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diff --git a/30880.txt b/30880.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8435056 --- /dev/null +++ b/30880.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2723 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pope Adrian IV, by Richard Raby + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Pope Adrian IV + An Historical Sketch + +Author: Richard Raby + +Release Date: January 7, 2010 [EBook #30880] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPE ADRIAN IV *** + + + + +Produced by Michael Gray + + + + +POPE ADRIAN IV. + +AN +HISTORICAL SKETCH. + + + +BY RICHARD RABY. + + + +LONDON: +THOMAS RICHARDSON AND SON, +172, FLEET STREET; 9, CAPEL STREET, DUBLIN; AND DERBY. +1849. + + + +I. PREFACE. + +The following sketch was written to supply what its author felt +persuaded could not fail to interest his fellow Catholics in England; +namely, some account of the only English Pope who ever reigned. + +In it he does not pretend to any novelty of research; but simply to +present a connected narrative of such events in the history of Pope +Adrian IV. as have hitherto lain broken and concealed in old +chronicles, or been slightly touched for the most part in an +incidental way by modern writers. + +In the course of his sketch, the author has ventured to take part with +Pope Adrian in some acts of his, which it is commonly the mode to +condemn. Should his opinions in so doing not be deemed sound, he yet +hopes that at least the spirit which inspired them--in other words, +the spirit to promote the cause of practical rather than theoretical +policy, as also of public order and legitimate authority, will deserve +commendation. + +For the rest, the striking similarity between the difficulties which +Pius IX. in our day has to contend with, and those which Pope Adrian +had to encounter in the twelfth century, should only lend the more +interest to his story. + +R. R. + +_Munich, May, 1849._ + + + +POPE ADRIAN IV. +AN HISTORICAL SKETCH. +I. + +THE information, which has come down to us respecting the early life +of the only Englishman, who ever sat on the papal throne, is so +defective and scanty, as easily to be comprised in a few paragraphs. + +Nicholas Breakspere was born near St. Albans, most probably about the +close of the 11th century. His father was a clergyman, who became a +monk in the monastery of that city, while his son was yet a boy. Owing +to extreme poverty, Nicholas could not pay for his education, and was +obliged to attend the school of the monks on charity. [1] This +circumstance would seem to have put his father so painfully to the +blush, that he took an unnatural dislike to his son; whom he shortly +compelled by his threats and reproaches to flee the neighbourhood in a +state of utter destitution. + +Thus cruelly cast on the world, Nicholas to settle the church in those +remote countries, where it had been planted about 150 years. The +circumstances which led to this legation were as follows:[2]--originally +the three kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, were +spiritually subject to the archbishop of Hamburg, whose province was +then the most extensive in Christendom. In the year 1102, Denmark +succeeded, after much protracted agitation of the question, in +obtaining from Pope Paschal II., a metropolitan see of its own, which +was founded at Lund; and to whose authority Sweden and Norway were +transferred. The same feeling of national independence, which had +procured this boon for Denmark, was not long before it began to work +in those kingdoms also; and the more so as the Danish supremacy was +asserted over them with much greater rigour than had formerly been +that of Hamburg, and was otherwise repugnant to them, as emanating +from a power with which they stood in far closer political relations, +and more constant rivalry than with Germany. After some indirect +preliminary steps in the business,--which do not seem to have +forwarded it,--the kings of Sweden and Norway sent ambassadors to Pope +Eugenius III., to request for their states the same privilege which +his predecessor had granted to Denmark; and which he himself had just +extended to Ireland, in the erection of the four archbishoprics of +that country. The arrival of these ambassadors at Rome happened a year +before the elevation of the abbot of St. Rufus to the see of Albano. +The pope promised to accede to their request. It was in fulfilment of +this promise that Nicholas Breakspere was sent into the north. +Doubtless, the circumstance of his being an Englishman had weight in +his selection; as, in consequence of that circumstance, he would be +viewed as far more likely to possess a correct knowledge of the +character and government peculiar to northern nations than an Italian. + +Taking England in his way, the Cardinal legate passed thence into +Norway; where he landed in June of the year above-mentioned. The +country was then governed by three brothers, named Sigurd, Inge, and +Eystein, sons of the late King Harrold Gille. Between the first two, a +serious quarrel happened to rage. For a Norwegian nobleman having +murdered the brother of Sigurd's favourite concubine, and then entered +the service of Inge, the latter shielded his client against the +punishment which Sigurd sought to inflict. + +Before entering on the affairs of the Church, the Cardinal Legate saw +that this quarrel must first be settled. Of the three brothers, Inge +seems to have stood the highest in the esteem of all classes in the +state, by reason of his benevolence, and other virtues. With him the +cardinal took part, and compelled Sigurd, together with Eystein,--who +seems also to have meddled in the dispute against Inge,--to agree to a +reconciliation. At the same time, he visited with ecclesiastical +censures the former two, for various crimes, of which they had been +guilty in other respects. + +On the settlement of this quarrel, he proceeded at once to the special +business of his legation,--the erection of an archbishopric for the +kingdom. This he decided to fix at Nidrosia, or Nidaros, the capital +of the province, over which Sigurd in those days ruled, and +corresponding to the city and district of Drontheim now. The selection +of Nidrosia was made chiefly out of honor to St. Olaff, whose relics +reposed in its church. + +Here, he invested John, Bishop of Stavanger, with the Pallium; and +subjected to his jurisdiction the sees of Apsloe, Bergen, and +Stavanger, those of the small Norwegian colonies, of the Orcades, +Hebrides, and Furo Isles, and that of Gaard in Greenland. The Shetland +and western isles of Scotland, with the Isle of Man, and a new +bishopric which the cardinal founded at Hammer in Norway,--and in +which he installed Arnold, at that time expelled the see of Gaard,--were +also included in the province of Nidrosia. The bishop of Sodor +and Man, as well as the bishops of the Shetland and western isles, had +till this time been suffragans of the see of York, but obeyed the +authority of Nidrosia for the next 200 years; after which, the +Norwegian primate lost his rights over those islands, which returned +under their first jurisdiction. The greater part of the other sees had +already, directly, or indirectly, acknowledged the authority of the +bishops of Nidrosia, while the rest had bowed to the supremacy of +Hamburg. [3] + +The possession of a metropolitan see of their own spread such +satisfaction among the people of Norway, that no mark of respect +seemed too great for the immediate dispenser of the boon; and under +this feeling, they allowed the Cardinal Legate to introduce various +regulations into the country beyond what his powers entitled him to +do, and even to reform their civil institutions. Thus there is every +reason to assume,--though positive historical evidence is wanting,--that +he bound the Norwegian Church to the payment of Peter's pence to +the Holy See. He also effected extensive reforms as regards the +celibacy of the clergy; but, in spite of his great influence, does not +seem to have been able to carry them so far as he could have wished. +Various rites and ceremonies of religion, into which abuses had crept, +were purged by him. Moreover, he placed the public peace on a surer +footing than it was before, by means of a law which he procured to be +passed, forbidding all private persons to appear armed in the streets; +while to the king alone was reserved the right of a body guard of +twelve men. [4] Snorrow relates, that no foreigner ever came to +Norway, who gained so much public honor and deference among the people +as Nicholas Breakspere. On his departure he was loaded with presents, +and promised perpetual friendship to the country. When he became pope, +he kept his promise, and invariably treated all Norwegians who visited +Rome during his reign with extraordinary attention. He also sent into +Norway, architects and other artists from England, to build the +cathedral and convent of the new see of Hammer. On his death the +nation honored his memory as that of a saint. + +Having finished the business of his legation to Norway, Nicholas +Breakspere next passed into Sweden. His first proceeding in this +kingdom was to hold a synod at Lingkopin; to fix on a see for the new +archbishopric about to be created. But the members, consisting of the +heads of the clergy of Sweden and Gothland, could not agree on the +point, as, out of a spirit of provincial rivalry, the one party +claimed the honor for Upsala, and the other for Skara. Finding that +the dispute was too hot to be soon settled, the Cardinal Legate +consecrated St. Henry of Upsala bishop of that city, introduced +various new regulations respecting the celibacy of the clergy and the +payment of Peter's pence to the pope; and then took his departure for +Denmark on his way to Rome. The pallium which was destined for the new +primate of Sweden, he deposited, until the difficulties in the way of +the election of that dignitary should be removed, with Eskill, +Archbishop of Lund, who received him in the most honorable and cordial +manner, notwithstanding that by his agency the authority of the Danish +Church was so seriously curtailed. The Cardinal Legate would seem to +have sought by this act of confidence to soothe the soreness, which +Eskill must naturally have felt at seeing his honors so shorn. The +primate of Lund was also informed that he should still continue to +preserve the title of Primate of Sweden, with the right of +consecrating and investing with the pallium the future archbishops of +that kingdom. Farther, he was promised, as some compensation for what +he had lost, the grant of a right from the Holy See of annexing to his +archiepiscopal dignity the style of "Legati nati Apostolicis Sedis" in +the three kingdoms. [5] During the stay of Nicholas Breakspere in +Denmark, it happened that John, a younger son of Swercus, King of +Sweden and Gothland, and a prince whose radically bad character had +been totally ruined by a neglected education, carried off by violence, +and dishonored the wife of his eldest brother Charles, together with +her widowed sister,--princesses of unsullied fame, and nearly related +to Sweno III., at that time, king of Denmark. This atrocity naturally +excited a deep resentment against its author, at home and abroad: and +roused Sweno to resolve on invading Sweden and Gothland with all his +forces, in revenge of so insulting an outrage; a resolution in which +he grew all the more fixed, by the recollection that Swercus himself +had formerly injured Nicholas, a predecessor of Sweno on the throne, +by perfidiously seducing, and marrying his intended bride--an injury +all the bitterer, as Nicholas never could retaliate it, by reason of +domestic broils with his own people. + +The Cardinal Legate no sooner became aware of this gathering storm, +than he sought to avert its outbreak; and repaired to King Sweno, with +whom he remonstrated against the projected war, not only on religious, +but prudential grounds; depicting to him the many serious obstacles by +sea and land which must be surmounted before any advantage could be +won; and reminding him, "that if the spider, by disembowelling +herself, as least, caught the flies she gave chace to, yet the Danes +could only expect to run the certain peril of their lives in their +proposed campaign." [6] The cardinal's interference in this instance +in behalf of peace, seems not to have been crowned with the same +success, as in Norway. King Sweno, a proud and obstinate man, lent a +respectful, but callous ear to his arguments; and was equally +impervious to the efforts of the ambassadors, whom Swercus also sent +to prevent hostilities. + +The events of the war which followed brought condign punishment to +each party: for Prince John, on being directed by his father to levy +troops for the defence of the state, was massacred in a popular riot +as the odious cause of the public dangers; and Sweno, on his invasion +of Sweden, having been inveigled by the wily tactics of Swercus--who +feigned to retire before him--to push his expedition beyond its +original destination as far as Finland, was there surprised by a +rising of the natives, who destroyed the flower of his army; while he +himself escaped with difficulty into Denmark, covered with shame, at +so ignoble and fatal a defeat. Not long afterwards, Sweno was murdered +in his bed by two of his chief nobles, who had long cherished disloyal +feelings towards their king; and, at last, entered into a treasonable +correspondence with Swercus. The end of the latter proved eventually +not less tragical. In the mean time, Nicholas Breakspere had quitted +the country, and returned to Rome. On his arrival he found Pope +Eugenius dead, and succeeded by Anastasius IV., an old man of ninety. +Anastasius, who reigned little more than a year, among other acts, +confirmed, by a bull addressed to John, Archbishop of Nidrosia, all +that the English legate had done in Norway, with the exception, +however, of that concession to the primate of Lund, by which the +latter was to enjoy the right of investing the new archbishops of +Norway and Sweden with the pallium. This right, Anastasius reserved to +the Holy See. The venerable pontiff died shortly afterwards, December +2nd, 1154. + +On the following day the conclave met in St. Peter's church, and +elected the cardinal bishop of Albano to the vacant throne; in which +he was solemnly installed on the morrow, and took the name of Adrian +IV.--thus giving not the least striking among many examples in the +dynasty of the popes, of an exaltation from the meanest station in +society to one the sublimest in dignity, and most awful in +responsibility that exists under heaven. + +[1] Guillelmus Neubrigensis, de rebus Anglicis, lib. 2. cap. 6. 8. + +[2] Munter, Kirchengeschichte V. Danemark und Norwegen. Buch 2. tom. +2. + +[3] Munter, ibid. + +[4] Torfaeus, Hist. Rer. Norweg. pars. 3. lib. 9. cap. 12. + +[5] Munter, &c., ibid. + +[6] Joannes Magnus, Hist. Gott. lib. 18. cap. 17. + + + +II. + +At the moment, Adrian IV. took his seat behind the helm of Peter's +bark, the winds and waves raged furiously against her, nor ceased to +do so, during the whole time that he steered her course. That time, +though short, was yet long enough to prove him a skilful and fearless +pilot,--as much so as the very foremost of his predecessors or +successors, who have acquired greater fame than he, simply because a +more protracted term of office enabled them to carry out to completer +results than he could do, designs in no wise loftier than Adrian's; +and, in so doing, to unveil before the world more fully than was +permitted to him, characters not, therefore, nobler or more richly +endowed than his. + +The first difficulty with which the English pope had to grapple, on +his accession to power, was the refractory spirit of the citizens of +Rome, among whom Arnold of Brescia had, some time before, stirred up +the republican mania. + +Arnold was a native of the city, indicated by his surname, and was +born there most likely about the year 1105. His was one of those proud +and ambitious natures, in which imagination and enthusiasm are mixed +up in far greater proportions, than judgment and sobriety. From his +childhood he developed shining parts and an ardor for study, +calculated to elicit their full force. To pursue his studies with as +little interruption as possible, he adopted, while yet a boy, the +clerical habit, and not long afterwards obtained minor orders. [1] + +In those days, events were passing, at home and abroad, well adapted +to excite all that extravagance, which was to be expected from a +character like his. In Italy, it was the era of the spread of those +republican principles, which were at last fought out so heroically and +through such perils by the cities of Lombardy, against local barons +and transalpine emperors; in Europe, at large, it was the era of the +bloom of intellectual chivalry, whose seat was Paris, whose foremost +champion, Abailard. But it was also the era of a wide-spread +demoralization of the clergy, among whom simony and concubinage were +the order of the day; and, consequently, every other disorder which +naturally follows in the wake of those two capital vices. In the midst +of such a complicated state of things, requiring so much steadiness of +eye to view it properly, so as not to be misled,--on the one hand by a +false admiration, and on the other by