +cellspacing="0" +style="text-align:center;line-height:25px;"> +<tr><td>The Shield-Pyramid<br /> +Muscles</td> +<td><span style="font-size:250%;">]<span style="margin-left: -.1em;">-</span></span></td> + +<td><span class="lg">SLACKENING</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">The Vocal Ligaments.</span></td></tr> +</table> + + +<p><b>The Pocket Ligaments</b> (called "False Vocal Cords," +<a href="#pl_xii">pl. XII</a>, 1 and 2) are a pair of horizontal projections +running above and parallel with the vocal ligaments +(<a href="#pl_xii">pl. XII</a>, 3 and 4). The pocket ligaments are, like +the vocal ligaments, attached in front to the shield +and behind to the pyramids. They may be described +as two ledge-shaped pads mainly formed of glands. +They are very sensitive and movable, and ready on +the smallest incitement to meet with great rapidity in +order to protect the vocal ligaments from any harm. +They must, therefore, be chiefly regarded as safeguards +of the vocal apparatus, though it is probable that by +breaking the stream of air passing through the chink +of the glottis, they also exercise considerable influence +upon the <i>quality</i> of the tone emitted. It may be +affirmed, however, without the slightest hesitation, that +they have absolutely nothing to do with the <i>production</i> +of tone. We shall see these glandular ledges again +during our observations upon the living subject, and +I shall therefore say no more about them at present.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span></p> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 367px;"><a name="pl_xii" id="pl_xii"></a> +<a href="images/plate_xii.jpg"> +<img src="images/plate_xii.jpg" width="367" height="399" alt="image not available" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> XII.</p> + +<p class="c">VIEW OF THE VOICEBOX, OR LARYNX, WHICH HAS +BEEN CUT OPEN FROM BEHIND.</p> + +<table summary="behind" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> + +<tr><td align="right">1, 2.</td><td><span class="smcap">Pocket Ligaments (False Vocal Cords).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">3, 4.</td><td><span class="smcap">Vocal Ligaments (Vocal Cords).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">5, 6.</td><td><span class="smcap">Shield (Thyroid) Cartilage.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">7, 8.</td><td><span class="smcap">Cartilages of Santorini.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">9.</td><td><span class="smcap">Lid (Epiglottis).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">14, 10 & 15, 11.</td><td><span class="smcap">Folds of Mucous Membrane (Aryteno-Epiglottic Folds).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">12, 13.</td><td><span class="smcap">Wedges (Cuneiform Cartilages).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">14, 15.</td><td><span class="smcap">Cartilages of Wrisberg.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">16, 17.</td><td><span class="smcap">Pyramid Muscle (Arytenoideus Transversus).</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">18, 19.</td><td><span class="smcap">Ring (Cricoid) Cartilage.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">20, 21.</td><td><span class="smcap">Tongue (Hyoid) Bone.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span></p> + +<p>The space between the pocket ligaments and the +vocal ligaments (<a href="#pl_xii">pl. XII</a>, 1, 2, 3, 4) is the entrance +to two pouches or pockets which extend outwards and +upwards. The dimensions of these pockets vary very +much in different individuals. As a rule their height +does not exceed two-fifths of an inch, so that their +terminations do not reach the upper borders of the +shield cartilage (<a href="#pl_xii">pl. XII</a>, 5 and 6). But there are instances +in which the pockets are nearly three-quarters +of an inch high, and where such is the case they, as +a necessary consequence, reach beyond the shield. +Sometimes they are so high as nearly to touch the root +of the tongue. Their outer walls are chiefly formed of +loose fatty cellular tissue, and the pockets are almost +entirely surrounded by a large number of small glands.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Now these are the "Laryngeal sacculi" which, according to Mr. +Illingworth, produce the falsetto voice by "acting in the same way +as a hazel-nut can be made to act as a whistle, when the kernel +has been extracted through a small hole in the shell," &c. I think, +however, that the reader will, from the description given above, +agree with me that the acoustic properties of the pockets of the +voicebox cannot be very great, and that, at all events, there is a +vast difference between their construction and that of a hazel-nut, +either with or without the kernel. Then there is this additional +difficulty, that even if one could whistle upon the pockets in the +manner suggested, there are two of them, covered, let it be remembered, +with a multitude of glands, continually producing moisture, +and liable to enlarge or to diminish. How, I should like to know, +could two such cavities be so tuned as under any circumstances to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>produce exactly the same tones? Would not rather frightful discords +be the inevitable result? And again, what provision is there +in the pockets for the gradations of pitch? But quite apart from +these considerations, this and other similar theories are completely +disproved by the fact that every tone which the human voice is +capable of producing can be produced by <i>inspiration as well as by +expiration</i>. The tones sung by inspiration are, as might be +expected, wholly devoid of beauty, because the vocal apparatus is, +as it were, put upside down, and the position of bellows and +resonator reversed. But that does not alter the question. The +fact remains, and clearly proves that the pockets have no more to +do with the falsetto than with the chest voice, because in inspiration +the air strikes the vocal ligaments <i>after it has passed</i> the +pockets, and yet the result is, beauty of tone apart, exactly the +same.</p></div> + +<p>The function of the pockets, in my opinion, is this: +They are the means of isolating the vocal ligaments, +thus enabling them to vibrate freely and without +hindrance. They also allow the sound-waves to expand +sideways, thereby materially adding to their resonance. +Lastly, they with their many little glands produce and +supply the vocal ligaments with that moisture without +which, according to the investigations of J. Müller,<a name="FNanchor_H_8" id="FNanchor_H_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_H_8" class="fnanchor">[H]</a> +the production of tone cannot be carried on.</p> + +<p>Above the pocket ligaments there is a kind of tube +which is formed by the upper part of the pyramids +(surmounted by two little bodies called the cartilages<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> +of Santorini, <a href="#pl_xii">pl. XII</a>, 7, 8) behind; the lid or epiglottis +(<a href="#pl_xii">pl. XII</a>, 9) in front, and sideways by two folds of +mucous membrane running up from the pyramids to +the lid (<a href="#pl_xii">pl. XII</a>, 14, 10 and 15, 11). These folds are +in many cases supported by two small cartilages, which +we will call the Wedges (<a href="#pl_xii">pl. XII</a>, 12, 13). These, +according to Madame Emma Seiler, are the chief factors +in the formation of the highest register of the female +voice. In some physiological works they are treated +as of very little consequence, and in others they are not +mentioned at all.</p> + +<p>These wedges are two thin strips of cartilage running +in front of the pyramids (<a href="#pl_xii">pl. XII</a>, 12 and 13) where +they are embedded in a number of glands. Their +upper ends terminate in the cartilages of Wrisberg (pl. +XII, 14, 15), and their lower ends gradually dwindle +away in the direction of the vocal ligaments.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Madame Seiler says that they "reach to the middle of the +vocal chords, by which they are enveloped."<a name="FNanchor_I_9" id="FNanchor_I_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_I_9" class="fnanchor">[I]</a> She comments in +the same book on the fact that German anatomists have been +reluctant to admit the existence of these cartilages; and she adds +on page 61, "It was, therefore, a great satisfaction to me to find +them described under the name of the cuneiform cartilages in +Wilson's 'Human Anatomy.'" It must be confessed, however, +that Wilson's description of them is totally different from Madame +Seiler's. He says, "The cuneiform cartilages are two small +cylinders of yellow fibro-cartilage, about seven lines in length and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>enlarged at each extremity. <i>By the lower end or base</i> the cartilage +is attached <i>to the middle of the external surface</i> of the arytenoid +(the pyramid), and by its upper extremity forms a prominence in +the border of the aryteno-epiglottidean fold of membrane"<a name="FNanchor_J_10" id="FNanchor_J_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_J_10" class="fnanchor">[J]</a> (<i>i.e.</i>, +the fold running up to the lid). According to Seiler, therefore, +the wedges reach from the pyramids to the middle of the vocal +ligaments, but according to Wilson their bases are attached to the +middle of the outer surface of the pyramids, so that they cannot +even touch the vocal ligaments. As Madame Seiler assigns very +important functions to these wedges in the formation of the +highest register of the female voice, and as she quotes Wilson in +a manner that must lead the reader to suppose he gave a similar +description to hers of these cartilages, I have thought it right to +give Wilson's statement in full.</p> + +<p>But there is a description of these cartilages by Dr. Witkowski +which corresponds very closely with Madame Seiler's. Speaking +of some of the glands of the voicebox, he says in the work +mentioned before, on p. 12—"They are arranged in the form of +an L, whose vertical branch goes along the arytenoid cartilages +(the pyramids), <i>the horizontal branch following the direction of the +vocal cords</i>. <i>There is often found situated in the midst of this +group of glands the cuneiform cartilage of Wrisberg</i>, sometimes +reduced to a mere cartilaginous granule."</p> + +<p>Dr. Elsberg also describes them on p. 37 of the treatise before +mentioned as "elongated nodules" in the hinder portion of the +vocal ligaments, and says they are found "more often in the +female than in the male sex." He calls them the "posterior vocal +nodules," and gives on p. 36 a diagram which shows them most +clearly and unmistakably. This point would therefore seem to +be settled.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p> + +<p><b>The Resonator.</b>—We now come to the last part of +our instrument, namely, the resonator, which is formed +of (1) the pockets of the larynx; (2) the tube above +the pocket ligaments; (3) the upper part of the throat; +(4) the mouth; and (5) the nose. Before giving a +description of the resonator, it will be necessary to +make a few introductory remarks on certain laws of the +philosophy of sound, which have been so clearly demonstrated +that they admit of no contradiction.</p> + +<p><b>Tone</b>, as we have seen, is the result of rapid periodic +vibrations.</p> + +<p>The <b>Loudness</b> of tone depends upon the <i>amplitude</i> +of the vibrations. This is easily shown by drawing a +bow over the string of a violin: while the vibrations +of the string are largest, the tone produced is loudest, +and as the vibrations get smaller, so the tone becomes +fainter.</p> + +<p>The <b>Pitch</b> of tone depends upon the <i>number</i> of +vibrations in a given period of time. The greater the +number of vibrations the higher the pitch, and <i>vice versâ</i>.</p> + +<p>The <b>Quality</b> of tone depends on the <i>form</i> of the +vibrations, "which also determines the occurrence of +upper partial tones."<a name="FNanchor_K_11" id="FNanchor_K_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_K_11" class="fnanchor">[K]</a></p> + +<p>Now, to make the sound of any tone-producing +element more intense, and to give it some special<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> +quality, is the work of the resonator. If we simply +fix a fiddle string at either end, and, after giving it a +certain amount of tension, draw a bow across it, we +shall certainly produce a tone, but a very poor and +faint one. Put the same string with the same amount +of tension upon a cheap violin, and the tone will be intensified, +and its quality changed, though that quality +may be of a very unpleasant kind. Repeat the experiment +upon an Amati or a Straduarius, and not only will +the tone be more powerful still, but it will also have a +full, round, and beautiful quality. Something, it is +true, depends upon the string and upon the bowing, but +we are here supposing the same string and the same +player, our object being to show how the <i>resonator</i>, +which, in this case, is the body of the violin, intensifies +the tone of the string, and affects its quality.</p> + +<p>Illustrations exemplifying the same thing might be +multiplied to any extent, but the one I have just +given will suffice. As with the string, so with the vocal +ligaments. Cut a larynx out of a dead body, put it +in proper position on the top of a bellows, and force +the air through it, and you will produce tone, but faint +and poor tone. Now add a resonator to the larynx, +and the tone of the vocal ligaments will be intensified, +and its quality altered according to the kind of resonator +you make use of.</p> + +<p>It is clear, therefore, that the human voice does not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> +only depend upon the vibrations of the vocal ligaments, +and the corresponding vibrations of the air passing between +them, but also upon the resonator as defined on +p. 9. According to the natural formation of our resonator, +and according to the infinite variety of shapes +which every one has it in his power to give to it, our +voices will be, always supposing the conditions of the +vocal ligaments to be the same, either full, round, +sonorous, and <i>beautiful</i>, or they will be poor, cutting, +muffled, guttural, nasal, and <i>ugly</i>.</p> + +<p>As we have, or may easily acquire, absolute command +over the resonator, or, at least, over the greatest part of +it, it is a comfort to know that so very much depends +upon it, and I trust my readers will now, with some +amount of pleasure, look with me at this part of the +vocal apparatus.</p> + +<p>The 1st and 2nd divisions of the resonator—namely, +the pockets of the larynx and the tube above the pocket +ligaments—have been fully described on pp. 52, 53, and +no more need be said on the subject here.</p> + +<p>The upper part of the throat, called in scientific +works the "Pharynx" (<a href="#pl_i">pl. I</a>, <span class="smcap">P</span>), is a cavity, the largest +part of which may be seen through the arch at the back +of the open mouth. Its hinder wall is formed by the +spinal column, and it extends upwards as far as the +Eustachian tubes (<a href="#pl_i">pl. I</a>, <span class="smcap">E</span>) which communicate with +the middle part of the ear. Here it joins<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>—</p> + +<p>The <b>Cavities of the Nose</b> (<a href="#pl_i">pl. I</a>, <span class="smcap">N</span>), which have for +their base the hard and soft palate (<a href="#pl_i">pl. I</a>, <span class="smcap">H</span> and <span class="smcap">S</span>), and +which are divided by a bone partition.</p> + +<p>The only part of the <b>Mouth</b> which requires a particular +description is the soft palate. This is a movable +partition by means of which either the mouth or the +nose can be completely separated from the throat. If +the nose is to be shut off from the throat the soft palate +is <i>raised</i>, and pressed against the back of the pharynx. +If the mouth is to be shut off the soft palate is <i>lowered</i>, +and rests closely upon the back of the tongue. This +partition plays a most important part in vocalization. +In the formation of all pure vowel sounds it is <i>raised</i>, +thereby closing the nasal cavities, and it has been found +that the closure is loosest for "ah" (as in "father") +and tightest for "e" (as in "bee"), the intermediate +vowels being "a" (as in "name"), "oh" and "oo" +(as in "food"). This has been clearly shown by +Czermak in the following manner. Lying down on his +back, he had the nasal cavities filled with tepid water. +He then uttered the various vowel sounds, and ascertained +from the quantity of water required to force open +the closure formed by the soft palate the degree of +tightness for each vowel. He afterwards constructed a +very ingenious little apparatus, by means of which, in +one of his lectures, he demonstrated this fact to his +audience. It will be easily understood from the above<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> +explanation that, if the closure of the nasal cavities is +sufficiently imperfect to allow any considerable amount +of air to pass through the nose, the result will be a +nasal tone.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>I am aware that the very opposite is taught by some. There +are those who maintain that nasal tone arises from the air <i>not</i> +being able to get through the nose. I am even informed that in +some parts of England where nasal tone seems to be a general +affliction, it is the practice of teachers of singing to cause their +pupils to bathe their noses in hot water in order to relax the +muscles which are supposed by their contraction to produce nasal +tone. I would, however, in support of my statement, draw attention +to the following indisputable facts:—(1) It is quite possible to +completely close the nostrils, and yet to produce pure vocal tone. +(2) Persons who are either partly or entirely without the soft +palate can <i>under no circumstances</i> utter a single sound without +the most pronounced nasal quality. It seems to me that these +facts sufficiently speak for themselves; but if any of my readers +are not convinced by them, let them try this experiment: Take +a thin mirror and hold it flat against the upper lip, with the glass +upwards. Now sing a pure vocal tone, and the mirror will remain +perfectly bright. Sing, on the contrary, with nasal quality, and +the mirror will at once be completely dimmed. This shows conclusively +that nasal sound is produced by singing <i>through</i> the +nose, and this cannot be done without lowering the soft palate. +Teachers of singing know well enough that guttural tone is caused +by the obstinate arching up of the tongue, and if they understand +their business they eventually succeed in teaching a pupil labouring +under this disadvantage to get perfect control over his tongue. But +nobody thinks of the soft palate, though that can be brought under +subjection just as well as the tongue. Let singing masters see to +it, and young ladies will no longer be laughed at for having to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span>put their noses into hot water before charming their friends with +a song.</p></div> + +<p>It now only remains to be added that the interior of +the windpipe and of the voicebox, as well as that of +the throat, the mouth, and the nose, is lined with a +thin mucous membrane of a pinkish colour. This concludes +my description of the Vocal Organ as a musical +instrument.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="DIFFERENCES_OF_THE_VOICEBOX_OR" id="DIFFERENCES_OF_THE_VOICEBOX_OR"></a>DIFFERENCES OF THE VOICEBOX, OR<br /> +LARYNX, IN CHILDREN, WOMEN,<br /> +AND MEN.</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="nind">T<span class="smcap">he</span> voicebox of a newly-born baby is about one-third +the size of that of a grown woman. It is therefore +rather large in proportion to other parts of the +body, with the exception of the head, which comparatively +is larger still. The horizontal outline of the +shield cartilage is a very gentle curve, and the upper +horns are short, in consequence of which the voicebox +is close to the tongue. The wedges, according to +Merkel, are strongly developed; the vocal ligaments +are short and thick, and the pockets deep. Up to the +third year the voicebox grows very considerably, but +no particular alterations take place from that time to +the period of puberty, which generally occurs at the +age of 14 or 15, rather earlier in girls than in boys.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> +This period of change lasts from six to twelve months, +or sometimes even two or three years. During this +time the vocal organs undergo a marked change. In +boys, the angle at which the two plates of the shield +meet becomes more and more acute, and the length of +the vocal ligaments increases only in the proportion of +five to ten. In girls, on the other hand, the horizontal +outline of the shield does not lose its evenness, and the +length of the vocal ligaments increases only in the proportion +of five to seven. The cartilages would seem, +especially in boys, to grow more rapidly than the +muscles, so that the slowly-growing muscles do not, at +first, control the newly-developed cartilages. This accounts +for the unmanageable state of the voice at this +period. The changes which take place in the female +voicebox are very imperceptible, so that they do not +materially affect the character of the voice. In the male +voicebox, on the contrary, the alterations are very +marked, and the result is that the high voice of the boy +is changed into the tenor or the bass of the man. +While, therefore, before the period of puberty the voicebox +is materially the same in both sexes, there are, +afterwards, considerable differences noticeable, not only +with regard to size, but also with regard to shape. +This seems, indeed, sufficiently obvious, and any one +can see it by simply comparing the outside of the +throat of a man with that of a woman.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Nevertheless we are told by Mr. Lunn<a name="FNanchor_L_12" id="FNanchor_L_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_L_12" class="fnanchor">[L]</a> that "Anatomy teaches +us that there is no difference between the male and female larynx +save in size;" and by Dr. Garrett (on page 13 of the book quoted +before) that "The male larynx does not differ anatomically in the +least from that of the female, except in size."</p> + +<p>My readers may judge for themselves whether these statements +are borne out by facts or not.</p></div> + +<p>It must further be observed that the whole upper +part of the shield in the female voicebox is less +developed than in the male. The upper horns are +short, so that the voicebox is more closely attached to +the tongue-bone, and its position in the throat is +altogether higher in woman than in man. To show +more clearly still the difference in the proportions of +the male and the female voicebox, I give below some +average measurements (taken from Luschka's great +work on the Larynx) which I have, for the convenience +of English readers, reduced, as nearly as possible, from +centimetres and millimetres to inches.</p> + +<table summary="male-female" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr valign="middle" align="center"><td colspan="2"> </td><td>M<span class="smcap">ale. </span></td><td> F<span class="smcap">emale.</span></td></tr> +<tr valign="middle"><td>Height of the voicebox in<br /> + front, with the lid raised</td> +<td><span style="font-size:250%;">]<span style="margin-left: -.14em;">-</span></span></td> +<td align="center">2 <sup>4</sup>/<sub>5</sub> in.<br /> +(7 cent.)</td> +<td align="center">1 <sup>9</sup>/<sub>10</sub> in.<br /> +(4.8 cent.)<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span></td></tr> +<tr valign="middle"><td>Greatest width between the<br /> + plates of the shield cartilage</td> +<td><span style="font-size:250%;">]<span style="margin-left: -.14em;">-</span></span></td> +<td align="center">1 <sup>3</sup>/<sub>5</sub> in.<br /> +(4 cent.)</td> +<td align="center">1 <sup>2</sup>/<sub>5</sub> in.<br /> +(3.5 cent.)</td></tr> +<tr valign="middle"><td> +Depth between the lower<br /> + border of the shield cartilage,<br /> + and the opposite point<br /> + of the ring cartilage.</td> +<td><span style="font-size:275%;">]<span style="margin-left: -.15em;">-</span></span></td> +<td align="center">1 <sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub> in.<br /> +(3 cent.)</td> +<td align="center">1 in.<br /> +(2.4 cent.)</td></tr> +<tr><td> +Length of the vocal chink ...</td> +<td> </td> +<td align="center">1 in.<br /> +(25 mm.)</td> +<td align="center">3/5 in.<br /> +(15 mm.)