a false disgust,--the youth +Arnold devoured the pages of Livy; and imbibed from him, as well as +from other Roman classics, those principles of heathen republicanism, +which he subsequently sought to restore to practice, in the metropolis +of Christendom, with such fatal results to society and himself. + +On the completion of his studies at home, he repaired, thirsting for +deeper draughts of knowledge, to Paris; and became one of the most +devoted scholars of Abailard; whose rationalist invasions of the +domain of theological doctrine,--by which the supreme authority of the +Church in matters of faith was threatened,--accorded with Arnold's +tone of mind. In fact, he soon arrived, by the line of argument which +the lessons of his master and his own feelings led him to adopt, at +the firm persuasion that he alone had hit upon the true plan for +reforming, not only the political, but the religious abuses of the +age; and, moreover, that none but he could carry that plan out. Under +this hallucination, which the fumes of pagan principles of +statesmanship and rationalist principles of Christianity, fermenting +together, had hatched in his brain, he returned, after a few years' +stay at Paris, to Brescia; not failing to visit, at his passage of the +Alps, the Waldenses, and other sects, with whose tenets he secretly +sympathized. + +On his arrival at Brescia, he opened his career by a series of pulpit +philippics against the temporal government of the Prince Bishop, and +the immoral lives of the clergy. With fiery eloquence, that told all +the more by reason of the sanctity of the preacher's exterior--a +precaution which he took so well that even St. Bernard admitted its +success--Arnold opposed the doctrines and practice of Holy Writ to the +vices and luxuries which he denounced; affirming that the corruption +of the Church was caused by her having overstepped the boundaries of +her domain. That she had done so, was proved, he said, by the wealth +and political power which she had acquired, contrary to the spirit and +example of apostolic times; to whose simplicity she must return if she +was to be reformed as she ought to be, and as, for the good of +society, it was indispensable she should be. Of course, this line of +argument received all that applause which it never fails to do +whenever urged. For the reformation of the Church, by reducing her to +the poverty of the apostolic ages, involves,--besides such purely +spiritual advantages as are set forth at large in the plan,--others of +a material kind, which, if not usually paraded with the first, are not +the less kept steadily in view. For instance, that those who carry out +the reforms in question will be sure to get well paid for their pains; +seeing that the transaction necessarily passes so much money and goods +through their fingers, as well to private, as public profit. And, +then, there is the secret satisfaction naturally felt above all by the +rich and lax, at seeing the clergy, by means of this very reformation, +deprived of much formidable influence--such as wealth always bestows +on its possessors--and which is surely as necessary to the Church as +to any other public corporation, to the end that she may carry out +efficiently the affairs of her vast mission; keep up her dignity amid +an irreverent world; shield her oppressed; relieve her poor members, +and strike respect into powerful sinners, who would not only scorn but +trample on her too, if she had nothing but words to oppose to blows. + +In consequence of Arnold's sermons--preached not only at Brescia, but +also in other towns of Lombardy,--and which, besides their virulent +censure of the existing abuses in Church and State, broached opinions +contrary to orthodox faith, especially in regard to infant baptism, +and the sacrament of the Eucharist,--an insurrection broke out against +the Prince Bishop Manfred, in the year 1138, and lasted through the +next. + +Manfred made a vigorous stand to begin with; then seemed on the point +of giving way, when an unexpected event turned the scales in his +favour. This was the calling by Pope Innocent II., in the year 1139, +of all the bishops and abbots of the Church to an oecumenical council +at Rome, to condemn the memory of his late rival, the anti-pope +Anacletus II. Among the rest, the Bishop Manfred and the abbots of +Brescia appeared; and did not fail to seize the opportunity of +denouncing the actions and opinions of Arnold to the pope and the +curia. The proper course was forthwith taken; the proceedings of so +pernicious a disturber of the public peace were condemned; himself +warned to hold his tongue in future, and banished out of Italy under +an oath not to return thither, without an express papal permission. + +Arnold now betook himself again into France; and smarting with wounded +pride and ambition, vindictively espoused the party of his old master +Abailard, just then embroiled in his famous dispute with St. Bernard. +For the abbot of Clairvaux had found out that it would never do to +allow that honest, but mistaken man to go on spreading his views any +longer unopposed, if the orthodox faith was to be preserved intact in +Christendom; and so, after more than once privately warning him of his +errors to no purpose, accepted a challenge which Abailard at last +vauntingly sent him to a public disputation. This disputation came off +at the Synod of Sens, A. D. 1140, and resulted in the total defeat of +the philosopher by the monk. But Abailard appealed from the synod to +the pope; whereupon the synod suspended its farther measures, and +advised the Holy See through St. Bernard of what had transpired. In +doing so, the latter took care to expose the fatal consequences to +revealed religion involved in Abailard's opinions, and, in one of his +letters on this subject, stated the case thus: "That inasmuch as +Abailard is prepared to explain everything by means of reason, he +combats as well Faith as Reason: for, what is so contrary to Reason, +as to wish to go beyond the limits of Reason by means of Reason? and, +what more contrary to Faith, than to be unwilling to believe that +which one is unable to reach by means of Reason?" + +Abailard fared no better at Rome than at Sens. His defeat was ratified +by that authority from which there is no appeal. Moreover, he was +commanded to desist from holding any more lectures; and all persons +who should obstinately maintain his errors were excommunicated. +Foremost among these was Arnold of Brescia, who scorned to imitate +Abailard's submission to the authority of the Church, and blamed his +penitential retreat at Clugny, where he shortly died an edifying +death. + +St. Bernard,--who had previously formed an ill opinion of Arnold from +the reports which preceded him out of Italy,--no sooner saw him at +Sens actively interested for Abailard, than he penetrated the entire +duplicity of his character; at the same time that he felt fully alive +to the damage, which the victory just won over error might yet suffer +from a man so able and resolute. Wherefore, as it was not his custom +to serve the cause of truth by halves, the saint resolved to include +the scholar with the master in his denunciations to the pope; who, at +his instance, ordered that Arnold too, as well as Abailard, should be +incarcerated in a convent. But the crafty Italian managed to elude his +doom by a timely flight; and after running many dangers by reason of +the keen chace which St. Bernard gave him, found a safe retreat at +Zurich. + +In that age Zurich, by reason of the trade of Germany and Italy +passing through it, was the most flourishing town of Switzerland. +Trading communities are commonly as fond of novelty in opinion as in +wares. Zurich verified this assertion in many ways; for, owing to its +free government, its proximity to the republics of Lombardy, and to +the settlements of the Waldenses in the Alps, the place swarmed with +that motley tribe of political and religious dreamers which Liberty is +ever doomed to tolerate in her train. Of course, Arnold had his clique +among the rest. His reception by the citizens was enthusiastic; a +public situation was given to him; and he resided in the city for the +next six years. During that interval, he confined his activity to +Zurich and the cantons bordering it. In these he propagated his +doctrines with success, and seems to have been forgotten by the public +of France and Italy. No doubt, he may be viewed as having helped to +pave the way for Zwingli in the 16th, and Strauss in the 19th,--both +of whom, like Arnold, spread the poison of their ideas from Zurich. + +In the meantime, events were transpiring at Rome which were destined +to call Arnold from his retreat, and produce him again on the great +stage of the world in a part more important than ever. These were the +attempts of the Romans to restore their ancient republic on the ruins +of the papal government. These attempts were not peculiar to the 12th +century, but had been made in preceding ages, invariably to no other +purpose than anarchy to the city, and scandal to the world. Indeed, +there seems always to have been a party at Rome whose adherents, more +pagan than Christian in their hearts, perversely mistook the destiny +of the city; and far from viewing its new spiritual empire as nobler +than its old material one, held the former as something meanly +inferior to the latter; wholly blind to the fact that the senate and +emperors had been merely types of the hierarchy and the popes, and +that in these, and not in those, God had decreed, from the time of +Romulus himself, the true power and majesty of Rome should eventually +reside. This party then,--who viewed the pope as the Jews viewed our +Saviour, whom they would not accept as their Messias, but reviled him +as an impostor because he possessed no worldly-power; this party it +was that, at the end of the 8th century, treated Leo III. with such +impious cruelty in their first recorded attempt to overthrow the papal +government; that in the 10th century not only dethroned, but +imprisoned and murdered, by the hands of the consul Crescentius, +Benedict VI., and plunged the state into such disorders as to render +necessary the bloody but just intervention of Otho III. Emperor of +Germany, who delivered the Holy See from the oppression and +indignities which overwhelmed it. About the middle of the 12th +century, the example of the cities of Lombardy, roused to their +struggle for freedom to a great degree by the eloquence of Arnold of +Brescia, again awoke the republican faction at Rome; where other +elements of lawlessness unhappily existed in the papal schism which +then raged, and in which the anti-pope Anacletus drove from the Holy +See Innocent II., the lawful pope. On the death of Anacletus and the +return of Innocent, the sentence of the council, above mentioned, +against Arnold of Brescia, still more embittered the revolutionary +spirits of the city, worked up to wild enthusiasm by the temporary +presence of that arch-demagogue on the spot to defend his cause. At +last the pope's conduct to the citizens of Tivoli burst the storm of +rebellion over his head. + +During the late schism, Tivoli had sided with Anacletus, and on his +death still refused to acknowledge Innocent. A Roman army was +accordingly marched out to reduce the place to obedience, but was +defeated by a sudden sally of the besieged. A fresh army which was +shortly raised behaved better, and Tivoli was reduced. Burning with +shame at the disgraceful failure of their first attempt, the Romans +clamoured for the total destruction of a hated rival and the +dispersion of its inhabitants. But the pope, satisfied with the +triumph of his authority, would lend no countenance to so guilty a +severity, and concluded with his chastised children a fatherly peace. +For thus checking the bad passions of his subjects, he incurred their +displeasure; whereupon, the republican leaders, perceiving their +opportunity seized it at once, and, by their virulent denunciations to +the mob of the pretended tyranny of priests, soon stirred up an +insurrection; and got the citizens to hold a congress in the Capitol, +at which the papal government was declared at an end, and the ancient +republic restored. Innocent strove to counteract this revolution, and +called a synod at the Lateran; before which he protested against any +right of the laity to interfere with his government, much less to +alter it. But his efforts were vain; and he took his ill-fortune so +much to heart that he sickened and died of grief. + +Celestine II., his successor, had, as papal legate in France, formerly +befriended Arnold of Brescia: a circumstance that could not fail to +make him popular, and conduce to give effect to his efforts at +conciliation; so that he completely succeeded in allaying the +revolutionary storm during his short reign, which his death terminated +in the spring of the following year. + +Under Lucius II., who was next elected to the papal throne, the public +disorders burst forth again in an aggravated degree. Lucius deeply +offended the Romans by seeking to secure himself against their fickle +loyalty in an alliance with Roger, the Norman king of Sicily. In +resentment of this proceeding, the newly elected senate first caused +the strongholds of the Frangipani, and of other adherents of the papal +party within the city, to be demolished, and then sent an embassy to +Conrad III. of Germany to invite him to come and assume the imperial +crown under their auspices, and act as counter-check to the king of +Sicily. But Conrad, mistrusting the high-flown letter containing the +invitation, and feeling moreover little sympathy with rebels against +the pope, declined it. + +Hereupon, Lucius thought it the proper time to strike a blow towards +recovering his authority. To this end he marshalled his cardinals and +other dignitaries in all their pomp; put himself at their head, and, +escorted by an armed array of lay partisans, set out for Rome with the +intention of besieging the Capitol. + +At first the people, awed by so solemn and resolute an appearance of +the Supreme Pontiff, showed signs if not of helping, at least, of not +resisting his attempt. But the agents of the senate, actively at work +among the crowd, succeeded in dissipating this fatal apathy, and in +rousing, in its stead, so furious a spirit of hostility, that the +result announced itself in a sacrilegious shower of stones, which +rained cruelly on the heads of the priestly host, wholly scattering +it, and hitting the pope himself on the temples; who shortly died from +the effects of the contusion. This catastrophe happened January 25th, +1145. + +The next day the dispersed cardinals came together again in St. +Caesarius' church, and set the thorny tiara on the head of a stranger +to their order. This was the abbot of the Cistercian convent of St. +Anastasius in Rome, formerly a monk under St. Bernard at Clairvaux. He +took the name of Eugenius III. He bore the reputation of a mild and +conciliating man; which fact would probably weigh all the more with +the conclave under existing circumstances, from the recollection of +Celestine II., whose gentleness had tamed what it appeared sternness +could not subdue. + +But Eugenius now showed that he was not wanting in one set of +qualities, because it had hitherto served his purpose to display +another. For, rather than recognize the new senate, which the +republican party wished to make him do, he quitted the city overnight +with all his suite; went through the ceremony of his installation at +the convent of Forsa; and then retired to Viterbo. + +Here he resided some months, and vainly endeavoured through St. +Bernard's agency to induce the Emperor Conrad to arm in his behalf. At +last, losing all patience at the lengths to which the Romans--encouraged +by his absence--had begun to carry things, he levied at +Tivoli, and other well affected places, recruits in his service, took +himself the command, and marched to attack his rebellious subjects. + +His expedition was crowned with success; the republicans were humbled, +and sued for peace. This was granted to them on the conditions, that +for the future the pope should nominate the senators; that his Prefect +should be restored and their Patrician abolished. Eugenius then held +his triumphant entry into Rome amid demonstrations of enthusiastic +loyalty, and celebrated there the Christmas of 1145. But it was not +long before the clouds of disaffection gathered again as blackly as +ever, and discharged such a tempest, on the refusal of Eugenius to +give up Tivoli to the implacable hatred of the Romans, that he was +forced to flee over the Tiber, amid a volley of darts and stones, +hurled after him by the mob. Such in fact were the straits to which +the unfortunate pontiff was now reduced, that he at length found it +expedient to pass into France. + +It was at this juncture (A. D. 1142,) that Arnold of Brescia received +an invitation from the Roman senate, now wholly rid as it would seem +of its great foe, to visit the eternal city, and lend his aid in +completing, as far as possible, the restoration of the old republic. + +Such a golden opportunity of realizing the dearest dream of his +ambition was irresistible. He accepted the invitation at once; and +glowing with the thought of shortly reviving in his own person a Roman +tribune of the ancient stamp, he crossed the Alps at the head of a +fanatical rabble