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>According to this eminent anatomist, therefore, the +differences between male and female larynges are as +follows: In height, <sup>9</sup>/<sub>10</sub>; in width, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub>; in depth, <sup>1</sup>/<sub>5</sub>; in +the length of the vocal chink, <sup>2</sup>/<sub>5</sub> of an inch. As it is +plain that if there were "no difference between the +male and the female larynx save in size," all their +proportions would be alike, I think I may safely assume +that I have proved my point, which is a rather important +one, as the reader will see when the registers in +the male and female voice come up for discussion.</p> + +<p>We will now consider the question how the various +classes of voice—<i>i.e.</i>, Sopranos, Contraltos, Tenors, and +Basses—are to be accounted for by corresponding +differences in the voicebox. We know that tone is +produced by the vibrations of the vocal ligaments. +It is clear, therefore, that a voice will be high or low +according to the number of vibrations which the ligaments +are capable of producing, or in other words, +according to their dimensions and their tension. +This difference is easily seen by comparing the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> +voicebox of a soprano with that of a bass, because +there the proportions are so manifestly smaller in the +one than in the other. There are similar distinctions +between soprano and contralto on the one hand, and +between tenor and bass on the other, but they are not +so striking. Neither can they, for various reasons, be +demonstrated with the laryngoscope; but they exist +nevertheless.</p> + +<p>It is true that the vocal ligaments of a soprano are +sometimes longer than those of a contralto, just as +the ligaments of a tenor are occasionally longer than +those of a bass. But I maintain that the longer +ligaments of sopranos and tenors are correspondingly +thinner, and that their tension is greater, owing to the +ring-shield or stretching muscles being more powerful +than their opponents—the shield-pyramid muscles. +Where this is the case the ligaments are more slanting +than they would be otherwise, and the consequence of +this is that less power of blast is required to make +them speak. With this mechanism the higher registers +are very readily united with the lower ones, and the +voices so produced are of a light and flexible kind. +Where, on the contrary, the vocal ligaments of contraltos +and basses are comparatively short, they are +also thick in proportion, and the shield-pyramid +muscles are more powerful than the opposing ring-shield +muscles, so that there is less tension. I shall<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> +be asked how I can prove this tension theory, and my +reply is this: The diameter of the vocal ligaments +depends in a large measure on the magnitude of the +shield-pyramid muscles. If, therefore, the ligaments +are exceptionally thick, the muscles just named must +of necessity be very powerful, and can easily resist the +pulling of the ring-shield muscles. If, on the contrary, +the ligaments are exceptionally thin, it is equally +certain that the shield-pyramid muscles are weak in +proportion, and then the stretching muscles can easily +overcome their resistance.</p> + + +<p class="top5">I may add that I came to the above conclusions +about the various classes of voices years ago, when +commencing the study of this subject. Not only have +I never since seen any reason to alter my views—although +I have not failed to notice and carefully +examine the theories of others denying my doctrine—but +I am more than ever convinced that my explanations +are correct. I have now the gratification of +seeing my theory confirmed by so great an authority +as Dr. Merkel, of Leipzig, who most elaborately explains +the subject in his latest work on the larynx, to +which I have already alluded in these pages.</p> + +<p class="top5">Besides the factors enumerated above, there are, no +doubt, others which are also of consequence in determining +the particular kind of voice to be produced by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span> +this vocal apparatus or by that; as, for instance, the +windpipe, or the resonator, or both. The capacity +of the chest—nay, the structure of the whole body, +may have a more or less direct influence upon it. +But there are absolutely no statistics to proceed upon, +and in the absence of these it is vain to indulge in +any speculations on the subject.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="MOVEMENTS_OF_THE_VOICEBOX_OR" id="MOVEMENTS_OF_THE_VOICEBOX_OR"></a>MOVEMENTS OF THE VOICEBOX, OR<br /> +LARYNX, WHICH CAN BE SEEN<br /> +OR FELT.</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="nind">T<span class="smcap">he</span> voicebox in a man is situated almost exactly in the +middle of the throat; in woman its position is, for +reasons partly explained on page 64, considerably +higher. It moves downwards in inspiration, and upwards +in expiration; and the more vigorously we +breathe, the more marked are these movements. In +the act of swallowing the voicebox rises quickly, and +in yawning it goes down so completely that the whole +windpipe may vanish into the chest, and even the part +of the ring cartilage may disappear.</p> + +<p>When singing in what is called chest-voice the voicebox +rises gradually with each higher tone. Changing +the mode of tone production, and singing—say an +octave higher—in falsetto, the voicebox makes quite a +leap upwards, and then again rises gradually with each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> +higher tone, just as in chest-voice, but in a lesser degree. +The voicebox, however, does not stand so high for the +lowest falsetto as for the highest chest tones.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>It is possible, of course, to limit these movements to a minimum, +but a teacher who insists upon his pupils keeping their +voice-boxes perfectly still commits a serious mistake, because it is +always injurious to do violence to nature. It is one thing to keep +the voicebox steady, thereby facilitating the working of some of +those muscles which act immediately upon the vocal ligaments; it +is quite another thing, as will be seen below, to attempt to prevent +movements which have to serve a great purpose.</p></div> + +<p>In <i>whispering</i>, the voicebox occupies a different position +in the throat for each vowel. I invite the reader to +try the following curious experiment. Let him take the +larynx gently between the thumb and the first finger, +and then <i>whisper</i> OO (as in "food,") OH, AH, A (as in +"name,") and E (as in "bee"). He will find that the +voicebox rises with every succeeding vowel until at last +it has completely slipped away from between the finger +and thumb. Each one of these <i>whispered</i> vowels has, as +first ascertained by Helmholtz, its exact pitch, whether +uttered by a little child or by an old man, and the +effect of the rising of the voicebox is to shorten the +resonator, whereby the raising of the pitch is produced.</p> + +<p>I stated on page 41 that the vocal ligaments were +capable of being stretched by the ring-shield muscles, +and that the pitch of the tones produced by their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> +vibrations depended mainly on their tension. As we +are now taking note of such movements of the voicebox +as may be either seen or felt in the throat, we will +take the opportunity of trying whether my statement +can be verified. Let the reader, therefore, do as +follows:—(1) Place the finger on the shield cartilage, +and press it vigorously backward. (2) Sing loudly any +high tone that is well within your compass. Hold this +tone steadily, and <i>be quite sure you do not alter its pitch</i>. +(3) Now suddenly remove your finger, continuing to +sing as before. What is the result? Your tone is +raised by a third, or even more, according to the +amount of pressure you exercised on the shield. And +how did this result come about? In this way: By +pressing the shield backwards you elongated the ring-shield +muscles, thereby counteracting their stretching +influence, and at the same time slackening the vocal +ligaments. The tone you sang while doing this was, we +will say C'. By releasing the shield you enabled the +ring-shield muscles to contract again, thereby putting +the vocal ligaments on the stretch as they were at first. +That changed your C' to E', or higher still. Have I +proved my assertion?</p> + +<p>Now one more test, if you please. I pointed out to +you on <a href="#Page_34">page 34</a> an opening between the shield and the +ring. You will see it on plate <a href="#pl_v">V</a>, No. 10. Please sing +a low tone; place your finger gently on the shield, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span> +move it downwards. You will soon discover a little +hollow which corresponds with the opening I just +mentioned, and into which you can easily put part of +the tip of your finger. Now sing up the scale, and take +care to keep the tip of your finger in the hollow. Remember +that in singing up the scale your voicebox will +rise, which movement you must follow, or you will lose +the place. If you do this carefully, you will find that +the hollow gets smaller and smaller by degrees until at +last it closes entirely, and you can no longer find a +trace of it. Now sing down again, keeping your finger +on the same spot. You will soon notice the hollow +again, and it will continue to get larger and larger until +you arrive at the bottom of your scale.</p> + +<p>This, of course, is but another way of showing the +mechanism by which the pitch of your tones is raised +or lowered, and we have proved the same thing by our +preceding experiment. But I asked you to try this +chiefly because it will enable you to put a check upon +my statements with regard to the registers of the voice, +a subject which I propose to discuss in another +chapter.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="THE_LARYNGOSCOPE_AND_HOW_TO" id="THE_LARYNGOSCOPE_AND_HOW_TO"></a>THE LARYNGOSCOPE, AND HOW TO +USE IT.</h3> +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="nind">T<span class="smcap">he</span> Laryngoscope in its simplest form is a thin circular +mirror, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, +set in a metal frame, and fastened at an angle of 120° +to a piece of wire from three to four inches long, +which is put into a small wooden handle not much +thicker than a pencil, and about the same length as the +wire. By help of the laryngoscope we can either see +our own larynx or that of another person. The easiest +experiment is upon the larynx of some one else. In +this case, the person to be operated upon sits facing the +sun, the head slightly bent backwards, and the mouth +wide open. If he has not sufficient control over his +tongue to prevent it from arching up, he must gently +hold its protruding tip with a pocket handkerchief between +his thumb and forefinger. The mirror is now +slightly warmed to prevent its becoming dimmed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> +the moisture of the breath, and then, holding it like a +pen, the operator introduces it into the throat so that +it touches the uvula. This must be done lightly yet +firmly, care being taken not to bring the mirror into +contact with the base of the tongue. The rays of the sun +falling upon the mirror are reflected downwards into +the voicebox, the image of which is clearly visible in the +mirror. In making observations upon oneself, a second +mirror in the shape of an ordinary hand looking-glass is +necessary to reproduce the image in the small mirror. +This is the way in which the renowned professor of +singing, Senor Manuel Garcia, made those famous "Observations +on the Human Voice," communicated to the +Royal Society by Dr. Sharpey, on May the 24th, 1855. +Similar attempts had been made before; for instance, +in 1827 by Babington, in 1838 by Baumès, in 1840 +by Liston, and in 1844 by Warden and Avery. But +they had all ended in failure, an occasional glimpse of +some parts of the voicebox being the only result obtained. +Garcia, however, brilliantly succeeded where +all his predecessors had failed, and was the first not +only to see the vocal ligaments, but to see them in the +act of singing, and to see them so clearly as to be able +to give an account of their minutest movements. The +instrument has since been greatly improved, and the +process of investigation has become a science. Medical +men all over the world have laid hold of it, and suffering<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> +humanity is daily benefited by it. But Garcia is the +man who produced the first results, and to him, therefore, +is due the credit of being practically the inventor +of the laryngoscope.</p> + +<p>It is almost incredible, but it is true, that this +splendid invention was received coldly and with distrust +in this country, and had it not been for Dr. Johann N. +Czermak, Professor of Physiology at the University of +Pesth, the matter would, in all probability, have been +forgotten. But this gentleman recognized the value of +Garcia's invention, and he at once went enthusiastically +to work, and pushed on vigorously in the way which +Garcia had opened for him. He constructed an apparatus +which enabled him, by making use of artificial light, +to work without interruption and without waiting for the +sun to shine. He then made his first attempts on himself +in order to become acquainted with the conditions +which have to be fulfilled by the observer as well as by +the person to be operated upon. In this way he soon +became a master of the new process, which he immediately +brought under the notice of the profession by +giving lectures and demonstrations in the chief towns +of Europe.</p> + +<p>More than twenty years have passed since then, and +the laryngoscope has, during that time, been made +excellent use of, not only for the alleviation of suffering, +and the cure of disease, but also for its original purpose—<i>i.e.</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span> +the exploration of the mechanism of the human +voice.</p> + +<p>My own connection with the matter has arisen +through my desire to sift contradictory statements +made by various observers. Having read many English, +German, and French books on the subject, I was in +position to pick up a hint here, and to get some good +advice there, and the consequence was that I was able +to pursue a course which made me familiar with the +use of the laryngoscope in a very short time. As my +experience may be useful to others, I will briefly relate +how I proceeded.</p> + +<p>I made my first attempts upon a skull, to which I +attached a plaster-of-Paris model of the voicebox, the +whole being fastened to an iron stand. The instrument +I used was a concave reflector on a spectacle frame. +The reflector had a hole in the centre, and was capable +of being moved in various directions. The next thing +was the little mirror described on page 73, and lastly, +a gas lamp on the principle of the well-known +"Queen's" reading lamps, which can be raised or +lowered at pleasure. I placed the skull to the left of +the lamp, and looking with my right eye through the +hole in the centre of the reflector, practised throwing +the light swiftly and with certainty into the upper part +of the throat. I then introduced the little spy mirror, +and tried to see and to recognize the various parts of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> +the voicebox, which, let it be remembered, present a +somewhat different appearance in the looking-glass +from what they do if seen without it. Then I got a +friend to mark my artificial voicebox, unknown to me, +in various ways, and endeavoured quickly to discover +what he had done. In this way I soon acquired a +considerable amount of skill in handling the instrument, +and also became thoroughly familiar with the image of +the voicebox in the mirror.<a name="FNanchor_M_13" id="FNanchor_M_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_M_13" class="fnanchor">[M]</a> Having thus to a large +extent mastered the mechanical part of my work, I +proceeded to make observations upon myself. I placed +to the left of the lamp an ordinary bedroom looking-glass, +in which now appeared my own face instead of +the skull which hitherto occupied this place. I opened +my mouth, and by the help of the reflector directed the +light into the image of it in the looking-glass. I then<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span> +continued in every way as I had done with the skull, +with this difference, however, that I had first, as pointed +out before, to warm the little spy mirror in order to +prevent its becoming dimmed in the throat.</p> + +<p>An instrument has since been designed by the late Dr. +G. D. Foulis, of Glasgow, which for simplicity, general +excellence, and cheapness, far surpasses the above contrivance, +and which I strongly recommend to intending students +of laryngoscopy. It consists of a plain stand on which +is placed a glass globe filled with water, the whole being +surmounted by a small square mirror. The rays from +a lamp or candle, placed behind the globe, are concentrated +into the open mouth of the observer, who is +seated in front of it, enabling him, by the use of an +ordinary throat mirror, to inspect the movements of his +own vocal ligaments.</p> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 600px;"> +<a href="images/ill_078.png"> +<img src="images/ill_078_th.png" width="600" height="337" alt="image not available" /></a> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>This apparatus, as shown in the annexed drawing, +including a throat mirror, and safely packed for transmission, +may be had from Messrs. W. B. Hilliard & +Sons, 65, Renfield Street, Glasgow, for the very small +sum of 7s. 6d.</p> + +<p>Let not the reader who tries laryngoscopic investigations +be discouraged if, at first, violent retching is the +result. It does not so much arise from sensitiveness of +the parts touched, as from awkwardness in introducing +the mirror. If he perseveres he will soon be rewarded +by a view of the pearly white vocal ligaments, and a +little repeated practice upon himself will enable him also +to operate upon others without causing them discomfort.</p> + +<p>I close this chapter by again reminding amateur +laryngoscopists that in the vast majority of cases where +the touch of the mirror causes retching and gagging, +it is due less to the sensitiveness of the person operated +upon than to the want of skill on the part of the +operator. He should in that case renew his experiments +upon himself, and continue them until he has fully +mastered the use of the instrument, as it is not fair to +make others suffer for his own clumsiness.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="THE_TEACHINGS_OF_THE" id="THE_TEACHINGS_OF_THE"></a>THE TEACHINGS OF THE +LARYNGOSCOPE.</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="nind">O<span class="smcap">n</span> introducing the mirror into the throat we first see +the back part of the tongue, which has a very uneven +surface, and which is, as a rule, covered with greyish +phlegm. We next notice a hollow space between the +tongue and the lid, which is divided by an elastic band +forming a little bridge between the two. Next comes +the upper free part of the lid, the shape of which +greatly varies in different individuals. It hangs over +the voicebox, which it almost completely hides from +view; but during the production of a high tone on the +vowel A, as in "sad," it takes an almost perpendicular +position. When the lid is so raised (<a href="#pl_xiv">pl. XIV</a>, <span class="smcap">L</span>) we +can see right down to the bottom of it, where we observe +that it bulges out a little. Extending from either side +of the lid to the pyramids are two folds of mucous +membrane, in the hinder part of either of which are +to be observed two little elevations representing the +cartilages of Santorini (<a href="#pl_xiv">pl. XIV</a>, <span class="smcap">S</span> <span class="smcap">S</span>), and the upper<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> +points of the wedges, called the cartilages of Wrisberg +(<a href="#pl_xiv">pl. XIV</a>, <span class="smcap">W</span> <span class="smcap">W</span>). Looking down the kind of tube +which is formed by the parts just enumerated, we next +notice two horizontal projections running from front to +back, which are the pocket ligaments (<a href="#pl_xiv">pl. XIV</a>, <span class="smcap">P</span> <span class="smcap">P</span>). +Everything we have seen so far is of a pinkish colour. +Below the pocket ligaments, right at the bottom of the +tube described above, we see the main object of our +investigation, namely, the vocal ligaments (<a href="#pl_xiv">pl. XIV</a>, +<span class="smcap">V</span> <span class="smcap">V</span>). These, being almost of a pearly white, form a +strong contrast to all their surroundings, and it is quite +impossible to mistake them.</p> + +<p class="top5">In quiet breathing the vocal chink is of a triangular +shape, of which, however, we can only see the hinder +part, the front part being hidden by the lid (<a href="#pl_xiii">pl. XIII</a>). +In exaggerated efforts at breathing this space gets considerably +larger, so that, with a well-directed light, we +can see into the windpipe, of which the rings are plainly +noticeable. It is even possible to see the lowest part of +the windpipe, where it is divided into the two branches +entering the lungs.</p> + + +<p class="top5">For the purpose of studying the movements of the +vocal ligaments in the act of singing, the vowel A, as in +"sad" will be found the most favourable, because the +formation of the mouth, and the position of the tongue +which it necessitates, enable us to get a complete view<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> +of the interior of the voicebox, which during the emission +of other vowel sounds is more or less hidden.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Mr. Lunn objects that all investigations with the laryngoscope +are valueless on account of the supposed necessity of holding the +tip of the protruding tongue. He says, in a letter to the +"Orchestra" (January, 1880): "One of our most promising +singers told me he could not rightly produce his voice when under +laryngoscopic investigation. It is a moral impossibility for all!" +(A physical impossibility would be more to the purpose.) "Let +the reader pull his tongue out with a napkin as far as he can, and +sing, and he will get some notion of the tone producible." There +is no foundation for this objection, because if a singer has his +tongue under proper control there is not the slightest occasion to +put it out and to hold it. As to pulling it out as far as one can, +that should not be done under any circumstances, and no man +having the slightest knowledge of laryngoscopy would suggest such +a ridiculous proceeding. In my own case the vocal ligaments can +be seen from one end to the other while I keep my tongue in its +natural position, and I am willing to demonstrate this fact to any +one who has any doubt in the matter.</p></div> + +<p>As soon as we produce a tone, the pyramids, and +with them the vocal ligaments, meet, so as to touch +each other more or less closely, while there still remains +a large space between the pocket ligaments above. +Every time we take breath, the pyramids with the vocal +ligaments recede, to meet again as before, every time +we strike a new tone. The vocal ligaments, thrown into +vibrations by the stream of air passing between them, +cut, as it were, this stream of air into regular waves, and +thus (as more fully explained on p. 38) tone is produced.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span></p> + +<p>We notice here that this tone-production may be +originated in three different ways:—(1) The vocal +ligaments may meet <i>after</i> the air has commenced to +pass between them. Of this an aspirate is the result. +(2) The vocal ligaments may meet <i>before</i> the air has +commenced to pass between them. This causes a check +or a click at the beginning of the tone. (3) The vocal +ligaments may meet just at the very moment when the +air passes between them. In this case the tone is +properly struck. There is nothing to make it indefinite +as in case No. 1, and nothing to impede it as in case +No. 2. Production as in case No. 3 causes the tone to +travel much farther than production as in cases Nos. I +and 2, and it is this way of striking a tone which is +known under the name of "Coup de Glotte" or "Shock +of the Glottis."</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"But it is not a shock of the glottis at all," says Mr. Lunn, on +page 68 of the book quoted before. "It is an audible result arising +from the false cords [pocket ligaments] releasing condensed air +imprisoned below them, which air in its release explodes." I beg +leave to observe that condensed imprisoned air thus released could +produce a puff, but not a musical tone. The matter is, moreover, +capable of being demonstrated to the eye. The process takes place +as described above, and I am ready at any moment to show that +the pocket ligaments <i>never</i> meet in singing. There can, therefore, +be no possibility of condensed air being imprisoned below them, +and we need not enter into any further argument on the subject.</p></div><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span></p> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 705px;"><a name="pl_xiii" id="pl_xiii"></a> +<a href="images/plate_xiii.jpg"> +<img src="images/plate_xiii_th.jpg" width="200" height="141" alt="image not available" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> XIII.</p> + +<p class="c">LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE.<br /> +BREATHING.</p> + +<table summary="plate_xiii" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">T.</td><td>T<span class="smcap">ongue.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">L.</td><td>L<span class="smcap">id.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">V. V.</td><td>V<span class="smcap">ocal</span> L<span class="smcap">igaments.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">W. W.</td><td>C<span class="smcap">artilages of</span> W<span class="smcap">risberg.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">S. S.</td><td>C<span class="smcap">artilages of</span> S<span class="smcap">antorini.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 739px;"><a name="pl_xiv" id="pl_xiv"></a> +<a href="images/plate_xiv.jpg"> +<img src="images/plate_xiv_th.jpg" width="200" alt="image not available" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> XIV.</p> + + +<p class="c">LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE.<br /> +UPPER THICK.</p> + +<table summary="plate_xiv" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">T. T.</td><td>T<span class="smcap">ongue.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">L.</td><td>L<span class="smcap">id.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">P. P.</td><td>P<span class="smcap">ocket</span> L<span class="smcap">igaments.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">V. V.</td><td>V<span class="smcap">ocal</span> L<span class="smcap">igaments.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">W. W.</td><td>C<span class="smcap">artilages of</span> W<span class="smcap">risberg.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">S. S.</td><td>C<span class="smcap">artilages of</span> S<span class="smcap">antorini.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 184px;"><a name="pl_xv" id="pl_xv"></a> +<a href="images/plate_xv.jpg"> +<img src="images/plate_xv.jpg" width="184" height="121" alt="image not available" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> XV.</p> + + +<p class="c">LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE.<br /> +UPPER THIN.</p> + +<table summary="plate_xv" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">T. T.</td><td>T<span class="smcap">ongue.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">L.</td><td>L<span class="smcap">id.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">P. P.</td><td>P<span class="smcap">ocket</span> L<span class="smcap">igaments.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">V. V.</td><td>V<span class="smcap">ocal</span> L<span class="smcap">igaments.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">W. W.</td><td>C<span class="smcap">artilages of</span> W<span class="smcap">risberg.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">S. S.</td><td>C<span class="smcap">artilages of</span> S<span class="smcap">antorini.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 181px;"><a name="pl_xvi" id="pl_xvi"></a> +<a href="images/plate_xvi.jpg"> +<img src="images/plate_xvi.jpg" width="181" height="123" alt="image not available" /></a> +</div> + +<p class="c">P<span class="smcap">late</span> XVI.</p> + +<p class="c">LARYNGOSCOPIC IMAGE.<br /> +SMALL.</p> + +<table summary="plate_xvi" +cellpadding="2" +cellspacing="0"> +<tr><td align="right">T. T.</td><td>T<span class="smcap">ongue.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">L.</td><td>L<span class="smcap">id.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">P. P.</td><td>P<span class="smcap">ocket</span> L<span class="smcap">igaments.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">V. V.</td><td>V<span class="smcap">ocal</span> L<span class="smcap">igaments.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">W. W.</td><td>C<span class="smcap">artilages of</span> W<span class="smcap">risberg.</span></td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">S. S.</td><td>C<span class="smcap">artilages of</span> S<span class="smcap">antorini.</span></td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p> + +<p>We now proceed to study the Registers of the human +voice. A very Babel of confusion exists on this important +subject, and we are not only perplexed by a +multiplicity of terms, but also by the various and often +contradictory meanings attached to them. Thus people +talk of chest, medium, mixed, throat, falsetto, and head +registers, and these terms being utterly unscientific—<i>i.e.</i>, +being based upon sensations and fancies instead of +physiological facts—no one can give a clear and satisfactory +definition of any one of them. To bring order +into such chaos is an almost hopeless undertaking, and +the first step in this direction is obviously to ask ourselves, +What is the meaning of the word "Register?" +My reply is this: <i>A register consists of a series of tones +which are produced by the same mechanism</i>. Then comes +the question, Can any such registers be demonstrated +in the vocal apparatus; and if so, what are the +mechanisms by which they are produced? The +answer supplied by the laryngoscope is, Yes. There +are, broadly speaking, three registers in the human +voice, and the mechanisms are plainly visible, as +follows:—(1) During the lowest series of tones the +vocal ligaments vibrate in their entire thickness (pl. +XIV). (2) During the next series of tones the vocal +ligaments vibrate only with their thin inner edges +(<a href="#pl_xv">pl. XV</a>). (3) During the highest series of tones a +portion of the vocal chink is firmly closed, and only a +small part of the vocal ligaments vibrates (<a href="#pl_xvi">pl. XVI</a>).<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p> + +<p>In accordance with these physiological facts, Mr. +Curwen, in his admirable book "The Teacher's Manual," +calls the registers <i>the Thick</i>, <i>the Thin</i>, and <i>the Small</i>. +These names have a scientific basis, and their meaning +cannot be misunderstood. They are already familiar +to thousands who study music by Mr. Curwen's method, +and I have myself made use of them in my lectures +at University College and at other places. I shall, +therefore, also adopt them in this little work, and hope +they will soon find general acceptance among teachers +and learners, as thereby a great many misunderstandings +will be avoided.</p> + +<p class="top5">Our next business will be to ascertain how these +registers are divided among various voices, and the +result as revealed by the laryngoscope is rather startling. +It consists in this, that the break between the +Thick and Thin occurs <i>in both sexes</i> at about +<span class="music"><span class="music130"><img src="images/ill_087a.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span><span class="listen"> <a href="music/music_087a.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span>. + +In order to realize the full meaning of this, the reader +must bear in mind that music for tenors is generally +written an octave higher than it is sung, so that the +tones we are now speaking about would, as a rule, in +a tenor part be expressed by +<span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_087b.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> <span class="listen"><a href="music/music_087b.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span>. My assertion, +therefore, amounts to this, that everything below<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> +<span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_088a.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> <span class="listen"><a href="music/music_088a.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +whether sung by soprano, contralto, tenor, +or bass, is produced by one mechanism—that is to say, +by the vocal ligaments vibrating in their entire thickness; +and that the series of tones above +<span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_088b.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> <span class="listen"><a href="music/music_087a.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +whether sung by bass, tenor, contralto, or soprano, is +again produced by one mechanism (although a different +one from the last), that is to say, by the vocal ligaments +vibrating only with their thin inner edges. Then there +remains the small register, which belongs almost exclusively +to sopranos, and which represents the series +of tones above <span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_088c.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> <span class="listen"><a href="music/music_088c.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span>.</span></p> + +<p>I thus maintain, not only that the great break +between the thick and the thin occurs (individual +differences apart) at the same place in both sexes, but +that (leaving for the moment sub-divisions out of consideration) +the male voice has but two registers—<i>i.e.</i>, +the Thick and the Thin, while the female voice has +three registers—<i>i.e.</i>, the Thick, the Thin, and the +Small. From this it follows that the female voice is +<i>not</i>, as supposed by some, simply a reproduction of the +male an octave higher.</p> + +<p>I have spoken of the above results of the investigations +with the laryngoscope as startling, because the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> +female voicebox is generally imagined to be exactly like +the male, save in size, and the inference that the female +voice must be exactly like the male, save in pitch, is, +therefore, a very natural one. Neither am I surprised +that those who hold an opposite view to mine are never +tired of advancing this argument.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Mr. Lunn says, in the book quoted before, on page 24, "Consequently +it may safely be asserted that the vocal cords are subject +to the same laws as all sounding bodies, and as the sole difference +between the male and the female larynx is one of size alone, the +voice from the latter <i>is</i> a reproduction of the former on a higher +scale."</p></div> + +<p>I have, however, shown by the measurements of +Luschka, on p. 64, that the proportions of the female +voicebox are materially different from those of the +male, and I have also pointed out differences in shape +noticeable to any observer. Now, although I do not +pretend that I have by these facts and figures sufficiently +accounted for the difference in the registers of +the male and the female voice; yet these facts and +figures are nevertheless greatly in my favour, and they +are certainly a sufficient answer to the above argument +of those who differ from me.</p> + +<p>My case is further strengthened by the testimony +of that eminent physiologist, Dr. Merkel, who says,<a name="FNanchor_N_14" id="FNanchor_N_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_N_14" class="fnanchor">[N]</a> +"In the male organ there are only two materially +different registers to be noticed, the chest and the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span> +falsetto, ... on the other hand, in the female +organ there are clearly to be distinguished three +registers—a low, a medium, and a high." (From +Dr. Merkel's definitions on pp. 148, 149, and 152, it +will be seen that low, medium, and high, are but +other names here employed for Thick, Thin, and +Small.) Dr. Merkel, speaking of the chest (thick) +register, goes on to observe, on p. 148, "It ceases, +very curiously, in both sexes on one of the first four +tones of the one-lined octave (der ein-gestrichenen +Octave) <span class="music"><span class="music130"><img src="images/ill_090.png" +width="150" +alt="musical notation" /></span> <span class="listen"><a href="music/music_090.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> so that it is about one +octave longer [deeper] in man than in woman."</p> + +<p>Let it be observed above all things that I am +not propounding a theory, but explaining a fact; a +fact, moreover, which I have before now demonstrated +to men holding opposite opinions, thereby convincing +them, and which I am willing at any moment to +demonstrate again. A very striking proof that the +distribution of the registers is in accordance with my +explanations may be further found in the circumstance +that it is often impossible to distinguish a male voice +from a female when (other things such as power and +quality being equal) both sing in the same registers. +The similarity is, of course, greatest between tenor +and contralto, and in case of a trial they must confine<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span> +themselves to the compass easily belonging to both; +neither should the singers be seen by the listeners. +I have frequently by these experiments convinced +sceptics; and it has happened more than once when +the female voice was slightly more robust than the +male, that, to the great amusement of those present, the +judges emphatically and without the slightest hesitation +pronounced the lady to be the tenor and the gentleman +the contralto.</p> + +<p class="top5">We have so far only spoken of three registers, +the Thick, below <span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_091a.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> <span class="listen"><a href="music/music_091a.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span>;</span> the Thin, between +<span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_091b.png" +width="100" +alt="musical notation" /> </span><span class="listen"><a href="music/music_091b.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span>;</span> +and the Small, above +<span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_091c.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> <span class="listen"><a href="music/music_091c.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span>.</span> The distinguishing +features of these are so very clear as to make any +mistake impossible. But now we come to sub-divisions, +and with regard to these the matter is not so simple. +Singers know very well that other breaks occur in +the human voice besides those hitherto mentioned, and +the question arises how they are to be accounted for +by corresponding changes in the vocal organ. The +evidence furnished on this point by the laryngoscope +is, in my opinion, not sufficient, because the alterations +in the vocal ligaments are so exceedingly minute as to +be capable of being differently interpreted by different +observers. I have consequently come to the conclusion<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span> +that they cannot be accepted as indicating changes of +mechanism unless corroborated and amplified by other +signs.</p> + +<p>In order to place the whole subject before the +reader in a comprehensive form, I cannot do better +than quote the elaborate description which Madame +Emma Seiler gives of the registers in "The Human +Voice in Singing" (Philadelphia, 1875). Madame +Seiler, to whom Mr. Lunn is pleased to refer, on p. +65 of his treatise, as an "ignorant person," assisted +Professor Helmholtz, of Heidelberg, in his essay upon +the Formation of the Vowel-tones and the Registers of +the Female Voice. He says he thus had "an opportunity +of knowing the delicacy of her musical ear, and +her ability to master the more difficult and abstract +parts of the theory of music." The Professor further +speaks of her as "a very careful, skilled, and learned +teacher." Professor Du Bois-Reymond, of Berlin, also +describes her as "a lady of truly remarkable attainments." +With such recommendations I make no apology +for quoting at length from Madame Seiler's writings; +and it will be readily understood that whenever I differ +from her, I do so with some diffidence, and only after +careful conviction of the accuracy of my own independent +observations.</p> + +<div class="illustration" style="width: 358px;"> +<img src="images/ill_093_th.png" width="358" height="550" alt="image not available" /> +</div> + +<p>I shall substitute the terms hitherto used in these +pages for others employed by Madame Seiler, and I<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> +have added a diagram of the registers, which may assist +the reader in forming a clear idea of the subject.</p> + + +<p class="head">THE THICK REGISTER.</p> + +<p>"When the vowel A, as in 'man,' was sung, I +could, after long-continued practice, plainly see how +the pyramids quickly rose with their summits in their +mucous membranous case and approached to mutual +contact. In like manner the vocal ligaments approached +each other so closely that scarcely any space between +them was observable. The pocket ligaments formed +the ellipse described by Garcia in the upper part of +the glottis."</p> + +<p>The word "glottis" really signifies the vibrating +element in the voicebox. I suppose, therefore, that +by "the upper part of the glottis" Madame Seiler here +means the "part above the glottis."</p> + +<p>"When, in using the laryngoscope upon myself, +I slowly sang the ascending scale, this movement of +the vocal ligaments and pyramids was repeated at +every tone. They separated and appeared to retreat, +in order to close again anew, and to rise somewhat +more than before. This movement of the pyramids +may best be compared to that of a pair of scissors. +With every higher tone the vocal ligaments seemed +more stretched, and the vocal chink somewhat shorter. +At the same time, when I sang the scale upward,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span> +beginning with the lowest tones, the vocal ligaments +seemed to be moved in their whole length and breadth +by large, loose vibrations, which extended even to all +the rest of the interior of the voicebox.</p> + +<p class="top5">"The place at which the pyramids, almost closed +together, cease their action and leave the formation of +the sound to the vocal ligaments alone, I found in +the thick register of the female voice at C, C♯ +<span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_095a.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_095a.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span>, more rarely at B +<span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_095b.png" +width="80" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_095b.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span>.</span> In the thick +register of the male voice this change occurs at A, B♭ +<span class="music"><span class="music130"><img src="images/ill_095c.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_095c.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span>.</span> With some effort the above-mentioned +action of the pyramids may be continued several tones +higher. But such tones, especially in the female voice, +have that rough and common timbre which we are too +often compelled to hear in our female singers. The +glottis also, in this case, as well as the parts of the +voicebox near the glottis, betrays the effort very +plainly; as the tones ascend, the glottis and the surrounding +parts grow more and more red. <i>As at this +place in the thick register there occurs a visible and +sensible straining of the organs, so also is it in all the +remaining transitions, as soon as the attempt is made to +extend the action by which the lower tones are formed +beyond the given limits of the same.</i> These transitions,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> +which cannot be extended without effort, coincide +perfectly with the places where J. Müller had to +<i>stretch</i> the ligaments of his exsected voicebox so +powerfully in order to reach the succeeding half-tone. +Garcia likewise finds tones thus formed disagreeable +and imperfect in sound.</p> + +<p>"Usually, therefore, at the note C♯ <span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_096a.png" +width="80" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_096a.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +in the female voice, and A, B♭ <span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_096b.png" +width="100" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_096b.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> in the +male voice, the vocal ligaments alone act in forming +the sound, and are throughout the register moved by +large, loose, full vibrations. But the instant the vocal +ligaments are deprived of the assistance of the pyramids +they relax, and appear longer than at the last +tone produced by that aid. But with every higher +tone they appear again to be stretched shorter and more +powerfully up to F, F♯ <span class="music"><span class="music130"><img src="images/ill_096c.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_096c.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +the natural transition +from the thick to the thin register, as well +in the <i>male</i> as in the <i>female</i>. The voicebox is perceptibly +lower in all the tones of the thick register +than in quiet breathing."</p> + +<p>I confess my inability to understand how the vocal +ligaments can get <i>longer</i> by relaxing and <i>shorter</i> by +stretching. But apart from this I assert that there is<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span> +no relaxing of the vocal ligaments at the break between +the Lower Thick and the Upper Thick at all. +This is clearly proved by the ring-shield aperture, +which would open immediately if such were the case. +I also doubt whether the action or inaction of the +pyramids determines the break between the Lower +Thick and the Upper Thick, as they are cartilages—<i>i.e.</i>, +pieces of gristle—and cannot, therefore, by any +vibrations of their own assist in the production of tone. +The tension of the vocal ligaments increases as we +sing up the scale until the ring-shield aperture has +quite disappeared. But while it remains so closed, +and without the vocal ligaments being any further +stretched, we can yet sing higher still. The gradations +of tone are now no longer formed by the action of +the ring-shield muscles (see p. <a href="#Page_34">34</a>), but by the shield-pyramid +muscles which press the vocal ligaments more +and more closely together, until at last scarcely any +trace of a slit remains between them. Another result +of this action of the shield-pyramid muscles must also +be to narrow the space <i>below</i> the vocal chink, which, +as we know from the experiments of J. Müller, has +the effect of raising the pitch of tones. I think it very +likely, therefore, that the change from the lower to +the upper thick is really brought about by the shield-pyramid +muscles coming into play after the ring-shield +muscles have done their share.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="head">THE THIN REGISTER.</p> + +<p>"All the tones of the thin register are produced +by vibrations only of the fine, inner, slender edges of +the vocal ligaments. In this action the vocal ligaments +are not so near together, but allow of a fine +linear space between them, and the pocket ligaments +are pressed further back than in the production of the +tones of the thick register. The rest of the action of +the glottis is, however, entirely the same. With the +beginning of the thin register at F♯ <span class="music"><span class="music130"> +<img src="images/ill_098a.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_098a.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +the +whole vocal chink appears again longer, and the vocal +ligaments are much looser than in the highest tones +of the thick register. The united action, already +described, of the pyramids and the vocal ligaments in +forming the deeper tones of the thin register, extends +to C, C♯ <span class="music"><span class="music200"> +<img src="images/ill_098b.png" +width="100" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_098b.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +in the female voice, and in the +male voice to E♭, E <span class="music"><span class="music130"> +<img src="images/ill_098c.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_098c.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +commonly written +thus, E♭, E <span class="music"><span class="music200"> +<img src="images/ill_098d.png" +width="110" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_098d.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +but which only rarely occurs +in composition, and then is sung by tenors as I have +given it; that is, one octave lower.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p> + +<p>"With the C♯ <span class="music"><span class="music200"> +<img src="images/ill_099a.png" +width="80" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_099a.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> + +in the female voice, and the +E♭, E <span class="music"><span class="music200"> +<img src="images/ill_099b.