of Swiss, whom, under the hopes of sharing the +glories of the expedition, he had seduced to follow him as a guard +amid its perils. + +At his passage through Lombardy, where his name was so popular, new +bands joined his march. On reaching Rome, he and his men were received +in triumph. The citizens, when they heard him in his speeches, set off +by quotations from Livy and St. Paul, style them "Quirites," when they +heard him give his florid descriptions of the greatness of the ancient +republic, and launch his thunders of denunciation at the disgrace of +priestly rule, set no bounds to their enthusiasm, but forthwith +invested the orator with dictatorial powers. No sooner was this done, +than the indefatigable demagogue began his political reforms. These +comprised, among the rest, laws for restoring the equestrian rank, and +the tribunes of the people; for more strictly excluding the pope from +all part in the government; and for reducing to the narrowest limits +the prerogatives of the German emperors, as the first step towards +shaking off their yoke entirely. + +At the end of three years, Pope Eugenius returned to Italy, and +addressed a letter from Brescia, in July 1148, to the Roman clergy, +warning them against the proceedings of Arnold, whom he denounced as a +"schismatic," and as the "main tool of the arch enemy of mankind;" +calling on them to desist from abetting rebellion, and to return under +the obedience of their lawful Superior: otherwise to incur +excommunication. + +But neither this letter of Eugenius, nor three successive attempts +made by him in the course of the next four years,--at one time by +negotiation, at another by arms,--to enter his capital, availed his +purpose. At last, a fourth attempt towards the end of 1152, by means +of a treaty, under which he agreed to acknowledge the power of the +senate, succeeded. + +Nevertheless he did not cease to suffer, during the short remainder of +his reign, bitter mortifications from the insolence of the senate, and +the dictator, Arnold of Brescia, who continued to reside in Rome in +all his greatness, and shortly before the pontiff's death in 1153, +aware of his repugnance to the republic, and alarmed at his growing +favour with the people, defied him openly, by increasing the number of +the senators, from fifty to a hundred, and by giving them as +presidents, two consuls after the ancient plan, instead of the +patrician till then in use. + +It was for Eugenius III. that his old preceptor, St. Bernard, composed +at his disciple's request, his famous book "de Consideratione;" in +which the subject handled is, on the duties of a pope; and in which is +given such a graphic description of the degenerate character of the +Romans, as also of the Roman clergy in that age. The following extract +will not be out of place here: + +"What is so well known to the world as the license and pride of the +Romans? They are a people opposed to peace, and ever given to +sedition; wild and hard to deal with from all time; who only know how +to obey when they can no longer resist; who possess understanding, +only that they may do evil by it, not to do good. Detested by heaven +and earth, they have impiously outraged both. They are criminals +before God, profaners of his sanctuary, rebels against themselves, +enviers of their neighbours, monsters towards those who do not belong +to them. They love no one, and are beloved by no one. They strive +after the show of being feared by all, while in fact they themselves +fear every body. They cannot endure any submission; but yet know not +how to rule. They are false to their superiors, and oppress their +subjects. They are shameless in their demands, and reject petitions +with a haughty front. With blustering and impatience they press for +presents, and are thankless when they have received them. They are +great talkers with the tongue, but helpless creatures when it comes to +act. They are spendthrifts in promises, niggards in the performance; +the most crawling sycophants, and the most venomous slanderers; who +feign the most honest simplicity, and are the most malicious of +deceivers." [2] + +[1] Niccolini, Vita di Arnaldo da Brescia. (Prefixed to his tragedy.) +Francke, Arnold von Brescia und Seine Zeit. + +[2] De Consideratione, lib. iv. cap. 2. (Cited by Francke, page 190.) + + + +III. + +Such were the depraved spirits, and such the ignoble tyranny, which +oppressed the Holy See on the demise of Eugenius III.; an oppression +which, if its violence seemed to slumber during the short career of +Anastasius IV., whose patriarchal age and paternal goodness to the +poor in a famine which desolated the country under his pontificate, +commanded respect and won all hearts, yet woke up again with fresh +vigour on the accession of his successor, the English Pope Adrian IV. + +Adrian, however, was as well by nature as by the experience of his +past life, a character not likely to be daunted by the threatening +prospect before him; and behaved with such courage and decision, as +for the time to confound his rebellious subjects, and reduce them to +obedience. For when, on his assumption of the tiara, the +senate,--which by this time seems to have arrived at the last pitch of +insolence, under the training of Arnold of Brescia,--made a formal +proposition to the new pope, to renounce once for all his right to the +government of the state; he no sooner heard it than he sternly +rejected it, and drove the deputation through whom it came with +ignominy out of his presence. Hereupon the mob, worked upon by the +orators and other agents of the republic, flew to arms, and led by +Arnold of Brescia himself,--who had been fetched out of the country on +purpose,--gave in to every disorder; and, among other excesses, +murdered Cardinal Gerard, a well known adherent of the pope, as he was +passing along the Via Sacra to an audience. Adrian declared this +atrocity tantamount to high treason, and at once resolved to punish it +by striking a blow such as till his time had not been struck at Rome +at all. This was to lay the city under an interdict. No calamity in +the middle ages was more dreaded, more cruelly felt by society, than +an interdict. This naturally arose out of that profound religious +faith, which in those times pervaded all classes of men alike, in the +midst of the greatest crimes and disorders. The interdict, which Pope +Adrian thus fulminated against Rome, lasted from Palm Sunday till +Maunday Thursday. It will not be uninteresting here to briefly +describe an interdict. It was usually announced at midnight by the +funeral toll of the church bells; whereupon the entire clergy might +presently be seen issuing forth, in silent procession, by torch light, +to put up a last prayer of deprecation before the altars for the +guilty community. Then the consecrated bread, that remained over, was +burnt; the crucifixes and other sacred images were veiled up; the +relics of the saints carried down into the crypts. Every memento of +holy cheerfulness and peace was withdrawn from view. Lastly, a papal +legate ascended the steps of the high altar, arrayed in penitential +vestment, and formally proclaimed the interdict. From that moment +divine service ceased in all the churches; their doors were locked up; +and only in the bare porch might the priest, dressed in mourning, +exhort his flock to repentance. Rites in their nature joyful, which +could not be dispensed with, were invested in sorrowful attributes: so +that baptism could only be administered in secret; and marriage +celebrated before a tomb instead of an altar. The administration of +confession and communion was forbidden. To the dying man alone might +the viaticum, which the priest had first consecrated in the gloom and +solitude of the morning dawn, be given; but extreme unction and burial +in holy ground were denied him. Moreover, the interdict, as may +naturally be supposed, seriously affected the worldly, as well as +religious cares of society: so that trade suffered, and even the +proprieties of men's personal appearance fell into neglect. + +At first, the Romans seemed as if they would not flinch under the +novel and terrible blow dealt at them. But this was a passing bravado. +They soon began to feel uneasy, and then horrified at the cessation of +the divine offices, and the refusal of the sacraments in Holy Week,--a +season of all others when the most lukewarm piety bestirs itself. The +consequence was, that they assembled tumultuously before the Capitol, +where the seriate was sitting; and demanded that measures should be +directly taken to bring about such an arrangement with the pope as +would relieve the city from the interdict. + +Negotiations were accordingly entered upon by that body with Adrian at +Viterbo; whither he had retired to wait the issue of events. To the +overtures made, he answered that he was ready to come into them, +provided the senate would first banish Arnold of Brescia out of Rome, +abolish the republic, and, together with the citizens, return to their +duty. After much hesitation, and some attempts to procure a +modification of such sweeping terms,--attempts which the inflexibility +of the pope entirely frustrated,--those terms were accepted. On their +completion, Adrian revoked the interdict, held his triumphant entry +into Rome, and celebrated in the church of St. John Lateran, with +great pomp and jubilee, his coronation. + +In the meantime Frederic Barbarossa, who had succeeded his uncle +Conrad III. on the German throne two years before, and had lately +undertaken his first expedition into Italy to restore his fallen power +in that country, and suppress its newly roused spirit of freedom, was +advancing, flushed with his conquest of Tortona, and his coronation as +king of Lombardy, at Pavia, with his army towards Rome, where he +proposed to give the last finish to his brilliant successes, by +receiving the crown of empire from the pope. Frederic and Adrian had +both sent forward ambassadors to each other, who crossed on the road +without knowing it: the king, to treat about the imperial crown; the +pope, to sound the intentions of a visitor, who was approaching in +such warlike array. The papal envoys encountered Frederic at St. +Quirico, in Tuscany; and, on being told that he meant nothing hostile +to the rights of the Church,--but, on the contrary, that he was ready +to act as her champion, and, therefore, came simply to ask the +imperial crown,--they promised the pope's acquiescence in his views, +provided, among other services required of him, he would procure the +delivery of Arnold of Brescia into the hands of justice. + +This was all the more insisted upon, as that indefatigable demagogue, +having, after his banishment, obtained the protection of certain +counts of the Campagna, still continued to exercise from his place of +refuge the most pernicious influence over the popular mind in Rome. + +Frederic readily undertook to do a service, which agreed as well with +his personal feeling as with his policy. For Arnold of Brescia, on the +election of the Duke of Swabia to the German throne, had written him a +letter, inviting him to come and receive the imperial crown from the +senate in contempt of the pope, but couched in such arrogant and +fanatical terms, as highly to incense the king, who refused to listen +to it; whereupon, Arnold aggravated his offence, by announcing that he +would persuade the Romans to choose an emperor of their own, and throw +up their allegiance to foreign ones. + +The plan which Frederic took to seize Arnold, was, first of all, to +send a body of troops to waylay and capture one of the chiefs of the +lawless counts of the Campagna, who had been mainly instrumental in +liberating the arch-republican out of the hands of the papal officers, +into which he had shortly fallen before at Oriculum; and then to +threaten the speedy execution of the prisoner, unless Arnold were +given up as a ransom. This plan succeeded. The other Campagnian +counts, frightened at the resolute conduct of Frederic, and trembling +at the consequences of his further anger, if the ransom demanded were +not given, soon brought their client, whose revolutionary doctrines so +much promoted those disorders by which they thrived, to the feet of +the king, and received back their brother in exchange. Arnold was +forthwith remanded in chains to Rome, there to await the arrival of +Frederic, who intended to have the culprit tried before his own +tribunal. + +But Peter, the prefect of Rome, and commandant of the Castle of St. +Angelo, a devoted servant of the pope, into whose custody Arnold was +delivered, fearful lest his prisoner should escape by means of a +popular riot,--as he had once done before in the same +circumstances,--resolved to execute him on his own account; and, without +waiting forfurther instructions either from Frederic or Adrian, but +secretly abetted by several cardinals on the spot, had the unhappy man +led out early on the morning of the 18th of June, 1155, before the popular +or people's gate; where he was fastened to a cross projecting from the +midst of a pile of faggots, which, being fired, soon enveloped their +victim in the flames. His cries and the tumult of the execution roused +the citizens, dwelling hard by, from their beds, who presently ran up +lamenting and furious to the rescue; but, in vain; as they were thrust +back on all sides by the soldiers who kept the ground. Nevertheless, +such was the infatuated reverence which the people manifested for +their late tribune, that it was found expedient after his execution to +throw his ashes into the Tiber, to prevent them being enshrined as +holy relics. Arnold of Brescia was about fifty years old, when he thus +met his fate. + +However shocking such cruel executions as he suffered may be to the +more enlightened benevolence, or more sensual refinement of the +present day; yet, from the point of view of the middle ages,--that the +visible punishment of a crime should be commensurate with, and, as it +were, symbolise its moral enormity,--there can be no doubt but that in +the present case the criminal received only what he deserved. Few men +ever did worse mischief to society in their day, than Arnold of +Brescia. Private ambition was his ruling passion, and his hopes of +gratifying it were set on the realization of dreams and fancies, +engendered of an unbridled imagination, which an admixture of +mysticism further distempered. A false scandal which he took at the +discrepancy between the lives and doctrines of the clergy, in his time +widely corrupted, heightened by his Pharisaical pride,--which a bodily +temperament, naturally disinclined to sensual excess, inflated all the +more--as, by means of such bodily temperament, he was enabled with so +little merit of his own, to keep up an exterior severity of demeanour +closely resembling a holy asceticism,--led him at last to confound the +abuse of religion with religion itself; and, under the further +influence of his insatiable thirst for notoriety, to broach +schismatical views, and then a plan of ecclesiastical as well as +political reform for the world, of which, he persuaded himself, he was +marked out to be the apostle. + +That reform, as we have seen, was simply the return of society, +politically, under the republican institutions of pagan Rome; and, +spiritually under the religious government of the apostolic ages. A +fanatic of this description, endowed in an extraordinary manner with +eloquence to announce his views, and with boldness and energy to +pursue the career of carrying them out,--as was Arnold of Brescia's +case,--may well be imagined to have seduced the multitude, at all +times giddy,--but in his day oppressed and shocked by many gross +abuses,--in the way he did; and so to have elicited the stern +hostility of the constituted authorities in church and state, who, +naturally perceiving in the progress of such a man only "confusion +worse confounded," and ruin to the temporal and eternal interests of +society, were in duty bound to eradicate the evil before it was too +late, and, in doing so, not to shun harsh means where gentle ones +failed; but, if words proved fruitless, to use the sword. The +obstinacy, the infatuated obstinacy of Arnold of Brescia in the face +of so many warnings, as from time to time were given to him, plainly +proved that he was incorrigible; and that, therefore, as it was no +more possible for society to prosper, as it should do, while he +continued to infect it with his wild theories, than for the bodily +health to nourish while eaten into by a cancer, to extirpate him, like +it, was the only course left,--a course which thus became morally as +much a duty in his case, as it would physically become so in that. + + + +IV. + +In the mean time, much had still to be negotiated between Frederic and +Adrian, before the latter felt satisfied to confer on the former the +imperial crown. Adrian was too well acquainted with the character of +Barbarossa, not to feel it a paramount duty to require every +guarantee, before adding to the power and greatness of a man who, like +him, thirsted for universal sway, under which not only the State, but +the Church also should bend; and who, in pursuit of his object allowed +no barrier, which he could throw down by fair means or by foul, to +stand against him. Thus it was that, although in his present +transactions with the pope, he made plenty of fair promises, he yet +would not pledge his word to them, lest by doing so he should commit +his plans of future ambition; plans which, though he felt he should +not hesitate to save, if driven to it at the cost of his honor, he yet +would prefer to forward, if possible, without so mortifying an +alternative. But, when after all his pains he found out that the pope +was not to be thrown off his guard, and that the transcendent stake at +issue was not to be won, except by confirming his word with an oath, +he submitted to take it; and, so, swore on the gospels and on the +cross, before his own and the papal ambassadors in his camp near +Viterbo, that he would neither injure the pope nor his cardinals; but +would protect their persons and rights against all aggression. [1] + +Hereupon, Adrian felt confidence enough to leave Nepi, and repair to +meet Frederic at Sutri; to which spot the latter had, in the mean +time, advanced his camp. As Adrian drew near, he was encountered by a +splendid deputation of German princes and bishops, who conducted him +to the royal tent. As soon as the pope appeared before it, Frederic,--who +was waiting to receive him,--courteously advanced to assist his +Holiness in dismounting from his horse; but did not offer to render +the ancient homage, usual on such an occasion, of holding the pope's +stirrup. In vain did Adrian keep his seat in expectation that this +homage, would be paid; the king persisted in avoiding what his pride +could not brook. Terrified at such a bad omen, the cardinals of the +papal suite took to flight, and sought safety in the neighbouring +fortress of Castellano; leaving their lord to confront alone the +danger which seemed to threaten him. But Adrian retained his courage +and coolness intact. Alighting from his horse, he quietly sat down in +the episcopal chair, which had been prepared for him, and suffered +Frederic to approach and kiss his feet; but, when the king rose up to +receive the papal kiss of peace in return, Adrian refused it, and told +him that he would not give it, until the homage, due from the temporal +to the spiritual power, had been paid in full. + +As Frederic denied, in vindication of his behaviour, the authenticity +of the homage in question, a hot controversy ensued between the +parties at issue; in which the king turned a deaf ear to every +argument and example that was adduced to prove his error, seeking to +evade their force, now by sophistical, now by threatening +representations, until the pope, disgusted at his disingenuous +conduct, and tired out with a dispute, which had lasted over the next +day, to no purpose, cut it short by abruptly quitting the camp. +Hereupon the king, perceiving that he must again offer sacrifice to +his policy, suffered the prelates, who surrounded him, and till this +critical moment had so vainly sought to convince him of the justice of +the pope's cause, to overrule him; and then set out for Nepi, whither +Adrian had returned. On his arrival, he no sooner beheld Adrian coming +forth to meet him, than, advancing reverently on foot, he held the +pontiff's stirrup; who, on touching the ground, directly enfolded the +king in his arms, amid the cheers of the spectators of both parties. + +All these proceedings,--and the latter one, in particular,--have been +held up, by many writers, as setting in the strongest light the +arrogance and tyranny of the church in the middle ages. From our point +of view, at this day, for estimating the relative importance of Church +and State, no doubt, the result of the dispute between Adrian and +Frederic was wrong; because it ought to have proved diametrically the +reverse to be right. In the 12th century, however, the profound +conviction of Christendom was this: that the pope literally +represented on earth, in the character of vicar or vicegerent, our +Saviour in heaven; and, as it may be taken for granted, that, were the +Redeemer to reappear among men now, as he appeared 1800 years ago, the +proudest monarch of Christendom, in the 19th century, persuaded of the +fact, would,--whether catholic or protestant,--certainly not hesitate +to show this honor to our Divine Lord, on receiving his visit: so the +sovereigns of the middle ages did actually deem it right and honorable +to pay that homage to Christ, in the person of the pope, in whom they +acknowledged, from the bottom of their souls, our Lord's Regent on +earth, and as such their immeasurable Superior. In requiring Frederic +Barbarossa to pay him the typical homage of holding his stirrup, +Adrian did plainly nothing but what was entirely in accordance with +the spirit of the age, and, at the same time, with traditional usage, +as then received by Christian princes. [2] But Frederic did do what +was contrary to both in his refusal; and that, too, while professing +to be imbued with the very faith out of which the homage in question +sprang. Thus, it is no wonder that Adrian should view such an +inconsistency as most inauspicious for the liberties of the +church,--with which those of society were then so closely bound up,--and +should, therefore, feel it imperative to pursue a line of conduct, +which at first glance may appear so arrogantly exacting; but which, +found, on closer examination, to have involved the assertion of the +most sacred interests against a man, who was known to respect none in +promotion of his ends, assumes a character calculated rather to +conciliate our approval than to confirm our censure. + +As soon as the friendly relations between the pope and the king had +been thus far restored, they set out, for Rome, to celebrate the +coronation. + +In the mean time, the senate, though deeply offended at not having +been consulted on so momentous an affair, sent forward an embassy to +congratulate Frederic as he drew near. This it did in fulsome and +arrogant terms, informing him, moreover, that the 'Queen of the +world'--as the city was styled by the orator,--felt graciously +disposed to confer on him, of her own good pleasure, the diadem of +empire, if he, on his part, would promise to abolish the papal +government, restore the ancient Republic, and make a present of 5000 +silver crowns to the officers of the state. But Frederic no sooner +perceived this drift of the speech,--whose tone from the beginning had +greatly irritated him,--than he cut it short by an outburst of +indignant sarcasm on men, who, sunk to the lowest pitch of national +degeneracy, yet thought to beard with the shadow of their past, the +substance of his present greatness, and to dictate terms to a prince, +who came not as their servant but as their master. After having +delivered himself further in the same caustic style, he asked them +what answer they had to give; and, on being informed that they could +give none till they had reported their reception to the senate, he +haughtily bid them begone and do so. + +Aware that such conduct would highly incense the Romans, and very +likely urge them to revenge it by throwing obstacles in the way of his +coronation, Frederic consulted the pope as to what had best be done; +who advised him to send without delay a body of picked troops to +occupy St. Peter's, and the Leontine quarter of the city, in which +that church stood, promising that the papal guards on the spot should +support the movement. + +Frederic accordingly despatched during the night 1000 men on this +service, which they successfully performed. + +The next morning, June 18th, 1155, by sun-rise, he himself set out, +preceded by the pope, for the city, and passed into it by the golden +gate, before which his whole army in compact and resplendent array, +drew up. At St. Peter's he was received by the pope, who, surrounded +by his cardinals and prelates, awaited the king's arrival on the steps +of the great door. The pontifical high mass was then sung, and, on its +termination, Frederic, enthroned amidst the princes and dignitaries of +the empire, was solemnly crowned Emperor by the hands of the Pope, the +whole congregation bursting out, at so stirring and eventful a +spectacle, into acclamations of joy and triumph. [3] + +In the mean time, a squadron of imperial troops took possession of the +bridge near the Castle of Crescentius--now St. Angelo--over which the +road into the heart of the town led; and, by so doing, shut out the +ill disposed citizens on the right bank of the Tiber, from +interrupting the ceremony. When all was over at St. Peter's, Frederic +issued out of the church with the crown on his head, and mounting his +horse, while his suite continued on foot, rode back through the' +golden gate, to celebrate in his tent, erected against the city walls, +the coronation banquet. + +As to Pope Adrian, he retired to his palace near St. Peter's. So far +everything had turned out well. But a new scene was now to be acted. +For as the emperor and his soldiers, divested of their armour on +account of the great heat, were carousing under the cool shade of +their tents, in honor of the day, their toasts and songs were suddenly +interrupted by the alarm that the Romans had risen, and were advancing +over the Tiber to attack the camp. + +The truth was, that the senate and citizens, exasperated beyond +measure at Frederic's treatment of their ambassadors, and at his +superior generalship in occupying the city and effecting his +coronation in their teeth, had met at the Capitol while he was at St. +Peter's; and passed the resolution not to let so mortifying a day pass +over without striking a blow in revenge. + +Wherefore, as soon as the coronation was finished, and the scene +clear, the furious populace burst over the Tiber; and, after first +butchering what few German soldiers still lingered imprudently at St. +Peter's, rushed on to the grand attack. + +Frederic no sooner heard this unwelcome news, than he started from +table, gave the word to arm, and sallied out to encounter the enemy. +The battle that ensued was maintained on both sides with unflinching +courage and varied fortunes: now the Romans drove the Germans beyond +their lines; now the Germans pursued the Romans into the heart of the +city. Such was the hatred which each party felt against the other, +that not only the men but the women joined in the struggle. When it +had thus lasted till sunset, victory declared for the Germans. The +Romans fled on all sides with a loss of more than 1000 killed or +drowned, and 200 captured. The emperor, as Otto of Frisingen asserts, +[4] had the extraordinary good fortune to lose in such an obstinate +and bitter combat only two men,--one killed and one made prisoner. +"Such!" cried Frederic, as he beheld the defeat of the enemy, and +recollected the terms of the senate the day before, "Such, O! Rome, is +the price which thy Prince pays for thy crown; such the way in which +we Germans buy our empire!" [5] + +On the morrow he turned over his prisoners to Peter, the prefect of +Rome; who executed some, as notorious ringleaders, on the spot; and +allowed others to ransom themselves at exorbitant rates. Indeed, that +stern functionary would have put the whole of them to death, had not +Adrian, in whose breast this unfortunate outbreak had produced the +liveliest regret, interfered in their behalf, so that it was +reluctantly resolved to set them free. + +Notwithstanding his victory, as no market for provisions could be +opened for his army, by reason of the animosity of the Roman +peasantry, Frederic was obliged to raise his camp, and seek a more +friendly and fruitful neighbourhood, where the soldiers might enjoy +repose after so trying a campaign. The spot he removed to was near +Tivoli. Here he halted for several days, and received a visit in his +quarters from Pope Adrian, who kept with the emperor the feast of SS. +Peter and Paul. Both sovereigns appeared at high mass on this occasion +wearing their insignia of state. After the service, Adrian solemnly +absolved the emperor's troops from all guilt which the slaughter they +had made of the Romans in the late conflict might appear to lay them +under; the maxim adopted being that "he who fights out of obedience to +his prince against the enemy of the state, must not be deemed a +murderer but an avenger." [6] + +And yet Frederic did not hesitate to seize an opportunity which now +offered of breaking his oaths, and of repaying the pope's good offices +by invading his rights. For, on the citizens of Tivoli offering him, +at his secret instigation, the sovereignty of their city, which +belonged to the Holy See, he accepted it; and only on Adrian's +determined opposition to such an usurpation, affected to restore it +with reservation of his imperial prerogatives over the +place;--prerogatives which he could not define, and which meant in fact +nothing more than the renewal of his aggression at the next more +favourable opportunity. For now the complaints of his army, worn out +by fatigue, exposed, moreover, to every vexation, through the ever +increasing animosity of the Italians, and hence doubly impatient to +return into Germany, from which it had been absent much longer than +the terms of feudal service required, obliged Frederic to think of +finishing his campaign, and marching home directly, if he did not mean +to be left alone in the heart of a hostile country; a predicament into +which the desertion of his men was already beginning to betray him. He +accordingly took the road back into Germany soon after he had made +restitution to the pope as above described; and after running many +perils in his progress through regions so justly hostile to him, +regained his own states beyond the Alps, not so much gratified by the +acquisition of the imperial crown, as embittered by what he had gone +through in pursuit of it, and resolved not to delay longer than he +could help a second invasion of Italy, which should compensate the +mishaps and mortifications of the first. + +[1] Muratori, Storia d' Italia, vol. 7. p. 135. Leipsic, 1748. + +[2] Muratori, Dissertazione sopra le Antichita Italiane, dissert. 4. + +[3] Otto Frisingensis, lib. 1. cap. 23. + +[4] Otto Frisingensis, ibid. + +[5] Ibid. + +[6] Otto Frisingensis, ibid. + + + +V. + +While Frederic was yet fighting his way home through Italy, Adrian had +to face about and confront another foe in William, the Norman king of +Sicily. + +William had lately succeeded his father Roger, a wise and able +monarch, to whom however his son, as so commonly happens, bore no sort +of resemblance; but by his incapacity and total subjection under the +influence of a profligate favourite of low birth, named Wrajo, soon +threw the state, which Roger had left in so prosperous a condition, +into the worst disorder. + +The breach between him and the pope arose out of a letter which the +latter had occasion to address to the king at Salerno, in which the +royal title was omitted, and that of mere lord substituted. Adrian did +this because William had assumed the crown of Sicily without first +asking it of the pope, who, as the feudal patron of that island by +ancient compact with its Norman conquerors under Robert de Guiscard, +in the time of Pope Leo IX. (A. D. 1053), justly felt his rights +infringed by a proceeding which set at nought their established forms. +In revenge of this pretended insult, William refused to negotiate with +the ambassadors through whom it came; and, furthermore, gave orders to +his chancellor Scitinius, whom he had just made viceroy of Apulia, to +attack the domain of the Church, which that officer accordingly did, +by laying siege to Beneventum, and devastating its territory. But as +this proceeding caused a number of disaffected crown vassals of +Apulia, already secretly tampered with by agents of the Greek emperor, +anxious to recover his lost sway in Italy, to revolt against the +Sicilian government,--many of whom in so doing marched to the relief +of Beneventum,--Scitinius was soon obliged to raise the siege of that +city, and turn his arms against some more vulnerable point. To this +end, he passed direct into the Campagna, and there set fire to the +towns of Ciparano, Barbuco, and Todi; after which, he made his +retreat, demolishing by the way the walls of Aquino, and driving a +crowd of monks out of their convents, which he gave up to the plunder +of the soldiers. + +These events had transpired while Frederic Barbarossa was yet +advancing towards Rome, to demand the imperial crown, and on his +arrival formed one of the heads of complaint to him on the part of the +pope, who hoped to use the strong arm of the professed champion of the +Church in redressing her wrongs. Frederic, indeed, expressed the +warmest zeal in the pope's cause, and, none the less so, as it +presented, under the appearance of a sacred duty, a prospect so +inviting to his own ambition. But, as we have seen, he was reluctantly +compelled by his murmuring soldiers to close his campaign and return +home. He did not, however, lose sight of Sicily; which, as will be +described in the sequel, gave rise to a fresh and sharper quarrel +between him and the pope. + +Disappointed in his hopes of assistance from Frederic, Adrian, with +characteristic energy, resolved to assist himself; and rejoined to the +ruffianism of William with a ban of excommunication, a proceeding +which instantly decided in the pope's cause several of the most +powerful nobles of Apulia, especially Robert Count of Loritelli, the +king's cousin, Andrew Count of Rupi Canino, Richard Count of Aquila, +and Robert Prince of Capua; men who, like the bulk of their order, +were