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_099b.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> + +in the male voice, the pyramids +cease again to act, and, as before, in the Upper Thick, +leave the formation of the sounds to the vocal ligaments +alone, which at this change appear again longer +and looser, but with every higher tone tighten up to +F, F♯ <span class="music"><span class="music200"> +<img src="images/ill_099c.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_099c.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> + +in the female voice, and in the +male voice to G <span class="music"><span class="music200"> +<img src="images/ill_099e.png" +width="75" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_099e.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +or as it is commonly written, +<span class="music"><span class="music200"> +<img src="images/ill_099d.png" +width="75" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_099d.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span>.</span> +In the thin register the voicebox preserves +its natural position as in quiet breathing."</p> + +<p>I must say here that I have never had any very +clear conception of Madame Seiler's meaning when she +speaks of the action or inaction of the pyramids in the +formation of the registers. In the lower thick register +there is, as a rule, a small triangular space between +them which gets gradually smaller as the tones ascend, +until it is quite closed in the upper thick. Dr. Merkel, +also, has made the same observation. So far, therefore, +we are agreed. But even of this I can find no +trace in the thin register, where I have always noticed +that the pyramids are quite close together. On this<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span> +point, my assertion is borne out by Dr. Merkel, who +insists upon the same thing. I also demur to Madame +Seiler's statement that in this register again the vocal +ligaments relax at the beginning of the upper division, +and I invite the reader to test the matter by reference +to the ring-shield aperture. The evidence furnished +by this experiment is conclusive, because the vocal +ligaments cannot possibly relax without a corresponding +enlargement of the ring-shield aperture. A very +striking illustration of this occurs during the transition +from the Upper Thick to the Lower Thin. During +the highest tones of the Upper Thick, when the +tension of the vocal ligaments is greatest, the ring-shield +aperture, as we have seen before, completely +closes, while immediately opening very widely during +the lowest tones of the Lower Thin, when the vocal +ligaments are quite relaxed. Nothing of the kind +takes place during the change either from the Lower +Thin to the Upper Thin, or from the Lower Thick to +the Upper Thick. It appears to me that Madame +Seiler has rather exaggerated the importance of these +minor breaks, while she does not make enough of the +great break between the Upper Thick and the Lower +Thin. If there is straining anywhere, it is during the +attempt to carry the mechanism of the Upper Thick +beyond its natural limit. In this case the tension of +the vocal ligaments, as indeed of all surrounding<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> +parts, becomes so tremendous that at last the whole +thing looks as though it were literally going to fly to +pieces in every direction. Now change into the Lower +Thin, and the relief is wonderful. Let tenors make +a note of this. If they <i>will</i> violate Nature, they must +pay the penalty!</p> + +<p>As regards the transition from the Lower Thin to +the Upper Thin, I would suggest the following explanation:—The +vocal chink is at first, as Madame +Seiler says, linear, and the gradations of tone are +caused by simple tension of the vocal ligaments, +which is proved by the diminution of the ring-shield +aperture. While this goes on we are in the Lower +Thin. Now the laryngoscope reveals another method +of still further raising the pitch, which consists in a +gradual shortening of the vocal chink. This is caused +by the shield-pyramid muscles pressing together the +ends of the vocal ligaments, thereby giving the vocal +chink a slightly elliptic shape. When this mechanism +comes into play we are in the Upper Thin.</p> + + +<p class="head">THE SMALL REGISTER.</p> + +<p>"When in the observation of the thin register I +had sung upwards to its highest tones, and then sang +still higher, I became aware, with the F♯ +<span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_102.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_102.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span> +of a change in the motions of the organ of singing, +and the tones thus produced had a different <i>timbre</i> +from those of the Thin. It required long and patient +practice before I finally succeeded in drawing forward +the lid so that I could see the glottis in its whole +length. Not until then was I able to observe the +following: With the F♯ <span class="music"><span class="music200"><img src="images/ill_101.png" +width="90" +alt="musical notation" /></span> +<span class="listen"><a href="music/music_101.mid">[LISTEN]</a></span></span> the vocal ligaments +suddenly closed firmly together to their middle, with +their fine edges one over the other. This closing appeared +as a fine red line extending, from the pyramids +at the back, forward to the middle of the vocal ligaments, +and leaving free only a third part of the whole +glottis, immediately under the lid, to the front wall of +the voicebox.</p> + +<p class="top5">"The foremost part of the glottis formed an oval +orifice, which, with every higher tone, seemed to +contract more and more, and so became smaller and +rounder. The fine edges of the vocal ligaments which +formed this orifice were alone vibrating, and the +vibrations seemed at first looser, but, with every +higher tone, the ligaments were more stretched."</p> + +<p class="top5">I have repeatedly had the opportunity of observing +the mechanism of the small register, and I only differ +from Madame Seiler in this, that I did not notice that +"with every higher tone the ligaments were more<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> +stretched." It appeared to me, on the contrary, as +though the raising of the pitch was produced by a +contraction of the vocal ligaments. In all other +respects I entirely agree with the above description. +According to Madame Seiler the small register is +formed by the action of the wedges, as described on +p. 54.</p> + +<p>We have thus become acquainted with the mechanism +of the registers of the human voice. We +have also seen that it is possible to carry these up +beyond their natural limits, though the process is +accompanied by visible signs of straining. The practice +of teachers, therefore, whose aim it is to "extend" +voices upwards, and who are very proud, especially +in tenors, of their "made tones," is strongly to be +condemned, and is sure to have disastrous results. It +is, on the other hand, equally possible to carry the +registers down several tones below the places called +the breaks, so that at the limits of each register there +are a number of tones which may be produced by two +different mechanisms. The carrying down of a register +causes no fatigue, and though its volume is weak as +compared with the corresponding lower register, it is +surprising how soon it can, by judicious practice, be +made to acquire fulness and power.</p> + +<p>In order to prevent misunderstandings, it may be +well to add that the breaks as indicated in the pre<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span>ceding +pages are intended only to show the average +compass in the great majority of voices. As, for +instance, there are basses who have an exceptional +extension of the Lower Thick downwards, so there are, +undoubtedly, tenors who have an exceptional extension +of the Upper Thick upwards. It must, therefore, be +the voice trainer's business very carefully to ascertain +the exact limits of the registers in every single case. +In choral singing, however, where individual attention +is impossible, the breaks as given above may be implicitly +relied upon. Not only should the registers +never be carried above these points, but if the teacher +is wise he will insist upon his pupils forming the +habit of changing the mechanism a tone or two below.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Never "extend" lower registers upwards, but +strengthen the upper registers, and carry them +downwards, thus equalizing the voices from top to +bottom, and enabling your pupils to sing without +straining.</span> That is the great lesson taught by the +investigations described in these pages. I have seen a +singer pull himself together, and with a tremendous +effort shout a high A in the thick register. His neck +swelled out, his face became blood-red, and altogether +the "performance" was of an acrobatic rather than +of an artistic nature. The general public, of course, +loudly applauded, but people of taste and refinement +shuddered. Such exhibitions are, unfortunately, not<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span> +rare. If this little book should contribute, however +remotely, to discourage them, it will not have been +written in vain.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="APPENDIX_TO_THE_THIRD_EDITION" id="APPENDIX_TO_THE_THIRD_EDITION"></a>APPENDIX TO THE THIRD EDITION</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p>It has been suggested to me that the usefulness of my +little book would be enlarged if I were to add an +appendix containing some application to practical +work of the physiological laws already explained. +This I have endeavoured to do in the following chapter, +and I trust the simplicity of the directions will enable +the reader to carry out my instructions, to vary them, +and to enlarge upon them according to circumstances.</p> + + +<p class="head">HINTS ON TEACHING.</p> + +<p>One of the most important lessons taught us by the +study of Vocal Physiology is the correct method of +breathing and of obtaining control over the respiratory +muscles. I will now give a few exercises for this purpose.</p> + +<p>Divest yourself of any article of clothing which at +all interferes with the freedom of the waist. Lie down +flat on your back. Place one hand lightly on the +abdomen and the other upon the lower ribs. Inhale, +through the nostrils, slowly, deeply, and evenly, without +interruption or jerking. If this is done properly +the abdomen will, gradually and without any trembling +movement, increase in size, and the lower ribs will +expand sideways, while the upper part of the chest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> +and the collar-bones remain undisturbed. Now hold +the breath, <i>not</i> by shutting the glottis, but by keeping the +midriff down and the chest walls extended, and count +four mentally, at the rate of sixty per minute. Then +let the breath go <i>suddenly</i>. The result of this will be +a flying up of the midriff, and a falling down of the +ribs; in other words, there will be a collapse of the +lower part of the body. This collapse may not at first +be very distinct, as the extension has probably been +insufficient; but both will become more and more +perfect as the result of continued practice.</p> + +<p>Let it be clearly understood: The <i>in</i>spiration is to be +slow and deep, the <i>ex</i>piration sudden and complete. +In <i>in</i>spiration the abdomen and the lower part of the +chest expand, and in <i>ex</i>piration they collapse.</p> + +<p>The time of holding the breath is not, at the outset, +to exceed four seconds, and the student must never, +on any account, fatigue himself with these exercises; +they may, however, be frequently repeated at intervals. +It will be found by occasional trials upon the spirometer +that the breathing capacity increases with these +exercises. The process of abdominal respiration +becomes easy and no longer requires constant watchfulness, +and the student will soon be able to carry it +on, not only lying down, but while he is standing or +walking, though not at once with the same ease. He +must now, for a time, be careful to see that he has the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> +same physical sensations in breathing which he noticed +while making his first experiment when lying down; +and he must exercise special care when running, going +upstairs, &c., and, of course, in speaking or singing.</p> + +<p>The criterion of correct inspiration is, as I have said +before, an increase of size of the abdomen and of +the lower part of the chest. Whoever draws in the +abdomen and raises the upper part of the chest in the +act of filling his lungs does wrong.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile, in continuing the breathing exercises, +the time of holding the breath may be increased at the +rate of two seconds per week; so that the student who, +during the first fortnight, limited himself to four +seconds will, at the end of six weeks, hold his breath +during twelve seconds. I have, in some instances, with +students of mine, gone as far as twenty seconds; +but I desire very earnestly to warn my readers to be +cautious and not to go to extremes. Nothing will be +gained, but infinite harm may ensue by over-doing +these lung gymnastics, and persons at all inclined to +bleeding from the lungs should not undertake the +exercises at all, except with the sanction of their +medical adviser, who will limit the practice according +to circumstances.</p> + +<p>The second breathing exercise is the exact opposite +of the first, and consists in taking a rapid <i>in</i>spiration +and making the <i>ex</i>piration slow, even, uninterrupted<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> +and without jerking or trembling. My musical readers +will at once see the importance of this exercise for the +purpose of singing sustained tones and florid passages; +but it would be quite useless to attempt it before No. 1 +has been sufficiently practised.</p> + +<p>The third and last breathing exercise consists in +taking the <i>in</i>spiration as in No. 1, and the <i>ex</i>piration +as in No. 2. After the two preceding ones have been +fully mastered this last is easy enough; and the +student who has persevered so far will now have overcome +one of the greatest difficulties of a vocalist, +namely, the proper management of the breath, an +accomplishment which seems to become more and +more rare in our go-ahead times of electricity.</p> + +<p>I feel that my description of these breathing exercises +is far from complete, and what is worse, that it +may lead to misunderstandings, the results of which +will hereafter be laid to my charge. But writing, +however lucid and careful, can never take the place of +<i>vivâ voce</i> instruction; and I wish it to be distinctly +understood that the explanations here given are not +by any means intended to supersede the aid of a competent +and painstaking teacher.</p> + +<p>I will take leave of this part of my subject by warning +my readers against the mistake, which may be +caused by a superficial perusal of these pages, that it +is the chief aim of the above breathing exercises to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> +enable the singer or speaker to cram as much air as +possible into the lungs. I have pointed out some of the +evils which are likely to arise from exaggerated breathing +efforts; yet I wish to say again, most emphatically, that +it is quite possible to <i>overcrowd</i> the lungs with air. This +is a matter of every-day occurrence, which is not, +however, on that account any the less reprehensible; +for, as I have already mentioned, it is sure to lead, +sooner or later, to forcing and inequality of voice, and +to congestion of the vessels and tissues of the throat +and of the lungs.</p> + +<p>Now we come to the question of the production +and cultivation of the voice, including the nature and +the proper treatment of the registers. In this connection +I shall endeavour to explain a series of exercises +based upon physiological facts, which will enable the +reader to strike out a safe and direct path, avoiding +much useless drudgery, and leading to eminently +satisfactory results. As it is not my object to supply +a singing manual, but simply to point out the way +of treating the voice upon scientific principles, I +shall not attempt to deal separately with the different +classes of voices, or to go into minute details; +but it will rather be my aim to lay down general principles, +leaving my readers to carry them into practice, +and to elaborate them according to individual circumstances. +It must also be borne in mind that the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span> +exercises I am going to recommend will here be taken +as they suggest themselves, while passing in review the +various parts which unitedly form the mechanism of +the human voice. Therefore, in the actual process of +training a voice, they will have to be taken in a different +order from that in which they are discussed here, in +accordance with the general plan of this book.</p> + +<p>The movements of the pyramids with the vocal +ligaments attached to them are governed by two sets +of muscles pulling them either together or away +from each other. These have been fully described +under the names of the "Closing Muscles" and the +"Opening Muscles;" and the reader will at once see +the importance of devising a set of exercises which shall +call these opening and closing muscles into play, +thereby making them powerful, and bringing them +under the control of the will.</p> + +<p>This is, fortunately, a very simple matter; for all we +have to do is to sing a series of short tones, each tone +to be followed by a short inspiration. We have learnt +that every time we strike a tone the vocal ligaments are +made to approximate; by so doing we therefore exercise +the closing muscles. Every time we take an inspiration +the vocal ligaments are separated; by so doing therefore +we exercise the opening muscles. It is plain from +these explanations that, by practising in the manner +just indicated, we shall gain the same results in five<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span> +minutes which it would take us half an hour to obtain +by singing sustained tones after the usual method of +teaching.</p> + +<p>Let me now give as clear a description of the exercise +as possible. Find the pitch of your speaking voice, +which we will say is <i>F</i>. Then sing the following:—</p> + +<div class="illustration"> +<img src="images/ill_112.png" +style="width:500px;" alt="musical notation" /> +</div> + +<table summary="ah" +style="text-align:center;font-size:105%;" +cellpadding="0"> +<tr style="font-style:italic;"><td><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">o</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">o</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 7em;">o</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 4em;">o</span></td></tr> +<tr style="font-style:italic;"><td><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ah</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">ah</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 7em;">ah</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 4em;">ah</span></td></tr> +<tr style="font-style:italic;"><td><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">ai</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 4.5em;">ai</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 7em;">ai</span></td><td><span style="margin-left: 4em;">ai</span></td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="4" align="center"><a href="music/music_112.mid"><span class="listen">[LISTEN]</span></a></td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>Strike the tone firmly and clearly, avoiding alike the +<i>check</i> of the glottis and the <i>glide</i> of the glottis. This is +often a matter of great difficulty, requiring much +patience and perseverance on the part of the teacher as +well as on that of the student. The <i>glide</i> of the glottis +is particularly hard to eradicate, and in many instances +the case seems to be hopeless. Do not, however, +despair, but try this: Pronounce vigorously the word +"Up." Then <i>whisper</i>, but still very vigorously and +distinctly, three times the vowel <i>u</i>, as you just had it +in the word "up." Immediately afterwards <i>sing</i> "Ah." +Thus—</p> + +<table summary="" +cellspacing="0" +cellpadding="5"> +<tr align="center"><td>U<span class="smcap">p!</span></td><td> + +<i>u</i>, <i>u</i>, <i>u</i>,</td><td>Ah.</td></tr> +<tr align="center"><td>(<i>spoken</i>)</td><td> (<i>whispered</i>)</td><td> (<i>sung</i>)</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>I recommend this device from extended personal ex<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>perience, +and hope my fellow-teachers may find it as +useful as I have found it myself. Another point of +importance in practising the exercise for strengthening +the opening and the closing muscles is the breathing +after every tone; and this must be done gently and +without effort, the only perception which the singer +should have of it being a slight movement of the +midriff. When you can sing the exercise in this manner +on <i>F</i>, your supposed speaking tone, then go up the +scale, semitone by semitone, to <i>B</i> or <i>C</i> above, and down +again, semitone by semitone, to <i>B</i> or <i>C</i> below. Of +the quality of tone I will say nothing here, because +that part of the subject will be discussed later on in +connection with the tongue and the soft palate.</p> + +<p>The next thing in connection with the physiology of +the vocal organ from which we can deduct a practical +lesson is the action of the muscles governing the pitch +of the voice. This process is a very complex one, and +can be made clear only by <i>vivâ voce</i> explanations, with +the help of good models and moving diagrams, by +demonstrations with the laryngoscope, and by carefully +watching external signs. There is no doubt, +however, that a set of muscles, described as the +"Stretching and Slackening Muscles," play the most +important part in this matter, and I advise the reader +to study carefully the chapter on "The Movements of +the Voicebox," and try the experiments mentioned in it.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span> +It will thus be seen that the flexibility of the voice +depends in a great measure upon the control we have +over the muscles governing the pitch; that is to say, +upon the readiness and exactness with which we are +able to allow them to contract or to relax.</p> + +<p>Performers upon various instruments, as for instance +the piano and the violin, know that certain exercises +are indispensable to brilliant execution, because they +strengthen the muscles of the wrist and of the fingers, +and make them obedient to the will. It has even been +found that simple finger gymnastics, exercising separately +different sets of muscles, and making them +independent of each other, are of the greatest value, +and save long hours of tedious and wearisome practising. +In a similar manner we may spare ourselves much +trouble and gain our end most readily by vocal +gymnastics, calculated to bring into play the stretching +and slackening muscles of the larynx. There is no +difficulty about it. Sing F, the same tone from which +we started when exercising the opening and the closing +muscles, and add to it G. The alteration of the pitch +is brought about by a contraction of the stretching +muscles overcoming the resistance of the opposing +slackening muscles, thereby <i>tensing</i> the vocal ligaments. +If you again sing F, the case is reversed, and the new +alteration in pitch is brought about by a contraction of +the slackening muscles overcoming the resistance of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span> +opposing stretching muscles, thereby <i>relaxing</i> the vocal +ligaments.</p> + +<div class="illustration"> +<img src="images/ill_115.png" +style="width:85%;" alt="musical notation" /> + +<table summary="" +cellspacing="0" +cellpadding="0" +style="text-align:center;font-size:105%;margin-left:-5%;width:95%;"> +<tr style="font-style:italic;"><td>o</td><td>o</td></tr> +<tr style="font-style:italic;"><td>ah</td><td>ah</td></tr> +<tr style="font-style:italic;"><td>ai</td><td>ai</td></tr> +<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="music/music_115.mid"><span class="listen">[LISTEN]</span></a></td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>The above is an example. Take great care to render it +perfectly. Sing every tone clearly and distinctly, but +without jerking, at the same time uniting all the tones, +but without drawling. Do not try how quickly you +can sing, but rather how distinctly. Commence slowly, +and be in no hurry to increase the speed. Raise and +lower the exercise semitone by semitone within the +medium part of your voice. A variety of exercises +founded upon the same principles may be introduced, +and will serve to increase the flexibility of the voice +in a very short time.