impatient to shake off the oppressive and ignominious yoke of the +royal favourite Wrajo. Backed by these, who again were secretly +encouraged by the court of Constantinople, Adrian followed up his ban +of excommunication, by invading at the head of his troops the Terra di +Lavoro, which he totally subdued, and then proceeded to Beneventum, +where he fixed his head quarters. + +William, who in the mean time was in Sicily, and lulled asleep to +every interest under the noxious influence of Wrajo, no sooner became +aware of his bad fortune across the water,--where, owing to the events +just related, all his Italian possessions, with the exception of +Naples, Amalfi, Sorrento, and a few other towns and castles of +secondary importance, were wrested from him,--than he presently shook +off his lethargy, sailed over to Salerno, and from that city sent +ambassadors to the pope to negotiate a peace. + +To this step he was urged all the more by finding out that Emanuel, +the Greek emperor, after refusing to stand his ally at the beginning +of the war, was in correspondence, through his minister Palaeologus, +with Adrian; trying to procure from the latter the cession of three +sea-ports of Apulia in consideration of a large sum of money, and of +the promise to expel the Sicilian king from his Italian dominions. The +offers which William made were, namely: to pay a sum equivalent to +that tendered by Emanuel; to surrender the three sea-ports in question +as an indemnification for the damage done by Scitinius; and to swear +fealty to the pope as the liege lord of Sicily. + +At first Adrian doubted if these terms were genuine, and sent a +cardinal to Salerno, to learn the truth. On being advised that all was +straightforward, he declared his readiness to accept them. But a cabal +in the German interest among the cardinals now put in such a strong +opposition to the pope's intention, that, taken by surprise, he +dropped it, and retracted his favourable answer to William. + +The truth was, a reconciliation between Adrian and William, would have +seriously embarrassed Frederic Barbarossa's designs on Sicily;--to say +nothing of the protection which such an event would secure to the pope +against those farther aggressions on the Church, which the emperor had +in view. + +Driven to desperation by the final decision of the pope, William, who, +with all his faults, seems still to have been capable of a rash energy +when real danger stared him in the face, resolved to throw himself +again on the chance of war. Collecting a formidable armament by sea +and land, he invested Brundusium; which, with the exception of the +citadel, had fallen into the hands of Michael Ducas, the Greek +general. [1] The citadel, which could not be subdued by arms, was +obliged at last to yield to famine; when, in the moment that the +garrison was about to close with the terms of surrender, proposed by +the enemy, William came up with his army, and obliged the Greek +commander, instead of taking possession of the citadel, to face about +and fight a pitched battle for the town. The struggle was obstinate +and bloody: fortune often changed sides; but at last declared for the +Sicilians, into whose hands Ducas himself fell. + +The recovery of Brundusium, which followed this victory, seasonably +placed at William's disposal a number of rich Greek captives,--whom he +sent to Palermo,--much ready money and precious property, besides +ships and stores. + +A crowd of Apulian malcontents had also the misfortune to fall into +his power; on whom he did not fail to wreak his vengeance, by +executing some; blinding and maiming others; and selling the rest into +slavery. + +Flushed with this success, he next marched to Bari. Here he met with +no resistance; but, on the contrary, an affecting appeal to his mercy +in the spectacle of the citizens coming out before him, dressed in +sackcloth, in token of submission. So solemn a humiliation, however, +could not atone in the king's eye, for their crime in having +demolished the citadel of the town, because it refused to turn +disloyal, when the rebellion first broke out. To their entreaties for +pardon, he sternly replied, that he should deal out strict justice to +them; that as they had not spared his house, he should not spare their +houses. A respite of two days only was allowed them, in which to quit +their homes with their goods; upon its expiration, the entire city +with its walls was reduced to a heap of ruins. Struck with terror at +so cruel a vengeance, the rest of the revolted Apulian towns hastened +to send in their submission; whereupon, William turned his arms at +once against Beneventum; where not only the pope, but also prince +Robert of Capua, and several other leaders of the rebellion resided. +As the king approached, the prince of Capua, seized with terror, fled; +but with so little caution as to fall into an ambush set for him by +his vassal and fellow rebel, Richard Count of Fondi; who took the +prince his son and daughter prisoners, and delivered them to his +sovereign; by which piece of seasonable perfidy, Richard atoned for +his treason, and recovered the royal favour. + +As to Robert, he was shipped off to Palermo, thrown into a dungeon, +where his eyes were put out. In this sad condition, however, he did +not long survive, as the severity of his treatment soon brought death +to his relief. + +With such melancholy proofs of the mutability of worldly fortune +before his eyes, and viewing, moreover, the success of his enemy as a +sign of the divine disapprobation of his having been so weak as to +refuse terms of peace against his better judgment, Adrian now resolved +to lose no time in doing what was yet in his power towards repairing +his error; and began by successfully requesting the Sicilian king, to +give up farther pursuit of his vengeance against the rest of the rebel +chiefs, still shut up in Beneventum, and to pardon them on condition +of their quitting the kingdom. He next offered to close with those +terms of peace,--the rejection of which had caused the present war,--and +sent ambassadors to the king on the subject. William received them +respectfully and opened negotiations with them. The pope, on his part, +engaged to invest the king in feoff with the kingdom of Sicily, the +duchy of Apulia, the principality of Capua, Naples, Salerno, and +Malfi, with the March and with all that he claimed on this side the +Marsa. The king, in return, engaged to swear fealty to the pope; to +defend him against his enemies; and to pay him a fixed yearly tribute +for Apulia, Calabria, and the March. These formed the principal +articles of the treaty now agreed to. But there were others included, +in which the king took advantage of his position as conqueror, to +exact terms in favour of the secular, and to the detriment of the +spiritual power in his states. By these terms, the royal right to +confirm canonical elections, was extended; appeals to Rome, from +Apulia were restricted; while in Sicily, they were wholly abolished, +as well as the right to send legates into the island. + +This peace was signed in the church of St. Marcianus near Beneventum; +where, in the presence of a splendid array of nobles, and of a vast +crowd of people, the king of Sicily prostrated himself in homage at +the feet of the pope; who then embraced his august vassal, and +invested him with feoffs of Sicily, Apulia, and Capua, by presenting +him with three Standards representing those states. After all was +over, the king made rich presents of plate, and precious garments to +the cardinals in the suite of the pope, of whom he then took leave and +returned to Palermo. + +Shortly afterwards Adrian published a bull, in which the peace was +confirmed. + +On his way from Beneventum to Rome, he visited Orvieto; a city which +had for a long time stood in open rebellion against him as its prince, +but had recently returned to its duty. Here he stayed some time, and +received the most loyal demonstrations from the citizens, on whom he +conferred many tokens of his paternal regard. From Orvieto, he +proceeded to Viterbo for the winter, and then repaired to Rome. + +[1] Hugoni Fracundi. Muratori, Scrip. Rer. Italic. vol. 7. page 268. + + + +VI. + +Soon after his accession, Adrian received, among other letters of +congratulation, one from Henry II. king of England, who had succeeded +to his crown at the same time as the pope. This letter was as +follows:-- + +"A sweet breath of air hath breathed in our ears, inasmuch as we learn +that the news of your elevation hath scattered like a refulgent +aurora, the darkness of the desolation of the Church. The Apostolic +See rejoiceth in having obtained such a consolation of her widowhood. +All the churches rejoice at beholding the new light arise, and hope to +behold it expand to broad day. But in particular our west rejoiceth +that a new light hath arisen to illuminate the globe of the earth; and +that, by divine favour, the west hath restored that sun of +Christianity which towards the east was set. Wherefore, most holy +Father, we, sharing in the general jubilee at your honors, and +celebrating with devout praise the bounties of the divine Majesty, +will lay open to you our desires, confiding as we do, with filial +devotion, in your paternal goodness. For, if the carnal son exposeth +to his father, in confidence, his carnal desires, how much more should +not the spiritual son do so with regard to his spiritual one? +Assuredly, among other desires of our heart, we do not a little +desire, that, as the Almighty's right arm hath chosen your most +reverend person to be spiritually planted, like a tree of life in the +midst of paradise, and to be transplanted from this land of ours, into +his orchard, you will chiefly take care to reform, by your conduct and +doctrine, all the churches, that all generations may call your land +blessed through your beatitude. This, too, we thirst for with a +sincere heart, that the spirit of tempests, which is wont to rage +furiously about the pinnacle of honor, may never wrest you from the +concern of your sanctification; lest, by reason of any deficiency in +you, the deepest abyss of disgrace should succeed to the highest +summit of dignity. And this we ardently long for, that, as the +regulation of the Church universal belongs to you, you will take care +to create such cardinals, free of reproach, as shall know how to +appreciate your burthen, and be willing and competent to aid you in +supporting it; not regarding ties of country, quality of birth, or +extent of power; but that they love God, hate avarice, thirst after +justice, and burn with the zeal of souls. Nor are we slightly affected +by the desire that, as the unworthiness of ministers is detrimental +above all things to the Church, you will vigilantly watch, whenever +your Providence shall happen to be petitioned, touching the collation +of benefices, lest any unworthy person intrude into the Patrimony of +the Crucified. And seeing that the Holy Land,--blest by the origin of +our redemption,--consecrated by the life and death of Christ,--a land +which Christian devotion holds in particular respect,--is distracted +by incursions of the infidels, and polluted by their abominations, we +wish from our very soul that you would provide men, of your own devout +solicitude, in its defence. And, in regard of that empire of +Constantinople,--once so illustrious, now so wofully desolate,--what +Christian man ought not to desire that, by your care and prudence, it +may receive timely consolation? For the rest, we confide and hope in +the Lord, that, as you have not failed, while rising from virtue to +virtue, and from honor to honor, to shine according to the exigence of +each of them, so you will not fail, now that you are called to the +apogee of apostolical elevation, to illustrate and inflame the subject +Church, in such a manner, as shall permit no one to hide himself from +your light and heat; and that, after your death, you will leave behind +such vestiges of sanctity, that your native land,--which congratulates +itself on your happy beginning,--will find much more glory in the +Lord, in your happier end. Finally, we request of your Paternity, with +full confidence, that you will be pleased to remember us, our family, +and kingdom, especially in your prayers and vows." [1] + +A few months after the receipt of this letter, +Adrian was visited by his renowned countryman, John of +Salisbury,--afterwards bishop of Chartres,--who arrived in a diplomatic +capacity, from king Henry, to procure the papal sanction to a projected +conquest of Ireland, by England. + +The motives to this ambitious scheme,--which William the Conqueror, +and Henry I., had also entertained,--were alleged to be the +civilisation of the Irish people, and the reformation of the Irish +Church; both of which were represented as given over to barbaric +anarchy, and the most crying abuses. And, indeed, such was the real +state of civil and religious affairs in that country in the 12th +century,--as will be shown lower down,--that the motives in question, +derived the greatest weight from the circumstance, and induced the +pope to give the sanction requested. This he did in the following +brief: + +"Adrian, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to his most dear son +in Christ, the illustrious king of the English, health and apostolical +benediction. + +"Thy Magnificence thinketh, praiseworthily and fruitfully, touching +the propagation of thy glorious name over the earth, and the laying up +a reward of eternal felicity in heaven, when, like a Catholic prince, +thou dost project the extension of the boundaries of the Church, the +proclamation of the Christian faith to ignorant and rude people, and +the extirpation of the weeds of vice from the Lord's vineyard; and +when, to the better execution hereof, thou dost request the advice and +favour of the Apostolic See. In which matter, we feel confident that, +as thou shalt proceed with higher counsel, and greater discretion, so +thou wilt make, under the Lord's favour, the happier progress, seeing +that those things usually reach a good issue, which have sprung out of +an ardour for the faith and love of religion. Certainly, there can be +no doubt that Ireland, as well as all the isles, which Christ the Sun +of justice hath illuminated, and which have borne testimony to the +Christian Faith, are subject to St. Peter, and the most Holy Roman +Church. On which account, we are all the more ready to plant therein, +the plantation of the Faith, and the seed which is grateful to God, as +we discover on close examination it is required of us. Forasmuch, +then, as thou hast signified to us, most clear son in Christ, that +thou art wishful to enter the island of Ireland, to subdue that people +under the laws, and to root out of it the weeds of vice, and art +wishful to pay to St. Peter, a pension of one penny a-year for each +house, and to preserve intact the rights of the Church in that +country; we, regarding favourably, and vouchsafing to thy petition our +gracious assent, hold it to be a grateful and acceptable thing, that +thou shouldst enter that island, to extend the boundaries of the +Church; to stem the torrent of crime; to correct morals; to introduce +virtue; to augment the Christian religion; and to execute what thy +mind may have found good for God's honor, and the country's +prosperity. And let the people thereof receive thee honorably, and +respect thee as their Lord; the rights of the Church remaining intact, +and saving the pension to St. Peter and the most Holy Roman Church of +one penny a-year for each house. And, shouldst thou be so fortunate as +to accomplish what thou hast planned, strive to improve the Irish +nation, by good morals; and act in such a manner by thyself, as well +as by those whom thou shalt employ, and whom thou shalt first have +proved to be trustworthy by reason of their fidelity, their opinions +and conduct, that the Church may be adorned, the Christian faith +extended, and everything that belongs to the honor of God, and +salvation of souls, so ordered by thee in Ireland, as to qualify thee +to deserve an eternal reward in heaven, and a glorious name on earth +through all ages." [2] + +This famous brief, by which Henry II. of England held himself divinely +authorized to conquer Ireland, is strongly disapproved of by many +writers, especially by Irish ones; who will not alloy it the least +excuse, but overwhelm it with abusive censure. And yet the plain truth +is, Adrian meant it, as he worded it, for Ireland's good. + +However false the grant of Constantine the Great,--on which the claim +set up for St, Peter's dominion over the islands is founded,--may have +been proved in later times to be; yet it is certain that both the +grant and claim in question were in the 11th, and 12th centuries +firmly believed in by all orthodox christians, just as much so as that +the Pope was literally our Saviour's vicar on earth, before whose +powers every other had to bow. That the king of England was secretly +guided by worldly motives, while ostensibly professing religious ones, +was his concern and not the pope's: whose business was to weigh the +merits of the case, not by reasons imputed, but by those propounded; +which, if he found them, from the religious point of view of his +times, sound, he was justified in accepting. + +Now, there is the best evidence in cotemporary writings, especially in +those of Giraldus and St. Bernard, that Ireland was, as above said, +given up in the 12th century, to the worst demoralization in Church +and State, that a country, not wholly pagan or savage, could be. +Giraldus, who travelled in Ireland in the suite of King John, and +attentively observed its condition, expresses in his work [3] written +on the subject, his surprise that a nation, in which the Christian +faith had been planted so far back as the days of St. Patrick, and had +gone on increasing more or less ever since, should yet in his age be +so ignorant in the very rudiments of religion. "A nation" as he +proceeds to describe it, "filthy in the extreme, buried in vice, and +of all nations the most ignorant of the rudiments of the faith." In +support of this severe censure, he accuses the Irish of "despising +matrimony, of being addicted to incest, of refusing to pay tithes, and +of totally neglecting attendance at Church." In another place he +writes, that the people in many districts continued still to be +pagans, through the indifference of the clergy. St. Bernard draws a +picture not less darkly shaded. In his life of St. Malachy, [4] +adverting to the state of the Irish church on the promotion of that +saint to the episcopacy, he describes how the new bishop soon found +out that he had to do with "brutes and not with men; how that nowhere +he had met with such barbarism of every sort; nowhere found a race so +perverse in their morals, so savagely opposed to religious rites, so +impious towards the faith, so headstrong against discipline, so +barbarous towards the laws, so filthy in their habits of life; a +people, Christians in name, but heathens in practice, who paid no +tithes, who contracted no lawful marriages, who never confessed their +sins, who had hardly any one among them to ask or give a penance, in +whose churches neither the voice of the preacher nor the chorus of the +chanters was ever heard." + +The political was in complete harmony with the religious state of the +country. Parcelled out among petty kings and chiefs, who seemed only +to subsist by devouring each other, and, in the crush and tumult of +their feuds, stood so thick on the ground, as hardly to have elbow +room, the whole island presented one untiring round of treacheries, +massacres, conflagrations and plunderings, wholesale and retail, such +as is without example elsewhere in history, with no other hope, so +long as left to itself, of anything but an aggravation of the evil--if +that were possible. That Adrian, with such a state of things before +his eyes, should readily give his sanction to a project which, however +liable to be clogged by human imperfection, could not at any rate make +things worse, but haply might make them better, was surely a +proceeding quite consistent with the character of a wise and zealous +pope; of a pope too, who lived and thought when the crusades were at +their height, and who may, therefore, be very well supposed to have +viewed the condition of Ireland,--once the island of saints, but now +the scene of worse than pagan abominations,--as not less calculated +for the efforts of holy chivalry, than Palestine. + +If then it can appear that Adrian might have acted, in his brief to +Henry, just as well out of motives of religious duty, as out of those +of court policy, it is a perverse thing to award him the latter rather +than the former; because to do so is to make him not less absurdly +than wickedly inconsistent with his previous and subsequent +career:--which was marked by one unswerving purpose to defend the Church +against the encroachments of secular power, to maintain her doctrines +intact, and to extend her boundaries to the utmost. Besides, it should +not be forgotten, that his brief was confirmed by his illustrious +successor, Alexander III., who thus gave his testimony to the +uprightness of intention which originated it, as well as to its proper +adaptation in the spirit of that age, to the emergency which elicited +it; an emergency which, from the terms used by Alexander in conveying +his confirmation, would seem by no means to have diminished, but +rather to have increased in the mean time. In short, it is nothing +better than a logical solecism, to wish to maintain that two such +popes as Adrian IV. and Alexander III., educated in the school of the +sublime Hildebrand, and ranking among the very foremost of his +disciples, by the intelligent and dauntless manner in which they +withstood the storm of imperial usurpation, which threatened to +shatter the Church under their pontificates, should deviate from their +glorious career, to belie their principles,--the one, by granting out +of national prejudice and court sycophancy a license of spoliation to +a king of England,--and the other, by confirming it out of reasons +just as unworthy. + +As it was, Providence did not see fit to allow the views either of +Adrian or Henry, to be carried out as originally intended. For the +expedition of the king against Ireland, was put off, on account of +various obstacles, for fourteen years, during which term, the papal +brief was consigned to the royal archives, and there forgotten. Nor +was it till six years after the actual invasion of Ireland by +Strongbow, that its existence was remembered by Henry; who, anxious to +consolidate his new conquest, had the authority of Adrian's brief +renewed, by procuring another in confirmation of it from Alexander, +and then caused both documents to be read up before the Irish bishops, +assembled in synod at Waterford; by whom his sovereignty had already, +without any reference to papal commands, been acknowledged. + +That the English sway turned out so unjust and disastrous to Ireland, +reflects no blame on Adrian, than whom no one would have more deplored +the evil, and striven against its true causes, than he. Rather ought +he, from the spirit of his brief,--the only fair test to apply to +him,--to be regarded as the head of that small, unfortunately so very +small, band of Englishmen, who have ever meant well to the sister +isle; and who, to speak the sober truth, if their views might prevail, +would alone be likely to promote her true prosperity, by shielding her +not only against her outward, but her inward foes; to which +latter,--consisting in those elements of social discord so profusely, so +deeply rooted, as it would seem, in the nature of her people,---she owes +by far the worst portion of her calamities. No doubt Pope Adrian, a man +of the most shrewd practical intellect, and from the circumstances of +his life, of the deepest experience in human nature, saw clearly +enough then,--what continues to be seen so clearly by men of his stamp +now,--that Ireland could never truly prosper, so long as left to her +own management, by reason of the incurable defect mentioned above; and +that, therefore, to sanction her sisterly, not her slavish connection, +with a nation like the English, so eminent for those very qualities of +order and self maintenance, in which she is so wanting, would be a +work of as great charity in itself, as of mutual advantage to the +parties concerned. For the rest, it should not be forgotten, that, +however much the English occupation of Ireland may, through a series +of causes, not to be foreseen in Adrian's time, have turned out a +curse; yet the occupation in question had the immediate effect of +producing the reform of those religious abuses, which constituted the +worst misfortunes of the country, and which, till Henry had actually +arrived thither, continued in all their hideous deformity. This happy +result took place, under the auspices of Henry, at the synod of +Cashel, summoned by him at the beginning of the year 1172, and +attended by all the heads of the Irish clergy. + +Besides the brief in question, Adrian gave to John of Salisbury, as +the latter relates in the last chapter of his Metalogicus, a gold ring +set with a fine emerald, for the king his master, in token of +investment with the Lordship of Ireland; which important jewel, whose +rare virtues, John of Salisbury adds, were he to describe, would +require a volume to enumerate, was also deposited in the royal +archives. + +Not only Henry II. of England, but Louis VII. of France, a year or two +later, solicited Adrian's approbation of a scheme of foreign conquest, +which, in this case was intended to be carried out in Spain, where the +French monarch pretended he wanted to serve the Church, by expelling +the Saracens. But the pope treated the application of Louis, very +differently to that of Henry. For in his brief of reply [5] after +awarding all praise to the religious zeal alleged by the French king +as his motive, he points out the flagrant wrong which Louis would +commit in gratuitously interfering in the affairs of an independent +nation like Spain,--the consent of whose princes could alone justify +such a step: so that until such consent should be obtained, he, +Adrian, could do nothing else than totally condemn and warn, him +against his project. + +Adrian's conduct in this instance, was not less consistent than in the +other. For as over Ireland in its character of an island, he believed +himself to possess, through the supposed testament of Constantine, +certain rights, and thought proper to exercise them; so over Spain, +being ignorant of any such rights, he arrogated none, but acted as +became him on the general principles of Christian justice. + +[1] Baronius, Annus, 1154 + +[2] Baronius, Annus 1159; rectified by Pagi to 1155. + +[3] Topograp. Hiber. Distinc. tertia cap. 14. + +[4] De vita Malachiae Episcopi, cap. viii. + +[5] Bouquet's Receuil, &c. t. 15. P. 690. + + + +VII. + +It was most likely on occasion of this embassy, that John of +Salisbury,--although he mentions other visits paid by him to +Adrian,--held the interesting conversation with the English pope, which +he reports at length, in his Polycraticus. [1] In that work, he says, he +well remembers how, during a sojourn at the papal court in Beneventum, +he was treated on the most familiar footing by his Holiness; whose +habit it was to gather round him a few select friends, with whom he +would freely discuss a variety of topics; and how, among others, he +once asked John to state candidly what he knew of the people's +opinion, touching the Roman Church and her head. Whereupon, the envoy +of Henry, using the liberty of the spirit, told without disguise, all +that he had heard in various parts on the subject. For example: that +the Roman Church, the mother of all others, showed herself according +to many not so much a mother as a step-mother to her daughters. That +scribes and pharisees sat in her, who loaded other mens' shoulders +with burdens, which they would not touch even with their fingers. That +these said scribes and pharisees played the tyrant over the clergy, +and bore no palpable resemblance to such shepherds as tread the true +path of life; but that they heaped up rich furniture, ornamented their +tables with gold and silver plate, distracted the Church with +controversies and by setting the pastors and the people by the ears. +That they, in no manner, commiserated the sorrows of the unfortunate; +but made merry over the plunder of churches, and administered justice, +not according to the truth, but the price. Then, that other people +said the Roman Pontiff himself was a tyrant; and that, while the +churches, which their ancestors had built, were falling to ruin, and +the altars stood desolate, he appeared abroad arrayed in gold and +purple. But that the divine wrath would eventually overtake such +priests as lived in pride and luxury, and levied taxes on the +provinces like men, who meant to equal the wealth of Croesus: "for the +Lord had said, that as they measured out to others, so would he +measure out to them: and the Ancient of Days could not lie." Upon +hearing this, and much more to the same effect, the pope asked John of +Salisbury what he himself thought? Who replied, that the question very +much perplexed him, as, on the one hand, he feared to pass for a +flatterer, if he went contrary to public opinion, and on the other, to +give offence, if he spoke the truth. Nevertheless, as cardinal Guido +Clement had bore witness in favour of the people, he, John of +Salisbury, dared not contradict him. For the cardinal had said that +the Church of Rome contained a world of avarice and deceit, from which +every evil sprung. This he had not said in a corner, but before all +his brethren, in presence of Pope Eugenius; and yet he, John of +Salisbury, would not hesitate to declare that, as far as his +experience went, he had never seen anywhere clergymen of greater +virtue, or more opposed to avarice, than those of Rome. Such was the +gravity and modesty of many of them, that in those respects they +equalled Fabricius, while, in possessing the true faith, they had the +advantage over him. Then, with regard to the pope himself,--as his +Holiness insisted on being plainly spoken to,--he would say, that, +inasmuch as the Holy Ghost could not err, so whatever his Holiness +might teach, must be followed; though, what his Holiness might do, was +not always to be imitated. His Holiness was styled Father and Lord of +all: but why, if he was the Father, did he require presents from his +children? and why, if he was the Lord, did he not strike awe into the +Romans, curb their insolence, and reclaim them to their duty? At all +this the pope laughed heartily, and expressed himself well pleased at +having found a man so honest and plain spoken; adding, that if ever he +should hear anything further to the same purpose, by no means to omit +reporting it. Adrian then proceeded to pass his own conduct in review, +said many things for and against himself, and made reflections on the +arduousness of the papal office, affirming that no other was so full +of cares, and that no man was more wretched than a Roman Pontiff: "for +his throne was set with thorns, his mantle pierced with sharp points, +and so heavy as to weigh the strongest shoulders to the ground." Much +sooner would he prefer never to have left his native English soil, or +to have remained for ever hidden in his cell at St. Rums, than to have +entered such straits; but the divine dispensation had called him, and +he dared not disobey. He further said, that it had always been the +Lord's pleasure, that he should grow between the hammer and the anvil; +that now he prayed the Lord would be pleased to put his hand under the +burden, as it was become insupportable. The pope then concluded his +observations, by relating to the company, the fable of the Belly and +the Members,--which the charges laid at his door suggested to him, and +which John of Salisbury gives at length in Adrian's words; a fable, by +the way, which assuredly has lost none of its point since those times, +but remains as pregnant with wisdom for the nineteenth, as for the +twelfth century. + +Pope Anastasius IV. had conferred on the Knights Hospitallers of +Jerusalem the privilege of exemption from tithes on their property, in +consideration of its exclusive destination to the relief of pilgrims +and of the poor. This privilege soon gave rise to a quarrel between +the knights and the clergy of Jerusalem,---who naturally took it ill, +that so important a source of revenue, as the tithes on the +possessions of the order of St. John no doubt constituted, should thus +be stopped. The patriarch reproached the grand master with abusing his +privilege, and, at last, grew so embittered, that he drew up a charge +against him, of acts of aggression on the rights of the oriental +church,--for example: "That the Hospitallers allowed all such persons +to attend their church as were excommunicated by the bishops, and did +not even refuse such outcasts the holy sacrament and extreme unction +when dying, as well as Christian burial when dead; that when, for some +great crime, silence was imposed on the churches of a town or +district, the knights were always the first to ring their bells, and +call the people, on whom the interdict was laid, to Mass, for no other +purpose, than to get the offerings and fees, which otherwise would +accrue to the parish church; that the priests of St. John did not, on +their ordination, present themselves, according to ancient custom, +before the bishop of the diocese, to ask his permission to do duty +therein; that the bishop was never advised of the lawful or unlawful +suspension of a priest; lastly, that the knights of St. John +absolutely refused to pay tithes on their property." From these +general charges the patriarch next descended to particular ones of +affronts to himself,--for instance: "That, as the hospital of St. John +stood opposite the church of the Holy Sepulchre, the knights had +erected their buildings on a scale of magnificence superior to the +latter church, purely out of a feeling to insult the patriarch; +moreover, that, when the patriarch ascended according to traditional +usage, the place of our Saviour's passion, to absolve the people from +their sins and preach to them, the Hospitallers invariably set all +their bells a-ringing with such violence, as plainly proved that they +meant to drown his voice and interrupt him in the performance of his +duty; that when he had often complained to the citizens of this +misconduct, and these had expostulated with the perpetrators, the +latter only replied, that they would yet play him worse turns; that +they had, in fact, kept their word; for they