</p> + +<p>Now we come to the "Registers" of the voice. I +have defined a register as "a series of tones produced +by the same mechanism." The five registers of which +the human voice, taken as a whole, consists, are carefully +described, and the means by which they are +formed minutely explained in a former part of this +book. These registers, nevertheless, continue to be a +stumbling-stone to many, and the fact of the existence +in the throat of different actions for the production +of different series of tones has led some teachers into<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span> +the deplorable mistake of developing and exaggerating +them, instead of, on the contrary, smoothing them +over and equalizing them. The result is that we often +hear singers who seem to have two or three different +<i>voices</i>. They are growling in the one, moaning in the +second, and shrieking in the third; while it should +have been their aim so to blend and to unite the +registers as to make it difficult even for a practised +ear to distinguish the one from the other. Such +singing is outrageous, and I protest against the opinion +expressed in some quarters that it is the natural outcome +of the teachings of the laryngoscope.</p> + +<p>In developing and strengthening the registers I base +my first exercises upon the fact that the "Vowel +Scale" goes from low to high in this order; <i>oo</i>, <i>oh</i>, +<i>ah</i>, <i>ai</i>, <i>ee</i>, so that consequently the highest tones will be +produced most readily when singing the vowels in the +order just given.</p> + + +<div class="illustration"> +<img src="images/ill_116.png" +style="width:80%;" alt="musical notation" /><br /> +<a href="music/music_116.mid"><span class="listen">[LISTEN]</span></a> +</div> + + +<p>Sing this exercise quite softly, strike each tone clearly +and distinctly, and take a <i>slight</i> inspiration after every +tone. Be careful to take a full inflation only at the +beginning, and afterwards to inhale <i>less</i> air than has +been consumed in every preceding tone, or you will +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span> +after a while overcrowd the lungs, and experience a +sensation of being choked. This is a thing to be avoided +in any case; but under present circumstances it should +be remembered that the short inspirations are not +taken for the purpose of re-filling the lungs, but simply +to compel the "opening and closing muscles" to do +their work. By so doing we give them six times more +exercise than by breathing only once at the beginning; +and, what is more important still with regard to our +immediate object, we greatly facilitate the task of the +vocal ligaments to arrange themselves in different ways +according to the registers they are to produce.</p> + +<p>It is self-evident that the danger of carrying the +mechanism of a register beyond its proper limit is +greater if the vocal ligaments are kept together, than +it would be if they were made to separate, thereby +being enabled to close again under different conditions. +It will be seen, therefore, that the slight inspirations +after every tone are an essential part of the exercise, +and must on no account be omitted. The exercise is +to be taken at a convenient pitch, and then to be raised +semitone by semitone in accordance with the requirements +of individual voices. It may, after some time, +be taken right through upon the vowel <i>ah</i>, and finally +<i>legato</i>, gradually increasing the speed, to the Italian +word <i>scala</i>, singing the syllable <i>la</i> to the last note.</p> + +<p>The change from one register to another should<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> +always be made a couple of tones below the extreme +limit, so that there will be at the juncture of every +two registers a few "optional" tones which it is possible +to take with both mechanisms. The singer will +be wise, however, to avail himself of the power of +producing an optional tone with the mechanism of +the lower register only on rare occasions. To force +the register beyond its natural limit is, of course, +infinitely worse, and should never be tolerated. The +practice carries its own punishment, as it invariably +ruins the voice; and tones so produced always betray +the effort (frequently in a most painful degree), and are +consequently never beautiful.</p> + +<p>It is to be observed that the exercise given above +may be varied to any extent, so long as it is based +upon the principle which has been explained. The +beneficial results in the development of the voice will +speedily be noticed, and then sustained tones may +be sung through the whole compass after the orthodox +fashion.</p> + +<p>This brings me to the consideration of the "mixed +voice," which is essential in bridging over the break +between the "upper thick" and the "lower thin" of +the tenor, and which is also frequently made use of +by baritones and basses in the production of their +highest tones.</p> + +<p>The "voce mista" is "mixed" in this sense, that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> +it combines the <i>vibrating mechanism</i> of the "lower +thin" with the <i>position of the larynx</i> of the "lower +thick;" that is to say, while the vibrations are confined +to the thin inner edges of the vocal ligaments, +the larynx itself takes a lower position in the throat +than for the "lower thin," and the result is a remarkable +increase of volume without any corresponding +additional effort in the production of tone. A few +trials before a looking-glass will at once prove the +correctness of this explanation, and, what is of more +practical consequence, will enable the student with a +little practice to overcome the serious difficulty of +singing high tones without straining, yet with a fulness +capable of being increased or diminished at +pleasure.</p> + +<p>The last thing we have to consider is the "resonator" +of the human voice, namely, the upper part of +the throat, the mouth, and the nose. Whether we sing +<i>ah</i>, <i>ai</i>, <i>ee</i>, <i>o</i>, or <i>oo</i>, the original tone produced by the +vibrations of the vocal ligaments is in either case +absolutely the same, and it takes the form of one +vowel or another, solely according to the shape which +the "resonator" assumes, and which may be described +as a mould into which the tone is cast. The quality +of the voice also—its throatiness, its nasal twang, its +shrillness, harshness, and ugliness, or its purity, +roundness, fulness, and beauty—depend mainly upon<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> +the nature of the resonator, and upon the way in +which we work it. It is, therefore, a matter of the +highest importance to be fully acquainted with this +part of the vocal apparatus, and I hope my readers +will follow me in a brief consideration of it with the +more pleasure, as we are now speaking of parts which +are directly under the control of our will, and upon +the proper management of which so much depends.</p> + +<p>There is a most able, most painstaking, and most +instructive work upon this subject, "Pronunciation +for Singers," by Alexander Ellis, Esq., F.R.S., &c., +published by J. Curwen and Sons, to which I would +call the attention of all who desire to make the best +use of their voices. To be really understood this book +requires that the student should conscientiously carry +out all the experiments Mr. Ellis suggests. But any +one doing so will, I venture to assert, rise from the +study of this subject with a deeper conviction of the +immense importance of the "resonator," and with a +clearer perception of the best way of managing it +than he ever had before. I obtain better and quicker +results with my pupils since I have learnt the lessons +Mr. Ellis teaches, and I have no doubt my fellow +teachers will derive similar benefit from their study.</p> + +<p>One of the few points upon which "doctors" do +not differ is that the tone, in order to be pure, resonant, +and far-reaching, must be allowed to come well<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> +to the front of the mouth. It should, as the phrase +goes, be directed against the hard palate just above +the front teeth. But this is an unfortunate way of +putting it, as the tone fills the whole cavity of the +mouth, and cannot be "directed" like a jet of water +upon any given point. Nevertheless the idea sought +to be conveyed by the injunction is good, for it is +certainly essential to good quality that the tone should +be brought well forward in the mouth. This is frequently +prevented by several circumstances which we +will now consider:—</p> + +<p>The "soft palate" may be in the way. This is the +movable partition shaped like an arch with the little +pendant called the "uvula" hanging down in the +centre. It acts like a curtain. If we lower it, it hangs +upon the back of the tongue, shutting off the mouth +from the throat, thereby compelling the tone to pass +through the nostrils, and thus giving it a nasal quality. +This nasal quality increases the more the passages +through which the tone has to travel are impeded; +but the first and indispensable condition for its existence +is the lowering of the soft palate. Raise this, and you +may completely shut the nostrils and yet produce +a pure vocal tone. The reason is that, with the +soft palate <i>up</i>, the nose is shut off from the throat, +thereby compelling the tone to pass through the +mouth.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></p> + +<p>But more, the soft palate is never still for a moment +while we are singing or speaking, as it assumes a +different degree of tension for every vowel and also for +every pitch of the voice. We see, therefore, that +this curtain has great influence upon the management +of the voice, and we should do all we can to get it +under our control. In order to accomplish this, +arrange a mirror so that you get the light reflected +upon the back of your throat without bending the +head, stretching the neck, or otherwise assuming an +awkward position. I recommend reflected instead of +direct light, because with the latter it is almost impossible +to get a perfect sight of the soft palate without +making any contortions, and these, however slight, +are fatal to success. The management of the light +will, no doubt, offer a little difficulty to those not +practised in these matters, but once made it is easily +rearranged, and the gain is great.</p> + +<p>The mirror mentioned above is to throw the light +into your mouth; you will require another one in +which to see the image. Now try the following: +Open your mouth and breath through the nostrils; +the soft palate will immediately drop upon the tongue. +Sing while it is in this position, and you will produce +nasal tone. Now breathe through the mouth, and the +soft palate will rise. Raise it higher still, by attempting +to yawn, till the uvula almost disappears. Sing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> +again with the soft palate in this position, and if +nothing else interferes you will produce pure vocal +tone. If you sing up and down the scale you will +perceive that the soft palate to some extent rises and +falls with the pitch of your tones. You will also notice +that the tension of it increases as you approach the +the limit of one register, and that it diminishes as soon +as you change into the next register above. All these +things, and a great many besides, you will notice if +you observe carefully, and by a little steady practice +you will acquire easy control over the movements of +your soft palate, the beneficial results of which will +soon be manifested in the improved quality and the +better management of your voice.</p> + +<p>This leads me to remark that the soft palate should, +as a matter of course, be in a perfectly healthy condition, +or it cannot perform the infinite variety of +movements required from it. In many cases however, +it is in a very different state, the arch being congested, +the uvula elongated, and the tonsils greatly enlarged. +People with a soft palate like this are handicapped. +They might as well try to run a race with a heavy +weight on their shoulders as to sing or speak with such +impediments in their throats. They should at once +put themselves in the hands of a properly qualified +medical practitioner, who may probably recommend +clipping of the uvula or excision of the tonsils. Either<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> +operation is a slight one, and in suitable cases nothing +but good can follow from it.</p> + +<p>Another obstacle to the forward production of tone +is often caused by that great movable plug called the +tongue. We have it on the highest authority that +the tongue is an "unruly member." It is sometimes +difficult to keep it under proper control, and with some +people it is continually running away altogether. As +under ordinary circumstances, so in singing. Instead +of peacefully assuming the position necessary for the +production of the various vowels, the tongue rises in +rebellion; it arches up, stiffens and defies all attempts +to keep it in order. The tone is consequently more or +less impeded and shut in, with the result of making it +guttural or throaty. Here again singing before the +mirror as described above will enable the student to +master his tongue and to improve his voice to a wonderful +extent. All voice trainers, as I have said before, +agree that tone should be allowed to come well forward, +and the best plan to bring about this desirable end is +to sing <i>oo</i>, then to allow <i>oo</i> to dwindle into <i>o</i>, and +finally to allow <i>o</i> to dwindle into <i>ah</i>.</p> + +<p>In some cases these <i>oo-o-ah</i> exercises are insufficient +because the throatiness of tone is partly brought about +by a stiffening of the throat in general. The <i>oo-o-ah</i> +must then be preceded by staccato exercises upon the +syllable <i>Koo</i>, which have the effect not only of throw<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span>ing +the tone forward, but also of making the throat +supple. Make the experiment before a mirror and you +will see the reason.</p> + +<p>I should have pointed out in the course of this +chapter that one of the great secrets in the production +of fine resonant and far-reaching tone consists in using +as little air as possible; and I conclude by advising all +those who want to be heard to open their mouths, a +thing which, curiously enough, many people in these +islands seem to be determined not to do.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="APPENDIX_TO_THE_NINTH_EDITION" id="APPENDIX_TO_THE_NINTH_EDITION"></a><i>APPENDIX TO THE NINTH EDITION</i></h3> +<hr class="short2" /> + + +<h3>VOICE FAILURE.</h3> + +<p class="c smcap">A New Chapter, written for the Ninth Edition, by +Mrs. Emil Behnke.</p> + + +<p>The large and ever increasing number of professional +voice users of all classes and of all grades who break +down in voice is matter for serious and earnest consideration. +Innumerable students of singing of both +sexes, in England and abroad, suffer shipwreck of their +hopes and ambitions in the loss of their voices during +the process of training, long before the period arrives +for professional and public voice use. In some of +these cases general delicacy of constitution has been +the principal factor in the failure; in others weakness +of throat or lungs may have been a cause. But after +making ample allowance for such physical contributories, +we are still face to face with the fact that voice +failure, accompanied by throat ailments, more or less +serious, occurs with startling frequency, and no other +reason is assigned for it than the irresponsible, indefinite +one that the voice broke down under training. Of the +infinitesimal number of successful students—that is to +say, of those who, having completed their studies, come +before the public as professional singers—so few escape +the common lot that it would almost appear as if a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span> +fatality attended the following of the vocal art; yet +from a health point of view, singing is an admirable +exercise, and abundant medical testimony has been +adduced in proof of this statement.</p> + +<p>There are, of course, other causes of non-success in +vocal students besides break-down of voice. A fine +voice and good musical knowledge are but parts of the +equipment of the singer; if he have not the soul of an +artist he will never rise above mediocrity. With +musical and artistic failures this chapter has nothing to +do, but only with preventible causes of break-down, +such as have come under my personal observation from +close association with the work of my late husband, +and also in my own and my daughter's work since his +lamented decease.</p> + +<p>In the establishment of a rule or law founded upon +general truths, a number of examples bearing upon the +subject under consideration are relied on as conclusive +evidence, and by their use we are enabled to analyse +reasons and deduce conclusions.</p> + +<p>From the examination of a large number of cases of +vocal failure in singers and in speakers who have +placed themselves under my tuition for recovery of +voice, I have found that among the most frequent and +most injurious mistakes are:—</p> + +<p>1st. Wrong methods of breathing and of breath +management.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span></p> + +<p>2nd. Loud singing and shouting.</p> + +<p>3rd. Neglecting to cultivate the resonators.</p> + +<p>4th. Forcing: (<i>a</i>) the registers; (<i>b</i>) the top notes.</p> + + +<p class="head">INCORRECT BREATHING.</p> + +<p>As regards methods of breathing, the descriptions and +instructions given in this volume require no addition, +and if carefully followed will prove of inestimable +advantage both hygienically and vocally. It is, however, +a fact that, not only in England, but also on the +Continent, pupils are taught to breathe clavicularly, in +opposition to Nature's method, which is diaphragmatic—<i>i.e.</i>, +the combined forms of rib and diaphragm +breathing. The following is a striking example of the +evil of clavicular breathing.</p> + +<p>During last summer an American lady, who had +been studying singing in Milan for three years, came +to me in great distress. She had expected to appear in +Grand Opera in London, but, alas! her voice broke +down, and serious throat troubles manifested themselves. +She had lost all the upper notes of her voice from C +in alt. down to D in the stave, and what was left of +it was thin, reedy, and tremulous, like that of an old +woman instead of a girl of 24. Her master had +insisted on clavicular breathing, the result being that +when her lung capacity was tested it registered only +80 cubic inches instead of 240. In addition to faulty<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> +breathing, she had been allowed to force up the +registers of the voice to such an extent as to bring on +serious congestion, with varicose veins in the vocal +ligaments and in the pharynx. After several lessons +the breathing capacity increased to 200 cubic inches, +the voice regained some of the upper notes, and lost +the "cracked," tremulous sound. In time, with great +care, the majority of the notes will come back, but +probably C in alt. will never be reached again, and the +general deterioration of voice may never be fully +overcome.</p> + +<p>Numerous similar instances, in men's voices as well +as in women's, could be adduced, but the foregoing +suffices; the results of incorrect breathing and of +forcing being much the same in all cases, differing +principally in degree.</p> + +<p>In the "Treatise on the Art of Singing" by the late +Signor Lamperti, occurs the following passage, which +fully bears out the necessity for diligent acquirement +of correct methods of breathing:—"Masters of the +present day, instead of obliging pupils to make a +severe study of the art of respiration, as a rule, omit +it altogether, and take them through the greater part +of a modern opera at every lesson, to the certain ruin +of their voices, and often at the expense of their +bodily health. How many young singers come to +Milan or to Paris with beautiful voices, musical talent,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span> +and every other natural gift, who, after putting themselves +under the guidance of a master for two years, +study modern operas; how many of these unfortunately +find at the time of their <i>début</i> that their voices, instead +of being fresh and improved by education, are already +worn and tremulous, and that, through the ignorance +of their master, they have no longer any hope of +success in their artistic career, which was finished +before it was begun." A sad but an "ower true" +description, applicable to other centres of voice-training +besides Milan and Paris.</p> + +<p>It is scarcely possible to over-estimate the importance +of correct methods of breathing and of breath management +to all voice users, whether they are singers or +speakers. As breath is the motive power of all voice +it needs but little consideration to arrive at the +conclusion that the best method of supply and control +of this motor power is of vital necessity to those who +depend upon their voices for success in their vocation, +whether it be that of singer, clergyman, lecturer, or +actor.</p> + +<p>Some of the worst descriptions of stammering owe +their origin to improper breath management, and numbers +of such cases which have been under my care +have been perfectly cured by specially designed breathing +exercises, adapted to the requirements of each individual +case, combined with training of the various muscles<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> +employed in articulation. As no two persons stammer +alike there can be no universal panacea for the cure of +this terrible affliction; it is, therefore, necessary to +study the peculiar idiosyncrasies of each case before +formulating a plan of treatment; and this makes it +impossible to write rules for self-cure suited to every +case.</p> + + +<p class="head">LOUD SINGING.</p> + +<p>The practice of always singing loudly is greatly to +be deprecated, leading as it does to undue strain, to +coarseness of the voice, and to utter inability to modulate +it into softness and purity of tone. Anyone can +shout and bawl, but not every one can sing softly—therefore +always practise softly until the voice be well +formed, when it will be easy to increase the volume of +sound. Constant shouting causes the muscles of the +larynx to lose their contractile power, and a condition +is brought about which is analogous to writer's cramp. +Sometimes no voice can be produced, while at others it +is given forth in a series of uncontrollable jerks. +Singers deficient in resonance, and who have not +acquired the best use and control of the various parts +of the resonator, resort to the objectionable practice of +forcing their voices, relying upon power of blast and +vigour of shout instead of cultivating resonance. A +loud, big voice, produced with effort, is a manifestation +of a certain amount of physical power; but such <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span>voice-production +is not singing, it is mere shouting. Tones +so produced will ultimately show their bad origin by +the effect left behind on the misused muscles.</p> + + +<p class="head">CULTIVATION OF THE RESONATORS.</p> + +<p>The resonators of the human voice, about which +years ago Emil Behnke lectured and wrote, are only +just beginning to receive the attention which their +important functions deserve. Over some of the resonating +cavities we can obtain no voluntary control; but over +the whole of the mouth, of the buccal cavity, and over +part of the pharyngeal we may, by education, gain as +much influence as over the fingers of the hand, and the +results obtained by such training are frequently +astonishing. A student at one of our colleges came to +me recently whose first question was "Can you teach +me how not to sing with a 'squeezed' throat?" +"Nothing easier," was my reply. On his singing a +few notes to me, the tone of the voice revealed that +owing to want of knowledge of the action of the +resonators, he was closing his throat in such a manner +that the voice sounded as if he were singing through +the teeth of a comb. Without looking in his mouth, I +drew on a piece of paper the position in which were +his soft palate, the pillars of the fauces, the uvula, +and the tongue, telling him that was the picture he +would see on looking at his throat while singing.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> +This proved on examination to be the case; and great +was his wonderment to find that, after a little practice +he could voluntarily remedy this squeezed position +until it gradually disappeared altogether, and with it +the unpleasant quality of voice which had caused him +so much trouble.</p> + +<p>The inherent quality of tone is reinforced by the co-vibrations +of the air in the resonance cavities, the +greater fulness of the sound being caused by the increased +quantity of air which is set into vibration. The +slightest alteration in the shape of these cavities affects +the quality of vocal tone by altering the direction and +size of the air columns.</p> + +<p>There is for every tone an air column of a certain +size which most powerfully reinforces that tone; and +every resonance cavity answers to some particular note +better than to others. Timbre in the voice depends +largely upon the echoing and re-echoing of these +resonance chambers; and it needs but little reflection +to see that the shape given to the mouth in pronouncing +speech sounds—more especially vowel sounds, with all +their various shades—interferes more or less with the +purity and quality of tone. Hence the necessity in +singing for modifying vowel pronunciation to suit the +various tones and pitches of the voice. Every shade +of vowel has a certain pitch of its own which is best +produced by certain positions of the mouth, tongue,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span> +and soft palate. It is, therefore, necessary, carefully to +shape the mouth so that, on notes of different pitches, +the configuration of the mould may be that which +gives the best quality of the particular vowel tone. There +must be an unimpeded passage for the voice from the +larnyx to the lips, and this cannot be obtained if the +same vowel shades are maintained in song as in speech. +The vowels which require the greatest alteration in +position of the mouth are A, E, and U; E being quite +the most difficult, because, contrary to the opinion of +some teachers who consider it the best for forward +production of tone, it keeps the sound farther back in the +throat than any other vowel, shutting it up and making +the sound thin and poor. Diligent practice before a +mirror is necessary in order to acquire the best position +of the buccal resonance chamber; its attainment will +well repay the trouble taken, for not only will the +voice gain in timbre, in resonance, and in ease, but +pronunciation will become pure and clear.</p> + +<p>The vowel "ah" is frequently chosen as the best +one for vocalising, because in its pronunciation it is +easy to put the mouth in a good position; and voices +are trained on it exclusively, with the result that no +other vowel, or vowel shade, is perfectly produced. +Actual false intonation often arises from want of +practice in adjusting the cavity of the mouth to that +shape required for producing the best tone and resonance +on the different notes; the absence of co-ordination<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> +between the fundamental tone and the overtones +preventing perfect tune.</p> + +<p>The absolute truth of the foregoing remarks may +easily be proved by singing the vowels at either +extreme of the "vowel scale of nature," viz., "oo and +ee," over the whole compass of the voice, having +regard to the beauty of tone. Although the singer +may be quite unaware of the science underlying the +fact, it will be found that the quality of the voice at the +bottom of its range as these vowels are sung is very +different from that at the top of the range, the alterations +taking place in almost imperceptible gradations. +By reference to the foregoing pages of this book it +will be seen that the late Emil Behnke attached great +importance to vowel training, and exemplifications of his +methods are to be found in "Voice Training Exercises" +and "Voice Training Studies" written in conjunction +with C. W. Pearce, Mus.Doc. The subject is also +fully explained in "Voice, Song, and Speech," by +Lennox Browne, F.R.C.S., and Emil Behnke; and the +whole matter is most ably discussed in "Pronunciation +for Singers," by the late Dr. A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., +published by Messrs Curwen & Sons.</p> + +<p>In thus strongly advocating education of the resonator +in the production of vowel sounds in singing, let me +not be supposed to ignore the necessity for also +cultivating pronunciation of consonants, which have +been termed the checks and stops of sound.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p> + +<p>Clearness of enunciation and purity of pronunciation, +which are great aids to the voice, and possess a charm +all their own, depend upon both vowels and consonants +being accurately rendered.</p> + +<p>The English are the worst enunciators of all +European peoples, and their custom is to lay the blame +on the language, than which none other is deemed by +them so unvocal. There is, however, a vast amount of +sonority and musical charm in our grand and noble +language, second only to the Italian, when properly +spoken.</p> + +<p>The cultivation of pure, accurate, and refined pronunciation +in speech will greatly facilitate good enunciation +in singing, and should he sedulously acquired; for there +are numbers of vocalists who leave us in doubt as to +whether the words they sing are English, French, +Italian, or German; while the number of those who +mispronounce words in a deplorable manner is legion.</p> + + +<p class="head">FORCING THE REGISTERS.</p> + +<p>The next factor which has much to do with voice +failure is forcing the registers beyond their proper +point of change. The erroneous belief appears to exist +that, by carrying up the registers a few notes beyond +their natural limits, the tones thus produced are fuller +and richer. But if in training a voice this practice be +followed the result will be serious injury to the vocal +organ.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span></p> + +<p>This is not a theoretical statement; we can easily +see with the laryngoscope the great amount of congestion +of the vocal ligaments immediately caused by thus +forcing up a register; and not only are these affected +by the strain put upon them, but the whole interior +of the throat becomes blood-red, and looks irritated and +inflamed. As soon as the change to the right register +is made the vocal apparatus returns to its normal state.</p> + +<p>Now we all know the effects of undue strain on +muscles in other parts of the body, and have felt the +pain and weakness arising therefrom; but far worse +results follow the damage to the throat caused by the +strain of forcing up the registers, by both speakers +and singers. The quality of the voice becomes impaired, +and actual loss of notes follows. In some extreme cases +which I have had under my care, there has been entire +absence of voice both in speaking and in singing, and +much suffering has been experienced from granular inflammation +of the throat brought on by this faulty voice use.</p> + +<p>Another method of forcing the voice is the almost +universal endeavour to acquire "top notes" which do +not belong to the singer's compass. Because of the +high notes in some voices exceptionally endowed by +nature, it seems as though all singers, no matter what +their natural range, have made it the one object of +their training to strive after a vocal attainment whose +rarity appears to be almost its only justification to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> +considered as an artistic merit. Why should these ever +vanishing "top notes" be so much craved and striven +for? Can it be said that, as regards each individual +voice, these notes are higher in a scale of excellence +than the rest? What merit does their acquisition +promise as a set-off to the deterioration of the voice +and its inevitable ultimate failure? A high note, <i>per se</i>, +is not necessarily "a thing of beauty" to the listener, +while the result of its attainment is often the converse +of a "joy for ever" to the singer; for in those cases +of forcing up the voice above its natural compass, +violence is done to the throat, which in time results in +some of the many ailments peculiar to singers who use +faulty methods. The middle range of the voice becomes +proportionately weaker and thinner as the cult of the +extra "top notes" becomes greater, until the anomalous +position is reached of a voice with two ends and no +middle; while these superadded, artificial, high notes +are wanting in timbre, in purity, in strength, and in +ease. It is easily demonstrable by the laryngoscope +that the forced and strained action of the vocal ligaments, +and of other laryngeal and throatal muscular action, +exercises an injurious influence upon the voice. The +endeavour to sing notes beyond the extreme of the +compass, or notes which do not naturally lie within +any one register—particularly the chest register—causes +great fatigue of the tensor muscles of the vocal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span> +ligaments, and serious congestion, extending to the +windpipe and pharynx has, in many cases, followed +this practice.</p> + +<p>More time and energy are devoted to the acquirement +of what the late Emil Behnke called "mere acrobatic +skill" than is given to the purely artistic side of voice +use, and it follows that we get "the survival <i>not</i> of the +fittest" but rather of those with exceptionally strong +physical organisations, instead of refined artists.</p> + +<p>The deterioration throughout the whole compass of +the voice is often painfully noticeable during an entire +song, but the forcible shouting of a full, high-pitched +note at its close seems to be intended to compensate +for all the misery previously endured by the sensitive +listener.</p> + +<p>Now the maintenance of a healthy condition of the +vocal muscles depends to a great degree upon the right +use of those muscles in the formation of tone. There +should never be any feeling of fatigue, strain, pricking, +tightness, aching, or of pain in the throat, nor yet of +huskiness after vocal practice. The method of voice +use which produces such results, or any one of them, +is wrong. Nature is pointing out as forcibly as +possible the injury which is being done. Her warning +should be heeded before conditions, getting worse, lead +up to the sad ailments from which so many suffer, and +which are disastrous to both voice and health.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span></p> + +<p>The foregoing facts and illustrations force upon us +the conclusion that the large majority of throat +affections from which both speakers and singers suffer +might be entirely prevented by correct methods of voice +use. As prevention is proverbially better than cure, it +must be infinitely more advantageous to acquire correct +methods than to unlearn bad ones which exercise a +deleterious influence, always recognisable even when +entire voice failure has not followed their practice.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span></p> + + + +<h3><a name="APPENDIX_TO_THE_TENTH_EDITION" id="APPENDIX_TO_THE_TENTH_EDITION"></a><i>APPENDIX TO THE TENTH EDITION</i></h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> +<h3>DOES DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING APPLY +EQUALLY TO WOMEN AS TO MEN?</h3> + + +<p>In a kind notice of the first edition of this brochure, +which appeared in <i>The Medical Press</i>, the editor raises the +above question. He says: "The evils attending faulty +methods of voice-production are pointed out both from +an anatomical and from an artistic point of view, +diaphragmatic breathing being especially insisted on in +opposition to mere clavicular breathing. This is undoubtedly +correct; but we think the advice here embodied +would have been even more valuable had the authoress +mentioned if from her experience she thought it applied +in an equal extent to both sexes, as it is well known that +nature, or we may perhaps more correctly say, the art of +dress, causes women to breathe in a far more 'clavicular +manner' than men."</p> + +<p>This is a valuable criticism, and as the point indicated +is likely to be of interest to many persons, I append my +reply, which appeared in the next number of <i>The Medical +Press</i>:—</p> + +<p class="c">"To the Editor of the <i>Medical Press and Circular</i>.</p> + +<p>"<span class="smcap">Sir</span>,—I intended the advice on breathing to apply to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> +both sexes, diaphragmatic breathing with perfect control +being the foundation of all good voice-production, whether +in speaking or in singing, in men and women alike, while +clavicular breathing is a potent factor in voice-failure +accompanied by throat ailments. From the examination +of a large number of cases, I find it exceptional for a +woman, when dressed, to breathe diaphragmatically, but +when the garments are unfastened, and a few simple +directions followed, Nature's mode of breathing commences +to re-assert itself, feebly at first, but vigorously +after a little practice. Very many men also breathe +clavicularly, to the great detriment of their voices, +whether in speaking or in singing. I have noticed, however +that whereas the majority of women <i>always</i> breathe +clavicularly, comparatively few men adopt this pernicious +habit unless when using the voice, which is, of course, +the worst time for them to employ it. As a rule, men +re-acquire the natural manner of breathing more easily +and quickly than women; this may be partly accounted +for by their greater freedom from constricting garments. +After a few weeks' training of the respiratory muscles, +the lung capacity frequently exceeds, in women especially, +the average given in Hutchinson's tables.</p> + +<p>"Thanking you in anticipation for your courtesy in +publishing this letter,—I am, sir, yours &c.,</p> + +<p class="r">"K. BEHNKE</p> + +<p>"18, Earl's Court Square, S.W."<br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span></p> + +<h3><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX.</h3> +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="index"> +Artificial female voice, Roman teachers, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> + + +Back ring pyramid muscles, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> + +Bands uniting shield and tongue-bone, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> + +Belts <i>v.</i> braces for men, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> + +Breast bone, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + +Breathing, Collar-bone, <a href="#Page_17">17</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Curing defective, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— during sleep, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— exercises, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, midriff and rib combined, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Mouth <i>v.</i> nostril, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— neglected by teachers, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, View of larynx, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></span><br /> + +Breath, Singers' half-, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> + +Browne, Lennox, on breathing, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<br /> + +Carpenter, Dr., How tone is produced, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> + +Cartilages of Santorini, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— of Wrisberg, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br /> + +Catlin on American Indian breathing, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> + +Chest described, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— voice used for pay, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> + +Chink, Vocal, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> + +Clergymen's sore throat, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> + +Collar-bones, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + +Composers disregarding voices, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——' ignorance of harp, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Modern, wed music and words, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— to blame for vocal decline, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> + +Cords, Vocal, a misleading term, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, False, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, origin of term, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> + +Corsets for gentlemen, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br /> + +Curwen's names for registers, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br /> + +Czermak's test in vowel formation, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— use of the laryngoscope, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></span><br /> +<br /> + +Duprez' Chest C, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> +<br /> + +Eberth's case, voice-box without lid, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br /> + +Elsberg on nose-breathing, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on wedges (posterior nodules), <a href="#Page_55">55</a></span><br /> + +Eustachian tubes, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> + +Exercises, Ah, legato, scala, <a href="#Page_117">117</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Breathing, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Controlling tongue, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, glottis, check and glide, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— for tone quality, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— in changing registers, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Mixed-voice, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on koo, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on vowels, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Opening mouth, <a href="#Page_125">125</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Resonator, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Soft palate, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— to govern pitch, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Voice production, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br /> + +Experiment, calf's lungs, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Czermak on vowels, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, defects in breathing, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, feeling ring-shield aperture, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— in telling male and female registers, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br /> + +Experiments, Marshall on animals, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Müller on dissected larynges, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, pressing shield to test pitch, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Spirometer, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Violin tone, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, whisper and feel voice-box, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— with laryngoscope, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— with mirror, for nasal tone, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br /> +<br /> + +Falsetto register neglected, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> + +Female and male minstrels, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— voice spoilt by tenor pattern, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br /> + +Foulis' laryngoscope, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br /> + +French singers subject to tremolo, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + +<br /> +Garcia and the laryngoscope, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on forced registers, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> + +Garrett, error in describing glottis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on a blackbird's larynx, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on differences in larynges, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></span><br /> + +Glogg-ner-Castelli on chest voice, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> + +Glottis, Chink of the, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Defects to avoid, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— in producing sound, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— in repose, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— in respiration, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Shock of the, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, sphincter muscle, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></span><br /> +<br /> + +Heart, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + +Helmholtz on whispered vowels, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> + +Horns, Upper and lower, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br /> + +Human voice, four parts, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— voice, incomparable, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br /> + +Huxley's description of respiration, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> + +<br /> +Illingworth, Rumney, on falsetto, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br /> + +Inspiration and expiration, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— of men and women, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Three ways of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— through the mouth, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br /> + +Isenschmid's throat apparatus, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> + +Italian composers studying voices, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +<br /> + +Lacing, Tight, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br /> + +Laryngo-Phantom, Isenschmid's, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br /> + +Laryngoscope described, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Errors in using, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, How to use, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, What is seen, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br /> + +Laryngoscopic images, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br /> + +Larynx generally described, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— (see Voice-box)</span><br /> + +Levers of the Pyramids, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br /> + +Lid and its function, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> + +Ligaments, Pocket, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, not tone producers, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, their functions, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Vocal, described, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, how produce tone, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, how stretched, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, in S.C.T.B. voices, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, size, movement, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, Three actions of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, View of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> + +Lung gymnastics, <a href="#Page_21">21</a><br /> + +Lungs described, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Experiment with calf's, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, their function, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> + +Lunn on "Coup de glotte", <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on differences in larynges, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on laryngoscopic views, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br /> + +Luschka, and term "vocal chink", <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, how tone is produced, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br /> + +Luschka's measurements of larynges, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br /> +<br /> + +Male contralti, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— soprani, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> + +Malrespiration, <a href="#Page_28">28</a><br /> + +Marshall, experiments on animals, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> + +Merkel on male and female larynges, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on pyramids and registers, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on tension of ligaments, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> + +Merkel's terms for registers, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br /> + +Meyerbeer and the falsetto, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> + +Midriff, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— described, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></span><br /> + +Mixed voice, defined, <a href="#Page_119">119</a><br /> + +Mouth, its part in singing, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, when to keep it shut, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></span><br /> + +Mozart studied voice before composing, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br /> + +Mucous membrane, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br /> + +Müller's experiments on larynges <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br /> + +Muscles, back ring pyramid, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— governing