had shot arrows at him in +the church itself, while celebrating there the divine offices. These +arrows he (the patriarch) had caused to be picked up, and exposed in a +bundle on Mount Calvary as a memorial." [2] + +With these charges the patriarch, attended by other oriental prelates, +set out for Italy, to lay his case before the pope. After running many +perils by reason of the war, then going on between the pope and the +king of Sicily, the party at last reached Beneventum. The trial that +took place lasted several days; when the result of the pleadings for +and against was, that Adrian became convinced of the hollowness of the +accusations, laid by the patriarch against the knights of St. John, +and, therefore, refused to grant the redress sought for,--namely, to +annul the patent of privileges conferred by Anastasius. William of +Tyre,--who describes the transaction as a partisan of the +patriarch,--plainly says that the pope took bribes to decide as he +did. But Pagi [3] denies this flatly, and affirms that Adrian +proceeded in this, as well as in every other act of his authority, +conscientiously and disinterestedly. Indeed, it is rather unfortunate +for William of Tyre, that of the three cardinals, whom he alone +excepts from the charge of bribery, two, namely, Octavian, and John +of St. Martin,--afterwards figured as principal actors in the +scandalous schism which rent the Church after Adrian's death: the +first as Frederic Barbarossa's anti-pope, under the name of Victor +IV. in opposition to Alexander III. the lawful pope; the second as +Victor's legate, and as chief supporter, after his death, of +Anacletus III., whom the emperor next started against Alexander. +Peter of Blois, too, in his letter [4] to cardinal Papiensis, +describes Octavian as having passed his whole life in amassing +riches wherewith to disturb the Church, and as having been but +too successful in corrupting a powerful party in the Roman curia +to his views. + +It had always been a leading concern of the popes to heal the schism +between Constantinople and Rome. Adrian did his part, though +fruitlessly, towards so great a work. Shortly after his accession, he +sent to the Emperor Constantine legates on the subject, who also +carried a letter from the pope to Basilius, bishop of +Thessalonica,--one of the most influential and well disposed prelates, +at that day, in the east. This letter was to request his co-operation +in bringing about the re-union of the severed Churches. Basilius made +answer, that unity might easily be restored, as no essential +difference of belief existed between the two communions; in both of +which one and the same doctrine was taught, and one and the same Lamb, +namely Christ, offered up for the sins of the world; though without +doubt, some minor discrepancies existed between the two, whose removal +however belonged wholly to the pope: who, as he had the will had also +the power, no less than our Saviour himself, to unite into _one_ what +stood now so widely separated. Basilius would thus seem, to have been +of opinion that he was in no wise cut off from the Catholic Church, +notwithstanding the oriental might differ in certain rites from the +western Church. [5] + +It was an old and gross abuse of the age, that the nobles asserted the +right to seize the effects of a bishop on his death. This abuse did +not escape severe censure, from several synods. But Pope Adrian, it +was, who condemned it the most effectually, by his bull to +Berengarius, archbishop of Narbonne, (A. D. 1156,) on occasion of +Ermengarda, Viscountess of Narbonne, renouncing the abuse in favour of +that prelate, which renunciation, the papal bull was issued to +confirm. In the year 1150, Raymond, count of Barcelona, made a similar +renunciation by charter, when about to go on a distant and perilous +journey. In it he says: "I hereby promise to God, to abolish the +detestable custom which has hitherto prevailed in my states,--to wit, +the custom whereby my bailiffs plundered the goods of a bishop when he +died:--a proceeding which I own to be contrary to divine and human +laws; wherefore, I renounce the said custom, and order that for the +future, if any thing be found in the house or grounds of a bishop +deceased, it shall be reserved for his successor." [6] + +[1] Polycraticus, &c. lib. 6, cap, 24, and lib. 8, cap. 23. + +[2] William of Tyre, lib. 18. cap. 3 & 7. + +[3] Brev. Pontif. Rom. Annus 1154. + +[4] No. 48. + +[5] Pagi, ibid. + +[6] Fleury, Livre 76. + + + +VIII. + +The peace, which Adrian had concluded with the king of Sicily, was +soon seized by Frederic Barbarossa as the pretext for a new quarrel +with the Church. The grounds on which the German despot professed to +be aggrieved were as follow: a predecessor of his, Lothair II., had in +his Italian war, in the foregoing century, obliged the king of Sicily +to own the feudal superiority of Germany over Apulia. Pope Innocent +II., who protested against this proceeding as a violation of his +rights, could only so far induce Lothair to respect them, as to agree +to let their lawful owner for the future jointly exercise them with +their lawless usurper. So that, when the Sicilian King, as Duke of +Apulia, should be presented, at the ceremony of his installation, with +a flag, the Pope was to hold the pole with one hand, and the Emperor +with the other. + +Frederic Barbarossa renewed this right of joint lordship over Apulia +by a concordat with Eugenius III., in which he expressly stipulated +not to make any treaty with the king of Sicily, without the previous +consent of the Pope, who, however, was not required to enter into any +such obligation towards the German monarch. + +And yet Frederic now put on the face of an injured man, declaring +that what had not been stipulated, had yet always been taken for +granted; and that Adrian, by making peace with King William, unknown +to the emperor, had flagrantly violated the concordat. In the height +of his ill-will, an incident fell out which gave free vent to his +animosity against the pope. + +To settle his power in Burgundy, he summoned a Diet of the Empire to +meet at Besancon, in October, 1157. This Diet was numerously and +splendidly attended, not only by German but by foreign princes and +ambassadors from all parts of Europe; among the rest, by two +cardinals, namely, Roland and Bernard, as legates from the pope. The +emperor received their credentials in his oratory, where he gave them +a special audience; at which they also presented him a letter from +Adrian, who complained in it of the impunity with which Frederic had +allowed certain marauding knights to detain and plunder Eskill, +Archbishop of Lund, while travelling through Burgundy to his diocese. +In chiding him for so faithless a discharge of his duty, as sworn +champion of the Roman Church, the pope reminded the emperor of the +favours he owed that Church, especially mentioning among them his +imperial crown: "not that she repented of having so far obliged him, +on the contrary, she would rejoice if she could confer on him still +greater benefits." + +As Frederic listened to this letter, which his chancellor Raynald read +up to him, he reddened with anger at that part of it which spoke of +his crown as a gift of the Church; but at the word "benefits" he could +not control himself, for, by this word he insisted, in the blindness +of passion, that the pope meant to assert that the empire was a feoff +of the Holy See. + +The fact was, the original word _beneficium_ did signify, in the +corrupt Latin of the middle ages, a feoff as well as a benefit in +general; and this was enough for the emperor's humour, who would +listen to no explanation from the legates, that the word was used, not +in its technical, but its classical sense. In the heat of the dispute +which ensued, Cardinal Roland,--afterwards Pope Alexander +III.--exclaimed: "From whom then hath the Emperor his dignity, if not +from the Pope?" Whereupon, the Count Palatine, Otho of Bavaria, one of +the courtiers present, seized by a fit of fury, drew his sword, and +rushed towards the cardinal; but was checked in his purpose by Frederic, +who threw himself between the two; and then closed the audience by +ordering the legates to be escorted back to Rome, with injunctions not +to deviate from the directest line of route, nor to tarry in any +ecclesiastical domain through which they might pass. + +Historians are agreed that Adrian had no intention, in the present +case, of practically asserting,--as Frederic in his politic wrath said +he did,--the feudal superiority in question. The English pope, +however, was not the less a stickler for that superiority in theory, +as well as Cardinal Roland and the rest of the hierarchy;--a +superiority which Pope Gregory VII. supported by the feelings and +convictions of Christendom at his day, taught as follows: that the +Pope, as Vicar on earth of our Lord in heaven, ought to stand superior +over every human power; and sought to realize it as the only means of +reforming the frightful disorders of that age. + +Frederic Barbarossa, on the other hand, took, as was natural to a man +like him, bent on crushing the spiritual beneath the temporal power, +the opposite side of the question;--a side which was just as repugnant +to the feeling of the overwhelming majority of Christendom then, as it +was a century before; nay, which was at variance with his own +conscience, if one may judge from his conduct at a later period, when, +abandoned by fortune, and his pride humbled in the dust, he was driven +to hearken to its voice. For the present, he proclaimed the only +doctrine which his pride could brook, namely,--that he held his crown +from God alone, to whose Servant, the Pope, it simply belonged to +perform the ceremony of coronation. This doctrine of his imperial +dignity he caused to be stated in a circular, which he addressed to +all the provinces of Germany in vindication of his behaviour towards +the papal legates:--a measure rendered imperative by the religious +temper of the age. In this circular, [1] he denounces all, who differ +from its views, as enemies of the doctrine of our Lord and His +Apostles, as, in short, their slanderers; and, among other +extravagancies of his virulence, declares that one cause, among the +rest, why he so unceremoniously dismissed the legates, was the +discovery which he had made of blank papers in their possession, ready +signed and sealed; which they could fill up at pleasure, and which +were meant to empower them to dismantle the altars, plunder the sacred +vessels, and deface the crucifixes in the German churches. He further +informs the bishops of Germany, that _he_, and _he_ alone, it is who +really strives to protect their liberties against the Roman See, whose +yoke they groaned under. + +Those, however, to whom this consoling piece of news was sent, knew +but too well what a mockery the word liberty was in the mouth of a man +who like Frederic had long ago trampled on the Concordat of Worms, and +who disposed of the benefices of the Church after the arbitrary manner +of Henry IV., to subserve his political ends. + +As companion-piece to his circular, Frederic published an edict +forbidding, in future, all correspondence between his clergy and Rome. + +The account which the cardinals Roland and Bernard gave, on their +arrival at Rome, of the way in which they had been treated by +Frederic, created a lively sensation at the papal court. The imperial +party in the conclave sought to exculpate their patron in the face of +the reproaches heaped upon him, by ascribing all the blame to the +ignorance and mismanagement of the legates. In the midst of the +conflicting opinions of his clergy, Pope Adrian deeply felt the +indignity which he had suffered in the persons of his representatives, +but did not allow himself to be betrayed into any violent +manifestation of displeasure; on the contrary, after the first +excitement of his feelings was over, he wisely resolved to do all in +his power to conciliate the emperor, without derogating from his own +dignity. To this end he wrote a brief, of which the substance is as +follows, to all the archbishops and bishops of Germany: + +"As often as anything is attempted in the Church contrary to the honor +of God and the salvation of souls, it should be the care of our +brother bishops, and of all who profess to act according to the Holy +Spirit, to chastise such deeds as have been wickedly done, in a manner +pleasing to God. Our illustrious son Frederic, Emperor of the Romans, +we say it with profound sorrow, hath lately done what, so far as we +know, is without example in the times of his predecessors. For, on our +sending him two of our worthiest brethren,--namely, Cardinals Bernard +of St. Clement and Roland of St. Mark, our chancellor,--he appeared at +first to receive them with cordiality; but the next day, when they +read to him our letter, he broke out into such violence of passion at +a certain expression contained therein, namely, 'We have conferred on +thee the benefit of the crown,' that it is lamentable to think of the +reproaches which he is said to have cast at them, of the insults which +he obliged them to bear from him, of the dishonourable manner in which +he dismissed them from his presence, and drove them out of his states. +And then he issued an edict, forbidding you to leave the kingdom to +visit the Apostolic See. Concerning which things, though we are much +troubled, yet we derive the greatest consolation from this, that he +did not go to such lengths by your advice or by that of his princes. +Wherefore, we feel assured, that by your advice it will be easy to +recover him from the infatuation of his mind. For which reason, +Brethren, since it is plain that in this matter not only our, but your +cause, and that of the entire Church is at stake, we exhort you in the +Lord to oppose yourselves as a wall before the house of God, and to +spare no pains in reclaiming as soon as possible our said son to the +right path; taking especial care, at the same time, that Raynald, his +chancellor, and the Count Palatine, who dared to vomit out the +greatest blasphemies against our said legates and the Roman Church, +make full and public satisfaction, to the end, that as many ears were +wounded by their virulent speech, so many may be reclaimed by their +return to the right path. And let our said son reflect on past and +present events, and enter on that path along which it is known that +Justinian and other Catholic emperors walked; as, by following their +example, he will not fail to obtain honor on earth and happiness in +heaven. You, too, should you succeed in reclaiming him, will at once +offer a grateful tribute of obedience to St. Peter, and assert your +own and the Church's liberty. At all events, our illustrious son will +learn from your admonitions,--will learn from the infallible +Gospel,--that the most holy Roman Church, built by God's hand on a +most firm rock, however much she may be shaken by the winds, will yet +endure throughout all ages under the Lord's protection." + +This brief threw those to whom it was addressed into no small +perplexity; for while, on the one hand, they secretly leaned to the +cause of the Church, they had become on the other so cowed and +truckling under the iron despotism of the emperor, that they felt +themselves unequal to the task of responding to the pope as their duty +prompted; so that they resolved, after some deliberation on the +subject, to lay the brief before Frederic, and to square their reply +according to his remarks. These were a tissue of the most contemptible +subterfuges and trifling,--as for example, "that he had issued no +edict against his clergy passing into Italy as pilgrims, and all +others that wished to go thither, on reasonable grounds, attested by +their bishops, could still do so; that he was chiefly actuated in his +proceedings by the wish to correct those abuses under which his +churches were overtaxed, and the discipline of his convents almost +ruined; that, though God had raised the Church by means of the state, +yet the Church now sought to overthrow the state--a requital which he +(Frederic) viewed as by no means divine; that the evil designs of the +Church against the Empire were not only proved by her writings, but by +the pictures, which, contrary to the imperial wishes, were allowed to +continue undefaced at Rome, under one of which, representing the +Emperor Conrad kneeling to the Pope, and receiving the crown, an +inscription asserted that he did so as the vassal of his Holiness." +For the rest, the bishops begged of the pope to appease their +sovereign by apologetic letters, so that the Church might continue at +peace, and the Empire lose none of its dignity. + +Adrian smiled at the perverse spirit of pride which this reply from +the German hierarchy showed Frederic to be possessed of; and took only +the firmer resolution to get the better of him, by opposing a calm +dignity to his passion. He accordingly selected Cardinals Henry and +Hyacinth,--men of more experience in diplomacy than the rest of their +brethren in the conclave,--to go as legates on a new embassy to the +emperor; who in the meanwhile had arrived at Augsburg to review his +troops, previous to his second invasion of Italy. The two cardinals, +after being plundered and imprisoned on their passage of the Alps, +into Tyrol, by robber knights, who infested those parts, and, aware of +the