pitch, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, How to strengthen, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ligament tension theory, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></span><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Pyramid, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> + +Muscles, Ring-shield, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, how change registers, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Shield-pyramid, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Shield-pyramid, how change registers, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Side ring-pyramid, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Summary of uses of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></span><br /> +<br /> + +Nasal tone, various theories, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br /> + +Nose cavities, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br /> + +Nostrils best adapted for breathing, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br /> + +Nourrit and Duprez, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br /> + +Novello, Sabilla, how tone is produced, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br /> +<br /> + +Palate, Soft, exercising, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, ——, its movements, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> + +Paris Conservatoire method of inspiration, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + +Pharynx, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br /> + +Pitch, Mechanism affecting, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Rise of, strains voice, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></span><br /> + +Pronunciation for Singers, Ellis's, <a href="#Page_120">120</a><br /> + +Pyramids, how act in registers, <a href="#Page_99">99</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Levers of the, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, side view, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, their shape and motion, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<br /> + +Register, Mechanism of thick, <a href="#Page_94">94</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Thick, described, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Thin, ", <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br /> + +Registers, Compass of the, <a href="#Page_93">93</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Teachers' Manual on, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, definition, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, described by Mme. Seiler, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, distinguishing sex, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Evil of straining, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, How ligaments act in, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, how small is formed, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, how upper thick formed, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Images of, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Laryngoscope and sub-division of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, "Mixed voice", <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, optional tones, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, places of break, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Straining of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Three female voice, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, to equalise, not expose, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Two male voice, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Upper and lower thick, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, —— —— —— thin, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, what laryngoscope teaches, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br /> + +Resonator changes by vowel, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, effect of formation, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, its parts, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> + +Respiration described, <a href="#Page_13">13</a><br /> + +Ribs, <a href="#Page_11">11</a><br /> + +Ring cartilage, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br /> + +Ring-shield muscles, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> + +Roger, the French tenor's style, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br /> + +Rossini on decline of vocal art, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> + + +<br /> +Seiler, description of the registers, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Madame, on "wedges", <a href="#Page_54">54</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on action of vocal ligaments, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br /> + +Shield and ring, Motion of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> + +Shield cartilage, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> + +Shield plates, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br /> + +Shield-pyramid muscles, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br /> + +Singable music, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> + +Singing <i>v.</i> speaking, <a href="#Page_18">18</a><br /> + +Snoring and keeping mouth open, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br /> + +Sphincter muscle of the glottis, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br /> + +Spirometer tests recommended, <a href="#Page_19">19</a><br /> +<br /> + +Teaching, Hints on, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br /> + +Tenors as teachers of female voice, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Short vocal life of, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— sing octave lower than written, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br /> + +Tobold, how tone is produced, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br /> + +Tone, how produced, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, loudness, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, pitch, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, quality, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Three ways of producing, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br /> + +Tongue-bone, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Exercises to control, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></span><br /> + +Tonic Sol-fa College, Experiments, <a href="#Page_20">20</a><br /> + +Tremolo, Controlled artistic, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Involuntary, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— mars fine voices, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Origin of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></span><br /> +<br /> + +Violin, Experiments for tone on a, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br /> + +Vocal gymnastics, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br /> + +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span>Voce mista, <a href="#Page_118">118</a><br /> + +Voice-box, Attempts to see the, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— compared with instruments, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, differences in size, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, dissecting, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, its parts specified, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— measurements, <a href="#Page_64">64</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— movements, teaching of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, visible movements, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></span><br /> + +Voice-breaking, Cause of, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> + +Voice, Cause of high or low, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— cultivation exercises, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, female, Wrong use of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br /> + +Voice, period of change in youth, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, quality of, exercises, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, poverty of the age, <a href="#Page_1">1</a></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— sufferers, Cure of, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></span><br /> + +Vowel scale, Order of the, <a href="#Page_116">116</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, Use of palate in forming, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></span><br /> +<br /> + +Wedges, Action in small register, <a href="#Page_103">103</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">——, or cuneiform cartilages, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></span><br /> + +Whispering, Voice-box movements in, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br /> + +When to keep the mouth shut, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br /> + +Wilson, Erasmus, on cuneiform cartilages, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br /> + +Windpipe described, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a><br /> + +Witkowski on "the wedges", <a href="#Page_55">55</a><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">—— on views of specialists, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br /> + +Women in church music, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br /> + +Words ignored by composers, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br /> +</p> + + +<h3><a name="INDEX_TO_VOICE_FAILURE" id="INDEX_TO_VOICE_FAILURE"></a>INDEX TO "VOICE FAILURE."</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="index"> +Breathing, Evils of clavicular, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> + +Breathing, Lamperti on, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br /> + +Breathing, Wrong, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> + +<br /> +Forcing, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> + +Forcing, Acquiring top notes, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> + +<br /> +Intonation affected by resonance, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> + +<br /> +Laryngoscope, Its lessons, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br /> + +Lung capacity, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> + +<br /> +Pronunciation, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> + +<br /> +Registers, Forcing, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br /> + +Resonators, Neglect, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> + +<br /> +Shouting, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br /> + +Singing, Loud, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br /> + +Stammering, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br /> + +Symptoms of faulty voice use, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br /> + +<br /> +Throat, Inflammation of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br /> + +Timbre, <a href="#Page_133">133</a><br /> + +Tone, Squeezing, <a href="#Page_132">132</a><br /> + +<br /> +Vowels, Shaping mouth for, <a href="#Page_134">134</a><br /> + +Vowels, Scale of nature, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br /> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span></p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>Opinions of the Press and the Medical +and the Musical Professions on +the Author's Book, Lectures, and +Teaching.</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="c">SIGNOR GARCIA writes to the Author:—</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dear Sir,</span>—Very many thanks for the copy forwarded to me of +your most interesting work. It will prove of an inestimable advantage +to students, being, in my humble estimation, one of the clearest +and most practical treatises on the subject which contemporary +literature has produced. Accept also my sincere thanks for the +description contained in your work of the origin of the laryngoscope, +and believe me, dear sir, yours most sincerely, <span class="smcap">M. Garcia</span>.</p> + + +<p class="c">THE ATHENÆUM.</p> + +<p>Interesting, compared with those previously published, as being +written by a musician and not by a medical man. Hence we are not +surprised to find purely musical questions discussed here with great +ability.</p> + + +<p class="c">NATURE.</p> + +<p>The object of this little book is to give singers a plain and comprehensible +view of the musical instrument on which they perform. +The author seems to have succeeded in this attempt remarkably +well. He has evidently had much practical work himself, and has +especially set himself the task of examining the action of the vocal +organs during singing by means of the laryngoscope; and his +record of his own experience in acquiring the use of that beautiful +instrument is not only interesting, but of much practical value. +The last section of the book is devoted to the teachings of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span> +laryngoscope as to the action of the vocal ligaments in producing +voice, with especial reference to the so-called registers. +"A register consists of a series of tones which are produced by the +same mechanism," is his definition (p. 86), which is new and complete, +and he proceeds to explain the different mechanism of each +kind of register as actually observed on singers. There are some +good remarks on breathing (pp. 17-22). All information is given +throughout in clear, intelligible language, and illustrated by fourteen +woodcuts.... The book may be safely recommended to all +singers, and others who are desirous of knowing how vocal tones are +produced.</p> + + +<p class="c">SATURDAY REVIEW.</p> + +<p>On the important question of the different registers of the voice +and their proper use, Mr. Behnke practically breaks new ground. +He has carefully gone over the whole subject of the production of +the voice as far as the larynx is concerned, and worked it out anew +by a long and careful series of experiments and observations with +the laryngoscope.... Mr. Behnke's book is clearly written, and +the plates well drawn and printed; while the anatomical details +are made clear to the general reader by the use of English names +for the different parts.... It is a very valuable book, and ought +to be read and thought over by all who have the training of young +singers, and indeed by all musicians.</p> + + +<p class="c">MEDICAL PRESS AND CIRCULAR.</p> + +<p>In clear and untechnical language the author gives an accurate +account of the construction and mode of action of the human +larynx, its differences in men, women, and children, and the +teachings of the laryngoscope, notably with respect to the "registers" +of the voice.... M. Behnke is evidently an accurate observer +and a logical reasoner, and a study of his work side by side with +Witkowski's "Movable Atlas of the Throat and Tongue" must be +advantageous to any one desiring to make the best use of his voice.</p> + + +<p class="c">THE SPECIALIST.</p> + +<p>This useful little book is the outcome of the author's large +experience and careful research. It is written concisely, in clear +and untechnical language, and frequent references are made to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> +such authorities as Huxley, Lennox Browne, Eberth, Carpenter, +Marshall, Luschka, &c. That Herr Behnke thoroughly understands +his subject no one who reads his book can doubt, and if those who +wish to know the right way to sing and avoid the wrong way will +carefully study this little manual they will not go far wrong. For +all who are dependent on the right use of their voices for their +daily bread, Herr Behnke's book will be most opportune.</p> + + +<p class="c">MUSICAL STANDARD.</p> + +<p>An excellent specimen of a familiar way of putting unfamiliar +truths.</p> + + +<p class="c">MUSIC TRADES REVIEW.</p> + +<p>There are excellent reasons why singers should possess an intimate +knowledge of the structure and functions of the various organs +concerned in the production of the voice, and this knowledge they +are likely to gain more easily and effectually from the present +treatise than from any other with which we are acquainted. Mr. +Emil Behnke writes in a singularly clear and lucid manner, and if +his book be not exactly light, it is very interesting reading. Much +of the information conveyed is invaluable. We cannot too strongly +recommend the present volume to the perusal of vocal students.</p> + + +<p class="c">MUSICAL EDUCATION.</p> + +<p>After carefully reading the book we are at no loss to understand +how it is that there is such a demand for it amongst the members +of the musical public. The style is admirably simple and lucid, +and every statement made is in accordance with the latest views +on the subject held by physiologists and anatomists of acknowledged +eminence.</p> + + +<p class="c">KEY BOARD.</p> + +<p>The most reasonable, practical, and common-sense work to be +found anywhere.</p> + + +<p class="c">THE VOICE.</p> + +<p>This book is clear and plain, and gives just the information that +every singer and speaker should have. It is the ablest and most +practical treatise on the voice we have seen.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="c">THE INQUIRER.</p> + +<p>Men have set themselves to try and ascertain the actual process +by which vocal sounds are produced, and thus to form a scientific +basis on which to found a way of training voices. Herr Behnke, +in a singularly clear and lucid manner, brings the whole subject +before the reader, and, to make it readily understood by non-scientific +people, gives a translation of the Greek terms used by +physiologists side by side with the originals. We cannot too +strongly insist upon the necessity of forming a scientific basis for +teaching singing, and, indeed, for training the voice for public +speaking, &c. We congratulate Herr Behnke upon the patience and +perseverance with which he has pursued his investigations with the +laryngoscope.</p> + + +<p class="c">MUSIC.</p> + +<p>Mr. Emil Behnke has already made himself known to the leading +members of the musical and medical professions by his learned +lectures on "The Theory of Voice Production," and has gained the +esteem of those interested in the subject by the masterly manner in +which he deals with the matter, as well as his unaffected and, as far +as possible, untechnical treatment of it. Mr. Behnke has done much +to popularize the study of the human voice, and his book (which +abounds in admirable plates) deserves to be widely known.</p> + + +<p class="c">EDUCATIONAL TIMES.</p> + +<p>It is but rarely that science figures as the handmaid of art, yet +this book is a signal instance of it, for it is one of the first +attempts, if not the very first, at an investigation, on strictly +scientific principles, of the normal and the abnormal development +of the voice, both in speaking and singing. Herr Behnke, who is +both a musician and a physiologist, has brought to bear upon this +subject his knowledge as a musician, and the results of several +years of patient and careful scientific experiments. We cannot too +highly commend this little work to the attention of all those +interested in so important a subject.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="c">BIRMINGHAM DAILY GAZETTE.</p> + +<p>Since Herr Behnke's removal from Birmingham to London he has +become an accepted authority on the subject of voice production, +and we are glad to see the results of his studies presented in the +useful way in which they are in this little volume. Earnest and +conscientious students of the vocal art need not be reminded that +the production of fine tone is not the all-in-all of the excellences of +singing, but they will certainly know better how to employ their +gifts after mastering the secrets Herr Behnke reveals.</p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>Opinions of Mrs. Emil Behnke's Pupils.</h3> + +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="c">VOICE TRAINING.</p> + + +<p class="c"><span class="smcap">From an Old Pupil.</span></p> + +<p class="r"> +<span class="smcap">Gresham Hotel, Dublin.</span><br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dear Mrs. Behnke,</span>—It is indeed regrettable that Mr. Behnke +was not spared to reap to a greater extent the reward of his wonderful +work. You, I know, must have acquired an adequate +knowledge of his magnificent system of teaching to enable you to +continue on the same course, and so perpetuate his memory. This +is a source of comfort to your many friends.</p> + + +<p class="c"><span class="smcap">From a Lady Lecturer.</span></p> + +<p class="r"> +<span class="smcap">Edgbaston</span>, <i>May 11th, 1893</i>.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">My dear Mrs. Behnke,</span>—I feel I must write to tell you how +much better I am, and how greatly indebted I am to your treatment.... +I can take two or three meetings a week with ease, thanks to +your training, and the deeper and fuller tone of my voice has been +remarked upon by many.</p> + + +<p class="r"><span class="smcap">Larne, Ireland.</span></p> + +<p>I have no hesitation in saying that, under God, you were the +means of curing my voice.</p> + + +<p class="c"><span class="smcap">From a Clergyman who had broken down in Voice.</span></p> + +<p class="r"> +<span class="smcap">London</span>, <i>July, 1893</i>.<br /> +</p> + +<p>My voice gives me no trouble now; it is indeed very much fuller +and more resonant. I can fill my church without the least effort.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="c"><span class="smcap">From a Clergyman who had suffered from "Clergyman's +Sore Throat.</span>"</p> + +<p class="r"> +<span class="smcap">Brighton</span>, <i>26th June, 1893</i>.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dear Mrs. Behnke</span>,—I take this opportunity of thanking you +very much for what you have done for my voice. I shall try to +keep up your exercises, and hope to receive more lessons later on in +the year.</p> + + +<p class="c"><span class="smcap">From a Clergyman who stammered, and whose voice was weak.</span></p> + +<p class="r"> +"<span class="smcap">The Parsonage</span>," <i>Feb. 7th, 1893</i>.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dear Mrs. Behnke</span>,—I told the Rev. Mr. S. of the great benefit +I had derived from your instruction. He proposes to bring the +subject of your work, and the importance of it to young clergymen, +before the Bishop, with a view to something being done for +ordination candidates.</p> + + +<p class="c"><span class="smcap">From a Teacher of Singing.</span></p> + +<p class="r"> +<span class="smcap">Scarborough</span>, <i>Jan. 6th, 1894</i>.<br /> +</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dear Mrs. Behnke</span>,—For some years I have been teaching +successfully on the lines laid down in your late husband's +publications and his own "Voice Training Exercises;" and have +put into the hands of some of my pupils your "Voice Training +Primer." One of them has just passed Trinity College Senior +Singing Examination with honours (84 marks out of 100). My own +experience is that no exercises I have ever used have so helped to +produce "forward" and to cure "throaty" tone, and I have long felt +I owed to Mr. Behnke a debt of gratitude for his works. May I be +permitted to acknowledge it to you?</p> + + + +<p class="head">STAMMERING.</p> + +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="c">THE TIMES.</p> + +<p>Pre-eminent success in the education and treatment of stammering +and other speech defects.</p> + +<p class="c">THE BRITISH MEDICAL JOURNAL.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Dr. F. L. Nicholls</span> writes:—"This infirmity is so great a +drawback to almost every walk in life, and for public speaking +so complete a hindrance, that a cure is of the utmost importance.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span> +It may therefore be of interest, and possibly of some use to +members of the medical profession having a case of this nature in +their practice, and desiring assistance for its cure, if I mention that +I have recently had the most satisfactory experience of the cure of +such a case. The father, a minister, was very anxious for his son to +follow in his own footsteps, while the lad stuttered so badly it was +not to be thought of, unless a cure could be effected; and for this +purpose he was sent to Mrs. Behnke, of Earl's Court Square, +London. Mrs. Behnke was chosen from high recommendations, and +very thoroughly has she proved worthy of them. The lad has just +returned home, and speaks without the slightest impediment. I +should state that previously to going under Mrs. Behnke's hands we +had tried various rules and recommendations without the least +success."</p> + +<p class="c">"Stammering: its Nature and Treatment." Price 1<i>s</i>, of +Mrs. Emil Behnke.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p> + + +<hr /> +<h3>Causes of Voice Failure.</h3> + +<p class="c"><i>By Mrs. EMIL BEHNKE.</i></p> +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="c"><b>Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged.</b></p> +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="c"><b>OPINIONS OF THE PRESS</b>.</p> + + +<p class="c">THE WEEKLY ECHO.</p> + +<p>A very useful pamphlet by a very able teacher. It is published +at sixpence, but contains many guinea fees' worth of knowledge, +and hints where to procure more.</p> + + +<p class="c">THE SHREWSBURY CHRONICLE.</p> + +<p>Ought to be perused by all who seek distinction as vocalists.</p> + + +<p class="c">BRISTOL TIMES.</p> + +<p>A valuable little brochure. It is one of the most concise and +practical treatises on the subject we have seen, and if only the hints +contained therein were more generally observed, we should have not +only less voice failure, but more good singers with strong, resonant, +and lasting vocal organs. The little book should be in the hands of +all singers, students especially.</p> + + +<p class="c">HEARTH AND HOME.</p> + +<p>Mrs. Behnke's pamphlet should be eagerly read. I advise all +those who are interested in the preservation of their voices to invest +sixpence in the purchase of this admirable booklet, as they cannot +fail to gain much assistance from the excellent matter therein +contained.</p> + + +<p class="c">HALIFAX GUARDIAN.</p> + +<p>The pamphlet is terse and valuable in the information it affords.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="c">THE MEDICAL PRESS.</p> + +<p>"Causes of Voice Failure," by Mrs. Emil Behnke, has the merit +of being practical and of containing truths which must appeal +forcibly not only to singers, but also to listeners.</p> + + +<p class="c">WARRINGTON GUARDIAN.</p> + +<p>"Causes of Voice Failure." This important subject is well treated +by Mrs. Emil Behnke.</p> + + +<p class="c">THE QUEEN.</p> + +<p>Well worth reading for the valuable hints which it contains.</p> + + +<p class="c">THE PRACTICAL TEACHER.</p> + +<p>The husband of Mrs. Behnke was the greatest authority in his +day upon voice-training, and, in recommending his wife's book we +need only say that her knowledge of this subject is only second to +what his was.</p> + + +<p class="c">MUSICAL OPINION.</p> + +<p>This is a small, cheap, and useful pamphlet by Mrs. Emil Behnke. +The quiet, clear, convincing manner in which she writes deserves +full recognition.</p> + + +<p class="c">SUSSEX DAILY NEWS.</p> + +<p>"Causes of Voice Failure," by Mrs. Behnke, is a useful little +tract which may be confidently recommended to the notice of +singers, professional and amateur, for the sound advice and cautions +against common faults of training contained in it.</p> + + +<p class="c">BRISTOL OBSERVER.</p> + +<p>Mrs. Emil Behnke has written a little work on "Causes of Voice +Failure" which deserves to be widely circulated among students of +singing. It should be carefully read.</p> + + +<p class="c">CAMBRIAN.</p> + +<p>Excellent advice is given which must be of great value to those +who contemplate adopting the vocal profession either from a +pecuniary or from an artistic standpoint.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span></p> + + +<p class="c">THE SCHOOLMASTER.</p> + +<p>Mrs. Behnke goes to the root of the matter, and her proposals are +urged clearly. Incidentally she touches on stammering, and we +recommend those interested in the subject to give her ideas, at +any rate, consideration.</p> + + +<p class="c">THE PROFESSIONAL WORLD.</p> + +<p>We would recommend it to all interested in the question of voice +production and voice preservation.</p> + + +<p class="c">LITERARY WORLD.</p> + +<p>The writer of this essay is a well-known expert in her subject.</p> + + +<p class="c">TUNBRIDGE WELLS ADVERTISER.</p> + +<p>In a concise form Mrs. Behnke gives some valuable hints that +singers would do well to note and pay attention to.</p> + + +<p class="c">WEST SUSSEX GAZETTE.</p> + +<p>Mrs. Behnke was well advised to consent to the publication of +this valuable chapter added to the ninth edition of her husband's +well-known work, "Mechanism of the Human Voice," and we are +glad to note it has already run to a second edition.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span></p> + +<hr /> + + +<h3>BEHNKE VOICE-TRAINING METHOD.</h3> + +<p class="cun"><b>Voice-Training Exercises</b></p> + +<p class="c"><b>ALSO</b></p> + +<p class="cun"><b>Voice-Training Studies</b></p> + +<p class="c"><b>BY</b></p> + +<p class="c"><b>EMIL BEHNKE and Dr. C. W. PEARCE.</b></p> + +<p class="c"><i>In separate books for Soprano, Mezzo-Soprano, +Contralto, Tenor, Baritone, and Bass.</i></p> + +<p class="c">Price: Paper Covers, 1s. 6d. net cash; Bound in Cloth, +3s. net cash.</p> + +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="cun"><b>Voice-Training Primer</b></p> + +<p class="c"><b>By MRS. EMIL BEHNKE</b>.</p> + +<p class="c">Price 2s. net cash; Bound in Cloth, 3s. net cash.</p> +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="c"><i>These works are highly recommended by the musical, +medical, and general press, and by teachers.</i></p> +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="c">CHAPPELL & Co., Ltd., 50 NEW BOND STREET, LONDON, W. +Melbourne and New York.</p> + +<p class="c"><b>And may be had of all music-sellers.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span></p> +<hr /> + + +<h3>The Musical Herald.</h3> + +<p class="c"><i>A Journal for the Professor and Amateur.</i></p> + +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="c">PUBLISHED ON THE 1st OF EACH MONTH. PRICE TWOPENCE.</p> + +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> was established in 1851; it is the most widely circulated and +read of all the musical papers.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> gives no music; it is bought because of the importance of its +articles and news.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> is indispensable to the up-to-date Pianoforte Teacher, Voice +Trainer, Organist, and Choirmaster.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> freely replies to questions on musical subjects which are of +general interest. In this way One Thousand enquiries are answered each year. +Most of them concern matters that the ordinary text-books and manuals do not touch.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> gives each month, in reply to questions, lists of songs, pianoforte +and organ pieces, violin pieces, orchestral pieces, choral works, all of which carry its +recommendation.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> devotes much space to Voice Training matters. It gathers up +opinions and hints from all quarters, favouring no clique; interested only in obtaining +good singing.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> provides each month a full biography, with portrait, of a +leading musician, who relates his experiences and their lessons.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> is read all over the world. The compact and newsy quality of +its matter, and its broad outlook command attention everywhere.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> reports musical doings of importance in France and Germany, +translating and summarising articles from the European press.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> reports papers, speeches and discussions at the various musical +societies.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b>, in its Editorials, speaks out plainly, showing neither fear nor +favour.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> has a prize competition each month on some subject relating to +harmony, composition, musical rudiments, or the literature of music. A guinea is +given as the first prize.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> reports all important Choral Contests, sending its representatives +to any part of Great Britain or of Europe where events of interest are proceeding.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> interviews musicians who have things of weight and interest +to say.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> has correspondents in every district of Great and Greater Britain +who supply the pages of "News from all Parts."</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>The Musical Herald</b> is invaluable to students preparing for music examinations, +because of the help given by its practical articles and answers to enquiries.</p> +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="c"><i>Published by</i></p> + +<p class="c">J. CURWEN & SONS Ltd., 24 BERNERS STREET, LONDON, W.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span></p> + +<hr /> + +<h3>History, Biography, Church Music, &c.</h3> +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="hang"><b>HANDBOOK OF ACOUSTICS.</b> By <span class="smcap">T. F. Harris</span>, B.Sc., F.C.S. Price +33. 6d.; postage 3d. A handbook for musical students. Contains +18 chapters profusely illustrated; with numerous questions and an +Appendix of Examination Papers.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HISTORY OF ENGLISH MUSIC</b>. By <span class="smcap">Henry Davey</span>. A monumental +work tracing the history and proving the advanced position, past and +present, of English music. Contains many new and important facts. +Price 6s.; postage 4 ½d.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HYMN LOVER, THE.</b> By Rev. <span class="smcap">W. Garrett Horder</span>, Price 5s.; +postage 4d. Second and revised edition. An account of the rise and +progress of Hymnody.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MEMORIALS OF JOHN CURWEN.</b> By his Son, <span class="smcap">J. Spencer Curwen</span>. +Price 2s.; postage 3d.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MUSICAL HAUNTS IN LONDON.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. G. Edwards</span>. Chapters on +Handel, Haydn, Mendelssohn, Weber, and many other musicians, with +stories and pictures of their residences in London. Price 1s.; post. 2d.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MUSICIANS OF ALL TIMES.</b> Compiled by <span class="smcap">David Baptie</span>. Second and +cheaper edition, 1s. 6d.; postage 2d. Concise biography of composers, +teachers, artists, and all other musical workers, containing 5,000 names.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>STUDENT'S MUSICAL HISTORY.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. Davey</span>. Price 1s.; postage +1 ½d.; cloth, 1s. 6d.; postage 2 ½d. The cheapest historical handbook; +comprehensive, concise, brought up to date.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>STUDIES IN WORSHIP MUSIC.</b> First Series. By <span class="smcap">J. S. Curwen</span>. +Price 5s.; postage 4d. Contains articles and information on various +matters relative to Worship Music, arranged in three divisions—Historical, +Practical, Descriptive. Revised and enlarged.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>STUDIES IN WORSHIP MUSIC.</b> Second Series. By <span class="smcap">J. S. Curwen</span>. +Price 2s. 6d.; postage 2 ½d. Continues above work—articles on the +Chapel Royal, Westminster Abbey Choir, &c.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>SHORT DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS, A.</b> By <span class="smcap">Arnold Kennedy</span>. +M.A. Price 1s. (postage 1d.); cloth, 1s. 6d. (postage 1 ½d.). About +2,700 terms. Gives the phonetic pronunciation of foreign words. +German, French, and Italian terms are included.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>UNITED PRAISE.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. G. Edwards</span>. Price 3s. 6d.; postage 3d. +Originally advertised as "Common Praise." A practical handbook of +Nonconformist Church Music.</p> + +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="c">LONDON: J. CURWEN & SONS Ltd., 24 BERNERS STREET, W.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span></p> + + +<hr /> +<h3>STANDARD WORKS ON MUSIC.</h3> +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="hang"><b>For full list and particulars, apply for catalogue, gratis and post free.</b></p> +<hr class="short2" /> + +<p class="hang"><b>A B C OF MUSICAL THEORY.</b> <span class="smcap">R. Dunstan</span>, +Mus.D. Cloth, 2/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>ART OF BREATHING.</b> <span class="smcap">Leo. Kofler</span>. Price, +cloth, 4/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>BOY'S VOICE, THE.</b> <span class="smcap">J. S. Curwen</span>. Price +2/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>CANDIDATE IN MUSIC, THE.</b> <span class="smcap">H. Fisher</span>, +Mus.D. Book I, Elements, paper, 1/6; +cloth, 2/-. Book II, Harmony, paper, 2/-; +cloth, 2/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>CHORAL AND ORCHESTRAL SOCIETIES.</b> +<span class="smcap">L. C. Venables</span>. Price 2/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>CHURCH AND CATHEDRAL CHORISTER'S +SINGING METHOD</b>. <span class="smcap">Haydn Keeton</span>, +Mus.D. Cloth, 3/-; paper, 2/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>COMPANION FOR TEACHERS.</b> <span class="smcap">J. Spencer +Curwen</span>. Price 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>COMPENDIUM OF HARMONY.</b> <span class="smcap">Geo. Oakey</span>, +Mus.B. Price 2/-. Examples in Sol-fa only.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>CONSTRUCTION, TUNING, AND CARE OF +THE PIANOFORTE.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">H. Fisher</span>, +Mus.D. Price, limp cloth, 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>CYCLOPÆDIC DICTIONARY OF MUSIC.</b> <span class="smcap">R. +Dunstan</span>, Mus.D. Cloth 7/6 net.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>FIGURED BASS.</b> <span class="smcap">Geo. Oakey</span>, Mus.B. +Price, limp cloth, 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>FIRST STEPS IN HARMONY.</b> <span class="smcap">R. Dunstan</span>, +Mus.D. Cloth, 2/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HANDBELL RINGING.</b> <span class="smcap">C. W. Fletcher</span>. +Price 2/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HANDBOOK OF ACOUSTICS.</b> <span class="smcap">T. F. Harris</span>, +B.Sc., F.C.S., Price 3/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HARMONY ANALYSIS.</b> <span class="smcap">Geo. Oakey</span>, Mus.B. +Price 3/-. Both notations.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HISTORY OF ENGLISH MUSIC.</b> <span class="smcap">H. Davey</span>. +Price 6/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HOW TO READ MUSIC.</b> <span class="smcap">John Curwen</span>. +24 chapters, pp. 128, price, cloth, 1/6; +paper, 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HOW TO TEACH THE STAFF NOTATION.</b> +<span class="smcap">E. Mason</span>, Mus.B. Price 2/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HOW TO TRAIN CHILDREN'S VOICES.</b> +<span class="smcap">T. Maskell Hardy</span>. Price 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>HYMN LOVER, THE.</b> Rev. <span class="smcap">W. Garrett +Horder</span>. Price 5/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MANUAL OF MUSIC, A.</b> <span class="smcap">Ralph Dunstan</span>, +Mus.Doc. Price 2/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MANUAL OF ORCHESTRATION.</b> <span class="smcap">Hamilton +Clarke</span>, Mus.B. With Appendix, 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MANUAL OF VOICE PRODUCTION.</b> <span class="smcap">H. J. B. +Dart</span>. Staff, 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MECHANISM OF THE HUMAN VOICE.</b> <span class="smcap">Emil +Behnke</span>. Cloth, 2/6; paper, 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MUSICAL HAUNTS IN LONDON.</b> <span class="smcap">F. G. +Edwards</span>. Price 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MUSICAL INSPECTION</b>. By a <span class="smcap">School +Inspector</span>. Price 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MUSICAL SELF-INSTRUCTOR.</b> <span class="smcap">J. Sneddon</span>, +Mus.B. Price 2/6. Both notations.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MUSICAL THEORY.</b> <span class="smcap">John Curwen</span>. Price +3/6. In Parts—I, II, IV, 4d. each; III, +1/4; V, 1/-. Both notations.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MUSICIANS OF ALL TIMES.</b> Compiled by +<span class="smcap">W. G. W. Goodworth</span>, Mus.B. Price 2/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>MUSICIAN, THE.</b> <span class="smcap">Ridley Prentice</span>. Six +Grades, 1/6 each.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>NEW GRADED HARMONY EXERCISES.</b> +<span class="smcap">Geo. Oakey</span>, Mus.B. Price 2/-, cloth.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>PSYCHOLOGY FOR MUSIC TEACHERS.</b> <span class="smcap">H. +Fisher</span>, Mus.D. Cloth, 3/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>ORCHESTRA, THE, and how to write for it.</b> +<span class="smcap">F. Corder</span>. Price 7/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>ORGANS, ORGANISTS, AND CHOIRS.</b> <span class="smcap">E. +Minshall</span>. Price 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>PIANIST'S MENTOR.</b> <span class="smcap">H. Fisher</span>, Mus.D. +Price 2/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>PLAYING AT SIGHT.</b> <span class="smcap">R. T. White</span>, Mus.D. +Oxon. Price 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>PRIMER OF ELOCUTION.</b> <span class="smcap">F. Harrison</span>, +M.A. Price 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>PRONUNCIATION FOR SINGERS.</b> <span class="smcap">A. J. +Ellis</span>, F.R.S. Price 3/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>SCHOOL MUSIC TEACHER, THE.</b> <span class="smcap">J. Evans</span> +and <span class="smcap">W. G. McNaught</span>. Price 2/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>SHORT DICTIONARY OF MUSICAL TERMS.</b> +<span class="smcap">A. Kennedy</span>, M.A. Price 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>SINGER'S GUIDE.</b> <span class="smcap">J. Adcock</span>. Price 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>SINGING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.</b> <span class="smcap">A. +Watkins</span>. Cloth, 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>SOLO SINGER.</b> <span class="smcap">Sinclair Dunn</span>. Price 1/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>SPEAKING VOICE.</b> Mrs. <span class="smcap">Emil Behnke</span>. +Price 4/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>SPECIMEN LESSONS ON THE TONIC SOL-FA +METHOD.</b> Edited by <span class="smcap">J. Spencer Curwen</span>. +Cloth limp, 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>STANDARD COURSE, THE.</b> <span class="smcap">J. Curwen</span>. +Price 3/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>STUDENT'S MUSICAL HISTORY.</b> <span class="smcap">Henry +Davey</span>. Price 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>STUDIES IN WORSHIP MUSIC.</b> <span class="smcap">J. Spencer +Curwen</span>. <span class="smcap">1st Series</span>, 5/-; <span class="smcap">2nd Series</span>, 2/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>TEACHER'S MANUAL, THE.</b> <span class="smcap">John Curwen</span>. +Price 4/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>TEXT-BOOK OF COUNTERPOINT.</b> <span class="smcap">Geo. +Oakey</span>, Mus.B. Price 2/-. cloth. Both nots.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>TEXT-BOOK OF HARMONY.</b> <span class="smcap">Geo. Oakey</span>, +Mus.B. Price 3/-. Both notations.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>TEXT-BOOK OF MUSICAL ELEMENTS.</b> <span class="smcap">Geo. +Oakey</span>, Mus.B. Paper 1/-; cloth, 1/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>TRAINING COLLEGE MUSIC COURSE.</b> <span class="smcap">B. +Mills</span>, Mus.B. Price 3/-.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>UNITED PRAISE</b>. <span class="smcap">F. G. Edwards</span>. Price +3/6.</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>VOICE PRODUCTION IN SINGING AND +SPEAKING</b>. <span class="smcap">Wesley Mills</span>, M.A., F.R.C.S. +Price 7/6 net (no reduction).</p> + +<p class="hang"><b>VOICE TRAINER, THE.</b> <span class="smcap">J. A. Birch</span>. Both +notations, 1/-.</p> + +<hr class="short2" /> +<p class="c"><b>LONDON: J. CURWEN & SONS Ltd., 24 BERNERS STREET, W.</b><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span></p> +<p><a name="FOOT" id="FOOT"></a></p> + +<hr /> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></a> "The Mechanism of Voice, Speech, and Taste." Translated +and edited by Mr. Lennox Browne, F.R.C.S. London: Baillière, +Tindall, and Cox.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></a> It having been proved to Mr. Behnke that the use of the term +"<i>abdominal</i>" instead of "<i>diaphragmatic</i>" breathing led to misconception +and misrepresentation of his views on this important subject, +he discarded the words "abdominal breathing" and used only the +term "diaphragmatic breathing" in his teaching and writing. Will +readers kindly bear this in mind?—K. B.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></a> "Medical Hints on the Production and Management of the +Singing Voice," Fifth Edition, p. 15. London: Chappell and Co.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></a> Only for the purpose of ascertaining the capacity of the lungs +<i>before</i> commencing the exercises, and the gain acquired after some +weeks of regular work.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_E_5" id="Footnote_E_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_E_5"><span class="label">[E]</span></a> "The Throat and its Diseases," pp. 289, 290. London: +Baillière, Tindall, and Cox.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_F_6" id="Footnote_F_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_F_6"><span class="label">[F]</span></a> "The Throat and its Functions." New York: G. P. +Putnam's Sons.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_G_7" id="Footnote_G_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_G_7"><span class="label">[G]</span></a> <i>Sphincter</i> is an anatomical term applied to circular muscles +which constrict or close certain natural orifices.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_H_8" id="Footnote_H_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_H_8"><span class="label">[H]</span></a> "Ueber die Compensation der physischen Kräfte am menschlichen +Stimmorgan," p. 8. Berlin, 1839.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_I_9" id="Footnote_I_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_I_9"><span class="label">[I]</span></a> "Voice in Singing," p. 189. Philadelphia, 1875.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_J_10" id="Footnote_J_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_J_10"><span class="label">[J]</span></a> "Anatomist's Vade Mecum." By Erasmus Wilson, F.R.S. +London. Eighth edition, p. 596.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_K_11" id="Footnote_K_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_K_11"><span class="label">[K]</span></a> Helmholtz, "Sensations of Tone:" translated by Alexander +J. Ellis, F.R.S., &c., p. 37.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_L_12" id="Footnote_L_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_L_12"><span class="label">[L]</span></a> "Philosophy of Voice," 2nd edition, p. 19. Baillière, Tindall, +and Cox.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_M_13" id="Footnote_M_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_M_13"><span class="label">[M]</span></a> A "Laryngo-Phantom" has recently been brought out by +Dr. Isenschmid of Munich, which greatly facilitates this preliminary +practice. It consists of an imitation of the throat, the +larynx, and the mouth, and "is intended to familiarize students +with as many of the details connected with the use of the +laryngoscope as it is possible to learn before the application of +the instrument to the living subject." A number of little paintings +representing different laryngoscopic appearances may be slipped +into this Phantom, unknown to the student, who has to discover +what has been done by the usual process. This apparatus can +therefore be strongly recommended as affording excellent and +constant practice. It may be had of Messrs. Krohne & Sesemann, +8, Duke Street, Manchester Square, W., price £2 2s.</p></div> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_N_14" id="Footnote_N_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_N_14"><span class="label">[N]</span></a> "Der Kehlkopf," p. 153. Leipzig, 1873. J. J. Weber.</p></div> + +</div> +<hr class="full" /> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Mechanism of the Human Voice, by Emil Behnke + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MECHANISM OF THE HUMAN VOICE *** + +***** This file should be named 30889-h.htm or 30889-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/8/8/30889/ + +Produced by Chuck Greif and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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