quarrel between the emperor and the pope, thought they might thus +turn it to account; but were severely punished for their pains by +Henry, duke of Bavaria, who freed the sufferers; enabled them to reach +Augsburg in safety; where they had audience of the emperor. + +The brief which they read to him from the pope, expressed the sorrow +of his Holiness at finding how greatly the term "beneficium" had been +misunderstood, and declared that no other than its ordinary meaning in +the Latin language was intended by it, and that the meaning of feoff +had not for a moment been entertained. Moreover, the word "contulimus" +in speaking of "conferring" the crown, was explained to have meant, +not that his Holiness had done so as though the emperor were his +vassal, but that he had simply set it on the emperor's head; an act +whereby it might be supposed that, at least, a feeling of thankfulness +and goodwill would be produced. + +The brief ascribed to maliciously disposed persons the wrong +interpretations given to the pope's words, which had so deeply +incensed the emperor; and concluded by recommending to his good favour +the legates now accredited to him. + +Frederic professed himself pacified by this brief; and, as soon as +some other points of difference were at his request satisfactorily +settled, he embraced the cardinals in token of his reconciliation with +the pope; and loaded them with such rich presents that they returned +home in the best humour. + +[1] Radevicus, lib. i. cap. 10. + + + +IX. + +This reconciliation lasted but a short time: for, as Adrian was not a +character to tamely submit to any invasion of his rights, he could not +long keep on terms with a man like Frederic Barbarossa. + +Towards the end of 1158, Frederic, after reducing Milan, held a great +Diet on the Roncalian Plains, between Cremona and Placentia; at which, +not only his German princes and prelates, but many Italian bishops, +and nearly all the consuls of the cities of Lombardy, were present. A +papal legate also appeared. At this Diet, Frederic caused certain +doctors of Roman law from Bologna to pronounce what were, and what +were not, his legal rights in Italy. After due investigation, they +awarded to their formidable client such a monopoly of fisheries, +mines, customs, taxes, and other dues, under the name of regalities, +that hardly anything in the entire country remained over, to which the +emperor could not lay claim under that title. The consequence was, +that the various towns, dioceses, convents, and chapters saw +themselves deprived, at a blow, of rights and property which they had +long possessed, and fairly acquired. It was impossible for Adrian not +to look with the liveliest displeasure at such wholesale spoliation on +the part of his imperial son; whose victims formally submitted to +their fate out of sheer terror and impotence of resistance. + +But when, in the face of former oaths and pledges to uphold and make +good all the rights and property of the Holy See, Frederic began, with +reckless effrontery, to wrong that see by investing his uncle, Duke +Guelph VI., with Tuscany and Sardinia,--in fact, with the entire +inheritance of the Countess Matilda, who, as is well known, had +bequeathed it to Gregory VII. and his successors for ever,--the pope's +right thereto having been formally acknowledged by the Emperor +Lothair;--when, moreover, Frederic began to levy tribute on other +possessions of the Church, and did so under pretence of his imperial +prerogatives in Rome; when from these temporal, he passed to spiritual +usurpations, and intruded, firstly, his chancellor, Raynald, into the +vacant see of Cologne,--contrary to the provisions of the treaty of +Worms to which he has sworn; and, secondly, his favourite, Guido of +Blandrate, into the see of Ravenna,--in direct opposition to the +pope's wishes, to whose episcopal jurisdiction, Guido, as subdeacon in +the Roman church, was exclusively subject, and by whom he was destined +for other and more suitable preferment; then, at last, Adrian's +indignation could contain itself no longer, and he addressed to the +emperor a brief, in which, under a forced calmness and moderation of +style, his soreness at the outrages committed against him is yet +plainly perceptible. + +This brief was carried to the emperor by a messenger of inferior rank; +who, moreover, did not wait for an answer, but disappeared as soon as +he had delivered it. This is asserted by some to have been meant as an +insult to Frederic, who, at any rate, took care to view it as such. +Adrian, however, was surely of too lofty a character to descend to +such a petty act of spleen; and it is far more likely that the +messenger, aware of what sort of letter he was carrying, and to what +sort of person, did not care, under the circumstances, to do more than +his bare errand; but, that done, to save himself, hastened from the +very possible consequences to his poor limbs of the first ebullitions +of the imperial wrath. Be that as it may, Frederic determined to let +the pope see that he too could act as meanly and spitefully as it was +pretended his Holiness had acted; and, accordingly, he gave his +secretary orders to set in his reply the name of the emperor before +that of the pope, who, at the same time, was to be addressed in the +second person singular; contrary to etiquette, which, even in that +age, required the plural number to be used towards persons of high +rank. To this insolence of Frederic, Adrian rejoined shortly and +pithily, rating him for his irreverence to the Holy See and to St. +Peter, demonstrating to him how his present conduct belied his former +oaths, and warning him lest, in seizing that which had not been given +to him, he should lose that which had. Frederic, conscious of the +grave nature of his crimes against the Holy See, but so long as +fortune favoured him, obstinate in his pride and deaf to religious +reproach, retorted Adrian's reproof more audaciously than ever. + +The imperial bully now bid the pope, in plain terms, stick to those +things which,--as he said,--Christ was the first to perform and teach. +The law of justice, said he, has restored to every one his own; and he +(Frederic) will not fail to pay the full honor due to his +predecessors, by preserving intact the dignity and crown which they +had transmitted to him. Why he was not to require feudal oaths and +service from bishops, who professed to belong simply to God, is all +the more incomprehensible to him, as Christ, the great teacher of all +men, freely paid taxes to Caesar for himself and Peter. By so doing, +proceeds Frederic, he gave thee (Adrian) an example to follow, and a +lesson of the last importance in those words: "Learn of me, for I am +meek and humble of heart." From this sacrilegious irony he passes to +vulgar abuse; and tells the pope that his legates had been turned out +of Germany, because they were not preachers but thieves, not lovers of +peace but heapers of money, not reformers of the world but insatiate +seekers of gold. Did Pope Sylvester, he asks, possess any temporal +lordship in Constantine's time? and did not the popes afterwards owe +all their temporal power to the generosity of that prince, and the +rest of Frederic's predecessors? In conclusion, he remarks that it was +because he saw the monster pride seated even in the chair of Peter, +that he felt moved to use the language he did. + +This letter was well calculated to provoke Adrian's deepest +indignation; but, as he never allowed his passions to get the better +of his judgment, and always knew how to curb the liveliest movements +of personal wrath, when the interests of the Church were at stake, +heartily tired, moreover, of the petty rubs on which the dispute +between him and Frederic was by the latter ostensibly made to hinge, +he bestirred himself once more to effect a reconciliation compatible +with his duty and character. To this end, he sent an embassy of a more +stately description than had ever represented a Pope before, composed +of five cardinals, one of whom was a personal friend of Frederic, to +the emperor at Bologna; whither he had arrived soon after Easter (A. +D. 1159) to pass sentence on the Milanese, who, in the mean time, had +again sought to shake off the German yoke. + +The terms which this embassy was instructed to demand as fair and +equitable, were as follows: That for the future no imperial agent +should exercise pretended imperial prerogatives in Rome, without the +foreknowledge of the Pope; that no levies on the domains of the Church +should be made by the Emperor, except when he was crowned; that the +Italian bishops should not take oaths of particular, but only of +general homage; that the possessions of the Roman church, and the +revenues of Ferrara, Massa, Fighernola, of the Matilda inheritance, of +the country between Acquapendente and Rome, of Spoleto, Sardinia, and +Corsica,--all acknowledged in the middle ages as indisputable feoffs +of the Holy See,--should be restored. + +At first the emperor haughtily refused to grant these conditions; +then, on further reflection, offered to abide by the decision of a +committee of arbitration, to consist of six cardinals chosen by the +pope, and six bishops chosen by himself. But Adrian, as Frederic +foresaw and reckoned upon, at once rejected this offer, as derogatory +to the dignity of a supreme Pontiff, which, regarded by christendom as +superior to every temporal jurisdiction, could not therefore bow to +one. At the same time, he reminded the Emperor of his concordat with +Pope Eugenius, and called on him to stand to it. Frederic rejoined, +that he considered himself exonerated from it, as Adrian had been the +first to break it by his treaty of peace with the king of Sicily. That +this charge was a false one, has already been shown. The Emperor +persisted in his proposition for a committee of arbitration. As both +parties continued inflexible, all prospect of a reconciliation +vanished. Indeed, measures of a hostile character seemed on the point +of being resorted to on both sides. For while Frederic gave audience +to a republican embassy from Rome, and appeared to listen favourably +to the overtures made; Adrian openly exhorted the Lombards to +persevere in their resistance to the emperor, and formed fresh +relations with the king of Sicily. He also addressed a brief to the +archbishops of Mayence, Cologne, and Treves, in which he gives his +feelings full vent, and asserts the superiority of his dignity over +the emperor's, in the true spirit of the hierarchy of that age. + +"Praised be God in the highest," writes he, "that ye remain faithful; +while the flies of Pharao, sprung from the abyss of hell, and driven +about by the whirlwind, are turned to dust, instead of darkening the +sun according to their wish. Thanks be to God, who doubtless hath +enabled you to perceive that betwixt us and the king there can be no +more fellowship. This schism caused by him will yet rebound upon his +head. Yes! he is like the dragon that would needs fly through the +midst of heaven, and draw after him by his tail the third part of the +stars; but toppled into the abyss, and left to his successors nothing +but the warning, that he who exalts himself will be humbled. Thus does +this fox--who is your hammer too--think to lay waste the Lord's +vineyard; thus does this wicked son forget all gratitude and godly +fear. Not one of his promises has he kept; everywhere has he deceived +us; and deserves, therefore, our ban, as a rebel against God, and as a +true heathen. And not only he, but also--we say it for your +warning--every one who seconds him, yea, every one who either in word +or thought agrees with him. He sets up his power as equal to ours, as +though this last were confined to a mere corner like Germany--to +Germany, which, till the Popes exalted it, passed only for the +smallest of states: did not the German kings travel about in an +oxen-drawn chariot, like any poor philosopher, till Pope Zacharias +consecrated Charles? do they not still hold their court in a forest at +Aix, whereas we reside at Rome? Even as Rome is above Aix, so are we +above that king, who boasts of his world-wide sway; while he can +hardly keep in check one of his refractory princes, or even subdue the +rude and foolish race of the Frieslanders. In short, he possesses the +empire through us; and that which we gave him,--on the supposition of +gratitude alone,--we can resume. Do ye admonish him after this manner, +and reclaim him to the right path,--to peace with us; for it will +plunge you also into ruin, if there be schism between church and +state." + +It may easily be supposed, that words like these would be ill +calculated to arrest Frederic's unprincipled career; nor, of course, +did Adrian expect they would. He rather acted now under the persuasion +that conciliation had reached its limits, inasmuch as further +concessions would dishonour his dignity, and be a dereliction of his +duty as chief pastor of the Christian Church;--the unconditional +subjection of which under the brutal sway of the civil sword, Frederic +plainly proved that it was his great aim to effect. Adrian therefore +resolved, now that every advance and self-sacrifice on his side, +consistent with reason and justice, had been made in vain, to arm +himself with those thunders which the arm of a pope only can launch, +and which the feelings of Christendom rendered so dreadful even to the +most potent and hardened offenders. + +To this course he was impelled all the more as Frederic, in further +proof of his contempt of the most sacred obligations, when they stood +in the way of his ambition, shortly added to his crimes against the +Church another against public morals, by wantonly repudiating, out of +motives of state policy, his lawful empress, to marry in her stead +Beatrix of Burgundy. Any remnants of hesitation to adopt extreme +measures which Adrian might still cherish, were completely eradicated +in his mind by this crying scandal; and he at once prepared a ban of +excommunication against the emperor; but in the moment of fulminating +it, death paralysed his arm. This happened Sept. 1st, 1159, near +Anagnia, in the Campagna, and according to William of Tyre, in +consequence of a quinsy. Pagi relates that the partisans of Frederic +told a story to this effect--that Pope Adrian died by a judgment of +God, who permitted him while drinking at a well, a few days after +denouncing excommunication against the emperor, to swallow a fly, +which stuck in his throat, and could not be extracted by the surgeons, +till the patient had expired through the inflammation produced by the +accident. Adrian, however, did not excommunicate the emperor at all, +but died on the eve of doing so. His body was carried to Rome, and +entombed in a costly sarcophagus of marble, beside that of Eugenius +III., in the nave of the old basilica of St. Peter. + +In the year 1607, on the demolition of this church, the body was +exhumed and found entire, as well as the pontificals in which it was +arrayed. It was re-interred under the pavement of the new basilica. + +According to Pagi, Pope Adrian IV. composed Catechisms of Christian +Doctrine for the Swedes and Norwegians, a Memoir of his Mission to +those nations--_de Legatione sua_--various Homilies, and a Treatise on +the Conception of the Blessed Virgin,--performances which appear to +have perished. The work, describing his mission to the north, must +have been of great interest for the light which it no doubt threw on +the history and manners of those countries. Munter, the church +historian of Denmark, mentions that he sought to discover it at Rome, +but without success; it being supposed, if still extant, to lie buried +beneath the impracticable hoards of the Vatican. + +Cardinal Boso, an Englishman, and Pope Adrian's private secretary, +whom he sent out on a mission to Portugal, wrote a life of his patron, +but so invaluable a work is also unavailable, as no trace of it now +exists. From an anecdote preserved in William of Newbridge, Adrian IV. +would seem to have pushed integrity in money matters to a harsh +extreme; and so to have proved himself the antipodes of those popes +who afterwards practised nepotism. For it is related of him, that +rather than award a pittance towards the relief of his aged and +destitute mother out of those ample revenues, which as pope he had at +his disposal, but which he did not feel himself justified in diverting +to private uses, he allowed her to subsist as best she could on the +alms of the Chapter of Canterbury. Notwithstanding the incessant +conflicts of his short career, he yet found time to do something +towards the improvement and decoration of Rome. To this end he +projected and carried out various new buildings and restorations, +consisting in churches within and without the city, in castles for the +protection of the Campagna, and in additions to the Lateran Palace. +The duration of his pontificate comprised four years and eight months. + +The End. + +PRINTED BY RICHARDSON AND SON, DERBY. + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Pope Adrian IV, by Richard Raby + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK POPE ADRIAN IV *** + +***** This file should be named 30880.txt or 30880.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/8/8/30880/ + +Produced by Michael Gray + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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